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0 0
1inventions
or y
atade
thm
h ist Brilliant ghs
r o u
br e a k t h
h a t s h a p e d
t
o u r w o r l d

Writt
en by T
A racey
Con n d re Tu
sulta a Mills, a rner,
nt Ja nd C
live G
ck C iffor
hallon d
er
Contents
6 On the 32 Getting 60 At your
move connected convenience
8 The wheel 34 Paper 62 Flush toilet
10 Caravel 36 Printing press 64 Pendulum clock
11 Submarine 38 Telegraph 66 Light bulb
12 Navigational novelties 39 Braille 68 Home helpers
Map 40 Phonograph Washing machine
Compass Vacuum cleaner
42 Telephone
Mariner’s astrolabe Can opener
44 Radio
Marine sextant Dishwasher
Satellite navigation 46 Picture this Microwave oven
Daguerrotype
14 Steam engine 70 Refrigerator
Film cameras
15 Steam locomotive 72 Plastic
Polaroid camera
16 Electric motor Digital camera 74 Battery
18 Bicycle 48 Television 76 Keeping it together
20 Elevator Hook and eye
50 Transistor
Safety pin
22 Car 51 Microprocessor
Snaps
24 Airplane 52 Computer Zipper
26 Helicopter 54 Satellite Velcro
28 Rocket 56 Telescope
30 Nuclear energy 58 Internet
59 World Wide Web

4
78 Work 104 Medical
and play marvels
80 Money 106 Anesthetics 122 Total turkeys
81 Bar code 107 Antiseptics 124 Fantastic future
82 Plow 108 Antibiotics 126 Glossary
84 Crane 110 Microscope 127 Index
85 Dynamite 111 Laser 128 Acknowledgments
86 Material world 112 Diagnostic devices
Portland cement X-ray
Steel Stethoscope
Glass Ultrasound
Kevlar Fiber-optic endoscope
Titanium MRI scan
88 Robot 114 Aspirin
90 Desk buddies 115 Defibrillator
Lead pencil 116 Vaccination
Ballpoint pen
118 Bionic body parts
Post-it note
Artificial limbs
Pocket calculator
Hearing aid
Sticky tape
Contact lenses
92 Blue jeans Dentures
93 Sports shoes Pacemaker
94 Musical instruments 120 Micro machines
Keyboard
Violin
Flute
Trumpet
Drum
96 Video games
97 Personal stereo
98 Movies
100 Fireworks
102 Chocolate
5
On
the
move
A lack of transportation limited movement in
the past. The wheel got early civilizations rolling
and hasn’t stopped since, as millions take the
driver’s seat around the world’s highways and
byways. From sailing the seas to soaring the
skies, new modes of transportation have taken
us farther, and sped us there faster. Our planet is
now an entirely accessible world.
Rolling along People or animals pulled
Before wheels, if you wanted to move something the object across the
enormous and heavy, you would need some logs and log rollers on ropes, and
others pushed from behind.
a lot of people. You’d place the logs on the ground,
slide your object on top of them, and then get your
friends to use the logs to roll it along. Or you could drag
a sled. Either way, it was slow and exhausting!

The last log had to

be brought around
to the front as the
object moved forward.

wheel Wheely useful

e Watching log rollers

in action, someone,
Th

somewhere, had a flash

u t w h eels: of inspiration: Wheels
o
in e li fe with or a start, attached to axles would be
imag o r b ikes f s inside so much better!
c a rs dg ea r
no ogs an With so man
y The first wheels we
n o c
and s , either. they might
know about were made
in e 5,000 years ago in
mach ls around, po rtant
wh e e st i m Mesopotamia (modern-day
s t b e the mo them all. Iraq) and Slovenia. They
ju ion of
D

invent were attached to simple carts

UN

M pulled by animals, while

RO

ak D
everyone had a nice rest.
ing N
the
world go ROUN DA Stone wheels were used
for grinding, but are too
heavy to move vehicles.

h e w ay for...
v e dt
a
It p
Gears and coGs are Water wheels were
used in machines to invented in ancient
multiply force, and were first Greece, and were
used in ancient Greece. used to irrigate crops
and grind corn.
8
Spectacular spokes
At first, wheels were solid disks
of wood. They worked, but
they were very heavy. Around
2,000 bce, someone in western
Siberia came up with the bright
idea of using spokes inside the
wheels to replace the solid wood.
They were lighter and faster.
Metal hubs used with greased axles
made wheels turn even more smoothly.

It By t
Age was Ne he w
inve ) peopl olithic ay...
nte e lik (lat a ng ed t he
inve d the w e me w e Stone
deve nted heel ho fi
lope farm . We rst
chWhee

w
ls allo
mad d polis ing an also

it
It takes far less to travel a wed people

orl
e of hed d energy to turn the axle more eas nd trade much

Ho w
ston tools
e. than to turn the wheel. ily than e
ver befor

d
and a few e,
thousand
wheels w years late
ere movin r,
and farth g faster
er than e
the engin ver th
e. Wheels anks to
the drivin are also
g force b
countless eh
Did y useful ma ind
The old ou know? chines.
e
discove st wheels ever
stone to red are on a
y.
5500 b It dates from
found in e and was
c
Turkey.

The Americas
The wheel wasn’t big in the
Americas—the only ones found
there are on children’s toys. This
is probably because there were no
animals strong enough to pull carts,
like oxen or horses. The people there
had to wait until these animals, and
the wheel, were introduced to them in
the 16th century. Until then, the most
useful animal they had was the llama.

Spinning wheelS, used to turn wheelS really began to

plant material or wool into motor from the 1700s,
thread, are probably an at first under steam
indian invention, from power and later using
around the 11th century. gaSoline engineS.

9
Exploring the world

Caravel Ships with sails had been around

for thousands of years, but caravels
were the first to truly master the
seas. Developed in the 1400s, they
The speedy SAILING SHIP that were light and fast, with lateen
harnessed wind power to rule sails (triangular sails fixed to a
the waves sloping yardarm) that made them
easier to maneuver than previous
sailing ships. Caravels could sail
Lateen sails long distanCEs, opening
allowed the ship up new possibilities for
to “tack”—sail
in zigzags into intrepid explorers.
the wind.

Not much room for

cargo—caravels
were designed
for exploration. Henry the Navigator
hanged The caravel was invented by Prince Henry of
it c lorers Portugal, known as Henry the Navigator, who
exp sail
w

e a n founded a famous navigation sChool.

Europ aravels to efore,
Ho

c
used than ever lands b But, despite his name, Henry never went on
h e r e w a voyage of discovery in one of his ships—
fart overing n p new
d is c g u in fact, he never went to sea at all.
penin
ld

and o de routes.
or

tra w
the

Setting sail
Caravels were invented just in time
for Christopher Columbus—he sailed
them across the Atlantic to the Caribbean
in 1492. Not long after, EuropEan
ExplorErs colonized the Americas,
India, and Africa, and opened up new
trade routes, changing the lives of
many of the people who lived there.
10
Early subs
The world’s first submarine dived beneath the
surface of the Thames River in London in 1624. It was
powered by 12 oars, and its crew breathed oxygen
produced by heating potassium nitrate. The first sub to
be used in warfare was the Turtle (left). It was used
in 1776 during the American Revolution.

The Turtle
Submarine
hanged was driven by
DEEP-DIVING VESSELS that opened
ti c hand-operated
anged
ch propellers. up an undersea world
rines fought
w

Subma wars were ews to

Ho

y cr
the wa by allowing e waves
h
at sea beneath t urprise
hide launch s ips.
ld

and cks on sh
or

atta w USS Holland carried

the three torpedoes for
underwater warfare.

Holland’s submarine
Submarines wouldn’t have gone very far

0 m).
or very deep using manpower alone. In
US ( 3
S Ho ft 1881, Irish-American engineer J.p. Holland
lland could dive 100 demonstrated a submarine called the Fenian
Ram, which used an engine on the surface and
a battery when it dived. Holland had invented the
modern submarine, and supplied the us navy
with its first ever sub, USS Holland, in 1900.

Battle stations
Submarines launched torpedoes that sank
hundreds of ships in World War I, and they’ve
been used in warfare ever since. Today, most
naval submarines use nuclear power and can
stay underwater for months at a time, lurking
in the depths of the ocean.
11
N a v ig a ti o n al Without navigational

novelties
aids, sailors would
rarely sail out of
sight of land.

Knowing WHERE YOU’RE GOING

Sailors would be completely lost without
these ingenious inventions. They have
allowed explorers to travel the world
and discover new lands.

The und is 12,000 y

o ears
olde st map ever f old.
Map
Simple maps of the heavens and of geographical
features were carved onto cave walls thousands
of years ago. Gradually, they became more detailed
and useful. PTolemy, a Greek astronomer who
lived in Egypt in the 2nd century, drew maps
that included lines of longitude and latitude.
His ideas revolutionized mapmaking when his
maps were rediscovered by Europeans in the
1400s. Their maps became much more accurate.
As new lands were discovered, the modern
world map took shape.

Compass
The Chinese were using compasses
during the Qin dynaSTy (221–206 bce)
to make sure that buildings were facing the
right way for good fortune. The spoon-shaped
needle was made from lodestone, a naturally
magnetized mineral that always points toward
magnetic north. Around the 11th century,
compasses began to be used for navigation.

12
Mariner’s astrolabe
Sailors used astrolabes, first made around 1300,
to measure the height of the sun or a particular star.
This allowed them to calculate their latitude (north–
south position). Mariner’s astrolabes helped sailors
explore faraway lands in a period known as
the Age of Discovery, from the 1400s to the 1600s.

Marine sextant
Sextants (meaning sixths) use mirrors to
measure the angle of the Sun or the North Star in
relation to the horizon at particular times of day.
Like the astrolabe, this allows sailors to work out
their north–south position. The first one was
made by English astronomer John Bird in 1757.
They are still used today—
if onboard computers
crash, mariners can
Did
Marshall you know
Th

find their way

Is ?
rc stick ch landers memoriz
ea

with a sextant.
a
coconut rts, made fro ed
of ocean s fronds, to m m
a sex we
the Pac lls and navigate
ap
tant ific by c
is one sixth of a circle (60 degr anoe.
ees).
Satellite navigation
Today, there are networks of satellites in
space that allow users to pinpoint their position
almost anywhere on earth. A receiver compares
time signals from four or more satellites.
To determine its exact location, the receiver
calculates the distance to each satellite. Today,
most sailors rely on satellites to safely navigate
through the world’s waters—and many cars and
cell phones have satellite receivers, too.

13
Explosive steam engines it chang
The power of steam was first used to pump oTw ed
he stea

H
water out of mines, but the clunky engines an essenm engine played
tended to explode. Englishman Thomas Industria tial role in the
l
Newcomen invented a more successful version of peopleRevolution. Million
s
in 1712, but it was still very inefficient. In the
4. Beam connnects countrys moved from the
to a second rod, which ide to wo
1770s, Scottish inventor James Watt improved city fact rk in
drives the gear wheel. ories.
the invention and made it much more efficient. l
the wor

d
5. Heavy flywheel
3. Piston rod prevents the engine from
moves up and down, getting stuck at the top
pushing on one end or the bottom of each
of a beam. up-and-down cycle.

6. Gear wheel
turns up-and-down
motion into rotational
motion, which can
2. Cylinder contains drive machinery.
a piston, which is
pushed up and down by
the steam, and pushes
on the piston rod.

1. Tube allows steam

from heated water into
the engine’s cylinder.

Steam engine
..
t h e waya. huge
By was d
ention ime an
My invs in my lifet n at the
succes wealthy manit of
a u
I died e of 83. A att, is
The DRIVING FORCE behind the machines ag r, the w .
powe d after me
that powered the Industrial Revolution nam e

Moving machines
Watt steamed ahead, continually
improving his engine. It was used to pump
water into canals and out of mines, drive
bellows in ironworks, and power
machiNes in textile mills. This rapid
growth of industry was called
the Industrial Revolution.
14
Stephenson’s Rocket
After Trevithick’s locomotive, inventors
got to work designing beTTeR ones.
Rocket, designed by Robert Stephenson,
won a competition to find the best of
the bunch in 1829. It steamed into the
history books at 30 mph (48 km/h).

Locomotion
In 1801, British engineer Richard
Trevithick invented a steam engine that
changed everything. Using high-pressure Connecting rods driven
steam, he built a steam-powered carriage, by pistons turned the
wheels and moved the
and then in 1808 the world’s first steam engine forward.
RailRoad locomoTive, Catch Me
Who Can. It hauled 70 people and a load
of coal along a railroad track.

Rocket hauled
13 tons of loaded
wagons to win the
1829 competition.

a
it ch nged
w
nd stronm
ger
Steam
Ho

a s te r a
Far f horses, stea

locomotive
than a
m ot iv e s triggeredtion
loco volu
tation re s
transpor people and good
s p e d .
that he world
rld

across t o
th e w
The engine that put transportation
on the RIGHT TRACK
Building railroads s
The new locomotives The East and West Coast
of the Un ite d Sta tes we re
could now transport connected by the first
coal for the new steam- transcontinental
powered machines, as well railroad in 1869.
as the goods they made, and
thousands of miles of railroad
tracks began to be laid. The world’s
first intercity railroad, between the British cities
of Liverpool and Manchester, was built in 1830.
15
m o t o r
Electric Electric mo
tors
Nikola Tesla was an
American engineer who
worked on a large number
of different inventions
sm to during his lifetime.
use magneti ent.
vem
produce mo are
Today, they
force
the driving
y
behind man .
vices
everyday de

e r n w o rld M OVING
o d
Getting the m
Faraday’s electrical
The electrified wire experiments
becomes magnetized, English scientist Michael Faraday
so it swings around made the first electric motor
the magnet in a circle. in 1821 when he produced
conTinuous moTion from
electricity. It worked because
passing an electric current
Bowl of mercury
Magnet through a wire produces
way...
magnetism. Later motors used
electromagnets—coils of wire By thearted a small
t in
around an iron core—to make I once s g earthquake y
m in m
this effect stronger. but alarurse of one ofther
the co nts, and ano
e g
experim made terrifyin
time ial lightning !
artific
Motoring on
German engineer moriTz Von Jacobi
used electromagnets to make a motor The wire is coiled into
powerful enough to be put to practical eight electromagnets.
use. In a world first, an improved version of Passing a current
his motor drove a paddleboat across the through the wire makes
the central wheels turn.
Neva River in Russia in 1838
with 14 people on board.
Electric current
provided by a battery

c o u l d n ’ t h ave h a p travels through the wire.

It pene
d w it h o ut …
In 1820, HAns Oersted Also in 1820, André-MArie
discovered electrOMAgnetisM— AMpère worked out the
he found that an electric relationship between the
current could create a electromagnetic force and
magnetic field. the electric current.

16
An outer set of
electromagnets (called the
stator) remains stationary. O W IT Motors that run on
H

W
direct current have

O R KS
a permanent
Inside the stator, a moving magnet and an
set of electromagnets electromagnetic rotor.
forms the rotor. The rotor’s north and south poles are
attracted to the opposite poles of the
permanent magnet, so the rotor moves
half a turn. The direction of the current
is then reversed, so the rotor moves
another half-turn. Continually switching
the current like this keeps the motor
spinning. Motors that use AC work in a
similar way, but they do not need a
mechanism to reverse the current.

Permanent Rotor
h
magnet S o ut

rth
No

A split ring called a Reversing the

commutator switches current reverses
the current’s the rotor’s magnetic
The rotor can be direction. poles, making it
attached to machinery, move half a turn.
such as a fan or a
conveyor belt.
Tesla’s induction motor
Nikola Tesla invented the electric motors that How it chang
power large machines today. His induction ed
motor, invented in 1887, runs on alternating Electric moto
rs took over
current (AC)—electric current that changes from clunky
steam engin
direction many times a second—rather than to power ma es
chines. Now
the direct current (DC) provided by a battery. also power th ey
the appliance
we plug in a s
nd switch
on every da
y.

ve d t h e w ay f the world
p a or...
It
Steam-powered washing electric cars were first
machines were laundering invented in the 19th
clothes in the 1800s, but century, but only now
electric motors made do they look set to rival
them smaller and gas-powered ones.
more convenient.
17
y c l e The rider sat

Bic
Bicycles started high up over
the large
off without pedals, front wheel.
then got too big,
but developed
The two-wheeled way into the perfect
to get people MOVING way to travel.

Did y
Getting o ou know?
was diffic n a high-wheele
Velocipedes be hazar ult, stopping cou r
do ld
The world’s first bicycle was in the ro us, and a pothole
ad often
invented in 1818. Known as going he meant
a velocipede, the wooden, the hand adfirst over
lebars. O
uch!
iron-wheeled machine had
a brake but no pedals—
it had to be pushed along by
the rider’s feet. The
machine was popular, but
only for a few months.

Pedal power
The first successful pedal-
driven bicycle was invented
by Frenchman Pierre Lallement High-wheelers
around 1864. People pedaled were also called
around quickly, but very penny-farthings,
uncomfortably. The bicycles after two coins
of different sizes.
became known as boneshakers
because their heavy iron frames
and iron-rimmed wheels shook
over every bump and hole in the
road—and back then there were
a lot of BUMPs aNd Holes!

It paved the way for...

German engineer bmX, short for bicycle

Gottlieb Daimler designed motocross, began in
the first two-wheeleD the 1970s as a pedal-
motorcycle in 1885, power version of
in order to test out off-roaD motorcyclinG.
a new engine.

18
High-wheelers
c hanged th
Early bicycles were powered by
the front wheel, so its size limited it e

w
how fast they could go. Thrill- Before bic

wo
yc
needed a h les, you

Ho
seekers solved the problem by o rse if you
wanted to

rld
making bikes with enormous front get anywh
a hurry. B ere in
wheels—some were 5 ft (1.5 m) ikes speed
to their de people
across—and a much smaller rear stina
anyone cle tions without
wheel. Daredevil riders perched aning up a
them. The fter
precariously over the front wheel y convert
power into h u man
and whizzed along at high movement
more effic
speeds, to the alarm of passersby. iently than
anything e
lse.

Tod
ay,
t he
re
are
twic
e
as many bicy

Safety bikes
Perilous penny-farthings were
replaced by safety bicycles in
the 1880s. They were driven by
a rear-wheel chain, so the wheels
could be of equal size. Things
cl e

got even better for cyclists with

s

the invention of air-filled tires,

as

gears, safety reflectors, and

ca

generator-powered headlights.
r

lighter and more

s.

efficient bicycle models

continue to be developed.

the tandem is an Bicycle racing is a

unusual bicycle popular modern sport,
that allows two with many different
riders to sit one events for different types
in front of the other of bicycles raced over
and cycle simultaneously. various distances.
19
invention that moved pe As elevators gave people a safe
lift to the top, buildings began
Th e

ople
to grow taller, and the shape of
city skylines changed forever.

Elevator Ends of the spring jam

into these strong metal
teeth if the rope breaks.

By the way
In a dramatic disp...
I went up in an op lay,
UPin the world elevator, then haden-sided
so
chop through the meone
rope
with an ax!

Steam elevators
Until steam power gave
everybody a much needed rest,
the only way to lift something
was for people or AnimAls
to hoist it on ropes or carry
it up stairs. One of the first
steam elevators was used
to haul blocks of ice from
the Hudson River in New
York State in 1754.
Otis demonstrated his
invention in front of
an amazed audience
at a fair in 1854.
now?
Did youakllest building Safety hoist
t
The world’s t (828 m), the Elevators were not used to lift people because of
at 2,716 f a in Dubai the risk of the rope snapping. American inventor
Burj Khalif 57 elevators
of elisHA GrAVes oTis solved the problem in 1853
has a total escalators.
and two with his safety hoist. If the cable broke, the car still
didn’t fall. The first passenger elevator, driven by
steam power, was installed in a New York department
store in 1857. It climbed five stories in one minute.
r ly e levato r s
Ea
The Archimedes screw was
an ancient device used
A hAnd-powered
to lift water from one
lifting device was
level to another. It was
invented by German
invented around the
engineer KonrAd Kyeser
3rd century bce.
in the early 1400s.

20
Hoisting rop
the elevatore pulls Electrified elevators
pulls the spri up and
at the same ngs taut Steam elevators puffed away until
the rope bre time. If the 1880s when the first electric
safety mechaaks, the elevator was installed. Electric-
kicks in. nism
powered pulleys at the top of
the shaft meant that elevators
could climb highEr and
fastEr than they had in the
past. Elevators were developed to
become automatic, with passengers
able to call an elevator and specify
a floor at the push of a button.

Two sturdy
of the liftingsprings on top
kept taut by platform are
but get stuc the rope,
teeth if the k in the metal
rope snaps.

How it changed
Elevators allowed cities
to grow upward instead
of sideways. This saved
precious space where land
was already in short supply.
High-rise living may get Skyscrapers
higher still as new carbon-
Now that people could scale
fiber cables enable
elevators to travel farther.
tall buildings quickly and safely,
skyscrapers began to reach higher
and higher, transforming cities.
the world Chicago’s Conway building,
now known as the Burnham Center,
is one example. When completed
People and o
riding on the bjects in 1913, it stood 300 ft (91 m) tall.
were safe a platform
t last.

A space elevator could one

day be available to carry
people into space without a
.. . rocket. The elevator would
u r e use a superstrong, superlight
t
Into the fu carbon-fiber cable.

21
Steaming along
The first automobile was steam-powered, built by
Frenchman Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1769. However,
steam engines are huge, and German engine designer
Karl Benz was convinced that smaller, more efficient
internal combustion engines would do a better job. boiler
The steame front.
was at th
ehicle had
Cugnot’s v the back,
at
two wheels at the front.
and o n e

Patent
ansportation R
Benz’s ad
en No. 3 h an
tr EVO M oto r w a g
els and
the L three whe the rear.
UT engine in
ng IO
Car
ivi
Dr

It’s the four-wheeled

wonder that takes us on
countless journeys every day.

