Power System Harmonics Research: A Survey: G. K. Singh

EUROPEAN TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRICAL POWER

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2009; 19:151–172

Published online 29 August 2007 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/etep.201
Power system harmonics research: a survey

G. K. Singh*,y
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee-247 667, India
SUMMARY
The increased use of power electronic controlled equipment, such as variable speed drives, automated production
lines, personal computers and non-linear electronic devices in power systems has given rise to a type of voltage and
current waveform distortion called as ‘harmonics’. Harmonic can be defined as the undesirable components of a
distorted periodic waveform whose frequencies are the integer multiples (non-integer multiples in case of
inter-harmonics, and the frequency less than fundamental frequency in case of sub-harmonics) of the fundamental
frequency. Presence of these harmonics results in increased losses, equipment heating and loss-of-life, and
interference with protection, control and communication circuits as well as customer loads. The research has been
underway since very beginning for control of power system harmonics and to supply consumers with reliable and
‘clean’ fundamental-frequency sinusoidal electric power that does not represent a damaging threat to their
equipment. This paper, therefore, reviews the progress made in power system harmonics research and development
since its inception. Attempts are also made to highlight the current and future issues involved in the development of
quality and reliable electric power technology for future applications. A list of 145 research publications on the
subject is also appended for a quick reference. Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
key words: power system harmonics; power quality; non-linear devices; inter-harmonics; sub-harmonics;
harmonic losses
1. INTRODUCTION
Harmonics have existed in power systems since the very early stage of ac system development. The
issue has, however, recently added significance by the simultaneous setting of two trends: the electric
utility’s increased concern to improve power factor to avoid penalty, and the wide-ranging addition of
power electronic equipments in modern industry seeking higher system reliability and efficiency.
The electric utility’s increased use of capacitor banks attempting an improved power factor and
large-scale addition of non-linear devices has resulted in the distortion of the steady state ac current and
voltage waveform called ‘harmonics’ or ‘power system harmonics’. Harmonics can be defined as the
undesirable spectral components of a distorted periodic waveform whose frequencies are integer
(non-integer, in case of inter-harmonics) multiples of the fundamental frequency. The effects of these
harmonics are failure of electrical/electronic components, overheating of neutral wires, transformer
*Correspondence to: G. K. Singh, Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee-247 667, India.
y
E-mails: [email protected]; [email protected]
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

152 G. K. SINGH
heating, and failure of power factor correction capacitors, losses in power generation and transmission,
interference with protection, control and communication networks as well as customer loads.
In addition to their fast proliferation in various areas, electronic equipment has undergone great
technological transformation becoming more powerful, versatile and smaller, they have also become
more demanding in terms of power quality needed for them to function. Conventional power supply
systems are designed to operate with sinusoidal waveforms. Electric utilities further strive to supply
consumers with reliable and good quality fundamental-frequency sinusoidal electric power that is not
damaging to their equipments.
Power quality phenomena include all possible situations in which the waveforms of the supply
voltage (voltage quality) or load current (current quality) deviate from sinusoidal (ideal) waveform at
rated frequency with amplitude corresponding to the rated rms value for all three phases of a
three-phase system. The wide range of power quality disturbances covers sudden, short-duration
deviations, for example impulsive and oscillatory transients, voltage dips (or sags), short interruptions,
as well as steady-state deviations such as harmonics and flicker [1]. Power quality is the combination of
voltage quality and current quality; whereas quality of supply is combination of voltage quality and
non-technical aspects of the interaction from the power network to its customers. The term power
quality is certainly not restricted to interaction between the power grid and end-user equipment. A
power quality disturbance is usually seen as issue when it causes problems, either for the customers or
for the network operator. Voltage dips and harmonics are seen as power quality issue by many; but
voltage and frequency variations are not seen as a power quality issue because the latter were
incorporated in the design of power systems many years ago [2].
These three contravening situations have set the basis for paying considerable attention to the quality
of electric power and seriously addressing the issue of current and voltage distortion, a major form of
which is harmonic distortion. This paper, therefore, deals with a state-of-the-art discussion on power
system harmonics, highlighting the analytical and technical considerations as well as various issues
addressed in the literature towards the practical realization of this technology to supply consumers with
reliable and acceptable quality electric power. One hundred and thirteen publications [1–145] are
reviewed and classified in nine parts.
2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF POWER SYSTEM HARMONICS
The problem of power system harmonics is not new. To put the subject in historical perspective, it is
necessary to go back in the 18th and 19th centuries when various mathematician in general and Fourier
in particular set up the basis for harmonic calculations [3]. A brief history of the power system
harmonics [4] and first engineering publications and events that dealt with non-sinusoidal voltage and
current waveform is given in Reference [5]. In 1894, for the first time word ‘harmonic’ was used in the
paper written by Houston and Kennelly [6]. Without the use of equations, this paper presents the basic
properties of periodic curves in a concise manner. Indeed, this paper meant to popularize the concept of
harmonics, explains that a superposition of such series of harmonics upon a plain sinusoidal
fundamental wave will produce such a resultant (non-sinusoidal) wave. The lack of even harmonics in
any practical ac circuit as well as the effect of the 3rd harmonic on the waveform and peak value of an
alternating voltage is demonstrated using simple graphical interpretations.
In 1907, the concept of Harmonic Phasor Cancellation Technique was proposed by Adams [7], which
became the most effective tool for building alternators with minimal distortion of voltage and current
waveforms. The resonance question started to be well understood by a larger engineering population
Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2009; 19:151–172
DOI: 10.1002/etep
POWER SYSTEM HARMONICS 153
only in the early 1900’s [8,9]. The reasons for slow progress in the comprehension of the ac phenomena,
especially the current and voltage distortion related ones are detailed by Lincoln in 1913 [10]. He puts
the blame on two items: the unavailability of a ready and inexpensive method of determining wave
shapes and extremely limited practical experience.
With reference to power system harmonics, it was largely in Germany in the 1920s and 1930s when
the subject of waveform distortion caused by static converters was developed. The most influential
source of converter theory published during that period in the English language is the book by Rissik
[11]. A classical paper on harmonic generation by static converters was written by Read in 1945 [12]
and is still used by the designers today. During the 1950s and 1960s, the study of converter harmonics
was advanced in the field of high voltage dc transmission. During this period a large number of papers
were published. These are summarized in a book by Kimbark [13], which contains over 60 references in
the field of power system harmonics. An extensive bibliography was produced in IEEE Power System
Harmonics Working Group Report in 1984 [14].
Utilities recognized the consequences of harmonics in 1920s and 1930s when distorted voltage and
current waveforms were observed on transmission lines. Concern over harmonic distortion has ebbed
and flowed during the history of electric power systems. Steinmetz [15] published a book in 1916 that
devoted considerable attention to the study of harmonics in three-phase power systems. His main
concern was 3rd harmonic currents caused by saturated iron in transformers and machines, and he was
the first to propose delta connections for blocking 3rd harmonic currents. Later, with the advent of rural
electrification and telephone service, power and telephone circuits were often placed on common
rights-of-way. Harmonic currents produced by transformer magnetizing currents caused inductive
interference with open-wire telephone systems. The interference was so severe at times that the voice
communication was impossible. The problem was studied and alleviated by filtering and by placing
design limits on transformer-magnetizing currents. Today, the most common sources of harmonics are
power electronic loads such as adjustable-speed drives (ASDs) and switch-mode power supplies [16].
Significant efforts have been made in the past two decades to improve the management of harmonics
in power systems. Standards [17,18] for harmonic control have been established. Sophisticated
instruments for harmonic measurements are readily available. The area of power system harmonic
analysis has also experienced significant developments and well-accepted component models,
simulation methods and analytical procedures for conducting harmonic studies have been established.
Harmonic studies are becoming an important component of power analysis and design.
3. DEFINITION OF POWER SYSTEM HARMONICS
Harmonics can be defined as a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave having a frequency that is an
integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. A distorted periodic wave of any conceivable shape can
be composed by using different harmonic frequencies with different amplitudes. Conversely, any
distorted periodic wave can be decomposed into a fundamental wave and a set of harmonic waves. This
decomposition process is called Fourier analysis. With this technique, the effects of non-linear
elements in power systems can be systematically analysed.
Non-characteristic harmonics are those that are not integer multiples of the fundamental power
frequency and are usually called ‘Inter-harmonics’. A major source of inter-harmonics is the
cycloconverter [19]. One special subset of inter-harmonics is called ‘Sub-harmonics’. Sub-harmonics
have frequency values that are less than that of the fundamental frequency. Lighting flicker is one
indication of the presence of sub-harmonics. A well-known source of flicker is the arc furnace [20].
DOI: 10.1002/etep
154 G. K. SINGH
Table I. Mathematical definitions of harmonic, inter-harmonic and sub-harmonic.

