CURRENT ISSUES

IN MODERN LINGUISTICS
AND HUMANITIES

PROCEEDINGS
of the 11th All-Russian Research
and Methodological Conference
with International Participation

Moscow, Institute of Foreign Languages,

RUDN University, March 15th, 2019

Moscow
Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia
2019
УДК 81:316.77(063) Утверждено
ББК 6/8 РИС Ученого совета
А43 Российского университета
дружбы народов

Edited by
Enrique F. Quero Gervilla, Natalya Sokolova

Editorial:
Svetlana A. Sharonova (Institute of Foreign Languages,
RUDN University, Moscow, Russia);
Olga V. Aleksandrova (Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia);
Quannes Hafiane (Higher Institute of Foreign Languages of Tunisia,
University of Carthage, Tunis);
Valérie Carayol (Université Bordeaux Montaigne, Bordeaux, France);
Liliya V. Moiseenko (Moscow State Linguistic University, Moscow, Russia);
Natalia F. Mikheeva (Institute of Foreign Languages,
RUDN University, Moscow, Russia);
Natalia S. Erokhova (Institute of Foreign Languages,
RUDN University, Moscow, Russia);
Huda Ben Hamadi Melauhia (Director of Tunis Higher Institute of Languages,
University of Carthage, Tunisia);
Sergio Marcos (Vice-Rector for International Academic Affairs,
Universidad del Norte, Asuncion, Paraguay)

А43 Актуальные проблемы современной лингвистики

и гуманитарных наук : cборник статей ХI Всероссийской
научно-методической конференции с международным уча-
стием. Москва, 15 марта 2019 г. – Москва : РУДН, 2019. –
727 с. : ил.

Current Issues in Modern Linguistics and Humanities :

Proceedings of the 11th All-Russian Research and
Methodological Conference with International Participation.
Moscow, March 15th, 2019. – Moscow : PFUR, 2019. – 727 p.

© Сollective of authors, 2019

© Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, 2019
ISBN 978-5-209-09321-3 © Коллектив авторов, 2019
© Российский университет
дружбы народов, 2019
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Natalia L. Sokolova (Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN

University, Moscow, Russia)
Svetlana A. Sharonova (Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN
University, Moscow, Russia)
Natalia Ya. Bezrukova (Foreign Languages Institute, RUDN
University, Moscow, Russia)
Olga V. Alexandrova (Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow,
Russia)
Enrique Quero Gervilla (Center for the Russian Language, University
of Granada, Granada, Spain)
Natalia F. Mikheeva (Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN
University, Moscow, Russia)
Natalia S. Erokhova (Institute of Foreign Languages, RUDN
University, Moscow, Russia)
Huda Ben Hamadi Melauhia (Director of Tunis Higher Institute of
Languages, University of Carthage, Tunisia (Tunisia)
Sergio Marcos (Vice-Rector for International Academic Affairs,
Universidad del Norte, Asuncion, Paraguay)
Irina P. Barabash (Foreign Languages Institute, RUDN University,
Moscow, Russia)

Languages: English, Russian, Spain

Conference Organizers

Web of site of the Conference: http://science-ifl.rudn.ru/

Published by © 2019 RUDN University Press, Moscow, Russia 
   

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CONTENTS

LINGUISTICS AND MODERN LANGUAGES

THE CONCEPT AND IMAGE AS COMPONENTS

OF THE SCIENTIFIC TEXTUALITY
Zoya N. Afinskaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AS A RESPONSE
TO THE DOMINANCE OF GLOBAL ENGLISH
Evgeniya V. Aleshinskaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
MODERN ENGLISH FEMALE FICTIONAL
DISCOURSE THROUGH THE PRISM
OF TIME REFERENCE
Anna I. Dzyubenko, Irina A. Zyubina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
ON THE ISSUE OF EXPRESSING BELONGINGNESS
AND EXCLUSION IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Olga V. Emelianova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
MODERN ARABIC LINGUISTICRESEARCH
IS A CROSS-CULTURAL ISSUE
Quannes Hafiane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
EXAMINING DISCURSIVE STRATEGIES IN
BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE OF KAZAKHSTAN:
KAZAKH, RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES
Aliya A. Aimoldina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
MULTILINGUAL TRENDS IN THE LINGUISTIC
LANDSCAPE OF KAZAN, RUSSIA, AS A REFLECTION
OF AN EMERGING GLOBAL CITY
Nataliya S. Aristova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
CONCEPTUAL ADAPTATION IN THE ASPECT
OF INTERCULTURAL SCIENTIFIC
COMMUNICATION
Daria E. Barasheva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

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LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL CONTENT
OF THE CONCEPT OF FLATTERY IN THE ENGLISH
AND RUSSIAN LINGUISTIC CULTURES
Elizaveta B. Godunova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
LANGUAGE PLANNING IN THE REALITY
OF MULTILINGUALISM (THE CASE OF FINLAND)
Elena A. Kartushina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
ENGLISH TEXTBOOK:
a tool for enabling cross-cultural competence
Elena M. Kitaeva, Olga V. Ozerova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
AND ACADEMIC DISCOURSE:
SEARCH FOR MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING
Marina M. Raevskaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
ASSESSMENT AT THE MULTILINGIUAL
UNIVERSITY CLASSROOMS
Roza F. Zhusupova, Gulshat Z. Beysembaeva . . . . . . . . . . 140

TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING

PECULIARITIES OF TRANSLATION OF DIFFERENT

TYPES OF METAPHORS IN PUBLICISTIC TEXTS
Vera Y. Kuznetsova (Barbazyuk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
THE BEST APPS FOR LEARNING AND
TRANSLATING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Antonella Selvitella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
TRANSLATION OF THE TEXTS USING MACHINE
TRANSLATION SYSTEMS: LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS
OF THE EXAMPLES FROM LITERARY
AND SCIENTIFIC TEXTS
Jane M. Zakovorotnaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
POETIC INVERSION UNDER TRANSLATION
Bakhyt N. Zhanturina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

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PECULIARITIES OF TRANSLATION OF MILITARY
SLANG FROM ENGLISH INTO RUSSIAN
Vera Yu. Kuznetsova (Barbazyuk), Aleksandr E. Vorobyev 186
STUDYING A MODULAR SOFTWARE: FROM
A COMBINATORAL METHODS TO THE PRACTICE
OF TEACHING TRANSLATION
Alla H. Guseva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
CORPORA ANALYSIS IN RESEARCH OF “FALSE
FRIENDS” PHRASEMES
Ekaterina V. Pivovarova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

EDUCATION AND TEACHING

DIDACTIC GAME AS A METHOD OF TEACHING

CHILDREN IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Ekaterina M. Kosheleva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
TEACHING SPANISH THROUGH MUSIC
Maria A. Istrakova, Taisia I. Larkina, Yulia V. Zubkova 239
DISTANCE E-LEARNING COURSES FOR USE
IN EDUCATIONAL PROCESS AT UNIVERSITIES
Olga E. Novokhatskaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
TO THE QUESTION OF MODELING A LANGUAGE
SYSTEM FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES
IN THE FRAME OF AN INVARIANT APPROACH
Elena S. Orlova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
CASE STUDY METHOD HAS BEEN SO WIDELY
USED BY UNIVERSITIES, WHICH TEND TO
COMBINE THIS METHOD WITH TRADITIONAL
LECTURE FORMAT
Galina A. Petrova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
INTERACTIVE APPROACH AS AN EFFECTIVE
TOOL FOR TEACHING SPANISH IN HIGHER
EDUCATION
Marina G. Petrova, Fama G. Gilal, Hassanet Sadouri,
Refka Diouani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

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THE FEATURES OF THE CREATIVE WRITING
AS A METHOD TO ELABORATE STUDENTS’
EFFICIENT SKILLS
Galina A. Petrova, Larisa G. Medvedeva,
Elena Y. Nadezhdina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
FORMATION OF THE ECONOMIC COMPETENCY
OF THE HEAD OF AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
WITHIN ADVANCED TRAINING SYSTEM
Marina G. Sergeeva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
MODEL OF THE PROCESS OF FORMATION
RESEARCH SKILLS OF A FUTURE FOREIGN
LANGUAGE TEACHER
Galina V. Sorokovykh, Olga S. Kutepova . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
TEACHING SEMIOTICS IN THE CONTEXT
OF PHILOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Inna G. Merkoulova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
COMPOSITIONAL SPECIFICITY OF ARTISTIC
TEXTS WITH SACRAL COMPONENTS
Yulia V. Kulchenko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
ISSUES IN MODERN INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN TEACHING
FOREIGN LANGUAGES AT UNIVERSITIES
Elena V. Yakovleva, Ruben V. Agadzhanyan . . . . . . . . . . 357

GENERAL AND SPECIFIC LINGUISTICS

VARIABILITY OF TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY BY

THE EXAMPLE OF METAPHOR AND METONYMY
Gulshat Z. Beysembaeva, Roza F. Zhusupova . . . . . . . . . 372
WAYS OF REPRESENTATION OF THE CONCEPT
"SOUL" IN KALMYK LANGUAGE
Olga K. Bavaeva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

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FUNCTIONAL PECULIARITIES OF ANTONYMS
(ON THE BASIS OF WORKS BY MUKHAMMAD
YUSUF)
Dilbar R. Djumanova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
TO FLEE OR TO FIGHT: A STUDY INTO LANGUAGE
ANXIETY, ITS LEVELS, CORRELATION WITH
ACHIEVEMENT AND MEANS OF REDUCTION
Maria V. Molchanova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
PARAGUAYISMS. PARAGUAYAN SPANISH
AND GAURANI. JOPARÁ - "THE THIRD
LANGUAGE" OF PARAGUAY. JUAN MANUEL
MARCOS "GUNTER’S WHINTER"
Igor Yu. Protsenko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
REGIONAL VARIATION OF THE CANADIAN
NATIONAL ENGLISH VARIANT
Victoria V. Sokolovskaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
THE CORE ZONE OF THE CONCEPT “ROMANTIC”
IN RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH LINGUOCULTURES
Alina S. Zagrebelnay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF STUDYING
MULTIDISCIPLINARY TERMINOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS IN MODERN LINGUISTIC TYPOLOGY
Natalia I. Zhabo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
THE TECHNOLOGY OF SEMI-AUTOMATIC META-
MARKING PROGRAM OF KAZAKH NATIONAL
CORPUS
Aiman A. Zhanabekova, Kunsulu K. Pirmanova . . . . . . . 470
PROSPECTS FOR IMPROVING THE SCIENTIFIC
STYLE OF SPEECH (LINGUOPHILOSOPHICAL
ANALYSIS)
Ivan S. Samokhin, Lyudmila Zh. Karavanova . . . . . . . . . 487
COGNITIVE-LINGUISTIC MECHANISMS OF SPEED-
READING
Elena F. Brueva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

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ON SPECIFICS OF THE INTERDISCIPLINARY TERM
FORMATION
Anzhela I. Edlichko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY –
CONNECTING SOFT AND HARD SKILLS
Irina I. Lushnikova, Ekaterina A. Drozdova . . . . . . . . . . 529
THE RELATION OF GRAMMAR TO KNOWLEDGE
Orynay S. Zhubayeva, Altyn D. Kegenbekova . . . . . . . . . . 539

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

THE POLYNOMIAL NATURE OF

THE SOCIOLINGUISTIC-CULTURAL TYPE
«STUDENT»
Maria V. Loginova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
INTERCULTURAL MEASUREMENTS
OF VALUE ORIENTATIONS OF REPRESENTATIVES
OF UZBEK AND FRENCH CULTURES
Abdimurod E. Мамаtov, Zulfiya B. Davronova . . . . . . . . 577
NEWS ON THE WEB CORPUS FOR RESEARCHERS
Anna V. Poloyan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
SOCIALIZATION OF PERSONALITY WITHIN
THE COMPETENCY APPROACH
Marina G. Sergeeva, Galina V. Zarembo . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
THE IMPACT OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES
ON THE LANGUAGE OF FRENCH YOUTH
Tamara V. Slastnikova, Daria V. Gogol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
LINGUISTICS IN GLOBAL EUROPE
Sabina N. Khanbalaeva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
FORMATION OF MULTILINGUAL LINGUISTIC
PERSONALITY WITHIN THE CONTEMPORARY
PROCESS OF HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM
Sholpan K. Zharkynbekova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637

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LINGUISTIC DIPLOMACY

THE IMAGE OF RUSSIA IN THE NEW DICTIONARY

OF CULTURAL LITERACY: WHAT EVERY
AMERICAN NEEDS TO KNOW
Elena A. Barsukova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
SPEECH BEHAVIOR OF POLITICIANS
(ON THE SPEECHES IN THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT
DEVOTED TO BREXIT)
Irina A. Zyubina, Anna I. Dzyubenko. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
POLITICAL DISCOURSE AS A MEANS
OF DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE
Anna A. Lugareva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
TONE TEXT ANALYSIS BASED ON THE POLITICAL
SPEECHES OF TWO AMERICAN PRESIDENTS
DONALD TRAMP AND JOHN FITZGERALD
KENNEDY
Elena O. Popova, Yana A. Volkova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
ENGLISH AS A MEANS OF POLITENESS
(RE)CONSTRUCTION IN CONTEMPORARY RUSSIA
Natalia A. Belyakova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706

AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718

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LINGUISTICS AND MODERN LANGUAGES
DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-11-23

THE CONCEPT AND IMAGE AS COMPONENTS

OF THE SCIENTIFIC TEXTUALITY

Zoya N. Afinskaya

Lomonosov Moscow State University

Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The communicative unity of scientific and poetic understanding
of the world allows us to explore in a single complex different
areas of human existence, designated by rational and emotional
vision. The understanding of language as a cognitive ability that
allows to implement the principles of human cognitive activity,
led, according to E.S. Kubryakova, "... to transfer some
psychological concepts... in linguistic units and expressions". The
current state of linguistic knowledge allows us to study the
synergetic unity of different spheres of scientific activity, which
is the meaning of this study. The problem raised in the article is
connected with the efforts of philosophers and linguists, which
are aimed at studying the synergy of scientific and poetic
thinking, concretizing it in the form of a dichotomy of concept
and image. This is of theoretical interest and is an actual
statement of the question. The originality of scientific and poetic
thinking, the interaction and conflicts of concepts and images in
the process of cognition - all these issues were at the center of
epistemology Gaston Bachelard. The article analyzes Bachelard's
thoughts on the need for new approaches to the rationalization of
scientific methods, the psychological component of scientific
activity, the language of scientific knowledge. The specificity of

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scientific and poetic thoughts, concept and image was considered
Bachelard through the prism of the theory of surrational. The
development of rationalism in the XX century required new
views on the specifics of scientific thinking. It was in the poetics
of surrealism that Bashlyar saw new principles of understanding
the world: the connection of the unconnected up to the
destruction of familiar forms and images, the need to break the
generally accepted logical connections and replace them with free
associations. The purpose of the article is to substantiate the
possibility of a synergetic approach to scientific and poetic
thinking, based on the understanding of the unity of all styles of
literary language. Objectives of the article: 1) to analyze the
views of Gaston Bachelard, the Creator of the new textuality,
based on the priority of the cognitive component of scientific
activity; 2) consider the problem of the relationship between the
concept and the image as a cognitive basis of reproducibility of
the original idea of the information received. To solve these
problems, a generalization of scientific value, philosophical and
linguistic material on the relationship of scientific and poetic
thinking is made. The dichotomy of scientific thinking and poetic
perception of the world was embodied in the comparison of
concept and image through their inconsistency and interaction.
Concept and image, on the one hand, are opposite to each other in
the process of rationalization of knowledge, but since
rationalization occurs with the help of language, the image that
carries the novelty of perception of the world, its new
conceptualization opens, as Bachelard said, "the future of
language". In this view, the interest presented thoughts V.P.
Vizgin, L.Yu. Sokolova, Yu.S. Stepanov, V.V. Krasnykh, L.O.
Cherneyko, J.-Cl. Pariente.
Key words: concept, image, cognitivism, new rationalism, verbal
obstacle

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КОНЦЕПТ И ОБРАЗ КАК СОСТАВЛЯЮЩИЕ
НАУЧНОЙ ТЕКСТУАЛЬНОСТИ

Зоя Н. Афинская

Московский государственный университет

имени М.В. Ломоносова
Москва, Россия
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
Коммуникативное единство научного и поэтического
осмысления мира позволяет исследовать в едином комплексе
различные области человеческого бытия, обозначенные
рациональным и эмоциональным видением. Понимание
языка как познавательной способности, позволяющей
реализовать принципы познавательной деятельности
человека, привело, по мнению Е.С. Кубряковой, "... к
передаче некоторых психологических понятий... в
лингвистические единицы и выражения". Современное
состояние лингвистического знания позволяет изучать
синергетическое единство разных сфер научной
деятельности, что составляет смысл этого исследования.
Проблема, затронутая в статье, связана с усилиями
философов и лингвистов, которые направлены на изучение
синергетики научного и поэтического мышления,
конкретизируя ее в виде дихотомии концепта и образа. Это
вызывает теоретический интерес и является актуальной
постановкой вопроса. Оригинальность научного и
поэтического мышления, взаимодействие и конфликты
концепций и образов в процессе познания - все эти вопросы
оказались в центре эпистемологии Гастона Башляра. В статье
анализируются мысли Г. Башляра о необходимости новых
подходов к рационализации научных методов, о
психологическом компоненте научной деятельности, о языке

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научных знаний. Специфика научной и поэтической мысли,
концепта и образа рассматривалась Башляром сквозь призму
теории сюррационализма. Развитие рационализма в XX веке
требовало новых взглядов на специфику научного
мышления. Именно в поэтике сюрреализма Башляр увидел
новые принципы осмысления мира: соединение
несоединимого вплоть до разрушения привычных форм и
образов, необходимость разрыва общепринятых логических
связей и их замену на свободные ассоциации.
Цель статьи – обосновать возможности синергетического
подхода к научному и поэтическому мышлению, опираясь на
понимание единства всех стилей литературного языка.
Задачи статьи: 1) проанализировать взгляды Гастона
Башляра, создателя новой текстуальности, основанной на
приоритете когнитивного компонента научной деятельности;
2) рассмотреть проблему соотношения концепта и образа как
когнитивной основы воспроизводимости первоначального
представления о полученной информации. Для решения
поставленных задач сделано обобщение, представляющее
научную ценность, философского и лингвистического
материала о взаимосвязи научного и поэтического
мышления. Дихотомия научного мышления и поэтического
восприятия мира получила свое воплощение в сопоставлении
концепта и образа через их противоречивость и
взаимодействие. Концепт и образ, с одной стороны,
противоположны друг другу в процессе рационализации
знания, но поскольку рационализация происходит с
помощью языка, то образ, несущий в себе новизну
восприятия мира, его новую концептуализацию открывает,
как говорил Башляр, «будущее языка». В этом ракурсе
интерес представили мысли В.П. Визгина, Л.Ю. Соколовой,
Ю.С. Степанова, В.В. Красных, Л.О. Чернейко, J.-Cl. Pariente.
Ключевые слова: концепт, образ, когнитивизм, новый
рационализм, вербальное препятствие.