Around the Benz

In 1885, Karl Benz made his first automobile, which featured
steel and wood panels for the body, and steel wheels
covered in rubber. To demonstrate how well the new
machine worked, his wife and business partner Bertha
Benz took off on the world’s first long-distance car
journey, a 124-mile (200 km) round trip. During the Did you
expedition, she used a hatpin to clear a fuel line, The num know?
invented brake linings, and insulated a wire with her on the w ber of cars
underwear. Everyone was amazed by her adventure, passed t orld’s roads
he o
and the car Became a success. mark in 2 ne billion
010.

p aved the way for...

It
Mary anderson made it The first electric traffic lights
safer to drive in the rain started controlling traffic in 1912
when she invented the first in Salt Lake City, invented by
Windshield Wipers in 1903. policeman lester Wire.

22
Ford’s revolution
American inventor Henry Ford
wanted to make cars cheap and easy
to run, and earn lots of money in
the process. He invented the first
conveyor belt–based assembly
line in 1913 at his car-manufacturing
plant in Michigan, where his most
famous car, the Model T, could be put
together in just over 90 minutes.
During the 20th century, other
manufacturers copied Ford, and
cars sold by the millions.

an ge d t h
ay... rial c h ew
B y the w moz Me it o
owtravel
h e B e rtha Ben 2008 in Cars allowed individuals to
T pened in

rld
e
Route o y. Now everyon wherever they wanted, and

H
a n
Germ follow in my became the world’s most popular
can cks. transportation. As a result, cities became bigger
tire tra
since people could live farther from work,
though pollution from car exhaust fumes
has meant that the environment
has suffered.

O W IT In an internal
1. 2. 3. 4.
H Intake Compression Combustion Exhaust
W

combustion
O R KS

engine, fuel
burns Piston
(combusts) Chamber
inside tubes called cylinders, t
producing hot gases that Crankshaf
push pistons. The pistons turn a
crankshaft that makes the car’s A mixture The piston Spark plug Gases from
wheels move in a four-stroke of air compresses ignites the the explosion
cycle. The fuel in most engines and gasoline the mixture, mixture are expelled
these days is gasoline.
enters making it and drives through
the chamber. very hot. the piston. the exhaust.

car seat belts have road markers that reflect

been keeping drivers car headlights, known as
and passengers safe “cat’s eyes,” were invented
since the early in 1933 by Percy Shaw.
20th century.
23
ING MACHINE th
LY at gave the wo
eF rld know?
Did youht brothers’
The Wrig only lasted
Th
win
Airplane
first flight and covered
gs s
12 secondt (36.5 m).
120 f

The first airplane blazed a trail

for supersonic jets and spacecraft,
and helped make the world a
much smaller place.

By the w
My brothe ay...
Taking off flew the pla r Orville
People had been trying to attempt st ne after my
a
take to the skies for hundreds a coin to slled. We flipped
ee
of years, with some even get the firswho would
t try.
wearing feathers and
leaping from high places. The Wrights’ flight
More successfully, the first The American brothers Wilbur and
hOT-air ballOOn went Orville WrighT had been fascinated
up in 1783, and the first with flight ever since their dad gave them a
passenger-carrying glider took toy flier. They studied gliders and built their
off in 1849. But no one had own. But the Wrights’ glider had an extra
mastered powered flight. element: an engine to propel it. In 1903,
they made the world’s first powered flight.

It paved the way for...

Igor SIkorSky designed
the first successful
modern helIcopter,
British engineer which flew in 1939.
Frank Whittle invented
the jet engIne in 1930.
24
Modern-day flying
The Wrights’ plane used a
gasoline engine that turned
propellers. The invention of
more powerful jet engines—
usually situated on the wings—
made big, passenger-carrying
aircraft possible. People
could then jet off on
flights to the other side
of the world, reaching
destinations that would have
taken months by sea.

W IT
HO
Thrust from the engine drives
W
the plane forward, and the
O R KS
The Wright Flyer (as s plane’s shape lets air flow
it came to be known) wa. around it with minimum drag.
made from spruce wood The weight of the plane pulls it

t c h a n ge d
downward, and must be overcome by lift. This is

w i th e w
provided by the way air moves around the wings.

Ho The invention of the airplane made orld Lift keeps the

plane in the air.
traveling across the world a lot easier. Thrust propels the
Only four decades after the first plane forward.
powered flight, flying machines
were blasting into space. Drag
reduces
thrust.
The plane’s weight must
be counteracted by lift.

American astronaut
Neil armstroNg stood
on the Moon after
The Harrier Jump Jet rocketiNg iNto
was the first vertical space in 1969.
takeoff plane. It first
flew in 1966.
25
o p t e r
ic
Heairlcraft that made people’s h e a d s SPIN

The
s t o get a ot
p t g
a ny attem ir. Once it rial
km ea ae
It too ter into th performed the dust.
p t
helico however, i t planes in
, f
there tics that le
a
acrob
This rescue helicopter is
designed to hold four
crew members and up to
Leonardo’s six additional people.
screw used aerial
platform to a revolving
it rise upw make
ard.

Aerial screw
More than 400 years before the first
helicopter flew, Italian genius Leonardo
da Vinci drew plans for his “aerIal
screw,” which was designed to be
hand-powered by four pilots.
It was never built, and
modern scientists Did you Autogyro
believe it would have Leonardo’s know? The autOgyrO was invented in 1923 by
in
been too heavy to stated that structions Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva. Like
get off the ground. screw should the aerial
b
reed, wire, ae made of a helicopter, it has a spinning rotor that
nd keeps it airborne. Unlike a helicopter, it
for the sail. linen
is propelled by the engine, and not the
rotors—which means it can’t do the
Early atte tricks a helicopter can.
mp
ts . ..

Another French
In 1907, Frenchman inventor, EtiEnnE
Paul Cornu’s helicopter oEhmiChEn, created
rose 1 ft (30 cm) off a helicopter
the ground. that flew 3,280 ft
(1 km) in 1924.

26
..
way. eas cha n g e d t
By t h e
n my id
up o or
it h
I gave elicopters fn

w
The amazin

e
h
for years whe s g

Ho
maneuvera

wo
t
20
a rly attempful. helicopters b il
means the
it y of
my e s s
nsucce do many th
ings that p an
yc
were u

rld
can’t, mak lanes
ing them id
difficult re eal for
scue missio
especially ns
on mounta ,
and at sea ins
. They can
also do so
me pretty
amazing s
tunts!

W IT
HO A helicopter’s main

W
rotor blades provide

O R KS
lift. The pilot can move
the aircraft up, down,
Take off! backward, and
The first practical forward by changing the rotors’
helicopter got off the speed and angle (via the swash plate
ground in the early 1930s, assembly) in relation to the wind.
but it was Russian- Hovering happens when the lift from
American Igor Sikorsky’s the rotor equals the pull of gravity.
VS-300 that today’s The tail rotor stops the helicopter
helicopters are based on. from spinning, and controls the left
It used a large rotor and right movement of the craft.
on top for lift, and a tail
rotor to keep it steady. It
first flew in 1939, and was Siko
soon wowing onlookers. desigrsky late Rotor
Its novel design meant VS- ned the r
flying 44, a mast
that it could move in Rotor
pass boat fo Swash plate blade
enge
almost any direction rs. r assembly
(even upside down),
and hover.

It paved t
he
way for...
The hoverCraft, which also
uses high-pressure air to
create lift, was developed Twin-rotor helicopters, such as
by Englishman Christopher Chinooks, were invented in the
Cockerell in 1956. 1960s by American Frank Piasecki.
27
c k e t w
..
ay.ew at

o
t he t fl
e h
p
By 2 rock ,420 mlivered

R
d y
aste the sk

!
V- 3 de

lly
s b l
ket s into Now tua My re than ), and ives.
mo km/h explos
r o c k
rst rewor s ago. space. ac 00 of
(5,5 a ton
fi
The ese fi year into CE,
n d
Chi ousan people CI EN
a th send T S
the
y
CKE
RO
It is
n led
Wernher von Brau the
the team behind d
an
first US satellite gs.
the Moo n la nd in

We have liftoff!
To soar into the sky, a
rocket needs enough fuel to
lift its weight, have a safe way of burning
that fuel very quickly, and be able to work
in an airless environment if it gets to space.
American scientist Robert Goddard was
the first to solve these problems: He
launched the world’s first liquid-fueled
rocket in 1926. It was light, but packed
enough punch to just about get it off the
ground, though it didn’t reach space.

Wernher’s V-2
People realized that rockets could be used both to send
humans into space and to fire weapons. German Wernher
von Braun’s V-2 rocket was first used in 1944 during
World War II. After Germany was defeated in the war, von
Braun moved to the United States and pursued his
dream of developing rockets for spaCe TRaVel.

a ve d the way for…

I t p
The V-2 was the first
ballistic missile. The first
intercontinental ballistic The Mariner 2, launched by a
missile, the soViet R-7, rocket, became the first space
was launched in 1957. probe to visit another planet
when it reached Venus in 1962.

28
Soviet rockets

00 mph (547 km/h).

The Soviet Union (modern-day
Russia and other Eastern European
countries) blasted the first satellite into
space in 1957 using the Sputnik rocket,
designed by Sergey Korolev. Korolev
also developed the Vostok rocket,
which shot the first human being,
ach 3,4 Yuri Gagarin (left), into orbit in 1961.

Man on the Moon

uld re

Soon after, in the United States, von Braun

designed the Saturn v rocket (right) that
took the first people to the Moon during
co

the Apollo 11 mission. The rocket was

363 ft (111 m) tall, but only the command
ets

module (the cabin for the astronauts) was

ock

designed to return to Earth. Most of the

rocket consisted of tanks that housed the
2r

fuel needed to escape earth’s gravity.

V-

Payload

W IT Guidance
HO
All rockets burn fuel, system
W

either solid or liquid,

O R KS

Fuel
changed
to provide thrust.

w it
tank
V-2 rockets used
liquid fuel and liquid o
H R
oxygen. These are stored in big fuel
Liquid ockets ha
oxygen ve transp
people ou orte
tanks. They are mixed together in the tside Earth d
atmosphe ’s
r
combustion chamber and burned to time, lead e for the first
become hot gas. The gas is then ing us to
more abo discover
pushed out the back of the engine Combustion ut the Un
and our p iverse
to drive the rocket forward. chamber lace in it.

or ld
th e w
Explosion
provides
thrust

Russia’s Mir space station america’s reusable space

was assembled in stages in shuttle was launched
space. It was manned for exactly 20 years after yuri
most of its 15-year life. GaGarin became the first
person in space.

29
ar ene Nuclear

e
Di
technology A d yo
releases the reactnother ty u know
Nucleion fuses pe of nuc ?

rg
energy locked ar nu lea
Nucl
safe, fusion c clei toget r
inside atoms. c ou h
limitle lean, and ld provid er.

y
The power this ss el e
here ectri almost
on Ea ityc
generates could rth.
one day take
spaceships

atom
beyond our
Solar System.

t he
Th

EX f
e

PLO R o
SIVE POWE

Nuclear rockets
In the future, nuclear-
powered rockets could take us
to the stars. The farther away from
the Sun a rocket goes, the less useful
solar panels become, while traditional rocket
fuels weigh a lot and run out quickly. Nuclear
energy produces much more propulSioN
power than traditional rocket fuels, so
scientists are looking to nuclear power as a way
Project Orion was to travel farther into space than ever before.
a 1950s design for a
nuclear spacecraft.

t p ave d t h e w a y
I for…
Nuclear weapoNs
were developed The first Nuclear
in the 1940s. Two fissioN power plaNt began

bombs were dropped on generating electricity

Japan in 1945, with in 1954 in obNiNsk,
devastating outside Moscow, in
consequences. modern-day Russia.

30
Electrons orbit
Future nuclear- the nucleus.
powered rockets Atomic explorers
could one day take By 1900, scientists knew that everything
humans to Mars. is made from tiny particles called atoms.
In 1909, New Zealand–born scientist Neutron
Ernest Rutherford showed that atoms
have a central nucleus, orbited by
smaller particles called electrons.
Later, discoveries by Rutherford and
English physicist James Chadwick
identified protons and neutrons, which Proton
make up the nucleus of an atom.

Nuclear fission
The powER of atoms was unleashed in 1938
by scientists Lise meitner, otto Hahn, and fritz
strassman: They split the nucleus of a uranium
atom by firing neutrons at it. As the nucleus
split, some of its mass was converted into heat,
a process that became known as nuclear fission.
Lise Meitner and
Otto Hahn in their Enrico Fermi, an Italian scientist living in the
German laboratory United States, headed the team that created the
in 1913. first controlled fission CHain REaCtion in
the world’s first nuclear reactor.

W IT Neutron
HO
Nuclear fission works
w it chang
Uranium-235 nucleus
W

H o e
by splitting atoms.
O R KS

Nucle
already d ar power d Some nuclei of
uranium-235
plants, s rives some powe naturally split in two, The atom is
ub r
In the fu marines, and sh split in two.
ture, nuc ips. releasing neutrons. Some of the
spacecra lear-pow
ft could ere neutrons hit other uranium-235 nuclei,
beings fa c arry hum d
rther into an causing them to split, releasing energy
than eve s p a c e
r before. and more neutrons, which in turn hit
more uranium atoms. This self-sustaining
the world. process is called a chain reaction. Neutrons released
bombard other
uranium-235 nuclei.

USS Nautilus, the first nUclear-powered

SUbmarine, was launched in 1954.
The icebreaker leNiN was the
first nUclear SUrface Ship.

31
G et tin g

The modern world is in constant contact

thanks to this bunch of groundbreaking technology.
Whether we’re reading the latest news on the Internet,
chatting on the phone, or singing along to the radio,
our methods of staying in tune and keeping in touch
are the result of mind-boggling inventions that put us
all on the same wavelength.
con n e
cte
d
Paper
Chinese paper
Before paper was invented,
people struggled with heavy books
made of bamboo or spent fortunes
Helping people make their MARK on expensive silk. Legend has it that
Chinese politician Ts’ai Lun revealed
When it first appeared around 2,000 his papermaking technique to the
years ago, paper made writing emperor in 105 ce, but even older
and reading easier than ever before. paper, from around 100 bce, has been
discovered. It took hundreds of
years for the secrets of papermaking
to spread to other parts of Asia and
North Africa, and more than 1,000
years for it to reach Europe.

The write stuff

The very first Written Words
were scratched onto clay slabs in ancient
Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) more
than 5,000 years ago. Later, people wrote
on silk, bone, and bamboo in China, animal
Plant fibers are cooked The pulp is spread
skin in Europe, and papyrus in Egypt. The with lye (a cleaning agent) over a wooden screen,
Aztecs and Mayans in South and Central before being rinsed and resembling a flat,
America wrote on a type of paper made beaten into a pulp. square sieve.
from the bark of the amate tree.

e d the way fo
p av r...
It
Invented around 1450 in The first paper money
Germany, the printing press was used in China
eventually made books in the 800s, but
available to everyone. didn’t reach Europe
until the 1600s.

34
How it changed
By the w
My special papeay... the world
recipe included rmaking
fibers from the tree bark, Paper made information, stories,
ba
some silk rags mboo plant, and ideas storable on a light,
I
around, and evhad lying strong, cheap, and space-saving
en ol
fishing nets. d surface. Without it, the printing
press would never have made
books and reading so popular.

Ts’ai Lun was a

court official during
the Han Dynasty.

Making paper
The papermaking process hasn’t
changed much since Ts’ai Lun’s
time. Plant or textile fibers are still
mashed up into a pulp, which is
then sieved to create a wet sheet,
and then pressed to dry it. The main
difference is that machines do it for
us these days—the first papermaking
machine was invented in 1798. Also,
in the 19th century, paper began to
be made from wood pulp, which
made it cheap enough to get
almost everyone scribbling.

The pulp is pressed to The paper is fully Did y

squeeze the water out, dried by hanging it Ts’ai Luou know?
leaving a sheet of paper. up on a wall. made him n’s discover
wealthy very famous y
in a
spread China, and helpnd
Chinese e
far and culture d
wide.

Tea bags first went on PaPer Tissues were made

sale in 1903. At first, available in the 1920s
they were made from and gradually replaced
silk, but now they’re cloTh handkerchiefs.
made from paper.

35
Printing pRrEe ss
VOLUTION
The start of a READING
w er e on ce an ex pe nsive rarity, but the
Books into a means of
g pr es s tu rned th em
printin e.
in g id ea s an d in fo rmation far and wid
spread

The lever turns

a screw to raise
and lower the press.

Chinese printing
People in China were turning the pages of
books printed using wooden Blocks
more than 1,000 years ago. Later, they
invented movable type—raised letters
that could be moved into place and used
to print more than one book. But the
sheer number of characters in the
Chinese language complicated the
process and the idea did not catch on.

p aved the way for... This Latin Bible

from 1455 is one
It of Gutenberg’s
first printed books.

The first printed The first periodical to

newspaper was be called a magazine
published in 1605 was published in
in Strasbourg, London in 1731.
Germany.

36
Impressive press
Around 1450, German publisher
Johannes Gutenberg invented a printing
press based on olive and wine presses.
His mechanical movable type
system used metal letters arranged
as required and inked by hand.
LowerinG the press pushed The tympan (the
the paper onto the letters wooden frame that
holds a sheet of
and the page was printed. paper) folds over on
the inked letters. to
Printing today
Handheld in
used to ap k balls are Within Gutenberg’s lifetime, his press
metal lette ply ink to produced books in cities all over
in the formrs arranged Europe. He’d designed it so well
e (tray).
that it hardly changed for the next
300 years. Starting in the 1800s, steam-
powered presses churned out books
more cheaply than ever before. Modern
presses (above), powered by electricity,
use rollers and print in coLor.

How it
Before G
u
rare and tenberg’s inven
c ha n g e d
expensiv tion, bo
copied o eb oks w
ut by ha ecause they had ere
meant th n
at entire d. The printing to be
cheaply books c press
The tympan and quic ould be
and forme slide informa kly, putt printed
tion into in
under the press. people, the han g ideas and
not just ds of or
people the very dinary
learned rich. Mil
discover to lions of
ed the p read as a resu
leasure lt
By the way.. of a goo and
d book.
Even though my inven.
changed the world, tion
I
with my business pa fell out
rtne the world
and hardly made an rs
y
money from it.

Books we
re once
rarity, bu an expe
t th nsive
turned th e printing pres
em into s
spreadin a means
g ideas of
far and and info
wide. rmation

PaPerback books were first Chinese

People in
printing
The first e-book readers
mass-produced in the were launched in 1998.
China we
pages of re turnin
books pr g the
wooden in
blocks m ted using

19th century on steam-

years ag ore than
movable
could be
o. Later,
type – ra
th ey invent
ise
1,000
ed E-books will soon overtake
moved in d letters that
powered presses. used to
But the
character
print mor
sheer nu
to place
e than on d
mber of
an
e book.
sales of physical books.
s in the
Chinese

37
Telegraph
Tapping out the world’s first
LONG-DISTANCE electrical messages
y...
y t h e wa. Cooke,
B r, Mr r
rtne n fo was
My pa e initial visio ed my of letters the
had th legraph. I us elp him id
A gr o spell out
the te al skills to h s. used t es received. Communication problems
technic alize his idea messag
re Long-distance communication took the
form of smoke signals, beacons, or carrier
pigeons until 1792, when a semaphore
telegraph system was invented by
Frenchman CLaude Chappe. It
used pairs of movable arms on
station buildings (above)
to represent letters and
numbers to signal to
the next station in the
chain, but it was slow
and expensive to build.

Wheatstone
telegraph us and Cooke’s
Electric telegraphs of buttons toed two rows Telegraph takeover
a message to spell out
english inventors William Fothergill Cooke send. In 1866, Europe and North
and Charles Wheatstone came up with the first America were linked when the
electrical long-distance communication in 1837. hanged first transatlantic cables were
Their teLegraph could send messages ti c it laid. Telegraph wires reached
madeph
elegra end almost-s
w

through an electric wire without having to be e t Australia six years later, and
Ho

T h
within sight of the person receiving it. le to s acros telegraphs could be sent all
possib t messagestinents,
Americans Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail later instanns and con lution around the world when cable
developed a code of dots and dashes that ocea ting a revo ion. was laid under the paCifiC
ld

became the standard telegraph code. star ommunicat OCean in 1902.

or

in c w
38 the
Louis Braille
Born in France in 1809, Louis BraiLLe
was blinded in an accident when he was
very young. At school, he wanted to read
books, but there weren’t any for blind
people. When he went to a special school
for blind children in Paris at the age of 10,
there were books with raised letters that
could be read by touch, but there were only
a few, and they were very hard to read.

By th
At school, e way...
special wa I heard about a
y
that could of communicating
dark, whic be read in the
come up w h inspired me to
ith my alph
abet.

Louis’s alphabet
Braille was determined to find a better way
Louis Braille was
blinded after an ac to read. When he was just fifteen, he invented a
in his father’s wo cident system of raised dots arranged in rectangles,
when he was thre rkshop with different patterns for each letter. The Braille
e.
alphabet was simple to read and cheap to
produce, and was soon transforming lives.

Braille
The key that unlocked the world of
reading for MILLIONS of blind people

How it works it chang

Nearly 200 years after Braille came up with oBw ed
ra
ille’s
H

his alphabet, people are still using it, even the doo system opene
with computers. Braille computer displays use and edu rs of literatur d
electromechanically controlled pins to make people—cation for bli e
ma nd
Braille characters that can be touched. Research for them king it easier
into how to make the Internet more accessible happy a to live a
nd full li
fe.
t h e w or l
to blind people is underway, with Braille’s
d

alphabet at the front of the new technology.

39
Pho
The
nograph
inventio o ught M U SIC to our ears
n t h at br
earl o w n as phonographs,
y record players, kn d back.
d p lay soun
an
were able to record s edison struck
m a
tho tn
the frs ote.