Term Definition Remark

Harmonic f ¼ n f1 n is an integer > 0
DC f ¼ 0 Hz f ¼ n f1, where n ¼ 0
Inter-harmonic f 6¼ n f1 n is an integer > 0
Sub-harmonic 0 < f < f1 —
Here, f1 is the fundamental (main) frequency.
Sub-harmonics do not have any official definition but they are a special case of inter-harmonics for
frequency components less than the fundamental. The mathematical definitions of harmonic,
inter-harmonic and sub-harmonic are given in Table I.
The inter-harmonics create some new additional problems like sub-synchronous oscillations, light
flicker, voltage fluctuations etc. besides the typical problems caused by the harmonics (overheating,
useful life reduction etc.). The presence of inter-harmonic components strongly increases difficulties
both in modelling and measuring of the distorted waveforms. This is mainly due to the variability of the
frequency and the amplitude of inter-harmonics and consequently of the waveform periodicity, and to a
great sensitivity to the spectral leakage phenomenon. The detailed study about the inter-harmonics is
given in [21–32].
In Reference [22], the impact of induction furnace inter-harmonics on distribution systems is given.
The basic characteristic of the induction furnace load and experience with an actual case study is
described. Several alternatives for addressing the problem are presented, including modifications to
induction furnaces, reconfiguration of the power supply and flickering action. The impact of utilities
deregulation on the identification and mitigation of such problems is also discussed. Sharaf and
Abu-Azab [23] have addressed a novel low cost parallel capacitor compensation scheme, employing
time-dependent loads controlled by a pulse width modulated two loops dynamic controller to ensure
enhanced power quality, reduced supply system harmonics, increased energy utilization and reduced
source energy. In Reference [24], Zhezhelenko et al. have presented a new approach in the investigation
of harmonics in power supply systems and have recommended the use of Fourier transform instead of
Fourier series expansion for the analysis of inter-harmonics because it allows a spectrum composition
of inter-harmonics by the known characteristics of non-linear harsh loads. Reference [25] proposes a
new frequency domain approach for obtaining harmonics, inter-harmonics and unbalances of arc
furnaces. The model is based on the calculation of zero crossings along a reference period by means of
the solution of a set of non-linear equations. This model has been integrated in an iterative harmonic
analysis where harmonic balance equations have been extended to treat inter-harmonic frequencies.
Newton’s method is applied to solve the current zero crossing of the model as well as the harmonic
balance equations. Jacobian matrix presents a sparse structure for very fast calculation. Reference [26]
reports the results obtained for the simultaneous measurement of inter-harmonics and flicker in a low
voltage distribution system and the effect of harmonic distortion on the voltage tolerance of equipment.
Authors also conclude that the voltage tolerance of equipment depends on the harmonic distortion in
voltage supply, with equipment being more sensitive to low order harmonics. In Reference [27],
harmonic and inter-harmonic estimation of non-stationary signal is presented based on wavelet
transform. Non-stationary signal, harmonics and inter-harmonics are decomposed into sub-band
frequency using discrete wavelet transform. Here the wavelet filter uses Daubechies wavelet. Authors
in Reference [28] have proposed a method to standardize the harmonics and inter-harmonic
measurement by the IEC [33,34]. This method utilizes Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) performed
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over a rectangular time window of exactly 10 cycles for 50 Hz or 12 cycles for 60 Hz systems,
corresponding in both cases to 200 ms approximately. They have suggested applying Phase-Locked
Loop or other line frequency synchronization techniques to reduce the errors in frequency components
due to spectral leakage effects. In Reference [29] by De-Rosa et al., the inter-harmonic generation
process has been addressed with reference to high power ASDs based on double stage conversion
systems using line-commutated PWM inverters. Formulas to forecast the inter-harmonic frequencies
have been developed and a proper symbolism has been proposed to recognize the inter-harmonic
origins. Numerical analysis has been performed for ASDs for all possible frequencies, giving a
comprehensive insight in the complex behaviour of inter-harmonic component frequencies. Some
characteristic aspects, such as the degeneration of inter-harmonic components in harmonics or the
overlapping of a couple of inter-harmonics of different origins have been highlighted. Testa in his paper
[30] has addressed the issues related to the inter-harmonic modelling and simulation. Starting from the
basic mathematical aspects, attention has been given to the inter-harmonic frequency and amplitude
variability. The classical model developed for harmonic modelling is extended to include
inter-harmonics with particular attention to the problem of frequency resolution and of computational
burden. Researchers in the Reference [31] have analysed the problems in inter-harmonic definition,
detection and measurement. They have provided several practical recommendations for inter-
harmonics. Hume et al. [32] has presented a fast and accurate method for the direct calculation of
non-characteristic frequencies occurring around HVDC links. The technique calculates small signal
linearized frequency cross coupling interrelationships for both converters about a base operating point,
modelling the coupling with matrix transfers. The full system consisting of ac and dc systems is
modelled by connecting all individual transfers together with the appropriate system equations and
nodal analysis. The returned sub-synchronous frequencies and the effect of switching instant variation
are discussed. The method is validated against time-domain simulation, for two different asynchronous
links. The significant findings of the studies may be summarized as follows:
The presence of inter-harmonics introduces analysis and measurement difficulties due to the
change of waveform periodicity and to inter-harmonic small amplitudes, which mean high
sensitivity to de-synchronization problem;
Inter-harmonics near fundamental or harmonics could cause light flicker. But these components
are not easy to detect due to leakage or resolution limit;
There are some genuine inter-harmonic sources. When ac–dc–ac type device connects two
different frequencies, it may introduce inter-harmonics. The frequencies of inter-harmonics are
determined by the topology of the converter (pulse number) and the output frequency. When
waveform appears modulated, there is good chance that inter-harmonics exist;
Hanning windowing is compatible with inter-harmonic grouping and improves sensibly the result
accuracy;
The synchronized process technique, as those based on Phase-Locked Loop, is sensitive to
uncertainty in the estimation of the actual fundamental frequency; only averaging the instan-
taneous estimated values and utilizing the Hanning window gives reliable results;
The desynchronized process technique based on harmonic filtering gives very accurate and stable
results together with considerable advantages in terms of FFT utilization without re-sampling,
with sampling frequency chosen with reference only to the rated value of the system fundamental
frequency, independently from its time fluctuations;
Non-stationary signal is a major source of producing non-integral bins but they are not real inter-
harmonics. They are attributed to the violation of basic DFT assumption: stationary and periodical;
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156 G. K. SINGH
In order to identify inter-harmonics correctly, the window size should be selected to ensure that
frequency resolution is the common divider of all components in the signal.
The voltage–current correlation, wave shape check or inter-harmonic–harmonic co-existence,
may help to recognize if the non-integral components are real inter-harmonics;
Zero-padding is helpful for spectrum readability improvement. It can be used to locate the
inter-harmonic frequency;
If inter-harmonics do exist, the voltage and current spectra should show correlation;
Inter-harmonics usually co-exist with harmonics;
Use of long window size if applicable will be advantageous to locate the inter-harmonics;
If magnitude of a signal appears modulated, it is very likely that the signal contains inter-
harmonics;
The 5 Hz resolution and group harmonic/inter-harmonic concept as recommended by the IEC [31]
and IEEE [32] might not be sufficient for inter-harmonic detection especially for those inter-
harmonics that cause flickers.
4. HARMONIC SOURCES AND ITS IDENTIFICATION
Generally, sources of harmonics can be classified as in Reference [35] as:

