INTRODUCTION TO MARKETING MANAGEMENT

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Define marketing and familiarize the steps in the marketing process;

2. Explain the importance of understanding customers and identify the core marketplace
concepts;
3. Enumerate and explain the customer- driven marketing strategy and the marketing
management orientations that guide the formulation of marketing strategy; and
4. Explain the concept of customer relationship management and be able to identify the
strategies for creating and capturing value for customers.

A. THE DEFINITION OF MARKETING AND THE MARKETING PROCESS

What is Marketing?

What is marketing? Many people think of marketing as only selling and advertising. We are
bombarded every day with TV commercials, catalogs, sales calls, and e-mail pitches. However, selling
and advertising are only the tip of the marketing iceberg.
Today, marketing must be understood not in the old sense of making a sale—“telling and
selling”—but in the new sense of satisfying customer needs. If the marketer understands consumer needs;
develops products that provide superior customer value; and prices, distributes, and promotes them
effectively, these products will sell easily. In fact, according to management guru Peter Drucker, “The
aim of marketing is to make selling unnecessary.” Selling and advertising are only part of a larger
“marketing mix”—a set of marketing tools that work together to satisfy customer needs and build
customer relationships.
Broadly defined, marketing is a social and managerial process by which individuals and
organizations obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging value with others. In a
narrower business context, marketing involves building profitable, value- laden exchange relationships
with customers. Hence, we define marketing as the process by which companies create value for
customers and build strong customer relationships in order to capture value from customers in return.

The Marketing Process

In the first four steps, companies work to understand consumers, create customer value, and
build strong customer relationships. In the final step, companies reap the rewards of creating superior
customer value. By creating value for consumers, they in turn capture value from consumers in the form
of sales, profits, and long-term customer equity.

Figure
1.1 The marketing process

The Marketing Process can be divided into two large parts: the first one consists of activities that
create value for customers. This is the largest and main part of the process, and can be further subdivided
into four steps. In return, the company can capture value from customers, which is the second part of the
Marketing Process.

 Part 1 of the Marketing Process: Creating Value for Customers

The first step of the Marketing Process looks at who the customer is and what he needs and
wants. Before any other marketing activities make sense, the company should gain a complete
understanding of the marketplace. For that, it must research the marketplace, as well as customer needs
and wants. Simultaneously, the information about the marketplace and customer data, which is to say
marketing information, must be managed.

The second step of the process is to design a customer-driven marketing strategy. How does a
company do that? It involves first of all market segmentation and targeting. The firm must segment the
market and then target and focus on one or more of these identified segments. This answers the simple
question: What customers do we want to serve? Answering this question and thereby carrying out a
proper segmentation and targeting is necessary because a company cannot serve all customers in every
way. On the contrary, the company should focus its resources on those customers it can serve best and
most profitably. Segmentation and targeting determines who will be served. The next question is how
the targeted customers can be served best, which involves differentiation and positioning. What is the
company’s value proposition, what makes it more valuable for customers than other companies and
which position does it want to achieve in customers’ minds? Doing that also involves to choose
a Marketing Concept, also called Marketing Management Orientation.

When the marketing strategy is designed, the company can address the third step, which
focuses on constructing an integrated marketing program, which is the so-called marketing mix. The
purpose of the marketing program is to turn the marketing strategy into real value for the customers.
Therefore, the marketing program should deliver superior customer value. The marketing program is
often called the 4 P’s, consisting of the four marketing mix elements. The marketing mix consists of the
Product, Price, Place, and Promotion. The Product is about designing a product (or service) which is
desirable for the targeted customers and creating strong brands around these products. Then, they must
be priced so as to make them attractive to customers, and distributed (Place), managing demand and
supply chains, to make them available to the targeted customers. To round the marketing mix off, a
promotion strategy must be set up to communicate the customer value and the value proposition to
target customers and convince them to take on the company’s offer.