Sound signals
Thomas Edison, the famous American
inventor, made an exciting discovery while The horn is used to
working on a recorder for telegraph signals in both record sound,
1877. He realized that the indentations made by and amplify sound
the signals produced sound when a needle when played back.
ran back over them. So he went to work using
cylinders wrapped in tinfoil, a metal disc, a handle, Rotating
Flat discs soon and a needle, and invented the phonograph, cylinder plays
became the sounds when
most popular the first machine to record sound. the handle
listening format. is turned.

ow?
Did you knth ought
Thomas Edison ould be a
w
that teaching use of his
more po pu la r
listening
invention than .
to music
Spinning discs
Edison’s foil-wrapped cylinders were
absolutely amazing, but they were a bit bulky,
and could be played only a few times before decaying.
In 1887, German-American inventor Emil Berliner
invented a machine that traced sound grooves onto a
flat disc instead of a cylinder. Many copies of the
discs could be made—they were the first records.

t paved the way

I for.
..
Vinyl records became very The first compact audio
popular in the middle of cassettes were released in
the 20th century and 1962, originally intended
are still made today. for dictation machines.

40
W IT
HO
When Edison spoke

W
into the horn, the Needle

O R KS
pressure of his
voice caused the
needle to scratch
indentations into the tinfoil-coated
cylinder as it rotated. When the
needle was moved over the
The needle
indentations it had scratched into the moved up and
foil, it played back the sound of down in the
Edison’s voice through the horn, dents to
Rotation reproduce
which magnified the sound. of cylinder the sound.

c ha ng ed t Into the groove

it he As time passed, further
w improvements were
Ho

It’s hard to made to both the records

wo
without a so imagine life and the players. The
undtrack o
favorite son f your
grooves on records

rld
gs, but befo
phonograp re the
your own m
h, you had
to became thinner, so more
usic or go to make sound could fit on each
to hear the concerts
m. Recorde disc. Loudspeakers
meant that d sound
at last every replaced the horns of the
listen to th one could
e world’s g early phonographs to
music in th reatest
eir homes. amplify the sound. With
these improvements, records
were finally sounding great, and
people started collecting music
from their favorite musicians.

Incredible Edison
Although he ended up with more than a
thousand inventions to his name, Edison considered
the phonograph to be his favorite invention.
He set up his own record label, edison records,
to publish new recordings—first on cylinders,
e w a y .. .
By th of
and later on discs. He continually improved
I was very hard ed me the phonograph right up until his death in 1931.
lp
hearing, which he maybe
concentrate— ver
that’s why I ne aid!
ing
invented a hear

mp3 players were invented

CompaCt disCs were invented in the late 1990s, making it
in 1965 but didn’t become possible to take your entire
popular until they were musiC ColleCtion with you
mass-produCed in the 1980s. wherever you go.

41
e le p h o n e
T try to find
now?
Did you nkted a metal
h
e
Bell also inv ich he used to
detector, w a bullet inside
field
ames A. Gar
President J r he was
The invention that got afte
shot in 1881.
people TALKING
is
Although who invented it
still debated, everyone
agrees that the telephone
tion.
revolutionized communica

Bell’s telephone
Seeking to improve the
telegraph in 1875, Scottish
inventor Alexander Graham
Bell stumbled on a discovery of
far greater importance: He
realized that sounds could travel
Along the telegrAph wires,
and be heard in another room.
Bell’s first message to his assistant
Thomas Watson was “Mr. Watson,
come here! I want to see you!”

Bell’s interest in sound This version of Bell’s phone

and communication was was made to demonstrate
inspired by his mother and the invention to Queen
wife, who were both deaf. Victoria of the UK in 1878.

It paved the way for…

The telephone exchange meant
that more than one phone In 1889, a coin-operated
could be connected along the pay phone was installed at
same line, less than a year the Hartford Bank in
after the phone was invented. Hartford, Connecticut.

42
Patent fight W IT
HO
Bell began working on his idea and patented it Early telephones used

W
in 1876, since he knew other inventors were working a thin metal disk that

O R KS
on similar designs. His early phones featured a lever vibrated when someone
to call the other phone on the line, and a receiver spoke into the transmitter,
that functioned as both an earpiece to hear the person making fluctuations in a
on the other end and a mouthpiece to talk to them layer of carbon granules. This varied the
(though separate ear- and mouthpieces were soon electric current, provided by a battery, which
developed). They were a roaring success. then traveled across the telephone line to
the receiver. The electric current caused the
carbon grains in the receiver to vibrate and
copy the original sound.

way...
By thedevice much like Carbon
da ore
I patente ne five years bef or granules
h o
a telep But I was too new p o
Bell did. e $10 fee to re
to pay thtent, so I lost it. Transmitter
my pa

Telephone
line

Meucci constructed
a telephonelike
device at home to Receiver
talk to his wife, who
was ill at the time.

a n g ed t h
Mad Meucci
ch By turnin e
As Bell’s telephone industry g soun

wo
it
into elec
took off, a few of his rival trical sign d
Ho w

back aga als and

inventors argued that he had in, the te

rld
enabled lephone
taken their ideas. Among people to
another o talk to on
these was the Italian ver long e
for the fi distances
rst
antonio Meucci, who in become th time. It has
em
1860 had demonstrated his used com ost widely
mun
“teletrofono,” which Bell had device on ication
seen. Meucci was in the Earth.
process of suing Bell, but his
legal claim ended when
he died in 1889.

In 1963, the first electronic push- Modern smartphones

button telephones were offered by feature touch screens
bell telephone, the company and cameras, and can
founded by Alexander connect to the Internet.
Graham Bell.
43
Radio
Marconi’s 1902 magnetic
detector radio used an
By sending iron-wire band wound
around two pulleys to
signals using pick up signals.
The wireless invisible waves
instead of wires,
TECHNOLOGY radio reached
that everyone’s around
tuned in to the world.

Marconi’s radio
Guglielmo Marconi, a 19-year-old Italian, was
fascinated when he read about the discovery of
radio waves by German scientist Henrich Hertz.
Hertz showed that radio waves were a kind of
energy, just like light, that traveled in waves and
could be made to carry information. Many
inventors were excited by this information.
Marconi found that radio waves could be used to
send Morse code through the air, without using
wires. In 1897, he started his own company
Marconi’s funeral in 1937 was
and began to develop his ideas further. marked by two minutes of silence
on all radios across the world.

Saving lives
At first, Marconi’s “wireless telegraph”
could send signals only a few miles,
but his waves were beaming across the
Atlantic Ocean by 1901. Soon, there
were transmitters on both sides of the
ocean, and wireless equipment on ships.
When the Titanic struck an iceberg and
began to sink in 1912, frantic calls for
help from the radio operators on board
the ship helped save 705 lives.

u ldn’t have happened

It c o without...
HeinricH Hertz discovered nikola tesla was the
radio waves in 1888, first to generate and
but he did not see transmit radio waves
their potential uses. in 1895.

44
Two magnets changed the
magnetic field in the iron wire,
causing it to pick up radio
signals if any were present.

Radio voices
The early radios transmitted Morse code
only, which was picked up by radio
operators and transcribed into messages.
Canadian Reginald Fessenden made
Did yo the first voice radio broadcast in 1906.
Radio waves u know? The radio operators who tuned in
distances becacan travel great couldn’t believe their ears when they
upper atmosp use the Earth’s
he
of them. All th re reflects some heard a human voice coming through for
or a powerful trat is needed is the first time. Soon, families were gathering
ect ansm
netic det
The mag known as the ators.
a sensitive re itter and around the radio to be entertained by
r ceiver. music, comedy, and drama.
became ” by radio ope
“Maggie
an g e d
HO
W IT it ch th
Radio technology relies on two things:
ow e
W

the transmitter and the receiver. The

O R KS

Th
transmitter turns a sound signal into a radio teleph e telegraph
H

wo
one a
wave and sends it using its antenna. The co llowe and
receiver’s antenna picks up the radio distan mmunicate d people t

rld
ces, acr o
wave and turns it back into sound. which but both r oss long
Radio w eq
somet ere often d uired cable
wave imes i i s
The d mpos fficult (and ,
s i b
techn evelopmen le) to lay.
The receiver’s antenna olo to
converts the radio could gy meant t f radio
com hat
waves back into sound. anywh municate people
ere in direct
The transmitter’s t h e ly
even w
antenna converts at sea orld,
sound into radio waves. .

t paved the way for...

I
We can watch television cell phones use
thanks to radio signals, radio waves to
which have been transmitting communicate. The
television broadcasts earliest cell phones
since the 1930s. date from the 1970s.

45
ture t
c

his
Pi
pinhole cameras w
ere used
for centuries to pro
ject
uldn’t
Did you kn
Early daguerre ow?
images, but they co
ay, taking sitters had to otype
take a picture. tod absolutely still stay
be easier.
snapshots couldn’t
for 60 to 90
seconds. No w
of them looked onder most
so serious!

io n th a t p uts y o u in the FRAME

The invent
Daguerreotype
The world’s first photographs were taken by
Nicéphore Niépce, but they faded quickly.
Fellow Frenchman Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre
discovered a way of making a permanent image
on a silver-coated copper plate. They didn’t take
a long time to make, and the images can still be
seen today. People rushed to have their portraits
immortalized on daguerreotypes, as they
were called, in the mid-1800s.
Daguerreotype cameras
developed their images on
copper plates coated with
a thin layer of silver.

The entire camera

had to be sent to
the Kodak factory
to obtain the photos.

Film cameras
Photography was a complicated and
time-consuming process before American
George Eastman invented roll-film cameras.
Eastman invented a flexible film to replace
the glass plates that were commonly used to
capture images, then, with William Walker,
a roll holder for the film. His KodaK
camera was the first to have a built-in
film-roll holder when it went on sale in
1888, making photography a lot simpler.

46
Polaroid camera
Three-year-old Jennifer Land asked
her father why a photo couldn’t be
seen right after it was taken. The
question led edwin Land to invent
the Polaroid camera in 1947, which
worked by using chemicals inside
the camera to develop and print the
image. For the first time, people could
see their photos without having to
send the film away to be developed.

The photograph
comes out of the front
of the camera, as the
image is developing.

Celluloid camera film

by film cameras to re is used
picture. The film mustcord the
developed to see th then be
e picture.

Intro
duce
d in 1
909, y.
35mm c da
amera film is still used to

Digital camera
Digital photography is absolutely
instant and doesn’t require film or
processing. The Japanese company
Sony sold the first commercial filmless
camera in 1981. It used a disk
drive to store video-camera images,
but was otherwise like a normal camera.
As technology got better and the cost
of the components went down, the first
digital cameras began to be sold. It wasn’t
long before almost everyone was snap-
happy: Digital cameras allow you to take
The screen allows you to and save as many pictures as you want,
see the image before you printing out only your favorites.
capture it. It also shows
stored pictures. 47
Taervelloe vision
us m
The m RLD t achine that
the WO o y our l
iving brings
roo
From fuzzy
p
m
ictures to
high-definit
ion images,
watching te
levision has
kept us info
rmed and
entertained
for decades
.

ay...
By the wly inventions
ear
Some of my uccessful: I cut
weren’t s dly with my
myself ba zor, and my
ra
rust-proof shoes burst.
air-soled

Baird achieved
the first transatlantic
TV transmission
in 1928.
Baird’s biscuit-tin TV Switching on
In 1926, an excited audience in London,
Although they were exciting, Baird’s
England, became the first people ever to
television pictures were so Fuzzy
watch television. Scottish inventor John
that his system was soon abandoned.
Logie Baird had cobbled together a tea
A few years later, Russian-American
chest, biscuit tins, hat boxes, and darning
inventor Vladimir Zworykin improved
needles to come up with a mechanical
the cathode-ray tube (a device for
TV. The audience watched a scary-looking
showing images on a screen), and
ventriloquist’s dummy named Stookie Bill.
used it in a new type of electrical TV.
Sales had skyrocketed by the 1950s,
with millions of people enjoying news
and entertainment via the magic of
It paved the moving pictures in their homes.
way for...
With the invention Everyone could be a star
of video cassettes and after the camcorder was
dvds, people could watch invented in 1980.
movies at home on TV.

48
ow it changed
H the world
Television enabled people to
watch events happening all
over the globe without leaving
the house. It became the
world’s most popular
form of entertainment.

W IT
HO
In cathode-ray

W
televisions, electron

O R KS
beams emerge from
a cathode.
Electromagnets
controlled by the TV direct the electron
across the screen to trace out a
picture. Phosphors—substances that
Did y glow when the electron beams hit
ou kn
viewerround 500 ow?
A them—make the picture visible.
sw millio
on TVorldwide wa n Mixtures of red, green, and blue
t
humans as the first ched phosphors can make any other color.
the M la nd
oon in ed on
1969. Cathode Anode

Digital TV
The television you turn on
today probably uses digital
technology and a flat liquid-
crystal display instead of a Magnet
cathode ray tube. Digital TV
Electron
means you can choose from beam
many more TV channels,
and watch your favorite shows The inside of the screen
is coated with phosphors.
in great detail thanks to high-
definition image technology.

The first closeD-circuiT TV Baird first developed 3-D TV

systems were developed in in 1928—not surprisingly,
the 1940s—and are now it wasn’t as good as the version
used in many builDings. that launched in 2010.

49
Transistor
The COMPACT COMPONENT that
made modern electronics possible
Vacuum tubes
Transistors are used in electronic
equipment to switch or amplify
electric signals. Before transistors,
w it changed these jobs were done by vacuum
o Tr tubes, which looked like light
ansistors made
H
Brattain once said, electronic equipment bulbs and were unreliable and
“The only regret smaller and more re bulky. American physicists William
I have about the Without them, the galiable. Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John
transistor is its use dget
we use every day s
for rock and roll.” Bardeen began developing ideas to
wouldn’t exist. rePlace them in the 1950s.
rl

d
T the wo
the he thr
tra ee l
n e
sta sistor ads a
r
elec , or to st llow
t
tric incr op,
al c eas
urr e
ent
.

Transistors take over

The trio’s small but revolutionary solution,
called the transistor, could control
electric current just like vacuum tubes did,
but was an enormous improvement. The Shockley
transistor used far less power, hardly ever worked for the
US military during
failed, and was so tiny that it made it possible World War II.
to have smaller electronic equipment.
In 1956, Brattain, Bardeen, and Shockley
were jointly awarded the nobel Prize for
Physics for their work on transistors. Bardeen went on to win
a second Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1972.
Circuitry
Early transistors were about the length of the palm of
your hand, but improvements to their design led them to
become smaller. At first, they were connected to other
electronic components on circuit boards, and used in
hearing aids, radios, and computers. Now, transistors are
mostly found in computer chips—hundreds of millions
of transistors can fit on a single chip.
50
Microchips
Early computers relied on transistors and other electrical
parts connected by hand. This was a laborious process,
and if any one of these connections broke, the whole
bunch could fail. In 1958, American scientist Jack Kilby
developed the integrated circuit (left). By 1961, these were
a lot smaller and commonly known as microchips. Each
one consisted of hundreds of tiny parts, made from one
piece of material (usually silicon). They made computer
Intel labeled Hoff a parts more reliable, organized, and consumed less power.
“rock star” for his work
on the microprocessor.
The Intel 8080 was
used in the first o w it chan
commerical computers. HW ge
it
we hout m d
w
comp ouldn’ticroproc
smar uters have essor
t ap , or p s
plian any ersona ,
run c o l
our es thatf the
lives
. help
the
w orl d

Minicomputer
In 1971, fellow American Ted Hoff was
designing a new microchip for a scientific
calculator for the company Intel. He thought it
would be easier to make a chip that could be used for
a variety of functions, as opposed to one that would
work only for his calculator. His solution was the
Intel 4004 microprocessor, a minicomputer on a chip.
Further improvements led to the Intel 8080 chip, which
came to be known as “the first truly usable microprocessor.”

The smallest wires in

Microprocessor
today’s microprocessors
are less than one-
thousandth the
width of a human hair.

The tiny technology that is the

BIG BRAIN in your computer

Chips with everything

A microprocessor is like a brain: It reads and adds to memory,
carries out instructions, and communicates with other parts of the
computer. Today’s microprocessors power computers, phones, washing
machines, and much more. They’re thousands of times faster than the
first ones, and yet they’re small enough to fit on a fingernail.
51
Computer Apple’s popular
iMac computer was
released in 1998.
From enormous
“engines” to tiny devices
that fit inside phones,
computers have
revolutionized our lives.

The start of the INFORMATION AGE

Engines
Englishman Charles Babbage
was way ahead of his time:
He designed three computing
machines in the 1820s and
1830s, which he called
“engines,” though he never
managed to build these huge
mechanical contraptions. English
mathematician Ada Lovelace
devised a sequence of operations
intended to allow Babbage’s
Analytical Engine to solve a
math problem—making her the
first computer programmer.

By the way...
“Ada Lovelace Day” is of
celebrated in the middleto
October—its goal is
encourage more girls to
study the sciences.

t p a ved t h e way for…

I
Programmed computers control The internet grew from a
industrial robots, which do all network of computers in
kinds of work too difficult or the United States in the
dangerous for humans, such late 1960s, and the World
as lifting heavy loads or Wide Web brought it to the
performing intricate tasks. masses in the 1990s.

52
Secret computers
The world’s first working computers were both
kept top secret. The first programmable computer
was the Z3, invented by Konrad Zuse
during World War II, and was used
to make secret codes for
Germany. Britain, Germany’s
enemy in the war, built Colossus
(right), the first digital electronic
computer. Colossus enabled
Britain and its allies to break
the German codes, giving
them access to top-secret
German information.

Did yo Apple Macintosh

Babb u know The early computers were the size of several elephants.
Engine Nage’s Differenc
?
e Transistors and then microprocessors gradually made
o. 2 was
in 1991,
142 yea first built computers smaller and cheaper, but early computer users
it was d rs after needed skill and specialized technical knowledge.
esigned—
and it w In 1976, Americans Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs began
orked!
to change that with their Apple computers, designed so
that anyone could use them. Other companies soon
followed, making computers cheaper, smaller, and easier
to use. Soon, they were in schools, offices, and homes
across the world, in technology as diverse as cell
phones, cars, and even toilets.

How it changed
Computers have revolutio
nized
almost every part of mode
rn life
in some way—our workplac
es,
schools, and even our soc
ial
lives, since they are in
The iMac featured a the things we use every da
y.
computer and monitor display
in one colorful case.
the world

expensive
re once an press
Books we ing
t the print
rarity, bu into a me
ans of

E-book rEadErs have been social nEtworking sites have

d the m
turne d
g ideas an
spreadin an d wide.
n far
informatio

Chinese
printing
re turnin
g around since 1998, but started sprung up thanks to computers
China we
People in
the page
using wo
s of book
oden blo
s printed
ck s mo re
Later,
to become popular in the 2000s, and the Internet. The most
years ago.
than 1,000
they inven
ted mova
letters tha
ble type
t could be
and tablEt computErs followed famous is FacEbook, started
– raised d used to
moved int
o place an
not long after. in 2004 by American
Mark Zuckerberg.

53
d
r o un us,
a
o m bove vity.
s zo h a gra
e g
e l lit h hi it by
t t
sa ear orb
n
the eld i
h

i t e

!
ll

RLD
t e

WO
a
Sp

S
u
H

IS

t
T

n
F

ik
T O
Technology that’s OU

1 w a s the size of a
Space tower
Russian scientist Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky came up with the
idea of building a tower into
space, with a satellite at the
top that could be used by
spaceships on their way to be a
oTher planeTs. He worked out
the math to make it happen, but
ba
ch
his ideas never got off the ground.
ll.

Space Race
w ay... The world’s first satellite, Sputnik 1,
By the
w y ah
a ead was rocketed into orbit by the Soviet Union
I was : I developed s in 1957. The country’s bitter rival, the
ime ket
of my t ion about roc l United States, had been developing its
a t til
an equ 903 that’s s own satellite and was furious to have lost
in 1 day!
used to the first episode of what became known as the
Space Race. The first US satellite, ExplorEr 1,
was launched just three months later.

cou ldn’t have happen

It ed
wit
ho
ut Radio signals are
used both to direct
…

Alessandro Volta satellites and to

invented the world’s receive information
first batteRy, the voltaic from them.
pile, in 1800.

54
Sputnik’s four antennae r s.
sent information on
Earth’s atmosphere g sta
back to the surface.
o vin
l y m
w
l i ke slo
l oo k Did y
tes Laika thou know?
m e satelli the first e dog be
came
S o when sh anim al t
e zoome o orbit Earth
Solar panels on Sputn d in
power the majority ik 2, a mto space
after Sp on
of satellites. utnik 1. th
The satellite contained a
battery to power it and
a radio transmitter.

Modern satellites
There are now thousands of artificial satellites
in orbit above our heads, transmitting signals or
taking pictures for use in communication,
navigation, research, and even spying. We have
also sent space probes into orbit around other
bodies in our Solar System: They are now satellites
of the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, and the Sun.

W IT
HO
Satellites use radio The satellite picks
up the signal,
W

waves to transmit
hange
it c
amplifies it, and
O R KS

information.
w u Satellites allow d
sends it to Dish 2.
Communications
Ho

satellites receive Dish 1 sends s to comm

instantly. T unicate
a radio signal beamed up to them a signal to hey also w
the satellite. about wild arn us
from Earth and transmit it to another
from gettin weather, keep us
point on Earth’s surface. In this g lost,
believe—h and—experts
way, a signal—such as a Dish 2 receives elp ke
television broadcast—can be the signal many world at p ep the
eace.
sent over a very long distance miles away
from Dish 1.
almost instantaneously.
the world

The world’s first The V-2 rocket was

programmable developed by German
computer was the Z3, Wernher von Braun
invented in 1941. in the 1940s.

55
p e
l e s co ?

Te
i d y o u know
D ler Spa ce
d The Kep launched in
t i o n an e,
Telescop has a mission
n f
e i nve ment o lly ,
2009 her earthlike
th rove a
adu nt
t
to find o beyond our
i m p s g r a ets
e s c ope he dist ce. plan
Solar Sy
stem.
tel aled t of spa
reve nders
wo

The eye on the sky that brought

the UNIVERSE into focus

Galileo’s tele
two lenses toscope used
appear 30 ti make objects
mes bigger.
Lippershey’s lenses
In 1608, German-Dutch spectacle
maker Hans Lippershey combined
curved lenses in a long tube to make
the first teLescope, which Galileo
magnified objects up to three times. Italian scientist GaLiLeo GaLiLei improved
He went on to make several telescopes Lippershey’s telescope in 1609 and turned it to the stars.
for the Dutch government, and was His telescopes were able to make distant objects
paid very handsomely in return. appear bigger, and gazing through them, he observed
the craters of our Moon and four of Jupiter’s moons,

ay for... identified the fuzzy Milky Way as vast numbers of distant

It paved the w
stars, and even realized that the earth orbits the sun.