(i) Power electronic equipment including variable speed drives, uninterruptible power supplies
UPS’s, rectifiers, switched mode power supplies and SCR-controlled systems;
(ii) Arcing equipment including arc furnaces as well as fluorescent and mercury lights;
(iii) Saturable devices such as transformers, motors and generators.
Identification of harmonic sources in a power system has been a challenging task for many years.
Several methodologies for detecting harmonic sources have been applied to calculate the harmonic
contributions at the point of common coupling. The most common tool to solve this problem is the
harmonic power direction-based method [36–38] in which the symmetrical balanced or unbalanced and
symmetrical three-phase harmonic power flows are detected. Another group of practical methods for
harmonic source detection is to measure the utility and customer harmonic impedances and then
calculate the harmonic sources behind the impedances. There are number of variations of this method
[39–42]. Although this type of method is theoretically sound, it is very difficult to implement because
the impedances can only be determined with the help of disturbances. Such disturbances are not readily
available from the system or are expensive to generate with intrusive means. Reference [43] presents a
projection and superposition method to detect harmonic contributions between supply and customer
sides. Most of them use the Norton’s model to express the harmonic equivalent circuit, and the analysis
is focused on the equivalent harmonic current source. Chen et al. [44] have used the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit to express the harmonic equivalent systems and find out the relationship between the
harmonic impedance and harmonic voltage sources through the one point measurements at the point of
common coupling. Critical impedance is introduced to measure the harmonic equivalent voltage source
which is called critical impedance method. The method can detect which side has more contributions
on harmonic distortion at point of common coupling. In Reference [45], authors have proposed a new
method to determine whether the utility or the customer side has more contribution to the harmonic
currents measured at the point of common coupling. The method is based on the idea that the direction
of harmonic reactive power, instead of active power, is more reliable indicator on the location of
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dominant harmonic sources. The method needs approximate impedance information. Reference [46]
describes a reverse power flow procedure to identify the sources of harmonic signals in electric power
systems.
A harmonic power flow study is a technique whereby line currents and bus voltages at harmonic
frequencies are calculated. This procedure may be Newton-Raphson-based technique [47–50] or a
technique based on the injection current response of the network [49,50]. In each of these methods, the
signal level at harmonic sources must be known, estimated or calculated. However, if the source of
harmonic signal is not known, a practical engineering question may be to identify the location and type
of harmonic source. The author in his Reference [44] has used least square estimators to identify the
location of harmonic sources. The identification is based on the fact that in a linear transmission
network, active power associated with voltage and current of the same frequency is conserved. The
author further concludes that inaccuracies occur due to losses, estimation errors and modelling errors.
In Reference [51], a method of statistically describing system harmonic voltages in terms of parameters
of the harmonic current sources is presented. It is shown that a large number of sources, a complete
probabilistic characterization of the harmonic voltages can be found in terms of the second-order
moments of each current phasor’s rectangular components. Reference [52] reports a super-
position-based current and voltage indices to quantify the contribution of harmonic sources. Using
these indices, the validity of the power direction method for harmonic source determination is
investigated. The main findings of these works are summarized as follows:
It is the source magnitudes instead of phase angles that are of main interest for the harmonic
source detection problem. The direction of active power is mainly affected by the relative phase
angle between the two harmonic sources;
The direction of active power is mainly affected by the source magnitudes and that of the reactive
power by the phase angles. The implication of this conclusion is that the characteristic of the
circuit impedance (R-X ratio) will affect the reliability of the active or reactive power-
direction-based harmonic source detection methods;
The metering point or the relative size of the source and the customer impedances will also affect
the direction of either active or reactive powers. This is another important factor that makes the
power-direction-based methods unreliable.
5. EFFECTS OF HARMONIC
Harmonics have the effect increasing equipment copper, iron, dielectric losses and thus the thermal
stress. A detailed study is provided in References [53–59]. In Reference [53], the effects of harmonics
on converter transformer load losses are discussed. Authors have described a simple method of loss
calculation which has the potential for application at design stage. Variation of losses with the
converter-firing angle, with the transformer reactance and with the load has also been discussed in the
paper. Reference [54] reports the state-of-knowledge of the effects of power system harmonics on
equipment. The general mechanism presented is thermal overloading, disruption and dielectric
stressing. The equipment considered ASDs, capacitors, circuit breakers, fuses, conductors, electronic
equipment, lightning, metering, protective relays, rotating machines, telephones and transformers.
Massey [55] has introduced a method of estimating the composite harmonic current generated by the
operation of several non-linear loads connected to a single power distribution transformer. The author
draws upon the information available from industry and proposes an intuitive expansion of the current
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158 G. K. SINGH
available ‘K-factor’ calculation. The proposed expansion provides a useful tool in specifying properly
designed dry-type power distribution transformers for operation in a non-sinusoidal load environment.
Reference [56] is concerned with the effect of both harmonic voltage and current distortion on power
transformer loss of life. The influence of possible dc current components is also taken into account.
Using this, a complete frequency domain equivalent circuit has been proposed that includes harmonics,
the dc current and the asymmetrical magnetizing current. It has been shown that the influence of typical
harmonic voltage is not a matter of great concern as for as temperature increase and loss of life are
concerned. However, the influence of harmonic current distortion within the normal range typically
produced has shown to be of importance when transformer-operating temperature and loss of life are
concerned. Author further states that small dc components (up to the RMS magnitude of the
magnetizing current at rated voltage) have no significant effect on the thermal conditions and
transformer loss of life. In Reference [57], authors have focused attention on the evaluation of harmonic
pollution in traction line voltage and current waveforms. Attempt was made to experimental research
aimed at determining the dc voltage wave shapes that may statistically occur on any railway line
subjected to heavy traffic. Reference [58] presents the degradation mechanism for all film PC, with
emphasis on the activities of partial discharges. A methodology for the evaluation of the influence of
harmonic in the degradation of PC, based on the applied voltage and its respective waveform, is
developed. Based on the above studies, the general expression for the power dissipated in pure
resistance, inductance and capacitance are:
The active power dissipated in a pure resistance is
X X
PR ¼ 1 þ THD2V ¼ Vh2 ; or PR ¼ 1 þ THD2I ¼ Ih2 (5.1)
h¼1 h¼1
The reactive power absorbed by an inductor is given by

X X V2
QL ¼ hIh2 ¼ h
(5.2)
h¼1 h¼1
h
The reactive power delivered by a capacitor is given by

X I2 X
QC ¼ h
¼ hVh2 (5.3)
h¼1
h h¼1
Similarly, the iron (core) losses are given by

