Research Paper and Reports

International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE)

ISSN: 2278-3075, Volume-2, Issue-5, April 2013

Stone Waste :Effective Replacement Of Cement

For Establishing Green Concrete
Ankit Nileshchandra Patel, Jayeshkumar Pitroda
Abstract—Stone waste is one of the most active research areas A pozzolans is a cement extender improving the strength
that encompass a number of disciplines including civil and durability of the cement or even reducing the costs of
engineering and construction materials. In India, stone dust is producing concrete. PPC may take a longer time to settle
settled by sedimentation and then dumped away which results in than OPC, but it will eventually produce similar results
environmental pollution, in addition to forming dust in summer
given time.
and threatening both agriculture and public health. Therefore,
utilization of the stone dust in various industrial sectors Stone blocks are cut into smaller blocks in order to give
especially the construction, agriculture, glass and paper them the desired shape and size. During the process of
industries would help to protect the environment. It is most cutting, in that original Stone mass is lost by 25% in the
essential to develop eco-friendly concrete from stone waste.In this form of dust. Every year 250-400 tons of Stone waste are
research study the(PPC) cement has been replaced by stone waste generatedon site. The Stone cutting plants are dumping the
accordingly in the range of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% 40%, & 50% by powder in any nearby pit or vacant spaces, near their unit
weight for M-25 grade concrete. Concrete mixtures were although notified areas have been marked for dumping. This
produced, tested and compared in terms of workability and leads to serious environmental and dust pollution and
strength to the conventional concrete. These tests were carried
occupation of a vast areaof land, especially after the powder
out to evaluate the mechanical properties for 7, 14 and 28 days.
As a result, the compressive strength increased up to 20% dries up so it is necessary to dispose the Stone waste quickly
replacing of stone waste. This research work is concerned with and use in the construction industry.
the experimental investigation on strength of concrete and
optimum percentage of the partial replacement by replacing II. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS
(PPC) cement via 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% of stone
waste. Keeping all this view, the aim of the investigation is the A. Materials
behavior of concrete while replacing of waste with different
proportions of stone waste in concrete by using tests like a) Stone waste
compression strength. The principle waste coming into the stone industry is the
Keywords—Industrial Waste,Stone Waste, Eco-Friendly, stone itself, specifically in the forms of overburden,
LowCost, Compressive Strength, PPC Cement screening residual, stone fragments. Stone wastes are
generated as a waste during the process of cutting and
I. INTRODUCTION polishing. It is estimated that 175 million tons of quarrying
waste are produced each year, and although a portion of this
The advancement of concrete technology can reduce the
waste may be utilized on-site, such as for excavation pit
consumption of natural resources and energy sources and
refill or berm construction, The disposals of these waste
lessen the burden of pollutants on the environment. The cost
materials acquire large land areas and remain scattered all
of natural resources is also increased. They have forced to
around, spoiling the aesthetic of the entire region. It is very
focus on recovery, reuse of natural resources and find other
difficult to find a use for all scrap stone and fines produced.
alternatives. Presently large amounts of Stone waste are
Stone waste canbe used in concrete to improve its strength
generated in natural stone processing plants with an
and other durability factors.Stone waste can be used
important impact on environment and humans. The use of
asapartial replacement of
the replacement materials offer cost reduction, energy
cementorasapartialreplacementoffineaggregatesandasa
savings, arguably superior products, and fewer hazards in the
supplementary additiontoachievedifferent propertiesof
environment.
concrete.
The Portland Pozzolana Cement is a kind of Blended
Cement which is produced by either intergrinding of OPC
clinker along with gypsum and pozzolanic materials in
certain proportions. PPC is produced when pozzolans are
used in the mixture. Pozzolans are the siliceous and
aluminous material which in itself possesses little, or no
cementitious properties but will in finely divided form and
in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium
hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties.
Manuscript received on April, 2013.

Ankit Nileshchandra Patel, Student of final year M.E. C E & M,
B.V.M. Engineering college, Vallabh Vidyanagar, India. Figure: 1. Stone waste
Jayeshkumar Pitroda, Assistant Professor& Research Scholar, Civil Source: Uma Marble, GIDC, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Anand,
Engg Department, B.V.M. Engineering College, Vallabh Vidyanagar- Gujarat
Gujarat-India
24
Stone Waste :Effective Replacement Of Cement For Establishing Green Concrete
TABLE–1 required proportion such that the sample contains minimum

PROPERTIES OF STONE WASTE voids. Samples of the well graded aggregate containing
Constituent Value (%) minimum voids require minimum paste to fill up the voids
in the aggregates. Minimum paste means less quantity of
SiO2 36.96 cement and less water, which are further mean increased
Al2O3 0.49 economy, higher strength, lower shrinkage and greater
Fe2O3 3.40 durability.
CaO 28.60 d) Coarse Aggregate
MgO 6.08 The fractions from 20 mm to 4.75 mm are used as coarse
aggregate. The Coarse Aggregates from crushed Basalt rock,
SO3 0.15 conforming to IS: 383 is being use. The Flakiness and
LOI 22.16 Elongation Index were maintained well below 15%.
TOTAL 97.78
Source: GEO TEST HOUSE, Gorwa estate Baroda
b) Cement (PPC)
The most common cement used is an Portlandpozzolana
cement. ThePortlandpozzolana cementof 53 grade
(SANGHI cement PPC) conforming to IS: 1489 (PART-1)
1991is beingused. Many tests were conducted on cement;
some of them are consistency tests, setting tests, soundness
tests, etc.
Figure: 3 coarse aggregate
Figure: 2 SANGHI Cement (PPC 53 grade)
TABLE-2
PROPERTIES OF (PPC) CEMENT
Sr. Chemical Figure: 4 Grit
Physical
No. properties
properties of e) Fine aggregate
Result of SANGHI Result
SANGHI PPC Those fractions from 4.75 mm to 150 microns are termed as
PPC (%)
53cement fine aggregate. The river sand is used in combination as
53cement
1 fine aggregate conforming to the requirements of IS:
Specific gravity 2.93 SiO2 23.5 383. The river sand is washed and screen, to eliminate
2 deleterious materials and oversize particles.
Standard
31.5 % Al2O3 12.9
consistency (%)
3 Initial setting
time (hours, 200 min CaO 47.0
min)
4 Final setting
230 min
time (hours, MgO 1.74
min)
5 Compressive
51
strength N/mm2 Fe2O3 2.04
N/mm2
at 28 days
6 Loss on 1.05
- -
Ignition
c) Aggregate
Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete. They
give body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage and effect
economy. One of the most important factors for producing
workable concrete is a good gradation of aggregates. Good
grading implies that a sample fraction of aggregates in Figure: 5 Fine aggregate
25
International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE)
ISSN: 2278-3075, Volume-2, Issue-5, April 2013
TABLE-3 V. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
PROPERTIES OF FINE AGGREGATE, COURSE The evaluation of stone waste for use as a replacement of
AGGREGATE (PPC) cement material begins with the concrete testing.
Property Fine Coarse Aggregate
Aggregate
Concrete contains cement, water, fineaggregate, coarse
20 mm 10 mm
down down aggregate and grit. With the control concrete, i.e. 10%, 20%,
Fineness modulus 3.35 7.54 3.19 30%, 40%, and 50% of the (PPC) cement is replaced with
stone waste,the data from the stone waste is compared with
Specific Gravity 2.38 2.76 2.69 data from a standard concrete without stone waste. Three
Bulk Density (gm/cc) cube samples were cast on the mould of size 150*150*150
1753 1741 1711
mm for each 1:1.01:2.50 concrete mix with partial
Water absorption (%) replacement of (PPC) cement with a w/c ratio as 0.40 were
1.20 1.83 1.35
also cast. After about 24 h the specimens were de-moulded
and water curing was continued till the respective specimens
f) Water were tested after 7,14 and 28 days for compressive strength
Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actually
test.
participates in the chemical reaction with cement. Since it
helps to from the strength giving cement gel, the quantity Compressive strength
and quality of water are required to be looked into very Compressive strength tests were performed on compression
carefully. testing machine using cube samples. Three samples per
batch were tested with the average strength values reported
III. DESIGN MIX in this paper. The loading rate on the cube is 35 N/mm2 per
A mix M25 grade was designed as per Indian Standard min. The comparative studies were made on their
method (IS 10262-2009) and the same was used to prepare characteristics for concrete mix ratio of 1:1.01:2.50 with
the test samples.The design mix proportion is done in Tab 4. partial replacement of (PPC) cement with stone waste as
10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%.
TABLE-4
DESIGN MIX PROPORTION FOR (M25 MIX)
W C F.A. C.A.
(Lit) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
By weight, [gms] 191.60 479 485.75 1197.03
By volume, [m3] 0.40 1 1.01 2.50
W= Water, C= cement, F.A. = Fine Aggregate, C.A. =

Coarse Aggregate
Figure: 6 Setup of Compression Strength Testing Machine
TABLE-5 TABLE -7
CONCRETE DESIGN MIX (M25 MIX) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
PROPORTIONS CUBES(150X150X150)FOR M25 MIX AT 7, 14, 28 DAYS
Average Average Average
Sr.N Concrete Concrete Design Mix Proportion Concrete Ultimate Ultimate Ultimate
o. Type Type Compressive Compressive Compressive
W/C
C F.A. C.A. S.W. Strength at 7 Strength at 14 Strength at 28
ratio
1 B0 0.40 1.00 1.01 2.50 - days [N/mm2] days [N/mm2] days [N/mm2]
2 B1 0.40 0.90 1.01 2.50 0.10 B0 27.56 30.22 44.44
3 B2 0.40 0.80 1.01 2.50 0.20
B1 18.96 20.59 31.56
4 B3 0.40 0.70 1.01 2.50 0.30
5 B4 0.40 0.60 1.01 2.50 0.40 B2 22.67 26.52 29.04
6 B5 0.40 0.50 1.01 2.50 0.50
B3 13.67 20.07 21.04
C= cement, F.A. = Fine Aggregate, C.A. = Coarse
Aggregate,S.W. = Stone waste B4 12.44 19.41 19.85
B5 6.81 10.07 10.81
IV. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
TABLE-6
DESIGN MIX PROPORTION FOR VARIOUS
CONCRETE
Sr.N Concrete Type PPC cementReplacement
o. with Stone waste
1 B0 Standard Concrete
2 B1 10% replacement
6 50% replacement Figure: 7 % Replacement of stone waste V/S Compressive
B5
Strength (N/mm2) of Concrete for M25 mix at 7, 14 and 28 days
26
Stone Waste :Effective Replacement Of Cement For Establishing Green Concrete
VI. ECONOMIC FEASABILITY [4] Baboo Rai, Khan Naushad H, Abhishek Kr, Tabin Rushad S, Duggal
S.K “Influence Of Marble Powder/Granules in Concrete Mix”
TABLE- 8 International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering Volume 1,
COSTS OF MATERIALS No 4, 2011
Sr. Materials Rate (Rs/Kg) [5] IS: 1489-1991, Specifications for 53-Grade Portland Pozzolona
No. cement, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
1 Cement (SANGHI PPC 53 grade) 5.80 [6] IS: 383-1970, Specifications for coarse and fine aggregates from
natural sources for concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
2 Fine aggregate (Regional ) 0.60
Delhi, India.
3 Coarse aggregate (Regional ) 0.65 [7] IS: 10262-1982, Recommended guidelines for concrete mix design,
4 Stone waste 0.20 Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
[8] IS: 1199-1959, Indian standard methods of sampling and analysis of
TABLE - 9 concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
TOTAL COST OF MATERIALS FOR M25DESIGNE MIX [9] IS: 516-1959, Indian standard code of practice- methods of test for
CONCRETE (1:1.01:2.50) PER m3 strength of concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
Consumption of Design Mix Total % [10] Elham Khalilzadeh Shirazi “Reusing of Stone Waste in Various
C. Proportions For M25 Concrete Cost /m3 Cost Industrial Activities” 2011 2nd International Conference on
T. (1:1.01:2.50) change Environmental Science and Development IPCBEE Vol.4 (2011)
C F.A. C.A. S.W. [11] Hanifi Binici, Hasan Kaplan and Salih Yilmaz“Influence of Marble
B0 479.00 485.75 718.22 - 3847.72 0 and Limestone Dusts as Additives on Scientific Research and Essay”
Vol. 2 (9) ISSN 1992-2248 Accepted 6 August
B1 431.10 485.75 718.22 47.90 3579.48 -6.97 [12] M. Shahul HameedAnd A. S. S. Sekar “Properties Of Green
B2 383.20 485.75 718.22 95.80 3311.24 -13.94 Concrete Containing Quarry Rock Dust And Marble Sludge
B3 335.50 485.75 718.22 143.70 3043.00 -20.91 Powder As Fine Aggregate” Arpn Journal of Engineering and
Applied Sciences Vol. 4, No. 4, June 2009
B4 287.40 485.75 718.22 191.60 2774.76 -27.88 [13] M. Belachia And H. Hebhoub “Use of the Marble Wastes in the
B5 239.50 485.75 718.22 239.50 2506.52 -34.85 Hydraulic Concrete” 6th International Advanced Technologies
C.T. = Concrete Types,C= Cement, F.A.= Fine Aggregate, Symposium (IATS’11), 16-18 May 2011, Elazığ, Turkey
[14] Mamta B. Rajgor , Prof. Jayeshkumar Pitroda “A Study of
C.A.= Coarse Aggregate, S.W. =Stone waste Utilization Aspect of Stone Wastein Indian Context” International
Global research analysis, Volume : 2 Issue : 1 Jan 2013 ISSN No
VII. CONCLUSION 2277 – 8160, PP 50-54
[15] Nutan c patel ,Prof. Jayeshkumar Pitroda “A Technical study on
Based on limited experimental investigations concerning the quarrying and processing of marble & its waste Incorporating with
compressive strength of concrete, the following observations concrete” International Journal Global Research analysis (GRA)
are made regarding the resistance of partially replaced stone Volume: 2 Issue: 2 Feb 2013, ISSN: 2277-8160
[16] Nutan c patel , Amit Raval,Prof. Jayeshkumar Pitroda “Marble
waste: Waste : opportunities for development of low cost concrete”
(a) Compressive strength increase when replacement of International Journal Global Research analysis (GRA) Volume: 2
stone waste percentage increases when compare to Issue: 2 Feb 2013, ISSN: 2277-8160
traditional concrete. [17] Prof. P.A. Shirulea, Ataur Rahmanb, Rakesh D.Gupta “Partial
Replacement Of Cement With Marble Dust Powder” International
(b) From this test, replacement of (PPC) cement with this Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies April-June,
stone waste material provides maximum compressive 2012
strength at 20% replacement. [18] Prof. J R Pitroda, Dr L B Zala, Dr F S Umrigar (2012), “Hypo
(c) Waste utilization making it more environmentally Sludge Management: Opportunities For Developing Low Cost
Concrete With Glass Fibres” International Journal Global Research
friends. Analysis, (GRA), Volume: 1, Issue: 7, Dec 2012, ISSN No 2277 –
(d) Utilization of Stone waste and its application are used 8160, pp-56-58.
for the development of the construction industry, [19] Prof. Jayeshkumar Pitroda, Dr. L.B.Zala, Dr.F.S.Umrigar (2012),
Material sciences. “Experimental Investigations on Partial Replacement of Cement
with Fly Ash in Design Mix Concrete” International Journal of
(e) Lower manufacturing cost of PPC compared to OPC Advanced Engineering Technology,IJAET/Vol.III/ Issue IV/Oct.-
(f) It is the possible alternative solution of safe disposal of Dec., 2012/126-129
Stone waste. [20] Prof. Jayeshkumar Pitroda, Dr. L.B.Zala, Dr.F.S.Umrigar (2013),
(g) Due to Longer setting time making it more workable “Innovative Use of Paper Industry Waste (Hypo Sludge) in Design
Mix Concrete” International Journal of Advanced Engineering
than OPC Technology, IJAET / Vol. IV/ Issue I / Jan.-March., 2013 / 31-35
[21] Rania Hamza, Salah El-Haggar, Safwan Khedr “Utilization of
VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Marble And Granite Waste in Concrete Bricks” 2011 International
Conference on Environment And Bioscience IPCBEE Vol.21 (2011)
The Authors thankfully acknowledge to Dr.C.L.Patel,
Chairman, Charutar Vidya Mandal, Er.V.M.Patel, Hon.Jt. Ankit Nileshchandra Patel was born in 1989 in Vadodara
District, Gujarat. He received his Bachelor of Engineering
Secretary, CharutarVidyaMandal, Mr. Yatinbhai Desai, Jay degree in Civil Engineering from the Parul Institute of
Maharaj construction, Dr.B.K.Shah, Associate Professor, engineering and technology, Gujarat university in 2011. At
present he is Final year student of Master`s Degree in
Structural Engineering Department, B.V.M. Engineering Construction Engineering and Management from Birla
College, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India for their Vishwakarma Mahavidyalaya, Gujarat Technological
motivations and infrastructural support to carry out this University. He has a paper published in international journals
research. Prof. Jayeshkumar R. Pitroda was born in 1977 in Vadodara

City. He received his Bachelor of Engineering degree in Civil
Engineering from the Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya,
REFERENCES Sardar Patel University in 2000. In 2009 he received his
[1] Abrar Awol “Using Marble Waste Powder in Cement And Concrete Master's Degree in Construction Engineering and
Production” March 2011 Management from Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya, Sardar
Patel University. He joined Birla Vishvakarma
[2] Azza I. Kandil and Tarek H. Selim “Characteristics of the Marble Mahavidyalaya Engineering College as a faculty where he is
Industry In Egypt” Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering Department with a total experience of 12
[3] Bahar Demirel “The Effect of the Using Waste Marble Dust as Fine years in the field of Research, Designing and education. He is guiding M.E.
Sand on the Mechanical Properties of the Concrete”International (Construction Engineering & Management) Thesis work in the field of Civil/
Journal of the Physical Sciences Vol. 5(9), Pp. 1372-1380, 18 Construction Engineering. He has papers published in National Conferences and
August, 2010 International Journals.
27
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395 -0056
Volume: 04 Issue: 04 | Apr -2017 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON GREEN CONCRETE
Prof. Ashok Admute1, Mr. Vardhan Nagarkar2, Mr. Sanket Padalkar2, Ms. Samruddhi Bhamre3,
Mr. Akshay Tupe4
Prof. A.M.Adamuthe1 Professor, affiliated to deparment of civil engineering, Anantrao Pawar College of
Engineering & Research, Mr. Vardhan Nagarkar2, Mr. Sanket Padalkar2, Ms. Samruddhi Bhamre3, Mr. Akshay
Tupe4 UG students affiliated to deparment of civil engineering, Anantrao Pawar College of Engineering & Research.
---------------------------------------------------------------------***---------------------------------------------------------------------
Abstract: Conventional concrete is responsible for amount Due to growing interest in sustainable development,
of carbon-dioxide emission to some Extent. So to reduce the engineers and architects are motivated more than ever
emission, various types of concrete are developed using before to choose materials that are more sustainable.
waste products from industries and agricultural use like Selection of material for concrete is more sustainable and
blast furnace slag, silica fume, fly ash which requires low minimizes environmental impact. Cement production
Amount of energy and also cause least harm to the accounts for more than 6% of all CO2 emission which is a
environment. Green concrete is a new technology developed major factor in the world’s global warming (Greenhouse
now days to reduce the effect on environment by production gas). India is the third largest cement producer in the World
of cement. Cement contains high amount of carbon-di-oxide and one of the largest consumers of cement per capita in the
which harms the environment drastically, so by replacing the world. Rough figures are that India consumes about 1.2
cement by various materials which causes harm to the Ton/year/capita, while as World average is 0.6
environment we not only reduce the problem of disposal of Ton/year/capita. CO2 emissions from 1 ton of concrete
these materials but we reduce the emission of carbon-di- produced vary between 0.05 to 0.13 tons. 95% of all CO2
oxide from cement and as a result of which we reduces the emissions from a cubic meter of concrete are from cement
negative effect on environment. manufacturing.
Cement is the one of the major component of the
Keywords - Green Concrete, Silica fume, Demolished concrete. The production of one ton of cement releases one
Brick Aggregate, CO2 Emission, Eco-Friendly concrete. ton of a CO2 into the atmosphere. CO2 is known to be
greenhouse gas that contributes to the global warming. The
I. INTRODUCTION reduction in CO2 emission from a concrete can be achieved
Color has nothing to do with green concrete. It is a with a partial replacement of cement by the various
concept of thinking and environment into an every aspect of supplementary cementitious materials. The use of these
the raw materials manufacture over construction, mixture cementitious materials has resulted in an improvement of
design to structural design, and durability. Green concrete is the properties of concrete.
very often considered to be cheap to produce due to the use So to reduce this environmental impact green
of recycled material whereby avoiding the charges for the concrete plays a vital role. By using recycled materials or
disposal of waste, less energy consumption and greater waste materials which are harmful to the environment as a
durability. replacement of cement such as fly ash, silica flume, etc. we
While a normal construction practices are guided by can reduce the CO2 emission from concrete as well as it
short term economic considerations, sustainable reduces the environmental impact on earth. As a result of
construction is focused on best practices which emphasize which green concrete is one of the major tool in the future
on long term affordability, durability and effectiveness. At when the natural resources are on verge of extinction.
each stage of the life cycle of the construction, it increases
ease and quality of life, while minimizing the negative II. OBJECTIVES
environmental impacts and increasing economic 1) To study the effect of silica fume on the
sustainability of the construction. Any infrastructure environment.
designed and constructed in a sustainable way minimizes the 2) To study the effectiveness of concrete by partial
use of resources through the whole life cycle of the replacement of cement by silica fume.
construction process in which the green concrete play a vital 3) To determine the strength of new mix design
role in achieving the sustainable construction. Having so concrete of grade M40.
much of advantageous has led to popularity in construction
4) To determine the various test results like
world and one of the emerging technology in sustainable
compression test, flexural test & split tensile test.
construction. Green concrete is miracle of present and tool
for future when the natural resources are on the verge of 5) To find the optimum percentage of silica fume in
extinction. cement so that we can achieve maximum strength
by increasing percentage as 5%,10%,15%,20%.
© 2017, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 5.181 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 1182
III. METHODOLOGY 3. Grading Zone I-IV II

• To find out number of literature on green concrete.
• To study about the ingredients of green concrete.
• Collection of various ingredients required for 3.3 COARSE AGGRGATE
project from different outsources. 20mm size coarse aggregates confirming to IS 383 – 1970.
• To design a concrete mix for M40 grade as per the
Table No. 3: Properties of Course Aggregate
Indian Standard Recommended method.
STANDARD OBTAINED
• To cast cubes, beams & cylinders by using a various Sr.
TESTS VALUES
ingredients as per mix design. No.
VALUES
• To test the casted cubes, beams & cylinders for
strength after 7, 14, 28 days of curing respectively 1. Specific Gravity 2.50-3.00 2.90
by performing various test like compressive test,
flexural test & split tensile test. 2. Water 0.5%-1.0% 1%
• To calculate the economy for green concrete. Absorption
• To compare between conventional concrete and
3. Grading Zone I-IV II
green concrete based on various parameters.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK:- 3.4 DEMOLISHED BRICKS

3.1 CEMENT
Ordinary Portland cement grade 53, manufactured by Birla Demolished bricks were collected from the demolished
.super confirming to IS 12269 – 2013. building of age 50 years. The collected sample were broken
manually into pieces of size passing through 4.75mm IS sieve
Table No. 1: Properties of Cement and retained on 150 micron IS sieve.
Sr. STANDARD OBTAINED
TESTS VALUES Table No. 4: Properties of Demolished Brick Wastes
No. VALUES Sr. TESTS STANDARD OBTAINED
No. VALUES
Normal VALUES
1. - 29%
Consistency
1. Specific Gravity 1.80-2.0 1.96
Initial Setting
2. >30 Min 42 Min
Time 2. Water 28%-30% 30%
Absorption
3. Specific Gravity 3.10-3.20 3.15
4. Fineness <10% 0.8% 3.5 MICRO SILICA
Silica fume used was confirming to ASTM – C (1240 – 2000)

3.2 FINE AGGREGATE and was supply by “ELKEM INDUSTRIES” was name Elkem –
Micro Silica 920 D. The silica fume is used as a partial
Artificial sand passing through 4.75 mm IS sieve & retained replacement of cement.
on 150 micron confirming to IS 383 – 1970.
Table No. 5: Properties of Micro Silica
Table No. 2: Properties of Fine Aggregate Sr. No. PROPERTIES STANDARD
STANDARD OBTAINED VALUES
Sr.
TESTS VALUES
No.
VALUES 1 Specific Gravity 2.2
1. Specific Gravity 2.50-2.80 2.53 2 Bulk Density 576 (Kg/m3)
Water 1%-2% 1.2% 3 Size (Micron) 0.1-0.2

2. Absorption
3.6 MIX DESIGN

COMPARISON BETWEEN
Mix design was done based on IS 10262 – 1982 & IS 456 – COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
2000 for M40 grade of concrete.
Compressive Strength (Mpa)

60
Following shows the mix proportion of concrete per m3 Conventional
50
 Cement Content : 430.00 Kg
40
 Fine Aggregate : 717.50 Kg 5%
30
 Coarse Aggregate : 1233.66 Kg Replacement
 Admixtures (BSF) : 5.16 Kg 20
10%
 W/C Ratio : 0.35 10 Replacement
 Cement : Fine Aggregate : Coarse Aggregate 0
15%
1 : 1.66 : 2.93 7 Days 14 28
Days Days Replacement
3.7 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The specimen of standard cube of 150mm*150mm*150mm

and standard cylinder of 300mm*150mm and prism of size 4.2 Flexural Test
100mm*100mm*500mm were used to determine the
compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural The test was carried out confirming to IS 516 – 1959 to
strength of concrete. obtain flexural strength of concrete at the age of 14 & 28
days. The cubes were tested using Universal Testing Machine
IV. TEST RESULTS & DISCUSSION (UTM) of capacity 600 KN.
4.1 Compression Test Table no.6: Results of flexural test

The test was carried out confirming to IS 516 – 1959 to % SILICA % BRICK FLEXURAL STRENGTH
obtain compressive strength of concrete at the age of 7, 14, AGGREGATE (MPa)
28 days. The cubes were tested using Compression Testing
Machine (CTM) of capacity 2000 KN. 14 DAYS 28 DAYS
Table no. 5: Results of compression test 0% 0% 4.68 5.96