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Вступление
Коммуникативное единство научного и поэтического
осмысления мира позволяет исследовать в едином комплексе
разные области человеческого бытия, которые обозначаются
рациональным и эмоциональным вúдением. Понимание
языка как когнитивной способности, позволяющей
реализовать принципы познавательной деятельности
человека, привели, согласно Е.С. Кубряковой, «… к переносу
некоторых психологических понятий… на языковые
единицы и выражения» (Kubryakova E.S., 2012: 186). Цель
статьи – рассмотреть в свете этого замечания проблему
соотношения концепта и образа в научном мышлении. В
качестве аргументов поставленной проблемы приводятся
идеи французского философа Гастона Башляра (1884 – 1962)
о новом рационализме (le surrationnalisme). Задача –
проанализировать взгляды Г. Башляра, создателя новой
текстуальности, основанной на приоритете когнитивной
составляющей научной деятельности. Для ее решения в
качестве метода работы предпринято обобщение
философского и лингвистического материала по вопросам
соотношения научного и поэтического мышления. Статья
базируется на исследованиях поставленной проблемы во
французской и русской научной литературе (В.П. Визгин,
Л.Ю. Соколова, Ю.С. Степанов, Л.О. Чернейко, J.-Cl.
Pariente). Результаты проведенного исследования позволяют
говорить о развитии философии языка, о синергетике
лингвистического, психологического и философского
знания.
Методология
Как между языком поэзии и языком знания существует
невидимая, но прочная граница, которую ощущает каждый,
кто обращается к этим видам мыслительной деятельности и
ее отражением в языке, так и между образным выражением и
научным концептом отношения не являются подобием
синтеза, не вытекают напрямую одно из другого. Г. Башляр

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утверждал, что концепты и образы развиваются параллельно
внутри духовной деятельности человека – образ не может
дать материю для концепта, а концепт, стабилизируя образ,
«душит» его жизненный потенциал: «Entre le concept et
l’image, pas de synthèse. Pas non plus de filiation. ...les concepts
et les images se développent sur deux lignes divergentes de la vie
spirituelle. L’image ne peut donner une matière au concept. Le
concept en donnant une stabilité à l’image en étoufferait la vie».
(«Между концептом и образом не существует синтеза, как и
не существует между ними непрерывного взаимодействия…
концепты и образы развиваются по двум расходящимся
линиям духовной жизни. Образ не может дать концепту
материю. Концепт, фиксируя образ, душил бы его жизнь». –
Пер. З.А.) (Bachelard G., 1960: 45).
Концепт, чтобы реализоваться в этом качестве, а не быть
только лексемой, должен быть обязательно включен в
рассуждение, в научный контекст и получить
терминологическое определение. Чтобы осмыслить новые
экспериментальные данные, необходимо деформировать
(déformer) устоявшиеся концепты; это, по сути, означает
осмыслить их заново, рассмотреть их под новым углом
зрения и, тем самым, обогатить базовые концепты, несмотря
на их «сопротивление» вследствие общепринятого мнения
(Bachelard G., 1972: 127). Привычное, устоявшееся значение
концепта «сопротивляется» перед натиском новых данных и
новых идей. К тому же ясное представление об объекте
одной области знания может быть не столь ясно и понятно в
рамках другой проблематики и, соответственно и поэтому
будет там неприменимо (Bachelard G., 1972: 98). Научные
концепты взаимодействуют, но весь свой «свет», свою
специфику, по Башляру, они проявляют в конкретных
областях знания.
Результаты исследования
Для преодоления «вербального препятствия»
(l’obstacleverbale) требуется новый взгляд на привычные

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явления. Первые интуитивные представления могут
оказывать сопротивление на пути формирования научного
концепта, так как нечеткие, самые первые, интуитивные
представления уже формулируются словом. Только
«иллюстрации» (конкретные данные) могут вносить
изменения в привычное понимание концепта, способствуя
тем самым развитию научной мысли. Концепт обретает весь
свой смысл только в том случае, если его научное значение
может быть а) подтверждено конкретным исследованием
объектов действительности и б) если его используют в
осмыслении конкретного материала, следовательно, в виде
«суждения», в речевой деятельности: «Il est bien sûr que le
concept n’a de sens qu’une fois incorporé dans un jugement»
(Bachelard G., 1972: 16).
Метафора в качестве образного представления о некой
реальности может выступать «препятствием» (obstacle) на
пути рационального рассуждения. Но одновременно она
обладает инновационной, креативной потенцией, и поэтому
Башляр утверждает: «Реальность мыслится и понимается
только в метафоре» (Vizgin V.P., 1996: 94). Так, концепт
жизнь относится к наиболее значимым в естественных
науках – «любой другой принцип бледнеет, когда упоминают
о жизненном принципе: «Un mot vie est un mot magique. C’est
un mot valorisé. Tout autre principe pâlit quand on peut invoquer
un principe vital» (Bachelard G., 1938: 154). Образ земли также
приобретал особенную значимость в процессе
формирования, «добывания» знаний. Земля-кормилица,
земля-мать, дающая жизнь, земля как последнее прибежище
человека таит в своих глубинах источник жизни. Все, что в
глубине, под землей – полно жизненной энергии.
Формирующееся знание, научный потенциал сравним с
подземными силами: «l’esprit formateur est souterrain»
(Bachelard G., 1938: 177).
Как только концепт начинает функционировать в поле
рациональности, вступая в понятийные отношения с другими

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концептами, он освобождается от «шлейфа» образности.
Рациональная мысль, по Башляру, подобна плотной ткани,
сотканной из смежных научных понятий, которые обретают
свой смысл и значение только в пространстве рациональных
отношений: «Dans ce fort tissu qu’est la pensée rationnelle
interviennent des inter-concepts, c’est-à-dire des concepts qui ne
reçoivent leur sens et leur rigueur que dans leurs relations
rationnelles. Ainsi, images et concepts se forment à deux pôles
opposés de l’activité psychique que sont l’imagination et la
raison» («В плотной ткани рациональной мысли возникают
интерконцепты, т. е. концепты, которые получают свой
смысл и свою четкость только внутри рациональных
отношений. Таким образом, образы и концепты образуются
на двух противоположных полюсах психической
деятельности, какими являются воображение и разум». –
Пер. З.А.) (Bachelard G., 1960: 46-47).
Дихотомия образа и научного понятия, сформулированная
Башляром, вызывает критику эпистемологов, придающих
первостепенное значение синергетическому состоянию
современной науки. По мнению Л.В. Соколовой, «неверно
жесткое противопоставление образа и понятия, воображения
и дискурсивного мышления. В этом плане был прав Мерло-
Понти, когда писал о необходимости воображения в
мыслительной работе. Также и работы Ж. Пиаже по детской
психологии свидетельствуют о том, что в генезисе мышления
велика роль воображения. В целом неверно башляровское
противопоставление двух культур - научной и поэтической…
В-третьих, позиция Башляра состояла в том, что
воображение поэта имеет творческий характер и образ - это
абсолютно новое. Но стоит ли пренебрегать другой
установкой, когда исследователь ищет обусловленность
образа причинами - психологическими, биологическими,
социальными, культурными, космическими?» (Sokolova
L.Yu., 2002: 147).

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Действительно, благодаря развитию когнитивной
лингвистики, в настоящее время прослеживается тенденция к
более сложному, нежели в начале ХХ века, пониманию
соотношения образа и концепта, эмоциональности и
рациональности в культуре. «Дело в том, что образ не имеет
четких границ, он вариативен: в индивидуальном сознании
детали образа варьируются, он многоцветен, подвергается
мутации. Благодаря этой нечеткости образ может
передаваться другому» (Sokolova L.Yu., 2002: 176).
Как справедливо отмечает Л.О. Чернейко: «Он
[читатель/слушатель. – Вставка З.А.] понимает, … что
обращается к поэтическому тексту не за информацией,
которая уменьшила бы неопределенность имеющихся у него
сведений о действительности» (Chernejko L.O., 2017: 176).
Он ищет смыслы «чужого» в воспринимаемой им речи и
создает «свои» смыслы относительно языка и мира,
предложенными поэтом. Особенность поэтического
мышления была определена Р. Якобсоном как
«направленность на сообщение как таковое, сосредоточение
внимания на сообщении ради него самого» (Якобсон Р.,
1975: 202). В отличие от научного текста в поэтическом
тексте воспринимающий его (читатель, слушатель) не ищет
информации о результатах исследования физиков, химиков,
биологов, математиков, лингвистов и др.
Образ, по В.В. Красных, «создает основы и основания для
феномена воспроизводимости как такового» (Krasny’x V.V.,
2016: 126), а воспроизводимость эксперимента, регулярная
повторяемость результата научного опыта относятся к
необходимым требованиям, которые предъявляются
исследователю-рационалисту. «О б р а з - когнитивная
основа воспроизводимости; результат максимального
сгущения первоначального представления, образно-
эмоционально-смысловая свертка «ментальной картинки», ...
формирующейся на основе эмоционально-образного
восприятия информации, поступающей по одному или

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нескольким сенсорным каналам» (Krasny’x V.V., 2016: 135).
Отбросить образное мышление в научном процессе –
необходимое условие эксперимента, но и трудно
выполнимое, вследствие неконтролируемости процесса
«психического автоматизма», говоря словами сюрреалистов,
манифесты которых изучал Башляр. Весь вопрос
заключается в том, чтобы осознать помогает или мешает
образное мышление когнитивной деятельности и
рациональному знанию. Концепт и образ, с одной стороны,
противоположны друг другу в процессе рационализации
знания, но поскольку рационализация происходит с
помощью языка, то образ, несущий в себе новизну
восприятия мира, открывает, как говорил Башляр, «будущее
языка» («l'image poétique, dans sa nouveauté, ouvre un avenir du
langage») (Bachelard G., 1960: 3). И продолжая идеи Башляра,
следует все-таки вопреки его категорической дихотомии
образ/концепт предположить возникновение новой
концептуализации синергетики рационального и образного
мышления.
Заключение
Башляр предвосхитил новую методологию XXI века,
основанную на синтезе разных отраслей науки; он заложил
теоретические основы междисциплинарных
исследований - одного из актуальных направлений
современной науки. Новый рационализм, который Башляр
внедрял в эпистемологию (le surrationalisme), допускает
сомнение в добытых знаниях как в окончательном итоге
исследований. Развитие рационализма в XX веке требовало
новых взглядов на специфику научного мышления. Именно в
поэтике сюрреализма Башляр увидел новые принципы
осмысления мира: соединение несоединимого вплоть до
разрушения привычных форм и образов, необходимость
разрыва общепринятых логических связей и их замену на
свободные ассоциации. Сюррационализм Гастона Башляра
как метод познания основан на четырех принципах:

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возобновление, открытость, специализация и аксиоматизация
(«recommencement, ouverture, spécialisation et axiomatisation»)
(Pariente J.-Cl., 2015). Метод сюр, открытый поэтами,
подразумевает «приглашение» в страну мечтаний,
столкновение общепринятых мнений и принципов
творчества - те поиски смысла, которые легли позже в основу
когнитивистики и семиотики. «Мы все состоим из сюр и
мета» - эти слова Гастона Башляра звучат, как призыв
изучать неожиданные ассоциации идей и смыслов.
Дихотомия научного мышления и поэтического восприятия
мира получила свое воплощение в сопоставлении концепта и
образа через их противоречивость и взаимодействие.
Концепт и образ, с одной стороны, противоположны друг
другу в процессе рационализации знания, но поскольку
рационализация происходит с помощью языка, то образ,
несущий в себе новизну восприятия мира, его новую
концептуализацию открывает, как говорил Башляр,
«будущее языка». Сюррационализм Гастона Башляра в виде
синтеза методологии сюрреализма и рационализма
предполагает новую текстуальность, под которой, согласно
Ю.С. Степанову, подразумевается не только литературный
текст, но все, «сделанное как текст», (Stepanov Yu.S., 2010:
168) - научный доклад, научное произведение. Гастон
Башляр стоял у истоков создания новой текстуальности,
необходимости обновления рационализма.

Литература
Визгин В.П. 1988. Эпистемология Гастона Башляра и
история науки. Москва: ИФРАН, 263 с.
Красных В.В. 2016. Словарь и грамматика лингвокультуры;
Основы психолингвокультурологии. Москва: Гнозис, 496 с.
Кубрякова Е.С. 2012. В поисках сущности языка:
Когнитивные исследования. Москва: Знак, 208 с.
Соколова Л.Ю. 2002. Ж.-П. Сартр и Г. Башляр: две
феноменологические концепции воображения // Серия

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«Мыслители», Размышления о философии на перекрестке
второго и третьего тысячелетий. Санкт-Петербург: Санкт-
Петербургское философское общество. Выпуск 11: 141-150.
Степанов Ю.С. 2010. Мыслящий тростник. Калуга: Эйдос,
167 с.
Чернейко Л.О. 2017. Как рождается смысл. Смысловая
структура художественного текста и лингвистические
принципы ее моделирования: Учеб пособие. Москва: Гнозис,
208 с.
Якобсон Р. 1975. Лингвистика и поэтика // Структурализм:
«за» и «против». Москва: Прогресс, с. 193-230.
Bachelard G. 1938. Laformation de l’esprit scientifique. Paris:
Librairie J.Vrin. – 256 p.
Bachelard G. 1960. La poétique de la rêverie. Paris: PUF, 183 pp.
Bachelard G. 1972. L’engagement rationaliste. Paris : PUF, 190 pp.
Pariente Jean-Claude.2015. “Chapitre 11. Rationalisme et
ontology chez Gaston Bachelard’, dans: Michel Bitbol éd.,
«L’épistémologie française, 1830-1970. Paris, Editions
Matériologiques, «Sciences et philosophie», p. 235-263. URL:
https://www.cairn.info/l-epistemologie-francaise-1830-1970-
978299694914-page-235.htm. [Дата обращения 08.01.2019].

References
Vizgin V.P. 1988. Gaston Bachlar's epistemology and the history
of science. Moscow: IFRAN, 263 pp.
Krasny`x V.V. 2016. Vocabulary and grammar linguocolus;
Basics of psycholinguocolturology. Moscow: Gnozis, 496 pp.
Kubryakova E.S. 2012. In search of the essence of language:
cognitive research. Moscow: Znak, 208 pp.
Sokolova L.Yu. 2002. Zh.-P. Sartre and G. Bashlyar: Two
Phenomenological Concepts of Thought. In Series of “Thinkers”,
Reflections on Philosophy at the Crossroads of the Second and
Third Millennium. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Philosophical
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Stepanov Yu.S. 2010. Thinking reed. Kaluga: E`jdos, 167 pp.

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Chernejko L.O. 2017. How is born thought. The structure of the
artistic text and linguistic principles of its modeling. Study guide.
Moscow: Gnozis, 208 pp.
Yakobson R. 1975. Linguistics and poetics. Structuralism: “for”
and “against.” Moscow: Progress, pp. 193-230.
Bachelard G. 1938. La formation de l’esprit scientifique. Paris:
Librairie J.Vrin. 256 pp.
Bachelard G. 1960. La poétique de la rêverie. Paris: PUF, 183 pp.
Bachelard G. 1972. L’engagement rationaliste. Paris : PUF, 190
pp.
Pariente Jean-Claude. 2015. “Chapitre 11. Rationalisme et
ontology chez Gaston Bachelard’, dans: Michel Bitbol éd.,
«L’épistémologie française, 1830-1970. Paris, Editions
Matériologiques, «Sciences et philosophie», pp. 235-263. URL:
https://www.cairn.info/l-epistemologie-francaise-1830-1970-
978299694914-page-235.htm [Accessed 08.01.2019].