X
Ph ¼ hIh1:6 (5.4)
h¼1
X
Pe ¼ h2 Ih2 (5.5)
h¼1
P i ¼ P h þ Pe (5.6)
where PR is the total active power loss (in pu) in the resistance, QL is the total pu reactive power
absorbed by the inductor, QC is the total pu reactive power delivered by the capacitor, Ph is the total pu
Hysteresis loss, Pe is the total pu eddy current loss, Vh is the hth harmonic voltage in pu of the rated
voltage, Ih is the hth harmonic current in pu of the rated current.
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Harmonics result in increased losses and equipment loss-of-life. Triplen harmonics result in the
neutral carrying a current, which might equal or exceed the phase currents even the loads are balanced
leading to derating or over sizing of neutral wires [60–62]. Calculation of cable ampacities in a
harmonic environment is presented in Reference [63]. Moreover, harmonics-caused resonance might
damage equipment control and communication circuits and customer electronic equipments [61,64].
Sensitive equipment would experience maloperation or component failure [60]. The noticeable
findings are:
Capacitors are overloaded by harmonic currents, since the fact that their reactance decreases with
frequency makes them act as sinks for harmonics. Also, harmonic voltages produce large currents
causing capacitor fuses to be blown;
Capacitors combine with source inductance to form a parallel resonant circuit. In the presence of
resonance, harmonics are amplified. The resulting voltages excessively exceed the rated voltage
leading to capacitor damage or blown fuses;
Increased load losses, which comprises copper losses and stray losses (winding eddy current loss)
in transformer. The increase in the later is the most significant factor in determining the additional
transformer core heating losses due to non-linear loads;
Increased hysteresis and eddy-current losses in transformer. However, temperature rise in the core
due to the increased iron losses is less critical than in the winding;
Increased possibility of resonance between the power factor correction capacitors and transformer
inductance;
Increased insulation stress in transformer due to the increased peak voltages;
Increased copper and iron losses in rotating machines resulting in heating and derating of the machine;
Presence of harmonics in the supply system results in torque pulsations in electrical machine;
Harmonics affect the interruption capability of circuit breakers;
Malfunctioning of the metering and instrumentation devices. Harmonics also impair the operation
of electronic equipment and control circuits through the shifting of zero crossing;
Harmonics result in interference with telephone circuits through inductive coupling;
Harmonics interfere with customer loads. This is of special concern in computer systems;
Relays whose operation is governed by the voltage/current peak or zero voltage are affected by
harmonics. Electromechanical relays time delay characteristics are changed in the presence of
harmonics. Ground relays cannot distinguish between zero sequence and third harmonic currents
resulting in erroneous tripping.
6. HARMONIC ANALYSIS
Harmonic analysis aims at predicting the harmonic distortion at one or more locations in the power
network. Such a study can be done to estimate the effect of a new non-linear load or of the installation of
a harmonic filter. There are two distinctly different methods of harmonic analysis.
(i) Time Domain Study: The system (i.e. network and load) is modelled in detail after which a
time-domain study is done resulting in the actual waveforms. The harmonic components are
obtained by applying a Fourier transform to the waveforms;
(ii) Frequency Domain Study: A separate system model is made for each frequency component
included in the study. Each single-frequency model is relatively simple as it only needs to be
valid for that specific frequency. The resulting models are the same used for fundamental
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160 G. K. SINGH
frequency analysis resulting in complex voltages and currents. The main difference, and also the
main difficulty, is in the choice of the impedance values. Especially for higher frequency
components, different models are needed because the various capacitive currents become
significant, but the calculation methods remain the same. More details of frequency domain
studies are found in Reference [65].
The term ‘harmonic analysis’ is normally used for the second method, but the first method will
equally result in a harmonic spectrum. The reason that the second method is most commonly used is its
simplicity as the same analysis method can be applied to harmonic components as to the fundamental
frequency. The basic assumptions behind this method are that non-linearity is restricted to a limited
number of components and that the current waveform of a non-linear component is not significantly
affected by the voltage waveform. References [66–88] embody the detailed study about the power
system harmonic analysis.
Reference [66] describes the new iterative procedures using FFT algorithm for the harmonic studies
of three-phase transformer banks with various connections under steady-state operating conditions.
The paper states that the accuracy depends upon the number of linear segments used for the
approximation of the magnetization curve. Any higher harmonic of interest can be predicted as long as
the sampling frequency is increased accordingly. Also it was observed that if the input voltage is odd (or
even) symmetric in case of a grounded wye or ungrounded wye connection, the current waveform will
be even (or odd) symmetric. Authors of the References [67,68] have presented a multiphase harmonic
load flow solution technique for analysing the harmonic problems in power system caused by the
operation of non-linear devices under unbalanced condition. Control characteristic of the static
compensator and the comparison with field test results are also included. Arrillaga and Callaghan [69]
have questioned the validity of assuming fundamental frequency load flow conditions of ac–dc to be
unaffected by the presence of harmonics, and have presented an algorithm, which is capable of
determining the load flow conditions in the presence of harmonics. The algorithm takes root in the
standard three-phase ac–dc load flow and in IHA (iterative harmonic analysis). The integration of the
two algorithms has been described in detail with computational efficiency in mind. Authors in
Reference [70] have presented a new harmonic power flow for unbalanced systems. It allows the
analysis of characteristic and non-characteristic harmonics generated by non-linear loads in their
interaction with the utility network. The developed procedure based on the interaction of a fundamental
frequency power flow subprogram and an iterative harmonic subprogram, in which conventional and
non-conventional loads are treated in terms of power. The ac linear network is represented by a
generalized Thevenin’s equivalent with respect to the non-linear loads, obtained from the power flow
solution. Reference [71] presents the implementation of a Newton-type harmonic steady-state
calculation method for initializing time domain solutions in the EMTP. It uses a generalized and
theoretically supported formulation of the harmonic Norton equivalent modelling of non-linear
branches with simplified harmonic coupling, and states that there is no requirement for analytical
formulation of non-linear branch characteristics or pre-calculated knowledge of fundamental
frequency behaviour. Another generalized harmonic balance method for EMTP initialization for the
steady-state analysis of power system models is reported in Reference [72]. In Reference [73], a new
frame of reference for harmonic analysis of power system has been described. In this structure of
harmonic domain, the network bus bars and coupling between phases and between harmonics are
explicitly represented.
Vittek et al. [74] have reported the time advantages analysis of m-phase symmetrical inverter