% SILICA % BRICK COMPRESSION STRENGTH
AGGREGATE (MPa) 5% 50% 4.93 6.21
7 DAYS 14 28 10% 50% 4.98 6.40

DAYS DAYS
15% 50% 4.59 5.70
0% 0% 32.45 42.38 50.11
20% 50% 4..37 5.56
5% 50% 33.03 42.73 51.18
10% 50% 35.40 43.03 52.07
15% 50% 30.29 36.00 40.50
20% 50% 24.29 31.11 38.88
V. COST ANALYSIS
COMPARISON BETWEEN
FLEXURAL STRENGTH Cemet 320/50kg
7
Coarse aggregate 625/MT
Conventional Fine aggregate 750/MT
Flexural Strength (Mpa)
6
5
5% Table no.8: Cost of production of 1m3 of concrete.
4 Replacement % SILICA %BRICK TOTAL COST
3
2
10% AGGREGATE (Rs.)
Replacement
1
0 15% 0% 0% 4061.15/-
14 Days 28 Days Replacement
5% 50% 3654.50/-
10% 50% 3517.10/-

4.3 Split Tensile Test
15% 50% 3380.10/-
The test was carried out confirming to IS 516 – 1959 to
obtain flexural strength of concrete at the age of 14 & 28 20% 50% 3242.10/-
days. The cubes were tested using Universal Testing Machine
(UTM) of capacity 600 KN.
VI. CONCLUSION
Table no.7: Results of split tensile test
% SILICA % BRICK SPLIT TENSILE Silica fume is a material which may cause air pollution;
this is the byproduct of some industries. Addition of
AGGREGATE STRENGTH (MPa)
micro silica in cement reduces the air pollution and
makes concrete more sustainable; as well as the
14 DAYS 28 DAYS
optimum replacement of cement with silica 5% to 15%
leads to increase in strength whereas the 20%
0% 0% 1.63 2.78 replacement leads to decrease in strength of concrete.
Silica fume is finer than cement and more reactive to
5% 50% 2.00 3.51 concrete ingredients so it increases the normal
consistency of cement and achieves more strength in
10% 50% 2.38 3.90 less time as compare to conventional concrete.
By replacing the fine aggregate with demolished brick
15% 50% 1.60 2.71 waste, there is no significant effect on any strength of
concrete, but the overall cost of concrete reduces up to
20% 50% 1.40 2.25 20% so economically the concrete is more economical
than conventional concrete.
VII. REFERANCES
 BOOKS
COMPARISON BETWEEN 1. Concrete Technology : M.S. Shetty ( S. Chand Publications
SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH )
2. Concrete Technology: A.M. Neville, J.J. Brooks ( Pearson
Split tensile Strength (Mpa)
5 Publications )
Conventional
4  JOURNAL PAPERS
1. Anita Bhatia, Rashmy Nair & Neeru Gakkhar, 2016 “Green
5%
3 Concrete A Stepping Stone For Future,” International Journal
Replacement
2 of Engineering Research & Management Technology 3(1).
10% 2. Praveer Singh, Mohd. Afaque Khan & Abhishek Kumar
1 Replacement 2016 “The Effect on Concrete by Partial Replacement of
15% Cement by Silica Fume,” International Research Journal of
0 Engineering and Technology 3(3).
14 Days 28 Days Replacement
3. Tae Hyoung Kim , Chang U Chae , Gil Hwan Kim &
Hyoung Jae Jang 2016 “Analysis of CO2 Emission
Characteristics of Concrete Used at Construction Sites,”
4. Kasi Rekha, Dr. M. Potharaju 2015 “Residual Compressive 8. IS 12269 – 2013, “Ordinary Portland cement 53 grade
Strength of Recycled Brick Aggregate Concrete at High specification.”
Temperatures,” International Journal of Emerging 9. IS 15388 – 2003, “Silica fume specification.”
Technology and Advanced Engineering 5(1) 10. IS 456 – 2000, “Plain and reinforced concrete - code of
5. Dhiraj Kumar Tiwari, Ankur Rai, Jagrit Dewan & Rohit practice.”
Mathew, 2015 “Comparative Study on Green Concrete,” 11. IS 10262 – 2009, “Guidelines for concrete mix design.”
International Journal Of Advanced Research In Engineering 12. IS 10086 – 1982, “Specification for moulds for use in test
Technology & Sciences 2(4). of cement and concrete.”
6. Xian LI, Fujin WANG, Fei LI 2015 “Effect of Recycled 13. IS 8112 – 1989, “Ordinary Portland cement 43 grade
Waste Brick Fine Aggregate on Compressive Strength and specification.”
Flexural Strength of Mortar,” 5th International Conference on
Civil Engineering and Transportation.
7. Kakamare M.S. & Nair V.V., 2015 “Sustainable
Construction Materials And Technology: Green Concrete,”
International Journal of Advanced Technology in
Engineering and Science 3(2).
8. Mohammed Tarek Uddin1, Ali Zafar Khan, Aziz Hasan
Mahmood. 2015 “Recycling of Demolished Brick Aggregate
Concrete as Coarse and Fine Aggregates.”
9. Dewanshu Ahlawat, L.G.Kalurkar 2014 “Coconut Shell as
Partial Replacement of Coarse Aggregate in Concrete,”
International Conference on Advances in Engineering &
Technology.
10. Abhijeet Baikerikar, 2014 “A review on green concrete,”
Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research
1(6).
11. Chirag Garg & Aakash Jain, 2014 “Green Concrete:
Efficient & Eco-friendly Construction Materials,”
International Journal of Research in Engineering &
Technology 2(2 ).
12. Umesh Sharmaa, Ankita Khatrib & Abhishek Kanoungoc
2014 “Use of Micro-silica as Additive to Concrete-state of
Art,” International Journal of Civil Engineering Research
5(1).
13. N. K. Amudhavalli & Jeena Mathew, 2012 “Effect Of Silica
Fume On A Strength & Durability Parameters Of Concrete,”
International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Emerging
Technologies 3(1).
14.Verma Ajay, Chandak Rajeev & Yadav R.K. 2012 “Effect
of Micro Silica on The Strength of Concrete with Ordinary
Portland Cement,” Research Journal of Engineering
Sciences 1(3).
 IS CODES
1. IS 383 – 1970, “Specification for coarse and fine
aggregates from natural sources for concrete.”
2. IS 516 – 1959, “Methods of tests for strength of concrete.”
3. IS 2386 (part3) – 1963, “Method of tests for aggregates
for concrete.”
4. IS 4031 (part1) – 1996, “Methods of physical tests for
hydraulic cement.”
See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326449942
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IJIRMPS | Volume 6, Issue 4, 2018 ISSN: 2349-7300
A RESEARCH ON GREEN CONCRETE

1
Neeraj Agarwal, 2Nikhil Garg
Civil Engineering department, Krishna Institute of Engineering and Technology

Ghaziabad - Meerut Highway, NH-58, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh
India- 201206
ABSTRACT
A Green Concrete is a revolutionary topic in the history of concrete industry. This was first invented in Denmark in the year
1998. Green concrete has nothing to do with color. It is a concept of thinking environment into concrete considering every aspect
from raw materials manufacture over mixture design to structural design, construction, and service life.
Green concrete is very often also cheap to produce because for example, waste products are used as a partial substitute for cement,
charges for the disposal of waste are avoided, energy consumption in production is lower, and durability is greater. Green concrete
is a type of concrete which resembles the conventional concrete but the production or usage of such concrete requires minimum
amount of energy and causes least harm to the environment. The CO2 emission related to concrete production, is between 0.1
and 0.22 t per tonne of produced concrete.
However, since the total amount of concrete produced is so vast the absolute figures for the environmental impact are quite
significant, due to the large amounts of cement and concrete produced. Since concrete is the second most consumed entity after
water it accounts for around 5% of the world’s total CO2 emission. The solution to this environmental problem is not to substitute
concrete for other materials but to reduce the environmental impact of concrete and cement. The potential environmental benefit
to society of being able to build with green concrete is huge. It is realistic to assume that technology can be developed, which can
halve the CO2 emission related to concrete production. During the last few decades society has become aware of the deposit
problems connected with residual products, and demands, restrictions and taxes have been imposed.
And as it is known that several residual products have properties suited for concrete production, there is a large potential in
investigating the possible use of these for concrete production. Well-known residual products such as silica fume and fly ash may
be mentioned. The concrete industry realized at an early stage that it is a good idea to be in front with regard to documenting the
actual environmental aspects and working on improving the environment rather than being forced to deal with environmental
aspects due to demands from authorities, customers and economic effects such as imposed taxes. Furthermore, some companies
in concrete industry have recognized that reductions in production costs often go hand in hand with reductions in environmental
impacts. Thus, environmental aspects are not only interesting from an ideological point of view, but also from an economic
aspect. Green concrete has manifold advantages over the conventional concrete. Since it uses the recycled aggregates and
materials, it reduces the extra load in landfills and mitigates the wastage of aggregates. Thus, the net CO2 emission are reduced.
The reuse of materials also contributes intensively to economy. Green concrete can be considered elemental to sustainable
development since it is eco-friendly itself. Green concrete is being widely used in green building practices.
Keywords: Green concrete, recycled, cement, coarse and fine aggregates
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is green concrete?

Concrete which is made from concrete wastes that are eco-friendly are called as “Green concrete”. Green concrete is the
production of concrete using as many as recycled materials as possible and leaving the smallest carbon footprint as possible. The
other name for green concrete is resource saving structures with reduced environmental impact for e.g. Energy saving, co2
emissions, waste water.
“Green concrete” is a revolutionary topic in the history of concrete industry. This was first invented in Denmark in the year 1998
by Dr. WG.
Concrete wastes like slag, power plant wastes, recycled concrete, mining and quarrying wastes, waste glass, incinerator residue, red
mud, burnt clay, sawdust, combustor ash and foundry sand.
Green Concrete is a term given to a concrete that has had extra steps taken in the mix design and placement to insure a sustainable
structure and a long-life cycle with a low maintenance surface e.g. Energy saving, CO2 emissions, waste water.
The goal of the Centre for Green Concrete is to reduce the environmental impact of concrete. To enable this, new technology is
developed. The technology considers all phases of a concrete construction’s life cycle, i.e. structural design, specification,
manufacturing and maintenance, and it includes all aspects of performance, i.e.
1) Mechanical properties (strength, shrinkage, creep, static behavior etc.)
2) Fire resistance (spalling, heat transfer etc.)
3) Workmanship (workability, strength development, curing etc.)
IJIRMPS1807064 Website : www.ijirmps.org Email : [email protected] 362

4) Durability (corrosion protection, frost, new deterioration mechanisms etc.)

5) Thermodynamic properties (input to the other properties)
6) Environmental aspects (CO2-emission, energy, recycling etc.)
1.2 SUITABILITY OF GREEN CONCRETE IN STRUCTURES
Several factors which enhances the suitability of green concrete in structures includes:
o Reduce the dead load of the structure and reduce the crane age load; allow handling, lifting flexibility with lighter
weight.
o Reduction of emission of CO□ by 30%.
o Increased concrete industries use of waste products by 20%.
o Good thermal and fire resistance, sound insulation than the traditional concrete.
o Improve damping resistance of the building.
o Use of new types of residual products, previously land filled or disposed of in other ways.
o No environmental pollution and sustainable development.
o It requires less maintenance and repairs.
o Compressive strength behavior of the concrete with water cement ratio is more than that of conventional concrete.
o Flexural strength of the green concrete is almost same as conventional concrete.
o CO2-neutral, waste-derived fuels shall substitute fossil fuels in the cement production by at least 10 %.
o Use of concrete industries own residual products.
1.3 Here is a list of 4 benefits to using green concrete.
1.3.1 Lasts Longer: Green concrete gains strength faster and has a lower rate of shrinkage than concrete made only from
Portland cement. Structures built using green concrete have a better chance of surviving a fire (it can withstand temperatures of up
to 2400 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale). It also has a greater resistance to corrosion which is important with the effect pollution
has had on the environment (acid rain greatly reduces the longevity of traditional building materials). All of those factors add up to
a building that will last much longer than one made with ordinary concrete. Similar concrete mixtures have been found in ancient
Roman structures and this material was also used in the Ukraine in the 1950s and 1960s.
1.3.2 Uses Industrial Waste: Instead of a 100 percent Portland cement mixture, green concrete uses anywhere from 25 to 100
percent fly ash. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion and is gathered from the chimneys of industrial plants (such as power
plants) that use coal as a power source. There are copious amounts of this industrial waste product. Hundreds of thousands of acres
of land are used to dispose of fly ash. A large increase in the use of green concrete in construction will provide a way to use up fly
ash and hopefully free many acres of land.
1.3.3 Reduces Energy Consumption: If you use less Portland cement and more fly ash when mixing concrete, then you will
use less energy. The materials that are used in Portland cement require huge amounts of coal or natural gas to heat it up to the
appropriate temperature to turn them into Portland cement. Fly ash already exists as a byproduct of another industrial process so
you are not expending much more energy to use it to create green concrete.
Another way that green concrete reduces energy consumption is that a building constructed from it is more resistant to temperature
changes. An architect can use this and design a green concrete building to use energy for heating and cooling more efficiently.
1.3.4 Reduces CO2 Emissions: In order to make Portland cement–one of the main ingredients in ordinary cement–pulverized
limestone, clay, and sand are heated to 1450 degrees C using natural gas or coal as a fuel. This process is responsible for 5 to 8
percent of all carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions worldwide. The manufacturing of green concrete releases has up to 80 percent fewer
CO2 emissions. As a part of a global effort to reduce emissions, switching over completely to using green concrete for construction
will help considerably
1.4. SCOPE IN INDIA
Green concrete is a revolutionary topic in the history of concrete industry. As green concrete is made with concrete wastes it does
take more time to come in India because of industries having problem to dispose wastes and also, having reduced Environmental
impact with reduction in CO2 emission. Use of green can help us reduce a lot of wastage of several products. Various non-
biodegradable products can also be used and thus avoiding the issue of their disposal.

1.5 Types of wastes used in concrete
(Fig-1.1)
2. PROJECT OVERVIEW
2.1 Project Implementation
NOMINAL CONCRETE
CEMENT IS REPLACED BY GLASS
CEMENT REPLACED BY GLASS AND FLYASH
COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF NOMINAL CONCRETE AND REPLACED

CEMENT CONCRETE
2.2 GLASS AS A CEMENTACEOUS MATERIAL

Million tons of waste glass is being generated annually all over the world. Once the glass becomes a waste it is disposed as landfills,
which is unsustainable as this does not decompose in the environment. Glass is principally composed of silica. Use of milled
(ground) waste glass in concrete as partial replacement of cement could be an important step toward development of sustainable
(environmentally friendly, energy-efficient and economical) infrastructure systems. When waste glass is milled down to micro size
particles, it is expected to undergo pozzolanic reactions with cement hydrates, forming secondary Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C–S–
H). In this research chemical properties of both clear and colored glass were evaluated. Chemical analysis of glass and cement
samples was determined using X- ray fluorescence (XRF) technique and found minor differences in composition between clear and
colored glasses. Flow and compressive strength tests on mortar and concrete were carried out by adding 0–25% ground glass in
which water to binder (cement + glass) ratio is kept the same for all replacement levels. With increase in glass addition mortar flow
was slightly increased while a minor effect on concrete workability was noted. To evaluate the packing and pozzolanic effects,
further tests were also conducted with same mix details and 1% super plasticizing admixture dose (by weight of cement) and
generally found an increase in compressive strength of mortars with admixture. As with mortar, concrete cube samples were
prepared and tested for strength (until 1 year curing). The compressive strength test results indicated that recycled glass mortar and
concrete gave better strength compared to control samples. A 20% replacement of cement with waste glass was found convincing
considering cost and the environment.
Specific gravity and fineness of clear and colored waste glass powders (prepared by ball mill) were 3.01 & 0.9% (#200 sieve) and
3.02 & 0.9% respectively as per ASTM standard mentioned above. Chemical composition of both glass powders were examined
using a XRF-1800 Sequential X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. 20% binder was added to 80% glass powder to keep the material in
position during test.

Then the whole mixture was pressed using 140 KN pressing force. The chemical composition of glass powder is compared with
other pozzolanic materials in the discussion. As the results of fineness, specific gravity and chemical composition test of color and
clear glass powder were found similar, further experimental work with mortar and concrete was conducted with clear glass power.
2.3 FLY ASH AS A CEMENTACEOUS MATERIAL
2.3.1 About Fly ash

Fly ash is a fine powder which is a byproduct from burning pulverized coal in electric generation power plants. Fly ash is a pozzolan,
a substance containing aluminous and siliceous material that forms cement in the presence of water. When mixed with lime and
water it forms a compound similar to Portland cement.
The fly ash produced by coal-fired power plants provide an excellent prime material used in blended cement, mosaic tiles, and
hollow blocks among others.
Fly ash can be an expensive replacement for Portland cement in concrete although using it improves strength, segregation, and ease
of pumping concrete. The rate of substitution typically specified is 1 to 1
½ pounds of fly ash to 1 pound of cement. Nonetheless, the amount of fine aggregate should be reduced to accommodate fly ash
additional volume.
2.3.2 Fly Ash Applications
Fly ash can be used as prime material in blocks, paving or bricks; however, one the most important applications are PCC pavement.
PCC pavements use a large amount of concrete and substituting fly ash provides significant economic benefits. Fly ash has also
been used for paving roads and as embankment
and mine fills, and its gaining acceptance by the Federal government, specifically the Federal Highway Administration.
2.3.3 Fly Ash Drawbacks
Smaller builders and housing contractors are not that familiar with fly ash products which could have different properties depending
on where and how it was obtained.
For this reason, fly ash applications are encountering resistance from traditional builders due to its tendency to effloresce along with
major concerns about freeze/thaw performance.
Other major concerns about using fly ash concrete include:
 Slower strength gain.
 Seasonal limitation.
 Increase in air entraining admixtures.
 An increase of salt scaling produced by higher fly ash.
2.3.4 Fly Ash Benefits

Fly ash can be a cost-effective substitute for Portland cement in some markets. In addition, fly ash could be recognized as an
environmentally friendly product because it is a byproduct and has low embodied energy. It's also is available in two colors, and
coloring agents can be added at the job site. In addition, fly ash also requires less water than Portland cement and it is easier to use
in cold weather. Other benefits include:
 Cold weather resistance.
 Higher strength gains, depending on its use.
 Can be used as an admixture.
 Can substitute for Portland cement.
 Considered a non-shrink material.
 Produces denser concrete and a smoother surface with sharper detail.
 Great workability.
 Reduces crack problems, permeability and bleeding
 Reduces heat of hydration.

 Produces lower water/cement ratio for similar slumps when compared to no fly ash mixes.
 Reduces CO2 emissions.
2.3.5 Fly Ash Types

Currently, more than 50 percent of the concrete placed in the U.S. contains fly ash. Dosage rates vary depending on the type of fly
ash and its reactivity level. Typically, Class F fly ash is used at dosages of 15 to 25 percent by mass of cementitious material, and
Class C fly ash at 15 to 40 percent.
Class F fly ash, with particles covered in a kind of melted glass, greatly reduces the risk of expansion due to sulfate attack as may
occur in fertilized soils or near coastal areas. Class F are generally low- calcium fly ashes with carbon contents less than 5 percent
but sometimes as high as 10 percent. Class C fly ash is also resistant to expansion from chemical attack, has a higher percentage
of calcium oxide, and is more commonly used for structural concrete. Class C fly ash is typically composed of high-calcium fly
ashes with carbon content less than 2 percent.
2.4 Why glass was used
Glass is a non-biodegradable material
It is principle composed of silica

When glass is milled down to micro size particle it is expected to undergo pozzolanic reaction with cement hydrate and
form calcium silicate hydrate bond (C-S-H bond )
It is easily available
It’s fineness should be 0.9% (#200 sieves)
2.5 Why fly ash was used

Fly ash is a fine powder , a waste product originate from burning coal in electric generation power plant
Fly ash is a pozzolanic substance containing aluminum and siliceous material that form cement in presence water and
lime
It has greater workability
It reduce CO2 emission and heat of hydration
It is of class C and class F type
3. PROJECT ANALYSIS
3.1 DATA INTERPRETITION
Grade of concrete, size of cube casting, different proportion of the materials like glass and fly ash etc Which replaces the cement
etc are interpreted as:
Grade of concrete : M25
Nominal concrete : 4 cubes of 1:1:2 ratio
Cement replaced by glass in the concrete: 4 cubes with 15% replace cement
4 cubes with 30% replace cement
Cement replaced by glass and fly ash both in the concrete : 4 cubes with 15% replace cement
4 cubes with 45% replace cement (Glass: fly ash = 1:1)

3.2 CALCULATION
3.2.1 Calculation for nominal mix
Volume of cube : 0.15*0.15*0.15 = 3.375*10-3 m3 (In wet
condition)
(Take 1.52 times more volume in dry condition)
: 5.13*10-3 m3
Volume of cement : 5.13*10-3*0.25 = 1.2825*10-3 m3

Unit weight of cement : 1440 Kg/m3
Weight of cement for 1 cube : 1.846 Kg
Weight of cement for 4 cubes : 4*1.846 = 7.384 Kg (7.5 Kg approx.)
Unit weight of fine aggregate : 1600 Kg/m3

Volume of fine aggregate : 5.13*10-3*0.25 = 1.2825*10-3 m3
Weight of fine aggregate for 1 cube : 1.2825*10-3*1600 = 2.052 Kg
Weight of fine aggregate for 4 cubes : 2.052*4 = 8.208 Kg (8.5 Kg approx.)
Unit weight of coarse aggregate : 1600 Kg/m3
Volume of coarse aggregate : 5.13*10-3*0.5 = 2.565*10-3 m3

Weight of coarse aggregate for 1 cube : 2.565*10-3*1600 = 4.140 Kg
Weight of coarse aggregate for 4 cubes : 4.104*4 = 16.416 Kg (16.5 Kg approx.)
(Net amount of material is taken as 10% more in case of hand mixing)
3.2.2 Calculation for glass and fly ash mix

(For one cube calculation)
Weight of cement : 1.846 Kg
Weight of cement when 15% cement is replaced by glass : 1.846*0.85 = 1.569 Kg
Weight of glass when cement is replaced by 15% : 1.846*0.15 = 0.2769 Kg
Weight of cement when 15% cement is replaced by
Both glass and fly ash : 1.846*0.85 = 1.569 Kg


Weight of glass when 15% cement is replaced by




Weight of fly ash when 15% cement is replaced by
Both glass and fly ash : 1.846*015 = 0.138 Kg

The following table give you better information are as follow:

Table 3.1 weight of different material used in nominal concrete
NOMINAL CONCRETE
Number of cubes Weight of cement in 1 Weight of fine aggregate Weight of coarse aggregate in 1 cube (in kg)
cube (in kg) in 1 cube (in kg)
4 1.846 2.052 4
Table 3.2 when cement is replaced by glass

Glass replaces cement
Number of cubes used = 12
% Replaces Weight of cement (in kg) Weight of glass (in kg)
15 1.565 0.2769
30 1.296 0.550
4 1.016 0.830

Table 3.3 when both glass and fly ash replaces cement
Glass and fly ash replaces cement
Number of cubes used =12
% Replaces Weight of cement (in kg) Weight of glass (in kg) Weight of fly ash (in kg)
15 1.569 0.130 0.130
30 1.296 0.275 0.275
45 1.016 0.415 0.415
4. METHODOLOGY
4.1 Specifications
M25 Grade concrete

Water cement ratio = 0.45
Coarse aggregate of 20mm size(1600kg/m3)
Fine aggregate (Dry sand 1600kg/m3)
Cement – OPC (Grade 45) (unit weight- 1440 kg/m3)
Glass
Fly ash (from NTPC power plant, Dadri)
4.2 Apparatus:
Cube Mould (150x150x150 mm or 100x100x100 mm)
Tamping bar (16 mm diameter and bull-nosed)
Steel Float/Trowel.
Compressive strength Testing machine
Curing Tank
Weighing machine
Pan
Hammer
Cylindrical mould
Sieving machine
4.3 Procedures of Making Concrete Cube:
1. Cleaning &fixing mould
2. Breaking of Glass
3. Mixing cement, glass and Fly ash.
4. Placing, Compacting & Finishing concrete
5. Curing

(Fig- 4.1)
4.3.1 Cleaning &fixing mould

Clean the cube-mould properly and apply oil on inner surface of mould. But no oil should bevisible on surface.
Fix the cube mould with base plate tightly. No gap should be left in joints so that cement-slurry doesn’t penetrate.
4.3.2 Breaking of Glass
We bought the glass from nearby rag picker shop.
The glass is the broken into very small pieces with the help of hammer.
The grinded glass is then put in sieving machine.
Sieving is done for 15 min.
The last sieve used in sieving test is 1.41 mm sieve and glass passing through this sieve is used.
4.3.3 Mixing cement glass and Fly ash
Amount of cement, glass and fly ash to be used is bought into a pan.
The mixture formed is either mixed with the hands or with the help of trowel.
The whole ingredients are mixed till the color of the mixture matches with the cement color.