The cat’s eye nebula The two KecK telescopes

is the remains of a in Hawaii have had
dying star. Hubble their eyes on the cosmos
has shown objects since the 1990s. They
such as this in observe visible and
amazing detail. infrared light.

56
W IT
HO
A refracting telescope (like

W
Lippershey’s and Galileo’s)

O R KS
is a tube with an objective
lens at one end. Light from
a distant object is bent as it
passes through this lens and focused into a
magnified image. An eyepiece lens at the
other end of the tube then magnifies the
image even further. Many telescopes,
including Hubble, use mirrors to help collect
light—these are called reflecting telescopes.
Eye

Objective
lens Eyepiece
lens

Space telescopes
Since Galileo, there have been many
developments in telescope technology, including
the use of mirrors in telescopes to bring distant
objects closer still. Perhaps the most exciting
Hubble u innovation is the launching of telescopes past the
precise s e s t w o blurring effects of Earth’s atmosphere and into space.
capture mirrors to The most famous is the Hubble space Telescope.
images.
Its 8 ft (2.4 m) wide main mirror has collected
precious information from space, and helped us
unlock some of the secrets of the Universe.

How
A
imp strono it c
sho ortan my’s m han
?
knowe was
w t
and n us o invent ost the ged
Did y o u p
b u
to h eyon r Sola on has
i
wo
lesco
bble te and is
The Hu ed in 1990, thanks
elp d, a
n r
the us und d cont stem
Sy rld
Uni e i
launch operation, ns by vers rstand nues
ew h
still in repair missionauts. ork ow
s.
to five alking astro
spacew

Launched in 2003, The Very large array

the Spitzer Space in New Mexico is a
teleScope detects heat radio observatory.
energy radiated by Its 27 antennaS, each
objects in space. 82 ft (25 m) across,
scan the skies for
radio waves.
57
Sharing computers

Internet In 1969, the Advanced Research

Projects Agency (ARPA) launched an
interconnected group of powerful
computers, and called it ARPANET.
The network that connected the This novel idea enabled scientists
world’s computers, starting the working anywhere in the United States
INFORMATION REVOLUTION to share these few computers without
leaving their own place of work.
Computer scientists Vint Cerf and Bob
Kahn were two of the key experts
working on the project in the 1970s.
Vint Cerf helped
develop the first
commercial e-mail
system.
Packet switching
ARPANET was a success, and it gradually spread
outward to make a network of networks: what
we now call the internet. In 1973, Cerf and
Kahn developed a language, called TCP/IP, to
help the Internet function better. It relies
on “packet switching”: instead of sending
data in one direction, through a central
system, the data was split into
chunks (or packets). Each
packet found the most efficient
way across the network to
its destination, where the
data was reassembled.

Computers connect
If one computer server to the Internet
is busy, the data chooses through an Internet
a different route.
Service Provider
hanged (ISP)’s computer.
ti c e
eans w m
ternet information n
w

e I n
Ho

T h have ips, and ca

lw ay s
a
o u r fingert mation and
a t infor ever
share nicate when
ld

commu we want.
or

w
the
Getting connected
Along with the invention of e-mail in 1972, TCP/IP
allowed the Internet to really take off. It became the
standard Internet language in 1983. Europe, via the
Netherlands, became the first territory outside the
US to connect to the Internet in 1989. By this time,
there were less than 10 million computers connected
to the Internet, but that was about to change.
58
Tim Berners-Lee
The World Wide Web (WWW) was born at the European
Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland
in 1990. Projects at CERN created huge amounts of data
that scientists around the world needed to access,
so English physicist Tim Berners-Lee proposed an
information system for CERN that used linked
documents on Web pages accessible via the Internet.

World Wide Web

The INFORMATION-SHARING system that
The browser bar
displays the website’s
unlocked the Internet for millions of people
name, and is used to
navigate the web.

Spreading the word

The world’s first website was set
my frie nd s.c
om up by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN
htt p:/ /m ea nd
Search
Edit profile
in 1990. The site showed how
Craig Parson
Studying at
s
Middle Scho
ol
Cherry Tree
From Oceansi
de,
Lives in San
California
Diego, California
Born on Aug
ust 27, 2000 people could build their own
websites, and Berners-Lee and his
Spanish Pokes
Knows English,
Edit Profile Fran Green
has poked you.
Poke back

Friends’ even
ts
See all colleagues sent out software and
Question

Share:
Status
Photo

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hanged
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access World Wideeasier free of charge. Even today, anyone can
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which ever to se tion.
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rece w available was the key to its success. By

the 1993, the World Wide Web was doubling
in size every three months—there are more
than 250 million sites on the web today.
59
At your
convenien
ce
How many times a day do you press a button or
flip a switch? With great gadgets and gizmos created
to save us time and effort, you have an instant
helping hand for almost any task. We’ve gotten
used to telling the time in a second, choosing a
spin cycle to clean clothes, or bringing a new toy to
life with a couple of batteries. Thanks to some
clever people’s light-bulb moments, these creature
comforts are now a reality, providing quick fixes
we can’t live without.
Flush The user lifts the
you might take them for granted, D-shaped handle to
open the water supply
but lifesaving toilets aren’t just and flush the pan.
a public convenience.

toilet
More than just a FLUSH in the pan
Ancient toilets
Early toilets were basically open-air holes
in the ground, such as this Roman lavatory
from the 2nd century ce. Over the centuries,
Sewage SyStemS developed for waste to
flow into and be carried away. There were
simple forms of the flush toilet in many
ancient civilizations, including China,
Egypt, Persia (modern-day
Iran), and Greece.

Royal flush
Centuries passed and chamber pots were all
the rage. A pot was placed under the bed for
regular use, with the smelly contents often
tossed out of the window! John harrington,
godson to Queen Elizabeth I of England, invented a
more advanced flushing toilet in the 1590s, which
By the wa y...
let water out of a tank and down a pipe to clean the I wrote a book fu
bowl. He installed one for the queen, who wasn’t toilet humor abou ll of
impressed, and the invention didn’t catch on. invention. My go t my
the queen, was dmother,
so up
she banished me set
d the way for... !
pave
It The first went
toilet paper
on sale in 1857, though
the earliest use was
probably in China during
the 14th century.
The first public
bathroom with flushing
toilets opened in London in
the 1850s. Today’s public toilets
are usually housed in separate
cubicles with locks.
62
Going around the bend W IT
HO
Deadly diseases, including cholera and typhoid, Like Cummings’s toilet,

W
were spread because waste wasn’t flushed away. modern versions still use

O R KS
In 1775, Scottish inventor alexander cummings a bend to trap water,
came to the rescue with his toilet. His invention was an usually in a U shape.
improvement on previous models because the pipe that There have been some
took away the waste included an s trap, a double bend improvements, but the basic flush toilet
that stopped horrible fumes from finding their way design has stayed the same, whooshing
back up the pipe. The toilet was a relief to everyone water down a pipe to carry waste away.
and his design became the prototype for future toilets.
Water from the cistern
flushes the bowl when
The average person the handle is pulled.

spends thr e toil et!

ee years on th

Flushed waste
travels along
a drain to join Bend traps water,
main sewers. which stops smells
from coming up
from the sewers.

Invented in 18
Hellyer, the 70 by Stevens
advanced toOptimus was an
an under-th ilet design, with it chang
mechanism th e-rim flushing
more effectivat was much ow
previous vers e than

ed
H

ions. Diseases cause

d
by sewage ca
n kill.
The flush toil
et has
done more to
stop
Did you kno the spread of
Before toilet pa w? diseases than
these
people used mos per, invention—sa
any other
leaves. Rich pe s or ving
millions of live
op
have used cloth,le might s.
as wool or even such
lace. th
e world

Toilets cleaned up their portable toilets,

which use
act with the arrival of chemicals to deodorize
IC disinfectants. Carbolic waste, were invented in the
CARBOL acid was in use from the 1940s for shipyard workers.

SOAP
1860s to kill germs and They are still used at
improve cleanliness. concerts and festivals.
63
Pendulu
m clock
Timekeeping in the

IME
past was often hit-or-
miss. The invention of

NT
the pendulum clock
ensured that things

O
ran like clockwork.

rld
two
he Precise pendulums
g
Ke epin Italian inventor Galileo
Galilei realized that the regular
swing of a pendulum was a good
way to measure time, but it was
Dutch mathematician CHRiSTiaan
HuYGenS who made clocks start
ticking with precision. His pendulum clock
of 1656 counted the seconds much more
accurately than previous weight-
driven clocks. It was so reliable that
Huygens fitted his clock with
a second hand as well as
minute and hour hands.
ed
Sundials usposition
the S u n ’s
Early clocks in the sky e.
to
People have always tried to tell the t im
keep track of the time. More
than 9,000 years ago, people used B
In add y the w
SundialS. In ancient Egypt and most ition to ay...
Babylon (modern-day Iraq), the world accurate inventing t
,I c he
constant drip of water was used discovbuilt a tel lock in the
e e s
to measure time. Mechanical clocks the p red the rincope and
lanet
were invented in the 1300s, driven Saturgs of
n.
by falling weights, but they did
not measure time accurately.

It paved the w
ay for...
Starting in the 1500 ,
s
pocket watches were Scottish clockmaker
carried by the wealthy, Alexander Bain
though they weren’t invented the first
very accurate at first. electric clock in 1840.

64
W IT Escapement
HO
The time a pendulum

W
takes to swing back

O R KS
and forth is always the
same, as long as the
For each swing
length of the pendulum of the pendulum,
doesn’t change and it keeps swinging. In one tooth of the
a pendulum clock, the regular swing of escapement wheel
the pendulum is captured by the is released.
escapement. The escapement is a
Weight falls
device that uses the energy of the regular under the pull
swing of the pendulum to allow the falling of gravity and
weight to move the hands on the clock makes the
escapement Pendulum
face. At the same time, the escapement wheel turn.
transfers energy from a falling weight to
the pendulum to keep it swinging.

Marine chronometer
Pendulum clocks kept time on land, but at sea Did
Ca you k
they were useless because of the repeated rocking relied ptain Jam now?
of ships on the waves. Since navigation depended chron on Harri es Cook
om so
on telling time accurately, which could mean the voyag eter durin n’s marine
difference between a successful voyage and a shipping e fro g his
to An m the Tro 1772
tarct
disaster, governments offered a fortune in prize ica. pics
money to anyone who invented an accurate clock
without a pendulum. In 1762, English carpenter
John harrison won the British government’s
prize with his Number Four marine chronometer.

ng ed t h
s
ck wa ll
s c lo Marine chrono
a
ch
ns ’ r a
Huygeemplate fo that used a balancemeters
th e t c ks and a spring in wheel
lum clo d a Pendulum

e
pendu ed. It use make of a pendulum. stead
t

clocks remained
follow weight to ing.
Ho w i

wor
the world’s most
falling endulum sw accurate clocks for
the p
300 years. Measuring
time accurately not only
meant that everyone could ld
keep time, but also gave
science an essential tool
for experiments
and research.

QuArtz crystAls, which Atomic clocks are the most

vibrate at a constant rate in precise timekeepers in the
an electrical circuit, were world. The first accurate
first used in clocks in 1927. one was made in 1955 by
English physicist Louis Essen.
65
Light bulb
The invention that LIT UP the world
From the beginning of the
dimly lit 1800s, inventors groped around
for ways to turn electricity into light.

n’s
Joseph Swa teshead,
hou s e in G a
s the
d England, wa lit
Davy’s lamp was designe b e
first to ulb.
to help min er s, as an
by a light b
alternative to fire, which
could cause accidents.

ting
Longer-las nts
la m e
tungsten fi vented
were in
in 1910.

Switching on
The first electric light was switched on
by Humphry Davy when he connected
two charcoal rods to a battery in 1809. Davy’s
light was bright, but it didn’t last long. It ?
u know
showed that some materials glow when Did yo buildings with
electricity passes through them, but the The firstght had warning
li
lights often caught fire. Fellow Englishman electric in them advising
e s he
Joseph Swan experimented with removing notic
p le n ot to light t .
peo h
h a matc
the AiR from the bulb in the 1870s bulbs wit
to stop this, but ran into other problems.

d t h e w ay for...
It pave
The first car Neon lights, which
headlights used oil, contain the gas
but much safer neon, were invented
electric ones were by Frenchman
invented in 1898. georges claude
in 1910.
66
Edison’s light-bulb moment W IT
HO
Meanwhile, in the United States, A light bulb’s

W
Thomas Edison was experimenting filament is

O R KS
with light bulbs too. He realized made out of
.. material that
t h e way. that the filament—the part
does not
By d out that gets hot and glows—was
I carrieriments with d the key to long-lasting light. conduct electricity very well. This
expe to fin
4,700nt materials ent, By 1880, his charred bamboo resistance to the current makes
differe perfect filamrom filaments were burning for the filament heat up and radiate
the ing hair f light. The bulb is filled with
includ beard. more than 1,200 hours. After
a falling out over who invented nonreactive gases so that the
what, edison and Swan hot filament does not catch fire.
joined forces. Soon, Airtight
they were bringing glass casing Filament
light to everybody. glows white-
hot when
current
passes
Electricity through it.
id,
Thomas Edison sa tricty flows through
“We wi ll ma ke el ec
ly the the wire and
so cheap that on les.” into the
rich will burn ca nd
filament.

Plugging in
power plantS were set up
so electricity could reach
everybody with Edison’s bulbs.
w it change
The world’s first electric
company started out with Ho d
Light bulbs meant safe, bright
52 customers in 1882. Before
lighting at the flip of a switch.
long, people were finding their
Only now, after more than a hundred
way home in the dark by the years, is the basic design being
glow of electric streetlights, improved to make it more efficient.
and flipping switches for
lights in their homes. This the world
advertisement for Edison’s
bulbs dates from 1909.

Flashbulbs The first practical

were invented in light-emitting diode
1929, replacing (LED) was developed
dangerous and in 1962. They can be
noisy Flash powder. used as a replacement
for light bulbs.

67
Home help
Not so lon
ga
were time-c go, cleaning and coo
onsuming, king
ers
These clev boring job
er s.
around the devices lend a hand
h
our time in ome so we can spen
more inter d
esting way
s.

The APPLI
ANCE of science
Washing machine
Imagine having to wash and dry your clothes By HaNd.
The first domestic washing machines removed some of
the strain but were hand-powered, while enormous,
clanking, steam-powered washing machines operated in
businesses. Finally, electric washing machines were
invented in the early 20th century—one of the first was
invented by American Alva Fisher in 1908. This Canadian
version dates from around 1920.

Vacuum cleaner
Starting in 1901, British engineer Hubert Cecil
Booth offered vacuum cleaning to rich
Londoners with his huge Horse-drawN,
gasoline-driven machine, from which a long
hose would snake into the house through a
window. James Spangler, a janitor in a US
department store, invented a much smaller
electric vacuum cleaner in 1907. He started a
business that later became the Hoover Company.

Can opener
After canned food was invented in 1812,
there was a long wait to open it safely. Canned army
rations had instructions to use a Hammer aNd CHisel.
People bashed and gouged away until 1870, when
American inventor William Lyman patented a can
opener with a cutting wheel. In the 1920s, safer rotary
can openers were invented, based on Lyman’s design.
68
ac In t
he 19

v
uum 00s, wealthy E
clean nglish
er parties to impress ladie
their st
frie h
nds rew
.
This dishwasher from 1921
connected to a hot faucet
via a hose attachment.

Dishwasher
By the 1800s, American women
were fed up with doing the dishes.
More than 30 of them came up with
machines to take on the dull task, but
the first successful one was invented
in 1886 by socialite Josephine
Cochran, who wanted to find a way to
stop her china from being chipped by
heavy-handed servants. Her machines
were hand-powered for use at home,
but bigger steam-powered ones were
installed in hotels and restaurants.

Microwave oven
These handy food heaters were invented
during World War II, after American radar
scientist percy LeBaron Spencer noticed
that the microwave-producing radar set he
was using had melted his chocolate bar.
He realized the machine’s potential for
Cooking food, and the first commercial
microwave ovens went on sale in 1947.

This Philips microwave oven

dates from the 1960s.
Bo

th
’s
o

f r st il l y.”
vacu fn g B
u m cleaner d “ P u f
was nickname 69
Refrigerator In early refrigerators,
the compressor unit was
located on top. Now, it
is hidden inside.

From hauling chunks of ice down

mountains to opening a refrigerator door,
chilling out has become a lot easier.

The COOLEST invention m all

of th e
The big freeze
Before refrigerators, people kept food
from spoiling by storing it in cool,
dark places or in a hole packed
with ice or snow brought from
the nearest mountain or frozen lake.
Later on, rich families had specially
built icehouses, with ice often
imported in blocks from overseas.
The trade in ice continued into the
1950s—this iceman is supplying
ice to businesses from his truck.

First fridges
In 1748, Scottish physician William
Cullen discovered that evaporating ether
know?
Did youerican doctor could create freezing temperatures
In 1841, Am rie invented because evaporating liquids absorb heat.
John Gor tor to cool The first chilling machine, invented by
a refrigerants. It was the American engineer Jacob Perkins
tie
feverish paerunner of in 1834, used this principle. Soon,
for
ioning.
air-condit industrial reFrigerators were Several shelves
cooling beer and meat. Domestic models stored food, and
there was a small
became available in the 20th century. compartment for ice.
a ve d t h e w ay f
It p or...
Cooling units for First introduced into
refrigerated trucks were stores in the 1870s,
introduced in the 1930s, refrigerated display cases
making perishable goods kept food fresh longer.
much easier to transport.
70
Fatal fridges
Until 1929, refrigerators were
deadly—they used poisonous gases
General Electric first as coolants and were responsible for
made and sold this several deaths. As a result, a safer
affordable steel fridge in chlorofluorocarbon (cfc)
1927, finally making the called freon was used to cool
refrigerator a common
household appliance. refrigerators. It was not harmful to
human health, but later scientists
realized that CFCs were destroying
the Earth’s ozone layer. Modern
fridges use a less harmful coolant
to reduce the environmental impact.
They can also be recycled safely.

W IT Condensor
HO
A refrigerator works by Expansion
W valve coil
O R KS changing a substance
called a coolant from
a liquid to a gas and
back again. The liquid
passes through an expansion valve, which
turns it into a cold gas. The gas absorbs
heat from the refrigerator’s contents,
keeping them cool. The gas is compressed
into a liquid as it leaves the refrigerator,
which heats it up. The liquid loses heat to
the room before passing through the
expansion valve again. Evaporator
Compressor coil

Did you ow it chang

German ph know?
ys
H Chilline d
Einstein in icist Albert food fres g food keeps
refrigerat vented a h and sa
o r in periods fe for lon
with his fo part ger
rmer stud nership o
changed f time. This has
Szilard an ent custome
d patente Leo habits—
people n
r shoppin
g
it in 1930 d o lon
to go sh
. opping e ger have
saving ti very day
me and ,
effort.
the world

American Clarence Birdseye The first large-scale air-

invented a method of flash conditioning unit was invented in
freezing food in 1929. Not 1902 by American inventor
long afterward, domestic Willis haviland carrier. It used the
freezers became popular. same principle as the refrigerator.
71
Plastic ugh a
Try getting thro
ching
day without tou By th
m e th in g m a d e of plastic. In additione way...
so
nd can be also paten to Bakelite, I
This flexible frie other inve ted about 50
ape, and
molded into sh types of ntions, including
It is used elec
then sets solid. synthetic tric insulation,
f the things photograp resin, and
to make many o hic paper.
.
we use every day
The

MOLDABLE MATERIAL that shaped the world

Leo Baekeland
received the US
patent for his
invention in 1909.

Bakelite was heatproof

and did not conduct electricity.
Fantastic plastic
People have used natural materials, such as rubber
and tortoiseshell, for thousands of years, shaping them
into hard-wearing objects. In 1905, Belgian-born chemist
Leo BaekeLand mixed phenol (a disinfectant) with
formaldehyde (a preservative) and came up with
Bakelite, the first completely human-made plastic.
This versatile material can be molded into shape, but
sets hard and doesn’t melt easily. It was used to make
music records, furniture, jewelry, and this radio cover.

It couldn’t have happ

ened w
ithout...
Around 1600 bCe, people in American Charles
Mesoamerica played games Goodyear invented
with rubber balls made from vulcanization in 1839,
latex—a natural plastic which made rubber stretchy
found in rubber trees. but also able to bounCe
baCk into shape.

72
Plenty of plastic W IT
HO
Bakelite proved so handy that chemists Plastics are polymers—

W
rushed to make new and even more useful materials made of

O R KS
plastics. In the 1930s, American chemist molecules that consist
Wallace carothers produced the of thousands or millions
first completely human-made fiber, of atoms. Polymers are
nylon. In the same decade, newly made by joining together small molecules
invented Perspex was taking the place (monomers) in a repeating structure that
of glass and polythene began to be forms very long chains. Many different
used in packaging. Soon, plastics were molecules can be used, and they can be
finding more and more uses. combined in a variety of different ways—this
is why there are so many types of plastic.
Nylon stockings Ethene molecule
became a popular (monomer)
replacement for silk
during the 1940s.
Several ethene
molecules join
together to form
polythene (a common
type of plastic).