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-23-32

LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AS A RESPONSE

TO THE DOMINANCE OF GLOBAL ENGLISH

Evgeniya V. Aleshinskaya

National Research Nuclear University MEPhI

Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The paper is devoted to multilingual practices in the vocal
competition “Golos”, which is the Russian version of the global
television show “The Voice” and is extremely popular in Russia.
The show is characterized by a particularly international status:
the participants represent different republics within the Russian
Federation, the CIS states, and various countries of the far

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abroad. “Golos” demonstrates a wide range of local languages,
apart from English (the global lingua franca of popular music)
and Russian (the local lingua franca), which are native to some of
the contestants: French, Spanish, Portuguese, Ukrainian,
Georgian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Chinese, Hebrew, Czech,
Romani, Tatar, and so forth. In this study, such linguistic diversity
is described as the contestants’ creative response to the
dominance of Global English on the show and today’s popular
music in general.
In order to illustrate peculiarities of language contact in
contemporary musical discourse, 1338 monolingual and
multilingual songs performed by the contestants in Seasons 1 – 7
(2012 – 2018) were examined with the primary focus on language
choice in song lyrics. The critical analysis of the multilingual
performances was combined with elements of ethnography,
including exploration of the discussion between the contestant
and coaches after each performance, official interviews with the
participants and coaches on various Internet resources, and the
contents of “Golos” web-forums representing public responses to
the languages used on the show.
The study reveals the dominance of Global English in the first
two seasons of the show, which was supported by the coaches and
most vocalists who grew up on American popular music and are
used to the English language in music. In their opinion, English-
language compositions provide more opportunities to
demonstrate vocal abilities than popular Russian songs. On the
contrary, the audience want to hear more Russian songs, as they
want to understand the meaning and the emotions behind each
song.
Since Season 3 (2014), the English has started to lose its
dominance in the show, and this was achieved by using the
following strategies: (1) signing English-language songs in
Russian translations; (2) singing entirely in languages other than
English (monolingual songs in Italian, French, Spanish,
Ukrainian, Portuguese, German, Yiddish); (3) combining lyrics in

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several different languages (e.g. alternating the Yiddish, Russian
and English versions of the song “A Yiddishe Mame”); (4)
combining fragments with different melodies and in different
local languages (e.g. incorporating a fragment of a traditional
Chinese song into the English-language hit “Castle in the Snow”
or using a fragment of a song in Romani as an introduction to the
Russian romantic song “Ochi chernie”). These strategies proved
to be effective and created a special multilingual atmosphere of
the show. The range of languages in monolingual songs grew
larger to include Georgian, Moldovan, and Korean. The
languages used in fragments of multilingual songs also became
more diverse and included French, Italian, Spanish, Czech,
Georgian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Tatar, Romani, Hebrew,
Yiddish, Chinese, Arabic, West African Wolof, and even Latin. In
multilingual songs, the English language does not dominate but
becomes equal to local languages.
In “Golos”, local languages acquire symbolic and indexical
meanings, serving as markers of ethnic and cultural identities.
Mixing various languages in multilingual performances allows
the contestants to find a balance between demonstrating their
voice and satisfying audience’s expectations, create unexpected
and fresh combinations, and give a new life to songs from
different musical epochs and cultures. Finally, employing
languages other than English and Russian, the participants of the
show are able to demonstrate the linguistic diversity of the
Russian Federation as a multinational and multicultural state.
Keywords: language diversity; sociolinguistics; globalization;
multilingual performance; Global English

Introduction
In recent years, a growing body of research has emerged on the
contemporary sociolinguistic practices that incorporate diverse
codes and are predominated by “hybridity, fluidity and diversity”
(Canagarajah S., 2013: 33). This is especially true for popular
culture which is profoundly affected by globalization. The role of

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popular culture in the production of hybrid texts cannot be
overestimated, for it “seeps into the daily talk and lives of
people”, who pick up the use of language through engagement
with popular forms of entertainment (Dovchin S., Pennycook A.,
Sultana S., 2018: 12). Popular music serves as a vivid example of
these processes, breeding “a creative form of hybridization that
works toward sustaining local identities in the global context”
(Shim D., 2006: 39). In these practices, Global English has
become an indispensable element: its role in shaping local
varieties of global musical genres is described in various settings
around the globe (Alim H.S., Ibrahim A., Pennycook A., 2009).
In Russia, Englishization of the Russian language is seen as one
of the leading sociolinguistic trends. Several studies on language
contact in popular music focus on language hybridization and the
functions of English in Russian popular music (Gritsenko E.S.,
Aleshinskaya E.V., 2015; Gritsenko E.S., Dunyasheva, L.G.,
2013; Proshina Z.G., 2010). In professional musical
communication, English is shown to symbolize professionalism,
modernity, convenient melodic and rhythmic structure,
(Aleshinskaya E.V., 2018; Aleshinskaya E., Gritsenko E., 2017).
Yet, the diversity of languages functioning in Russian popular
music has not been given proper respect.
This study is devoted to multilingual practices in the vocal
competition “Golos”, which is the Russian version of the global
television show “The Voice”. “Golos” is extremely popular in
Russia and is attractive for research due to its particularly
international status: the participants represent different republics
within the Russian Federation, the CIS states, and various
countries of the far abroad. In fact, “Golos” is the only local
version of “the Voice” that apart from the main two languages on
the show – Russian and English – shows a wide range of local
languages, which are native to some of the contestants: Italian,
French, Spanish, Portuguese, Ukrainian, Georgian, Armenian,
Azerbaijani, Chinese, Hebrew, Czech, Romani, Tatar, and so
forth. In this paper, such linguistic diversity is described as the

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contestants’ (and coaches’) creative response to the dominance of
Global English on the show and today’s popular music in general.
Objective of the study
The aim of this study is to illustrate peculiarities of language
contact in contemporary musical discourse representing different
cultures and involving various local languages. The paper
addresses language choices in songs performed in the popular
vocal competition “Golos” and analyzes professionals’ opinion
and popular beliefs that motivate such choices.
Methodology
Theoretical framework
The study of language choice in “Golos” is guided primarily by
Fairclough’s definition of discourse as language use and a form
of social practice (Fairclough N., 2006: 27) and Blommaert’s
research on the sociolinguistics of globalization, which regards
language as a “mobile resource” and posits that language
varieties (resources) are appropriated by communicants for a
certain purpose and gain meaning in situated contexts
(Blommaert J., 2010).
Data and method
1338 songs performed by the contestants in Seasons 1 – 7 (2012 –
2018) were examined with the primary focus on language choice
in song lyrics. The paper distinguishes between monolingual and
multilingual songs. Most of the songs on the show “Golos” were
monolingual, i.e. performed in one language – usually English or
Russian, but there were also songs in other languages. The term
“multilingual” is used to refer to songs as a quantitative value,
which indicates that the song comprises two or more different
languages. Seasons 1 – 7 featured 49 multilingual songs, which
makes 3.7% of the total number of songs performed in “Golos”.
The analysis of multilingual songs was focused on the number
and range of languages, and the symbolic/indexical meanings
conveyed by them. The critical analysis was combined with
elements of ethnography, including exploration of the discussions
after each performance, official interviews with the participants

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and coaches on various Internet resources, and the contents of
“Golos” web-forums representing public responses to the
languages used on the show.
Results
It is obvious that the competing languages on the show are
English (the global lingua franca of popular music (Aleshinskaya
E., 2013)) and Russian (the local lingua franca). In the first
season, the total number of songs in English (46.6%) exceeded
the number of Russian titles (41.6 %). The gap between the two
languages expanded in Season 2, when the percentage of Russian
songs dropped by 5 % (36.6 %) and the percentage of songs in
English showed an increase of 3 % (49.7 %). These figures are
indicative of the dominance of Global English in the show as well
as in popular music in general. The coaches and most vocalists
prefer singing in English, as they have grown up on American
popular music and are used to the English language in music. In
their opinion, English-language compositions provide more
opportunities to demonstrate vocal abilities than popular Russian
songs. However, the audience are rather critical of the western
bias and want to hear more Russian songs, as they want to
understand the meaning and the emotions behind each song.
Since Season 3 (2014), English has started to lose its dominance,
and this was achieved by using several strategies: (1) signing
English-language songs in Russian translations (either famous
translations or Russian-language lyrics written by the coaches and
contestants specially for the show, e.g. “There are no Losers
Here” to ABBA’s “The Winner Takes It All”); (2) singing entirely
in languages other than English (monolingual songs in Italian,
French, Spanish, Ukrainian, Portuguese, German, Yiddish); (3)
combining lyrics in several different languages (e.g. alternating
the Yiddish, Russian and English versions of the song “A
Yiddishe Mame” in Season 4); (4) combining fragments with
different melodies and in different local languages (e.g. using a
fragment of a song in Romani as an introduction to the Russian
romantic song “Ochi chernie” in Season 6). As a result, the total

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number of English-language songs went down from 43% in
Season 3 (2014) to 37.5 % in Season 7 (2018), while the number
of Russian songs rose from 46.4 % Russian-language songs in
Season 3 to 49.4 % in Season 7. The share of monolingual songs
in other languages than Russian or English remained stable
throughout the show (around 8 %), however in Season 7 the
range of languages grew larger to include Georgian, Moldovan,
and Korean. By contrast, the number of multilingual songs (i.e.
combining several languages) went up from 0.6 % in Season 1 to
7.5 % in Season 6 and 5 % in Season 7; the languages used in
fragments of songs also became more diverse and included
French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Czech, Georgian, Armenian,
Azerbaijani, Tatar, Romani, Hebrew, Yiddish, Chinese, Arabic,
West African Wolof, and even Latin.
Although the main languages mixed in multilingual
performances, are still Russian and English, such songs get more
positive feedback from the audience, as they allow more
diversity. In their comments, viewers mention the concept of
language as part of national culture and identity: “I enjoyed the
inserted fragment in another language, English is hard to
tolerate, and meanwhile there are so many people of different
races and nationalities, having their own language and culture. I
am perfectly sure they have beautiful songs in their languages,
too!” In multilingual songs, the English language does not
dominate but becomes equal to local languages.
Discussion
The dominance of English in popular music is highlighted by
many researchers. S. Zhou and A. Moody’s study of language use
in “the Voice of China”, for example, demonstrates that out of
186 songs performed in the first season (2012) of the show
roughly one-third was performed entirely in Chinese, and the
other two-thirds were performed in English or contained some
English elements (Zhou S., Moody A., 2017).
However, English in songs is not encouraged by most of Russian
viewers of “Golos”. The coaches and contestants of the show

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have found creative ways to appeal to the audience by singing in
other local languages. Among the strategies used by the
contestants is to combine different versions of the same song in
several languages. Such a form of linguistic creativity, “linguistic
transposition”, is introduced by Chik by analogy with the
transposition of melodies from one key to another and refers to
the creation of a local version of an original song combining
fragments in both languages (Chik A., 2010: 516).
The use of local languages in a multilingual performance may
cause the viewers to confront an unfamiliar language, offering
them an experience of “not being able to understand” (Davies
E.E., Bentahila A., 2008: 268). The lyrics of the fragment in an
unfamiliar language can become meaningful, when it acquires
symbolic and indexical meanings, which is crucial to a full
appreciation of the song. In this way, local languages express
multicultural and multiethnic identities. Linguistic diversity in
popular music can also index speech styles associated with
multicultural (immigrant) communities (Androutsopoulos J.,
2010).
Conclusion
Globalization has not led to cultural homogeneity but generated
forces that have contributed to the persistence of cultural and
linguistic diversity (Secombe M., Smolicz J., 2008). In the vocal
competition “Golos”, local languages acquire symbolic and
indexical meanings, serving as markers of ethnic and cultural
identities. Mixing various languages in multilingual performances
allows the contestants to find a balance between demonstrating
their voice and satisfying audience’s expectations, create
unexpected and fresh combinations, and give a new life to songs
from different musical epochs and cultures. Finally, employing
languages other than English and Russian, the participants of the
show are able to demonstrate the linguistic diversity of the
Russian Federation as a multinational and multicultural state.

30

30
References
Aleshinskaya, E. 2013. Key components of musical discourse
analysis. In Research in Language 11(4): 423–444.
Aleshinskaya, E., Gritsenko, E. 2017. Language practices and
language ideologies in the popular music TV show The Voice
Russia. Language & Communication 52: 45–59.
Aleshinskaya, E.V. 2018. Sociolinguistic aspects of professional
communication. In Functional Aspects of Cross-Cultural
Communication and Translation Problems, Proceedings of the 5th
International Interdisciplinary Science Conference. Moscow,
Russia, November 16th, 2018. PFUR, Moscow, pp. 202–220.
Alim, H.S., Ibrahim, A., Pennycook, A. (Eds.). 2009. Global
Linguistic Flows: Hip Hop Cultures, Youth Identities, and the
Politics of Language. Routledge, New York and London, 273 pp.
Androutsopolous, J. 2010. Multilingualism, ethnicity and genre in
Germany’s migrant hip hop. In: M. Terkourafi (Ed.), The
Languages of Global Hip Hop. Continuum, London and New
York, pp. 19–43.
Blommaert, J. 2010. The Sociolinguistics of Globalization.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 224 pp.
Canagarajah, S. 2013. Translingual Practice: Global Englishes
and Cosmopolitan Relations. Routledge, London and New York,
224 pp.
Chik, A. 2010. Creative multilingualism in Hong Kong popular
music. World Englishes 29(4): 508–522.
Davis, E.E., Bentahila, A., 2008. Translation and code switching
in the lyrics of bilingual popular songs. The Translator 14(2):
247–272.
Dovchin, S., Pennycook, A., Sultana, S. 2018. Popular Culture,
Voice and Linguistic Diversity: Young Adults On- and Offline.
Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 228 pp.
Fairclough, N. 2006. Language and Globalization. Routledge,
London, 167 pp.
Gritsenko, E.S., Aleshinskaya, E.V., 2015. Translanguaging in
music: conceptualizing modes of interaction in global contact

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zones. Voprosi kognitivnoy lingvistiki [Issues in Cognitive
Linguistics] 4(45): 73–80.
Gritsenko, E.S., Dunyasheva, L.G., 2013. Yazikovije osobennosti
repa v aspekte globalizatsii [Language peculiarities of rap in the
context of globalization]. Political Linguistics 2(44): 141–147.
Proshina, Z. 2010. Slavic Englishes: education or culture? In: A.
Kirkpatrick (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes.
Routledge, London and New York, pp. 299–315.
Secombe M., Smolicz J. 2008. Linguistic diversity in a
globalizing world: a sociological and educational perspective on
‘minority’ languages in Australia, the Philippines and Belarus.
Political Crossroads 15: 47–85.
Shim, D. 2006. Hybridity and the rise of Korean popular culture
in Asia. Media, Culture and Society 28(1): 25–44.
Zhou S., Moody A. 2017. English in The Voice of China. World
Englishes 36(4): 554–570.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-32-41

MODERN ENGLISH FEMALE FICTIONAL DISCOURSE

THROUGH THE PRISM OF TIME REFERENCE

Anna I. Dzyubenko1, Irina A. Zyubina2

Southern Federal University

Rostov-on-Don, Russia
1
e-mail: [email protected]
2
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Time, being a universal phenomenon, which is an integral
component of such a concept as chronotopos, goes through
different types of categorization both in separate language
systems and in the discourse of various authors. The reason of it,
apparently, lies not only in the way representing the temporal

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32
duration predetermined by a certain linguistic culture in terms of
past-present-future and the system of means for this time
paradigm actualization, but also in the creative potential of each
sender of the text striving within the framework of generally
accepted linguistic means of various levels to represent “time”,
either by preserving the threefold nature of the time paradigm, or
reducing its composition to a two-component one – present-past
or present-future. This phenomenon can be traced through the
example of the fictional discourse of contemporary British
authors – S. Kinsella and C. Ahern.
The relevance of this study is to establish a range of lexical
means that serve for building up a temporal hierarchy and
temporal sequence in modern English fictional discourse in the
aspect of the pragmatic intentions of female authors and the
stylistic identity of the discourse they create. The pragmatic
aspect allows us to bring the study to the intertextual level, as,
taken alongside with the whole variety of allusions and plot lines,
it contributes to establishing a significant unity of the pragmatic
intentions of the female authors when the time is actualized in the
discourse. In addition, such an approach helps to identify the
emotional and expressive background that is so intensely
expressed by the fictional characters, thus indicating a significant
subjective involvement of the text senders (both authors and
characters) in the interpretation of the time hierarchy and
temporal sequence. Such an interpretation of time makes it
possible to reveal the peculiarities of modern English female
fictional discourse, in which, at the semantic level, there is a
transformation of the three-member temporal paradigm to the size
of the two-member one, which emphasizes the present and the
future.
Existing in the objective reality, time finds manifestations in
language preserving all the diversity that is peculiar to it. Time
transforming itself subjectively in the individual consciousness
being a linguistic projection of the common and scientific
knowledge of people about this phenomenon. Modern approaches

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33
to the interpretation of time vary between functional grammatical
and functional semantic (G.A. Zolotova, A.D. Shmelev, A.V.
Bondarko, M.V. Vsevolodova), cognitive (E.V. Rakhilina, S.A.
Chugunova, A.V. Kravchenko), ethno-, psycholinguistic, and
linguistic-culturological (V.V. Krasnykh, D.I. Lalaeva, N.I.
Tolstoy, S.M. Tolstaya) and, finally, between semiotic (E.A.
Nielsen, V.V. Ivanov, V.N. Toporov) and logical-semantic (V.G.
Gak, N.D. Arutyunova, E.V. Paducheva).
In different types of language thinking, time is modeled
differently, but it is always modeled in one way or another. At the
same time, the semiotic time, the time of the text, the time of
culture is opposite to the time of physical reality: it is capable of
violating the basic characteristics of physical time – its anisotropy
and leads to the discursive transformation of the postulates of
H. Reichenbach about the irreversibility of physical time. Time in
the fictional discourse of women authors acquires new properties,
being capable of turning the vector of development in the
opposite direction, transforming and shifting the time coordinates
of development. Such properties of time as linearity,
unidirectional flow (the temporal vector is directed from the past
through the present to the future), anisotropy (irreversibility and
irrevocability) receive a new and sometimes unexpectedly bold
interpretation in the works of S. Kinsella and C. Ahern. Our
analysis showed that the characters’ perception of time duration
is most often concentrated on shorter intervals, such as minute
and day, the time for them transforms itself into short spells filled
with intensive psycho-emotional and physical activity. The
characters focus on the future as a consequence of the present,
while the past is objectified extremely rarely at the moments of
reflection of theirs and, if necessary, to construct a retrospective
reference to the events of the past as the reasons of the actions of
the characters in the present. Such a “background” reconstruction
of past events allows the female authors to create an original
temporal sequence and hierarchy, as well as to offer an
unconventional, but no less interesting approach to creating a

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two-term temporal paradigm, where the “present” and its
consequence is “the future” are important.
Keywords: fictional discourse, individual creative style, a two-
member time paradigm, chronotopos

Introduction
Time, being a universal phenomenon, which is an integral
component of such a concept as chronotopos, goes through
different types of categorization both in separate language
systems and in the discourse of various authors. The reason of it,
apparently, lies not only in the way representing the temporal
duration predetermined by a certain linguistic culture in terms of
past-present-future and the system of means for this time
paradigm actualization, but also in the creative potential of each
sender of the text striving within the framework of generally
accepted linguistic means of various levels to represent “time”,
either by preserving the threefold nature of the time paradigm, or
reducing its composition to a two-component one – present-past
or present-future. This phenomenon can be traced through the
example of the fictional discourse of contemporary British
authors – S. Kinsella and C. Ahern.
Objectives
The relevance of this study is to establish a range of lexical
means that serve for building up a temporal hierarchy and
temporal sequence in modern English fictional discourse in the
aspect of the pragmatic intentions of female authors and the
stylistic identity of the discourse they create. The pragmatic
aspect allows us to bring the study to the intertextual level, as,
taken alongside with the whole variety of allusions and plot lines,
it contributes to establishing a significant unity of the pragmatic
intentions of the female authors when the time is actualized in the
discourse. In addition, such an approach helps to identify the
emotional and expressive background that is so intensely
expressed by the fictional characters, thus indicating a significant
subjective involvement of the text senders (both authors and