Proper precautions should be taken while mixing cement and glass as both these elements can cut skin.
4.3.4 Placing, Compacting & Finishing concrete.
Take concrete from three or four random mixes.
Place concrete into mould in three layers. Compact each layer by giving 35 blows of tamping bar.
Remove excess concrete from the top of mould and finish concrete surface with trowel. Make the top surface of
concrete cube even and smooth.
Left the mould completely undisturbed for first four hours after casting.
After ending undisturbed period, put down casting date and item name on the top of concrete specimen with permanent
marker.
4.3.5 Curing
Curing is the maintaining of an adequate moisture content and temperature in concrete at early Ages so that it can develop
properties the mixtures was designed to achieve. Curing begins Immediately after placement and finishing so that concrete may
develop the desired strength and Durability.
Without an adequate supply of moisture content, the cementitious materials in concrete cannot
React to form a quality product. Drying may remove the water needed for this chemical reaction called hydration and the concrete
will not achieve the potential properties.
Temperature is an important factor in proper curing, since the rate of hydration, and therefore, strength development, is faster at
high temperature. Generally, concrete temperature should be maintained above 50F for an adequate rate of strength development.
Further, a uniform temperature should be maintained through the concrete section it is gaining strength to avoid thermal cracking.
For exposed concrete, relative humidity and wind condition are also important; they contribute to the rate of moisture loss from
the concrete and could result in cracking, poor surface quality and durability. Protective measures to control evaporation of
moisture from concrete surfaces before it sets are essential to prevent plastic shrinkage cracking.
Liquid after finishing. Do not apply to concrete that is still bleeding or has a visible water sheen on the surface. While a clear liquid
may be used, a white pigment will provide reflective properties and allow for a visual inspection of coverage. A single coat may be
adequate, but where possible a second coat, applied at right angles to the first, is desirable for even coverage. If the concrete
membrane- forming curing compounds must con- formtoASTMC309.Applytotheconcretesurfaceabout one hour will be painted, or
covered with vinyl or ceramictile, then a liquid compound that is non-reactive with the paint or adhesives must be used or use a
compound that is easily brushed or washed off. On floors, the surface should be protected from the other trades with scuff-proof
paper after the application of the curing compound
Plastic sheets - either clear, white (reflective) or pigmented. Plastic should conform to ASTM C 171, be at least 4 mils thick, and
preferably reinforced with glass fibers. Dark colored sheets are recommended when ambient temperatures are below 60°F (15°C)
and reflective sheets should be used when temperatures exceed 85°F (30°C). The plastic should be laid in direct contact with the
concrete surface as soon as possible without marring the surface. The edges of the sheets should overlap and be fastened with
waterproof tape and then weighted down to prevent the wind from getting under the plastic. Plastic can make dark streaks wherever
a wrinkle touches the concrete, so plastic should not be used on concretes where appearance is important. Plastic is sometimes used
over wet burlap to retain moisture Waterproof – used like plastic sheeting but does not mar the surface. This paper generally consists
of two layer of craft paper cemented together and reinforced with fiber. The paper should conform to ASTM C 171.
After 8 to 10 hours of casting, wrap the cube mould with wetted hessian cloth. Cover the mould’s top portion with a
polythene sheet so that water doesn’t fall on concrete surface.
Uncover and remove the cube specimens from mould after 24±½ hours of casting. For removing specimen from mould,
first loosen all nut-bolts and carefully remove specimen because concrete is still weak and can be broken.
Immediately after removing, put the specimen into a tank of clean water for curing. Make sure cube specimen is fully
submerged in water.
4.4 PROCESS INVOLVED 4.4.1How fly ash and glass works with cement in concrete?
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is a product of four principal mineralogical phases. These phases are Tricalcium silicate- C3S
(3CaO.SiO2), Dicalcium Silicate – C2S (2CaO.SiO2), Tricalcium Aluminate- C3A (3CaO. Al2O3) and Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite
– C4AF (4CaO.Al2O3 Fe2O3). The setting and hardening of the OPC takes place as a result of reaction between these principal
compounds and water. The reaction between these compounds and water are shown as under:
2C3S + 6H = C3S2H3 + 3CH
tricalcium silicate water C-S-H gel Calcium hydroxide 2C3S + 4H 3S2H3 +

CH
The hydration products from C3S and C2S are similar but quantity of calcium hydroxide (lime) released higher in C3S as
compared to C2S.

The reaction of C3A with water takes place in presence of sulphate ions supplied by dissolution of gypsum present in OPC. This
reaction is very fast and is shown as under:
C3A + 3(CSH2) +26H 3 A(CS)3H32
tricalcium alluminate +gypsum +water 3A + CSH2 +

10H C3ACSH12
monosulphoaluminate hydrate
4.4.2 FLYASH FOR CEMENT CONCRETE
Tetracalciumalumino-ferrite forms hydration product similar to those of C3A with iron substituting partially for alumina in the
crystal of ettringite and monosulpho-aluminate hydrate.
Above reaction indicate that during the hydration process of cement, lime is released out and remains as surplus in the hydrated
cement. This leached out surplus lime render deleterious effect to concrete such as make the concrete porous, give chance to the
development of micro-cracks, weakening the bond with aggregates and thus affect the durability of concrete.
If fly ash is available in the mix, this surplus lime becomes the source for pozzolanic reaction with fly ash and forms additional C-
S-H gel having similar binding properties in the concrete as those produced by hydration of cement paste. The reaction of fly ash
with surplus lime continues as long as lime is present in the pores of liquid cement paste.
5. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR CONCRETE
As per 16.1(a) /IS 456/2000 (pg 30):-
For all Concrete > M15 Grade and above
The average strength of four (4) non-overlapping consecutive test result shall not be less than –
For M15 or higher:
f average ≥ (fck + 0.825 Õ) N/mm2 or
f average ≥ (fck + 3) N/mm2
(Whichever is more)
As per 16.1 (b)/IS456/2000 (pg 30)
Individual test result of any sample ITR ≥ (fck – 3) N/mm2

As per 15.4 of IS456/2000 (pg 29)
The test result of the sample shall be average of the strength of three specimen and the individual variation shall not be more than
that of the Average strength, if more the test result of the sample are Invalid.
6. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH READING
6.1 Test result when cement is 15% replaced by glass
Compressive strength of 1st cube at 14 days : 28.719
Converting into 28 days : 28.719/0.90 = 31.91 Compressive strength of 2nd cube at 14 days
: 30.231
Converting into 28 days : 30.231/0.90 = 33.59 Compressive strength of 3rd cube at 28 days
: 37.33
Compressive strength of 4th cube at 28 days : 37.77

st
Compressive strength of 1 cube at 14 days : 24.138
: 22.419
: 32.88

: 19.728
: 26.87

6.4 Test result when cement is 15% replaced by glass and fly ash
st
Converting into 28 days : 32.866/0.90 = 36.54 Compressive strength of 2 nd cube at 14 days

: 31.554
Converting into 28 days : 31.554/0.90 = 35.06 Compressive strength of 3 rd cube at 28 days
: 38.24
: 24.444
: 31.02
st
: 21.825
: 27.81
7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
7.1 Compressive Strength test:
 When 28 days of curing was completed than (150 mm X 150mm) blocks were tested in CTM machine.
 Following results were obtained:
7.1.1 Comparison of compressive strength of concrete when replaced by glass indifferent proportion through line
graph. (Fig. 7.1)
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
IN (N/mm^2)
15% 30% 45%
% cement
35.15 29.82 25.67
7.1.2 Comparison of compressive strength of concrete when cement replaced by glass in different proportion through
bar graph. (fig. 7.2)

15% 30% 45%

7.2 Table of compressive strength of concrete when cement replaced by glass in different proportion
7.2.1 Cement 15% replaced by glass (table 7.1)
Concrete Test Average strength Average strength ITR Result

result(N/mm^2) obtained(N/mm^2) required(N/mm^2) value
M25 31.91 35.15 28.3 >22 PASS

OKAY
33.59
37.33
37.77
7.2.2 Cement when 30% replaced by glass (table 7.2)

M25 26.82 29.82 28.3 >22 PASS

OKAY
24.91
32.88
34.67
7.2.3 Cement when 45% replaced by glass (table 7.3)

Concrete Test Average strength Average strength ITR value Result
result(N/mm^2) obtained(N/mm^2) required(N/mm^2)
M25 24.67 25.67 28.3 <22 FAIL

INVALID
21.92
26.87
28.23

7.3 COMPARISON OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE WHEN REPLACED BY (GLASS+FLY

ASH) IN DIFFERENT PROPORTION THROUGH LINE GRAPH (fig 7.3)
COPRESSIVE STENGTH (N/mm^2)
15% 30% 45%
% cement
37.94 31.13 25.82
7.4 Comparison of compressive strength of concrete when cement is replaced by (glass + fly ash) in different proportion
by bar graph. (Fig. 7.4)
compressive strength in (N/mm^2

7.5 Table of compressive strength of concrete when cement replaced by (glass+ fly ash) in different proportion
7.5.1 When cement is 15 % replaced by (glass+ fly ash) (table 7.4)

M25 36.54 37.94 28.3 >22 PASS

OKAY
35.06
38.24
37.92
7.5.2 When cement is 30% replaced by (glass+ fly ash) (table 7.5)
M25 24.71 30.13 28.3 >22 PASS

OKAY
27.16
31.02
33.64
compressive strength in N/mm ^2
7.5.3 When cement is 45% replaced by (glass+ fly ash) (table 7.6)

M25 22.56 25.82 28.3 >22 PASS

OKAY
24.25
27.87
28.94

8. MERITS AND DEMERITS

8.1 Merits of fly ash replaced concrete
It is economical
It is Environmental friendly.
Fly ash has very small particles which makes the concrete dense & reduces permeability of concrete. It can assess
greater strength to building.
It has Low heat of hydration which prevent thermal cracking.

It gives better work ability & finishes
8.2 Demerits of fly ash replaced concrete
Quality of fly ash can affect the quality & strength of concrete.
Generally, as fly ash +cement content increases then compressive strength decreases.
8.3 Merits of glass replaced concrete
It is economical
It is Environmental friendly
It is supposed to give the strength when its size is in powdered form
It is non-biodegradable
8.4 Demerits of glass replaced concrete
Glass powder size as decrease than strength of concrete increase but below 50-micron glass powder affect strength of
concrete.
To make the glass into powdered form is difficult task.

it requires machinery and labor to convert glass into powdered form
During conversion of glass into powdered form this can affect our eyes, hands and through respiration glass powder
can reach to our respiration system.
9. Cost analysis
Prices
Price of cement per Kg= 6.50 Rs.
Price of waste glass powder per Kg= 5 Rs. Price of fly ash per Kg= 1.3Rs.
For normal concrete price of cement for one cube
Weight of cement = 1.846 Kg
Price of cement = 1.846 x 6.5= 11.99 Rs.

For glass replaced concrete price of cement for one cube
 if 15 % replaced by glass Weight of cement =1.569 Kg Weight of glass = 0.2769 Kg

Price of cement = 1.569 x 6.5=10.19 Rs. Price of glass =0.2769 x5=1.384 Rs.
Total price = 11.57 Rs
 if 30 % replaced by glass Weight of cement= 1.296 Kg Weight of glass = 0.55 Kg
Price of cement = 1.296 x 6.5= 8.424 Rs Price of glass = 0.55 x 5=2.75 Rs
Total price = 11.174 Rs.
For glass + fly ash replaced concrete price of cement for one cube
 if 15 % replaced by glass + fly ash

Weight of cement= 1.569 Kg Weight of glass = 0.138 Kg Weight of fly ash= 0.138 Kg
Price of cement = 1.569 x 6.5= 10.19Rs Price of glass = 0.138 x 5=0.69 Rs Price of fly ash=0.138 x 1.3= 0.179 Rs. Total price =
11.059 Rs.
 if 30 % replaced by glass + fly ash
Weight of cement= 1.296Kg Weight of glass = 0.275 Kg Weight of fly ash= 0.275 Kg
Price of cement = 1.296 x 6.5= 8.424Rs Price of glass = 0.275 x 5=1.375 Rs Price of fly ash=0.275 x 1.3= 0.3575 Rs. Total price
= 10.156 Rs.
 Reduction in price from normal concrete to 15 % glass replaced concrete for 1 cube= 11.99 – 11.57= 0.42 Rs

 Reduction in price from normal concrete to 30 % glass replaced concrete for one cube = 11.99-11.174= 0.816 Rs
 Reduction in price from normal concrete to 15 % glass + fly ash replaced concrete for one cube =11.99-11.059=
0.931 Rs
 Reduction in price from normal concrete to 30 % glass + fly ash replaced concrete for one cube =11.99-10.156=
1.834 Rs
10. CONCLUSION
The tests were conducted and the observed values are concluded as follows:
 We can replace cement by glass safely up to 30%and little more but we cannot replace it by 45 % & more.
 We can replace cement by (glass + fly ash) up to 30% but we cannot replace it by 45 % & more.
 28 days strength obtain from (glass + fly ash) is more than 28 days strength of glass replacement.
 On strength, criteria by glass + fly ash replacement is better than by only glass-replacement.
 It reduces the CO2 emission up to 30%
 At 15% replacement by glass powder strength came 24.2% more than normal concrete.
 At 30% replacement strength came 5.37% more than normal concrete
 At 15 % replacement by (glass +fly ash) strength came 34 % more than normal concrete.
 At 30% replacement by glass + fly ash strength came 6.48% more than normal concrete.
REFERENCES
1).G.M.sadiqul Islam, (2016). “Waste glass powder as partialreplacement of cement for sustainable concrete practice”.
2).P.R.wankhede, (2014). “Effect of fly ash on properties of concrete”.
3).Dr.G.Vijaykumar,Ms h.vishaliny,Dr.D.Govindarajulu(2013). “Studies on glass powder as partial replacement of cement in
concrete production”.
4).Neeraj jain,mridul garg and A.K0.minocha,(2015). “Green concrete from sustainable recycled coarse aggregates,mechanical
and durability properties”.
5).V.A.Fulari,(2014). “Effect of fly ash”.
6).Hongjian du,Kiang hwee Tan,(2014). “Waste glass powder as cement replacement in concrete”.
7).Abbas mohajerani,john vajna,(2017). “Practical recycling applications of crushed waste glass in construction materials”.
8).N.A. Soliman,A.Tagnit-Hamou,(2016). “Development of ultra-high performance concrete using glass powder”.
9).Zhen Chen,Chi Sun Poon,(2016). “Comparing the use of sewage sludge ash and glass powder in cement mortars”.
10).Aci Materials journal, (2014). “Concrete with recycled glass as fine aggregates”.
11)Fasih Ahmed khan,Muhammad Fahad,khan Shahazada,Haris Alam,Naveed Ali,(2015).
“Utilization of waste glass powder as a partial replacement of cement in concrete”.

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Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 1117–1124
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Improvement of mechanical properties of green concrete by treatment

of the vegetals fibers
A. Sellami a, M. Merzoud a, S. Amziane b,⇑
a
Laboratoire de Génie Civil, Université Badji Mokhtar, B.P. 12, Annaba 23000, Algeria
b
Clermont Université, Institut Pascal, UMR 6602, Université Blaise Pascal/CNRS, 24 Avenue des Landais, 63177 Aubière Cedex, France
h i g h l i g h t s
We examine the effect of plant treatment to improve the adhesion of plant particles to cement.
Mechanical properties of Diss based concrete have been investigated.
The boiled water treatment significantly improves the mechanical characteristics of the composites.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Diss is a wild vegetal species which can be found in plenty on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. This
Received 26 October 2012 fibrous plant can provide cement materials with reinforcement properties similar to classical steel or
Received in revised form 25 March 2013 polypropylene reinforced concrete. However, good adhesion between fibers and cement is required for
Accepted 4 May 2013
the fibrous strengthening. The objective of this study is to investigate two types of treatments for
Available online 29 June 2013
Diss-based fibers in order to assess their efficiency. The first treatment consists of extracting the sugars
by distillation of the Diss fibers. The second treatment consists of waterproofing the Diss fibers to prevent
Keywords:
water absorption. The compressive and flexural strength parameters of Diss-cement composite are used
Diss
Ampelodesma mauritanica
to assess the treatment performances.
Lignocellulose Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Mechanical properties
Treatment
Absorption
Mechanical performances
1. Introduction pose. When added to concrete, fibers improve tensile strength,

ductility and post-fracture behavior of composite concretes. Stud-
Concrete in the conventional sense of the word consists of a ies on Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (FRC) created from mineral or
heterogeneous mix between a mineral binder and aggregates (also synthetic fibers, started in the 20th century [1]. More recently, pro-
from mineral origin) of variable dimensions. Similarly, what is de- jects have been carried out to enhance the value of organic fibers to
fined as Agro-concrete or green concrete is composed of: substitute industrial fibers. These studies can be found in refer-
‘‘A mix between granulates from lignocellular plant (directly or ences such as wood [2,3], coconut [4], sisal [5,6], palm [7], bamboo
indirectly from agriculture or forestry origin), which form the bulk [8], bagasse [9,10]. It is interesting to note that countries such as
of the volume, and a mineral binder’’. Brazil with an exceptional range of flora plants has a wide range
This definition will not cover mixtures including: of fibers to be investigated, and extensive research in this field is
carried out [11,12].
– Low proportion of lignocellular granulates. The major difficulty encountered with the use of green concrete
– Lignocellular plant fibers to reinforce conventional concrete. to build structures is their mechanical properties considered very
low according to building safety standards. Although it is generally
Indeed, many projects aim to create construction materials admitted that environmental characteristics and physical proper-
using one or more types of lignocellular material as reinforcement ties (thermal resistance, acoustic, etc.) of green concrete are excel-
to the structure rather than as lightweight fibers for insulating pur- lent, its mechanical strength, is the most important characteristic
in design new construction materials [13,14].
Green concrete design, moreover, is complex because of many
⇑ Corresponding author.
incompatibility problems [15,16]. Available results of compressive
E-mail address: Sofi[email protected] (S. Amziane).
0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.05.073
1118 A. Sellami et al. / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 1117–1124
Fig. 2. Diss stalks.
Fig. 1. Diss plant (Ampelodesma mauritanica).
tests on hemp-based concrete, reveal that strength of hemp-based

concrete is lower than 1 MPa, which makes this material too weak
for structural use [25].
Three main reasons are foreseen to explain the vegetal-cement
composite low strength:
(1) Plants, in general, unlike sand or gravel in ordinary mortar or

concrete, are very soft. Some studies have shown that com-
pressive strength of concrete is highly influenced by the
strength and the stiffness of aggregate [17]. The compressive
strength of the vegetal fibers used in green cement cannot be
compared to compressive strength cement paste by any
means [25].
(2) Vegetal absorption/desorption properties generate some
volumetric changes within vegetal fibers during the harden- Fig. 3. Milled natural Diss fibers.
ing period [1]. Vegetal high porosity, indeed, gives plants the
capacity to pump water through capillary force. Plant poros-
ity, is responsible for binder moisture deficiencies, causing
some hydration deficits. Moreover, depending on moisture
content, these effects come with some alternating and sig-
nificant swelling and shrinkage phases very different from
the binder’s ones. After several humid/dry cycles, the combi-
nations of all these phenomena generate a complex transi-
tion zone around the vegetal aggregates [18]. Some
authors also underline the pectins ability to trap Ca2+ ions
in their polymeric structure [19]. Lignocellulosic aggregates
dispersed in an alkaline medium are also partially
solubilized.
(3) Dissolution of sugar by vegetal fibers acts like a retarding
agent for the cement paste. Some authors [20,21] report
problems of delay in the setting or even no setting at all
when mixing vegetal particles and mineral binder. Aggre- Fig. 4. SEM observations of the external surface of Diss fiber.
gate extracts, indeed, consist mainly of hemicellulose-type
polysaccharides the retarding effects of which on setting of
cement paste has been described in various studies [20,24].
tigated with ratio of fiber/cement equal 4:1 in volume [22,23], for
Because they are probably partially combined, the different unboiled fibers, boiled and washed fibers and fibers coated with
explanations given above are particularly difficult to be considered linseed oil.
separately. The following results were obtained:
The objective of this study is to investigate two types of treat-
ments for Diss-based fibers in order to assess their efficiency. The – In the case of boiled and washed fibers the highest mechanical
first treatment consists of extracting sugars by distillation from strength for the composite material, was found for W/C ratio of
Diss fibers (extraction of the soluble substances) The second treat- 0.7.
ment consists in waterproofing boiled and washed Diss fibers to – The mechanical strength was found to be very low in the case
prevent water absorption (reduction in the rate of absorption). unboiled fibers for W/C = 0.7. In this case the test was carried
Compression and flexural strength parameters of Diss-cement out with W/C = 0.7 only taking into account that boiled, and
composite are used to assess treatment performances. unboiled fibers have the same water absorption rate [22].
In order to evaluate the optimal water/cement ratio for the – For the third case, linseed coated fibers, the highest mechanical
highest mechanical strength, water absorption tests are carried strength was found for W/C = 0.4 and higher than in the case of
out on fibers used in composite materials. Three cases were inves- boiled and washed fibers.
A. Sellami et al. / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 1117–1124 1119
Fig. 5. SEM observations of the external surface of Diss fiber (at different scale).
Fig. 6. Fiber inner wall.
Table 1
Water-soluble organo-components.
Organic substance Not-boiled Diss (in%) Boiled-but-not washed Diss (in%) Boiled-and-washed Diss (in%)
Water-soluble sugars 30.78 1.95 0.72
Proteins 1.76 0.42 0.12
Table 2
Lignocellulosic components of Diss.
Components Rate (in%)

Not-boiled Diss Boiled-and-washed Diss
Methanol-soluble substance and lipids (sphingolipids) – 16
Cellulose 30.33 40
Hemicelluloses A hemicellulose 0.11 0.078

B1 hemicellulose 4.8 0.056
The very low strength for tested unboiled fibers, is certainly due the weak bond of fibers to cementitious matrix is caused by the
to exchange occurring at the interface of matrix-fibers and to the soluble fraction of fiber components which represents 16.8%.
hydrolysis and solubilization reactions of some components such For linseed coated fibers, the decrease of W/C compared to
as sugar, hemicelluloses and pectins caused by the highly alkaline boiled and washed fibers, is explained by the waterproofing of
environment developed by cement hydration. It can be noted that fibers.
Table 3
Bulk densities depending on the fibers.
Type of fiber Bulk density (g/l)

Milled-but-not-boiled Diss 50.3
Boiled milled Diss 37.5
Linseed oil-coated milled Diss 48.0
100
90
80
70
(M(t)-M0) x 100/M0
Boiled diss - not washed
Fig. 7. Fiber external wall. 60
50 Boiled diss - washed
40 Hard diss
2. Materials
30
Diss + Flax oil
2.1. Morphology and chemical composition of raw vegetal fibers 20
Diss is a wild vegetal species (Fig. 1) which can be found in plenty on the shores 10
of the Mediterranean Sea [22,23]. This fibrous plant (Fig. 2) can provide cementi- 0
tious materials with reinforcement properties similar to classical steel or polypro- 0 25 50 75 100
pylene reinforced concrete. Moreover, the outside surface raw Diss fiber is
covered with approximately 100 lm-long thorns (Fig. 7), which improve adhesion
Time (S1/2)
once mixed with binder. Adhesion is much sought-as property as regards of rein-
Fig. 9. Diss fiber absorption rate.
forcement with fibers. The thorns on Diss reinforcement fibers (Figs. 2 and 7) pres-
ent the advantage of enhancing naturally adhesion at the fiber/binder interface.
The surface of thorns is not homogeneous and covered with a substance the tex-
ture of which looks like natural wax. The surface between the thorns displays some 2.2. Treatments of Diss fibers
visible stria covered homogeneously with thin entangled needles.
Moreover, SEM examination (Figs. 4 and 5) reveals that the inner surface of Diss In order to overcome the problem of incompatibility of Diss/cement composite,
fiber is covered with 20 lm-long thorns with a diameter at the base of 10 lm different treatments of sugar extraction are applied to the Diss fibers. The first treat-
(Figs. 6 and 7). These thorns are spaced evenly every 10 lm and homogeneously ment consists of heat treatment to extract the soluble substance contained within
distributed over the whole fiber surface. the fibers. The second treatment consists of coating the fibers with linseed oil to
A mixed tubular-cavernous structure is observed within the depth of the fiber hinder the rate of absorption and prevent contact between the binder and water-
wall. Most of the cavities are closed. This cellular structure presents advantages soluble sugars.
and drawbacks. It is of light weight and an excellent heat insulator for building The heat treatment consists, first, of boiling milled Diss (Fig. 3) during four
materials. However it has a very high rate of water absorption, which makes the hours, then, draining the water and, finally, washing the fibers thoroughly to re-
management of water during the binder hydration phase complicated. move all traces of organic substances. The linseed-oil treatment consists of mixing
As regards of chemistry, Diss is considered as a lignocellulosic material. First, we the previously dried boiled and washed Diss with seed oil. The mixture is then
need try to quantify the lignocellulosic components. The quantity of cellulose is placed in an oven at 50 °C to make sure that all fibers are homogeneously covered
determined using the gravimetric method, also called the ‘‘Weende method’’, and with oil and to add fibers in case of excess oil remains inside the tray. The propor-
one of the oldest techniques for the dosage of ‘‘cellulosic insoluble materials’’ devel- tions are determined once oil absorption is nil. The Diss/oil weight ratio is nearly
oped by the agronomic institute of WEENDE. According to the ISO-AFNOR standard 1.28.
(NF V 03-040, 1977), the so-called ‘‘cellulosic’’ insoluble materials correspond to the
substances lost during incineration of materials withstanding successive acid and 2.3. Effects of treatments on fiber morphology
alkaline attacks. The analysis of the lipidic hydrolysate is carried out with the
thin-layer chromatographic method, called screening method. As regards to boiled fibers, the components found at the surface of both thorns
The main water-soluble and lignocellulosic organo-components found in natu- and interstitial surface have disappeared. The morphology of the thorns, on the
ral Diss are presented in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The high water-soluble sugar other hand, has clearly changed and presents now a thinner and longer shape.
concentration is a problem since Diss is combined with a cimentitious material be- Moreover, some degradation products, within the range of 1–10 lm, are also
cause of its well known retarding action on the setting of cement paste. visible.
Fig. 8. Diss fiber saturated with linseed oil.