systems in complex plain. Equations of characteristic values of voltage and current waveforms in the
DOI: 10.1002/etep
complex domain are developed. In Reference [75], an overview of the methods for calculation of ac/dc
converter harmonics has been described. Comparison of all the harmonic analysis technology based on
practical application has been presented. It has been shown that modulated lapped transform offers the
time-dependent higher harmonic propagation following with higher accuracy than using FT (Fourier
transform) and WT (Wavelet Transform). Moreno et al. [76] have reported a hybrid method in the time
and frequency domain for the analysis of the harmonic distortion in power systems. The method
integrates a three-phase load flow at fundamental frequency with a hybrid harmonic-interaction
analysis algorithm. Authors of the Reference [77] present a frequency domain method, which is useful
for traction drives design and harmonic generation studies. An iterative solving algorithm is used for
load flow and converter-operating point calculation. A numerical application is also developed and
results are compared with time domain simulation results. Reference [78] gives a substantial review of
the different single and three-phase harmonic load flow formulations. It presents the data, unknowns
and equations of these formulations in balanced network considerations. The influence of the main
harmonic load flow hypothesis (harmonic interaction and fundamental power consumption
consideration) in the final load flow results is also studied. In Reference [79], an arc model for
three-phase arc furnace to carry out the harmonic analysis with a single-phase circuit is given. The
model is based on the V-I characteristic of the arc and takes into account the effect of the arcs unbalance
over the zero sequence harmonics. The model is implanted in EMTDC and tuned with field data.
Simulations are performed in continuous work using Monte Carlo method to obtain the arc length. The
important findings of these works are summarized as follows:
The non-characteristic harmonic current injections are generally proportional to the degree of
unbalance in the compensator bus voltage, TCR reactance and firing angle etc.;
For the calculation of the non-characteristic harmonic injection, it is advisable to use the double
iterative scheme, that is adjust the load flow following harmonic domain iteration;
The harmonic components are more sensitive to unbalanced conditions than the fundamental
frequency components;
In general, it is found that the convergence rate is inversely affected by the degree of saturation and
network harmonic voltage resonance;
A significant improvement of the convergence rate by moving from a current source model to a
Norton equivalent model can be achieved;
The waveform distortions in the network are low in a properly designed static compensator
systems. In particular, the harmonic cancellation scheme with a three-winding transformer
connection is quite effective in most unbalance cases;
Linearized model of a non-linear load gives inaccurate results;
The presence of non-linear load on a power system causes harmonic currents to flow through the
system and other customer load as well;
Time domain method preserves the non-linearity of the problem and hence it gives more accurate
results;
Time domain method models the non-linear load as a circuit and hence allows studying the effect
of its individual components on power system harmonics;
Frequency domain method linearizes the harmonic problem in non-linear load modelling as well
as in the method of solution. Thus, it gives pessimistic results. For certain cases of study, the
frequency domain method gives incorrect results and hence, this method needs to be used with
caution.
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162 G. K. SINGH
7. HARMONIC STANDARDS
Most countries have their own regulatory standards (recommendations) to control the levels of
harmonic distortion in distribution power systems according to their local conditions. In this era of
globalization, the need for equipments manufactured in one country to comply with standards in
another country has prompted efforts in formulating international standards for harmonics and
inter-harmonics. More recently a number of countries have collectively started applying similar
harmonic control methodologies and recommended limits through the adoption of international
standards such as IEC 61000-3-6 [89] and IEEE 519-1992 [17].
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has defined a series of standards, called
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Standards, to deal with power quality issues. The IEC 61000
series includes harmonics and inter-harmonics as one of the conducted low-frequency electromagnetic
phenomena. A widely accepted alternative to the IEC series is the IEEE 519-1992 document, which
provides guidelines on harmonics.
In an attempt to control the levels of harmonic voltage distortion within distribution systems, most
standards apply limits to harmonic current emissions in the hope that if customers are limited
appropriately, the net effect of all customer emissions will result in an acceptable level of harmonic
voltage distortion. The IEEE 519-1992 limits are applicable only at the point of common coupling
(PCC) of the utility and plant interface. IEEE 519-1992 restricts customer’s harmonic current
emissions to a relative value derived from the short circuit current level at PCC and the size of
customer’s non-linear load. According to these limits, as the size of user load decreases with respect to
the size of the power system, the percentage of harmonic current that user is allowed to inject into the
utility system increases. The limits are recommended to be used as system design values for the ‘worst
case’ for normal operation. Normal operation is the operating condition lasting longer than an hour. For
shorter periods, such as during start-ups or unusual conditions, the limits may be exceeded by 50%.
The IEC approach differs slightly from the IEEE standard in that it considers future customers in the
harmonic allocation. IEC 61000-3-6 provides formulas to estimate the allowed current emission for
each customer such that all customers, including future ones, share the harmonic-absorbing capability
of the system.
The IEC 61000 Series provides internationally accepted information for the control of power system
harmonic (and inter-harmonic) distortion [90]. The IEC 61000-1-4 present the information for limiting
power frequency conducted harmonic and inter-harmonic current emissions from equipment in the
frequency range up to 9 kHz. IEC 61000-2-1 summarizes the major sources of harmonics in three
categories of equipment, that is power system equipment, industrial loads and residential loads. IEC
61000-2-2 [91] defines the limits for inter-harmonic voltage distortion in public low-voltage power
industry systems, in the range 10–90 Hz, corresponding to the compatibility level with respect to the
flicker effect. IEC 61000-2-4 [92] defines the compatibility levels for inter-harmonic voltages in
industrial plants. It also describes the main effects of inter-harmonics. IEC 61000-2-12 deals with
compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances, in this case relating to medium voltage
power supply systems. It also covers the subject of injected signals such as those used in ripple control.
IEC 61000-3-2 and 3-4 include limits for harmonic current emissions by equipment with input currents
of 16 A per phase and below. It also specifies the measurement circuit, supply source and testing
conditions as well as the requirements for the instrumentation. IEC 61000-3-6 specifies the capability
levels for harmonic voltages in low-and medium-voltage networks as well as planning levels for MV,
HV and EHV power systems. It then makes an assessment of emission limits for distorting loads in MV
and HV power systems. IEC 61000-3-12 stipulates limits for the harmonic currents produced by
DOI: 10.1002/etep
Table II. Comparison of standards.