The fourth step in the first part of the Marketing Process which aims to create value for
customers is to build profitable customer relationships with target customers. The factor leading to
success in this goes beyond satisfying customers. Instead, the orientation must be creating customer
delight, meaning that the company’s offers exceed customers’ expectations. Then, customers will repeat
the purchase action and stay loyal and profitable for the company. Therefore, this step may be the most
important one in the first part of the Marketing Process. The process which leads to the creation and
maintenance of customer relationships is CRM, Customer Relationship Management. However, the firm
cannot do all of this alone. Creating customer value and maintaining strong customer relationships also
requires strong relationships and collaboration with marketing partners, which leads to PRM, Partner
Relationship Management.

 Part 2 of the Marketing Process: Capturing Value in Return

After these four steps have been accomplished, the firm has created value for the right customers
by an integrated marketing program leading to strong customer relationships. Now, it can reap the fruit
of its work. The fifth step can now focus on capturing value from customers in return. Capturing value
from customers means that the firm is able to create profits and customer equity. This is based on
satisfied, delighted and loyal customers who repeat the purchase action and thus come back to buy more
and again. Hence, the company can capture their value in the long-term, which is the Customer Lifetime
Value (CLV). If all activities are planned and executed properly, the company will be able to increase its
market share and win a greater share of customers to maximize the value it can capture from customers.

B. THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING CUSTOMERS AND CORE MARKETPLACE

CONCEPTS

Customer Needs, Wants, and Demands

The most basic concept underlying marketing is that of human needs. Human needs are states
of felt deprivation. They include basic physical needs for food, clothing, warmth, and safety; social needs
for belonging and affection; and individual needs for knowledge and self-expression.
Marketers did not create these needs; they are a basic part of the human makeup. Wants are the
form human needs take as they are shaped by culture and individual personality. An American needs food
but wants a Big Mac, French fries, and a soft drink. A person in Papua New Guinea needs food but wants
taro, rice, yams, and pork. Wants are shaped by one’s society and are described in terms of objects that
will satisfy those needs.
When backed by buying power, wants become demands. Given their wants and resources,
people demand products with benefits that add up to the most value and satisfaction.
Outstanding marketing companies go to great lengths to learn about and understand their customers’
needs, wants, and demands. They conduct consumer research and analyze mountains of customer data.
Their people at all levels—including top management—stay close to customers. For example, retailer
Cabela’s vice-chairman, James W. Cabela, spends hours each morning reading through customer
comments and hand-delivering them to each department, circling important customer issues. At
Zappos, CEO Tony Hsieh uses Twitter to build more personal connections with customers and
employees. Some 1.6 million people follow Hsieh’s Twitter feed. And at P&G, executives from the chief
executive officer down spend time with consumers in their homes and on shopping trips. P&G brand
managers routinely spend a week or two living on the budget of low-end consumers to gain insights into
what they can do to improve customers’ lives.

Market Offerings—Products, Services, and Experiences

Consumers’ needs and wants are fulfilled through market offerings—some combination of
products, services, information, or experiences offered to a market to satisfy a need or a want. Market
offerings are not limited to physical products. They also include services— activities or benefits offered
for sale that are essentially intangible and do not result in the ownership of anything. Examples include
banking, airline, hotel, tax preparation, and home repair services.
More broadly, market offerings also include other entities, such as persons, places, organizations,
information, and ideas. For example, the “Pure Michigan” campaign markets the state of Michigan as a
tourism destination that “lets unspoiled nature and authentic character revive your spirits.” And the U.S.
Forest Service’s “Reconnecting Kids with Nature” campaign markets the idea of encouraging urban
young people to explore the joys of nature firsthand.

Many sellers make the mistake of paying more attention to the specific products they offer than
to the benefits and experiences produced by these products. These sellers suffer from marketing
myopia. They are so taken with their products that they focus only on existing wants and lose sight of
underlying customer needs. They forget that a product is only a tool to solve a consumer problem. A
manufacturer of quarter-inch drill bits may think that the customer needs a drill bit. But what the
customer really needs is a quarter-inch hole. These sellers will have trouble if a new product comes along
that serves the customer’s need better or less expensively. The customer will have the same need but will
want the new product.