The outside of the boiled-and-washed Diss stalk is similar to that of simply

boiled one with, some traces of surface sediment.
Depending on the zone observed, the linseed oil coats the inside of the stalk
more or less properly with thorns appearing or not on the inner surface.
The external surface looks like a simply boiled one, i.e., without any deposit but
with probably an homogeneous coat of linseed oil (Fig. 8).
3. Diss properties
3.1. Diss bulk density and water absorption
For the purpose of this study, the Diss material is milled using a
Retsch parallel cutting mill. A 10 mm-meshed screen is placed at
the mill output to ensure the repeatability of the size analysis
within the range of (0–3) mm and (0–30) mm for minor and major
Fig. 10. Treated or not treated Diss fiber absorption rate in the vaporous phase. axes.
The mean bulk density obtained after six measurements is
50.3 kg/m3, which is of very light weight in comparison with hemp
stalk density (approximately 100 kg/m3). Bulk densities, are deter-
Table 4
Setting time tests using mixing water of different origins. mined by weighting the Diss fibers beforehand placed in an oven at
50 °C until constant mass, placed by pluviation, without packing,
Sample Initial setting
inside a 1-l container. The average results of the 10-measurement
Cement + supply water 4H30 campaign are presented in Table 3.
Cement + water used to boil Diss fiber 8H00
After milling, the different fibers are considered as follows:
– Natural Diss fibers dried in oven: In contrast with not boiled

Diss, the decrease in boiled Diss bulk density is accounted for
by the degradation of sugars and water-soluble substance con-
10
Flexural strength (MPa) tained in milled natural Diss.
9
– Heat-treated fibers, first, boiled in water, then, dried in oven.
Mechanical Strength (MPa)
Compressive strength (MPa)

8
– Linseed-oil coated fibers.
7 – Diss fiber bulk densities are presented in Table 3.
6
5 Absorption tests consist of immersing some dried and weighed
4 Diss material, (M(0)), in water. Diss stalks are wrapped in a thin
3 cloth to avoid loss of material. The weighting operation is carried
2 out at defined soak times, M(t), after absorbed water is wringed
1 out. The test continues until the absorbed mass is stabilized. The
0 absorption rate according to the square root time is given by:
Not boiled Boiled Diss, Boiled and Diss+Flax oil
Diss 4:1:0.7 Not washed washed Diss 4:1:0.4 wð%Þ ¼ ½MðtÞ Mð0Þ 100=Mð0Þ
4:1:0.7 4:1:0.7
Type of material The high porosity and the highly connected internal structure of
the aggregates are responsible for the important water absorption
Fig. 11. Mechanical strength depending on formulation. and retention properties. Two distinct phases are observed (Fig. 9).
During the first minutes of the test, like for hemp and sunflower,
Fig. 12. Boiled Diss composites after (a) flexion test and (b) compression test.
Fig. 13. Fiber behavior at the level of the flexure cracks within boiled Diss composites (enlargement of (a) 50 and (b) 175).
the mass increases sharply. After 5 min, the increase reaches 300% 5. Mechanical testing on Diss concrete
of the initial dry mass. The subsequent second phase of absorption
progresses slowly and continuously. The optimal formulations chosen for different treatments de-
The results of fiber absorption in the liquid state as a function of pend on the rate of water absorption and the mechanical strength
the square root of time are presented in Fig. 9. The initial saturation of fibers. Formulations are in volume depending on the composi-
and absorption rates and kinetics are then deduced. tion of Diss: Cement and Water/Cement. The optimal volume for-
Milled, dried Diss fibers, either boiled or not but not washed, or mulation for boiled and not-boiled Diss composites is 4:1 (D/
boiled and washed, all present some absorption rates very close to C = Diss/Cement ratio = 4.0, 4 volumes of Diss for 1 volume of ce-
100%, similar absorption kinetics and saturation times around ment) and (Water/cement of 0.7). The optimal volume formulation
60 min. Therefore, boiling does not seem to have any impact on for the linseed oil-coated Diss composite is 4:1 and Water/cement
the fiber structure. of 0.4. Cement bulk density is 1000 g/l.
The absorption rate of linseed oil-coated fibers, on the other
hand, is very low, almost negligible, which confirms the water
5.1. Compression and flexion tests
proofing ability of the oil treatment.
In the case of cement components, absorption must be consid-
The test specimens made with various fibers, treated or not, are
ered during the four or five first hours, which corresponds to the
preserved during 28 days in a storage room (RH = 95%, t = 20 °C),
cement hydration time. Diss fiber absorption tests, indeed, can be
and then dried at 50 °C until a constant mass before testing.
used to assess the best water/cement ratio for composite materials
Mechanical tests were carried out, according to the European
in order to enhance their mechanical performances.
standard EN 196-1, on prismatic specimens 4 4 16 cm (Figs. 12
Some absorption tests in the vaporous phase were also carried
and 14). The tensile strengths were measured using a three points
out. They consist of weighting a net mass of Diss fibers and placing
flexural test bench, equipped with a system of acquisition. The
it in an open container, which is placed inside a 95%-humid and
compression tests were carried out on half of the test-specimens
20 °C desiccator. Vacuum is operated inside the desiccator between
in flexion, with the assistance of the standard machine Perrier
each weighting operation, for which a precision balance ±0.001 g is
68.7. Compression and flexion test results for the various formula-
used.
tions are shown in Fig. 11.
The fiber relative absorption versus square root time ratios in
For all formulations of boiled or linseed oil-coated composites
the vaporous phase are presented in Fig. 10.
the compressive to flexural strength ratios is between 1.29 and
In the vaporous phase, not-boiled Diss absorption is higher than
2.85. These values are very different from ordinary mortars, for
boiled Diss. The presence of hydrophilic substances may certainly
which the ratio is in the order of 10. This proves the good perfor-
account for this observation because, in the liquid phase, no such
mance of Diss composite regarding flexion. Flexural strength, in-
difference appears.
deed, is an essential characteristic for structural or filling
After 11 days in the desiccators, not-boiled Diss samples have
elements intended to withstand horizontal stresses such as earth-
became moldy whereas, up to date (53th day of test), boiled Diss
quake shocks or wind. The capacity of the samples to withstand
samples remain untouched. The hydrophilic properties and the
loads beyond their elastic limit demonstrates also their capacity
mold contamination of not-boiled Diss confirm the presence of
to absorb energy beyond the first breaking loads.
substances like sugar.
In spite of the fact that the thorns on the Diss surface, which
Linseed oil-coated Diss fibers, on the other hand, like in the li-
guarantee the good adhesion between fibers and cement paste,
quid phase, reveal some low absorption rates, which confirm the
the mechanical strength of the dried-but-not-boiled Diss compos-
satisfactory imperviousness capacity of this treatment on raw Diss.
ites remains very low. The exchanges at the binder–aggregate
interface and hydrolysis or solubilization reactions of components
such as sugars, hemicelluloses and pectines may possibly account
4. Effects of vegetal fibers treatments on setting of cement paste for these results. The chemical reactions are initiated by the alka-
line environment created by the cement hydration. The presence
Diss boiling treatments can reduce the quantity of water-solu- of soluble components is confirmed by the absorption tests carried
ble substance responsible for setting delay and incompatibility out on Diss in the vaporous phase by the presence of hydrophilic
problems with the cement paste [21]. Some tests carried out on substances (mildew spores). Considering that the decrease in the
the setting times of cement paste using supplied water, on one material bonding strength is principally caused by these soluble
hand, and water used to boil Diss fibers, on the other hand, demon- components, therefore, obtained results can be explained.
strate the relevance of this treatment. Delays in the initial setting, Consequently, the high resistance values obtained are not due
indeed, vary significantly as shown in Table 4. essentially to the thorny structure of the Diss fibers, but above
Fig. 14. Boiled, linseed oil-coated Diss composites after (a) flexion test and (b) compression test.
Fig. 15. Fiber behavior at the level of the flexure cracks within boiled, linseed oil-coated Diss composites enlargement of (a) 50 and (b) 50.
all, to the change produced by the heat treatment in the chemical – The fiber absorption process does not affect the mechanical
structure of the vegetal fractions, and particularly the degradation strength of the composites if the water/cement ratio is
of hemicelluloses. appropriate.
Resistance values may also be accounted for the fibers take hor- – The horizontal arrangement of the fibers increases their resis-
izontal position, which enhances adhesion with the cement paste tance to tensile stresses.
and makes it possible for fibers to have the reinforcement function. – Heat-treated and linseed oil-coated fiber composite samples
All completed tests on boiled Diss composite samples provide con- have resisted to considerable tensile stresses in comparison with
firmation of the reinforcing effect. During these tests, no brittle natural Diss composites. No cracks were observed during the first
fracture was observed. Both compressed and tight zones are clearly breaking loads. In compression, the failure of boiled and boiled-
visible on the samples as shown on Fig. 12. The video microscopic and linseed oil-coated fiber composite samples does not happen
examination of the samples at the level of the flexure crack of the in the form of brittle rupture. The samples appear almost intact.
tightened part reveals that the Diss fibers are gathered and coated – The main components delaying cement paste setting are mainly
into bundles by the cement paste, which allow for their resistance soluble sugars, hemicelluloses, and some essences and saps
to the applied tensile stresses (Figs. 13 and 15). found on the plant surface.
– Boiled-and-linseed oil-coated fiber composites present the
highest resistance values because (a) their thorny structure is
6. Conclusion preserved, (b) humid fibers are better than dry fibers for the
mixture quality, (c) the water absorption is less and (d) com-
Within fiber composites, the cement paste behaves like a pro- pactness is better.
tection and a binder. From a mechanical point of view, it transmits – Significant improvements brought by the introduction of fibers
stresses from one fiber to the other. within composites are mainly due to:
Boiled water treatment improves significantly the mechanical (1) The bond property of the fibers to cement paste due to their
characteristics of the composites but do not affect the fiber struc- thorny structure.
ture. However, the treatment can eliminate – organic-components, (2) The thin structure of fibers, which allow fibers to take hor-
like water-soluble sugars in particular, which decrease from izontal position during sample preparation. Consequently,
30.78% for untreated Diss to 1.95% for boiled-but-not-washed Diss fibers resist better to tensile stress which occurs parallel
and, eventually, to 0.72% for boiled-and-washed Diss. to fibers; during compression and flexural tests.
The elimination of sugars makes it possible for the fibers to re-
act satisfactorily with cement. The resulting composite materials
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Because of the horizontal arrangement of the fibers, boiled and 40 years of development in building and civil engineering. Compos Struct
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coating by the cement paste. This combination is considered to op- pulp fibers as alternative reinforcement to engineered cement-based
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Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 1063–1095
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
Green concrete: Prospects and challenges

K.M. Liew a,b,⇑, A.O. Sojobi a, L.W. Zhang c,⇑
a
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
b
City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Nanshan District, Shenzhen 518057, Guangdong, China
c
School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
h i g h l i g h t s
Green concrete utilizes waste materials as SCM and aggregates in concrete.

It promotes effective waste management, GHG reduction and resource conservation.
Benefits: improved strength, workability, durability, pumpability, reduced cracking.
Benefits: reduction of construction & maintenance costs and increased service life.
More R & D, standards and large-scale demonstration projects are required.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Utilization of green concrete in construction is increasingly adopted by the construction industry owing
Received 28 April 2017 to the drawbacks of conventional concrete and the numerous inherent benefits of green concrete. The
Received in revised form 29 August 2017 increasing demand for green concrete has been spurred by demand for high quality concrete products,
Accepted 1 September 2017
desire of nations to reduce green-house gas emission, need for conservation of natural resources and lim-
Available online 20 September 2017
ited landfill spaces. Green concrete comes in various forms such as high-volume fly ash concrete, ultra-
high performance concrete, geopolymer concrete, lightweight concrete to mention a few. Green concrete
Keywords:
offers numerous environmental, technical benefits and economic benefits such as high strength,
Green concrete
High-volume fly ash concrete
increased durability, improved workability and pumpability, reduced permeability, controlled bleeding,
Ultra-high performance concrete superior resistance to acid attack, and reduction of plastic shrinkage cracking. These characteristics pro-
Lightweight concrete motes faster concrete production, reduction of curing waiting time, reduction of construction costs, early
Geopolymer concrete project completion, reduction of maintenance costs and increased service life of construction projects.
Green concrete promotes sustainable and innovative use of waste materials and unconventional alterna-
tive materials in concrete. Suitable standards, more demonstration projects, as well as adequate training,
public awareness, cross-disciplinary collaborations and further research and developments are required
to promote global adoption of green concrete in large-scale infrastructure projects.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
2. Common waste materials used as SCM in green concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
2.1. RHA as SCM in green concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
2.2. Silica fume as SCM in green concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
2.3. Fly ash as SCM in green concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
2.4. GGBFS as SCM in green concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
2.5. Waste glass as SCM in green concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
3. Activation techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
4. Production of green concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
5. Properties of green concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.M. Liew), [email protected] (L.W. Zhang).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.008
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1064 K.M. Liew et al. / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 1063–1095
Nomenclature
SCM Supplementary cementitious material NanoA Nano-Al2 O3

SF Silica fume CNI Calcium nitrite-based corrosion inhibitor
RHA Rice husk ash FA50L 50%Fly ash content
GGBS & GGBFS Ground granulated blast-furnace slag HVFAC High-volume fly ash concrete
WG Waste glass HPSCC High performance self-consolidating concrete
NS Nano-silica FA Fly ash
PPF Polypropylene fibres CRT Cathode ray tube waste glass
BOFS Basic oxygen furnace slag GFRP Glass fibre reinforced polymer
RAC Recycled aggregate concrete CS Compressive strength
FFA Fine fly ash SP Superplasticizer
RHAC Rice husk ash concrete w/b water binder ratio
FAC Fly ash concrete w/cm water-cementitious ratio
FA-HSC Fly ash-based high strength concrete w/scm water-supplementary cementitious materials ratio
SFC Silica fume concrete ASR Alkali silica reaction
UHPC Ultra-high performance concrete RPC Reactive powder concrete
WGC Waste glass concrete MK Metakaolin
GF Glass fume from waste glass SiO2Eff Effective amorphous silica content
C3S (tricalcium silicate) Seff Effective surface area of SCM
C2S (dicalcium silicate) CN Carbon nanotube
RHAC Rice husk ash concrete HSC High strength concrete
SCC Self-consolidating concrete UHPC Ultra high strength concrete
HPC High-performance concrete LWC Lightweight concrete
AA Alternative aggregates BRAC Bacterial rice husk ash concrete
OPC Ordinary Portland cement CRHA Rice husk ash from controlled burning
RRHA Raw rice hush ash
5.1. Fresh properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069

5.1.1. Slump and water requirement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
5.1.2. Setting time, flow, workability, segregation index, bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
5.2. Hard properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
5.2.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
5.2.2. Flexural strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
5.2.3. Splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
5.2.4. Shrinkage and creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
5.3. Durability properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
5.3.1. Water absorption and porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
5.3.2. Chloride penetration and alkali silica reaction (ASR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
5.3.3. Fire-resistance and chemical attack properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
6. Factors that influence properties of green concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
6.1. SCM chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
6.2. Water/binder (w/b) ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
6.3. Curing medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
7. Binary, ternary and quarternary SCM mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
8. Nomenclature and applications of green concrete utilized in concrete structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
8.1. HVFAC (High volume fly ash concrete) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
8.2. UHPC (Ultra high performance concrete) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
8.3. UHSC (Ultra high strength concrete) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
8.4. LWC (Lightweight concrete) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
8.5. HSC (High strength concrete) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
8.6. HPC (High performance concrete) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
8.7. GPC (Geopolymer concrete) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
9. Analytical and numerical modelling of green concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
10. Potential benefits of green concrete in early project completion and cost savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
11. Future trends in production and application of green concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
12. Current challenges and obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
13. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
K.M. Liew et al. / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 1063–1095 1065
1. Introduction 2.1. RHA as SCM in green concrete
Globally, management of solid wastes poses a herculean chal- Various studies have been carried out on the utilization of rice
lenge to developed and developing countries owing to industrial husk ash (RHA) as supplementary cementitious material and sand
growth, construction booms, rapid urbanization, and consumeric replacement in various concrete applications [14,16–20].
lifestyle [1]. The demand for green concrete in construction indus- Utilization of RHA offers numerous benefits in concrete. A few
try is spurred by increased regulations to reduce carbon footprint, of the benefits include improvement of microstructure, void struc-
limit greenhouse gas emission and limited landfill spaces. In addi- ture reformation, increased early age strength, by reducing the
tion, the construction industry is embracing green construction width of the ITZ between paste and aggregate [21–23].
owing to project requirements for LEED (Leadership in Energy It was observed that the optimum parameters recommended
and Environmental Design) certifications. for RHA to maximize its pozzolanic properties in concrete varied
The present high demand for natural resources to meet infras- amongst different researches mainly because of the different con-
tructural demands has created immense opportunities for the stituents utilized in combination with RHA, variation in the pro-
use of waste materials to green infrastructure construction [2–5]. duction process and applications.
These waste materials play the roles of either supplementary Despite many researches on RHA as SCM in concrete and mor-
cementitious materials (SCM) or alternative aggregates (AA) in tar, the relationship between the particle size and pozzolanic prop-
green concrete and can be categorized as agricultural, industrial erties of RHA is not yet well understood. Previous researchers have
and municipal wastes as shown in Fig. 1. made attempt to explain their relationship with various degrees of
Though coined in Denmark in 1999, green concrete has been in success. A positive relationship exist between Blaine specific sur-
practical existence for several decades and centuries. Jin and Chen face area (SSA) of RHA and its pozzolanicity but an inverse relation-
[6] defined green concrete as concrete produced by utilizing alter- ship with median particle size ðd50 Þ [24]. On the other hand, the
native or recycled waste materials in order to reduce energy con- multilayered, angular and microporous surface of RHA was
sumption, environmental impact and natural resource reported to be the major factor controlling the pozzolanic reaction
consumption. Green concrete is a concept of embracing and inte- [25].
grating environmental considerations in concrete with respect to In-depth literature studies revealed that the pozzolanic proper-
raw material sourcing, mix design, structural design, construction ties of RHA are influenced by its particle size and specific surface
and maintenance of concrete structures [7]. area, percentage replacement of cement, and water-cement ratio.
The inherent drawbacks of traditional concrete include unsus- In addition, it was observed that the influence of SSA of RHA often
tainable consumption of natural raw materials, low, early-age supersedes that of particle size ðd50 Þ. This finding was corroborated
compressive strength, environmental contamination [8–10]. in earlier studies [25–27]. Givi et al. [26] reported that 5 lm RHA
On the other hand, green concrete exhibit numerous particle size with SSA of 36:47 m2 =g recorded the higher compres-
advantages such as improvement in concrete properties, low sive strength (CS) compared to 95 lm RHA particle size with SSA of
carbon footprint, conservation of natural resources, to mention a 24 m2 =g. In a similar vein, the highest CS28 (51.8 MPa) was
few [11]. obtained with the smallest RHA particle (11.5 lm) and the highest
The major barriers for green concrete utilization in construction SSA (30.4) by another researcher [25]. These values were higher
are systemic lock-in, lower qualities of locally available materials, compared to the other samples with corresponding particle sizes
increase in construction costs, and technical barriers [6,12]. of 31.3 and 18.3 lm, BET SSA of 27.4 and 29.1 and corresponding
In order to produce sustainable green concrete, technological CS28 of 48.4 and 50.2 MPa respectively. The above results lend cre-
advances that are energy efficient, utilize low-carbon production dence to the dominance and importance of SSA to both RHA poz-
methods and novel cement formulations are required alongside zolanicity and compressive strength development of concrete.
technical guidelines for their production and usage [13]. Previous work by Cyr et al. [28]established that SCMs exhibit
both pozzolanic and physical effects, which can be quantified.
The pozzolanic contribution of SCM was reported in Eq. (1):
2. Common waste materials used as SCM in green concrete
apz
Df pz ¼ c ð1Þ
The waste materials utilized in green concrete can be grouped 1 þ Sb
eff
into three categories namely agricultural, industrial and municipal
wastes as depicted in Fig. 1. In order to utilize their pozzolanic where Df pz = pozzolanic contribution of SCM (RHA); apz = depth in
properties in green concrete, the waste materials are often acti- time of hydration; b = BET surface area of cement (Type 1 OPC),
vated through physical or chemical means or their combination which varies with water-cement ratio as shown in Fig. 2;
[14,15]. Seff = Effective surface area of SCM as shown in Eq. (2); c = 1.
Seff ¼ Ss xgP ð2Þ
Rice Corn Sawd where Ss = SSA of RHA; gP = efficiency factor obtained from the
Agricultur work of Cyr et al. [29]. Likewise, it was also reported that amor-
husk cob ust
al wastes ash ash ash phous silica content of RHA can also be used to reliably assess the
pozzolanic potential of different RHA samples using Eq. (3) [27].
Granula
ted
Industrial Fly Silica Min ðp; pmax Þ SiO2Amorphous
wastes ash fume
blast SiO2Eff ¼ ð3Þ
furnace 1 Minðp; pmax Þ
slag
where SiO2Eff = effective amorphous silica content (%);SiO2Amorphous
Municipal Glass Plascs Paper = amorphous silica content of RHA samples; p = % RHA replacement
wastes of cement, which could reach up to maximum ðPmax Þ. SiO2Eff is the
amount of amorphous SiO2 that is able to react, given the replace-
Fig. 1. Categories of Wastes utilized in Green Concrete. ment level p, maximum replacement level pmax and amorphous sil-
160 y = 21.86x + 35.46 The optimum cement replacement with RHA is governed by the
R² = 0.974 SSA of the RHA, RHA particle size, w/c ratio, presence of other SCM,
140
w=cm ratio, type, chemical and mineralogical composition of
120 cement and SCM utilized [21,34,35]. Other parameters that may
BET SSA (m2/g)
100 affect optimum cement replacement include type and dosage of

super plasticizer and target engineering properties to be opti-
80
mized, size of the concrete aggregates, porosity of the concrete
60 and pre-treatment and activation level of RHA.
40 Jamil et al. [35] reported that optimum replacement percentage
ratio of RHA in each type of cement varies as the % of C 3 S (trical-
20
cium silicate) and C 2 S (dicalcium silicate) varies with cement types
0 and the amount of CaðOHÞ2 produced during cement hydration.
0.35 0.4 0.5 0.57 0.7 The authors also mentioned that optimum replacement percentage
w/c rao ratio of RHA will increase with increase in percentage of foreign
compounds in RH samples and also percentage of non-reactive
Fig. 2. Variation of BET SSA of cement with w/c ratio [28].
crystalline silica in RHA. In addition, the authors reported that par-
ticle size, SSA, pozzolanic reactivity and pore structure are the
main factors governing cement hydration and invariably cement
replacements in concrete. The ash type, grinding time and cement
ica content. The SiO2Eff result obtained was utilized in place Seff in percentage replacements effects and their interactions were also
equation for comparison purposes. reported to affect strength development of RHAC [36]. The authors
Experimental data presented by Zunino and Lopez [27] were recommended Type 2 ash prepared at 650 °C, grinding time of
used for analyses because they utilized RHA from different suppli- 240 min and 20% or 40% cement replacement with RHA.
ers with different d50 , BET SSA and SiO2 amorphous content. Negative impacts of RHA in concrete include reduction of flowa-
Although the experiment was conducted at 20% RHA replacement bility, high water requirement, flow blockage and increase in
of cement and 0.5 w/c ratio, it was extended to higher replacement superplasticizer requirements. Others include reduction of
ratios using the formulas given above. Our results revealed that the strength at high RHA content, poor chloride permeability at high
pozzolanic contribution of RHA varies with median particle size, RHA content and ASR reaction in alkaline solution. These negative
water-cement ratio, specific surface area and percentage RHA impacts can be ameliorated through careful optimization of the
replacement of cement as shown in Figs. 3–6. production processes of RHA and RHAC and utilization of appropri-
In addition, the highest pozzolanic contribution occurred at ate optimum RHA contents for concrete applications.
0.35 water-cement ratio, 30% cement replacement and
14.467 lm. This correspond with the maximum results obtained
by another study [30]. Furthermore, it was also observed that the 2.2. Silica fume as SCM in green concrete
pozzolanic contribution increased with increasing BET SSA and
increasing reduction in median particle sizes. Therefore, in order Silica fume (SF) has been used in various applications [37–44]
to enhance the pozzolanic contribution of RHA in concrete, RHA and acted as SCM, filler and healing agents. Benefits offered by SF
particles with both smaller specific surface area and smaller parti- in concrete are improved flexural and compressive strengths,
cle sizes should be utilized to give maximum pozzolanic contribu- increased pozzolanic activity, multi-range macroporosity proper-
tion. This implies smaller RHA particle sizes have the potential to ties, to mention a few [41,43–46]. Its multi-range macroporosity
offer more pozzolanic contribution in concrete provided they have properties allow its usage in the production of high-porosity
higher SSA. cement foams and multi-strength lightweight concrete (LWC). SF
Furthermore, the potentials of RHA in concrete is yet to be fully was also found useful in increasing ultimate-load carrying capac-
realized since most reported experiments in literature were con- ity, improved durability and impact resistance [37–40,47]. Opti-
ducted at sub-optimal experimental conditions. Therefore, more mum dosage of SF ranges between 10 and 14% when used in
researches are needed to find cost-effective and affordable meth- combination with materials such as steel fibres, nano-silica, recy-
ods to improve the SSA of locally available RHA to encourage its cled aggregate [37,39,40].
adoption and widespread utilization. One of the negative impacts of SF in concrete include reduction
From Fig. 7, it was observed that the pozzolanic contribution in workability [48]. Also, SF was reported ineffective in reducing
obtained using SiO2Eff proposed by Zunino and Lopez [27] gave creep [49] and caused reduction in long-term compressive
higher effective surface values at all median particle sizes com- strength [50]. Increase in chloride-initiated reinforcement corro-
pared to the method using the SSAEff suggested by Cyr et al. [29]. sion in marine environment was also reported and was found to
Even though the two approaches showed similar trend up to med- be mitigated at low w=c ratio [51].
ian particle size of 20.644 lm, their results differed afterwards.
Calculation of pozzolanic contribution of RHA in concrete using
the SiO2Eff could be a better approach. This is also supported by 2.3. Fly ash as SCM in green concrete
the fact that SiO2 constitutes about 80–90% of RHA by mass and
it is the major source of its pozzolanicity [26,30–32]. Previous studies have investigated the use of fly ash as SCM in
Therefore, in order to optimize the pozzolanic potentials of various concrete applications [52–58]. The benefits derived from
RHA, proper attention must be paid to its production process as the use of fly ash were increase in compressive strength (CS), bulk
well as its chemical composition alongside other concrete/cement density and linear shrinkage, porosity reduction, improvement in
constituent materials utilized in RHAC [23,33]. bending toughness and ductility [52,53,58].
Optimum grinding time for RHA depends on the incineration/ In order to ensure satisfactory properties, curing time, curing
burning temperature it was subjected to, burning duration, type temperature and type of materials used in fly-ash concrete (FAC)
of incineration equipment utilized, level of pre-treatment of the must be carefully selected [55,56]. Optimum production conditions
RHA, the speed and type of grinding machine utilized. should also be utilized depending on exposure conditions of the
Pozzolanic contribuon, fpz (MPa)

6
5
0.35 w/c
4 0.4 w/c
3 0.5 w/c
0.57 w/c
2
0.7 w/c
1
0
14.467 19.123 19.623 20.644 20.953
RHA median parcle size, D50 (μm)
Fig. 3. Variation of pozzolanic contribution with Particle size and water-cement ratio.
9
8
7
6
20%
5
30%
4
40%
3
50%
2
60%
1
0
14.467 19.123 19.623 20.644 20.953
RHA Parcle Size, D50 (μm)
Fig. 4. Variation of pozzolanic contribution with particle size at different percentage replacements.
9
6
20%
5
30%
4
40%
3
50%
2
60%
1
0
23.582 31.284 52.114 114.523 128.85
BET SSA (m2/g)
Fig. 5. Variation of pozzolanic contribution of RHA with BET SSA and percentage replacement.
envisaged FAC product [54,55,59,60]. The fly ash could be from compressive strength development. In addition, high class C fly
anthracite or bituminous coal, lignite or sub-bituminous coals [61]. ash can increase ASR in silica fume concrete (SFC) [64].
Negative impacts of fly ash in high-volume fly ash concrete
(HVFAC) include extended setting times, slow strength develop- 2.4. GGBFS as SCM in green concrete
ment, low early-age strength, construction delay, difficulties to
use in cold weather concreting and low resistance to deicer-salt Ground granulated blast furnace slag has been investigated for
scaling carbonation [62]. Kurad et al. [63] also advised against high use in production of geopolymer concrete (GPC) and alkali-
volume applications of RHA in concrete to avoid retardation of activated slag (AAS) cements [65,66]. The benefits of SF in concrete
9 Negative impacts of waste glass in concrete include slump