IEC 61000 series IEEE 519-1992
1. The IEC standards set limits to the amount IEEE harmonic standard limits
of emission of individual equipment the emission per customer
2. The responsibility lies with the manufacturers The responsibility lies with the
of polluting equipment customer who may decide to
install filters instead of buying
better equipment
3. IEC documents mainly aims at small customers IEEE standard aims at regulating
that do not have the means to choose between the connection of large industrial
mitigation options customers
equipment connected to low-voltage systems with input currents equal to and below 75 A per phase and
subject to restricted connection. IEC 61000-4-7 has the information about the testing and measurement
techniques. It is a general guide on harmonic and inter-harmonic measurements and instrumentation for
power systems. IEC 61000-4-13 is also a document on testing and measurement techniques with
reference to harmonics and inter-harmonics, including mains signalling at ac power ports as well as
low-frequency immunity tests.
As IEC and IEEE are two principally different approaches, for harmonic current limits, the Table II
gives a comparison between them. It is important to point out that the IEC 1000-3-6 contains a lot of
useful information and technical considerations. One of them is the discussion on the supply system
impedances, which is very important for limit compliance verification. This subject is missing in IEEE
519-1992. While the recommended harmonic voltage levels from the IEC standard are more generous
than those of the IEEE standard, the allowable customer harmonic current contributions are usually
more restrictive, although this will depend much upon circuit configuration. Although the international
standards are used as a basis for global co-ordination, individual countries make their own adjustments
to accommodate various national priorities. These are normally motivated by special characteristics of
their power system configuration and load management (e.g. the use of ripple control in some
countries).
8. MITIGATION OF HARMONICS
The proliferation of non-linear loads in industrial systems deviate the voltage and current waveforms
from their sinusoidal nature and consequently harmonics are generated. The harmonic distortion
influences the power quality and has many detrimental effects on the system equipment and consumers
connected to the PCC, interfere with communication signals and cause erroneous operation of control
circuit. To lessen harmonic problems, utilities are increasingly enforcing international harmonic
standards for industrial customers. By manufacturer’s literature review, it has been found that harmonic
mitigation techniques are seldom done because of the extra-cost for the consumer. Hence, a cost
effective control strategy is needed to suppress and hopefully eliminate the harmonic effects on the
system. Various harmonic mitigation techniques to reduce the effect of magnitude of harmonics have
been proposed as listed below [93]:
(i) Phase Multiplication: This technique is quite effective to reduce low-order harmonics as long as
there is balanced load on each of the converters;
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164 G. K. SINGH
(ii) Passive Filters: They improve power factor, reduce high frequency harmonics but are large in
size. If tuning reactors are not used, instability may occur due to parallel resonance with the
source inductance. Performance depends on the source impedance, which is usually not known
accurately and can vary with system changes. References [13,90,94–99];
(iii) Active Filters: They also improve power factor, allow the output current to be controlled,
provide stable operation against ac source impedance variations and fast response irrespective
of the order and magnitude of the harmonic. Initial and running costs are usually higher than for
passive filters. The injection currents may flow into other system components. References
[100–115] provide recent information on active filters;
(iv) Harmonic Injection: This technique takes care of uncharacteristic harmonics. System impe-
dance is no part of the design criteria. May give rise to lower order harmonics;
(v) Harmonic Mitigation Technique with PWM: This technique is capable of obtaining harmonic
reductions of less than 1% of the fundamental. Programmable to eliminate specific harmonic.
To avoid undesirable effects of harmonics due to their unduly interference with power system, both
passive and active compensation techniques (filters) can be implemented. Passive filters have the drawback
of bulky size, component ageing, resonance and fixed compensation performance. These provide either
over- or under-compensation of harmonics, whenever a load-change occurs [116]. Hence, active
compensation known as active power filter (APF) is preferred over passive compensation. APFs are an
up-to-date solution to power quality problems, which allow the compensation of current harmonics and
unbalance together with power factor improvement [101–106,116].
Arc furnace operation has traditionally been the cause of flicker problems on medium-voltage and
high-voltage systems. Lately, wind turbines have also been reported to cause these phenomena [1,117].
For flicker mitigation, a number of different methods are available, which differ in performance,
feasibility and costs [118]. A method to reduce flicker is selecting carefully the arc furnace power
in-feed. Special transformer configurations for furnace supply have been used for flicker reduction
[119]. Reinforcing the grid is an effective means of flicker mitigation but it is expensive and, therefore,
sometimes adopted when a future expansion of the arc furnace plant is foreseen [1]. The reinforcement
may, however, not always be possible due to environmental impact. With dimmer (a series device
equipped with anti-parallel thyristors and series reactors), its current to some extent be controlled
[120]. The disadvantage is the slow response time and the high harmonic content. Due to high rating of
the device, it also becomes rather costly. Series capacitors have also been investigated and installed for
this purpose [121]. Saturable reactors in series have also been used to quickly cut current peaks due to
for instance short-circuit in arc furnace [122]. However, most used devices for flicker mitigation are by
far the Static Var Compensator (SVC) and D-STATCOM. SVC is normally constituted by one thyristor
controllable reactor (TCR) and a number of thyristor-switched capacitors (TSC) branches [123]. SVC
can be found in applications such as power line compensation [124], compensation of railway feeding
system [125], reducing disturbances from rolling mills [126] and arc furnace compensation [127] both
for reactive power supply and flicker mitigation. A SVC installed together with an arc furnace not only
reduces flicker, but also increases the steel production and its quality due to stabilized ac voltage [128].
However, ability of SVC to mitigate flicker is limited by its low speed response. A force-commutated
voltage source converter (VSC) with PWM operation today seems to be the most suitable approaches
for flicker mitigation purposes [129]. A shunt-connected VSC mounting IGBTs and operated with
PWM is normally referred as ‘STATCOM’ or ‘D-STATCOM’ as it is normally installed at distribution
levels [130]. In the study reported in Reference [131], the VSC is found to be superior to other flicker