35

35
characters) in the interpretation of the time hierarchy and
temporal sequence. Such an interpretation of time makes it
possible to reveal the peculiarities of modern English female
fictional discourse, in which, at the semantic level, there is a
transformation of the three-member temporal paradigm to the size
of the two-member one, which emphasizes the present and the
future.
Methodology
Existing in the objective reality, time finds manifestations in
language preserving all the diversity that is peculiar to it. Time
transforming itself subjectively in the individual consciousness
being a linguistic projection of the common and scientific
knowledge of people about this phenomenon. Modern approaches
to the interpretation of time vary between functional grammatical
and functional semantic (G.A. Zolotova, A.D. Shmelev, A.V.
Bondarko, M.V. Vsevolodova), cognitive (E.V. Rakhilina, S.A.
Chugunova, A.V. Kravchenko,), ethno-, psycholinguistic, and
linguistic-culturological (V.V. Krasnykh, D.I. Lalaeva, N.I.
Tolstoy, S.M. Tolstaya) and, finally, between semiotic (E.A.
Nielsen, V.V. Ivanov, V.N. Toporov) and logical-semantic (V.G.
Gak, N.D. Arutyunova, E.V. Paducheva).
Time, being one of the constants of being, has always aroused the
research interest of representatives of both the mathematical and
humanitarian scientific schools. There is a whole range of
approaches to the disclosure of the essence of time, in which the
latter is described through the establishment of contradiction with
space, through correlation with eternity, motion or matter.
Beginning with Parmenides and Zeno, these properties of time
disturb scientists with their antinomicity. Each epoch, putting
forward ideas and forming concepts about the studied phenomena
of the temporal state of being, regularly revealed identical and
cross-paths to their comprehension. In classical antiquity, they
were associated with chaos and the life of the cosmos, while in
the Hellenistic era they were represented as forms of life of the
world essence, the soul. New European philosophy, which was

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36
part of the scientific knowledge gained in the strength of
rationalism, actively generated the ideas of relativity and
subjectivity in understanding the essence of time, which has an
objective basis of its existence – duration. In European
philosophy and the tradition of natural science, two leading trends
have emerged in the study of time, proving its subjectivity and
objectivity, relativity and absoluteness, relationality and
substantiality.
In linguistics, the interaction of time and language is considered
from two points of view. On the one hand, time in relation to the
language acts as an external factor (language in time), and on the
other – as an internal factor (time in language). As an external
factor, time is reflected in the process of the evolution of world
languages and the development of ethnic languages. From the
opposite point of view, time displays the formal facet of a
language (linear structure, speech rhythm, speech process
duration) and the content side, which is expressed in temporal
vocabulary, in the grammatical category of time at the level of
morpheme, lexeme, phrase and text (Darbanova N.A., 2010: 51-
52).
Being a universal characteristic of both physical reality and the
sign system, time is able to manifest its multidimensionality in
such temporary forms as objective and subjective, historical and
cultural, mythological, philosophical and fictional. Scientists
develop typological classifications of time, choosing as the basis
a number of criteria, among which are: (1) correlation of the
subject of knowledge and consciousness of a knowing subject, (2)
method of fixing time and objectifying ideas about it, (3)
updating the content of ideas about time (A.I. Gurevich, M.L.
Shub and others).
In different types of language thinking, time is modeled
differently, but it is always modeled in one way or another. At the
same time, the semiotic time, the time of the text, the time of
culture is opposite to the time of physical reality: it is capable of
violating the basic characteristics of physical time – its anisotropy

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37
(Rudnev V.P., 2010: 12) and leads to the discursive
transformation of the postulates of H. Reichenbach about the
irreversibility of physical time, according to which the past
cannot be returned; the past is not subject to change, and the
future can still be influenced; it is impossible to have reliable
knowledge about the future (Reichenbach H., 1962: 35-39). Time
in the fictional discourse of women authors acquires new
properties, being capable of turning the vector of development in
the opposite direction, transforming and shifting the time
coordinates of development. Such properties of time as linearity,
unidirectional flow (the temporal vector is directed from the past
through the present to the future), anisotropy (irreversibility and
irrevocability) receive a new and sometimes unexpectedly bold
interpretation in the works of S. Kinsella and S. Ahern.
Results
The women's fictional discourse reflects the features of the
female writer, her linguistic personality, consciousness and
thinking, which manifests itself not only at the linguistic level,
but also at the sociocultural one: peculiarities of the verbal and
non-verbal behavior of characters, as well as the communicative
situation recreated by the authors. They tend to build time
relationships horizontally, setting a time duration, updating the
time through the “minute” - “hour” - “second” (respectively
47.5 %, 43.3 % and 9.2 % of all text implementations in the
discourse of the three authors) or
“day” - “week” - “year” - “month” (62 %, 18 %, 18 % and 2 %),
and also to build a time hierarchy, in which the objective time is
implemented by “morning” - “night” - “afternoon” - “evening” or
“yesterday” - “today” / “tonight” - “tomorrow”.
The day of the female characters is busily scheduled, within a few
minutes events replace each other, that’s is why the attention of
the characters is focused on such brief moments. The lexeme
“second” is used to objectify time segments of various durations:
(1) a second can denote one brief instant, which is almost fleeting
and imperceptible: He thought hard, staring at a pile of barrels

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with his jaw firm and square, his eyes intense. Then he bent over
and picked up his pint from the grass and looked at me, but only
for a second. ‘Sorry, Lucy, I can’t. Just move on from it, okay?’
And he left me and disappeared into the black hole in the pub,
swallowed up by the songs and cheers from inside (Ahern C.,
2011: 179), (2) or to express a long period during which the
characters find it painfully hard to wait. This perception of time
characterizes the tense state of the characters, their unstable
psychological state in the current situation: I switch off my phone.
Everything’s changed. Or maybe he hasn’t changed. Maybe this
was what Guy was always like and I just never realized it. I stare
down at the tiny display of my phone, watching the seconds of
each minute tick by. Wondering what to do next. When it
suddenly vibrates in my hand, I nearly jump out of my skin.
Tennyson, my display reads (Kinsella S., 2006: 84).
Most often, the characters live at intervals of 24 hours (the “day”
is introduced in 62 % of contexts). Their thoughts are hourly
occupied by quite recent events that are directly connected with
the present, with what is happening here and now. Such events
have not yet turned into the past and are still a part of the present,
therefore they still worry the psycho-emotional sphere of the
characters: As if he can sense me watching him, he looks up and
his face jolts. He smiles in welcome - but I can see the tension
underneath. This last couple of days can’t have been easy for
him. Maybe he thought I’d get suckered in to my old relationship,
that I wasn’t coming back (Kinsella S., 2006: 255).
The lexeme “week” (18 %) expresses a longer time interval and
relates events to the past, to something completed or to the not
yet realized or fulfilled future, plans or upcoming events: My
phone beeped. Don Lockwood’s name flashed up onto my screen.
Since our phone conversation over a week ago I’d tried to think
of some kind of comeback for the Aslan song but failed. As soon
as I opened the text a photo popped up (Ahern C., 2011: 50). At
the same time, the “year” has the same frequency of use and
refers characters exclusively to future events, which reduces the

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composition of the time paradigm to the two-member one: the
characters have present and future in which the brightest
moments of their life are stored, impressions are not erased from
their memory that would make them recollect the past, the
protagonists are with them throughout life that exists "now" and
"tomorrow".
The events that occurred in the weekly interval are already quite
distant in nature, so the characters do not focus on them in the
present. The use of the lexeme “month” demonstrates a
discontinuity, a lack of correlation of the events with the present.
The content of events in this interval is lower compared to the
density of the “day”, “week” and “year” intervals: I managed to
get that information out of Trish on Sunday night, under the guise
of asking about all the neighbors. There was some girl in
Gloucester, apparently - but that was all over months ago. The
way is clear. I just need a strategy (Kinsella S., 2006: 132).
Discussion
The present and the future receive a positive connotation being
described through adjectives like «perfect», «appropriate»,
«right», «great», «fabulous», «lovely», «good», «wonderful»:
“OK… so I’ve relaxed a bit!” I throw up my hands. “I know I’ve
changed. I’ve calmed down and I’ve learned to cook and iron and
pull pints – and I’ve had a wonderful time. But it’s like a holiday.
It can’t last forever!” (Kinsella S., 2006: 282). On the contrary,
the past is characterized only negatively by such adjectives as
«tough», «hard», «inappropriate», «embarrassing», «horrible»,
«awkward», «wrong», «bad», «bloody», «difficult»: My life
needed me. It was going through a tough time and I hadn’t been
paying enough attention to it. I’d taken my eye off the ball, I’d
busied myself with other things: friends’ lives, work issues, my
deteriorating and ever needy car, that kind of thing. I’d
completely and utterly ignored my life. And now it had written to
me, summoned me, and there was only one thing for it. I had to
go and meet with it face to face (Ahern C., 2011: 6).

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Based on the analysis of the ways of time actualization in the
modern female fictional discourse of Great Britain our analysis
showed that the characters’ perception of time duration is most
often concentrated on shorter intervals, such as minute and day,
the time for them transforms itself into short spells filled with
intensive psycho-emotional and physical activity. The characters
focus on the future as a consequence of the present, while the past
is objectified extremely rarely at the moments of reflection of
theirs and, if necessary, to construct a retrospective reference to
the events of the past as the reasons of the actions of the
characters in the present. Such a “background” reconstruction of
past events allows the female authors to create an original
temporal sequence and hierarchy, as well as to offer an
unconventional, but no less interesting approach to creating a
two-term temporal paradigm, where the “present” and its
consequence is “the future” are important.

References
Ahern, C. 2011. The Time of My Life. Harper Collins Publishers,
London, Great Britain, 486 pp.
Darbanova, N.A. 2010. Time in linguistic research: prehistory
and modernity. Herald of BurSU. 10: 50-55.
Kinsella, S. 2006. The Undomestic Goddess. Black Swan,
London, Great Britain, 416 pp.
Reichenbach, H. 1962. Time direction. Publishing house Foreign
literature, Moscow, Russia, 396 pp.
Rudnev, V.P. 2000. Away from reality: researches on the
philosophy of text. Agraf, Moscow, Russia, 432 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-42-49

ON THE ISSUE OF EXPRESSING BELONGINGNESS

AND EXCLUSION IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Olga V. Emelianova

Saint-Petersburg State University

Saint-Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
It has been universally recognized that social belongingness,
often referred to as a sense of having positive relations with
others centered on gaining acceptance, attention and support from
members of a group is a fundamental human need, a powerful
and extremely pervasive motivation (Baumeister R.F., Leary
M.R., 1995: 497). An extensive body of literature exists on the
problem of social connectedness in groups and fitting socially
with others. The author most frequently quoted is Abraham
Maslow, an American psychologist best known for his Hierarchy
of needs (Maslow A.H., 1943).
The purpose of the present study is to examine linguistic means
of expressing the notions of belongingness and exclusion in the
English language. The most common and obvious means of
representing the idea of belonging are the noun belongingness
and the verbs to belong and to fit in. The examples from the
British national Corpus (BNC), the Corpus of Contemporary
American English (COCA) and modern fiction undoubtedly
prove that belongingness is one of major human needs. The verbs
to belong and to fit in regularly occur with verbs of wish and
desire: The book is about acceptance and wanting to fit in
(COCA). People strive to belong, to fit in; they perceive
belongingness as something to improve their psychological well-
being, raise their self-esteem and confidence and make them feel

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happy. This noun is often to be found in the context with such
‘positive’ notions as love, friendship, good group spirit etc. The
list of most frequent collocations registered by the Corpuses
includes prove/experience/promote/encourage/strengthen
belongingness.
In social psychology, belongingness is considered to be an
intrinsic motivation to affiliate with others and be socially
accepted. The need to belong causes people to present themselves
in a particular way in order to fit in with the rest of the group.
However, it is not enough just to look like the members of the
group; it takes more effort – and it usually pays: To fit in, he cut
his hair and learned the local dialect (BNC). E. Sapir claimed
that language is a great force of socialization, probably the
greatest that exists; "He talks like us" is equivalent to saying "He
is one of us" (Sapir, 1929: 207).
Inability to fit in often results in social exclusion – a situation in
which a person does not feel part of the group he wants to belong
to. This can lead to very grave consequences: from anxiety,
frustration and depression to aggression, violence and despair.
Children are sensitive to exclusion; the memory of being rejected
has long-time effects on them: Not belonging to the magic circle
– mother, brother and late father – I felt excluded (BNC). Being
excluded for different reasons leads people to think of themselves
as outsiders or interlopers.
In psychology, alienation is the condition of being separated from
or marginalized from other individuals or some larger segments
of society. Outsiders are often looked at with suspicion by the
locals who think they can cause all kinds of trouble: ‘…but he
must be aware that the villagers suspect him of doing something
terrible to Alison, if only because he’s an outsider (McDermid,
2013: 268).
The present article is aimed at studying linguistic means of
expressing belongingness and exclusion in the English language.
The frequent use of the verbs to belong, to fit in, to exclude etc.
and the nouns belongingness, exclusion, outsider, interloper etc.

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in various contexts testify that many people’s psychological
problems stem from the failure to meet their belongingness needs.
Keywords: social belongingness, social exclusion, alienation

Introduction
It has been universally recognized that social belongingness,
often referred to as a sense of having positive relations with
others centered on gaining acceptance, attention and support from
members of a group is a fundamental human need, a powerful
and extremely pervasive motivation (Baumeister R.F., Leary
M.R., 1995: 497). An extensive body of literature exists on the
problem of social connectedness in groups and fitting socially
with others. The author most frequently quoted is Abraham
Maslow, an American psychologist best known for his Hierarchy
of needs. Human needs, presented within a five-level pyramid,
are seen as arising in a hierarchical fashion in order of their
priority. Love and belongingness needs together with esteem
needs are treated as social/psychological needs. Inability to fit in
often results in social exclusion – a situation in which a person
does not feel part of the group he wants to belong to.
Objectives
The purpose of the present study is to examine linguistic means
of expressing the notions of belongingness and exclusion in the
English language.
Findings
The most common and obvious means of representing the idea of
belonging are the noun belongingness and the verbs to belong and
to fit in. The examples from the British national Corpus (BNC),
the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) and
modern fiction undoubtedly prove that belongingness is one of
major human needs. The verbs to belong and to fit in regularly
occur with verbs of wish and desire: I was more of an outsider
than ever, but something in me must still have wanted to belong
to the family (BNC). People strive to belong, to fit in; they
perceive belongingness as something to improve their

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psychological well-being, raise their self-esteem and confidence
and make them feel happy. This noun is often to be found in the
context with such ‘positive’ notions as love, friendship, good
group spirit etc.: Included in emotional engagement are feelings
of belongingness, safety, comfort, and pride in the institution
(COCA). The list of most frequent collocations registered by the
Corpuses includes prove/experience/promote/encourage/strengthen
belongingness.
In social psychology, belongingness is considered to be an
intrinsic motivation to affiliate with others and be socially
accepted. The need to belong causes people to present themselves
in a particular way in order to fit in with the rest of the group.
They start to copy certain ways of dressing: ‘…He was trying to
fit in, that’s what everyone was wearing,’ she told me (COCA).
However, it is not enough just to look like the members of the
group; it takes more effort – and it usually pays: To fit in, he cut
his hair and learned the local dialect (BNC). It is often said that
language holds the key to socialization. Common speech can
serve as a symbol of social solidarity amongst the speakers of that
language; some forms of a language can be identified with a
particular group, thus facilitating the process of fitting in. E. Sapir
claimed that language is a great force of socialization, probably
the greatest that exists; "He talks like us" is equivalent to saying
"He is one of us" (Sapir, 1929: 207).
The COCA presents a large variety of examples illustrating the
ways to overcome difficulties faced by non-Americans who want
to be socially accepted in the US. Some people are prepared to
give up their names: …while Abe, who changed his name from
Hussein to fit in better in America… (COCA). Psychologists have
often observed how the need to belong to a group may lead to
changes in behaviors, beliefs and attitudes as people conform to
the standards and norms of the group, maintaining professional
solidarity: ‘Teenagers,’ Wyman said, rubbing his head. ‘Who’d
have ‘em? I spend most of my days with them at school, and then
I come home and have to deal with two of my own. Must be a

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masochist. Or mad.’ Complaining was usually staffroom routine
for teachers, Banks knew, a way of fitting in and pretending they
didn’t really love what they did and deserve their long holidays
(Robinson, 2009: 98). What the teacher says stand in contrast to
the impression he produced on his addressee: In fact, Wyman
seemed like a man with the energy and patience necessary to deal
with teenagers on a daily basis (Robinson, 2009: 98).
Inability to fit in often results in social exclusion – a situation in
which a person does not feel part of the group he wants to belong
to. This can lead to very grave consequences: from anxiety,
frustration and depression to aggression, violence and despair.
Both children and adults suffer from social exclusion: Not
belonging to a group is like being nobody (BNC). Psychologists
and educationalists lay particular stress on the notion of school
belongingness, which has been proved to correlate with the level
of learning achievement. Lack of the sense of belonging affects
teen-age and college students, especially ‘marginalized, or
minority students’, the term often used to refer to African-
American and Hispanic-American students as well as children of
immigrants from Asia: …these things mean so much more to us
expat kids. Our need to fit in and assimilate – to simply not stand
out is so important (COCA).
Children are sensitive to exclusion; the memory of being rejected
has long-time effects on them: Not belonging to the magic circle
– mother, brother and late father – I felt excluded (BNC). As
people grow up, their behavior continues to be largely motivated
by the need for interpersonal relationships. When they fail to get
it in a romantic relationship, they experience emotional rejection
which ranges from a vague disappointment and sadness to
anxiety, anger and fury: The others were pretty and popular, I
was trying desperately to fit in with them, but it was dreadful to
be made fun of in that way, by my friends. It really hurt me
(BNC).
Being excluded for different reasons leads people to think of
themselves as outsiders (someone who does not belong to a

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particular group or organization) or interlopers (someone who is
in a place or group but is not wanted by the other people there ‒
Macmillan English Dictionary). It is worth pointing out that the
definitions of both nouns include the noun group and, which is
more important, the meaning of outsider is defined by means of
the negative form of belong. Thus, both nouns are related to
exclusion as opposed to belongingness. There are a number of
examples to confirm this: What a mistake it had been to throw in
her lot with these people. <…> the one who doesn’t belong with
this happy quartet, she thought (Gerritsen, 2011: 95). The woman
feels ill at ease in the company of people she hardly knows and
whose in-group interests she cannot share; she fails to
psychologically identify herself as a member: She was a last-
minute add-on to the quartet, unfamiliar with their stories and
their inside jokes, and she was content merely to be an observer
as they headed out of Tenton Village and drove south, into the
ever-thickening snowfall (Gerritsen, 2011: 46).
In some cases the reason for not belonging is presented in detail:
‘I was one of the outsiders,’ she said. ‘I was born in North Uist,
but we never really belonged’ (Cleeves, 2017:127). The speaker
had grown in a community of hippies, which, as she says, was for
dropouts and druggies. It would have been enough to alienate
local people, but the situation was aggravated by the fact that the
communers did not know the language spoken on the island:
‘…We had no Gaelic, of course, no real island culture. The adults
tried to learn, but the islanders didn’t make it easy to join in. In
the end we were isolated and it felt like it was us against the
world’. (Cleeves, 2017: 129). The communers and their children
looked different, and lacked ‘the greatest force of socialization’ ‒
a common language. According to Sapir, the mere fact of a
common speech serves as a peculiarly potent symbol of the social
solidarity of those who speak the language (Sapir, 1929: 207).
The outsiders were rejected by the islanders and never succeeded
in fitting in, no matter how hard they might have tried.