Customer Value and Satisfaction

Consumers usually face a broad array of products and services that might satisfy a given need.
How do they choose among these many market offerings? Customers form expectations about the value
and satisfaction that various market offerings will deliver and buy accordingly. Satisfied customers buy
again and tell others about their good experiences. Dissatisfied customers often switch to competitors
and disparage the product to others.
Marketers must be careful to set the right level of expectations. If they set expectations too low,
they may satisfy those who buy but fail to attract enough buyers. If they set expectations too high, buyers
will be disappointed. Customer value and customer satisfaction are key building blocks for developing
and managing customer relationships.

Exchanges and Relationships

Marketing occurs when people decide to satisfy needs and wants through exchange
relationships. Exchange is the act of obtaining a desired object from someone by offering something in
return. In the broadest sense, the marketer tries to bring about a response to some market offering. The
response may be more than simply buying or trading products and services. Apolitical candidate, for
instance, wants votes, a church wants membership, an orchestra wants an audience, and a social action
group wants idea acceptance.
Marketing consists of actions taken to build and maintain desirable exchange relationships with
target audiences involving a product, service, idea, or other object. Beyond simply attracting new
customers and creating transactions, companies want to retain customers and grow their businesses.
Marketers want to build strong relationships by consistently delivering superior customer value. We will
expand on the important concept of managing customer relationships later in the chapter.
Markets
The concepts of exchange and relationships lead to the concept of a market. A market is the set
of actual and potential buyers of a product or service. These buyers share a particular need or want that
can be satisfied through exchange relationships.
Marketing means managing markets to bring about profitable customer relationships.
However, creating these relationships takes work. Sellers must search for buyers, identify their needs,
design good market offerings, set prices for them, promote them, and store and deliver them. Activities
such as consumer research, product development, communication, distribution, pricing, and service are
core marketing activities.
Although we normally think of marketing as being carried out by sellers, buyers also carry out
marketing. Consumers market when they search for products, interact with companies to obtain
information, and make their purchases. In fact, today’s digital technologies, from Web sites and online
social networks to cell phones, have empowered consumers and made marketing a truly interactive
affair. Thus, in addition to customer relationship management, today’s marketers must also deal
effectively with customer-managed relationships. Marketers are no longer asking only “How can we reach
our customers?” but also “How should our customers reach us?” and even “How can our customers reach
each other?”
Figure 1.2 shows the main elements in a marketing system. Marketing involves serving a market
of final consumers in the face of competitors. The company and competitors research the market and
interact with consumers to understand their needs.
Then they create and send their market offerings and messages to consumers, either directly or through
marketing intermediaries. Each party in the system is affected by major environmental forces
(demographic, economic, natural, technological, political, and
social/cultural).
Each party in the system adds value for the next level. The arrows represent relationships that
must be developed and managed. Thus, a company’s success at building profitable relationships depends
not only on its own actions but also on how well the entire system serves the needs of final consumers.
Walmart cannot fulfill its promise of low prices unless its suppliers provide merchandise at low costs. And
Ford cannot deliver a high quality car-ownership experience unless its dealers provide outstanding sales
and service.

Figure 1.2 Elements in marketing system

C. CUSTOMER- DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY

Designing a Customer-Driven Marketing Strategy

Once it fully understands consumers and the marketplace, marketing management can design a
customer-driven marketing strategy. We define marketing management as the art and science of
choosing target markets and building profitable relationships with them. The marketing manager’s aim
is to find, attract, keep, and grow target customers by creating, delivering, and communicating superior
customer value.
To design a winning marketing strategy, the marketing manager must answer two important
questions: What customers will we serve (what’s our target market)? And how can we serve these customers
best (what’s our value proposition)?

Selecting Customers to Serve

The company must first decide whom it will serve. It does this by dividing the market into
segments of customers (market segmentation) and selecting which segments it will go after (target
marketing). Some people think of marketing management as finding as many customers as possible and
increasing demand. But marketing managers know that they cannot serve all customers in every way. By
trying to serve all customers, they may not serve any customers well. Instead, the company wants to
select only customers that it can serve well and profitably. For example, Nordstrom profitably targets
affluent professionals; Dollar General profitably targets families with more modest means.
Ultimately, marketing managers must decide which customers they want to target and on level,
timing, and nature of their demand. Simply put, marketing management is customer management and
demand management.