mitigation methods such as SVC and series saturable reactors [1].
DOI: 10.1002/etep
Two fundamental approaches for improving power quality with APF are correction in time-domain
[101] and correction in frequency-domain [102]. The advantage of time-domain method is fast
response for on-line application without complicated control circuitry. The advantage occurs because
time-domain control strategies operate on instantaneous values of the distorted signals rather than on at
least one period time delay, as in frequency-domain methods so that the required computational time
can be relatively small. The shortcoming of this method is that, in order to obtain optimum results,
relatively high switching frequencies are needed, which leads to excessive switching losses in the
semiconductor devices. Compensation in frequency-domain is based on the principle of Fourier
analysis and periodicity of the distorted voltage or current waveform to be corrected. The basic
principle is that FFT is applied to the sensed voltage/current signal. Compensating harmonic
components are separated by eliminating the fundamental component and inverse of Fourier transform
is applied to derive compensating reference in this domain [101,102]. The main disadvantage of this
technique is the accompanying time-delay sampling and computation of Fourier coefficients. This
makes it difficult for real-time application with dynamically varying loads. It is, therefore, only suitable
for slowly varying load conditions.
One of the most popular APFs is the ‘shunt active power filter’, a current source, connected in
parallel with the non-linear load. Conventionally, a shunt APF is controlled in such a way as to inject
harmonic and reactive compensation currents based on calculated reference currents. The injected
currents are meant to ‘cancel’ the harmonic and reactive currents drawn by the non-linear loads.
An increasingly attractive alternative is to use the so-called intelligent control schemes involving
tools such as expert systems, neural networks or fuzzy logic. Artificial intelligence is one of the major
fields developed since past four decades, and is popular due to its ability to handle complex problem at
difficult situations [107,132,133]. Research on the theory and application of fuzzy logic, one of the
alternatives to artificial intelligence, has been growing since its first introduction in mid-1960’s [134].
Use of fuzzy logic for harmonic minimization and power quality improvement is not a new issue rather
various authors have introduced some innovative methodologies using these tools. A survey of various
works using fuzzy logic in power systems is available in Reference [135]. Use of fuzzy logic for
minimization of harmonics and improvement of power quality is not a new issue rather various authors
have introduced some innovative methodologies using these tools [135]. In Reference [136],
Dell’Aquila et al. have developed shunt active filter with fuzzy logic estimation of the power devices
duty cycle via current control of PWM inverter. This scheme was tested for compensating the real line
current drawn by an ac induction motor drive using virtual instrumentation and found that the scheme is
able to compensate the harmonics pollution. In Reference [137], authors have proposed a
Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy model derived from input–output data by means of product space fuzzy
clustering to predict the future harmonics compensating current. The developed control model is
applied to compensate the harmonics produced by the variable non-linear load. An important point of
the work is the use of optimization method to minimize the computational steps, which makes the
overall scheme complex. References [113,138,139] are devoted to design the conventional PI and fuzzy
logic-based PI controller, which is part of the active filter. In Reference [140], the work is focused to
minimize the harmonics for unbalanced and voltage sag compensation via fuzzy logic for series APF.
The other significant works carried out earlier are reported in References [141–144].
9. FUTURE RESEARCH TRENDS
Most of the researches on harmonic waveform distortion were directed towards harmonic analysis
studies in large transmission systems. The question that remains to be answered is what the ‘optimal
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166 G. K. SINGH
distortion level’ is. The consequences of harmonic distortion should be studied for existing distortion
levels and for higher level. How much distortion level may increase before serious problem occurs.
Another direction of study is the design of improved equipment and development of new control
algorithm, for example large PWM converters are not only able to produce a sinusoidal waveform but
also they are able to mitigate the distortion produced by other loads. In-depth study is needed on voltage
dip characteristics and indices, especially on methods for extracting system indices with a limited
number of monitors and on suitable single-index methods. Related work is needed on the extraction of
additional information from voltage dip recordings. This is one of the possible applications for signal
processing techniques. There are several research problems and areas that require a detailed and
systematic investigation [2,145]:
Model-based signal processing (including characterization, diagnostics and compression) based
on a better understanding of power quality;
Characterization and processing of voltage and current transients with thorough understanding of
its origin and propagation;
Statistical processing of power quality data (measured) for extracting features and for diagnostics;
Analysis should be more based on three-phase data, while most current techniques are based on
processing single-phase data. Further correlation among measurement data obtained from
different locations, direction of currents, relation between voltage and current may provide
new insight to the understanding of power system harmonics and related power quality problems.
10. CONCLUSION
Presence of harmonics pose many problems to power system engineers due to the detrimental effect
that they have on the power system apparatus, and more importantly due to the adverse manner in
which they affect power quality. Industrial standards and recommended practice for power systems
have been established as a step towards minimizing the effects of harmonics. In spite of this, power
systems must be able to withstand harmonic flow, since they cannot be eliminated completely. The
ever-increasing growth of non-linear loads on power systems will necessitate the availability of better
methods for evaluating the effects that harmonic source have on each other and on the power system.
Substantial progress has been made in the area of power system harmonics covering analysis,
simulation, and hardware development and testing for identification, classification and mitigation etc.
However, many problems and issues, especially those related to development of protective schemes,
efficient fault analysis tools etc., still need to be addressed for appropriate system planning and
operation of the power system to supply a good quality and reliable electric power.
11. LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
11.1. Symbols
f harmonic frequency
f1 fundamental (main) frequency
Ih hth harmonic current in pu
n order of harmonic
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Pe total pu eddy current loss