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In psychology, alienation is the condition of being separated from
or marginalized from other individuals or some larger segments
of society. Outsiders are often looked at with suspicion by the
locals who think they can cause all kinds of trouble: ‘…but he
must be aware that the villagers suspect him of doing something
terrible to Alison, if only because he’s an outsider (McDermid,
2013: 268).
The opposition of Belonging vs Non-belonging/Exclusion
manifests itself in the sphere of interpersonal relations within
different small groups. Individuals suffer when they cannot have
and enjoy meaningful close relationships with others. People
need a close relationship for their psychological well-being and
feel emotional tension, stress and lack of confidence in its
absence. In some situations, however, a person would think twice
before trying to join a group as he can foresee being rejected:
How could I have looked forward to the society of Vera, an
unreasonable carping scold when on her own with me and, when
Eden was there, the two of them closing ranks to exclude anyone
who might try to penetrate their alliance (McDermid, 2013: 245).
Discussion
The present article was aimed at studying linguistic means of
expressing belongingness and exclusion in the English language.
The frequent use of the verbs to belong, to fit in, to exclude etc.
and the nouns belongingness, exclusion, outsider, interloper etc.
in various contexts testify that many people’s psychological
problems stem from the failure to meet their belongingness needs.

References
Baumeister R.F., Leary M.R. 1995. The Need to Belong: Desire
for Interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human
motivation. In Psychological Bulletin, 117: 497-529.
persweb.wabash.edu›…articles…baumeister…leary.pdf
[Accessed February 27 2019].
Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Students. 2005.
International Student Edition.

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48
Maslow A.H. 1943. A theory of human motivation. In
Psychological Review, 50 (4): 370–396. URL:
https://kinasevych.ca/2009/04/09/maslow-1943-a-theory-of-
human-motivation/ [Accessed February 28 2019].
Sapir E. 1929. The Status of Linguistics as a Science. In
Language, 5(4): 207-214. URL: bible-researcher.com›sapir1.html
[Accessed March 1 2019].
Sources of examples
Cleeves A. 2017. Dead Water. Pan Books, 403 p.
Gerritsen T. 2011. The Killing Place. Bantam USA, 443 p.
McDermid V. 2013. The Vanishing Point. Little, Brown and
Company, 544 p.
Robinson P. 2009. All the Colours of Darkness. Hodder, 369 p.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-49-61

MODERN ARABIC LINGUISTICRESEARCH

IS A CROSS-CULTURAL ISSUE

Quannes Hafiane

Higher Institute of Foreign Languages of Tunisia

University of Carthage
Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The emergence of the first Arabic linguistic studies, which can be
attributed to modern linguistics, is closely related to the
conditions that characterized the general Arabic thought in the
early 19th century, known as the Arab Renaissance period.
The essence of the Arab Renaissance consists in an attempt to
form modern Arabic thought. To achieve this goal, it was
necessary to revise the entire paradigm of the Arab cultural
heritage from a new point of view and carry out major reforms at

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all levels in order to trace the general trends and characteristics of
rapid intellectual development taking place in the west.
It is well known that the language is closely related to culture,
therefore, Arabic linguistic studies are part of global trends in the
development of Arabic culture in general. They were subject to
the controversy observed between the various theoretical origins
underlying the emergence of modern Arabic thought.
Arabic linguistic research, faced with very complex problems
inherent in any sphere of human activity, was looking for its path
to a new development model. One of the first tasks was to clearly
define the object and subject of modern linguistics and
distinguish it from philology. Arab researchers had the task of
justifying the need for the existence of Arabic linguistics as a
separate science independent of classical philological studies; in
other words, justify its legitimacy. This required the transfer of
Western linguistics from the cognitive context to the context of
another culture - Arabic culture.
It was necessary to revise the Arabic language heritage through a
theoretical and methodological prism based on the principles
presented by linguistic theories of various directions in Europe
and in America, which became known as general linguistics.
To determine the prospects for the development of these new
trends, it seems to us legitimate to follow the course of academic
linguistic research; we are talking about scientific works in the
form of doctoral theses defended in the walls of universities,
because they are able to introduce new trends in the development
of Arab linguistics and their rooting in general Arabic thought.
This article sets its goal to enlighten the issues raised above,
following the methodology of the study, which is based on
historical induction.
Key words: Linguistic heritage, Arabic culture, Cognitive
linguistics, Modern Arabic linguistics

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СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ АРАБСКИЕ ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИЕ
ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ – МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНЫЙ ВОПРОС

Уанес Хафян

Высший институт языков Туниса при Карфагенском университете

Тунис, Тунис
[email protected]

Аннотация
Возникновение первых арабских лингвистических
исследований, которые можно отнести к современной
лингвистике, тесно связано с теми условиями, которые
охарактеризовали общую арабскую мысль в начале ХХ века,
известного как период арабского возрождения (Ренессанса).
Суть арабского возрождения состоялась в попытке
формирования современной арабской мысли. Для
достижения этой цели необходимо было пересмотреть всю
парадигму арабского культурного наследия с новой точки
зрения и провести крупные реформы на всех уровнях с
целью проследить общие тенденции и особенности бурного
интеллектуального развития, происходящего на западе.
Общеизвестно, что язык тесно связан с культурой, поэтому
арабские лингвистические исследования являются частью
глобальных тенденций развития арабской культуры в целом.
Они подверглись разногласиям, наблюдающимся между
различными теоретическими истоками, лежащими в основе
возникновения современной арабской мысли.
Арабские лингвистические исследования сталкивались с
весьма сложными задачами, присущими любой сфере
человеческой деятельности, ищущей себе путь в русле хаосе
рождения новой модели развития.
Одной из первых задач было чёткое отграничение объекта и
предмета современной лингвистики от филологии. Перед
арабскими исследователями стояла задача оправдания

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необходимости существования арабской лингвистики как
отдельной науки независимой от классических
филологических исследований; другими словами,
оправдание её легитимности. Это потребовала перевода
западной лингвистики с когнитивного контекста в контекст
другой культуры – арабской культуры. Пришлось
пересмотреть арабское языковое наследие через
теоретическую и методологическую призму основанную на
принципах, представленных лингвистическими теориями
различных направлений в Европе и в Америке, которые
стали известными под названием общей лингвистикой.
Чтобы определить перспективы развития данных новых
тенденций нам представляется правомерным проследить ход
академических лингвистических исследований; речь идёт о
научных работах в виде докторских диссертаций,
защищенных в стенах университетов, ибо они способны
внедрить новые тенденции в развитии арабской лингвистики
и их укоренение в общей арабской мысли.
Данная статья ставит свою цель освятить выше поднятые
вопросы, следуя методологию исследования, которая
опирается на историческую индукцию.
Ключевые слова: языковое наследие, арабская культура,
когнитивная лингвистика, современная арабская лингвистика

Вступление
Возникновение первых арабских лингвистических
исследований, которые можно отнести к современной
лингвистике, тесно связано с теми условиями, которые
охарактеризовали общую арабскую мысль в начале ХХ века,
известного как период арабского возрождения (Pенессанса).
ХХ век стал решающим поворотным периодом в
формировании современной арабской мысли, которая
оказалась перед необходимостью пересмотра всей её
парадигмы с новой точки зрения и проведения крупных
реформ на всех уровнях с целью проследить общие

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тенденции и особенности бурного интеллектуального
развития, происходящего на западе.
Осознание арабских мыслителей послеживающей ситуации
поставило их перед необходимостью выбора одной из двух
крайних моделей развития цивилизации:
- Первая заключалась в возвращении к арабскому
культурному наследию, способному оценить достижений
нации и сохранить её идентичность.
- Вторая заключалась в представлении прошлого
культурного наследия как произведения эпохи, отличного от
нашего времени. Эта эпоха была призвана решить проблемы,
чуждые нашим реалиям. Данная точка зрения призывала к
принятию западных культурных взглядов и научных методов
исследований в любой сфере человеческой деятельности,
ссылаясь на различные аргументы, такие, как научность,
модернизм и универсальность. Таким образом, современная
арабская мысль сформировалась на почве двух полярных
противоположностей:
- Тенденция, которая пыталась воспроизвести арабо-
исламское культурное наследие в его изначальной форме
или, в лучшем случае, в частично модифицированной
версии.
- Тенденция, пытавшаяся объявить полный разрыв с
прошлым и перенести западную модель на арабские реалии.
Предмет и цель исследования
Общеизвестно, что язык тесно связан с культурой, поэтому
арабские лингвистические исследования являются частью
глобальных тенденций развития арабской культуры в целом.
Они подверглись разногласиям, наблюдающимся между
различными теоретическими истоками, лежащими в основе
возникновения современной арабской мысли.
Арабские лингвистические исследования сталкивались с
весьма сложными задачами, присущими любой сфере
человеческой деятельности, ищущей себе путь в русле хаосе
рождения новой модели развития.

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Одной из первых задач было чёткое отграничение объекта и
предмета современной лингвистики от филологии.
Арабские лингвистические исследования того времени
носили филологический характер, который образовался у
древних арабских языковедов под влиянием греческого
понятия филологии (Fleisch H., 1961; Larcher P., 1998).
Такое положение привело к путанице в определении
предмета и объекта языковых исследований. Такая путаница
является следствием ошибочного перевода термина
«филология» на арабский термин «Фикх аллуга».
Методология
Арабский термин «Фикх аллуга» сводился к так называемой
в древних арабских филологических исследованиях арабской
грамматике.
«Арабская грамматика» была сформирована только в VII
веке после откровения Корана. Арабский язык стал языком,
состоящим из фиксированных правил. Сначала словари и
грамматические своды должны были сохранить Коран и
Хадисы (предания о словах и действиях пророка Мухаммада,
затрагивающие разнообразные религиозно-правовые
стороны жизни мусульманской общины) от растущих
лингвистических эволюций после расширения исламского
халифата, идущего от Атлантики до Индийского океана.
Арабская грамматика определила грамматику как
инструмент, который помогает идентифицировать слова на
основе окончаний по отношению к морфологии,
трансформации и производности слов. Обращаясь к
концепции грамматики, говорящий должен говорить и
писать правильно.
Цель грамматики – определить, как оформлять предложение
и слово. Это концепция набора правил, позволяющих арабам
и любому человеку, говорящему на арабском языке,
подражать арабам аравийского полуострова в их речи и
выразить себя. Это часть процесса красноречия, с одной
стороны, а с другой – правильное использование арабского

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языка без двусмысленности или ошибок (Bohas, G. et al.
1992).
В своих исследованиях, связанных с грамматическим
анализом, древние арабские филологи VII века не различали
синтаксис и морфологию. Они рассматривали морфологию
как часть синтаксиса. С конца VII века морфология была
отделена от синтаксиса. Морфология и синтаксис стали
науками сами по себе и были предметом исследований,
которые породили большое количество работ.
Так, по мнению арабских филологов, морфология изучает
вариации слов в предложении по отношению к корню.
Синтаксис изучает положение слов в предложении. Он
интересуется описательным изучением отношений,
существующих между языковыми единицами.
В поздний период модель филологических исследований
была введена в арабское языкознание европейскими
востоковедами, и особенно немецкими востоковедами.
Джиовакини Ю., философ и филолог, определяет филологию
как: «что сегодня называется филологией? Это изучение
письменных источников, посредством которых нам
передаются разные знания и все интеллектуальные
произведения, от самых тривиальных до самых
совершенных. Эти исследования включают в себя изучение
материальных источников, их литературность и надёжность,
и наконец, их лингвистическое значение. Быть филологом –
иметь определённое понимание текста, независимо от его
времени. Филолог должен понимать, что этот текст является
прежде всего объектом и что он имеет за собой иногда
длинную историю. Филология учит строгость и недоверие.
Она сравнивает, устанавливает, отказывается: это, главным
образом, критическая наука» (Giovachhini J., 2016).
Филология, в таком понятии, заняла особое место в процессе
формирования и развития арабских лингвистических
исследований.

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Основоположник современной лингвистики Ф. де Соссюр,
отличая филологию от лингвистики, пишет: «В Александрии
уже существовала филологическая школа, но этот термин
особенно связан с научным движением, созданным Ф. А.
Вольфом в 1777 г. и продолжающимся до сих пор. Язык не
является единственным объектом филологии, которая
прежде всего избирает, обрабатывает и комментирует
тексты» (Saussure F., 1999: 10). По его мнению, задачами
лингвистики являются:
а) составление и описание историй всех языков, которые
можно изучить. Это поможет создать историю семейств
языков и воссоздать, насколько это возможно, материнские
языки каждой семьи.
б) обнаружение явлений, которые проявляются постоянно и
универсально во всех языках и выделение общих законов, к
которым можно относить все конкретные явления истории.
Целью лингвистики Ф. де Соссюр называет знание языка как
общее человеческое явление; обнаружение скрытых законов,
которые управляют языковыми явлениями; определение его
фонологических, синтаксических и семантических
характерных черт с целью обнаружения общих законов
языка; объяснение специфики речевой операции и
органических, психологических и социальных преград, с
которыми она сталкивается; и обоснование общей
лингвистической теории, на основе которой можно
исследовать все языки (Saussure F., 1999: 16).
Не менее важной задачей, которая стояла перед арабскими
исследователями была оправдание необходимости
существования арабской лингвистики как отдельной науки
независимой от классических филологических исследований;
другими словами, оправдание её легитимности. Это
осуществлялось через следующие три положения:
1. Традиционная модель языковых исследований не является
адекватной в русле бури интеллектуального преобразования,
происходящего на Западе.

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2. Необходимость принятия описательного подхода в
лингвистических исследованиях.
3. Арабский язык как система требует переосмысления с
помощью современных западных лингвистических теорий.
Результат
Названные положения привели к различным подходам к
восприятию характера новых арабских лингвистических
исследований и их задач, а именно:
1) отрицанию всего наследия,
2) приверженности к старым методам и отказу от новых,
3) согласованию и связи старого с новым.
Вышеизложенным положениям и подходам соответствуют
следующие лингвистические работы:
1. Работы, отражающие тот подход, который отрицает всё
наследие и предлагает западную модель лингвистических
исследований в качестве идеальной альтернативы. Такие
работы принято называть «вводными арабскими
лингвистическими исследованиями».
2. Работы, в основе которых лежат истоки арабских
языковых исследований. Их называют «наследственной
лингвистикой».
3. Работы, которые пытаются исследовать арабский язык
посредством применения современных лингвистических
методов. Их называют «арабской лингвистикой».
Арабская лингвистика столкнулась с необходимостью
установить новое положение в лингвистических
исследованиях. Это было связано с необходимостью
перевести западную лингвистику с когнитивного контекста в
контекст другой культуры – арабской культуры. Поэтому
арабским исследователям пришлось пересмотреть их
языковое наследие. Эта задача была очень сложной и,
одновременно, необходимой для установления новой
лингвистической мысли, под которой понимается
лингвистические исследования, теоретически и
методологически основанные на принципах, представленных

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лингвистическими теориями различных направлений в
Европе и в Америке, которые стали известными под
названием общей лингвистикой.
Современная арабская лингвистика была подвергнута
многим классификациям. Самой полной классификацией
считается классификация ибо она была основана на чётких
критериях:
1. Цель исследования.
2. Тема исследования.
3. Метод исследования (см. таблицу 1).
Таблица 1
Тема Метод Цель
Исследование
исследования исследования исследования
Вводная Лингвистичес- познавательный распространение
лингвистика кие теории: современных
их предмет лингвистических
и объект знаний
Наследственная Арабское читать и сравнение
лингвистика языковое перечитать наследия с
наследие современным
лингвистическим
знанием
Арабская Явления исторический переписание
лингвистика системы сравнительный системы
арабского описательный арабского языка
языка

Несмотря на довольно большой вклад, который внесла

вводная лингвистика в развитие арабских лингвистических
исследований, она имела некоторые недостатки:
1. Путаница в определении области лингвистических
исследований. Это связано с тем, что источники, над
которыми работали исследователи, носили общий характер и
не имели непосредственной связи с областью лингвистики в
её строгом научном смысле.
2. Отсутствие чёткого отграничения объекта и предмета
исследования лингвистики.