Pozzolanic contribuon, fpz(MPa)
8 reduction at high waste glass content as well as decrease in com-

pressive strength [88]. These impacts can be ameliorated by val-
7
orization of waste glass to become glass fume, usage of
6 appropriate w/c ratio and waste glass content.
14.467 μm
5
19.123 μm
4
19.623 μm 3. Activation techniques
3
20.644 μm
2 Activation is necessary to prevent slow and low, early-age
20.953μm
1 strength development and accelerate the pozzolanic reactivity of
SCMs in green concrete. Activation helps to achieve higher early
0
20% 30% 40% 50% 60% and later strength amongst other benefits [89]. Types of activation
techniques available in literature include mechanical activation,
RHA content (%)
chemical activation, curing/temperature activation, water-
Fig. 6. Variation of pozzolanic contribution of RHA with percentage replacement controlled activation and SCM-controlled activation.
using different particle sizes. Mechanical activation involves grinding of SCM to smaller fine
particles to increase fineness and their effective specific surface
area. Chemical activation is the addition or utilization of chemical
25 substances to activate the pozzolanicity of cementitious materials
[90]. Curing/temperature activation refers to the use of curing
Effecve surface area (m2/g)
20 medium with age and temperature to achieve property develop-

ment of the concrete. The curing medium could be air, water, alter-
15 nating combination of both.
Temperature activation refers to the use of elevated tempera-
SiO2-eff tures above room temperature to activate the reactivity of the con-
10
SSAeff crete constituents. Commonly utilized activation media utilized in
temperature-controlled activation are air or water. SCM-controlled
5
activation involves the use of SCM or cement to accelerate poz-
zolanic reactions of the pozzolans. Elevated temperature curing
0 at 50 °C favours pozzolanic behaviour of glass particles which also
14.467 19.123 19.623 20.644 20.953 depends on the glass composition [91]. Particle size smaller than
RHA median parcle size, d50 (μm) 25 lm was recommended.
Chemical activation is the most efficient and feasible activation
Fig. 7. Comparison of pozzolanic contribution using SiO2-Eff and SSAEff..
method [92]. Examples of chemical activators found in literature
utilized in green concrete are sodium sulphate anhydrite, sodium
are improvement in durability, enhancement of long-term CS to silicate, acids such as HCl and H2 SO4 , CaCl2 , Na2 SO4 , NaOH,
mention a few [67,68]. Na2 CO3 , CaðOHÞ2 , K 2 SO4 , TiO2 , Calcium formate. The chemical acti-
Optimum OPC=GGBFS ratio of 4:1 at 0.3 water-binder ðw=bÞ vators could be added during grinding or combined with
ratio and cement-sand ratio of 1:1.5 were recommended by Chi- temperature-controlled activation to reduce total materials costs
diac and Panesar [69,66]. Low percentage replacements and low [92]. For instance, combination of grinding and addition of
water-to-powder ratios were recommended to avoid bleeding, Na2 SO4 achieved higher strength than single activation [93].
shrinkage straining and obtain high CS [70,71]. Advantages of chemical activation include reduction of setting
GGBFS and fly ash were reported to initiate corrosion and time, early strength development, reduction of total material costs,
increase critical corrosion. On the contrary, laboratory evidence higher SiO2 content, lower alkali and unburned carbon contents,
and field practice have shown their usefulness in the achievement better grindability and smaller particle size, achievement of
of durable structures even in most aggressive natural environ- superior strength and enhancement of microstructural properties
ments [72,73]. In addition, it was reported that there is no need [94–97]. Sometimes, chemical activation is combined with
for extra steel protection when these SCMs are utilized in concrete temperature-controlled activation.
[74]. However, it was pointed out that their combination should be Other benefits of chemical activation include improved worka-
avoided and appropriate precautions in concrete technology bility, reduced shrinkage and prevents deterioration of later-age
should be taken in their concrete applications as well. strength, improved pore structure, accelerated hydration and
improved flexural strength of self-compacting concrete, reduction
of pore size and total porosity [98,99]. Kawashima et al. [100]
2.5. Waste glass as SCM in green concrete reported that addition of nano-CaCO3 prepared through sonication
improved hydration rate, setting time and CS of self-consolidating
Waste glass has been utilized as SCM and fine aggregates in var- concrete. Achieved reduction in initial and final setting times as
ious applications such as ultra-lightweight fibre reinforced con- well as improvement in CS through the use of colloidal nanosilica.
crete, fired-clay bricks to mention a few [75–79]. Other In another study, quicklime was recommended for High-volume fly
applications include glass-reinforced panels, structural repair con- ash systems only, with positive contribution to both early and
crete and fast-cured polymer concrete [80–83]. later-age strength development [101]. Addition of quicklime
The benefits of the utilization of WG were improved CS, resis- increased both early and later-strength of FA-based cementitious
tance to freezing and thawing, chloride penetration and surface sytems [102]. For WGC, lithium compounds were suggested to
scaling, good resistance to Na2 CO3 and H2 SO4 [84,85]. The recom- limit ASR expansion [103].
mended optimum percentage as cement and fine aggregate SCM-controlled activation has been used to improve bond
replacements were 5–10% and 7.5–25% respectively [80,86,87]. strength, reduce the setting time, achieve early-age and high late
strength and reduce [104–108]. Commonly utilized SCMs include technique [125], response surface methodology using design-
OPC, nano-SiO2 , GGBFS. Bernal et al. [109] advocate silicate-based expert software [126] and multicriteria optimization method for
activators produced from SF or RHA in combination with aqueous the technical, economic and environmental aspects of green con-
NaOH as an alternative to commercial-based activators. The crete [127].
mechanical performance of the binders produced were similar to The advantages of optimization in green concrete include min-
those of commercial silicate solutions. imization of air voids leading to attainment of maximum strength,
In order to achieve synergistic benefits, sometimes thermal and synergistic maximization of the properties of the constituent mate-
mechanical activation are combined. The benefits of such method rials. In addition, for ternary blended cement concrete, Binici et al.
include early-strength development, removal of inconsistencies [128] suggested separately grinding each of the SCM constituents
in the chemical and mineralogical properties of RHA [15,90]. to obtain higher compressive strengths.
According to Kumar et al. [110], the effects of mechanical acti-
vation depend on the type of activation device utilized. Their study
revealed that raw fly ash exhibited highest lime reactivity, fol- 5. Properties of green concrete
lowed by vibratory mill fly ash, and then attrition mill fly ash.
Blanco et al. [111] suggested mechanical activation prior to chem- 5.1. Fresh properties
ical activation to increase SSA and pozzolanic reactivity of SCM.
The type of activator used influences the microstructure of the 5.1.1. Slump and water requirement
mortar or concrete and the resulting secondary products formed Slump test indicates the behavior of compacted concrete cone
[112]. Based on their results, in terms of CS, the order of preference under the action of gravitational force, which can also be seen as
of alkali activator was NaOH + WG > NaOH > Na2 CO3 . They also a measure of the consistency or wetness of the concrete mix [129].
observed that, in fly-ash binders, the ratio of SiO2 =Na2 O and their In order to produce HVFAC, Bentz et al. [130] recommended
pH seems to play crucial roles in the reactivity of the cementitious optimum mixture proportioning and careful selection, evaluation
system and strength development of the binder. This finding was and combination of HRWRA (high-range water-reducing admix-
corroborated by De Vargas et al. [113] who reported that tures) alongside increasing aggregate volume fraction. Alaka and
SiO2 =Na2 O played a major role in CS development, morphology Oyedele [131] obtained good workable HVFAC at low water-
and microstructure of FA-based geopolymer system. Their results binder ratio with superabundant dosage of superplasticizer (SP).
revealed an increase in CS with increasing molar ratio, increasing Yijin et al. [132] and Mukherjee et al. [133] recorded increase in
curing age and increasing curing temperature. slump values with increasing fly ash replacements of cement,
For SCM-controlled activation, addition of 5% SF to replace slag which was attributed to high specific surface area and low specific
improved CS up to 800 °C in AAS pastes [114]. Owing to its dilution gravity of fly ash compared to Portland cement.
effect and pozzolanic reactivity, addition of 5–10% RHA to replace For rice husk ash (RHA), Keertana and Gobhiga [134] reported
cement was useful in the consumption of free lime, formation of decrease in slump with increasing RHA while Abalaka [135]
additional C-S-H resulting in increased CS [115]. In another study, recorded increased slump up to 5% cement replacement with
RHA addition in SF UHPC resulted in improved impermeability and RHA and decrease thereafter. For SF, Hunchate et al. [136] recorded
increased CS of 9.76%, 14.5% and 10.02% at 3, 28 and 120 days increasing slump up to 10% silica fume (SF) cement replacements
[116]. Addition of nanosilica (NS) enhanced the structural perfor- and decline thereafter while Amarkhail [137] obtained reduction
mance of FA-based GPC through the geopolymerization transfor- in slump values with up to 15% SF replacement of cement. With
mation of the amorphous phase of GPC to crystalline phase respect to GGBFS, Karri et al. [138] and Arivalagan [139] reported
without the need for thermal activation. increase in slump values with increase in GGBFS contents. Tamila-
rasan et al. [129] reported optimum slump value of 55% GGBFS
4. Production of green concrete replacement levels for grade 20 and grade 25 concretes. The
decrease in slump values was attributed to the high water absorp-
Production methods of green concrete differ depending on the tion of RHA and often SP is added to enhance workability of RHA in
constituent materials to be utilized and the intended application. concrete.
In order to produce sustainable, green concrete with sufficient Slump reduction is attributed to the high specific surface area of
workability, Müller et al. [117] suggested four basic steps namely: the RHA and SF and high water absorption capacity as a result of
their macro-mesoporous nature and the concrete pore volume
I. Determining experimentally the relevant properties of the [140]. Their slump reduction potential depends on their level of
selected concrete constituents reactivity and activation, level of fineness and water-cement ratio
II. Determine the water/cement ratio based on desired cement and cement replacement ratio [140,141]. Abalaka [135] also men-
content and strength requirements tioned that each SCM has its own optimum w=b ratio which would
III. Optimize the grain size distribution of granular constituent give it its maximum reactivity. In addition, RHA had higher yield
IV. Production and evaluation of the fresh concrete properties stress and viscosity than SF and its particle shape is angular while
based on achieved packing density and prediction compres- that of SF is spherical [140]. As a result, in their study, RHA exhib-
sive strength ited lower mini-slump flow compared to compared to SF. In
another study, SF exhibited higher flow compared to unground
Optimization methods which can be applied in green concrete RHA and was attributed to its spherical particle shape, its ability
include particle packing optimization using granular optimization to release adsorbed water from its microstructure and the amount
of all concrete constituent [117,118], statistical optimization using of fine particles it contains [142].
microanalysis data and estimation of C-S-H contents [119], step- For waste glass, while Malik et al. [143] and Liang et al. [144]
by-step optimization method [120,121]. reported increasing slump values at increasing waste glass replace-
Other optimization methods include micro-proportioning opti- ments of fine aggregate, Abdallah and Fan [145] reported decline in
mization of fines grading [122], particle size distribution method slump values. The contrasting views may be due to the different
[123], multi-objective simultaneous optimization using response concrete mix ratios used, the physical properties of the concrete
surface methodology (RSM) [124], box-behnken response surface constituents and the replacement levels investigated.
5.1.2. Setting time, flow, workability, segregation index, bleeding The concrete exhibited segregation ratio (SR) of 4.4–5.6% and
Setting time determines the time available for transport, plac- aggregate segregation index (Iseg ) of 2.9–4.2%, both of which are
ing and compaction of cement/cementitious-based materials < 15% specified for SCC.
[146]. The authors reported that the setting time of GGBFS-based In addition, Yazıcı [157] obtained lower slump flow at 30% and
geopolymers vary with the calcium content, particle size and 40% cement replacements compared to SF, higher slump flow at
Si=Al molar ratios. The initial setting time (IST) and final setting 50% cement replacement and equal slump flow at 60% cement
time (FST) they obtained were 109–141 min and 155–327 min. replacement. The slump flow values for FA and SF vary from
Bouzoubaa and Lachemi [147] reported that for FA-based SCC ini- 750–800 mm to 765–825 mm respectively.
tial and final setting times ranged from 4:50–7:45 to 6:30–10:15 h Bingöl and Tohumcu [158] showed that FA achieved better fill-
and were found to be 3–4 h longer than control. Brooks et al. [148] ing and passing ability in self-compacting concrete (SCC) compared
reported that there is no linear relationship between setting times to SF. Based on their slump flow values, FA-based SCC could be
and SCM percentage replacement owing to the influence of several used for normal applications such as walls and columns while
factors. In terms of difference between FST and IST, SF results were the SF-based SCC can be utilized in slightly-reinforced concrete
found comparable to OPC and preferable to FA and GGBS. structures. Ternary and quaternary SCMs were also found to
Ravina and Mehta [149] reported delay in IST and FST from improve the filling and passing ability of self-compacting concrete
20 min to 4 h 20 min and 1 h – 5 h 15 min in concrete depending and met all the EFNARC requirements [159].
on the type and amount of FA utilized. The delay in setting time Workability is the ease of handling, placing, compacting and
was influenced by the sulphate and available alkali contents of finishing fresh concrete [104]. The authors demonstrated that
FA. Nochaiya et al. [150] reported IST and FST values of 145– workability of GPC reduced with inclusion of GGBFS and FA and
170 min and 215–235 min for Portland-FA cement pastes respec- reduction of activator to binder owing to accelerated reaction of
tively. Inclusion of SF increased the IST but led to reduction of calcium and angular and spherical shapes of GGBFS and FA parti-
the FST at increasing SF contents from 5 to 10%. cles. Duval and Kadri [160] recommended 10% SF as the maximum
Ikpong and Okpala [141] reported improvement in cohesive- replacement for cement without affecting workability of SFC.
ness and flowability of RHA-modified concrete containing 30% Msinjili et al. [161] reported that workability of fresh concrete
RHA replacement of cement. The IST increased from 2 h to 3.5 h can be improved with the aid of polycarboxylate ethers and ligno-
while the FST increased from 4 h to 4.5 h respectively. Lin et al. sulphonate while Karthik et al. [162] recommended the use of bio-
[151] reported that WG recorded IST and FST values of 666– additives. Improved workability and prolonged setting time were
1158 min and 765–1245 for increasing replacements of MK from observed in their applications. Ismail and Waliuddin [163]
10 to 40%. Likewise, Wang [152] observed reduction in IST and reported good workability of concrete with finely ground 20%
FST with increasing WG powder content of up to 50% cement RHA replacement of cement and hard workability at 30% RHA.
replacement in mortar at 0:485 w=b ratio. Combination of coarse On the other hand, Khatri et al. [48] reported that SF marginally
and fine WG resulted in longer IST and FST as well as higher slump decreased workability of concrete but contributed significantly to
values. WG was recommended because of its impermeability, improved mechanical properties.
enhanced flow properties and higher strength at elevated The properties of fresh cement pastes and concrete is affected
temperatures. by hot weather conditions [164]. Likewise, IST and FST decreases
Also, Bouzoubaa and Lachemi [147] reported that FA-based SCC with curing temperature increase. Ujhelyi and Ibrahim [165] men-
exhibit good deformability and stability. Increase in flow time was tioned that the use of 40% GGBS along with ground tuff (a natural
observed with decrease in water content. Segregation index was pozzolana) up to 20% was useful in preserving the properties of
found to decrease with increasing FA content but increased with concrete during hot-weather concreting conditions.
SP dosage. A w=cm ratio of 0.45 was recommended to obtain For WGC, slump flow, flow ratio and v-funnel increased with
segregation-resistant FA-SCC. Shen [153] reported that smaller increasing WG content [166]. Slump flow values of 670–880 mm,
aggregate size, continuous aggregate gradation, lower aggregate 670–740 mm, and 670–780 were obtained at increasing cement
density and higher paste viscosity and yield stress reduce dynamic contents of 350 kg=m3 , 400 kg=m3 and 450 kg=m3 .
segregation. Vinai et al. [167] recommended water-solid ratio range of 0.37–
According to Xie et al. [154], Fresh SCC made with UPFA (ultra- 0.41 and binder content < 400 kg=m3 to avoid fast initial concrete
pulverized fly ash) must meet the following requirements: 240– setting and significant strength reduction. Boukendakdji et al.
270 mm slump, slump flow of 600–750 and L-box flow velocity [168] recommended polycarboxylate-based SP to improve worka-
(VL) of 35–80 m/s. When the VL is > 80 m=s, the viscosity is too bility of SCC at optimum GGBFS content of 15%. The authors
high to resist segregation and when it is 35 m/s, the viscosity is advised that care should be taken in the use of mineral additives
too high to attain self-compacting. In order to produce HSSCC with owing to their tendency to reduce early strength when used as
UPFA, the following were recommended: fineness of 500– cement replacement.
600 m2 =kg, UPFA content of 30–40%, total SCM content Bleeding is the movement of water to the surface of freshly
P 500 kg=m3 , minimum sand ratio of 40% and appropriate water placed concrete and is noticeable when surface water exists on
content at optimum SP content. In addition, a low yield stress, fresh concrete surface [169]. The negative effects of bleeding
moderate viscosity and retention of kinetic energy of the flowable include variable concrete properties. According to Wainwright
mix by reducing the coarse aggregate fraction is essential to and Ait-Aider [170], bleeding is influenced largely by the particle
achieve required fluidity, segregation resistance and prevent inter- size distribution of cement, fine content in concrete mix as well
particle collision and blocking. as cement reactivity. The authors reported similar bleeding
Rahman et al. [155] reported that RHA produced from uncon- between combination of 40% GGBS + 60% OPC and 100% OPC.
trolled burning can be utilized in low-cost housing construction
project. The RHA concrete up to 40% exhibited sieve segregation 5.2. Hard properties
of 0.04–8.2%, slump flow of 580–670 mm, passing abilities of
5.9–7 s (v-funnel) and 3.5–5.2 which met the requirements of 5.2.1. Compressive strength
SCC. Wu et al. [156] reported utilization of fly ash as viscous mod- In order to enhance easy comparison, the compressive strength
ifier in production of self-compacting LWC with good workability. (CS) results obtained by different researchers for different green
concrete were plotted in Fig. 8 while the materials used were given Table 1
in Table 1. The three highest CS of 92.1 MPa, 80 MPa and 79 MPa Materials utilized in different green concrete in Fig. 8.
were achieved using SF + ns, SF only and RHA after 90 curing days Author(s) Waste materials used as SCM Type of green
[39,171]. SF was corroborated by Benaicha et al. [172] to produce concrete/mortar
high CS of 82.9 MPa after 28 days curing age. Çakır and SF + RAC Recycled aggregate
Addition of lime to HVFAC and cement to GPC (geopolymer con- Sofyanlı concrete
crete) were shown to aid their CS development [59]. Low CS were [37]
Jalal et al. [39] SF + NS HPSCC
recorded with geopolymers produced with alkali activators which Xu et al. [171] RHA 30 min RHA blended paste
was attributed to their high Si=Al ratio [17,173]. Hwang and Huynh Xu et al. [171] SF RHA blended paste
[17] noted that the development of compressive strength depends Xu et al. [171] Raw RHA RHA blended paste
on appropriate combination of NaOH concentration and RHA Mohseni et al. Cement + RHA + NanoA + PPO Fiber-reinforced
[176] mortar
content.
Mohseni et al. RHA only Fiber-reinforced
Kumar and Gupta [174] recorded CS of 0.2 MPa with Ca/Si ratio [176] mortar
of 0.106, Shatat [175] reported CS of 63.7 MPa at Ca=Si ratio of 0.89 Yang et al. RHA + BOFS RHA-based
while Chindaprasirt et al. [173] recorded <38 MPa with Ca=Si ratio [207] composite
of 7.98 and 0.026 before and after geopolymerisation. Thus, it can Boğa et al. GGBFS + CNI GGBFS modified
[213] concrete
be inferred that high CS is obtained at intermediate Ca=Si between FA50 L HVFAC
0.85 and 1.0. Therefore, it is suggested that chemically complimen- Aliabdo et al. 25%addition of waste glass powder Glass powder
tary waste materials should be utilized in blended concrete appli- [86] (45 MPa cement) mortar
cations to achieve optimum results. Aliabdo et al. 25%cement replacement with WG Glass powder
[86] powder (45 MPa cement) mortar
5.2.2. Flexural strength

Flexural strength results obtained by various researchers for stressed steel fibre-reinforced concrete beams, which obtained
green concrete differs as depicted in Fig. 9 while the materials were the second highest flexural strength. This implies presence of fibres
shown in Table 2. The highest flexural strength of 10:97 N=mm2 enhances the energy absorption capacity of concrete structures
was obtained by Mohseni et al. [176] with quarternary system of and consequently their flexural strength. Enhancement of flexural
Cement + RHA + NanoA + PPO, followed by Patil and Sangle [177] strength of concrete by nano-Al2 O3 , polypropylene and steel fibres
who utilized Cement + 20% FA + 1.5% Steel fibres + water reducing was also corroborated by other studies [180–182].
admixture and then Sathawane et al. [178] who used ternary sys- Concrete mortar containing waste glass (CRT) and fluidized fly
tem of Cement + Fly ash + RHA. The lowest flexural strength was ash recorded the least flexural strength. This concrete mixture
recorded by Walczak et al. [179] with waste glass. lacked the benefits of the bridging action of the fibres as well as
Differences in their flexural strengths can be attributed to dif- load –transfer benefits caused by nano-alumina.
ferences in the concrete mix design, pre-loading condition, com-
pressive strength, SCM and aggregate materials utilized.
Fibre-reinforced mortar containing RHA, nano-alumina, and 5.2.3. Splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity
polypropylene fibres (PPF) obtained the highest flexural strength. Splitting tensile strength (STS) obtained by different researchers
The high flexural strength was attributed to the presence of PPF, were displayed in Fig. 10. The highest STS of 5:3 N=mm2 was
which improved the ductility of the mortar by providing bridging obtained by Jalal et al. [39] with SF and NS followed by
action, which enhanced the fracture energy and consequently flex- 5:07 N=mm2 obtained using waste glass [86].
ural strength of the mortar. On the other hand, the nano-Al2 O3 (NA) FA-blended cements recorded low splitting tensile strength
enhanced the load transfer from the matrix to the fibre. These syn- (STS) which was linked to reduction in the quality of the ITZ [57]
ergistic interactions were responsible for the high flexural strength and in order to meet the minimum requirements for use in struc-
of the fibre reinforced mortar. Similar effect was observed in pre- tural lightweight concrete, Kockal and Ozturan [126] recom-
Compressive strength at different curing days
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
(MPa)
30
20 7
10 28
0
90
Different SCMs ulized in green concrete
Fig. 8. Compressive strength at different curing days for different SCMs utilized in green concrete.
Flexural strength at different curing days (MPa)

12
10
4
7
2 28
90
0
Different SCMs ulized in green concrete
Fig. 9. Flexural strength at different curing days for different SCMs utilized in green concrete.
Table 2
Materials utilized in different green concrete in Fig. 9.
Author(s) Waste materials used as SCM Type of green concrete/mortar

Jalal et al. [39] SF + NS HPSCC
Mohseni et al. [176] Cement + RHA + NanoA + PPF Fiber-reinforced mortar
Mohseni et al. [176] RHA only Fiber-reinforced mortar
Yang et al. [207] RHA + BOF RHA-based composite
Benaicha et al. [172] Cement + Limestone filler + SF30 Self-compacting concrete
Benaicha et al. [172] Cement + Limestone filler Self-compacting concrete
Sathawane et al. [178] 22.5%FA + 7.5%RHA RHA + FA modified concrete
Walczak et al. [179] Cement + CRT80%+20%FFA + Expanded clay Waste glass concrete
Walczak et al. [179] Cement + CRT100%+Expanded clay Waste glass concrete
Patil and Sangle [177] Cement + 20%FA + 1.5%Steel fibres Prestressed steel fibre reinforced concrete beam
Patil and Sangle [177] Cement + 20%FA + 1.5%Steel fibres Non- Prestressed steel fibre reinforced concrete beam
Patil and Sangle [177] Cement + 20%FA + 0%Steel fibres Prestressed plain concrete beam
Karri et al. [138] GGBFS40% (M40) GGBFS concrete
Karri et al. [138] GGBFS40% (M20) GGBFS concrete
mended curing period between 50 and 90 days. Benaicha et al.