Going green
Today, plastic is everywhere—from
the packaging of your food to the
rubber duck in your bathtub.
Most plastics are produced from
oil, a limited resource, and can

ld
takes centuries to decompose

d the w or
once discarded. bioplastics
made from organic material e
are now being developed as
a green alternative
ng
ha

ch
e Pla
to oil-based plastics. an ap, t stic i
it c

d d ou sl
ab oesn gh, d ightw
pa solut ’t rot ifficu eigh
c e
How

. t
comkagin ly ev No wlt to ,
B p g e r o b r
gar ut b uter , toys ywhe nder eak,
ba eca s, a , fu re: it
tha ge b use nd c rnit in ’s
t w ns i i t lo u re
yea ill ta are does thing ,
rs k f n .
to e hu ull of ’t rot
bre nd ,
ak red plast
do s o ic
wn f
English inventor .
AlexAnder PArkes made a
semisynthetic plastic called
PArkesine in 1856, used to
make a variety of
domestic objects.
73
Battery experiment,
In Galvani’s s the equivalent
the frog wa -soaked
of the brine a’s pile.
Today, batteries are paper in Volt
ug
useful if you can’t pl
t,
a device into an outle
first
The

but when they were

the only
invented, they were
nerating
inve

things capable of ge
an electric current.
ntio

that
n

ELECTRIFIE
D the planet
Electrical storm
Electricity is as old as lightning. In 1752,
American scientist benjamin franklin flew
a kite with a metal key in a storm and realized
that the sparks coming from the metal proved
that lightning is a form of electricity. This static
(“at rest”) electricity was first discovered in
ancient Greece by a mathematician named
Thales who produced a static electric charge
by polishing amber with animal fur.

Frog findings
Even though people knew about Did y
electricity, they did not yet know how French e ou know?
mp
to produce an electric current—a flow was so imeror Napoleon I
Alessand pressed with
of electric charge. In 1780, Italian doctor ro
of the vo Volta’s invention
luigi galvani noticed that the muscles lt
he made aic pile that
in the legs of dead frogs twitched when him a cou
nt.
they made contact with two different
metals. He thought this was caused by
“animal electricity” in the frog itself.
But fellow scientist alessandro volTa
realized that the electricity wasn’t due to
the dead frog, but to the different metals.

a y for...
e d t he w
It pav Understanding electric current
led to the we have
electricity supply
come to rely on today. The first
public electricity lit the streets of
Godalming, England, in 1881.
74
Voltaic pile
Volta had discovered that two different metals
submerged in acid could generate a tiny
electric current between them. In 1800, he
created his voltaic pile—the world’s first
battery. It was made from layers of copper,
cardboard soaked in saltwater, and zinc—
each group of three makes a “cell,” and the
more cells, the greater the electric
current produced. The current is
generated by a chemical
reaction that moves
electrons from one
metal to the other. Charging ahead
The voltaic pile was groundbreaking,
but it leaked and didn’t last long. The
w a y...
By theme years of e I first rechargeable battery was
Zinc disk o k
It to ntation be ctical f o r the lead-acid battery invented in
im e p r a 1859 by French physicist Gaston
Saltwater- exper d the first ting
o v e r e n e r a Planté. The basic principle of
soaked disc thod of ge nit “volt”
me e u this version remained unchanged
cardboard ity. Th me.
Copper electricnamed after into the 21st century. The first dry
is
disk battery (using paste instead of liquid)
was the zinc-carbon one created by
German scientist carl gassner in
1886, which led to the convenient
batteries we put into flashlights today.

How it changed
the world
The battery was the first
means of generating an
electric current and the first
easily portable energy source.
Without it, there would be no
phones, radio, or battery-
iscovered operated devices.
Volta also d while poking
s
methane ga marsh, and
around in a exploding pistol
invented an to figure out
that he usedcontent of air.
the oxygen

The electric flashlight first Tablet computers,

came into use in 1899. cell phones, and other
Like today’s flashlights, it mobile devices in everyday
used a dry-cell battery. use all depend on a battery
as a power source.
75
Hook and eye
People have been hooking up their clothes
for hundreds of years. In the 1300s, hook-and-
eye fasteners were known as “crochet and
loop” (crochet is French for “hook”), and
the simple yet effective design hasn’t
changed much since. Hook-and-eye
fasteners lent their support to the world’s
first brassieres, or bras, which were invented
in the 1400s. Most of today’s bras still use them.

Safety pin
Brooches were used to fasten clothes more than a
thousand years before the invention of the safety
pin in 1849. American inventor Walter Hunt’s
design improved on the brooch: It was made from
a single piece of wire for easy manufacture, it used
a coil in the wire rather than a hinge, and the clasp
fastened the pin and shielded the user’s fingers at
the same time. It was simplE, yEt Brilliant.
The zipper
is the

i n g i t
Keep together
world
’s mo

rt
wo u l d fall apa ll
ing sma
Everyth help of these
st w

the s.
without seful invention D ROBE
AR
ide

but u
f yo ur W
o
ly u

T he
most important part
se
d

as
f

te
ne r A zipper’s teeth
are brought together
. and locked into
place by the slider.
76
Snaps
If you were an actor with a quick change
between scenes in the 1800s, you might use
some of these newly invented fasteners,
which made whipping costumes on and off
easy. German Heribert Bauer’s 1885 snaps
were improved by American Jack Weil
during the 1900s, who added them to denim
shirts in place of buttons—giving the
finishing touch to the cowboy look.

Zipper
American Whitcomb Judson wanted to get his
boots on and off quicker, so in 1893 he
invented a fastener that hooked them up with
one pull, using a sliding device on a row of
clasps. Judson’s fastener tended to come
undone, but Gideon Sundback developed
a version that used metal teeth on flexible
tape. It was used as the fastener for a boot
called the Zipper, and the name stuck.

Velcro
George de Mestral got the idea for Velcro when
he saw burdock burrs sticking to his dog’s coat.

ks and eyes.
When he looked at them through a microscope,
he saw that the burrs were covered in tiny
hooks that attached to loops in the dog’s fur.
He developed Velcro so that one side was
covered in tiny hooks, and the other in tiny
loops. The name comes from the French
velours croché, or “hooked velvet.”
ho o
pic

c o
r o s
e mic
wor ks lik
Vel cr o

77
y
pla
a n d
or k
W
Time is money in our busy world, so great
inventions that reduce workloads and
improve productivity are always welcome.
From robots to bar codes, inspiring ideas
have revolutionized the business world,
raking in megabucks. That’s all in a day’s
work, but what about letting off some steam
afterward? Brilliant breakthroughs in the
entertainment and leisure industries have
stolen the limelight, allowing us to kick back
and enjoy our free time.
Money
Although it’s only made of cheap metals
Loose change
or paper, money makes it easier to Before money, people would
BUY the things you need. swap or barter for the things
they needed. Over time, useful
or beautiful things, such as shells,
feathers, and even dried tea, were
used instead of bartering. Around
650 bce, the kingdom of Lydia
(modern-day western Turkey)
began to stamp gold and silver
metal disks called staters (above).
Taking notes They were the first coins.
Paper money took shape in
China by the 1100s, as a way
of avoiding the weighty coinage
necessary to complete large
transactions. Although news
of printed money filtered
into Europe, it was another
500 years before
Sweden issued
the continent’s first
banknotes in 1661.

hanged The chip stores

ti c med
information about
t r ansfor the account.
w

h a s oa
Money e world int ade up
Ho

th my m ,
econo encies
global ferent curr rything
of dif almost eve
ld

giving a price.
or

w Cash to credit
the These days, most people spend
their money without using coins or
banknotes at all. debit cardS enable you to
access the money in your bank account at any time.
Banks also issue credit cards, allowing consumers to
buy items immediately and pay back the debts over time.
80
Sand solution
When American student Joseph Woodland was researching a
technology that could identify food products in 1948, he found
the solution on a beach. As he drew lines in the sand with his
fingers, he imagined a code of bars and spaces. This resulted
in the Universal Product Code (UPC), or bar code system, which
was first adopted in 1974 and continues to be used today.

Bar code
It revolutionized retail and is the
best system for RECOGNIZING
Black and white bars of objects, bar none.
different widths represent
numbers from 1 to 9.

Product code
(last six digits)
is unique to the
item being sold.

A laser scans
the bars for a
computer to read.
The six-digit
manufacturing
code identifies
the maker of
the product.
Guard bars are
longer and separate
the two codes.

hanged
ti c Code conversion
ed upe Bar codes are basically identity tags. At
des sp t wait
w

Bar coions and cu allow

Ho

first glance, they are a series of vertical

ct lso
transa, but they a ck what bars of different widths on a product’s
times liers to tra ying. packaging. When read by a laser
supp ple are bu
ld

peo scanner, the item is quickly identified,

or

w along with information about it, such as

the price and stock information. About five
billion bar codes are scanned every day.
81
U L TURE
w R IC tool

lo
G
O F A op c r o p Did you
Camels and know?

P s ICON ill a t armers

t
Thi is s for
f
been used llamas have
in regions to pull plows
w
were too f here there
ew ho
and oxen. rses
The plow is a farming tool used to
prepare the earth for the seed-sowing
season. Plowing has saved farmers
time and toil in the fields, and
The handle is
transformed food production. held and steered
by the farmer.

Cast-iron progress
During the 1800s, the
design of the plow improved
when the wooden point was
flattened into a blade of iron.
Called a share, this blade sliced into
Ancient ards the ground, loosening and turning the
Plowing has been an integral part
soil. The result was a neat strip of soil,
of the farming calendar since ancient
or furrow, running through the land.
times. Turning the earth in the fall prepares
The plow set the stage for the agricultural
the ground for seed sowing in the spring.
revolution, reducing the effort required to
Around 5000 bce, early civilizations broke
produce large quantities of crops. Metal
the ground with an antler or branch to
blades are still used to cut furrows today.
cultivate crops. This developed into a
pointed wooden plow called an ard.
y...
The ancient Egyptians attached the ard By the wpalows
to a beam harnessed to two oxen and Medieval
vy that
got to work plowing the Nile valley. were so hea common Share blade
it was not unn to pull and loosens cuts
soil.
for eight oxe chine.
a single ma
It paved the way for...
In 1700, Englishman Jethro A horse-drawn reaper
tull invented the seed drill. was patented in 1834.
This device dropped seeds Cyrus MCCorMiCk’s
down a chute into a mechanism made
furrow in organized cutting and gathering
rows called drills. crops less strenuous.

82
h an ged t h e
it c wo
ow r

ld
H
The plow was a huge
boost to farming communities,
enabling agricultural production
on a grand scale. Vast areas
of land could be farmed
by fewer people,
resulting in much
larger harvests.
Steam-powered plows
By the 1860s, the invention of the steam engine made
animals the second choice for pulling plows. English
engineer John Fowler devised the double-engine
system, in which steam engines on both sides of a field
pulled “anti-balance” plows on a steel rope. These tipped
at each end so the land could be plowed back and forth,
producing six Furrows at a time. Fowler’s plows
were exported to Europe and Africa, but the expense
meant that only large farms used them.

Beam is a
an animal ttached to
or vehicle
.

soil makes
Turning the ile, and
it more fertds so they
buries wee down.
can break

Today, tractors pull The benefits of plowing

large metal plows. led to crop rotation,
Although this heavy-duty ensuring fertile soil and
machinery does the hard bountiful harvests. Rapid
work, the basic principle food production led to
remains the same. industrial-scale farming.

83
Crane The pulley
(a rope wrapped
Heavy loads are given a LIFT by around a wheel
with a groove
an invention that’s happy to do in it) is the key
to a crane’s
all the hard work lifting power.
A

Early cranes
Invented in ancient Greece around 515 bce,
the crane was adopted and developed further
by the Romans. Early Roman cranes used
treadmills powered by slaves. These machines
Rope loops over
made it easier to handle and lift building the top pulley,
materials and other heavy items. so the rope is pulled
down but the load
Slaves walking is lifted vertically.
inside the
treadmill turn
the wheel, which
pulls on the
rope to lift
the load.
A

Two pulleys B
connected by
a rope are B
known as a
compound
pulley.

A compound pulley
shares the weight
of the load between
two pulleys, so
less lifting force
is required.
changed
it ve tak
en Modern cranes
s ha ers’
w

Crane ht off work eavy Today’s cranes are crafted

Ho

ig h
the we rs, carrying g to from steel and powered
e in
should ds and help ings that by engines or electric
loa uild
t tall by skylines.
ld

s tr uc motors. Tower cranes are used by

con efine cit
or

red construction workers to lift the heavy

w
the loads involved in erecting tall buildings.
Other cranes move containers on board
84 ships or carry objects around factories.
Explosive mix
Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero discovered liquid
nitroglycerin in 1847, but this explosive was
so dangerous that even a knock could set it off.
The hazardous nature of nitroglycerin made it
impossible to use. Explosives needed to become
more stable if they were ever to be beneficial.

Dynamite
hanged
A truly explosive invention originally
ti c d intended to put safety first
a n sforme try,
w

ite t r du s
Dynamstruction in railroads
Ho

n r
the co the way fod blasting
g n
clearin highways a ugh rock.
r ld

d
an nels th r o
tun wo
the

3. BANG! The shock

from the exploding
M !
O
blasting cap makes the
dynamite itself explode.

O
Off with a bang!
After studying chemical
engineering, Swedish
B

scientist Alfred Nobel

was determined to make more
stable explosives. He found
that mixing nitroglycerin
with kieselguhr
2. The blasting cap, (a chalky sand) resulted in a safe
a small explosive explosive that could be dropped without
device attached to
the dynamite, is set exploding and yet detonated on demand
off by the current. with a blasting cap. He called his
invention “dynamite.”

Promise of peace
Nobel believed dynamite would
aid the construction of roads,
tunnels, and mines. However, to
his disappointment, dynamite also
became a weapon of war, so
1. When the plunger is Nobel left his fortune to establish
pushed into the blasting the nobel Prize. Since 1901, this
box, an electric current annual set of awards recognizes the
travels down the wire work that most helps humankind.
to the blasting cap.
85
Portland cement
Early civilizations relied on natural
minerals to bond building materials
together. By the 19th century, factories
made basic cement from local limestone
and clay. In 1824, British bricklayer
JosepH aspdin ground cooked
limestone and clay into powder and
added water. He named the strong
concrete “Portland cement” after quality
Portland stone. affordaBle and
Hard-wearing, cement is used to lay
bricks, plaster walls, and construct roads.

Steel
Steel is an alloy (mixture) of iron and other
substances. It has been used for thousands
of years, but it really took off in 1858 when
Englishman Henry Bessemer invented a
process to produce large amounts of it
very cheaply. In 1913, English laboratory
researcher Harry Brearley was in pursuit
Strong steel girders of a long-lasting steel for gun barrels,
are used in construction when he discovered a type that resisted
to form the supporting
structures of buildings. damage from acids. Today, his stainless
steel is everywhere, from items such as

orld
saucepans and sinks to tiny nuts and bolts

l w
holding household goods together.

ia Did
The anc you know?
volcano ient Romans u
r
Mate

a s
g concret sh to make theed
a ve b e e n craftin , 1.3 billio e. Today, abou ir
people h ce ancient times is produn tons of ceme t
n
materials
ced eve
objects s
in
u s ry year.t
ma r ve l o
but these ormed the
sf
have tran .
ive
way we l

Th
e ma
terials th
86
at BUILT the modern world
teel is o
ss

fte
Stainles
Glass

nu
Heating the mineral sodium

sed for
carbonate and sand produces glass,
but it is unclear who discovered the
process. The Egyptians were glazing
jewelry beads in 2500 bce, while the

han
ancient Romans were the first to use
transparent glass. Around 1000 ce, the

dt
glass industry took off in Europe, with

ool
the venetianS of italy producing

s.
the finest glass for centuries afterward. By
the 17th century, most Europeans had
glass windowpanes at home. Eyeglasses,
Did
mirrors, and light bulbs are among the The win you know
many inventions that make use of glass. vehicles dows of prote ?
military , such as tankscted
a
thick lay ircraft, have and
s
they co ers of glass th uch
uld stop a
a bullet. t

Kevlar
This synthetic fiber is a relatively young
invention in the material world. Created by
American chemist Stephanie KwoleK
and patented in 1966, Kevlar is five times
stronger than steel. In addition to its super
strength, it is lightweight and does not rust.
This makes the tightly woven fibers ideal for
the bulletproof veStS worn by police
Kev officers. When it’s not saving lives, Kevlar
lar is used to make parachutes, skis, cell
make phones, construction clothing, bicycle
s these tires, and underwater cables.
work
gl ove of
.

o
sc ut-pr
Titanium
In 1791, English clergyman william Gregor
discovered titanium in its mineral form, but it
wasn’t until 1932 that Luxembourg metal expert
William Kroll produced the metallic
titanium used today. Removing impurities
results in a material as strong as steel but half
as heavy. Named after the Titans of Greek
mythology, titanium is used in aircraft, spacecraft,
boats, bicycles, and machine parts like these cogs.
87
Robot
By the way...
I can respond to people’s
moods with voice, touch,
or expression. When I get
as
once, they existed only bored, I look for toys to
keep me entertained.
y’s
science fiction, but toda
e workers
robots are indispensibl
world.
in factories across the

The WIRED-UP WORKER who

never gets sick or tired

Unimate
The first real robot, called
Unimate, was a computerized
robotic arm with a gripper attached.
In 1961, American car manufacturer
General Motors became the
first company to use a Unimate robot
in its production process. Unimate
welded parts, poured liquid metal,
and stacked metal sheets.

Hard at work
Unimate led the way for robotic employees,
with more than one million robots at work
in factories today. In the car industry, robots
are now in the driver’s seat, making up
1 in every 10 car-production workers.
Their robotic arms have been developed so
that a variety of tools can be attached, such
as hooks, grippers, or welding equipment.

It paved the way for...

Surgical robotS with Help in the home
arms and viewers called could soon come from
endoscopes allow robot houSekeeperS. PaPePo
surgeons to perform robots aSSiSt with choreS,
operations with far control household devices,
greater preciSion than and monitor e-mails.
they could by hand.

88
Ideal applicants
For an employer, a robot is the perfect employee. It
works fast and performs repetitive tasks but
never tires or makes mistakes. Dangerous tasks
such as clearing land mines or putting out fires
are no problem for a robot without feeling.
Put in a dark, hot, or unpleasant
place, robots work without
complaint or payment.

How i
t cha
t nged
Artificial intelligence To da
h e world
te, ro
Robots do not have the main ly bots hav
natural intelligence of people. Jobs dirty as cheap l e been us
wo abo ed
requiring decision-making are better avoid rk that pe r, doing t
.
increa This has o ple w he
suited to humans. Developing artificial s c u a n t t o
advan ed produ t co
intelligence is the focus for robotic ces in ction. sts and
who
engineers today. Some robots already know artificial in But with
recognize faces, play instruments, and inven s what th telligence
tion w is inc ,
r
detect smells. This robot, called of in ill be cap edible
the fu able
kismet, was developed by American ture?
researcher Cynthia Breazeal in the
1990s to show how humans and
robots can interact.

For those who want a Busy hospitals and nursing

pretrained animal homes may soon use robot
friend, robot pets could nurses to assist with care.
be the answer. Robot Lifting and carrying patients
dogs and cats move like is one task that robots
real animals, but they carry out with ease.
also sing and dance!

89
Des k b u d d i e s
a c e -s a v in g sc ribblers, handy
Sp rs
ve s, a n d in n ovative organize
adhesi uddies in scho
ols
g re a t d e sk b
make nd the world.
d o ffi c e s a ro u
an
IZED
RGAN
The essenti O
als for keeping you
Lead pencil
Although the Babylonians and Egyptians
were inscribing stones and tablets thousands
of years ago, it was not until the late
18th century that lead pencils first made
their mark. The forerunner to the lead pencil
that we use today was invented in France
and Austria during the 1790s. Erasers
were added to the end of pencils in the
1850s. Today, more than 14 Billion
pencils are manufactured annually.

Ballpoint pen
Early ink pens proved problematic
because often the ink inside either
dried up or leaked. In the 1880s,
American John J. Loud developed
an early version of the ballpoint
pen, which was later improved by
Hungarian journalist láSzló Bíró in
the 1940s. A tiny, rotating metal ball added
to a tube of ink controlled the flow and
prevented drying. More than 100 billion
ballpoint pens have been sold since.

Before the rubber

bread was eraser was invented,
used
to remove pencil marks.

90
Post-it n
Created
by
ote
the Pos American comp
t-i an
attach no t note allows y 3M,
tes to m you to
leaving a ost surfa
m ces with
used rep ark. The same out
eatedly note can
the glue since on be
bu ly s
pop each bbles on the ad ome of
t hesive st
sale in th ime. The Post-it rip
e w e
before g United States in nt on
oing glo 1980
bal.

world’s largest pap (9 m) in height.

The er clip stood 30 ft

Pocket calculator
The early equivalent of the calculator
was a counting device called an abacus.
Mechanical calculators developed over
time, but something didn’t add up:
They were slow, bulky machines,
operated by hand cranks. American
company Texas Instruments developed
the first handheld calculator in 1967.
By the 1970s, calculators were pocket-
sized—great gadgets for
number-crunching students
and office workers.

r, more than six

a
ye mil
ry

lion
Eve

Sticky tape
rolls

Another employee of 3M, Richard Drew,

developed sticky tape in 1930 after
of sticky

researching adhesives and the material

cellophane. The transparent tape coincided
with a huge economic downturn
in the United States. Consumers welcomed
as.

a product that fixed their household

t
m

goods when new ones

t

pe
ris

ar h were unaffordable.
es C
old ju before
st
91
Back to basics
In the late 1800s, miners, farmers, and
factory workers in the United States
found that their demanding jobs

tough blue pants.

required resilient clothing.
American tailor Jacob Davis
strengthened cotton trousers
with metal rivets, while
German business partner
Levi StrauSS publicized
the new “jeans.” On May 20,
1873, the duo received the
patent and this date is

after sailors from Genoa, Italy, who wore

considered the birthday of jeans.