Choosing a Value Proposition

The company must also decide how it will serve targeted customers—how it will differentiate and
position itself in the marketplace. A brand’s value proposition is the set of benefits or values it promises to
deliver to consumers to satisfy their needs. At AT&T, it’s “Your World. Delivered.” whereas with T-
Mobile, family and friends can “Stick together.” The diminutive Smart car suggests that you “Open your
mind to the car that challenges the status quo,” whereas Infiniti “Makes luxury affordable,” and BMW
promises “the ultimate driving machine.”
Such value propositions differentiate one brand from another. They answer the customer’s
question, “Why should I buy your brand rather than a competitor’s?” Companies must design strong value
propositions that give them the greatest advantage in their target markets. For example, the Smart car
is positioned as compact, yet comfortable; agile, yet economical; and safe, yet ecological. Its “sheer
automotive genius in a totally fun, efficient package. Smart thinking, indeed.”

D. Marketing Management Orientations

Marketing management wants to design strategies that will build profitable relationships with target
consumers. But what philosophy should guide these marketing strategies? What weight should be given
to the interests of customers, the organization, and society? Very often, these interests conflict.
There are five alternative concepts under which organizations design and carry out their marketing
strategies: the production, product, selling, marketing, and societal marketing concepts.

The Production Concept

The production concept holds that consumers will favor products that are available and highly
affordable. Therefore, management should focus on improving production and distribution efficiency.
This concept is one of the oldest orientations that guides sellers.
The production concept is still a useful philosophy in some situations. For example, computer
maker Lenovo dominates the highly competitive, price-sensitive Chinese PC market through low labor
costs, high production efficiency, and mass distribution. However, although useful in some situations,
the production concept can lead to marketing myopia. Companies adopting this orientation run a major
risk of focusing too narrowly on their own operations and losing sight of the real objective—satisfying
customer needs and building customer relationships.

The Product Concept

The product concept holds that consumers will favor products that offer the most in quality,
performance, and innovative features. Under this concept, marketing strategy focuses on making
continuous product improvements.
Product quality and improvement are important parts of most marketing strategies. However,
focusing only on the company’s products can also lead to marketing myopia. For example, some
manufacturers believe that if they can “build a better mousetrap, the world will beat a path to their
doors.” But they are often rudely shocked. Buyers may be looking for a better solution to a mouse
problem but not necessarily for a better mousetrap. The better solution might be a chemical spray, an
exterminating service, a house cat, or something else that works even better than a mousetrap.
Furthermore, a better mousetrap will not sell unless the manufacturer designs, packages, and prices it
attractively; places it in convenient distribution channels; brings it to the attention of people who need
it; and convinces buyers that it is a better product.

The Selling Concept

Many companies follow the selling concept, which holds that consumers will not buy enough of
the firm’s products unless it undertakes a large-scale selling and promotion effort. The selling concept is
typically practiced with unsought goods—those that buyers do not normally think of buying, such as
insurance or blood donations. These industries must be good at tracking down prospects and selling
them on a product’s benefits.
Such aggressive selling, however, carries high risks. It focuses on creating sales transactions
rather than on building long-term, profitable customer relationships. The aim often is to sell what the
company makes rather than making what the market wants. It assumes that customers who are coaxed
into buying the product will like it. Or, if they don’t like it, they will possibly forget their disappointment
and buy it again later. These are usually poor assumptions.

The Marketing Concept

The marketing concept holds that achieving organizational goals depends on knowing the
needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions better than competitors do.
Under the marketing concept, customer focus and value are the paths to sales and profits. Instead of a
product-centered “make and sell” philosophy, the marketing concept is a customer-centered “sense and
respond” philosophy. The job is not to find the right customers for your product but to find the right
products for your customers.
Figure 1.3 contrasts the selling concept and the marketing concept. The selling concept takes an
inside-out perspective. It starts with the factory, focuses on the company’s existing products, and calls for
heavy selling and promotion to obtain profitable sales. It focuses primarily on customer conquest—
getting short-term sales with little concern about who buys or why.