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3. Отсутствие методов лингвистического анализа.
Арабская лингвистика применяла методы и подходы
современной западной лингвистики к арабским текстам и
имела описательное, трансформационно-синтаксическое и
функционально-прагматическое направления.
Вышеизложенное относится к арабским лингвистическим
исследованиям, проведённым в течение ХХ века и, особенно,
во втором его половине. Чтобы определить перспективы их
развития нам представляется правомерным проследить ход
академических лингвистических исследований; речь идёт о
научных работах в виде докторских диссертаций,
защищенных в стенах университетов, ибо они способны
внедрить новые тенденции в развитии арабской лингвистики
и их укоренение в общей арабской мысли.
Заключение
В настоящей статье мы ограничимся научными работами,
написанными в Высшем институте языков г. Туниса при
Карфагенском университете. Выбор данного учебного
заведения обусловлен следующими факторами:
1. Автор статьи работает в названном институте с 1988 г. и
возглавлял его администрацию в течение шести лет.
2. Этот институт по своей природе является
лингвистическим институтом, где преподаются главные
европейские и восточные языки (арабский, французский,
английский, немецкий, итальянский, испанский,
португальский, русский, турецкий и китайский). В учебных
программах бакалавров и магистратур делается акцент на
чисто лингвистических предметах в отличие от
филологических факультетов, где традиционно преподаются
дисциплины, которые относятся к филологии в широком
смысле.
3. В этом институте работают преподаватели, которые, в их
большинстве, получили высшее образование в американских,
европейских и российских университетах, где они
приобщались с разными лингвистическими школами,

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познакомились с лингвистическими теориями в оригинале,
писали и защищали научные работы по этому направлению.
4. На других филологических факультетах видное место
занимает арабский язык и, естественно преподаватели
арабского языка склонны следовать традициям языковых
исследований.
С 2000 г. Высшему институту языков Туниса, единственному
высшему учебному заведению в стране, было разрешено
министерством высшего образования и научных
исследований принимать магистрантов и докторантов по
специальности общей лингвистики и прикладной
лингвистики. Следует отметить, что под прикладной
лингвистикой здесь понимается лингвистические
исследования, направленные на оптимизацию существующей
методики и обработку новых методов преподавания родного
и иностранных языков, т.е. что принято назвать в советско-
российской лингвистике методикой преподавания
иностранных языков.
В 2017 г. когда окончательно перешли на новый докторский
диплом в соответствии с Болонским процессом, в стенах
Института было защищено более двух сот докторских
диссертаций по специальности общей и прикладной
лингвистики. Темами защищенных диссертаций охватывают
широкий спектр ответвлений лингвистических
исследований: историческую, описательную, сравнительную,
прагматическую, дискурсивную и корпусную лингвистику.
Новаторством в научных работах по прикладной
лингвистике является повышенный интерес докторантов к
лингводидактике и интралингводидактике.
Нынешние тенденции академических лингвистических
исследований в Тунисе свидетельствуют о настояние
молодых исследователей на преодоление препятствия
культурного наследия арабского языкознания и открытость
на достижения западной мысли в частности, и мировой в
целом в области лингвистических исследований.

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References
Bohas G., Guillaume J.P., Kouloughli J.E, 1992. The Arabic
linguistic tradition. In Historiographia Linguistica 19 (2/3) : 361-
367.
Fleish H. 1961. Observations sur les études philologiques en
arabe classique. In Oriens (16)134-144.
Larcher P. 1998. La linguistique arabe d’hier à demain: tendances
nouvelles de la recherche. In Arabica 45 (4): 409-429
Saussure F. 1999. The course of general
linguistics. - Ekaterinburg: Publishing house of Ural University,
432 pp.
Giovacchini Julie, 2016. Parlons-nous de la même chose ? Du
bon usage des langues anciennes et de la philologie, sur
L’information philologique, le 25 janvier 2016. Consulté le 9
novembre 2016. URL: http://iphi.hypotheses.org/335 [Accessed
February 15 2019]
‫ ﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻨﻘﺩﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺴﺱ ﺍﻟﻨﻅﺭﻴﺔ ﻭ‬،‫ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻏﻠﻔﺎﻥ ـ ﺍﻟﻠﺴﺎﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺩﻴﺜﺔ‬
‫ ﺴﻠﺴﻠﺔ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻬﺠﻴﺔ‬
‫ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻵﺩﺍﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻭﻡ‬،‫ ﻋﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻕ‬،‫ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻨﻲ‬،(4) ‫ﺭﺴﺎﺌﻝ ﻭ ﺃﻁﺭﻭﺤﺎﺕ ﺭﻗﻡ‬
1998 ،‫ﻁ‬.‫ ﺩ‬،‫ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﺭﺏ‬،‫ ﻤﻁﺒﻌﺔ ﻓﻀﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻤﺩﻴﺔ‬،‫ﺍﻹﻨﺴﺎﻨﻴﺔ‬

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CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-62-71

EXAMINING DISCURSIVE STRATEGIES IN BUSINESS

CORRESPONDENCE OF KAZAKHSTAN: KAZAKH,
RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES

Aliya A. Aimoldina

Kazakhstan Branch of Lomonosov Moscow State University

Astana, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
In the modern period in Kazakhstan, multilingualism becomes the
trend with the Kazakh as the only official language, Russian
widely used as a language of interethnic communication, and
English as a language of international business communication.
While the proficiency in these three languages (see Cultural
project “Trinity of Language” 2007) is considered to be as
integral component of personal and professional development of
a person and becomes one of the priorities of the state language
policy (i.e. Roadmap for the Development of Trilingual
Education for 2015-2020, etc.), more and more business
professionals in Kazakhstan are focused on more effective ways
of transferring business messages to their business partners taking
into account intercultural and pragmatic features in written
business communication.
In this regards, the aim of this paper is to identify and compare
the main communicative intentions of business professionals of
the modern Kazakhstani business community, as well as to
explore discursive strategies and their implementations on the
example of business correspondence texts compiled in Kazakh,
Russian and English. As the analysis showed, a special role in

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strategic business planning is played by the strategy of the
influence of the addresser on the addressee / reader / business
partner / potential client.
The material of the research was authentic texts of modern
business correspondence in Kazakh, Russian and English,
selected by a continuous sampling method from correspondence
of international, national and foreign companies in Kazakhstan,
the National Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as
samples of business letters from Kazakhstan, Russian and other
foreign collections on business correspondence. Considering the
variety of existing business letters in Kazakh, Russian and
English communicative cultures, we limited ourselves to the
analysis of the most typical business correspondence texts in the
modern Kazakhstan business context, i.e., commercial offers,
business invitation letters, letters of inquiry, letters of
notification.
As the results show, the study of business correspondence texts in
Kazakh, Russian and English demonstrated that within the overall
impact strategy, three main areas are concentrated:
1) building relationships with a business partner; 2) the creation
of a positive image of the company, products, etc.; 3) motivation
to action. In the study, a summary of the research results on the
identified discursive strategies with a clarification of tactics,
techniques and means on the material of business correspondence
texts in the languages in question is presented.
One of the main conclusions of the study is that it is possible to
identify the main communicative intentions characteristic of a
particular business culture. A distinctive feature of the
communicative intentions of business communicators when
writing business correspondence is the specificity of building
business relations with business partners through business
correspondence. The main difference is in the preference of
business companies for the long-term or short-term establishment
of business contacts with their clients and partners. The texts of
the Kazakh-speaking and Russian-speaking (to a lesser extent)

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business correspondence emphasize long-term partnerships aimed
at the future. The English-speaking business professionals, as one
of the most important communicative intentions in business
correspondence, note that they have obtained quick commercial
results, which does not imply the development of long-term
business relations.
Thus, the present-day expansion of international contacts places
special demands on the knowledge of cultural traditions of
business partners. This knowledge is especially important for
business professionals who compose business texts for their
foreign partners in the context of intercultural business
communication. The lack of the necessary background
knowledge of the business cultures involved and the incorrect
handling of discourse strategies when writing texts of business
correspondence can lead to a number of communicative and
pragmatic failures.
Keywords: communicative intentions; discursive strategies;
business correspondence; business discourse; business culture

Introduction
Nowadays in the course of contemporary governmental policy,
the feature of the modern business discourse in the Republic of
Kazakhstan lies in the functioning of at least three languages in
the spoken and written business communication, i.e., Kazakh,
Russian and English. The specificity of business correspondence
texts is manifested in the diversity of communicative intentions
of business communicators, the implementation of discursive
strategies and tactics, ways and nature of the impact on the
addressee.
The purpose of this paper is to identify and compare the main
communicative intentions of the authors of business
communications of the Kazakhstani business community, as well
as to discover discursive strategies and their implementation in
the texts of business correspondence in Kazakh, Russian and
English.

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To implement communicative intentions, business professionals
need skillful handling of various discursive strategies, the choice
of which, according to the analysis, varies from the specifics of
the cultural and language environment of business
correspondents. By a discursive (communicative, verbal)
strategy, we understand the general plan, the totality of speech
actions aimed at the realization of a certain communicative
intention of the speaker / writer (Shevchenko I.S., 2000). It
should be noted that the tactical and strategic behavior of
business professionals directly depends on the communicative
goal set and the conditions of the specific situation of business
discourse.
Methodology and Research Design
The following methods and techniques of research are used in the
study, i.e., general theoretical and linguistic analysis of concepts
on the topic under study; synchronous approach to the analysis of
language material, the method of continuous sampling,
descriptive and comparative methods; a conceptual analysis
method, which, on the one hand, analyzes and describes the
verbal expression of cognitive categories, on the other hand,
reconstructs the fragments of objective reality behind them based
on the obtained language data; semantic interpretation and
contextual analysis methods, modeling method, and discourse
analysis.
The material of the research was authentic texts of modern
business correspondence in Kazakh, Russian and English,
selected by a continuous sampling method from correspondence
of international, national and foreign companies in Kazakhstan,
the National Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as
samples of business letters from Kazakhstan, Russian and other
foreign collections on business correspondence. Considering the
variety of existing business letters in Kazakh, Russian and
English communicative cultures, we limited ourselves to the
analysis of the most typical business correspondence texts in the
modern Kazakhstan business context, i.e., commercial offers,

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business invitation letters, letters of inquiry, letters of
notification. The obtained permission to the archive of business
documentation of various Kazakhstan companies (with certain
access restrictions) made it possible to collect a fairly large body
of authentic texts of business correspondence, which amounted to
1,050 units.
Results and Discussion
The study of business correspondence texts in Kazakh, Russian
and English showed that within the framework of the overall
impact strategy, three main areas are concentrated: 1) building
relationships with a business partner; 2) the creation of a positive
image of the company, products, etc.; 3) motivation to action.
Below we present a summary of the results of the research on the
identified private discursive strategies with a clarification of
tactics, techniques and means on the material of business
correspondence texts in the languages in question. According to
modern linguists (Beznayeva О.А., 2009; Hall E., 1976; Hofstеdе
G.H., Hofstеdе G.J., Minkov M., 2010), in relation to business
communication, discursive strategies and tactics are nationally
and culturally determined models of business speech behavior in
the context of a specific situation.
1. Strategy of building relationships with a business partner
The results of the study showed that the strategy of building
relationships is actively used in all three considered languages
and ensures the construction of a sustainable impact of the
addressee on the business partner. As tactics for the
implementation of this strategy can be identified: the tactics of
depersonalization, personalization tactics, the tactics of
expression of solidarity and respect.
As the analysis of collected business letters showed, to a greater
extent in the texts of business correspondence in Kazakh (75 %)
and Russian (63.5 %), depersonalization tactics are actively used
to achieve the effect of objectivity and reliability of a business
message. It is generally accepted to distinguish two main methods
of creating the effect of depersonalization in the preparation of

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business texts: refocusing and defocusing. Thus, in business
correspondence, both in Kazakh and Russian, business
professionals use the technique of refocusing attention from the
person of the sender to a whole professional team or company.
From the standpoint of the theory of cultural dimensions of E.
Hall and G. Hofstede, this method of influencing the addressee is
most characteristic of business cultures oriented towards a
collective or group, which include Kazakh and Russian business
cultures (Hall E., 1976; Hofstеdе G.H., Hofstеdе G.J., Minkov
M., 2010: 135). At the lexical level, this technique is achieved
with the help of the so-called “we” approach, which consists in
the widespread use of the pronouns of the 1st person plural in the
texts of business correspondence (Біз / Мы). It is interesting to
note that this strategy is especially vividly represented when the
communicative intention of functional block 1 is
implemented - Introduction to the company. As it is seen in the
following examples below:
(1) Біздің ұсынысымызды талқылауыңызды сұраймыз және
Өзіңіздің қорытынды пікіріңізді хабарлауыңызды өтінеміз.
(2) Мы готовы выехать к Вам для проведения презентации
оборудования, выпускаемого нашей компанией.
To a lesser extent, the method of refocusing was also encountered
in the texts of business correspondence compiled by English-
speaking business professionals (in 35 % of business texts):
(3) Wе fееl yоu dеsеrvе thе finеst pоssiblе sеrvicе. It is оur
intеntiоn tо dеlight yоu with оur lеvеl оf sеrvicе аnd wе
guаrаntее tо dо thе fоllоwing fоr yоu.
As the materials of the research show, the effect of
depersonalization is achieved by using such impersonal
constructions as “...жіберу керек”, “...жіберілетін болады”,
“Вам необходимо явиться...”, “...должны быть
предоставлены...”, etc. In turn, in English business
correspondence, the effect of objectivity and the
depersonalization of the information provided is achieved by
using the impersonal pronouns “it”.

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2. Strategy of creating a positive image of the company and the
products promoted
An important role in the preparation of business correspondence
is played by the communicative intention of business
professionals to create a positive image of both the company,
products and services offered. In the course of implementing a
strategy for creating a positive image of a company, a product
being promoted or a service, business specialists actively use
various tactics that emphasize the positive qualities of a business
company, its employees, unique features of the goods produced
and services provided by: 1) institutional affiliation tactics;
2) tactics of demonstration of knowledge; 3) tactics of product /
product / service presentation.
Thus, the tactics of institutional affiliation is expressed in the
provision of detailed information about the company, the
institution to which the addresser belongs, which creates a stable
image of the company, emphasizes its authority and credibility to
it:
(4) “[Компанияның атауы]” ЖШС – күн қуатын электр
қуатына түрлендіру үшін пайдаланылатын фотоэлектрлі
модульдерді өндіру кезінде қолданылатын, креймнийден
жасалған фотоэлектрлі ұяшықтарды өндірумен
айналысатын жас, дамып келе жатқан компания.
(5) ТОО “[Наименование компании]” является региональным
представителем компании “[Наименование компании]”,
зарекомендовавшей себя на казахстанском рынке как
поставщик широкого ассортимента профессиональных
инструментов и оборудования таких известных брендов,
как: FОRCЕ, SUMАKЕ, BАUM PRОFЕSSIОNАL, TRISCО,
JUN KАUNG.
(6) I аm writing tо yоu оn bеhаlf оf thе cоmpаny [Cоmpаny
Nаmе]. Wе аrе аn оfficе furniturе mаnufаcturеr in Еnglаnd аnd
wе аrе thе еxclusivе suppliеr оf оfficе furniturе fоr thе Еurоpеаn
Cоmmissiоn аnd its аgеnciеs sincе 2005...

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The obtained results allow us to note the significant similarity of
the texts of business correspondence in Kazakh and Russian in
terms of the choice of lexical tools used. In most texts, the share
of using stylistically neutral vocabulary is higher than the share of
using stylistically colored vocabulary, while widespread use of
stylistically colored vocabulary of a functional nature in all its
forms is observed, the active use of formal business turns and the
cliché of a formal register create a special language style of
business communication.
3. Motivation strategy
In the process of implementing a general discursive strategy of
influencing the addressee, the strategy of encouraging the
addressee to action, which is carried out using pressure tactics
and offering bonuses and lucrative offers, is of great importance
when designing business correspondence texts. Considered
tactics of implementation of the strategy of motivation to action
are inextricably linked with the strategies of “positive” and
“negative” politeness and tactics of preserving the social “face”
of the addressee (Brown P., Levinson S., 1987).
Pressure tactics in the texts of business correspondence is
expressed in calling the addressee (client / potential client) to act
and make certain decisions. In the texts of the business
correspondence of the languages in question, this tactic is
especially vividly presented during the formulation of a request
for an answer and when requesting certain information or
performing a certain action (letters of inquiry, letters of request).
As the analysis showed, it is in the functional block – “Request
for an Answer” to maintain a positive image that the addressees
often use business professionals to “negative” politeness
strategies that minimize the categoricalness of the formulated
request to the maximum by using the following language,
grammatical and discursive means:
1) politeness markers “please”, for example, “Plеаsе fееl frее tо
cоntаct mе dirеctly with аny quеstiоns…” and others. The
commercial offer in English, different expressions of polite

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requests, such as “Бізге қоңырау шалыңыз”, “Барлық сұрақтар
бойынша мына телефондарға қоңырау шалыңыз” and others
in letters in the Kazakh language, “пожалуйста”, “Просим Вас
рассмотреть возможность поддержки нашей
деятельности...”, “Вы можете посмотреть на нашем
сайте” and others in letters in Russian;
2) “You” form, because besides the word “пожалуйста”
(please), an effective means of enhancing the politeness of an
imperative statement is an appeal to “Вы” in business
correspondence in Russian, “Сіз” in Kazakh language, and also
an address by the first name and patronymic name;
3) expressions of gratitude and appreciation, for example: Thаnk
yоu fоr yоur cоntinuеd suppоrt”, “От лица компании
благодарим Вас за оказанное внимание к нашей работе”,
“Сізге үлкен үмітпен алғыс білдіремін”. Since the expression
of gratitude in this case emphasizes the absence of pressure on
the interlocutor, these examples can be attributed to the strategies
of “negative” politeness.
Conclusion
Based on the foregoing, it is possible to identify the main
communicative intentions characteristic of a particular business
culture. A distinctive feature of the communicative intentions of
business communicators when writing business correspondence is
the specificity of building business relations with business
partners through business correspondence. The main difference is
in the preference of business companies for the long-term or
short-term establishment of business contacts with their clients
and partners. The texts of the Kazakh-speaking and Russian-
speaking (to a lesser extent) business correspondence emphasize
long-term partnerships aimed at the future. The English-speaking
business professionals, as one of the most important
communicative intentions in business correspondence, note that
they have obtained quick commercial results, which does not
imply the development of long-term business relations.

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Thus, the present-day expansion of international contacts places
special demands on the knowledge of cultural traditions of
business partners. This knowledge is especially important for
business professionals who compose business texts for their
foreign partners in the context of intercultural business
communication. The lack of the necessary background
knowledge of the business cultures involved and the incorrect
handling of discourse strategies when writing texts of business
correspondence can lead to a number of communicative and
pragmatic failures.