Ph total pu Hysteresis loss
Pi iron (core) loss
PR total active power loss (pu) in the resistance
Pu per unit
QL total reactive power absorbed by reactor (pu)
THDI total current harmonic distortion
THDV total voltage harmonic distortion
Vh hth harmonic voltage in pu
11.2. Abbreviations
APF active power filter
ASD adjustable speed drive
FFT fast fourier transform
HVDC high voltage direct current
IHA iterative harmonic analysis
PCC point of common coupling
PWM pulse width modulation
SVC static var compensator
TCR thyristor controllable reactor
THD total harmonic distortion
TSC thyristor-switched capacitor
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DOI: 10.1002/etep
172 G. K. SINGH
AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY
G. K. Singh received the B.Tech. degree from G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, Pantnagar, India, in 1981, and the Ph.D. degree from Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India, in 1991, both in Electrical Engineering. He worked in industry for nearly
5 years after his graduation. In 1991, he joined M. N. R. Engineering College, Allahabad, India,
as a Lecturer. In 1996, he moved to the University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India. Currently, he is
a Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee,
India. He has been involved in design and analysis of electrical machines in general and
high-phase-order ac machines in particular, and power system harmonics and power quality.
He has coordinated a number of research projects sponsored by the CSIR and UGC,
Government of India. He has served as a Visiting Associate Professor in the Department
of Electrical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH),
Pohang, Korea, and as Visiting Professor in the Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. Professor Singh received the
Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya Memorial Medal and the Certificate of Merit Award 2001–2002 of
The Institution of Engineers (India).
DOI: 10.1002/etep

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EUROPEAN TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRICAL POWER

Euro. Trans. Electr. Power 2009; 19:151–172

Power system harmonics research: a survey

Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF POWER SYSTEM HARMONICS

3. DEFINITION OF POWER SYSTEM HARMONICS

Table I. Mathematical definitions of harmonic, inter-harmonic and sub-harmonic.

4. HARMONIC SOURCES AND ITS IDENTIFICATION

Generally, sources of harmonics can be classified as in Reference [35] as:

The reactive power absorbed by an inductor is given by

The reactive power delivered by a capacitor is given by

Similarly, the iron (core) losses are given by

Table II. Comparison of standards.

9. FUTURE RESEARCH TRENDS

11. LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Pe total pu eddy current loss

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