In contrast, the marketing concept takes an outside-in perspective. As Herb Kelleher, the colorful
founder of Southwest Airlines puts it, “We don’t have a marketing department; we have a customer
department.” The marketing concept starts with a well-defined market, focuses on customer needs, and
integrates all the marketing activities that affect customers. In turn, it yields profits by creating lasting
relationships with the right customers based on customer value and satisfaction.
Implementing the marketing concept often means more than simply responding to customers’
stated desires and obvious needs. Customer-driven companies research current customers deeply to learn
about their desires, gather new product and service ideas, and test proposed product improvements.
Such customer-driven marketing usually works well when a clear need exists and when customers know
what they want.

The Societal Marketing Concept

The societal marketing concept questions whether the pure marketing concept overlooks
possible conflicts between consumer short-run wants and consumer long-run welfare. Is a firm that
satisfies the immediate needs and wants of target markets always doing what’s best for its consumers in
the long run? The societal marketing concept holds that marketing strategy should deliver value to
customers in a way that maintains or improves both the consumer’s and society’s well-being. It calls for
sustainable marketing, socially and environmentally responsible marketing that meets the present needs
of consumers and businesses while also preserving or enhancing the ability of future generations to meet
their needs.
Consider today’s bottled water industry. You may view bottled water companies as offering a
convenient, tasty, and healthy product. Its packaging suggests “green” images of pristine lakes and
snow-capped mountains. Yet making, filling, and shipping billions of plastic bottles generates huge
amounts of carbon dioxide emissions that contribute substantially to global warming. Further, the plastic
bottles pose a substantial recycling and solid waste disposal problem. Thus, in satisfying short-term
consumer wants, the bottled water industry may be causing environmental problems that run against
society’s long-run interests.
As Figure 1.4 shows, companies should balance three considerations in setting their marketing
strategies: company profits, consumer wants, and society’s interests. UPS does this well. Its concern for
societal interests has earned it the number one or number two spot in Fortune magazine’s Most Admired
Companies for Social Responsibility rankings in four of the past five years.

UPS seeks more than just short-run sales and profits. Its three-pronged corporate sustainability
mission stresses economic prosperity (profitable growth through a customer focus), social responsibility
(community engagement and individual well-being), and environmental stewardship (operating
efficiently and protecting the environment). Whether it involves greening up its operations or urging
employees to volunteer time in their communities, UPS proactively seeks opportunities to act
responsibly. UPS knows that doing what’s right benefits both consumers and the company. By operating
efficiently and acting responsibly, it can “meet the needs of the enterprise . . . while protecting and
enhancing the human and natural resources that will be needed in the future.” Social responsibility “isn’t
just good for the planet,” says the company. “It’s good for business.”

E. CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT AND CREATING VALUE FOR CUSTOMERS

Customer Relationship Management

Customer relationship management is perhaps the most important concept of modern marketing.
Some marketers define it narrowly as a customer data management activity (a practice called CRM). By
this definition, it involves managing detailed information about individual customers and carefully
managing customer “touchpoints” to maximize customer loyalty.
Most marketers, however, give the concept of customer relationship management a broader
meaning. In this broader sense, customer relationship management is the overall process of building
and maintaining profitable customer relationships by delivering superior customer value and
satisfaction. It deals with all aspects of acquiring, keeping, and growing customers.