Spling tensile strength at different
8
[172] observed increase in modulus of elasticity (MOE) in SF-
modified concrete with increasing SF contents while Tatikonda 7
curing days (N/mm2)
[183] recommended optimum RHA content of 5% to obtain maxi- 6

mum MOE irrespective of the cement/concrete grade used as dis- 5
played in Fig. 11.
4
In addition, Chik et al. [184] reported increase in MOE with 7
increasing rice husk content and recommended 15% optimum 3 28
RHA cement replacement which also gave the highest compressive 2 90
strength of 6:70 N=mm2 . Siddique and Kaur [185] reported that 1
MOE reduced with increasing elevated temperatures but increased 0
with GGBFS content as displayed in Fig. 12. Abdallah and Fan [145] SF+RAC SF+NS WG WG FA+RHA GGBFS GGBFS
observed increase in MOE with curing age and with increased addion
waste glass content in concrete which was attributed to the higher Different SCMs ulized in green concrete
MOE of waste glass compared to natural glass.
Fig. 10. Splitting tensile strength at different curing days for different SCMs utilized
in green concrete.
5.2.4. Shrinkage and creep
Rovnaník et al. [186] reported increased shrinkage with
increased brick powder waste content because of the high water costs especially for precast elements. Also, results by Haranki
absorption of brick powder waste as shown in Fig. 13. Kayali [188] revealed that care must be taken in the selection and prepa-
[187] reported 33% reduction in shrinkage with fly ash aggregate ration of aggregate to be utilized in green concrete to minimize
as well as 22% reduction in weight and 20% increase in strength. shrinkage in green concrete.
This implies fly ash aggregate can be utilized in the production of According to Serdar et al. [189], the four major types of shrink-
stronger and lighter green concrete with reduced transportation age are plastic shrinkage, carbonation shrinkage, autogenous
tion can be utilized in construction of road pavement and large

Modulus of elascity for different
50
industrial floors. Ling [195] recommended the use of limewater
45
and ultra-fine fly ash to augment the low-strength development
concrete grade (GPa)
40
of HVFAC.
35
Drying shrinkage has a non-linear relationship with ambient
30
60 relative humidity (RH) [196]. The authors also reported that aggre-
25
80 gate grading and maximum aggregate size affects shrinkage strain.
20
The non-linear relationship grows with increasing aggregate size.
15 100
Drying shrinkage strain of ambient-cured specimens were > com-
10
pared to heat-cured specimens [197].
5
Serdar et al. [189] recommended the utilization of quaternary
0
0 5 10 15 cement blends (FA, slag & limestone) to obtain shrinkage and creep
Rice husk ash content (%) deformation similar to CEM II cement and to minimize negative
impact of binary SCMs in concrete. In addition, Wallah and Rangan
Fig. 11. Modulus of elasticity for different concrete grades of RHA-modified [197] reported that the specific creep of FA-based GPC was < that of
concrete [183]. Portland cement concrete (PCC) because of block-polymerisation
concept. The concept describes the behaviour of the fly ash atoms
which acts as micro-aggregates in the system resulting in the
Reducon in Modulus of elascity at
increase in the creep resistance of FA-based GPC compared to

different elevated temperature(%)
50
45 PCC. The specific creep was observed to reduce with CS. This rela-
40 tionship was also reported by Folliard et al. [198]. The authors also
35 mentioned that early age creep tends to be higher than at later
30 ages. Wallah [199] reported that creep strain, creep coefficient
25
100 and specific creep of FA-based GPC decreased with increasing CS.
20 200 High creep strains were observed at early ages of HVFAC
15 because of slow strength development [62,200]. The low creep
300
10 strains of HVFAC was attributed to the ‘micro-aggregate effect’ of
5 the unreacted FA remaining in the concrete. As much as 50% creep
0 reduction was reported by combined effect of SP and HVFA [201].
0 20 40 60 Strain due to both creep and shrinkage is due to removal of
GGBFS cement replacement (%) adsorbed water, applied stress, pore refinement and increase in
fine pores, and improvement in microstructure of the ITZ [48]. SF
Fig. 12. Reduction in modulus of elasticity at different elevated temperature (°C) at decreased specific creep at all ages and long-term drying shrinkage
different GGBFS content [185]. as well.
Gifford and Ward [202] reported that fly ash reduces creep by
shrinkage and drying shrinkage. While the first two were caused increasing the elastic modulus and contributing to the total aggre-
by poor curing and carbonation, the last two were caused by drying gate as well as reduction of paste volume. Yuan and Cook [203]
and moisture loss. Creep is induced significantly by internal rela- reported high creep strain at high cement replacements with fly
tive humidity (IRH) and increased with increasing RHA content ash while Lohtia et al. [204] recommended 15%FA replacement of
in concrete [190]. Addition of 10% SF was suggested to minimize cement as optimum for strength, elasticity, shrinkage and creep.
shrinkage and cracking potential of UHPC [191]. 15% RHA was rec- Contrary to literatures, Klausen et al. [205] observed that FAC of
ommended for optimum creep reduction. Creep reduction of 17% and 33% FA contents exhibited similar compressive and tensile
5560% can be achieved using HVFA of 55–65% fly ash content creep behaviour throughout the hardening phase. In addition, the
[192]. specific creep development was found to increase with fly ash
Barrett et al. [193] suggested the use of pre-wetted LWAs in content.
HVFAC to induce internal curing effect resulting in improved Since water plays a crucial role in creep mechanism, addition of
early-age strength as well as reduction in autogenous shrinkage SF is useful in restricting moisture movement [191]. However, the
and tensile stresses. Atisß [194] stated that high strength HVFAC authors reported that there is no interaction between creep and
with lower shrinkage compared to OPC and lower water consump- shrinkage. According to Forth [206], tensile creep is about 2–3
5
Shrinkage (%)
0
04:00 03:01 1.5:1.5 00:04
Fly ash/Brick powder rao
Fig. 13. Effects of brick powder content on shrinkage [186].
times greater than compressive creep and that both are affected by to 0.65 and that chloride penetration control of RHA was higher
relative humidity. The author also reported that ultimate tensile compared to SF (see Fig. 19).
creep has a decreasing non-linear relationship with compressive Parghi and Alam [208] recommended inclusion of 25% recycled
strength for different applied stresses and that the presence of glass particle of size < 300 lm in combination with 10% FA+ 10% SF
microcracks in the ITZ enhances tensile creep. to make superior mortar with ASR expansion < 10% specified by
ASTM C1260. Abdallah and Fan [145] reported increased reduction
in ASR expansion with increased waste glass content as natural
5.3. Durability properties
sand replacement with curing age. This occurrence was attributed
to reduction in available alkali due to the consumption of lime by
5.3.1. Water absorption and porosity
the silica in the finely grounded waste glass.
Yang et al. [207] recommended a maximum cement replace-
SF was also observed to exhibit about 40% and 14.3% chloride
ment levels 6 60% in order to avoid adverse impact on the perfor-
penetration resistance more than RHA at the same cement replace-
mance of the concrete as a result of increased water demand of the
ment ratio of 5% and 10% and w=b ratio of 0.6 and 3 days curing age
SCM. It was also noted that water absorption of ternary blends
[34]. Chloride penetration resistance of 11.9% and 50% for RHA and
cement comprising RHA and BOF produced by Yang et al. [207]
52.4% and 64.3% for SF at 5% and 10% cement replacements respec-
was less than that of ternary blend derived from fly ash and lime-
tively were recorded at 91 days–3 days curing age.
stone by Shafigh et al. [57].
Hassan et al. [214] reported that SF achieved lowest chloride
Parghi and Alam [208] observed that water absorption reduced
penetration compared to FA and OPC at both early ages but compa-
with increase in recycled glass powder content while bulk density
rable characteristics with SF at long-term ages. In HPC, SF was
decreases. Aliabdo et al. [59] reported that cement addition caused
found to contribute more to permeability reduction (87%) and pore
decrease in both water absorption and porosity of GPC as revealed
reduction (25%) than CS. Rostami and Behfarnia [215] reported
in Fig. 14.
chloride penetration resistance of 26.7%, 38.5% and 49.6% at 5%,
In another study by Aliabdo et al. [86], water absorption and
10% and 15% SF replacement of cement.
voids ratio was found to reduce with increase in waste glass pow-
Zareei et al. [216] achieved 78.4% reduction in chloride penetra-
der addition as a result of the pore filling and pozzolanic action of
tion in HPC containing 25% RHA replacement of cement and 10%
waste glass powder. Investigation by Binici [209] revealed that
microsilica from 4306 Coulumbs to 928 Coulombs. [157] achieved
water absorption reduces with increase in alkali activation temper-
52.36% reduction in chloride penetration from 19 mm to 9.5 mm
ature but the reduction exhibited differs from one material to
through the use of HVFA SCC containing 60% FA and 10% SF. They
another as depicted in Fig. 15.
reported that concrete cover of 20 mm concrete cover is not suffi-
Tian and Zhang [210] reported that water absorption and
cient to protect steel reinforcement from chloride ingress even in
apparent porosity varies with different curing ages and fly ash-
high quality SCC.
cement ratios as displayed in Figs. 16 and 17. This implies that
Matos and Sousa-Coutinho [217] reported that SF and WG were
SCM-cement ratio, the apparent porosity and water absorption of
effective in reduction of ASR. A reduction of 76.85% reduction was
the SCM used in a green concrete affects their mechanical perfor-
achieved at 20% WG content. Waste glass powder also achieved
mance. Hesami et al. [21] also reported decrease in porosity with
52.47% reduction in chloride diffusion in mortar. An optimum of
increase in RHA combined with PPS, glass and steel fibres irrespec-
10% WG content was recommended to achieve best durability
tive of water-cement ratio and recommended optimum RHA con-
properties [152].
tent of between 8 and 10% and water-cement ratio of 0.33.
Siddique and Bennacer [169] reported improved chloride bind-
Momtazi and Zanoosh [211] reported that waste rubber tire and
ing capacity with increasing GGBS content but it is affected by the
polypropylene fibre (PPF) can be used to reduce water absorption
presence of sulfates. Cheng et al. [218] reported 81.9% chloride
of RHA-cement composite.
penetration resistance using 60% GGBS replacement of cement at
w/cm ratio of 0.55 from 10271coulombs to 1864 coulombs. The
5.3.2. Chloride penetration and alkali silica reaction (ASR) improvement in chloride penetration resistance was attributed to
Siddique et al. [212] reported improved resistance to chloride pore refinement and densification of the concrete system.
penetration with bacterial rice husk ash concrete (BRHAC) com- Cracking potential can be minimized by limiting unrestrained
pared to results obtained by Boğa et al. [213] as shown in Fig. 18 shrinkage of concrete mixtures [219]. Their results showed that
and recommended 10% RHA replacement of cement as optimum FA exhibited the greatest drying shrinkage compared to nanosilica
value. Gastaldini et al. [34] revealed that lower chloride penetra- and GGBS cement. Also, chloride penetration was observed to
tion was obtained at lower water/cement ratio of 0.5 compared reduce with increasing curing age, increasing cement replacements
12
Water absorpon (%)
10
8
Porosity (%)
6
WA
4 Porosity
0
0% 5% 10% 15%
Cement addion to Geopolymer concrete (%)
Fig. 14. Effects of cement addition in geopolymer concrete [59].

Water absorpon (%) at different

14
acvaon temperature
12
10
8
100
6
150
4
0
GGBFS Fly ash Silica sand Pumice
Different materials used as alkali acvators
Fig. 15. Water absorption for different materials at varied activation temperatures (°C) [209].
Rapid chloride permeability at different

12000
Water absorpon at different fly
25
10000
ash-cement raos (%)
curing days (Coulombs)

20
8000
15
7
10 1.2 6000
28
1.6
5 4000 56
2
90
0
2000
28 days
3 months
6 months
10 months 0
RHAC BRHAC GGBFS+CNI GGBFS+CNI GGBFS
Water curing ages
Different SCMs used in green concrete
Fig. 16. Water absorption of fly ash/bagasse composite at different curing ages and
fly ash-cement ratios [210]. Fig. 18. Rapid chloride penetration at different curing days for different SCMs.
curing ages, different concrete grades &
Apparent porosity at different fly ash-
60
Compressive strength at different
27
different acid soluons (N/mm 2)
26 50 28M40H2SO4
cement raos (%)
28M40HCl
25 40
28M20H2SO4
1.2 30
24 28M20HCl
1.6
20 90M40H2SO4
23
2
90M40HCl
22 10
90M20H2SO4
21 0 90M20HCl
28 days 3 months 6 months 10 months 0% 30% 40% 50%
Water curing age GGBFS replacement of cement
Fig. 17. Apparent porosity of fly ash/bagasse composite at different curing ages and Fig. 19. Compressive strength at different GGBFS cement replacements, different
fly ash-cement ratios [210]. curing age, different grades of concrete in different acid solutions [138].
with RHA and SF but reduced with increasing w/b ratio. Balapour the same experimental conditions such as similar cement replace-
et al. [220] reported that combination of nano-RHA (2.5%) and ment levels, w/cm ratio, curing age at testing, amongst others for
micro-RHA (12.5%) produced the best chloride penetration resis- accurate comparison purposes.
tance. In fact, their combination achieved chloride penetration Alkali silica reaction is a concrete durability problem where sil-
resistance of 71.2% at 90 days compared to control. This value ica forms in aggregates react with alkali pore solutions to form
was higher than 36.2% recorded by 2.5% nano-RHA utilized alone. expansive reaction products, resulting in deleterious concrete
From the results above, it seems the order of preference in cracking [221]. Effectiveness of any SCM to mitigate ASR depends
terms of resistance to chloride penetration is GGBS > RHA > SF > on the SCM composition (SiO2 and alkali content), SCM %, type of
FA > WG. However, experiments are required to check or confirm alkali aggregate reaction, type and fineness of alkali-contents of
this order of preference for chloride penetration resistance using cement [222]. SCMs reduce ASR through pozzolanic reaction which
reduces concrete permeability and ASR consumption of available of the acid with the GGBFS and other concrete constituents. It was
alkali ions [223]. suggested that GGBFS cement replacement should not exceed 40%
According to Christopher et al. [221], contrary views were pre- with respect to durability considerations and that the acid seems
sented concerning the effects of RHA on ASR in concrete. While to promote pozzolanic reactions in the GGBFS modified concrete.
Hasparyk et al. [224] recommended between 12 and 15% of RHA SF had considerable influence on residual CS at < 300°C.
to control ASR, Le [225] reported that RHA contributes to ASR by Strength retention was 84:1%, 85:2%, 68:8% and 26:8% at 10%
acting as micro-reactive aggregate to produce expansive ASR prod- SF replacement of cement in SFC, at elevated temperatures of
ucts. This contradiction was resolved by Zerbino et al. [226] who 100, 200, 300 and 400°C. Their strength retention was greater than
reported that RHA can inhibit or promote ASR depending on its the corresponding values of 84:1%, 85:2%, 68:8% and 26:8% exhib-
particle size. Therefore, the authors recommended careful selection ited at 6% cement replacement [233]. The strength loss was attrib-
of cement, equipment and mixing cycle, as well as adaptation of uted to weakening of the ITZ weakening of the bonding between
the mixing process. In another study which spanned three years, aggregate and paste and chemical decomposition of hydration
they observed stable mechanical properties at alkali contents products. Also, strength recovery of 1.3–3.7% was observed at
(Na2O) < 3 kg=m3 . Their results were corroborated in another 200 °C. in all the concretes.
study which revealed that RHA produced through controlled incin- Bernal et al. [234] reported strength retention of 94:5%, 60:9%,
eration exhibited stronger ASR inhibition effect compared to resid- and 47:3%, for SF and 103:6%, 46:4%, and 48:2%, for RHA at
ual RHA produced via uncontrolled burning [227]. ASR reductions 200 °C., 400 °C and 600 °C. The results showed that SF exhibited
of 51.4% and 83.8% were obtained at 10 and 20% CRHA (RHA from higher strength retention than RHA. Only RHA-based system
controlled burning) while reductions of 2.7%, 37.8%, 70.3% and retained measurable strength after 800 °C.
94.6% were produced at 10% 20%, 30% and 40% RRHA (RHA from Rashad [235] reported CS of 45.92 MPa for HVFAC at 70% FA
uncontrolled burning) cement replacements in mortar bars at w/ replacement of cement and 400 °C., which was lower compared
cm ratio of 0.47. to 67 MPa and 52 MPa for SF and RHA in alkali-activated pastes
Le [225] reported that SF was more effective than RHA in miti- reported by Bernal et al. [234] at the same temperature. In addi-
gating ASR expansion in mortar. The suggested the use of RHA of tion, increase in CS was observed at 400 °C in all the mixtures
fine particle size <5.7 lm to mitigate ASR expansion. and was attributed to the densification of the matrix. The increas-
At 20% cement replacement with SF, FA, WG, CRHA and RRHA, ing strength loss recorded from 400 to 1000 °C. was attributed to
the ASR expansion obtained were 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.02%, 0.06% and loss of water, increasing porosity and permeability. In addition,
0.23%, which corresponded to percentage reductions of 88.9%, HVFAC exhibited better fire performance compared to neat con-
66%, 83.8% and 37.8% for FA, WG, CRHA and RRHA [64,88,227]. crete while inclusion of GGBS showed negative effects on CS at ele-
Furthermore, Oberholster and Westra [228] reported that SF vated temperature.
performed better than FA in mitigating ASR. At 20% cement FA-GP showed low thermal stability at elevated temperatures
replacement, they obtained ASR values of 0:03%, 0:02% and 0.2 between 800 and 1000 °C, which was attributed to increase in
for SF, FA and cement. These results correspond to ASR reductions average pore size and replacement of amorphous structure with
of 85% and 65% respectively with reference to the control, which crystalline Na-feldspars [98]. The Class F fly ash-based GP prepared
lends credence to the superiority of SF over FA in mitigating ASR. using Na activator recorded CS of 30 MPa, 33 MPa, 37 MPa, 38 MPa,
In another study, Buck [229] recorded ASR values of 0:15% and 14 MPa and 12 MPa at 200 °C, 400 °C, 600 °C, 800 °C, 1000 °C and
0.47 at 30% GGBS cement replacement and 0% (control), which 1200 °C respectively. On the other hand, FA-GP prepared using
corresponds to ASR reduction of 68:1%. Therefore, from the results potassium silicate exhibited deterioration of CS after 1000 °C,
above, it seems the ranking of the SCMs in terms of ASR mitigation while the amorphous structure remained. This demonstrates that
is SF > FA > CRHA > GGBS > WG > RRHA. Nevertheless, confirma- Class F fly ash-based GP materials cannot be utilized in refractory
tory laboratory and field investigations are required to confirm this insulation applications as a result of the large reductions in CS
order of ranking. and high shrinkage between 800 °C and 1200 °C.
Lindgård et al. [230] mentioned that SCMs low in calcium and HSC made with SF ð15:4%Þ and FA (38:5% of cement content)
high in silica are the most effective in reducing pore solution alka- experienced CS reduction of 74:4% from 97.3 MPa to 24.9 MPa at
linity and consequently ASR expansion. The authors called for reli- elevated temperature of 800 °C [236]. On the other hand, normal
able methods for satisfactory, accelerated and affordable testing concrete (NC) showed 54:7% reduction in CS at the same temper-
methods that resembles field conditions such as humidity, alkali ature. The deterioration in both HSC and NC was linked to variation
content and temperature. in the pore structure.
ASR expansion was reported to decrease in concrete when WG HSC containing 9% SF wt. of cement recorded CS marginal
was utilized as fine aggregates as a result of reduction of available strength loss between 100 and 400 °C and significant loss between
lime [88]. ASR reductions of 66%, 41:7% and 16:7%were obtained 55 and 80% after 400 °C [237]. Janotka and Nürnbergerová [238]
at 20%, 15% and 10%WG replacement of fine aggregate. reported strength deterioration between 100 and 200 °C in HSC
ASR expansion was investigated between 25 and 100% cement with SF content of 7:53% by wt of cement at w=c ratio of 0.32
replacements [231] and was found to depend on WG content and and was linked to pore-structure coarsening. Kong et al. [239]
glass colour. They recommended the use of FA and Li2 CO3 for reported that FA-GP pastes recorded 6% strength increase at CS
reduction of ASR expansion. In contrast, Özkan and Yüksel [232] of 62.8 MPa and 11% mass loss at elevated temperature of
mentioned that glass colour does not have significant influence 800 °C, compared to unexposed specimens. The CS increase was
on both ASR and elevated temperature resistance. They advocated attributed to the low moisture loss, presence of high proportion
the utilization of FA and GGBFS to reduce ASR expansion. of micropores and high solid-to-liquid ratio.
Reported that fly ash-to-activator ratio is the most critical
5.3.3. Fire-resistance and chemical attack properties parameter for fire resistance and strength development in GPs
Karri et al. [138] investigated the effects of chemical acid attack and suggested optimum combination of Na2 SiO3 =KOH of 2.5 and
on GGBFS modified concrete at different curing ages using two FA=activ ator of 2.5. Increase in strength of GPs at elevated temper-
grades of concrete (20 and 40 MPa). CS increased for some of the atures was attributed to both polymerization reaction and sinter-
concrete as shown in Fig. 13 and may be due to chemical reactions ing. In another study, Kong and Sanjayan [240] revealed that
aggregate size and their rate of expansion are influential parame- strength reduction both at 40% cement replacement after 90 days.
ters which affect the performance of GPC ate elevated temperature. Optimum RHA and FA replacement of cement to ensure CS reten-
While small aggregates (<10 mm) promote spalling and extensive tion and development is 20% and 40% respectively.
cracking, large aggregates (>10 mm) were observed to be stable. Chatveera and Lertwattanaruk [248] recommended 20% RHA
Pan et al. [241] reported 15% strength loss at temperatures replacement of cement durability improvement in concrete and
<500 and 56% between 500 and 800 °C in fine glass powder mor- enhancement of resistance to HCl and H2 SO4 . The resistance to acid
tar. The strength loss was attributed to reduction in calcium attack was observed to be directly proportional to the
hydroxide (CH) in GP mortar, softening of glass content and higher ðSiO2 þ Al2 O3 þ Fe2 O3 Þ=CaO ratio. The improved resistance of RHA
incompatibility between paste and sand particles. was also corroborated was attributed to the densification of its
Poon et al. [242] reported that PFA (pulverized FA) followed by microstructure, physical and pozzolanic effect as well as presence
GGBS exhibited better performance at elevated temperature com- of Al2 O3 [227]. Strength improvement was also recorded at 25%
pared to SF in concrete and could be utilized where there is high RHA replacement of cement with 0.1 H2 SO4 [249].
risk of fire. Optimum cement replacements of cement by FA and Chemical resistance of FA and SF to several chemical such as
GGBS in HSC and NSC to retain maximum strength and durability H2 SO4 , HNO3 , acetic acid, H3 PO4 , Na2 SO4 , and MgSO4 was investi-
were 30% and 40% respectively [242]. In contrast, SFC with more gated by [250]. They reported that SF had superior resistance at
than > 5% cement replacement should be avoided because of higher cement replacement from 15%. SF exhibited lower strength
explosive spalling. loss of 16:6% and 17:8% compared to 23:5% and 38:9% for FA at
Based on the results, the order of preference in terms of CS per- 15% and 22:5% cement replacements respectively.
formance at elevated temperature was FA > GGBS > SF. Average Chemical resistance of FA is influenced by its fineness. CS
strength loss were 44% and 60% in FA- and SF-based HSC and increased from 41.5, 53.5, 56, and 61.5 MPa for increasing Blaine
GGBS-based NSC. fineness of 3000, 3900, 4800 and 9300 cm3/g [251]. The optimum
Rashad et al. [243] reported increasing residual strength at ele- replacement level to achieve chemical acid resistance varies
vated temperatures when GGBS was used as sand replacements in depends on the type of acid and alkaline solutions involved
AAS (alkali activated slag) mortar. Residual strength losses [252]. It seems the chemical acid resistance of FA was more effec-
obtained at 800 °C were 33:45%, 51:91%, 69:49%, and 90%, at tive at higher replacements compared to SF. The sulfate resistance
25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%, replacement of sand respectively. Also, was linked to the prevention of ingress of sulfate ions into con-
enhancement in residual strength at 200 and 400 °C were 19:31%, crete, resulting in little formation of gypsum and/or ettringite in
79:26%, 89:73%, and 100:95%, and 20:89%, 64:28%, 71:86%, and
concrete [253]. The level of resistance to chemical attack increases
82:58%, at 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%, replacement of sand respec-
with increasing cement content, lowering of w=c ratio and the uti-
tively. No micro-crack was found in the AAS mortar throughout all
lization of cement with C3A (tricalcium aluminate) content < 7%
the elevated temperature tests.
[254].
Tanyildizi and Coskun [244] investigated LWC incorporating 0,
Chemical resistance of GGBS depends on high reactivity in the
10, 20, and 30% FA replacement of cement at elevated temperature
presence of lime, availability of Ca in the pore solution and its dis-
of 200, 400 and 800 °C. CS ranges of 38–48 MPa, 35–38 MPa and
tribution in the specimen [255]. GGBS performed better than FA on
14–23 MPa were recorded at 200, 400 and 800 °C. The percentage
exposure to leaching and sulphate attack [256]. The authors
retained strength obtained ranges from 91.09–98.95%, 80.23–
reported that hydration of C 3 S and C 2 S in cements resulted in for-
92.6% and 36.13–43.64% at 200, 400 and 800 °C respectively. The
mation of portlandite, which when released, facilitates ingress of
loss in CS was linked to loss of hydration water at elevated temper-
sulphate ions and produce expansive products such as gypsum
atures. With respect to the splitting tensile strength (STS), the per-
and ettringite. Likewise, GGBS performed better than FA in resist-
centage STS retained ranges from 87.84–91.85%, 81.94–85.55% and
ing attack from MgSO4 as it recorded the higher CS28 [257].
23.55–43.15% at 200, 400 and 800 °C respectively. Based on
Up to 50% GGBS can be used in concrete to achieve good
ANOVA analysis, the most important experimental parameters
for STS and CS of FAC were heating degree and fly ash content sulphate-resisting properties, minimize carbonation as well as
and their percentage contribution to CS development were thermal cracking [258]. Also, concrete containing up to 70% GGBS
93:41% and for CS and 89:39% and 4:84%. In order to achieve opti- showed good resistance to thaumasite form of sulphate attack
mum CS and STS, the optimum FA content recommended was 30%. (TSA) and their resistance was improved with the addition of small
Concrete made with fine waste glass replacing fine recorded the amounts of calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate [259,260]. GGBS
highest CS compared to coarse WGC and combination of fine and exhibited stronger resistance to sulphate attack compared to fly
coarse WG [245]. Optimum WG content to achieve maximum CS ash and the optimum cement replacement for GGBS was 40%
at both ambient and elevated temperature was 10% aggregate [261]. Even though GGBS has good resisting capability, O’Connell
replacement for the three combination types. CS of the three con- et al. [262] pointed out that GGBS should not be utilized in
crete converged close to 700 °C because of its closeness to the wastewater infrastructures because it cannot withstand the high
melting temperature of waste glass, which is between 700 and levels of sulphate and sulphuric acid attack.
800 °C and the elimination of size effect in the softened state of Waste glass improved durability of WGC by maintaining weight
the glass aggregates. CS obtained for the fine WGC were 40.5, 35, stability during sulphate attack [263]. In addition, field studies cov-
55, 42, 34.5 and 22 at 20, 60, 150, 300, 500 and 700 °C. ering 6.7 years showed continuous improvement in mechanical
Pulverized FAC expressed relative strength improvement at 450 performance of slabs and walls made with WGC [264]. Glass fume
and 650 °C even though durability deteriorated from 250 °C [246]. made from WG particles were observed to exhibit higher resis-
CS loss was attributed to increased width of ITZ, increased total tance to sulphate attack [265].
porosity and coarsening of the hardened cement paste. Ganjian and Pouya [266] reported that OPC concrete performed
RHA is more effective than FA in resisting sulphate attack of better than SFC when exposed to tidal environment while mixture
binary cement mortars. Surprisingly, the RHA mortar experienced of SF and GGBS exhibited worse performance. Makhloufi et al.
strength enhancement of 7% compared to 0% for FA after 90-day [267] reported that mortar made with quaternary blends including
immersion in 5% sodium sulphate solution and at 20% cement GGBS showed improved sulphate attack resistance than OPC con-
replacement [247]. However, fly ash experienced higher strength crete. Aziz et al. [268] reported that up to 30% GGBS improved
improvement of 8:8% compared to RHA which recorded 24:6% the durability of sulphate resisting cement (SRC) and can be used
to produce highly durable concrete. The improvement was attrib- and Sarker [272] reported that even though heat-curing provided
uted to decrease of total pore volume, free lime content, total chlo- early-age strength, it is not replicable at available cast-in situ
ride, total sulphate contents and, subsequently, increase in the construction.
resistivity towards sulphate and chloride ions. According to Neupane [65], elevated temperature curing is not
From the above results, it seems the preferable ranking of the cost-effective and practicable. Furthermore, results obtained by
SCMs in terms of resistance to sulphate attack was Binici et al. [128] and Shafigh et al. [57] depicted in Fig. 23 revealed
WG > SF > GGBS > FA > RHA. However, confirmatory laboratory that water curing obtained the highest CS at 90 days curing age
and field investigations are suggested to check this ranking. compared to autoclaving curing. Therefore, water curing is recom-
mended for curing green concrete to enable full hydration, chemi-
cal reaction and bonding of the constituents.
6. Factors that influence properties of green concrete
6.1. SCM chemical composition