Style secrets
The tough new workwear was made
from a fabric called denim, said to have chang
it
originated in the port of Nîmes, France.
ow ed
A woven mix of blue and white cotton Jean

H
threads, it is the distinctive weave of the an endurins have become
gf
material that makes it so strong. The dark they are ashion fixture—
of clothin the one item
indigo dye was perfect for clothes g
goes out that never
that were not washed very often. of style.
t h e w or l

d
Blue jeans
From humble roots to GLOBAL
STYLE ICON, how denim jeans

e named
took over the world’s wardrobe
Jeans ar

Forever in blue jeans

The first jeans were so loose that they needed
suspenders to hold them up. By the mid-20th century,
dressing down in denim proved a hit with the
younger generation thanks to the cowboys of
Western movies and pop stars such as eLviS
PreSLey who wore tighter, trendier versions. Today,
jeans come in many different cuts and colors.
92
Selling soles

Sports
Sports shoes were up and
running by the mid-19th

shoes
century, after American
Charles Goodyear invented
vulcanized rubber.
Billed as a flexible
alternative to leather, New shoes for athletes and sports
the rubber-soled enthusiasts FIND THEIR FEET in
sports shoe was
adopted by the US Rubber Company in
the mass market
1892, which established the Keds business
in 1917 to make and market the shoes.
, 350 million pairs ar
In the US e sol
High tops da
protect
the ankle.
yea
r.

Groundbreaking design
Soon, many companies were producing
shoes that combined comfort and style.
Lightweight canvas uppers allowed
air to circulate, while laces were
loosened or tightened as required.
The shoes were nicknamed
hanged
“sneakers” because their
ti c vulcanized rubber soles let
shoes d the wearer sneak around
r-sole tes to go ve
w

b b e
Ho

R u
d athle and ha without being heard.
allowe nd faster, choice
ra st-
farthe ome the fir r millions.
r ld

bec wear fo
foot wo
the
Thick rubber
soles cushion
the foot.

Laces are fed through

metal eyelets (holes).

Staying ahead of the game

In the 1930s, shoe companies began tailoring their products
to sports. Studs were screwed into soccer shoes for better
support, clips were added to cycling shoes to prevent
slippage, and spikes on sprinting shoes improved grip.
Today’s high-tech sneakers include automatically
adjusting cushioning systems that adapt to the individual
wearer and specific surface to ensure peak performance.
93
ic a l t s
u s e n
M strunm have brought
n ts
i ovative to the ea
rum en
i s t
r s of the masses

Inn U SIC
M ex i sted sinc
e
sh ave
i c a l i n s trument a terials a
nd
mus times . A s m
i ve versio
ns
h i s t o r i c p r i m i t
pre d, els
i g n s h a ve evolve while new mod
des d,
e b e e n fine-tune usicians and
hav o rd with
m
k e a c h
stri
s alike.
audience
Keyboard
AS

For centuries, keyboards were used to

tradivarius viiol

play organ pipes. But in the 15th century,

they began to be used to play strings, and
the hArpsichord was born. Pressing a key
plucked a string, with each string playing a
note. The piano arrived in the 18th century,
e, painted
with its sophisticated keyboard of white This ornatd was made
And blAck keys. Pianos use hammers harpsichor in 1643.
to strike the strings, so the notes can be in Antwerp
in

played loudly or quietly depending

sol

on how hard the key is pressed.

in
d

2011
for a massive $15.9 million.

Violin
The smallest, highest-pitched member
of the string family is the violin.
Developed in the 16th century, the
invention is usually attributed to Italian
AndreA AmAti, who made an early
version to entertain King Charles IX of
France. The instrument was enhanced over the
following two centuries into the wooden wonder we
know today. This example was made by famous Italian
violin-maker Antonio Stradivari in 1709.
94
Flute
Woodwind instruments consist of a hollow tube attached to

Th
a mouthpiece. When blown, air inside vibrates to produce

is
sound. The flute is a popular example. Early flutes were

C
simple and wooden, but developed into metal models with

hin
complex keys. German inventor Theobald Boehm hit

e se
the right note in the 19th century with his system of
pads over holes, operated by keys or fingers.

dra
gon
fut
e is
u s ed
Trumpet
This instrument has blown

in religious ceremonies
audiences away since ancient
times. People in China signaled
with trumpets as long ago as 1500 bce,
while Egyptian King Tutankhamun’s
tomb contained trumpets similar to the
ones shown on the right. Now made from
brass, the trumpet is famous for its strong
sound. In the 1820s, German instrument-makers
Stölzel and Blühmel created trumpets with
valves to produce more notes.

.
Drum
While many percussion instruments
require precise force to make the
perfect sound, the drum marches to its
own beat. Drums have been discovered in
ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq)
that date back 5,000 years. From tribal
rituals and military conflicts to medieval
dances and rock concerts, this instrument
has always drummed up enthusiasm. This
drum was used by a confederate soldier
during the Civil War (1861–1865).

95
Video games
The development of electronic games
to play at home has brought FUN AND
GAMES to players all over the world.

Past play
Coin-operated arcade games
in public places were popular in Game on
the 1970s. Then, in 1975, Atari The 1990s saw computer giants
launched a home version of the including Nintendo, sega, and
bat-and-ball arcade game Pong, sony competing for dominance
and the video game revolution in the video-game console
was born. Companies released market. Their portable, handheld
new console formats and games devices and improved graphics
to the growing market. By 1980, allowed youNg eNthusiasts
Pac-man made the leap to to play while on the move,
homes, becoming one of the with action and sports games
most PoPular games ever. dominating the field. Nintendo’s
hanged
Game Boy was first choice for a
it c cts
generation of players, selling
have pecial effe
games nation Realistic s nd sound are more than 118 million units.
w

Video public imagi ss— and surroues of today’s

Ho

the usine featur

caught ecome big bng market video game
s.
and b global gami 6 billion
the worth $6
ld

was in 2013.
or

w
the

Ahead of the game

Instead of using joysticks
and keypads, today’s
games are played on home
computers, advanced consoles,
cell phones, or tablets. Online
role-playing games give players
the chance to inhabit
incredible three-dimensional
lands where they create their
own characters, called
avatars, and iNteract
with other players. Vibrant, det
graphics enhaailed
playing expe nce the
96 rience.
Music on the move
Lightweight The personal stereo was the brainchild of
s with no
headphone speaker Masaru Ibuka, chairman of the Japanese
external rivate electronics company Sony, who wanted to
p
provided a erience.
listening ex
p combine a compact tape recorder with
lightweight headphones. The
Walkman was launched in 1979. This
handy, portable device let users
listen to their favorite cassettes
while they were out and about.
By 1982, more than 100
million had been sold.

changed
it allowe
d
alkman choice

w
The W take theirr they

Ho
en to ve
A small scre h
hic people unes where P3 owners
e d w of t M ic
day’s entire mus
sho w
CD o
track on the t . T
wen ake their h them.

ld
was play in g.
can t llections wit

or
co w
the

Compact choice

Personal stereo
As compact discs began to
replace cassettes in the music
market, sony introduced the
industry’s first portable player
for compact discs in 1982. The These revolutionary portable devices have
DIscMan was a success among ensured that music fans can STAY TUNED
music lovers, but the device
could carry only one disc at a to the music they love.
time and had a tendency to skip.

Tiny tunes
German inventors DIeter seItzer
and karlheInz branDenburg
came up with a way of compressing
digital music so that a music file takes
up much less space. Their format is
called MP3 and manufacturers used it
to make small digital music players. The
first MP3 player became available in
1998. These groundbreaking gadgets
can store thousands of songs.
97
i e s
M ov
Picture pioneers
tures MOVE English doctor P.M. Roget found that
ic
Making pig screen
seeing an object in similar positions over
a rapid sequence, like this one of a horse
on the b creen featu
res running, resulted in the object appearing
ig s to move. In 1824, he called this “persistence
is to r y of the b ntors, stories of vision.” Inventors wanted to create a
The h ve
s tar c ast of in y ending. better way to produce the illusion of
an all- pp
ce ss , a nd a ha moving images from still ones.
of suc

By the w
By in ay...
cinematog venting the
masters oraph, we became
with more f the short film,
than
French premiere to our na1,000 clips
mes.
The first to figure it out were
the French brothers Auguste
and louis lumière. They held
the first public showing of
projected moving images in a
Parisian café basement in 1895.
Their combined portable
camera and projector, the
cinematograph, recorded
“moving pictures” on a
strip of celluloid film. The
premiere was a hit with
the paying audience and
hailed the start of the
moTion picTure era.

s...
Film frst
Silent movieS were replaced by
“talkies” (flms with dialogue The a
©A.M.P.A.S.®

nnual m
and music), starting with cerem ovie awards
ony call
The Jazz Singer in 1927. Award ed the Academy
s, o r o Sc
Hollyw arS, began in
ood in 1
929.

98
First films
The first films by the Lumière brothers
caused a sensation. One depicted people
leaving a factory, while another showed a train
arriving at a station (above). Although today’s
blockbusters use new technology and special
effects, movies remain just a series of separate
images played in quick succession.

How it ch
anged th
e world
The film passes
through the projector, Motion
stopping for a moment pictu
on each frame. movie in res led to the c
audienc dustry, which reation
es for d has enth of the
the acto eca ralled
rs appe des and made
aring in s
aroun its films tars of
The magic lantern $30 billi d the world sp . People
on on m en
provides a bright ovie tick d about
ets ever
light that passes y year.
through the film.

The lens
and direc focuses
onto a sc ts the light
film can b reen so the
e seen.

DId yo
In the 19 u know?
theate 30s, mo
v
with cha rs were decor ie
ndeliers ated
They we an
re so la d carpets.
audience vis
s called h that
“movie p th
alaces.” em

Now known as Bollywood,

olor
the Technic the Indian flm industry
In 1932, camera
om pany released a boomed from the 1950s
c color flm
that made onward, with hundreds of
rd of oz
he Wiza
possible. T
new releases every year.
releases.
of the frst
was one
99
Fire
wo
Di
China d you kn
gun Based manufais the world’ ow?

rks
pow on ct s
e of fire urer and ex largest
fire der, s xplo w
more t orks, produ porter
w ho siv h
of the an 90 perce ing
c
col orks w-ste e total a n
mount. t
orf hav alin
leb u e
Ce

l pas a g
r a ting with
t .
a BA
NG!

Chinese launch
Gunpowder was discovered
accidentally when ancient Chinese
alchemists looked for a magic potion
to create eternal life. It was produced
by mixing three powders—saltpeter,
sulfur, and charcoal. When burned, the
combination released so much gas that
explosions resulted. Bamboo poles Today’s fireworks
filled with gunpowder formed the world’s are launched by
compressed air, so
first fireworks. They were used to their displays are not
mark festivals and religious occasions. obliterated by smoke.

a ve d the way for…

I t p

Cannons containing The Chinese used

gunpowder and other fireworks to create
explosives were an devices called flares.
effeCtive weapon when These blazing lights
fired across battlefields could signal over
during the Middle Ages. long distances.

100
Gunpowder plot
Colors are
by different In the Middle Ages, rockets became
determ ine d
com bin ati ons of che micals. weapons, catapulted into enemy bases
to explode on impact and set camps
on fire. Famous English conspirator
Guy Fawkes plotted a similarly
dastardly deed with gunpowder. His
failed attempt to blow up London’s
Houses of Parliament on November 5,
1605, is remembered every year with
dummies of Fawkes burned at
Firework displays.

Spectrum of color
The future is glowing bright for
fireworks. Color chemistry has
developed a rainbow effect—magnesium
and aluminum make white light, sodium
salts make yellow, copper salts make
blue, strontium nitrate or carbonate
makes red, and barium nitrate makes
green. Scientists are researching different
chemical combinations in order
to make ever more impressive fireworks.

W IT
HO
Once lit, the Gunpowder
W

fuse allows
O R KS

you to retreat
Stars
to a safe
Delay
ow it changed
distance before the
fuel propellant sends the firework into
H Fireworks have
delighted audiences for
the sky. Once there, a part of the fuse centuries, but the gunpowder
called the delay controls when the chemical Propellant
at their core has also been
reaction in the rocket happens by slowing the used as a devastating
Lit fuse
ignition of the gunpowder. When the gunpowder weapon of war.
is lit, it creates loud banging sounds and shoots the
d
the worl
stars out of the firework.

The strong, stable Key dates are celebrated

explosive dynamite with firework displays.
was developed from On New Year’s Eve, many
gunpowder. Used in countries set off fireworks
construction, it is also at midnight to welcome
a harmful weapon. the coming year.

101
Cho c o l a t e s
By the
I, Montezuma,way...
e n tu r ie s , c hocolate wa the Aztecs, m emperor of
For c but it becam
e one of the fir ay have been
te r d r in k , Every day, I dst chocoholics.
a bit red food
o u s ly fa vo 50 cups of carank at least
a fam ca
golden chalice o from my
gredients
when the in d and solid . Slurp!
ne
were sweete invented.
as
chocolate w

u r e ’s S W E E T E ST treat
Nat

Food of the gods

Chocolate has its roots in the
cacao tree, Theobroma cacao.
This Latin name means “food
of the gods,” and the tree has
long flourished in the hot
climate of Central and South
America. Inside each colorful
fruit pod are sweet juice and
bItter cAcAo beAns—
the essential ingredient
of chocolate.

Ancient chocolatiers
Cacao beans were an integral part of ancient life in Mexico
and Central America, making the Inca, Aztec, and Maya
peoples the first true chocolatiers. They mixed cacao beans
with spices to create a bitter drink called chocolatl, from
which chocolate takes its name. Believing the beans had
MAgIcAl propertIes, they used the drink in their
sacred birth, marriage, and death rituals.

aved the way for…

It p
Swiss chocolatier Daniel Fellow Swiss chocolatier
Peter added condensed roDolPhe linDt created
milk to the recipe in the process of conching
1875 and invented in 1879, which produced
milk chocolate bars.
smooth chocolate without
the gritty texture it
had previously.
102
Chocolate houses
In the 16th century, European
conquistadors arrived in the
Americas and discovered the cacao
beans. Realizing the commercial
opportunity, Spanish conqueror
Hernando Cortéz sweetened the
chocolatl drink with cane sugar to
cater to European tastes. In the
17th century, fashionable
chocolate houses were popping
up across Europe, allowing high
society to savor the new taste.
Only the wealthy could afford
this sweet treat.

Birth of the bar

In 1828, Dutch chemist Casparus Van Houten
invented powdered chocolate or “Dutch cocoa.”
Englishman Joseph Fry then added melted cocoa
butter to Dutch cocoa in 1847, producing chocolate
paste. solid chocolate was born! In 1868,
English chocolate company Cadbury began making
and marketing bars of chocolate. The tasty new
treat quickly spread around the world.

How it changed the w

Chocolate is one of the world
orld
’s favorite
flavors, and one of the most
lucrative: The
modern chocolate industry is
expected to
be worth a mouthwatering $98
.3 billion
by 2016. Although doctors rec
ommend
consuming chocolate in moder
ation,
scientists are investigating the
many
chemicals in chocolate,
searching for health benefits.

Known as “the Great The founding of the New

American Chocolate york CoCoa exCHaNge in
Bar,” the HersHey bar 1925 recognized cocoa
went on sale in 1900. as an important Commodity
It became one of the that could be bought and
world’s best-selling sold on the open market.
chocolate bars.
103
vels
a r
l m
a
dic
Me
The medical world was under the weather for centuries
due to a basic lack of understanding. Now it is the
picture of good health, thanks to our attention to
cleanliness and safety in treatments. Improvements
in equipment were just what the doctor ordered,
making them a welcome addition to clinics and
hospitals. Forward-thinking inventions have gone for
a check-up, been given the all-clear, and are now put
to the best use—saving patients’ lives.
Wide awake
Surgery in the past was brutal. Rubber hos
Patients were left wide awake or carries air e
groggy with alcohol as cuts were ether fume and
made in their bodies. The pain the jar to s from
mouthpiece the
or shock often resulted in death. be inhaled. to
Then, in 1846, American dentist
William Morton discovered that he
could use the chemical ether to
make a person unconscious
before surgery.

es of
Small piec ed in
ak
sponge sof fumes.
iv e o f
ether g

Chloroform
Discovered in 1831, chloroform was
first used as an anesthetic by Scottish
physician James Young Simpson in 1847.
He used it to provide pain relief for
women, including Queen Victoria, during
childbirth. However, chloroform had
dangerous side effects. Some devices,
such as this Dubois machine (left), tried
to make it safer by mixing it with air.

hanged
Anesthetics it c s, tic
n esthe , brutal,
How

e a
Befor was quick . Now,
ry dly d
surge often dea be carrie
and ions can safely.
Putting patients to SLEEP was the first t
opera easily an
d
step toward modern surgical techniques ld
out or
w
the

Modern techniques
Today, anesthetics can be local (numbing a
body part such as a foot) or general (making a
patient unconscious). Amylocaine, the first
human-made local anesthetic, was developed by
French chemist erneSt fourneau in 1903.
Some general anesthetics are administered
using an injection and work in less than
30 seconds. Others are given as a carefully
controlled dose to be inhaled.
106
Germ theory it changed
People in the past didn’t understand w
oAntisep
how infections occurred. Doctors tics helped make

H
operated in dirty, germ-ridden su rg ery cleaner an
safer. Operations bed far
conditions and thought bad air was more common and ne came
to blame. In the mid-19th century, w types
of surgery could
French scientist Louis Pasteur be developed.
showed that some diseases and many rl

d
infections were caused by bacteria and the wo
other microorganisms invading the body.

Reservoir contains

Antiseptics
water mixed with
carbolic acid.

How microbe-killing substances CLEANED

UP medicine’s act so wounds could heal

Handle acts as
sends a lever operating
Pump nozzle t of the small pump.
out a fine mis.
carbolic acid

Lister method
British surgeon JosePh
Lister became convinced
that microbes in the air were
causing infections in wounds,
which were usually left open.
In the 1860s, Lister started
to clean wounds and soak
dressings in carbolic acid—
the first antiseptic—which
killed many infection-
causing microbes. He also
built a “donkey engine” Keeping it clean
(left) to spray carbolic From the 1890s onward,
acid mist throughout surgical instruments were boiled
his operating theater. to sterilize them, eliminating all
Infection and death rates microbes before use. Face masks
after surgery plummeted. were adopted, and surgeons now
cLean their hands with
antiseptic solutions before
surgery. Rates of infection have
been slashed from 50 percent
to less than 1 percent.

107
Antibiotics
Florey and Chain
Fleming had chanced upon the first
antibiotic, but isolating penicillin in
gs are one of quantities large enough to treat people
these wonder dru
portant weapons took more than a decade. A team in
medicine’s most im
st disease-causing
Oxford, England, led by Australian
in the fight again scientist Howard Florey used hospital
first antibiotic was
bacteria. But the bedpans and cow-milking equipment to
ly by accident.
discovered entire produce enough penicillin to run
medical trials on humans in 1941.

p p in g D IS E A S E S in th eir tracks They proved successful in fighting a

Sto range of infections and diseases.
Ernst Chain proved
penicillin’s success in fighting
bacteria in mammals through By the way...
experiments with mice. I was a key member of
Howard Florey’s team. Along
with Florey and Alexander
Fleming, I was awarded
the 1945 Nobel Prize
for Medicine.

Fleming’s fluke
By the 19th century, scientists had
figured out that many diseases are
caused by microscopic living things
called bacteria. In 1928, Scottish
bacteriologist alexander Fleming
noticed that one of his petri dishes
containing Staphylococcus bacteria had
become contaminated with a blue mold,
which seemed to have wiped out the
bacteria. Fleming realized that the mold
contained a bacteria-killing chemical,
which he called penicillin.

It paved the way fo

r...
Streptomycin was first made tetracycline was first
in 1943 by American discovered in 1945 and
scientist Selman WakSman then made in labs by
from bacteria found in soil. American drug company
It was the first antibiotic Pfizer in the early 1950s. It
remedy for tuberculosis. became the moSt preScribed
antibiotic in the United States.
108
Mass production
Florey’s successful trials led
American drug companies to
start producing the drug in large
quantities. The first stocks of
penicillin were sent to help soldiers
wounded in World War ii, and
dramatically reduced the number of
deaths from infected wounds. After the
war, the new drug was in demand to
combat diseases such as pneumonia,
scarlet fever, gangrene, and diphtheria.

Howard Florey worked

with drug companies in
the US to produce large
quantities of penicillin.
Vials of penicillin were
packed along with other Amazing antivirals
battlefield medicines to Viruses are different from bacteria.
treat wounded soldiers
during World War II. They invade healthy cells and force
them to copy the virus so that it
spreads. Gertrude B. elion
was an American chemist who
developed the first widely available
antiviral drug, acyclovir, in the
1970s. It was used to treat the
herpes virus, which causes cold
sores. She later came out of
retirement to help create AZT,
the first anti-HIV drug.

ha n ged t h e w
c The discov
ery

or
it

of penicillin saved

ld
Ho w

millions of lives, bu
t it also
led to a revolution
in the
development of ne
w drugs,
with many more an
tibiotics
following in its wak
e. Along
with antivirals, thes
e drugs
have provided safe
treatments for
countless condition
s.
ElizabEth lEE hazEn and
RachEl FullER bRown
patented the antibiotic
nystatin in 1957. It
is used to fight
fungal infections.

109
Focusing

Microscope
screw

Lens
The device that uses light passing
Handle
through a lens to FOCUS ON
a miniscule world of wonders
In focus
Father and son lens-makers,
Optical microscopes Hans and ZacHarias
Like all early microscopes, this 1670 model
Janssen experimented with
used by English scientist Robert Hooke
lenses in tubes in the 1590s to
is an example of an optical microscope.
make the first microscopes. They
It features a series of lenses in a
were able to magnify their view
barrel. The lens closest to the object
of small things by around 10
being studied focuses light to
times. Less than a century later,
form a magnified image,
fellow Dutchman Anton Van
which can then be magnified
Leeuwenhoek built microscopes
further by an ocular lens
that could magnify by 270 times.
(eyepiece). Still widely used
by scientists, modern
optical microscopes can
reach magnification of
up to 1,000 times.