Relationship Building Blocks: Customer Value and Satisfaction

The key to building lasting customer relationships is to create superior customer value and
satisfaction. Satisfied customers are more likely to be loyal customers and give the company a larger
share of their business.
Customer Value. Attracting and retaining customers can be a difficult task. Customers often face a
bewildering array of products and services from which to choose. A customer buys from the firm that
offers the highest customer-perceived value—the customer’s evaluation of the difference between all
the benefits and all the costs of a market offering relative to those of competing offers. Importantly,
customers often do not judge values and costs “accurately” or “objectively.” They act on perceived value.
To some consumers, value might mean sensible products at affordable prices, especially in the aftermath
of recent recession. To other consumers, however, value might mean paying more to get more. For
example, despite the challenging economic environment, GE recently introduced its new Profile washer-
and-dryer set, which retails for more than $2,500 (more than double the cost of a standard washer-and-
dryer set). Profile ads feature stylish machines in eye-catching colors, such as cherry red. But the ads also
focus on down-to-earth practicality. They position the Profile line as a revolutionary new “clothes care
system,” with technology that allocates the optimal amount of soap and water per load and saves money
by being gentle on clothes, extending garment life. Are Profile washers and dryers worth the much higher
price compared to less expensive appliances? It’s all a matter of personal value perceptions. To many
consumers, the answer is no. But to the target segment of style conscious, affluent buyers, the answer is
yes.

Customer Satisfaction. Customer satisfaction depends on the product’s perceived performance relative
to a buyer’s expectations. If the product’s performance falls short of expectations, the customer is
dissatisfied. If performance matches expectations, the customer is satisfied. If performance exceeds
expectations, the customer is highly satisfied or delighted.
Outstanding marketing companies go out of their way to keep important customers satisfied.
Most studies show that higher levels of customer satisfaction lead to greater customer loyalty, which in
turn results in better company performance. Smart companies aim to delight customers by promising
only what they can deliver and then delivering more than they promise. Delighted customers not only
make repeat purchases but also become willing marketing partners and “customer evangelists” who
spread the word about their good experiences to others.
For companies interested in delighting customers, exceptional value and service become part of
the overall company culture. For example, year after year, Ritz-Carlton ranks at or near the top of the
hospitality industry in terms of customer satisfaction. Its passion for satisfying customers is summed up
in the company’s credo, which promises that its luxury hotels will deliver a truly memorable experience—
one that “enlivens the senses, instills well-being, and fulfills even the unexpressed wishes and needs of
our guests.”
Creating Customer Loyalty and Retention
Good customer relationship management creates customer delight. In turn, delighted customers
remain loyal and talk favorably to others about the company and its products. Studies show big
differences in the loyalty of customers who are less satisfied, somewhat satisfied, and completely
satisfied. Even a slight drop from complete satisfaction can create an enormous drop in loyalty. Thus, the
aim of customer relationship management is to create not only customer satisfaction but also customer
delight.
The recent economic recession put strong pressures on customer loyalty. It created a new
consumer frugality that will last well into the future. One recent study found that, even in an improved
economy, 55 percent of consumers say they would rather get the best price than the best brand. Nearly
two-thirds say they will now shop at a different store with lower prices even if it’s less convenient. It’s five
times cheaper to keep an old customer than acquire a new one. Thus, companies today must shape their
value propositions even more carefully and treat their profitable customers well Growing Share of
Customer Beyond simply retaining good customers to capture customer lifetime value, good customer
relationship management can help marketers increase their share of customer—the share they get of
the customer’s purchasing in their product categories. Thus, banks want to increase “share of wallet.”
Supermarkets and restaurants want to get more “share of stomach.” Car companies want to increase
“share of garage,” and airlines want greater “share of travel.”
To increase share of customer, firms can offer greater variety to current customers. Or they can
create programs to cross-sell and up-sell to market more products and services to existing customers.
For example, Amazon.com is highly skilled at leveraging relationships with its 88 million customers to
increase its share of each customer’s purchases. Originally an online bookseller, Amazon.com now offers
customers music, videos, gifts, toys, consumer electronics, office products, home improvement items,
lawn and garden products, apparel and accessories, jewelry, tools, and even groceries. In addition, based
on each customer’s purchase history, previous product searches, and other data, the company
recommends related products that might be of interest. This recommendation system influences up to
30 percent of all sales. In these ways, Amazon.com captures a greater share of each customer’s spending
budget.

Building Customer Equity

We can now see the importance of not only acquiring customers but also keeping and growing
them. One marketing consultant puts it this way: “The only value your company will ever create is the
value that comes from customers—the ones you have now and the ones you will have in the future.
Without customers, you don’t have a business.” Customer relationship management takes a long-term
view. Companies want not only to create profitable customers but also “own” them for life, earn a greater
share of their purchases, and capture their customer lifetime value.