7. Binary, ternary and quarternary SCM mixtures
Comparison of the chemical composition of the five (5) different
The concept of binary, ternary and quaternary SCM is to obtain
SCMs and OPC revealed that, on the average, SF has the highest SiO2
blended SCM with properties that are superior than the individual
(silica content), followed by RHA. Also, it was observed that fly ash
SCM constituents. Utilization of such blended cements overcomes
recorded the highest Al2 O3 (alumina) content followed by GGBFS.
the drawbacks associated with any of the individual constituent
In terms of CaO (calcium oxide) content, OPC recorded the highest
and maximizes their individual strengths or advantages. While
value followed by GGBFS as depicted in Fig. 20.
Rakhimova and Rakhimov [66] recommended a component-wise
approach in the development and application of sustainable
6.2. Water/binder (w/b) ratio cement and green concrete, Wang and Chen [273] presented a
simplex-centroid design method in determining the proportion of
Hu et al. [14] observed that higher water/cement ðw=cÞ ratio various ternary blend SCM mixtures to achieve target strengths,
leads to lower Ca=Si ratio, large pores, higher porosity of the C-S- thereby reducing the need for trial and error mixes.
H gel which causes lower elastic modulus and lower hardness. Mohamed [274] recommended ternary mix of cement with 10%
The authors recommended lower water-cement ratio and incorpo- FA and 10% SF which obtained highest compressive strength in
ration of admixtures to improve mechanical properties of cementi- SCC. Le and Ludwig [32] recommended ternary combination of
tious materials. The connection between lower porosity and lower 20% FA and 20% RHA to produce CS58 of approximately 130 MPa
w/b ratio was also corroborated by Gao et al. [269] who also which was recommended for usage in self-compacting high perfor-
observed that ITZ porosity decreases with increasing curing age, mance concrete (SCHPC) which increased plastic viscosity and seg-
decreasing water ratio and increasing aggregate content. Both regation resistance but eliminated bleeding.
Hesami et al. [21] and Lian and Zhuge [270] recommended 0.33 Deb et al. [275] investigated blending of GGBFS with low-
as the optimum w=c ratio for pervious concrete pavement to calcium Fly ash (Class F) and observed that the shrinkage reduced
ensure full hydration and formation of strong cement pastes. with the increase in slag content and decrease in sodium silicate to
sodium hydroxide (SS=SH) ratio in GPC at room temperature.
6.3. Curing medium In order derive the optimum benefits from the use of SCMs, it is
expedient that the combination and proportion of selected SCMs
Yazıcı et al. [271] demonstrated that curing condition affects for binary, ternary and quarternary SCM mixtures should be prop-
the mechanical performance of reactive powder concrete (RPC). erly selected to maximize the synergistic positive effects and min-
Autoclaved curing gave the highest flexural strengths compared imize or avoid the synergistic negative impacts. This is achievable
to steam curing and standard curing as shown in Figs. 21 and 22. to some extent by taking into consideration the elemental compo-
Boğa et al. [213] also reported that increasing the curing periods sition of each SCM selected for combination, the individual
and applying standard water curing method resulted in significant physico-chemical characteristics of each SCM and their effects on
improvement in the mechanical properties of the concrete. Nath concrete/mortar properties from available literatures.
100
80
Composion (%)
60
40
20
0
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O P205 TiO2 LOI
Chemical composion
FA WG GGBFS RHA SF OPC
Fig. 20. Comparison of chemical composition of different SCMs and OPC (Authors).
35
30
Flexural strength (Mpa)

25
20 Bauxite Steam cured
15 Bauxite Autoclaved cured

Granite steam cured
10
Granite Autoclaved cured
0
20 40 60
GGBFS replacement of silica fume (%)
Fig. 21. Effect of curing condition on Flexural strength and aggregate type [232].
350 crete), UHPC (ultra-high performance concrete), HPC (high perfor-

mance concrete), ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC), HSC (high
Compressive strength (Mpa)
300
strength concrete), SCC (self-consolidating concrete), LWC (light-
250 weight concrete) and geopolymer concrete (GPC).
200
8.1. HVFAC (High volume fly ash concrete)
150 Bauxite autoclaved cured
High-volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC) are concrete mixtures
100 Bauxite standard cured
containing a minimum of 40–50% fly ash by mass of cementitious
50 materials [133,276]. HVFAC with 50% cement replacement with fly
ash C was utilized in the construction of Computer Science Build-
0 ing at York University and Lower Notch Dam in Ontario, Canada
20 40 60 and Bayview high-rise apartment and was recommended for com-
GGBFS replacement of silica fume (%)
mercial and residential construction applications [61,277].
Fig. 22. Comparison of compressive strength using autoclaved and standard curing The strength development of HVFAC depends on fly ash replace-
media [232]. ment levels, water-to-cementitious material ratios and volume of
cement paste [278]. While Rashad [279] recommended usage of
fly ash as partial or full replacement of natural fine aggregate in
HVFAC where fly ash is abundantly available and there is shortage
8. Nomenclature and applications of green concrete utilized in of natural sand as fine aggregate, Li [106] recommended the addi-
concrete structures tion of nano-SiO2 as an accelerating additive to facilitate the poz-
zolanic properties of fly ash to improve the early and long-term
Existing literatures on green concrete revealed the existence of strength gain.
different nomenclatures for green concrete depending on the SCM Mehta [280] classified HVFAC into three categories namely low,
utilized, properties of the green concrete such as compressive moderate and high strength HVFAC with minimum CS28 of 20, 30
strength, performance levels, compactability and density as and 40 and corresponding water-cement ratios of 0.9–1.3, 0.72–
depicted in Fig. 24. They include HVFAC (high-volume fly ash con- 0.83 and 0.5–0.7 respectively.
Compressive strength at different curing
50
40
30
20
days (Mpa)
10 28
0 56
90
Different SCMs used in green concrete
Fig. 23. Compressive strength results for different curing methods.

140–150 MPa was achieved under normal curing for 28 days. Gha-
fari et al. [290] recommended inclusion of optimal 3% content of
HSC
Geopolymer
nanosilica cement replacement in UHPC to improve early-age
concrete UHPC strength. The use of short steel fibres at higher fibre dosages was
also reported to yield benefits such as higher peak load capacity,
enhanced strain hardening, improved post-peak failure response
Green from explosive as well as ductile behavior [291,292].
HVFAC UHSC In order to produce green UHPC with reduced cement content
concrete
and thereby lower cost, ultrafine by-product materials such as
ultrafine palm oil fuel ash (UPOFA-50% cement replacement) has
been recommended by Aldahdooh et al. [293] and Aldahdooh
LWC SCC et al. [294]. On the other hand, Xiao et al. [295] recommended
the use of superfine 40% GGBFS or combination of 10% fly ash
HPC and 30% GGBFS cement replacements in UHPC which exhibited
ultra-high durability, high strength at low cost.
Fig. 24. Nomenclatures of green concrete utilized in concrete structures.
Gesoglu et al. [296] recommended the use of binary and ternary
blends cement blends in UHPC to obtain excellent resistance to sul-
phate attack, while Ghafari et al. [290] recommended addition of
nanosilica to improve early-age strength development of UHPC.
The benefits of HVFAC include easier flowability, pumpability
In addition, Ghafari et al. [284] advocated for eco-efficient, sustain-
and compactability, superior resistance to cracking from thermal
able and cheaper UHPC with fly ash, GGBFS and RHA. Güneyisi
shrinkage, autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage, cost reduc-
et al. [297] reported reduced HRWRA dosage, improved workabil-
tion of construction costs and easy workability, reduction in crack
ity, enhanced impermeability and increased CS with combined use
width [133,277,280,281].
of nano silica and treated lightweight aggregates in UHPC.
In order to improve the implementation of HVFAC in the con-
Habel et al. [298] reported that the extremely low permeability
struction industry, the best practice guide developed by Bentz
of the dense matrix of UHPC facilitates its use as waterproofing
et al. [130] is recommended. Likewise, Shafigh et al. [57] recom-
layer in bridge decks. This was also corroborated by Habert et al.
mended the inclusion of oil palm shell as coarse aggregate and
[299] who advocated for the use of cast-in-place eco-UHPC in
limestone powder to reduce cement content by 46–60% and
bridge rehabilitation because it is fast, efficient, price competitive
improve CS at early and later ages, Alaka and Oyedele [131]
and its extremely low permeability, high strength and deformabil-
reported that super abundant SP dosage in HVAC helped to obtain
ity. Hassan et al. [300] recommended the use of UHPC in slabs
relatively lower w/b ratios with good workability.
because of its high tensile strength and improved ductility in
punching shear failure.
8.2. UHPC (Ultra high performance concrete) Kim et al. [301] recommended production of UHPC with
CS > 120 at low w=b ratio using synergistic industrial slags as
UHPC intends to optimize selected properties of concrete simul- cement and fine aggregate replacements in UHPC for enhanced
taneously which depends on the usage and exposure conditions of flowability and ecological benefits.
the concrete in real-life applications. Common failure patterns reported in UHPC include shear ten-
Low water content and moderate SP dosage was recommended sion, shear compression, diagonal tension and arch-rib failures
by Yu et al. [123] in order to facilitate the pozzolanic reaction of the [285].
constituent materials. Yu et al. [282] recommended the use of
nano-silica and hybrid fibres such as steel and polypropylene for
crack reduction and improvement in the flexural strength of UHPC. 8.3. UHSC (Ultra high strength concrete)
While Yu et al. [283] reported the need to improve the workability
and cost efficiency of UHPC, Ghafari et al. [284] reiterated the need In terms of compressive strength and modulus of elasticity,
to improve the sustainability of UHPC by reducing the cost through UHSC performed better compared to NSC and HSC [302] despite
use of lower SP dosage. concerns of brittleness and fire resistance. Xiong and Liew [302]
Kamal et al. [285] recommended the production of UHPC with reported that variation in the CS and MOE of UHSC at elevated tem-
conventional local materials, while Van Breugel and Van Tuan perature as shown in Fig. 25 and depends on the quality of the
[286] suggested optimum combination of 10% RHA and 10% SF aggregate. Choe et al. [303] recommended the use of blends of
to reduce autogenous shrinkage and costs of UHPC. Vaitkevičius polypropylene fibres (PPF) and nylon fibres (NY) prevent spalling
and Šerelis [287] recommended an optimal 15% replacement of in UHPC columns. Shi et al. [304] recommended optimal/synergis-
quartz powder with SF and addition of PPF to reduce brittle frac- tic combination of 15% SF and 1–20% GGBFS to achieve UHPC with
ture failure of UHPC. The authors recorded CS of 124 MPa and CS of 125 MPa and improved flowability. Wu et al. [305] reported
138 MPa without and with heat treatment respectively. that optimal dosage of 20% SF in UHSC as cement replacement,
According to Tagnit-Hamou et al. [288], UHPC has four classifi- resulted in reduction of porosity, pore refinement and strength
cations as shown in Table 3 and can be used in construction of development.
highly energy efficient, environmentally friendly, affordable and The use of nanomaterials such as nano-CaCO3 and nano-SiO2
resilient structures with CS ranging from 130-260 MPa, flexural was encouraged by Wu et al. [306] and Wang et al. [307] because
strength >15 MPa, tensile strength >10 MPa and elastic modulus of their contribution to early-age strength, homogeneous and less
>45 GPa using waste glass (WG). The UHPC was characterized by porous concrete and prevention of agglomeration due to the nucle-
excellent durability, negligible chloride-ion penetration, low ation and filling effects. Also, El Mir et al. [308] recommended opti-
mechanical abrasion, very high resistance to freeze and thaw mum combination replacement of cement with 8–10% SF and 17–
cycles. 20% SF to produce UHSC with >100 MPa and CS >120 MPa. Gesoglu
Furthermore, Kou and Xing [289] recommended the use of glass et al. [296] demonstrated that steam curing recorded higher CS of
powder and fly ash to lower the cost of production of UHPC. CS of 31.2–147.9 MPa compared to CS of 120.8–142.1 MPa achieved
Table 3
Classification of UHPC [288].
Parameters Class A Class B Class C Class D (architecture)

Flowability Semi-flowable Flowable Highly flowable Highly flowable
Minimum slump (mm) 200 230 260 260
w/b ratio 0.15–0.19 0.19–0.225 0.225–0.25 0.225–0.25
Solids in SP/cement (wt%) 1–3 1–3 1–3 0.225–0.25
Steel fibre (%) 2 2 2 –
PVA fibre (%) – – – 2.5
2-day UHPGC CS (MPa) >200 175–200 160–175 –
28 day Normal concrete CS (MPa) >160 >140 >130 >100
91-day Normal concrete CS (MPa) >180 >150 >140 >120
Flexural Strength (MPa) >25 >20 >15 >10
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) >50 > 45 > 40 > 40
with water-curing by accelerating the pozzolanic reaction of the SF Yazdani and Goucher [317] recommended the use of multiple
in the UHPC. wrapping using carbon FRP lightweight composites to strengthen
Romero et al. [309] reported that the mechanical response of and upgrade existing bridges. They also suggested the use of SCM
CFST (Concrete-filled steel tubular) slender columns depends on and strong quality control measures to overcome the drawbacks
the type of concrete used, the location of the concretes, and the of lower MOE, higher creep and shrinkage of LWC, porosity and
thicknesses of the inner and outer rings. Also, Yao et al. [310] bleeding and failure modes such as cracking, delamination and
reported that UHSC encased steel beams recorded higher residual rupture common in LWAC.
shear capacity, better post-cracking stiffness and better shear duc- Kayali et al. [318] recommended the use of sintered FA along-
tility than pre-stressed UHSC beams. Multi-curing was advocated side polypropylene fibres or steel fibres to improve workability,
by Yazıcı [311] to achieve UHSC. UHSC with CS > 120 MPa was cohesiveness and compactability of LWC. Hwang et al. [319] rec-
achieved with 8-h high-pressure steam curing (autoclaving). ommended the use of sintered manufactured LWA produced at
Allena and Newtson [312] advocated production of UHPC using 1100 °C for the production of self-compacting LWC with CS28 range
local materials such as SF and steel fibres and achieved CS28 and of 25–55 MPa and unit weight of 1878–2057 kg=m3 . The self-
flexural strengths of 165.6 MPa and 18.3 MPa and 161.9 MPa and compacting LWC exhibited excellent flowability without bleeding
10.93 MPa with and without fibres respectively at 0.25 w=c and or segregation. On the other hand, Oyejobi et al. [320] recom-
0.20 water/cementitious ratios. In addition, the seven-day CS mended 20% cement replacement with RHA for the production
ðCS7 Þ range of the UHSC ranged between 89.86 and 146.06 MPa. of cheap and durable LWC.
RHA and waste glass was recommended by Torkaman et al.
8.4. LWC (Lightweight concrete) [321] and Yu et al. [322] for the production of concrete blocks
and ultra-LWC which contributes to economic design of buildings
Libre et al. [313] advocated the use of LWC incorporating steel and environmental sustainability. Ling and Teo [323] recom-
fibres in high rise, earthquake-resistant buildings because of bene- mended optimum 10% RHA cement replacement in the manufac-
fits such as reduced density, enhanced compressive and flexural turing of load-bearing bricks which recorded highest CS of
ductility as well as energy absorption capacity. This was also 17:51 N=mm2 .
corroborated by Choi et al. [314] who reported improvement in LWC had superior characteristics such as thermal insulation,
flexural strength and toughness. Bui et al. [315] reported that fire/high temperature resistance, sound insulation, durability,
high-performance lightweight concrete (HPLWC) with CS of reduction of risk of earthquake damage and reduction of dead load
49–57 MPa can be produced using 60% FA + 40% cement and [324]. Self-compacting lightweight concrete offers benefit such as
30% FA + 40% cement + 30% RHA. lower susceptibility to corrosion in early age than normal SCC
According to Sivakumar and Gomathi [316], the lightweight [325].
aggregates (LWA) utilized in LWC could be from industrial by- Ünal et al. [326] reiterated that more opportunities exist for
products such as fly ash, bottom ash, SF, GGBFS, RH, slag, palm LWA in concrete since aggregate constitute 70–80% by volume of
oil shell and clay and yields benefits such as reduction of construc- Portland cement concrete. Kaffetzakis and Papanicolaou [327]
tion costs, ease of handling and construction of large precast units. advocated for rigorous mix proportioning to avoid conflicting
180
Compressive strength (MPa)
Modulus of Elascity (GPa)
160
140
120
100
80 CS
60 MOE
40
20
0
30 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (OC)
Fig. 25. Compressive strength and Modulus of Elasticity of UHSC at elevated temperatures [263].
properties. Previous studies reported that addition of nano-silica, narayanan and Rangaraju [142] showed the lack of the need for
SF and coal-bottom ash in LWC for improved durability grinding.
[328–330]. Kucharczyková et al. [331] advocated oven-dried Since workability is very important in the production of HSC,
aggregate to improve the strength and durability of LWAC. Erdoğdu et al. [354] emphasized good workmanship as well as
Shannag [332] recommended cement replacement of 5–15% SF inclusion of 10% SF and SP to prevent slump loss while Chandra
which produced LWC with CS range of 22.5–43 MPa and air dry- and Hardjito [355] suggested increase of FA up to 30% and addition
density of 1935–1995 kg/m3 with benefits such as larger strain of calcium carbonate up to 15% to improve workability and
capacity at failure and high degree of workability. Arisoy and Wu achieved early-age strength development.
[333] stated that the controlling parameters for production of Amin and Abu el-Hassan [356] stated that NS improves
high-performance-LWC are water absorption rate, density and mechanical properties of HSC. Khan and Abbass [357] canvassed
microstructure. According to Thomas and Bremner [334], LWAC for the use of steel fibres and PVA fibres to improve load-bearing
produced using LWA exhibit improved properties because of inter- capacity and ductility of HSC beam. Pelisser et al. [358] stated that
nal curing provided by LWA. recycled tyre rubberized concrete can be utilized to produce HSC
Other LWA commonly used are clay aggregates, waste glass and with CS28 > 50 MPa but requires combinations of chemical treat-
metakaolin, fly ash and GGBFS and polymer pellets with benefits ment with NaOH and addition of 15% SF.
such as thermal insulation, improved MOE, reduced density, reduc- Sarıdemir [359] produced HSC with CS > 80 MPa using 15% SF
tion of cement consumption, stoppage of bleeding and segregation and combination of 15% SF and 5% ground pumice. In another
as a result of decrease in water absorption, good corrosion resis- research, Amarkhail [137] recommended optimum SF contents of
tance, reduction in sintering temperature, reduction of ASR and 10 and 15% which achieved highest CS of 70.8 MPa and FS of
increase in failure point loading [335–339]. 69.5 MPa respectively.
8.6. HPC (High performance concrete)

8.5. HSC (High strength concrete)
HPC is a special concrete that meet specific performance or
Demirboğa and Gül [340] recommended the use of silica fume combination of requirements which could be any of the following:
alongside other SCMs to make HSC. Haque and Kayali [341] high early-age strength, long-term mechanical properties,
achieved optimum CS of 94–111 MPa with 10% optimum cement enhanced resistance to chemical attack or enhanced flowability
replacement with Class F fine fly ash (FFA). and low shrinkage. In order to reduce cost-prohibitive trial batches
Poon et al. [342] demonstrated that HSC with CS28 of 80 MPa and optimize the constituent properties, Islam et al. [360] devel-
can be achieved with w/b of 0.24 and FA content of 45%. Kumar oped statistical regression model which can be used to predict
and Ramana [343] recommended optimum combination of 18% CS28 and slump for RHA-incorporated HPC.
fly ash and 50%. copper slag to achieve HSC with CS of 60– Arunachalam and Gopalakrishnan [361] produced HPC which
70 MPa and 80–90 MPa for 7 and 28 curing days respectively. performed well in both normal and aggressive environments using
Zeyad et al. [344] advocated proper curing which improved 25% and 50% Class C fly ash cement replacement in concrete. Also,
strength and durability of high-strength concrete and the use of Safiuddin et al. [362] manufactured SCHPC (self-compacting high-
treated and ultrafine POFA to achieve HSC with CS180 > 100 MPa performance concrete) with optimum 15% RHA cement replace-
at 20, 40 and 60% UPOFA cement replacements. Ungound UPOFA- ment and reported that optimum RHA depends on the production
HSC was noted to outperform ground-UPOFA HSC. Sharmila and process. Ponikiewski and Gołaszewski [363] observed that grinding
Dhinakaran [345] recommended optimum 10% ultrafine slag to of fly ash has more effect on CS than flexural strength and also pro-
increase strength and durability characteristics of HSC and also duced HPSCC (high-performance self-compacting concrete) of CS >
observed that ground ultra-fine slag performed better than ultra- 80 MPa using high-calcium fly ash.
fine slag. Sabet et al. [364] noted that self-consolidating high perfor-
Elchalakani et al. [346] produced HSC with 60% GGBFS and 20% mance concrete (SCHPC), a hybrid of SCC and HPC, benefits from
OPC with low carbon footprint, which gave CS7 and CS28 of 61.8 and and exhibits properties of the two concretes which includes great
78.5 at 0.38 w=c ratio and 60% GGBFS while Kırca et al. [347] pro- flowability and stability, high strength and excellent durability.
duced HSC with CS > 75 MPa with 40% cement replacement levels With 10 and 20% SF as well as 10 and 20% FA cement replace-
using CAC/GGBFS. Arivalagan [139] observed that strength devel- ments, SCHPC with CS28 of 75.5 and 79.5 MPa and 67 and 81 MPa
opment of GGBS is slow and started at 28 days curing for 20% were produced.
cement replacement. Zhu et al. [348] suggested adequate mixing Le and Ludwig [32] reported that SP dosage above SP saturation
time to avert internal defects caused by fibers. Bagheri et al. dosage induced bleeding and produced HPC with CS56 of approxi-
[349] produced HSC CS > 80 MPa using ternary mixes containing mately 130 MPa with 20 wt% FA and 20 wt% RHA separately and
15% slag and 5% SF as well as 15% slag and 7:5% SF. foundry slags recommended that RHA can be utilized as a viscosity modifying
Also, Sharma et al. [350] state that HSC can be produced with admixture because of its macro-mesoporous nature. Le et al.
10–45% foundry slags as partial replacement for fine aggregate [140] reported that RHA should be ground to very fine particle
and 15% alccofine as cement replacement while Amnadnua et al. sizes P 5.7 mm to mitigate ASR. Gonzalez-Corominas et al. [365]
[351] produced HSC of CS as high as 67 MPa at 28 days with 20% also produced HPC with 30% fly ash and 70% Portland cement using
PC GFA with ground fly ash with ground carbide residue), a by- recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) and recommended steam curing
product of acetylene gas production. to reduce the porosity and STS (splitting tensile strength).
HSC can also be produced using local materials such as RHA. Borosnyói [366] recommended 5% cement substitution with SF
Ismail and Waliuddin [163] mentioned that HSC can be produced in concrete to improve the CS, durability and resistance to acid of
using locally available materials such as RHA. The optimum RHA HPC. Büyüköztürk and Lau [367] reported that the key features
content as cement replacement ranged between 10 and 30% of HPC are strength (>50 MPa), ductility and durability and recom-
[30,163,352] which produced HSC with minimum CS of 40– mended the use of short fibres to achieve improved ductility,
50 MPa. Also, the optimum grinding condition was 650 °C [30]. higher flexural strength, tensile strength and higher toughness of
Though grinding improved the pozzolanicity of RHA due to its high HPC. Camões et al. [368] demonstrated that HPC of CS up to
specific surface area [142,353], the results obtained by Venkata- 60 MPa can be produced with up to 40% fly ash cement replace-
ment, by eliminating coarse particles with 75 lm sieve while The choice of source materials for GP depends on factors such as
Chang [369] reported that combination of fly ash and slag can be availability, cost, type of application and specific demand of end
utilized to produced HPC with CS >56 MPa with finer pores and users while the CS of GP depends on curing time and curing tem-
denser microstructure. perature [384]. The authors recommended curing temperature
Chen et al. [370] reported that the main properties of HPGC range of 60–90 and curing time of 24–72 h for strength increase
(high performance glass concrete) were determined by aggregate and optimum molarity of 16 M for NaOH solution and 0.4 fly ash
replacement and w=b ratios. Ling et al. [371] suggested elevated ratio. Zhou et al. [385] preferred the use of high-Al2 O3 fly ash to
heat curing for GGBFS and the use of low w=b ratio of 0.35 to low-Al2 O3 fly ash in production of geopolymers because of their
achieve CS7 > 45 N=mm2 . superior performance in terms of CS and microstructure. Geopoly-
HPC has been extensively applied in large infrastructural mers produced with high-Al2 O3 fly ash exhibited less mass loss and
projects such as bridges, tunnels in Denmark [372]. For Faro higher strength after elevated-temperature curing compared to the
Bridge, 40 kg=m3 fly ash was used in the pylons and underwater geopolymers produced using low- fly ash. The different content of
concrete, 50 kg=m3 of fly ash was utilized in some of the founda- Al2 O3 results in different reactivity of the raw materials and is
tions of Alssund Bridge while a combination of cement, fly ash responsible for the differences in morphology and extent of com-
and microsilica were used in Guldborgsunnd tunnel with a service pactness of geopolymer formed [385]. High Al2 O3 leads to higher
life of 100 years. reactivity, formation of more homogeneous, denser and more com-
pact microstructure, and consequently higher compressive
strength and stability. However, low-Al2 O3 fly ash can be still be
8.7. GPC (Geopolymer concrete) utilized but requires additional alumino-silicate source which
can be provided by combination of NaOH and Sodium silicate.
Previous studies have investigated the use of geopolymers and The optimal synthesis conditions they recommended for
geopolymer concrete in the production of eco-sustainable concrete low-Al2 O3 fly ash were curing temperature of 80 °C, Si=Al ratio of
blocks, alternative and novel binders for concrete production, 2:1, modulus ratio of 1, additional water/solid ratio of 0.1.
ultra-lightweight concrete and GFRP composites [373–376]. He Apart from Al2 O3 content, fly ash has been classified into two
et al. [377] reported that the mechanical properties of GP compos- types, namely Class F and Class C based on their source, composi-
ites depend on alkalinity, raw material mix ratio, curing duration, tion and strength development [386] as shown in Table 4. This
RHA particle size and geopolymerization reactions. classification should guide proper selection of fly ash for various
The eco-sustainable block offered advantages such as lower targeted applications.
cost, less energy consumption and less CO2 emission but the CO2
footprint is dependent on the type, concentration and dosage of
the alkali activators utilized [376]. Huiskes et al. [374] reported 9. Analytical and numerical modelling of green concrete
that ultra-lightweight GPC has potential applications in load-
bearing concrete and thermal insulating binding material and Proper experimental investigation is essential for reliable and
requires pre-soaking the LWAs and optimized packing of the GPC accurate analytical and numerical modelling of green concrete
mixture to achieve better stability, compaction and porosity. and its properties. The three methods, experimental, analytical
Assi et al. [378] recommended addition of 10% Portland cement and numerical, should be viewed as complementary means to
to replace fly ash, 60–100% NaOH to binder ratio, heat curing and comprehensively understand, analyze and predict the behavior/
w/b ratio of 0.28 to obtain GPC with CS28 of 64.3 MPa. Xie and Kay- response of both green concrete and ordinary concrete within
ali [379] recommended polycarboxylate-based SP for Class C fly the confines of available limited literatures. It must be borne in
ash and naphthalene-based SP for Class F fly ash, even though they mind that each of the three methods presents peculiar advantages
were less effective compared to OPC. Zhang et al. [380] proposed as well as drawbacks and when in combination overcomes some of
the utilization of a comprehensive index to evaluate suitability of the inherent limitations of individual methods. Extensive experi-
fly ashes for generation of high-strength geopolymers. The index mental investigation is expensive, time-consuming and energy
is a function of specific surface area, interparticle volume and glass intensive and requires proper planning to achieve best results. In
chemistry of the fly ash. order to save time and costs, experiments should be combined
The optimal conditions recommended for development of novel with any other available approaches to optimize experimental
binders made with waste glass and limestone as follows: Ca=SiO2 results.
ratio of 0.5, 40 °C curing temperature, and 9% Na2 O [373]. Šejnoha et al. [387] combined experimental program with ANN
Torres-Carrasco and Puertas [381] demonstrated that waste glass and ATENA finite element for analyzing MOE, fracture energy and
is an effective alkaline activator in GP Al2 O3 preparation as an alter- tensile strength of fly-ash based concrete. Nie et al. [388] simulated
native to sodium silicates. Martinez-Lopez and Escalante-Garcia the pozzolanic and hydration reaction of fly ash concrete and their
[382] reported that the factors which influence properties of com- decomposition under sulphate attack using Crack-Nicholson equa-
posite binder comprising waste glass and GGBFS in descending tion. Nguyen et al. [389] implemented the 3D finite element model
order were waste glass (%), curing temperature, % Na2 O, and alkali of GPC in ABAQUS.
activator ratio. The recommended optimal level of 100% glass, Gao et al. [269] made us of backscattered electron image anal-
60 °C and 10% Na2 O using Na2 CO3 to produce GP with CS28 range ysis and HYMOSTRUC model to investigate the ITZ microstructure
of 69–74 MPa. of ternary blended cement comprising OPC, blast furnace slag and
Maranan et al. [375] recommended the use of GPC-reinforced filler. Nanoindentation technique, based on grid indentation
with GFRP bars as well as sand coating which yielded bending methodology, in conjunction with deconvolution analysis, was uti-
moment capacities 1.2–1.5 times greater than steel-reinforced lized by Zadeh and Bobko [390] for predicting response of individ-
GPC and provide mechanical interlock and friction forces adequate ual phase of LWAC (lightweight aggregate concrete) containing fly
to secure effective bond between GFRP bars and GPC. Kourti et al. ash and GGBFS).
[383] suggested the potential application of geopolymer-glass Utilized the chemical-hydration analytical model for evaluating
composites in pre-cast paving blocks and tiles because of the high the CS, Ca(OH)2 contents, chemically bound water and porosity
strength and density, low porosity, low water absorption, low properties of high-calcium fly ash concrete at different composi-
leaching and high acid resistance they exhibit. tion and ages. A similar approach was also used by Wang and Park
Table 4 tion technology via construction automation. Automation of green