Electron microscopes
German physicist ernst ruska
Holder for the Hooke was able to see developed microscopes in the 1930s that
specimen (the and illustrate fleas and
object focused other tiny things for beamed a stream of electrons rather
on by the the first time. than light through a specimen. These can
microscope). achieve far greater magnification—up to
an amazing 500,000 times. Incredibly
small objects such as this dust mite
can be seen in astonishing detail.

w it change
o d
H

By lettin
detail at t g us look in
he s
microscope upersmall,
revolutioniz s hav
ed our knoe
of the wor w
ld around uledge
s.
t h e w or l
d

110
First laser
The first working laser was
produced in 1960. A ruby
crystal rod (above) was placed
inside a photographer’s flash
bulb. When the atoms in the rod
were excited by the light from
the flash, they generated energy
as an intense pulse of red light.
The ruby laser was a research
tool, without a practical use.
hanged
it c
se
w

to their uery,
Ho

d itio n
In ad ry and surg ds
in induste used in all kiners
r y
lasers ats, from CD pla
c
of obje laser printers .
rld

to
o
the w
Cutting-edge technology
Today, many different kinds of lasers are produced
to perform dozens of different tasks. IndustrIal
lasers wielded by robots (above) can be focused
tightly on a single spot to drill holes or cut through
thick metal and other tough materials accurately.
Some lasers are used to weld metals together or to
etch electronic circuits.

Laser surgery Laser

Lasers also perform valuable medical
work. They can weld a detached retina
The instrument that focuses BEAMS
back into place and correct myopia OF LIGHT to perform amazing
(shortsightedness). They can also seal medical and industrial tasks
blood vessels and act as a highly
accurate scalpel, destroying harmful
or diseased cells with precision. 111
s tic
g no ions

a
e n t

i
v
i o u s in peek

D
n o y.
inge ctors t an bod
s
o f

e
nge wed do e hum

c
r a

i
a allo into th

v
v e Did yo

de detect dis
ha lessly Röntgenu know?
pain
ease discove
the ma
call
ry X-raed his
ys aft
unknownth symbol for aer
Seeing language number. In so n
INSIDE THE BODY to s, t
as Rönt hey’re known
gen ray
me
s.
X-ray
In 1895, German physicist Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen was experimenting with light tubes
similar to fluorescent bulbs when, by
accident, he discovered mysterious waves of
energy he called X-Rays. Röntgen found that
they passed through flesh and other soft
parts of the body but not through metal or
bones. When a special film is placed behind
the body, it can capture an X-ray image.
X-rays are now used to help find broken
bones and pinpoint foreign objects, such
as bullets, inside the body.

Stethoscope
Stethoscopes let doctors check for
problems by listening to a patient’s
heartbeat and breathing as well as
Stethoscope the sound of blood rushing around
ear tips go in blood vessels. French doctor René
the doctor’s LaenneC invented the first
ears to transmit
your breathing stethoscope, a simple wooden tube, in
and hea rtb eat . 1816. Modern stethoscopes have a
diaphragm that picks up sounds and
makes them louder before they
travel to the doctor’s ears.

112
Ultrasound
Sounds higher than those you can hear are called
ultrasound. An ultrasound scanner sends
these sounds into a patient’s body. Different
types of tissue such as bone or muscle produce
a different echo. The machine listens to the
different echoes and builds up a picture called
an echogram or sonogram. The first sonogram
was produced in 1958. Ultrasound is often
used to check on babies in the womb.

Stethoscope diaphragm
is placed on the skin
closest to the part of
the body that the
doctor wants to listen to.

Fiber-optic endoscope
An endoscope is a narrow, flexible
tube that travels inside part of your body
so that doctors can take a good look.
Researchers at the uniVersity of
alabama invented the first fiber-optic
endoscope in 1957. They contain
bundles of thousands of thin glass
fibers, which carry images from inside
your body to be displayed on a screen.

Oral thermometers are placed

under the tongue to measure
temperature. A healthy human
body’s temperature is about
98.2°F (36.8°C).

MRI scan
When placed in a magnetic field and bombarded
with radio waves, atoms in your body answer
back. The tiny signals they give off can be
gathered and turned into a detailed picture of
what’s going on inside the body using Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI). The first MRI
scanner to perform a full scan of the body
was invented by American professor
raymond V. damadian in 1977.

113
Barking up the right tree w it change
o d
Salicylic acid is a substance that Aspirin is n

H
helps reduce pain in the body’s nerve widely used ow the most
endings. This means it’s good at relief in the drug for pain
wo
relieving such common complaints as 100 billion ta rld. Around
b
headaches, swellings, and muscle aches. taken every lets are
year.
Some plants, such as meadowsweet and
t h e w or l

d
the bark of the willow tree, are rich in
st
salicylic acid. Willow bark was used as Aspirin was fir r
sold as a po w de
a remedy for fever in ancient Greece,
ips in tins.
more than two thousand years ago. Willow bark ch an
were used as .
herbal remedy

Aspirin
The handy, HUMBLE PILL that gives
fevers and headaches the old heave-ho

Mixing it up
Salicylic acid taSted awful and
could cause vomiting and stomach
pain, so various chemists in the
Plastic 19th century worked to find ways
often comes wbottle to remove its bad side effects.
ith a
childproof lid. In 1897, chemists in Germany
produced acetylsalicylic acid
(ASA), which caused fewer
side effects but was
still an effective pain
reliever. German
chemical company
Wonder drug Friedrich Bayer & Co.
In 1900, aspirin was first began selling ASA in
sold as tablets that dissolve 1899 under the brand
in water, the first medicine name aSpirin.
to be sold in this form. It was
taken to ease headacheS and
feverS, and by people who suffered
from rheumatism to reduce pain in
their joints. More recent research
suggests that aspirin can help prevent
blood clotting and may even have a
role in fighting Alzheimer’s disease
and certain cancers. t
ntain a se
Tablets cospirin mixed with
dose of a ch and water.
114 corn star
Shocking story Paddles are
Scientists in the 19th and early 20th centuries pla
the patient’sced on
learned that an electric shock could restart body.
a heart or correct it when it started beating
abnormally. The first defibrillators passed an
electric current through wires touching the
heart and could be used only in hospitals
during an operation.

Closed chest
Closed-chest defibrillators
can correct heart rhythms
or restart a heart without
the body being opened
up. The first units were
huge, expensive, and
needed to be plugged in.
In 1965, Northern Irish
doctor Frank pantridge
built a defibrillator powered
by car batteries and developed
smaller, portable models to be
nt
carried in ambulances. ric curre
An elect ween the
flows betdles and
two pad the heart. w it changed
through oEver
y minute a
H

stopped decreaheart is
se
chances of surv s the
Instructions sh Defibrillators pr ival.
the user how ow ov
the-spot help, ide on-
operate the eqto sa
uipment. thousands of liv ving
es.
rl
the wo d

Modern design
Defibrillator
Modern defibrillators are The SHOCKING invention that saves
lightweight and found in many lives by restarting hearts
places, from swimming pools to
schools, not just in hospitals.
Some give spoken instructions
so that any adult can use them
in an emergency. 115
The sharpest way to provide PROTECTION against
infection

Vaccination
vaccination exposes a person to a mild
form of a disease, so that his or her body
learns to fight the disease in the future.

This pin device was used

in 18th-century Europe to
move infected tissue from
one person to another.

Variolation Dairy cows carrie

In the 10th century, the Chinese began the cowpox virus d
on their udders.
a simple form of vaccination called
variolation. They exposed healthy
people to the disease smallpox, in
the hope that they would catch a milder
version and, after recovery, become
immune. A piece of a scab would be
placed under the skin, or ground up Milkmaids often caught
cowpox, a disease caused
and blown up a patient’s nose. The by a virus related to but
practice spread to Europe, but the much milder than
method was unreliable and could lead deadly smallpox.
to the spread of other diseases.

It paved the way for...

In 1853, French doctor Charles RobeRt Koch discovered
Pravaz invented the practical the bacteria that cause anthRax
metal hypodeRmic syRinge. Used to (1876), tubeRculosis (1882),
administer vaccines, it uses a and choleRa (1883), allowing
hollow needle to pierce the skin. vaccines to be developed.

116
Risky research
In the 18th century, smallpox was a major
killer: Around 400,000 people died of the disease
every year in Europe alone. In 1796, English doctor
edward jenner infected an eight-year-old boy with
a small amount of cowpox pus. Cowpox was similar
to smallpox but much less dangerous. Success!
The boy later proved to be
immune to smallpox.

Vaccination station
A century later, French chemist louis Pasteur
made the next major breakthrough. In 1885,
a young boy suffering from rabies arrived at
his lab close to death. Pasteur had been
experimenting with turning a weakened
form of rabies into a vaccine, and gave the
boy a series of injections. The boy
regained full health, Pasteur went
on to vaccinate thousands of people,
and today many vaccines are still
made using his methods.
Edward Jenner
realized that milk

rld
who had caught comaids
were subsequently wpox

wo
immune to smallpox
.
t

the
, bu
k
wor rld
...
By the wayated as ed n
s
er’ e W
o

ng
en th t
ccin t J 979, tha
I sometimes va ople a day. a a
ed
ch
d 1
pe
many as 200 with the word, r i fie . In clar n
it
r n e e
I also came up “vacca,” the e ho ht o n d y be rk

ow
r g i o l l o
vaccine from for cow. t
we cau niza fina r’s w ther
Latin word H n y n a d eu
Ma natio Org x ha Past into day
i lth lpo t. ch to
o
cc d
va Hea mal d ou sear and ecte
s pe re s, ot y
wi d to cine e pr man on
le vac e ar inst mm
w ga -co s.
a ce ler
on kil

Swiss-born doctor hiV is a devastating virus

AlexAndre Yersin that breaks down the
created a vaccine human body’s immune
against diphtheriA and system. MAssiVe reseArch
in 1894 discovered the is ongoing to discover a
Yersinia pestis bacteria vaccine against HIV.
that caused bubonic plAgue.
117
ody pa
b

rts
Bionic
ing par ts
Poorly perform y these
db
can be replace les.
medical mirac

hings
t
her
Artificial limbs
Le

din g ot
n

gu on The first known prosthesis

s a HAND—am (artificial body part) was a
wooden toe found on a
2,700-year-old Egyptian mummy.
The ball of the prosthetic
hip joint fits into the Since that time, artificial hands, feet,
socket in the pelvis. arms, and legs have all been made. Early
ones were forged from metal or carved from
wood. Some wooden hands (above) had
Hip j
oint hinged finger joints and could be locked
s ca
in a gripping position to hold objects.
n
er
b

eplac
ed to relieve
The spiked end is arth
fitted into a hole riti
drilled in the femur s
(upper leg bone).
.
Hearing aid
Early hearing aids were big funnels
called ear trumPets that channelled sound
waves from the air into the ear. Some were
made from silver and decorated ornately,
while others were hidden in walking sticks
so users could be more discreet. Modern
hearing aids use a microphone to pick
up sounds and an electronic amplifier
to make them louder, before they are
replayed close to or inside the ear.

118
Contact lenses
Early contact lenses were made of hard
glass and were often very uncomfortable to
wear. Czech chemist Otto Wichterle
experimented at home with hydrogels (types
of polymer material that hold water). In 1961,
he built a machine on his kitchen table out of
parts from a child’s construction kit and a
record player motor. It spun out tiny disks of
the material, which formed the first
comfortable soft contact lenses.

Dentures
Many kinds of false teeth, also known as
dentures, have been in use over centuries.
The Etruscans in northern Italy made dentures from
human and animal teeth starting in 700 bce. George
Washington, the first president of the United States,
wore dentures carved out of hippopotamus ivory
and held in place by springs made of gold wire.
Modern dentures are made from plastics, and are
colored and shaped to look like the real thing.

Pacemaker
Some people’s hearts don’t beat at a healthy rate or
rhythm. Pacemakers help by sending out small
electrical pulses to stimulate the heart
muscles. One of the first, built by Canadian
John hopps in 1950, was the size of a toaster
and needed to be plugged into a wall socket.
Nine years later came a successful
implantable pacemaker placed
completely inside the body.
Some patients lived for 30 years
ealistic.

with this model, developed by

Americans Wilson greatbatch
and William chardack.
kr

loo
t
Glass eyeballs don’t help people see bu
119
ro hines
A nanometer is one-billionth

ic
M macize
of a meter or about the width of
ten atoms. A single human hair
is about 80,000 nanometers
s wide. Recent scientific advances
im u m mean that machines and
n h
Mi wit materials are starting to be
constructed on this
IM UM phenomenally small scale.
X
MA potential

Thinking small
The concepts behind nanotechnology
were first discussed in 1959 by
American physicist RichARd
FeynmAn in his talk “There’s
Plenty of Room at the Bottom.”
He urged scientists to think
small and build technology
out of atoms.

Scientists started at the micRoscAle,

measured in thousandths of a millimeter,
building motors, gears, electronic circuits,
and even sunglasses for houseflies!
Microprocessor chips found in smartphones and
PCs feature millions of switches and circuits etched
onto a circuit board smaller than a fingernail.

It pa
ved the way for…

Many clothing manufacturers There are 600 nanofoods on

already sell stain-resistant clothes the market today, including a
that contain tiny particles called variety of canola oil that can
nanowhiskers, which stop stains block cholesterol from entering
from sticking to the fabric. the bloodstream.
120
Marvelous microscope
In 1981, the scanning tunneling microscope (STM)
was invented by German scientists Gerd binniG
and HeinricH roHrer. It uses a needle tip just a
few atoms wide to scan an object, tracing out the
surface atoms and spaces between them to form an
image. STMs work at incredible resolutions, capable
of showing us individual atoms. They also allow
scientists to work at the nanoscale directly, moving
and manipulating individual atoms for the first time.
This highly magnified
view shows an
STM’s needle.

Nanobot
injects treatment
directly into cell.
Lifesaving nanobots
Now that scientists are able to work on the
nanoscale, the possibilities are endless.
One key application in the future could be
medical nanobots—tiny robots
injected into the body. Some might
scrub blood vessels clean of fats while
others could repair damage from the
inside, or track, capture, and deal
with harmful bacteria or diseased
cells (left). Swarms of nanobots
might monitor you from the inside to
Diseased cell give your body a continual checkup.

ou know
? How it changedworld
Did y -cogs, shown the
These micro , were
g
to a fly’s le The answer is…we don’t know yet,
here next g techniques that since all things nano are only just
made usin k at scales of starting. But they could revolutionize
can wor of a millimeter.
hs the way we live in the future.
thousandt

NaNoparticles of metal oxides GrapheNe is a remarkable

are used in some suNscreeNs. material with many potential
They offer protection from the applications. It is made of carboN
sun but don’t leave white atoms joined in hexagons that
marks on the skin. form a surface a single atom thick.
121
Total turkeys
For every high-flying GENIUS invention, there
are countless other ones that never make
it OFF THE GROUND.

1801 Captain Dick’s Puffer 1894 Maxim’s flying machine

British inventor RichaRd TReviThick lost American-born innovator hiRam maxim fired
his train of thought when he left the engine his way to success with the machine gun in
of his first passenger steam carriage running 1884, but he crashed with his attempt at a
while he stopped off for a quick drink. All flying machine. Despite five sets of wings
the water in the engine boiled off and poor old spanning 125 ft (38 m), two steam engines,
Captain Dick’s Puffer exploded. But Trevithick and a pair of propellers, the machine took
got back on track two years later with his off from rails and flew briefly before coming
celebrated creation, the steam locomotive. back down to earth with a very big bump!

1862 Hunley’s submarine

a n is m w o r ke d b e st with
American engineer Horace Hunley had that The mec h hats.
e - s h a p e d b o w le r
sinking feeling when his submarine came to
a disastrous end during the the civil War.
dom
The underwater weapon had been developed
from an old boiler and was aRmed WiTh a 1896 Self-raising hat
ToRpedo. Hunley’s design managed to sink an Back in Victorian times,
enemy ship, but the sub itself exploded at the it was all the rage for
same time, and joined its target on the seabed. gentlemen to tip their hats
when passing ladies on the
1874 De Groof parachute street. Hats off, then, to
With his eyes firmly on the skies, Belgian American James Boyle,
Vincent De Groof longed to fly like a bird. who made mechanics do the
His vision came to life with a Winged hard work with his self-
paRachuTe that he attached to a balloon tipping hat. When the wearer gave the nod, a
to soar over London. When the wings fell clockwork device inside tipped the hat to the
apart midflight, the birdbrain’s feathers were passing lady. Sadly for Boyle, the hat simply
truly ruffled. In a flap, he hit the ground, failed to raise the interest of customers, and it
ending his dream and his life. was hung up for good soon after.

1880s Suitcase life jacket 1896 Power shower

A German named Krankel built a case for A lean machine for keeping clean was the
a life jacket—literally. His suitcase had two brainchild of one particularly eager cyclist. It
removable panels just in case of an emergency. was basically a bicycle (without wheels) that
Wearers took out the panels, blocked the hole used pedal power to pump water in the shower.
with a rubber ring, and wriggled into the case. The more pedaling, the stronger the power
But carrying excess baggage didn’t float shower. Great for gym rats, but not so easy for
everyone’s boat and the invention quickly couch potatoes. “You’re all wet!” was the
moved fRom suiTcase To nuTcase. general response to this fleeting fad.

122
He n 1976 Rolling ball
com pec Italian alEssandRo dandini came up with
amo mo king a bizarre new vessel for transporting cargo
ng is a across the sea. He devised a plan to use a big

n p chick
motorized ball with two cabins attached to

rob ens.
either side. Cargo could be stored inside the
m

le
sphere or the cabins. However, the tipping point
came when one cabin was detached, causing the
whole craft to flip on its side. As a result, the
marine machine didn’t make its rounds for long.

1903 Chicken glasses 1980s Nimslo 3-D camera

American Andrew Jackson (no relation to the The combined efforts of American photography
president!) developed protective glasses for his enthusiasts Jerry Nims and Allen Lo produced
feathered friends to wear to stop them from the Nimslo 3-D camera. The snap-happy device
hurting each other’s eyes. Jackson assumed his used four lenses, each taking one frame at a
sight-saving invention would provide a good slightly different angle to make one 3-D image.
nest egg, but it’s a mistake to count your Unfortunately, the creators hadn’t focused on the
chickens before they hatch. Although some bigger picture. At tEn timEs thE pRicE of a
glasses were sold at the turn of the century, normal camera, consumers said no to Nimslo.
they are now nowhere to be seen.
1982 APT
1922 Baby cage The Advanced Passenger Train was designed
For nannies left holding the baby in high-rise to tilt as it traveled around corners, but the idea
buildings, one last resort was an outdoor went off the rails from the get-go. All the tipping
cage where you could put a baby. American and dipping at high speeds had passengers
inventor Emma REad’s intentions were good: reaching for sick bags, frozen brakes posed a
The plan was to give babies fresh air and room problem in cold spells, and some parts of the
to play. In reality, though, there was a lot of design got stuck at a slant! The tilting train was
rattling of cages and baby blues all around. going nowhERE.

1960 Smell-o-Vision 2007 Phone Fingers

American movie maestro Mike Todd, Jr., believed When Austrian philipp ZumtobEl pointed a
he was on to the sweet smell of success with finger at the problem of smudges and marks on
Smell-o-Vision. This new technology released smartphones, his solution took the form of an
odors during the showing of films to enhance the accessory called Phone Fingers. These tight-
experience. Scent of Mystery was the only film to fitting rubber finger covers are rolled onto the
use Smell-o-Vision, and it was an absolute stinker. user’s digits to keep keypads clean. However, the
Audiences turned their noses up at the gimmick public gave the idea a thumbs down—most
and Todd had to wake up and smell the coffee. phone users fixed the original problem by
simply washing their hands.
1962 Robot Readamatic
This robotic reading device was designed to Phone Fingers were
speed up bookworms. At the turn of a dial, one difficult to get on a too
line of text was displayed at a time. Although nd off.
meant to increase the reader’s pace, the design
was fatally flawEd, since the machine’s
loud whirring sound and distracting mechanical
arm had users throwing the book at the invention.

123
Fantastic future The silent plan
unique sha e’s
pe
Nobody really knows what the great is th
e
inventions of the FUTURE might be, but
here’s some that just might make the grade.
secret to
its
Space tourism suc
Thousands of space cadets have put their names ces
down to boldly go where no man has gone Silent planes s.
before, with one-way trips to Mars scheduled Noisy air traffic can be a real headache for
for a decade in the future. The intention is to people living under flight paths. In the future,
establish a colony on the red planet—the first those on the ground may enjoy the sound of
human settlement outside of Earth. silence, thanks to the work of Cambridge
University in England and the Massachusetts
Human clones Institute of Technology. These educational forces
It all began in 1997 when Dolly the sheep are off to a flying start with a new aircraft
became the first animal clone (identical replica so quiet that no one outside of an airport can
of an existing organism). Pigs, cows, dogs, and hear it. In addition to bringing peace and
mice have since entered the clone zone, and now harmony, this is an eco-friendly option,
there’s talk of cloning people. However, many burning far less fuel than today’s aircraft.
governments have banned this controversial
concept, preferring not to meddle with nature. Toothphone
Here’s a hands-free invention to really sink
Hoverbike your teeth into. Inventors are researching a
High-tech hoverbikes could soon help commuters toothphone to direct-dial your pearly whites.
rise above the morning rat race. Powered With a mini-microchip placed in one of your
by light jet engines, this invention could teeth, incoming calls would be transmitted by
float way above the traffic, taking the sending vibrations along the jaw straight into
driver directly to his or your ear. No more choosing handsets and
her destination. As the phone covers! Just brush up on your dental
world’s roads become hygiene to ensure that your toothphone
increasingly jammed, remains on call.
hoverbike users could
fly free as birds. Robot sports coaches

r b ike w o u ld m a ke you When you’re going for the gold playing your

Riding a hove from the crowd.

favorite sport, you don’t want a slow coach. To
be the best, try hands-on training from fully
stand out computerized sports coaches. At 7 ft (2.1 m)
tall, Robo-Coach is 10 times stronger than the
Sonic washer average person. It can play any sport for
Future washing machines may use ultrasound 36 hours nonstop before the batteries run
and static electricity, rather than soap and out. Video cameras record performances and can
water. Popping ultrasound waves into your dirty be played back in 3-D on the robot’s chest. If a
laundry would free the filth, while session with Robo-Coach leaves you exhausted,
electrostatic attractors zapped it away, trapping it will even give you a relaxing massage.
grime in a murky mess at the bottom.