References
Beznayeva О.А. 2009. Cognitive-pragmatic features of
presenting information in a business discourse: on the material of
English-language business correspondence. Dissertation of a
candidate of philological sciences. Arkhangelsk, 183 pp.
Brown P., Lеvinson S.C. 1987. Politеnеss: somе univеrsаls in
lаnguаgе usаgе (Studiеs in Intеrnаtionаl Sociolinguistics).
Cаmbridgе: Cаmbridgе Univеrsity Prеss, 345 pp.
Hofstеdе G.H., Hofstеdе G.J., Minkov M. 2010. Culturеs аnd
orgаnizаtions: softwаrе of thе mind: intеrculturаl coopеrаtion
аnd its importаncе for survivаl. 3rd ed. Nеw York: McGrаw-Hill,
576 pp.
Hаll Е.T. 1976. Bеyond culturе. Nеw York: Doublеdаy, 320 pp.
Shevchenko I.S. 2000. On the historical development of cognitive
and pragmatic aspects of discourse. Bulletin of Kharkiv National
University 471: 300-307.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-72-82

MULTILINGUAL TRENDS IN THE LINGUISTIC

LANDSCAPE OF KAZAN, RUSSIA, AS A REFLECTION
OF AN EMERGING GLOBAL CITY

Nataliya S. Aristova

Kazan National Research Technical University named after A.N. Tupolev

Kazan, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The ‘global city’ phenomenon and the issue of importing
‘foreign’ cultures/languages into the original homogeneous
linguistic-cultural urban environments are vital to understanding
how national identities are affected by globalization in urban
areas. The resulting cultural and linguistic heterogeneity of urban
communities makes them an even more interesting object of
research if the initial linguistic environment has already been bi-
or miltilingual.
Kazan, capital of Tatarstan republic, Russia, represents a unique
blend of Russian and Tatar cultures. Russian and Tatar as two
official languages constitute the basis of its linguistic
environment. According to Shohamy et al. (2010) the shaping
and perspective of cities are influenced by policy makers’
decisions to market the cities’ identities. Kazan has recently
gained global exposure due to a series of international
cultural/sports events.
The purpose of our research is to analyse the reflection of
globalization trends in the linguistic landscape of Kazan and
assess the pragmatic potential of Russian, Tatar and English
languages.

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In our research we used the following methods: qualitative vs.
quantitative data analysis; observational research; linguistic field
research in data collection and analysis.
Tatar is viewed as a national identity marker connected with the
notions of “national heritage”, “local flavour”, “traditions and
customs”. Tatar names serve the pragmatic function of
representing these values in the business world.
As Tatarstan’s second official language, Tatar is widely
represented in the official linguistic landscape of Kazan. Some
signs bear the marks of a failed attempt to convert Tatar into
Latin alphabet that was banned by Russian legislation.
Russian is viewed as a tool for reaching towards Russia’s federal
market.
Most signs/posters in Kazan are in Russian which reinforces the
image of Kazan as a major tourist destination aimed at the
broader population of Russia.
Difficult Tatar names of companies/products are adapted to
conventional Russian alphabet for promoting them in other
Russian regions.
English has remained socially prestigious in Kazan since 1990s’
influx of foreign businesses and cultural contacts.
Development of tourism in Kazan introduced the first road signs
in English. English translations appeared for road signs/company
names connected with the 2013 Universiade, 2018 FIFA World
Cup and other major international events in Kazan. Most
“translations” are transliterations bearing little resemblance to
real English and can be used by foreign visitors only for phonetic
purposes of pronouncing difficult geographic names correctly.
English company names are associated with global business
markets and international corporate standards. Apart from
international brands/companies, many local firms in Kazan bear
English names. Some represent transliterations of Russian words
or misspelled English words. Many names sound English but are
written in Russian alphabet. Some are blends of
Russian/English/Tatar words/letters.

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Thus, diverse and inconsistent linguistic practices involving
Russian, Tatar and English in the linguistic landscape of Kazan
reflect its transition from a bilingual to a multilingual city. This
process is still ongoing and its results will require synchronic and
diachronic analysis in order to assess the impact of Russian, Tatar
and English on the national identities of local population. The
changing linguistic urban landscape of Kazan may prove to be a
key to understanding deeper sociolinguistic processes happening
in Russian multiethnic society.
Key words: global city, bilingualism, linguistic landscape

Introduction
The phenomenon of ‘global city’ has received much attention
recently as part of broader studies of globalization processes
(Holliday 2010; James 2015; Moha 2005). The issue of importing
‘foreign’ cultures/languages into the original homogeneous
linguistic-cultural environments of cities hosting global events
becomes vital to understanding how national identities are
affected by globalization in urban areas (Shohamy et al. 2010;
Gunew 2004). The resulting cultural and linguistic heterogeneity
of urban communities exposed to globalization trends makes
them an even more interesting object of research if the initial
linguistic-cultural environment has already been bi- or milti-
lingual (Blommaert, 2010; Brown, 2009; Chaim, 2003).
The city of Kazan, capital of the Republic Tatarstan, Russia, is a
city with an over a millennial history. First a nomadic settlement
founded around 1005 A.D., it went on to become part of the
Golden Horde, then the capital of Kazan khanate, Kazan province
of Russia and Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialistic Republic
within USSR. At present, Kazan showcases a truly unique blend
of Russian and Tatar cultures, traditions, religions and languages
that have fused together into an almost inseparable whole.
Russian and Tatar are two official languages of Tatarstan which
have been the primary source of the city’s linguistic landscape.
However, over the past twenty years Kazan has established itself

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on the international arena as a host city for a series of
international cultural and sports events starting from a major
celebration of Kazan’s 1000th Anniversary in 2005. The city went
on to host the 2013 Summer Universiade, 2014 World Fencing
Championships and the 2015 World Aquatics Championships,
the 2017 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships and
the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
According to Shohamy et al. (2010) the shaping and perspective
of cities are influenced by the way policy makers decide to
market the cities’ identities. In April 2009, the Russian Patent
Office granted Kazan the right to brand itself as the "Third
Capital" of Russia, in 2009 it was chosen as the "Sports capital of
Russia" and it still is referred to as such. All of the above have
undoubtedly affected the linguistic landscape of Kazan, having
introduced English into the everyday life of its citizens.
Objectives / Purposes of study
The purpose of our research has been to analyse the linguistic
landscape of Kazan as a reflection of globalization trends and
assess the pragmatic potential of using Russian, Tatar and English
languages. The results of our research allow us to conclude that
the bilingual city of Kazan may well be considered an emerging
global one, as several obvious linguistic-cultural trends of using
the three languages can be observed.
Methodology
In our research we used the following methods: qualitative vs.
quantitative data analysis; observational research; linguistic field
research in data collection and analysis.
Results/Findings
The role of the Tatar language in the linguistic landscape of
Kazan
For the vast majority of Kazan residents, the Tatar language is a
marker of national identity, of sharing one common Tatar culture
which is linked with the notions of “national heritage”,
“uniqueness”, “local flavour”, “traditions and customs”. For this
reason, the instances of using Tatar names most often serve the

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pragmatic function of representing these values in the business
world. A recent marketing campaign “Люби свое, родное,
Татарстанское” (“Love your own, your native products made in
Tatarstan”) was aimed at increasing the social prestige of buying
local produce (a lot of which bears specific Tatar names having
no direct cognates in Russian) which is considered to be more
wholesome, natural, and of generally better quality due to long-
lived traditions of Tatar rural life, its agricultural practices,
production technologies or organic local crafts, most of which
have been preserved as national heritage from ancient times.
The Tatar language is the second official language of Tatarstan
Republic which is widely represented in the form of legislatively
obligatory translations in institution and company names and road
signs, especially the ones that were set up during the period of
Tatarstan’s national self-identification in 1990-2000s. Some signs
where Tatar street names and other indications are spelled using
the Latin alphabet, bear the marks of a failed attempt to convert
Tatar written system into Latin alphabet that were rejected by the
legislation of Russia. The most recently erected road signs do not
always bear the Tatar translation for the Russian geographical
names. However, there is no consistency in the observed cases of
dubbing Russian-Tatar or only Russian street names/road signs,
except for the fact that at particular historical periods, the ruling
ideology made the presence of Tatar translations for every major
city sign compulsory.
The role of the Russian language in the linguistic landscape of
Kazan
The Russian linguistic component, representing the majority
language spoken in Kazan, is viewed as an obvious marketing
tool for reaching towards Russia’s federal market in almost every
aspect of Kazan’s everyday life or economic activity: be it
business, educational or governmental institutions, tourist
attractions, business labelling and etc. The vast majority of road
signs, billboards and and posters in Kazan are in Russian which
reflects the idea of Kazan being a large tourist destination

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attracting visitors not just from Tatarstan and the neighbouring
areas, but from all over Russia.
The role of the English language in the linguistic landscape of
Kazan
English has entered the linguistic arena of Kazan around 1990-
2000s with an influx of businesses and cultural contacts from
foreign counties after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Since
then, it has retained the highest level of social prestige in the
minds of Kazan residents, which probably reflected the country-
wide trend of the time. Traces of English vocabulary can be
observed in the linguistic landscape of Kazan in various forms,
serving various purposes.
Starting from the 2000s, the development of home tourism in
Russia in general and in Tatarstan in particular, brought about the
first road signs in English, designed to inform potential foreign
tourists about the sights’ locations. The prevalence of English
dubbing in street signs in the vicinity of major tourist attractions
has become more obvious at major international sporting events
held in Kazan between 2005 and 2013, the 2013 Student
Universiade being the most significant event affecting the city’s
tourism and hospitality industries, as well as reflected in the
educational system, as Tatarstan’s sports and culture have entered
the international arena. This time period introduced English
translations for almost all road signs and/or company names
connected with the International Student Games. What was
baffling, however, is that most of such “translations” were just
letter-for-letter transliterations of Russian street names etc.,
bearing little or no resemblance to the real English language.
Without allowing the visitors to privilege of understanding what
the sign actually meant, those first English signs could be used by
foreign visitors to Kazan only for phonetic purposes – that is, for
pronouncing difficult geographic names correctly. It seemed that
such translations had been done by someone without any solid
background in English, but just for the sake of giving the city a
“global look” of English-speaking residents. It also seemed

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possible at that time that different companies might have been
contracted to do the translations for billboards and signposts, and
that they presumably had no connections to each other. That
could perhaps explain why the same geographical locations have
different English translations (e.g. the Russian word ‘центр’
meaning ‘city centre or downtown’ is written as ‘centr’/ ‘center’/
‘centre’ in several road signs in different parts of the city etc.).
Linguistic blends and bilingual fusions
Quite a novel trend in the development of the linguistic landscape
of Kazan may be observed in the creation of bilingual lexical
units, which use either the phonetic or graphical elements of two
languages spoken in Kazan. After extensive field research and
database analysis of Kazan’s official industry names and
addresses (over 3 thousand company names listed on the official
business portal of Kazan www.2gis.ru) the following trends have
been recorded.
1) Russian-Tatar blends
This category of newly-coined lexemes which are comprised of
Russian and Tatar graphical elements and morphemes present
certain interest from the anthropological, linguistic and
extralinguistic viewpoints. There have been recorded the
instances of Russian alphabet letters deliberately used to replace
specific Tatar alphabet symbols such as ә, ү, җ, h that are not
present in the Russian alphabet for the purpose of adapting Tatar
company names, brands and products that are not easy to
pronounce without some basic knowledge of Tatar. Thus, using
the conventional symbols of the Russian alphabet, the Tatar
words are “russified” in order to market Tatarstan’s industrial
produce in other regions of Russia as well. Compare, for instance,
the original name of Kazan’s soap factory “Нәфис” being spelled
as “Нэфис”, supermarket chain “Бәхетле” turned into “Бахетле”,
the same way as Tatar national foods and drinks “нәринә” (a type
of a drinking natural yoghurt) spelled as “наринэ”, “гөбәдиә” (a
type of pastry) – as “губадья”, etc. Names of educational
institutions, such as kindergartens, for instance, also get adapted

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to the Russian phonetic and spelling rules, as in “Алчачак”
(originally spelled “ал чәчәк” – a pink flower), “Кучтэнэч”
(from the original word “күчтәнәч” denoting a gift or souvenir).
Sometimes shops and cafes use a mixture of Tatar and Russian
words in its names to emphasize the national Tatar flavor in its
cuisine or product assortment. Thus, a souvenir shop “Казанский
кучтэнэч” attracts tourists by its original and “very Tatar-
sounding” name, and the florist shops “МинСин” (an abbreviated
Tatar phrase “Мин сине яратам” meaning “I love you”) and
“Жимешем” (which is a Russian-ized way of spelling the Tatar
word “җимешем” meaning “my berry, my sweetheart”)
obviously aimed their names at the speakers of Tatar who will
automatically associate these shops with their loved ones. The
same striving to attract Tatar speaking customers without scaring
away the speakers of Russian can be inferred about the
ophthalmological clinic “Кузляр” (from Tatar “күзләр” – eyes),
or “Тозелеш” construction company (from Tatar “төзелеш” -
construction).
2) Russian-English blends
In the business world, English company names have always been
associated with the idea of global business, international market
and world corporate standards; that is why apart from the actual
international brands/company names, Kazan has many local firms
with English names: “Flower Power”, “FlowerTouch” or “Duty
Free Flowers” florist salons, for instance, In many cases though,
the English names have little or no semantic connection with the
actual business the company is doing: “Grass” or “Syndicate” car
washes, “PentaHouse” wholesale company, “Point of
Experience” plumbing supplies store, “Spa Land” interior design
salon, “Sea Shell” or “Quickly” beauty salons. Some of these
names are simply transliterations of Russian words in letters of
English alphabet (e.g. “Pod Arkoy” florist shop (cf. Russian “под
аркой” meaning “under the arch”), “CvetOK” flower shop (cf.
Russian “цветок” meaning “flower”), “Sahar & Vosk” hair
removal studio (cf. Russian сахар – sugar and воск - wax), or

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phonetically similar versions of English words but with certain
spelling peculiarities (e.g. “Marketgaz” central heating supplies
shop, ‘Legaliti’ law firm, ‘Cheri lady’ jewelry store, hotel
‘Voyag’ etc.). Many company names sound English but are
written in Russian alphabet (“Кингдом” leisure centre (cf.
kingdom in English), “Аквалайф” car wash from English
(aqua+life), “Аквакар” (aqua+car), “Акватрейд” (aqua+trade)
and “Акванет” (aqua+net), “Органик маркет” (organic+market),
“Мэйн клиник +” (main+clinic), “Дентал Сити” (dental+city),
“Смайл клиник” (smile+clinic), “Санлайт” (sunlight) etc.)
obviously to sound more international, upscale and therefore
more appealing for potential clients and business partners. One
more peculiar category of blends is presented by Russian-English
words or phrases, where one morpheme or lexeme would be
written in English and the other one in Russian: “Цветочный
Jazz”, “Сантехника Стайл” and “Квалиstore” plumbing supplies
shop, “Ломжа dental” dental clinic, “Грэйтстрой” building
company, “Весна inworks” interior design bureau, etc.
3) Tatar-English blends
Some company names are unique blends of Tatar and English:
“Нур-хоум” textile shop (‘нур’ meaning ‘ray’ in Tatar and
‘хоум’ being a transcription of the English word ‘home’) or
“Бала-сити” kindergarten (‘бала’ meaning ‘baby’ in Tatar and
‘сити’ being a transcription of ‘city’ in English) etc. (Aristova,
2016). The patterns of word formation in such cases are quite
unpredictable, however the semantic structure of the final
nomination may be quite well accounted for and understandable
for those people who speak both Tatar and English. Thus, we get
“Tatflowers.ru” (Tatar+flowers), “Зурмаркет” plumbing supplies
shop (зур meaning “big” in Tatar + market), “Алгадент” dental
clinic (“алга” meaning “forward” in Tatar, and dent being the
lexeme for tooth), “Алтын групп” (“алтын” signifying “gold” in
Tatar and “групп” being the Russian transliteration of the English
word “group”), “ИТLE” butcher’s shop (from Tatar “ит”

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meaning “meat” and “LE” the English transliteration of the Tatar
adjective-forming suffix “ле”) etc.

Discussion
Thus, diverse and inconsistent linguistic practices involving
Russian, Tatar and English in the linguistic landscape of Kazan
reflect its transition from a bilingual to a multilingual city. This
process is still ongoing and its results will require synchronic and
diachronic analysis in order to assess the impact of Russian, Tatar
and English on the national identities of local population. The
changing linguistic urban landscape of Kazan may prove to be a
key to understanding deeper sociolinguistic processes happening
in Russian multiethnic society.

References
Aristova, N. 2016. Rethinking cultural identities in the context of
globalization: linguistic landscape of Kazan, Russia, as an
emerging global city: Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences
236: 153–160.
Blommaert, J. 2010. The sociolinguistics of globalization.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 210 p.
Brown, C., and Ainley, K. 2009. Understanding international
relations. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. 288 p.
Chaim, G. 2003. The limits of nationalism. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. 182 p.
Gunew, S. (2004). Haunted nations: the colonial dimensions of
multiculturalism. London: Routledge. – 184 p.
Holliday, A. 2010. Complexity in cultural identity. Language and
Intercultural Communication, 10(2): 165-177.
James, P. 2015. Despite the terrors of typologies: the importance
of understanding categories of difference and identity,
interventions. International Journal of Postcolonial Studies, 17
(2): 174-195.
Moha, E. 2005. Multilingualism, cultural identity, and education
in Morocco. Springer Science & Business Media. 228 p.

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Shohamy, E., Ben-Rafael, E., and Barni, M. 2010. Linguistic
landscape in the city. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. 384 p.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-82-96

CONCEPTUAL ADAPTATION IN THE ASPECT

OF INTERCULTURAL SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION

Daria E. Barasheva

Sevastopol State University

Sevastopol, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The purpose of the study was to distinguish certain theoretical
regularities of the conceptual adaptation in intercultural scientific
communication problem and infer a principle of its conceptual
analysis. Theoretical analysis method is used. The following
theoretical regularities were concluded.
1. Understanding regularity. Understanding is stipulated by
general cognitive-discoursive regularities of knowledge
acquisition and use. These regularities refer to the general
cognitive organization of human knowledge and the specific
organization of collective scientific knowledge that forms definite
general ground for all people of science and for the members of a
scientific community understanding.
Difficulties of understanding are revealed when certain specific
cognitive-discoursive features come to a contradiction. Some
discrepancies are revealed within particular specifics of content,
compositional, and modus features of a scientific text, lexical
representation of some scientific concepts as terms, linguistic
similarities that cause conceptual interferences, and particular
discoursive traditions.