What Is Customer Equity?

The ultimate aim of customer relationship management is to produce high customer equity.
Customer equity is the total combined customer lifetime values of all of the company’s current and
potential customers. As such, it’s a measure of the future value of the company’s customer base. Clearly,
the more loyal the firm’s profitable customers, the higher its customer equity. Customer equity may be
a better measure of a firm’s performance than current sales or market share. Whereas sales and market
share reflect the past, customer equity suggests the future.

F. THE CHANGING MARKETING LANDSCAPE

Every day, dramatic changes are occurring in the marketplace. Richard Love of HP observed, “The
pace of change is so rapid that the ability to change has now become a competitive advantage.” Yogi
Berra, the legendary New York Yankees catcher and manager, summed it up more simply when he said,
“The future isn’t what it used to be.” As the marketplace changes, so must those who serve it.
In this section, we examine the major trends and forces that are changing the marketing
landscape and challenging marketing strategy. We look at five major developments: the uncertain
economic environment, the digital age, and rapid globalization, the call for more ethics and social
responsibility, and the growth of not-for-profit marketing.

The Uncertain Economic Environment

Beginning in 2008, the United States and world economies experienced a stunning economic
meltdown, unlike anything since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The stock market plunged, and
trillions of dollars of market value simply evaporated. The financial crisis left shell-shocked consumers
short of both money and confidence as they faced losses in income, a severe credit crunch, declining
home values, and rising unemployment.
The so-called Great Recession caused many consumers to rethink their spending priorities and
cut back on their buying. After a decade of overspending, “frugality has made a comeback,” says one
analyst. More than just a temporary change, the new consumer buying attitudes and spending behavior
will likely remain for many years to come. “The ‘new frugality,’ born of the Great Recession, . . . is now
becoming entrenched consumer behavior that is reshaping consumption patterns in ways that will
persist even as the economy rebounds,” says another analyst. Even in its aftermath, consumers are now
spending more carefully.
In response, companies in all industries—from discounters such as Target to luxury brands such
as Lexus—have aligned their marketing strategies with the new economic realities. More than ever,
marketers are emphasizing the value in their value propositions. They are focusing on value-for-the-
money, practicality, and durability in their product offerings and marketing pitches. “Value is the magic
word,” says a P&G marketing executive. These days, “people are doing the math in their heads, and
they’re being much more thoughtful before making purchases. Now, we’re going to be even more
focused on helping consumers see value.

Rapid Globalization
As they are redefining their customer relationships, marketers are also taking a fresh look at the
ways in which they relate with the broader world around them. In an increasingly smaller world,
companies are now connected globally with their customers and marketing partners. Today, almost
every company, large or small, is touched in some way by global competition. A neighborhood florist
buys its flowers from Mexican nurseries, and a large U.S. electronics manufacturer competes in its home
markets with giant Korean rivals. A fledgling Internet retailer finds itself receiving orders from all over
the world at the same time that an American consumer-goods producer introduces new products into
emerging markets abroad.
American firms have been challenged at home by the skillful marketing of European and Asian
multinationals. Companies such as Toyota, Nokia, Nestlé, and Samsung have often outperformed their
U.S. competitors in American markets. Similarly, U.S. companies in a wide range of industries have
developed truly global operations, making and selling their products worldwide. Quintessentially
American McDonald’s now serves 60 million customers daily in more than 32,000 local restaurants in 100
countries worldwide—65 percent of its corporate revenues come from outside the United States.
Similarly, Nike markets in more than 180 countries, with non-U.S. sales accounting for 66 percent of its
worldwide sales. Today, companies are not only selling more of their locally produced goods in
international markets but also buying more supplies and components abroad. Thus, managers in
countries around the world are increasingly taking a global, not just local, view of the company’s industry,
competitors, and opportunities. They are asking: What is global marketing? How does it differ from
domestic marketing? How do global competitors and forces affect our business? To what extent should
we “go global”?

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