Differences between Class F and Class C fly ashes [62]. concrete construction, as a result of improved workability and
Class F fly ash Class C fly ash flowability, leads to improvement in labour productivity, safer-
Source Anthracite and Lignite and sub- working environment and improved quality of construction. Sav-
bituminous coal bituminous coal ings in construction time and labour cost was reported by [397]
Composition Aluminium silicate glass Calcium-alumino- through the utilization of green SCC (self-consolidation concrete)
crystalline quartz, silicate glass, hematite with 50% fly ash replacement of cement.
hematite magnetite and magnetite and mullite
mullite
Likewise, the improved pumpability of green concrete has the
Pozzolanicity Less pozzolanic Has higher potential to reduce labour requirements for construction. This find-
properties pozzolanicity ing was corroborated by [395] who reported significant reduction
Cementing agent Needs cementing agents Does not need in labour requirements and material cost. Cost savings of $3, 824,
requirement such as lime or alkali activation
007 was also reported by Ahmad and Shah [398] with the use of
Lime content (%) < 20% lime (Cao) <20%
Early-age strength Early-age properties Greater early-age HSC of 84 MPa compared to conventional concrete of 28 MPa. In
slightly lower strength addition, the excellent workability of green concrete helps to over-
Heat of hydration Produces less heat of Produces more heat of come the difficulties often encountered in conventional concrete
hydration hydration during construction of heavily reinforced structures [399]. Utiliza-
Use in concrete Used for high-volume fly Used for low-volume
tion of green concrete in precast concrete elements has the poten-
ash concrete fly ash concrete
Applications Structural concrete, high- Residential tial to also improve manpower savings [400] and likewise time
performance concrete constructions and savings through the use of fast-curing methods such as steam
and concrete exposed to prohibited for high hot curing and autoclaving, which achieve HSC within two curing
sulphate environments sulphate
days [401,402]. As a result of reduced manpower during concrete
environments
construction, green concrete can be combined with lean construc-
tion methods to deliver projects on-time and to-budget. Integra-
tion of lean construction with sustainable construction was also
[391] for analyzing CS development of fly ash concrete. Compres- supported by [403].
sive stress-strain model was utilized by [56] for predicting strain Retardation experienced in green concrete reported by several
and CS of heat-cured low-calcium GPC. Golewski et al. [392] for- authors [61,404,405] was as a result of inadequate water which
mulated and implemented 3D CSS (compact shear specimen) leads to self-dessication, improper mix proportioning and impro-
numerical model in ABAQUS to study the fracture propagation in per mixing of green concrete mixtures, poor SCM particle prepara-
concrete composite using XFEM. tion and improper curing methods. All these shortcomings are
Analytical methods require some essential information before it linked to inadequate understanding of the roles of SCMs, SCM type
can be used and accurate knowledge of the properties of the con- and content, chemical admixtures and influence of curing temper-
stituent and green concrete [304]. Numerical methods are compu- ature. These shortcomings are overcomed as we learn from past
tationally intensive and use of appropriate law that governs the experiments through data mining and assimilation. The retarda-
properties of the constituent of green concrete and the applied tion effects of GGBS and FA, which is marked by moderate stimu-
loading conditions. In addition, successful applications of numeri- lation of hydration in GGBS and weak hydration in FA at early
cal methods to evaluate green concrete properties are scarce in ages, were attributed to the physico-chemical effects of FA [404].
literature. On the other hand, the retardation effects were attributed to the
nature and condition of the surfaces of the FA [406] while Thomas
10. Potential benefits of green concrete in early project [61] attributed it to the low calcium content of FA. Thomas [61]
completion and cost savings also mentioned that concrete setting and invariably concrete
strength development are affected by composition and quantity
According to Hong Kong Design Code, the lowest grade of con- of SCM, type and amount of cement, w/cm ratio (water-
crete for use in reinforced concrete is C20 (20 MPa). For construc- cementitious materials ratio), type and amount of chemical admix-
tion of multi-storey, minimum concrete grade of 25 MPa is often tures and concrete temperature.
required and utilized [393]. For high-rise buildings, HSC are often Furthermore, retardation effects were also reported by some
utilized with concrete strength ranging from 55.1 to 131 MPa authors in concrete and mortars incorporating RHA [23,102]. The
[393,394]. During concrete construction projects, allowance of 28 retardation effects and strength development observed at 3 and
curing days is given for concrete works including columns, slabs 7 days was found to correlate linearly with the total heat released
and beams to develop sufficient strength in compliance with the expressed as volume of available water and limited by calcium
concrete/project design requirements. For high-rise buildings, hydroxide (CH) availability [23]. On the other hand, the coarse nat-
sometimes, up to a year or more is spent before the lower floors ure of the untreated RHA was found to affect the strength develop-
are loaded which delays project completion [395]. This construc- ment of mortar [407]. However, [27] reported that RHA is a
tion delay was also highlighted by Johari et al. [396] who reported promising SCM which retains its reactivity potential and resilience
delay in full loading of many construction works after several despite the effects of calcinations temperature, grinding, chemical
months of casting. pre-treatment and manufacturing process variability.
With early compressive strength development of green con- For WG, retardation is caused by smooth surface of WG parti-
crete which range from 30.58-122 MPa and 29.7–162 MPa for 3 cles which cause weak interface with the glass mortar system
and 7 days of curing as displayed in Table 5, the curing waiting [408], lower rate of hydration, higher effective water-cement ratio
time is significantly reduced. The pozzolanic properties of the and neglible water absorption [409], coarse grain size [410] and
SCM in the green concrete promote early strength development incomplete adhesion between WG and cement paste as well as
which has the potential to facilitate early project completion. Com- excessive cement replacement [47,411].
pared to traditional project construction, the project completion In order to avoid the retardation effects in WGC, finer WG par-
time can be reduced by at least 50% with the use of green concrete ticle sizes <38 lm was recommended by Shao et al. [412], particle
of high early strength such as UHPC, HSC and advanced construc- sizes <0.3 mm was recommended by Shayan and Xu [413] while
Table 5
Compressive strength of different types of green concrete and the effects of the SCM utilized.
Author(s) W/SCM W/C CS (MPa) Type of concrete Remarks

3 7 14 28
Zhang et al. [435] 0.30 0.33 77.9 94.1 RHAC Reduction in porosity & width of interfacial transition zone (ITZ)
Chao-Lung et al. [436] 0.35 0.44 38 47 52 60 RHAC (20% RHA) Addition of ground RHA improved concrete impermeability and strength
efficiency of cement
Ismail and Waliuddin [163] 0.32 0.4 46.7 56 70.2 RHAC (20% RHA) Slump (45 mm). High strength concrete was obtained using locally available
0 RHA. For successful application of RHAC, workability needs to be different
from the control
Mahmud et al. [437] 0.36 0.40 45.1 52.9 66.7 RHAC (20%RHA) Strength improvement, reduction of drying shrinkage and durability
improvement were observed
de Sensale [438] 0.32 44.3 54.8 RHAC (20%RHA) Slump (48 mm). RHA exhibited filler and pozzolanic functions. Residual RHA
gave higher early age strength while controlled incinerated achieved better
late-age strength
Cordeiro et al. [439] 0.35 0.44 53– 70 RHAC (20%RHA) Slump (20 mm). Reduced chloride-ion penetrability. Grinding time should
K.M. Liew et al. / Construction and Building Materials 156 (2017) 1063–1095
54 be limited to 120 mins for better pozzolanic properties
Ganesan et al. [30] 0.53 29.7 39.3 42.5 RHAC (20%RHA) Slump (48 mm). Improved compressive strength, increased water
absorption, reduction of chloride-ion diffusion and permeability and
sorptivity
Yu et al. [440] 0.20 44 65 HVFAC Slump was180-200 mm. Suitable for general construction. >60% reduction in
embodied concrete energy, 70% reduction in CO2 emission & 15% reduction
in material cost
Radlinski and Olek [441] 32 42 54 FAC (20% FA + 5% SF) Ternary blended cement concrete. Synergistic effects noted from 7 days.
Lower SG of FA & SF promoted low w/b.
Qiang et al. [442] 0.35 0.41 46 60 78 FA HSC Improved flowability, late-age strength & decreased autogenous shrinkage &
reduction of chloride-ion permeability
Qiang et al. [442] 0.25 0.29 68 86 101 FA HSC Improved early-age CS at low w/b ratio.
Alaka and Oyedele [131] 0.28 0.56 24.7 37.8 HVFAC (50% FA + 4% SP) SP promoted lower-binder ratios with good workability. Not suitable for
Alaka and Oyedele [131] 0.31 0.62 21.6 32.6 HVFAC (50% FA + 4% SP) concrete requiring abrasion resistance
Shaikh and Supit [443] 0.4 0.67 14 17 27 FAC (32% FA + 8%UFFA) Reduction of rebar corrosion
Shen et al. [444] 0.32 0.46 30.58 43.07 52.7 62.6 GGBS + FA High strength concrete at early age
Mehta et al. [445] 64.4 Fly-ash based GPC High early-age strength development
Zhang et al. [47] 0.24 0.33 68 92 121 SFC (10%) Ternary blended cement concrete. Improved interface bond between cement
paste and aggregate. Proper mixing is required to prevent SF agglomeration
Zhang et al. [47] 0.30 0.33 58 75 103 SFC (10%SF) Ternary blended cement concrete. Increased w/b ratio reduced the CS
Youm et al. [330] 0.28 0.30 60 68 74.2 SFC (7%SF) Normal-weight aggregate concrete (NWAC). Increased CS was noted
Youm et al. [330] 0.26 0.28 62 64 72.3 SFC (7%SF) Lightweight agg. Concrete. Internal curing effects reduced LWAC chloride-
ion permeability. Type of aggregate and chemical composition of cement
paste influence durability
Radlinski and Olek [441] 39 50 58 SFC (SF only) Binary cement concrete. CS lower compared to ternary cement concrete
Thang et al. [446] 0.16 92 132 158 UHPC (SF 10%+ GGBS 20%) High early-age strength development cured at room temp
Thang et al. [446] 0.16 122 150 164 UHPC (SF 10%+ GGBS20 %) Improved high early-age strength development
Yazıcı et al. [271] 0.21 162 177 Reactive powder concrete (SF & Met the requirements to be used as UHPC. Reduction of corrosion risk and
GGBS) risk of thermal cracking
Yazıcı et al. [271] 0.21 204–243 Reactive powder concrete (SF & Autoclave curing and steam curing reduced unreacted SCM which improved
GGBS-Autoclaved and steam- compressive strength. High temperature favours strength development of
cured for 2 days) GGBFS
Dehghan et al. [447] 0.43 0.45 34 38 WGC (Recycled GFRP) Recycled GFRP did not cause ASR. Exhibited pozzolanic behaviour
Gesoglu et al. [448] 0.20 128 154 UHPC (Micro-glass + micro steel Improvement in fracture energy, modulus of elasticity and ductility
fibre)
Harbec et al. [265] 0.35 54.5 59.8 HPC (10% Glass fibre replacement Produced comparable strength to SF. Glass fibre fume (GF) reduced ASR
of cement) expansion and ITZ. Exhibited pozzolanic properties and is a good
replacement for SF
Kushartomo et al. [449] 0.14 0.2 136 RPC (Glass powder-20%) Similar to SF in terms of performance after steam curing for 10–12 h at 95 °C
and 14 days curing age. It is a good replacement for quartz powder and silica
fume
1085
(continued on next page)
<600 lm particle was advocated by Lee et al. [414]. Also, valoriza-

Improved dispersion by superplasticizer, enhanced particle interlocking and
Did not exhibit ASR because of low w/b ratio. Improved high strength after
tion of WG into fine particles was suggested by Omran and Tagnit-
Steam hot curing at 90 °C for 48 h at 100%RH accelerated the pozzolanic

Hamou [415] to avoid retardation effects of WG in concrete.
In terms of economic benefits, GPC was reported to be 25%
cheaper compared to Portland cement concrete [416]. Also, esti-
mated cement cost savings of 31:5% and overall construction cost
savings of 14:2% was obtained when 25% RHA was used to replace
cement [249].
reactions and facilitated early-strength development
11. Future trends in production and application of green

concrete
normal and steam curing for 2 days
Green concrete can be used in blocks, floor screeding underlays

Promoted shrinkage reduction
and façade panels [417]. Green concrete is foreseen to be applied

more in pre-fabricated construction technology because it is more
environmentally friendly than traditional cast-in-situ concrete
compressive strength
technology [418].
GGBFS-based green concrete is used in mass concreting to limit
and control temperature rise because of its lower heat generation
compared to OPC [419]. UHSC is currently limited to offshore
Remarks
and marine structures, industrial floors, pavements and barriers

and future applications are foreseen in infrastructure projects
requiring slender structural members such as skyscrapers. Another
UHPC (70%SF + 30% WG: steam hot
future trend is the utilization of Green UHSC and Green UHPC in

UHPC (70%SF + 30% WG: Normal
CFST composite columns in high-rise buildings and other struc-

UHPC (50% Glass sand + (50%
WG mortar (5%GP + 25% MK)
tures with heavy axial loadings.

Green concrete is also foreseen to be utilized in commercial
production of precast concrete panels, terrazzo tiles, concrete
Type of concrete
masonry blocks and paving stones [420]. Green UHSC is also appli-
Quartz sand)
cable in prestressed and precast concrete members for industrial

and nuclear storage facilities and in combination with steel fibres
curing)
curing)
can be used to eliminate passive reinforcements [292].

Another trend now is to simplify the production (curing) pro-
cesses of UHPC at a reduced cost by replacement of the costly com-
ponents such as cement, steel fibres and silica powder [421].
91 days); 196 (Steam
171 (Normal curing-
UHPFRC made with silica sand (500 lm maximum size), GGBFS

and steel fibres (3% and 13 mm length) can also be used to
curing-2 days)
strengthen existing RC beams [422].

234 (2 days)
LWC is increasingly utilized in residential and office buildings to

achieve reduced load, improved heat and sound adsorption in par-
175
28
titions and wall [423]. LWC reinforced with polymer fibres can be
utilized in sidewalk concrete slabs, in bridge elements such as
14
44
decks, girders, piers, parking garages as well as offshore platforms,

thermal and acoustic insulating lightweight screeds above struc-
tural floors [317,424,425].
125
7
CS (MPa)
LWAC is also used in high-rise buildings, long span bridges,

buildings with poor foundation construction and floating and off-
34
shore structures as well as external and internal walls, panels, roof-

3
ing decks and floors [322,326]. Optimized lightweight UHPC-HSS

can also be utilized in deck panels of movable bridge [426].
W/C
0.24
0.24
Yun-Ming et al. [427] reported the use of clay-based GP in form

of geopolymer binders and pyraments in precast and prestressed
W/SCM
concrete, building thermal insulation, foundry, production of high

0.19
0.19
quality ceramic tiles and bricks, aircraft composites and cabin inte-
riors and lightweight concrete.
Geopolymers can also be used in the solidification and immobi-
Soliman and Tagnit-Hamou
lization of heavy metal wastes [428]. Maranan et al. [429] reported

that GFRP-RGC system can be used in compression members
where corrosion resistance, material greenness, durability, electro-
Harbi et al. [450]
magnetic transparency and sustainability are required. MK-based

Table 5 (continued)
GP direct coating of reinforcements in aggressive marine environ-

ments was recommended because it exhibited low permeability,
Author(s)
[401]
[401]
[402]
excellent adhesion and anticorrosive properties [430].

In summary, the future trends in applications of green concrete
is diverse and more researches are required to encourage its usage.
12. Current challenges and obstacles Utilization of waste materials and unconventional, alternative
materials as SCM and aggregates in green concrete is one of the
Some obstacles faced in green concrete applications in the con- most effective, economic, innovative and sustainable methods to
struction include difficulties in compliance with regulatory stan- improve the performance of concrete structures. Utilization of
dards such as minimum clinker concrete levels and chemical green concrete in large-scale infrastructure projects globally
composition of cements, lack of or insufficient durability data of should be promoted.
spanning up to 20 years or more, differentiation of green concrete In order to encourage adoption of green concrete in construc-
for different applications, more research & development to pro- tion, appropriate standards are urgently required as well as
mote better understanding of the chemistry of green concrete cross-disciplinary collaborations among construction stakeholders.
[386]. This necessitates the revision of various construction regula- In addition, more demonstration projects and further research and
tory codes to make them more environmentally friendly and developments for the development of alternative binders from
encourage adoption of green concrete. green materials to reduce the need for OPC are required. Green
Guidelines and affordable technologies for efficient processing concrete is highly recommended for construction industry owing
and production of green concrete are required alongside perfor- to its environmental, technical and economic benefits.
mance data to justify and inform changes in construction codes From our literature review, the following orders of ranking are
and standards [431]. Field data on green concrete applications hereby proposed to guide selection of SCM materials for target
are limited. Field applications of green concrete in various struc- green concrete applications:
tural forms are required alongside standardization to encourage
to generate long-term data and guide their applications [432]. Also, i. Resistance to chloride penetration: GGBS > RHA > SF >
more durability data on shrinkage, creep, abrasion and ASR are FA > WG
needed [433]. ii. ASR mitigation: SF > FA > CRHA > GGBS > WG > RRHA
Roy [434] pointed out the following challenges such as develop- iii. CS performance at elevated temperature: FA > GGBS > SF
ment of standards to gain widespread acceptance and deployment, iv. Resistance to sulphate attack: WG > SF > GGBS > FA > RHA.
development of database which can guide their manufacturing and
field deployment. Others mentioned include improved under-
standing of the reaction mechanism of green concrete, improved
characterization of different complex green concrete combinations Acknowledgments
in liquid and solid phases, and effects of different beneficiation
parameters of the raw materials on green concrete performance. The authors gratefully acknowledge UGC-Postgraduate Stu-
Appropriate hands-on training and re-training should be given dentship Hong Kong Government Award/funding given to Sojobi
to built-environment professionals to create more awareness A.O. towards his PhD programme in the Department of Architec-
about the benefits of green concrete. This will encourage the diffu- ture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong
sion of green concrete practices in the construction industries. Kong, China. Sojobi A.O. appreciates the guidance and support of
Likewise, challenges faced in its adoption by the construction colleagues towards the writing of this manuscript. The authors
and consulting companies should be addressed. appreciate the constructive feedback from the reviewers which
In addition, new and affordable activators are required to led to significant improvement of this manuscript.
encourage sustainable development and deployment of green con-
crete in field applications. Cheap and affordable characterization
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International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE)

ISSN: 2278-3075, Volume-2, Issue-5, April 2013

Stone Waste :Effective Replacement Of Cement

Manuscript received on April, 2013.

TABLE–1 required proportion such that the sample contains minimum

Figure: 3 coarse aggregate

Figure: 2 SANGHI Cement (PPC 53 grade)

By weight, [gms] 191.60 479 485.75 1197.03

By volume, [m3] 0.40 1 1.01 2.50

W= Water, C= cement, F.A. = Fine Aggregate, C.A. =

research. Prof. Jayeshkumar R. Pitroda was born in 1977 in Vadodara

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON GREEN CONCRETE

III. METHODOLOGY 3. Grading Zone I-IV II

EXPERIMENTAL WORK:- 3.4 DEMOLISHED BRICKS

4. Fineness <10% 0.8% 3.5 MICRO SILICA

Silica fume used was confirming to ASTM – C (1240 – 2000)

1. Specific Gravity 2.50-2.80 2.53 2 Bulk Density 576 (Kg/m3)

Water 1%-2% 1.2% 3 Size (Micron) 0.1-0.2

3.6 MIX DESIGN

Compressive Strength (Mpa)

3.7 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The specimen of standard cube of 150mm*150mm*150mm

4.1 Compression Test Table no.6: Results of flexural test

Table no. 5: Results of compression test 0% 0% 4.68 5.96

7 DAYS 14 28 10% 50% 4.98 6.40

10% 50% 35.40 43.03 52.07

15% 50% 30.29 36.00 40.50

20% 50% 24.29 31.11 38.88

10% 50% 3517.10/-

A Research on Green Concrete

Technical Report · July 2018

steel project View project

Green Concrete View project

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A RESEARCH ON GREEN CONCRETE

Civil Engineering department, Krishna Institute of Engineering and Technology

Keywords: Green concrete, recycled, cement, coarse and fine aggregates

1.1 What is green concrete?

IJIRMPS1807064 Website : www.ijirmps.org Email : [email protected] 362

4) Durability (corrosion protection, frost, new deterioration mechanisms etc.)

1.2 SUITABILITY OF GREEN CONCRETE IN STRUCTURES

1.3 Here is a list of 4 benefits to using green concrete.

1.4. SCOPE IN INDIA

IJIRMPS1807064 Website : www.ijirmps.org Email : [email protected] 363

1.5 Types of wastes used in concrete

CEMENT IS REPLACED BY GLASS

CEMENT REPLACED BY GLASS AND FLYASH

COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF NOMINAL CONCRETE AND REPLACED

2.2 GLASS AS A CEMENTACEOUS MATERIAL

IJIRMPS1807064 Website : www.ijirmps.org Email : [email protected] 364

2.3 FLY ASH AS A CEMENTACEOUS MATERIAL

2.3.1 About Fly ash

 Slower strength gain.

 Increase in air entraining admixtures.

 An increase of salt scaling produced by higher fly ash.

2.3.4 Fly Ash Benefits

 Higher strength gains, depending on its use.

 Can be used as an admixture.

 Can substitute for Portland cement.

The specimen of standard cube of 150mm150mm150mm

Volume of cement : 5.1310-30.25 = 1.2825*10-3 m3

Volume of coarse aggregate : 5.1310-30.5 = 2.565*10-3 m3