124
Video tattoos High-altitude wind power
Picture this—an electronic display printed on When it comes to harnessing the world’s
a fine plastic membrane and placed over your natural energy resources, the answer is
skin. This makes your body a blank canvas, blowing in the wind. Traditionally, wind power
able to showcase computer displays and change is generated from turbines on Earth, but high
them to suit your mood. The electronic version above Earth’s surface wind speeds are much
moves and stretches without breaking, and if faster, peaking in the jet streams of 5 miles
you ever regret that tattoo of your dead tortoise, (8 km) and above. Environmental agencies are
it’s not permanent! blown away by the idea of airborne
turbines suspended high up in the air but
Exoskeleton clothing tethered to the ground. With costly maintenance
If your childhood wish was to be a superhero and aviation interference to consider, inventors
with special powers, an exoskeleton could are still shooting the breeze on this gusty idea.
make your dream come true. This body armor
makes the wearer as brawny as Batman. The Invisibility cloak
superstrength clothing is made from polymer Ever wish you could be invisible, just like
gel muscles, which are five times stronger than Harry Potter? In 2012, researchers from Duke
natural fibers. These costly costumes will come University made a small 3-D object invisible
down in price in the future, making them ideal using a flexible fabric called Meta-flex.
protection for the military and police forces. Although the object disappeared as if by magic,
it was really a trick of the light. The illusion
Air-conditioned suits worked because the fabric bent light away
Keeping cool while suited up is a problem for from the eyes and sent it around the object
business people in hot cliMates. However, instead, making it seem as though nothing
a new wardrobe winner is coming on the was there. The next stroke of wizardry is to
fashion scene. A suit jacket, secretly home to make people invisible, and inventors claim
two tiny fans that suck in air to evaporate to have this within their sights.
perspiration, will help keep business brains
cool even when the temperature rises. The Brain implants
manufacturers claim that this is a small-scale, When you’re lacking in gray matter, imagine
low-cost, and environmentally friendly plugging in an intellectual implant to boost
alternative to air-conditioning units. your brainpower in an instant. This mastermind
module has already worked with primates, when
Artificial meat implants were attached to the prefrontal
The invention of lab-grown Meat cortex (the area for thought, memory, and
could one day take animals off the attention) of their brains. The decision-making
menu. Cells can now be taken from skills of Rhesus monkeys improved by 10 percent.
live animals and put in an environment Researchers hope to adapt the implant for
where they are cultivated separately. humans, taking the wearer from birdbrain to
In August 2013, a Dutch design team egghead in one smooth move.
served the first artificial
haMburger at a London launch.
If customers get a taste for this cultured
cuisine, fake meat could go whole
hog and turn into a supermarket
hop ping
staple. Right now, though, this
a w roduce.
protein is too pricey to be t to p
mainstream fodder. cos 000
er 5,
g 2
The frst lab-grown b ur
$3

125
Glossary
Agricultural Revolution Insulation Neutron
The name given to the series of Reducing the flow of heat, to keep A subatomic particle with no electric
advancements in agriculture in things cool or hot. Electrical insulation charge found in an atom’s nucleus.
Britain between 1600 and 1850. prevents electric current from flowing.
Nuclear fission
Alchemy Internal combustion engine A process in which a nucleus is split by
The ancient study of matter, which An engine in which fuel is burned firing neutrons at it to release energy.
aimed to discover the secret of (combusted) to create movement.
everlasting life. Ozone layer
Internet A layer in Earth’s atmosphere with a
Astrolabe The interconnected network of high concentration of ozone, which
A device used by sailors to measure computers that spans the globe. absorbs harmful radiation from the Sun.
the height of the sun in order to help
them figure out their ship’s latitude. Latitude Patent
A measurement of how far north or A government document that grants
Atom south of the equator a location is.
The smallest part of an element that someone the sole right to make, use,
Latitude lines run from east to west. or sell an invention.
has the characteristics of that element.
Longitude Piston
Bollywood A measurement of how far east or west
The largest part of the Indian film A round metal part that fits tightly in a
of the Prime Meridian an object is. The
industry, based in Bombay. cylinder. Car engines usually have four
Prime Meridian is an imaginary line that
or eight pistons, one in each cylinder.
runs from the North Pole, via
Conduction Greenwich, England, to the South Pole.
The process by which heat or electricity Proton
Longitude lines run from north to south.
passes through a substance. A subatomic particle with a positive
charge found in an atom’s nucleus.
Conquistador Microbe
A living thing that can only be seen
One of the Spanish conquerors of
through a microscope. Bacteria are
Radio wave
the Native American civilizations. A type of energy that is invisible,
the most common types of microbes.
travels in waves, and can be used to
Defibrillator send information, especially sound.
A machine that is used to correct or Microprocessor
The complicated circuits at the heart of
restart the beat of the human heart.
a computer that carry out instructions Sextant
A tool that measures the angle between
Electron and calculations, and communicate with
the horizon and objects in the sky,
A subatomic particle with a negative other parts of the computer.
useful for figuring out latitude.
charge that orbits an atom’s nucleus.
Middle Ages
Soviet Union
Filament The period in European history
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,
The part of a light bulb that glows between the fall of the Roman
Empire in the 5th century and a nation that existed from 1922 to 1991
when an electric current is passed
the Renaissance in the 1400s. and included modern-day Russia.
through it.

Gravity Molecule Transistor

The force that attracts all objects The smallest amount of a compound, A tiny electronic component that is used
together. On Earth, it is responsible consisting of two or more atoms to switch or amplify electric signals.
for making objects fall downward bonded together.
and for giving things weight. World Wide Web
Morse code The part of the Internet that contains
Industrial Revolution A special kind of code that uses dots websites, which are navigated by a web
A period of industrial expansion in and dashes to represent letters, useful browser and are made up of documents
Britain and the US starting around 1700. for long-distance communication. that are linked together.

126
Index
A cogs 8, 87 H P surgery 88,
airplane 24–25 combustion engine, hearing aid 118 pacemaker 119 106–107, 111
air-conditioning 71 internal 22, 23 helicopter 24, 26–27 paper 34–35, 62, Swan, Joseph 66, 67
anesthetics 106 compact disc 41, 97 hook and eye 76 121
antibiotics 108–109 compass 12 hot-air balloon 24 Pasteur, Louis 107, T
antiseptics 107 computer 51, 52–53, hovercraft 27 117 tea bag 35
antivirals 109 58 pencil 90 telegraph 38, 45
Archimedes Screw computer games 96 penicillin 108–109 telephone 42–43, 45
I, J
20 contact lenses 119 personal stereo 97 telescope 56–57
Internet 52, 58–59
artificial intelligence crane 84 phonograph 40–41 television 45, 48–49
Jenner, Edward 117
89 plastic 72–73 Tesla, Nikola 16–17,
jet engine 24, 25
artificial limbs 118 D plow 82–83 44
aspirin 114 debit card 80 polymers/polythene thermometer 113
astrolabe 13 defibrillator 115 K, L titanium 87
73
digital technology Kevlar 87 toilet, flush 62–63
atoms 31 Post-it note 91
autogyro 26 47, 49, 53, 97 laser 111 tractor 83
power plant 30, 67
dishwasher 69 lenses 56, 110, 119 printing 34, 36–37 traffic lights 22
B dynamite 85 Leonardo da Vinci prosthetics 118 transistor 50
Babbage, Charles 26 treadmill 84
52, 53 E light bulb 66–67 R
bacteria 108, 116, Edison, Thomas Lister, Joseph 107 radio 44–45 U, V
117 40–41, 67 Lovelace, Ada 52 radio waves 44, 45, ultrasound 113
ballpoint pen 90 electric motor 54, 55 vaccination 116–117
bar code 81 16–17 M record 40, 41 vacuum cleaner 68,
battery 54, 74–75 electricity 66–67, map 12 refrigerator 70–71 69
Bell, Alexander 74–75 Marconi, Guglielmo road markers 23 Velcro 77
Graham 42–43 medical use 115, 44 robot 52, 88–89, video games 96
Benz, Karl 22–23 119 microchip 51 111 Volta, Alessandro
Berners-Lee, Tim 59 elevator 20–21 microprocessor 51, rocket 25, 28–29, 30 74–75
bicycle 18–19 endoscope 88, 113 53, 120 rubber 72, 90, 93 von Braun, Wernher
blue jeans 92 e-book reader 37, 53 microscope 110, 121 28–29
book 37 exploration 10, 13 microwave oven 69 S vulcanization 72, 93
Braille alphabet 39 explosives 85, 100 money 34, 80 safety pin 76
Morse code 38, 44, satellite 13, 54–55 W
C F 45 scanners, medical washing machine
calculator, pocket false teeth 119 113 17, 68
movies 98–99
91 fasteners 76–77 seat belt 23 Watt, James 14
MP3 player 41, 97
camcorder 48 fireworks 100–101 seed drill 82 weapons 30, 85,
MRI scan 113 100, 101
camera 46–47, 67, Fleming, Alexander sextant 13
musical instruments wheel 8–9
99 108 shoes, sports 93
Ford, Henry 23 94–95 windshield wiper
can opener 68 skyscraper 21
car 17, 22–23, 66, Franklin, Benjamin smallpox 116–117 22
88 74 N snaps 77 World Wide Web 59
caravel 10 nanotechnology spacecraft 28–29, writing 34
cassette 40, 97 G 120–121 30–31
cell phone 45 Galileo Galilei 56, navigation 10, steam power 14–15, X, Z
cement, Portland 86 64 12–13, 65 20, 22, 37, 68, 69, X-ray 112
chloroform 106 glass 87 newspaper 36 83 zipper 76–77
chocolate 102–103 gunpowder 100, Nobel, Alfred 85 steel 86
chronometer 65 101 nuclear energy stethoscope 112
clock, pendulum Gutenberg, 30–31 sticky tape 91
64–65 Johannes 36–37 nylon 73 submarine 11, 31
127
Acknowledgements
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(c). getty images: Science & Society Picture Library (br). / Gamma-Keystone (cl). 55 corbis: Bettmann (bl). fotolia: Dorling Kindersley: The Science Museum, London (t).
15 corbis: Bettmann (c). getty images: Science & Society rekordkohle (cr). 56 corbis: Bettmann (cl). Dorling getty images: Medic Image / Universal Images Group (br).
Picture Library (cr). 16-17 Dorling Kindersley: The Kindersley: The Science Museum, London (cb). fotolia: 107 alamy images: Pictorial Press Ltd (tl). getty images:
Science Museum, London (tc). 16 corbis: Leonard de alexthewhale (br). nasa: GRIN (bl). 56-57 nasa and the Jack Guez / AFP (crb). science & society picture library:
Selva (bc); Tarker (br). Dorling Kindersley: The Science hubble heritage team (aura/stscl): ESA / J. Hester and Science Museum (l). 108 corbis: Bettmann (bl). getty
Museum, London (cl). science photo library: Sheila Terry A. Loll (Arizona State University) (tc). 57 Dreamstime.com: images: UniversalImagesGroup (bc). science & society
(cb); Usa Library Of Congress (tr). 17 fotolia: danr13 (bc). Zrfphoto (br). getty images: Purestock (bl). 58 corbis: picture library: Daily Herald Archive / National Media
18 corbis: Brooks Kraft / Sygma (clb). Dorling Kindersley: Louie Psihoyos (cra). fotolia: Cobalt (br, cr/Laptop); Museum (cl). science photo library: National Library Of
The National Motorcycle Museum (bl). fotolia: Tomasz indigolotos (c/All images on the earth); senoldo (crb). 59 Medicine (c). 108-109 Dreamstime.com: Strandtube (c).
Trojanowski (bc). getty images: Science & Society Picture corbis: Andrew Brusso (tl). fotolia: contrastwerkstatt (br). 109 alamy images: PF-(bygone1) (bl). corbis: Bettmann
Library (ca). 18-19 Dorling Kindersley: The National Cycle 62 corbis: Bettmann (cb). getty images: Prisma / (tr). science photo library: (cla). 110 corbis: Heritage
Collection (c). 19 fotolia: inigocia (cr). 20 corbis: Universal Images Group (cl). 62-63 getty images: Science Images (bc); Tetra Images (tr). Dorling Kindersley: The
Bettmann (cr). Dorling Kindersley: Donks Models - & Society Picture Library (c). 63 pearson asset library: Science Museum, London (l). science photo library: Eye
modelmaker (bl). getty images: Universal Images Group HL Studios. (cra). photoshot: LFI (bc). 64-65 Dreamstime. Of Science (cr). 111 corbis: Michael Rosenfeld / Science
(cl). wikipedia: Konrad Kyeser: “Bellifortis” (Clm 30150) com: Almir1968 (tc). 64 Dreamstime.com: Nicku (crb). Faction (tr). science photo library: Matteis / Look At
(bc). 21 corbis: Lake County Museum (cr); PoodlesRock / getty images: Peter Dazeley / Photographer’s Choice (cl). Sciences (tl); Alexander Tsiaras (clb). 112 fotolia:
PoodlesRock (tc). fotolia: victorhabbick (bc). 22 alamy pearson asset library: Coleman Yuen (br). 65 alamy itsmejust (cl). getty images: Adam Gault / SPL (br). 113
images: Comstock Production Department / Comstock images: Encyclopaedia Britannica / Universal Images corbis: (cr). fotolia: Sven Bähren (tl). science photo
Images (br). corbis: Hulton-Deutsch Collection (tr). Group Limited (tr). Dorling Kindersley: National Maritime library: Ria Novosti (bl). 114 Dreamstime.com: Alptraum
Dorling Kindersley: The National Motor Museum, Beaulieu Museum, London (clb). 66 alamy images: Pictorial Press (cb). getty images: Science & Society Picture Library
(tl). 22-23 getty images: Science & Society Picture Ltd (cla). corbis: Hulton-Deutsch Collection (c). Dorling (cra). 115 corbis: Soren Svendsen / Nordicphotos (c).
Library (c). 23 alamy images: Mark Bourdillon (br); GL Kindersley: The Science Museum, London (tr). fotolia: Dorling Kindersley: The Science Museum, London (tl).
Archive (tl); Peter Stroh (cl). corbis: Bettmann (tr). fotolia: McCarthys_PhotoWorks (bl). 67 corbis: Bettmann (cla). Dreamstime.com: Josetandem (clb). 116-117 fotolia: Eric
SM Web (bl). 24 corbis: Bettmann (cr). Dorling fotolia: flariv (bl). getty images: Pierre Jahan / Roger Isselee (c). 116 Dorling Kindersley: The Science Museum,
Kindersley: RAF Boulmer, Northumberland (bc). getty Viollet (cb). pearson asset library: Gareth Boden (br); HL London (bl). Dreamstime.com: Scott Griessel (c). getty
images: Universal Images Group (cb). 24-25 getty Studios (cr). 68 fotolia: Denis Junker (br). getty images: images: UniversalImagesGroup (bc). wellcome images:
images: The Washington Post (c). 25 fotolia: arquiplay77 Science & Society Picture Library (clb, tr). 69 corbis: Science Museum, London (cla). 117 corbis: Lebrecht /
(tr); Stephen Sweet (br). 26 alamy images: Hilary Morgan Bettmann (cl). science & society picture library: Science Lebrecht Music & Arts (tr). Dreamstime.com: Pterwort
(cr). corbis: Alinari Archives (cla). topfoto.co.uk: Roger- Museum (br). 70 Dreamstime.com: Maxborovkov (tl). (cb). getty images: Bloomberg (bc). science photo
Viollet (br). 26-27 alamy images: David Osborn (tc). 27 fotolia: Jeffrey Collingwood (crb); Ericos (bl); mitay20 library: Eye Of Science (bl); Sheila Terry (c). 118 the
Dorling Kindersley: Search and Rescue Hovercraft, (bc); photoguy_76 (cr). mary evans picture library: Karl bridgeman art library: Deutsches Historisches Museum,
Richmond, British Columbia (bc). fotolia: ijdema (br). Sandels / IBL (cl). 70-71 science & society picture Berlin, Germany / DHM (tr). getty images: Science &
getty images: Frank Scherschel / Time & Life Pictures library: Science Museum (c). 71 Dreamstime.com: Society Picture Library (br). 119 getty images: AFP (bl).
(cb). 28 corbis: Bettmann (cl, bc). Dorling Kindersley: Maxborovkov (crb). fotolia: fotoerre (bc); Piotr Pawinski punchstock: Brand X Pictures (cr). science photo library:
The Science Museum, London (br). 28-29 nasa: MIX (c). (bl). getty images: Universal Images Group (tl). 72 corbis: Lawrence Lawry (tl). 120 science photo library: Physics
29 getty images: Sovfoto / Universal Images Group (tc). Bettmann (tr); William G. Jackman (br). getty images: Today Collection / American Institute Of Physics (cl). 120-
nasa: (cr, br). 30-31 nasa: MIX (c). 30 corbis: Stocktrek AFP (bl); Science & Society Picture Library (cl). 73 Dorling 121 science photo library: Manfred Kage (c). 121
(bl). 31 Dorling Kindersley: The Fleet Air Arm Museum Kindersley: The Science Museum, London (tc). getty fotolia: pzAxe (clb). science photo library: Roger Harris
(bl). fotolia: valdis torms (tr). pearson asset library: images: Science & Society Picture Library (bl). pearson (cl); David Scharf (tr).
Oxford Designers & Illustrators Ltd. (crb). science photo asset library: Oxford Designers & Illustrators Ltd (cra).
library: Science Source (cla). 34 alamy images: Interfoto 74-75 Dorling Kindersley: The Science Museum, London
(cr, c); North Wind Picture Archives (bl). corbis: Gianni (c). 74 fotolia: photosoft (br). science photo library: Jacket images: Front: alamy images: GL Archive br/ (Bartha
Dagli Orti (cl). fotolia: Jonas Wolff (bc). 35 akg-images: (clb). 75 corbis: Heritage Images (cb). Dreamstime.com: Benz); the bridgeman art library: The Stapleton Collection
(tl). alamy images: Interfoto (cl, c). 36 corbis: (cl); (cb). Ademdemir (tl). fotolia: ojje11 (br). 76 Dreamstime.com: bc/ (Pink legs), bc/ (Blue Legs); corbis: Hulton-Deutsch
36-37 Dorling Kindersley: Saint Bride Printing Library, Mohammed Anwarul Kabir Choudhury (cr). 77 Collection cb, Lawrence Manning bc/ (Telephone), Lisa
London (c). 37 corbis: Stefano Bianchetti (c). Dorling Dreamstime.com: Fuzzbass (br); Shariff Che\’ Lah (tr). 80 O’Connor / ZUMA Press tl; Dorling Kindersley: National
Kindersley: Penguin Books (bl). fotolia: creative4m (br). alamy images: Zev Radovan / www.BibleLandPictures. Maritime Museum, London ca, National Maritime Museum,
38 alamy images: Everett Collection Historical (c). corbis: com (tr). fotolia: Pixel Embargo (br); koya979 (c). 81 London cra; Dreamstime.com: Cobalt88 tr; fotolia: chones
Bettmann (crb). getty images: Apic / Hulton Archive (tr); fotolia: mrkob (br). 82 getty images: Egyptian / The bl, Lucky Dragon cr, Gennady Poddubny br, qingwa tc,
Science & Society Picture Library (cl/Sir Charles Bridgeman Art Library (cla); Time & Life Pictures (bc). tony85 bc/ (Gloves); getty images: Hulton Archive cla,
Wheatstone). science & society picture library: Science mary evans picture library: (br). 82-83 Dreamstime.com: Science & Society Picture Library bc/ (Alexander Graham
Museum (cl). 39 corbis: Bettmann (tr). fotolia: elypse (bl). Romica (c). 83 alamy images: Chris Pancewicz (bl). mary Bell); mary evans picture library: bc; nasa: MIX cl; science
superstock: Eye Ubiquitous (cla). 40 Dorling Kindersley: evans picture library: (tl). 84 fotolia: borilove (br). 85 photo library: Sheila Terry tc/ (Guglielmo Marconi); Back:
The Science Museum, London (cl). 40-41 corbis: corbis: Ted Spiegel (br). fotolia: Lucky Dragon (c); corbis: Brooks Kraft / Sygma clb, The Mariners’ Museum
Bettmann (c). 41 corbis: Bettmann (cl). 42 the VERSUSstudio (fbl). science photo library: (tl, cb). 86 bl, Ocean cl; Dorling Kindersley: National Cycle Collection
bridgeman art library: The Stapleton Collection (cb/Blue fotolia: Zelfit (tl). 87 Dreamstime.com: Vladyslav fclb; Dreamstime.com: Kaarsten clb/ (Body); fotolia: Pixel
legs). corbis: Bettmann (bl). fotolia: tony85 (cb/Gloves). Starozhylov (cl). fotolia: christian42 (br). 88 corbis: Embargo tl, koya979 cr, James Steidl cla; getty images:
getty images: MPI / Archive Photos (cl); Science & Stephan Goerlich / DPA (crb); Yumeto Yamazaki / AFLO / MyLoupe / Universal Images Group cb; science photo
Society Picture Library (cb). 42-43 superstock: Science Nippon News (bc). getty images: SSPL (cl). science library: Roger Harris tr, Peter Menzel tc; Spine: Dorling
and Society. 43 the bridgeman art library: The Stapleton photo library: Peter Menzel (bl). 88-89 science photo Kindersley: The Science Museum, London t.
Collection (clb/Pink legs). fotolia: ojje11 (br); tony85 (clb/ library: Peter Menzel (c). 89 alamy images: Karen
Gloves, clb/Gloves); tony85 (clb/Gloves, clb/Gloves). mary Kasmauski / RGB Ventures LLC dba SuperStock (bc).
evans picture library: (clb). 44 corbis: Bettmann (bl). corbis: © U.S. Navy - digital version copy / Science All other images © Dorling Kindersley
science photo library: Sheila Terry (cra); USA Library Of Faction (tr). Dorling Kindersley: Department of For further information see: www.dkimages.com

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