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2. Sociocultural regularity. Sociocultural commitment of
cognitive linguistics (N.N. Boldyrev and O.G. Dubrovskaya)
logically comes from other commitments and principled
fundamentals, takes the account of language as cognitive and
social one, and individual knowledge as an individual
configuration of collective knowledge, and states that cognitive
and sociocultural regularities influence cognitive contexts
formation and function in the dimensions as static vs dynamic,
collective vs individual, and metaconceptual structure.
3. Conceptual adaptation regularity. Understanding in
communication is concerned with adaptation. The adaptation
demands consistencies and inconsistencies detecting, is ensured
by language interpretation, demands mutual participants’
conceptual alignments, in particular the alignments of dominant
cognitive structures, and is manifested on conceptual and
linguistic levels. Consistencies ensure consonance;
inconsistencies further cognitive activity. Interpretation ensures
conceptual adaptation accomplishment.
4. Conceptual adaptation in intercultural scientific
communication. That is specific within two cross-related
contexts. They are science and culture. Both must ensure
conceptual consistencies and cause inconsistencies. The former is
grounded by the general regularities of encyclopaedic and
scientific knowledge and language acquisition and use, and
cognitive-discoursive activity in communication. The latter
concerns with their specifics that are determined by the factors of
a cultural language used in communication by the participants,
national-cultural traditions manifested in their scientific
knowledge, and their individual knowledge.
General knowledge of science must contribute understanding as it
is the participants’ collective knowledge but a language may
cause conceptual interferences. Subjective knowledge may cause
inconsistencies but that is a factor motivating the communicators’
cognitive-discoursive scientific activity.

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Since communicators share a language, that language activates
the conceptual domains in their cognitions. Since that language is
native either only for one of them or neither of them, the
interlocutors have to adapt their conceptual systems to the means
of that language, considering the need of adaptation to the set of
other discourse context conditions. Since a language influences
how its users conceptualize, categorize, and interpret information,
and how they perform the acquired knowledge in discourse, then
consistencies and inconsistencies are expected within all these
processes.
From the above mentioned it follows: understanding in
intercultural scientific communication, as in any other kind of
social verbal communication, is achieved by conceptual
adaptation which is ensured by consistencies and inconsistencies
detecting, and interpreting them adequately to a communicative
context; external contexts and cognitive contexts, and collective
and individual language knowledge “what” and “how” influence
the success of that; in intercultural scientific communication these
contexts are science and culture.
To study the specifics of conceptual adaptation in intercultural
scientific communication practically, the levels of that adaptation
should be considered within the conceptual analysis principle
“from discourse performance to conceptual sense”. The levels are
assumed: text or utterance format within its thematic context,
lexical-grammatical categorization, lexical-semantic
conceptualization, cognitive contexts content and structure
formation, modus interpretation, sense inference.
Keywords: intercultural scientific communication,
understanding, the context of science and culture, conceptual
adaptation, interpretation

Introduction
Optimization of intercultural scientific communications is
objectively a crucially important actual necessity of the global
world, and all and each interacting states. Strategy for the

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scientific and technological development of the Russian
Federation includes an urgent objective to elaborate effective
technologies of mutually beneficial intercultural scientific
interaction (Strategy for the scientific and technological
development of the Russian Federation, 2016: 21).
Definite problems in that sphere have been distinguished by
recent scientific investigations, in particular from the perspective
of cognitive linguistics. In either event they all come to the
problem of understanding that concerns with conceptual
adaptation of the communicators who are all the members of a
scientific community but come from different cultures and speak
different languages.
In spite having some problems revealed, a definite systematized
theoretical conception that would explain a conceptual basis of
intercultural scientific communication has not been introduced.
The study does not claim to introduce a complete conception
though to contribute a principle of conceptual adaptation in
understanding the problem of intercultural scientific
communication.
The purpose of the study is to distinguish certain theoretical
regularities of the conceptual adaptation in intercultural scientific
communication problem and infer a principle of its conceptual
analysis.
Methodology and sub headings
The theoretical analysis method is used.
1. Actual problems of intercultural scientific communication
from cognitive linguistic perspective
Any scientific cognition is related to subjective dimension; a
socially-culturally determined subject is the source of any
knowledge, including scientific knowledge (Chernyakova N.S.,
2001). Scientific knowledge may be kept and conveyed by the
means of different languages; cultural type influences the
specifics of content, compositional and modus features of a
scientific text (Emuzova E.A., 2004). National specifics of
scientific knowledge influences subjects’ mutual understanding;

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there are both universal and national specific features in lexical
representation of some scientific concepts (Kopylova T.R., 2007).
Science transforms the meanings of a natural language into
scientific terms (Sorokina E.A., 2007). General scientific
traditions stipulate different language discourses equating, which
causes interferences that obstruct it (Notina E.A., 2007). The
language collective knowledge of a community serves a starting
point for scientific cognition; the elements of everyday
knowledge are the mediators of the scientific knowledge and thus
reveal the property of cognitive potential (Drozdova T.V., 2008).
There are a few contradictions in intercultural scientific
communication between cognitive bases of different cultures
representatives, individual cognitive spaces of an addresser and
addressee, cognitive spaces of a society in different cultures, and
communicative competences of different cultures representatives
(Khomutova T.N., 2008). Everyday cognition and scientific
cognition are interrelated and complementary; their specifics
concern terms bases (sensual reflection vs rational acquisition)
(Novodranova V.A., 2009). There are general and some national-
cultural features of styles of thinking in forming terms,
structuring material, and representing precedent discourse
(Tomskaya M.V., 2011). There is a problem of language
asymmetry in intercultural scientific communication that
concerns with the scientific-cognitive activity variant traditions in
different cultures (Chernyavskaya V.E., 2017).
Thus, the identified features depend upon socially and culturally
determined cognitive contexts (science and culture) and must
correspond with the specifics of participants’ conceptual
adaptation in communication.
2. “Sociocultural commitment of cognitive linguistics” in the
aspect of communication
There are a few basic prerequisite grounds for “sociocultural
commitment”. Cognitive commitment states that language and
linguistic organization “reflect general cognitive principles”
(Evans V., 2007: 19). Generalization commitment states that

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there are “common organizing principles across different
language ‘systems’” which include “common” conceptual
mechanisms (ibid: 88-89). The “embodied cognition”
fundamental considers human ability to construe the world from
what is perceived psychic-physiologically, e.g. in (Lakoff, G.,
Johnson M., 1999), (Wilson, A. D., Golonka S., 2013); humans
are “bodies in the mind” (Dirven R., Wolf H-G., Polzenhagen F.,
2007: 1217). Dependence of meaning upon a context is a
principled condition of a discourse interpretation and
understanding (Kamp H., Genabin J., Reyle U., 2011).
Sociocultural environment influences not the general principles
of cognitive organization but the specifics of how humans
conceptualize, categorize, and objectify their knowledge in the
formats of language and culture in the process of adaptation to
life conditions (Kubryakova E.S., 2008). Since a subject as a
source of knowledge is always socially-culturally determined,
knowledge is precisely socially-culturally determined
(Chernyakova N.S., 2001). Culture, language and thought are
“basic patterns of behaviour, discourse, and reasoning in a given
community”; they “co-occur” in ongoing experience of
community members; “the cultural and linguistic forms express,
and are in turn interpreted on the basis of, cultural models”;
collective knowledge is “acquired and stored in the individual
minds of the community’s members” (Dirven R., Wolf H-G.,
Polzenhagen F., 2007: 1216-1217).
“Sociocultural commitment of cognitive linguistics” is precisely
introduced in (Boldyrev N.N., Dubrovskaya O.G., 2015). It takes
the account of language as cognitive and social, and follows from
the theoretical concept of context dimensions elaboration. The
commitment represents the view on cognitive contexts as static vs
dynamic, collective vs individual, and the metaconceptual
structure. In static aspect they “represent conceptual and thematic
domains as cognitive models encoded by language”; in dynamic
aspect “they profile meanings” which are made by participants
“as the result of the process of selection, classification and

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evaluation that constitute the cognitive-discoursive interpretant”
(ibid: 181-182). Encyclopaedic and sociocultural knowledge is
presented by collective vs individual dimension; the
metaconceptual structure “encompasses ROLES,
STEREOTYPES, VALUES, NORMS, SPACE, TIME,
LANGUAGE, PERFORMANCE as metaconcepts that establish
language use and discourse construction” (ibid: 182). Subject’s
individual knowledge is a collective knowledge configuration
represented by a language (Boldyrev N.N., 2017: 11),
(Dubrovskaya O.G., 2017: 90).
Thus, general cognitive regularities and collective knowledge
contribute understanding in communication; specific features
determined by different cultural, social, and individual
experiences influence the character and degree of understanding.
3. Conceptual adaptation from a perspective of cognitive
linguistics
Understanding is stipulated by certain consistencies between
language repertoires and cognitive schemas of communicators
(Fillmore Ch., 1983: 111). Similar cognitive models of
discoursive events ground the similarity of communicative
discourse prognostication, which ensures a success in
communication (Tsurikova L.V., 2003: 174-175). A principled
regularity of taxonomy is that from three levels of semantic
categorization the basic one is “salient” (Taylor J.R., 2008: 48), is
“the cornerstone” (Roach E., 1978: 14) as it is “appropriate for
using, thinking about, or naming an object in most situations in
which the object occurs” (ibid: 43). Communicators’ common
world views further a collective intention to an action (Kaal B.,
2014).
Verbal communication considers the use of all acquired by men
knowledge about the world and refers thus to the conceptual
interaction of communicators that means mutual adaptation of
actual conceptual content by the participants (Болдырев Н.Н.,
2017 (a): 13). The latter concerns conceptual and linguistic
levels. The interaction on the conceptual level considers:

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consistency between participants’ structural-content dominants
and between their concrete cognitive contexts; adequate
evaluation of each other’s conceptual systems and knowledge;
possession of collective knowledge and language experience of
structuring and representing it; knowledge of meaning forming
principles and mechanisms (Boldyrev N.N., 2012), (Boldyrev
N.N., 2017a). Linguistic level considers an adequate use of the
lexical and grammatical means appropriate to a particular
discourse, which would ensure necessary cognitive contexts
activation and prevent wrong or multiple interpretation
(Болдырев Н.Н., 2017 (a)).
Success of human interaction in verbal communication in
particular depends upon the mutual alignment of interlocutors’
dominant cognitive structures (Boldyrev N.N., Grigorieva V.S.,
2018: 23). Five cognitive dominants are argued as main
principles of verbal interaction organization: thematic (the choice
of mental structures and language representations), subjective
(the roles of communicators and the individual configurations of
their collective knowledge), sociocultural (collective knowledge
formed in the context of a definite society or culture),
instrumental (the choice of types of utterances and language
means for strategies and tactics), and intentional (interlocutors’
intentions).
Interaction and structure are introduced as two main principles of
human communication understanding (Beebe S.A., 2015). Both
are inherent: the former makes communication as “the process of
acting information” possible; the latter organizes information in a
message (ibid: 19-20). In correspondence to the message,
structure determines general collective knowledge, and
interaction reveals its specifics (ibid: 21). Successful
communication needs a balance between the structure and
interaction (ibid: 20). That depends upon identifying similarities
and differences. Similarities in communication (principle of
structure) determine the needed predictability and lead to more
symmetry; differences (the principle of interaction) determine the

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predictability decreasing and lead to more asymmetry (ibid: 21-
22). “Meaning, then, results when human interpret the structure
and interaction of communication message” (ibid: 22).
Interpretation as a process refers to the gradual extension or
constriction of a current set of interpreter’s hypotheses as for a
conceived structure (a resulting interpretation) of an object
interpreting (e.g. an utterance); the extension results from a single
hypothetical interpretation splitting, and the constriction results
from a hypothetical interpretation failing to match the alternatives
correctly (Demyankov V.Z., 1981: 369). Construal and
interpretation should be distinguished for they have their
specifics. Construal is a human “ability to conceive and portray
the same situation in alternative ways” (Langacker R.W., 2010:
31) or “our manifest capacity for conceptualizing the same
situation in alternative ways” which is “inescapable” (ibid: 34). It
inherently concerns with any knowledge occurring. A unique
function of language is interpretation; that ensures any operations
with knowledge can be performed by an individual in the purpose
of further communicative conveying or activating that knowledge
in an addressee’s cognition; in that sense interpretation refers to
the language cognitive activity of an individual that makes his
subjective understanding of an object be revealed in its results
(Boldyrev N.N., 2011: 11). It is stipulated by the direct
dependency on cognitive processes of conceptualization and
categorization and consists of variable relations of encyclopaedic
and language knowledge, and interpreting and interpreted
concepts, on systemic and functional levels of language
representation (ibid: 16).
Findings
1. Understanding regularity. The above represented problems of
intercultural scientific communication come to the general
problem of understanding. Understanding is stipulated by general
cognitive-discoursive regularities of knowledge acquisition and
use. These regularities refer to the general cognitive organization
of human knowledge and the specific organization of collective

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scientific knowledge that forms definite general ground for all
people of science and for the members of a scientific community
understanding.
Difficulties of understanding are revealed when certain specific
cognitive-discoursive features come to a contradiction. Some
discrepancies are revealed within particular specifics of content,
compositional, and modus features of a scientific text, lexical
representation of some scientific concepts as terms, linguistic
similarities that cause conceptual interferences, and particular
discoursive traditions.
2. Sociocultural regularity. Sociocultural commitment of
cognitive linguistics formulated by N.N. Boldyrev and O.G.
Dubrovskaya logically comes from other commitments and
principled fundamentals. They are cognitive commitment,
generalization commitment, the principled “embodied” cognition,
context dependence of meaning, sociocultural determinacy of our
knowledge. Sociocultural commitment takes the account of
language as cognitive and social one, and individual knowledge
as an individual configuration of collective knowledge, and states
that cognitive and sociocultural regularities influence cognitive
contexts formation and function in the dimensions as static vs
dynamic, collective vs individual, and metaconceptual structure.
3. Conceptual adaptation regularity. Understanding in
communication is concerned with adaptation. The adaptation
demands consistencies and inconsistencies detecting, is ensured
by language interpretation, demands mutual participants’
conceptual alignments, in particular the alignments of dominant
cognitive structures (thematic, subjective, sociocultural,
instrumental, and intentional), and is manifested on conceptual
(cognitive contexts and dominants, conceptual evaluation,
collective knowledge “what” and “how” possession) and
linguistic (lexical-grammatical means adequate to a context)
levels. Consistencies ensure consonance; inconsistencies further
cognitive activity. Interpretation ensures conceptual adaptation
accomplishment.

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Discussion
Conceptual adaptation in intercultural scientific communication
regularity concerns the following. Conceptual adaptation in
intercultural scientific communication is specific within two
cross-related contexts. They are science and culture. Both must
ensure conceptual consistencies and cause inconsistencies. The
former is grounded by the general regularities of encyclopaedic
and scientific knowledge and language acquisition and use, and
cognitive-discoursive activity in communication. The latter
concerns with their specifics that are determined by the factors of
a cultural language used in communication by the participants,
national-cultural traditions manifested in their scientific
knowledge, and their individual knowledge.
General knowledge of science must contribute understanding as it
is the participants’ collective knowledge but a language may
cause conceptual interferences. Subjective knowledge may cause
inconsistencies but that is a factor motivating the communicators’
cognitive-discoursive scientific activity.
Since communicators share a language, that language activates
the conceptual domains in their cognitions. Since that language is
native either only for one of them or neither of them, the
interlocutors have to adapt their conceptual systems to the means
of that language, considering the need of adaptation to the set of
other discourse context conditions. Since a language influences
how its users conceptualize, categorize, and interpret information,
and how they perform the acquired knowledge in discourse, then
consistencies and inconsistencies are expected within all these
processes.
From the above mentioned it follows: understanding in
intercultural scientific communication, as in any other kind of
social verbal communication, is achieved by conceptual
adaptation which is ensured by consistencies and inconsistencies
detecting, and interpreting them adequately to a communicative
context; external contexts and cognitive contexts, and collective
and individual language knowledge “what” and “how” influence

92

92
the success of that; in intercultural scientific communication these
contexts are science and culture.
To study the specifics of conceptual adaptation in intercultural
scientific communication practically, the levels of that adaptation
should be considered within the conceptual analysis principle
“from discourse performance to conceptual sense”. The levels are
assumed: text or utterance format within its thematic context,
lexical-grammatical categorization, lexical-semantic
conceptualization, cognitive contexts content and structure
formation, modus interpretation, sense inference.

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Process of Verbal Communication. Cognitive Studies of
Language 11: 39–45.
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Boldyrev, N.N., Dubrovskaya, O.G. 2015. Sociocultural
Commitment of Cognitive Linguistics via dimentions of context.
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Boldyrev, N.N., Grigorieva V.S. 2018. Cognitive Dominants of
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Chernyakova, N.S. 2001. Science as a Phenomenon of Culture.
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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-96-112

LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL CONTENT

OF THE CONCEPT OF FLATTERY IN THE ENGLISH
AND RUSSIAN LINGUISTIC CULTURES

Elizaveta B. Godunova

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
The article analyzes the modern interpretation of the term
"concept", highlights the main approaches to the study of
concepts, presents the characteristics of the concept "flattery” in
the English and Russian linguistic cultures from the perspective
of cognitive-epistemological approach (V.I. Karasik).
The aim of the article is to consider the content aspects of the
concept "flattery" in the Russian and English linguocultures.
Research methods include general scientific hypothetical-
deductive method, contextual analysis; comparative analysis;
descriptive method.
The study is relevant, because a deep understanding of the
conceptual sphere of linguoculture allows to cover the linguistic
and mental characteristics of native speakers more fully, what
promotes the formation of the system of intercultural interaction.
The subject of this study is the concept of flattery in the Russian
and English linguistic and cultural environment. It was found that
this concept can be classified as universal, this is confirmed by
the high degree of its "cultural development", i.e. lexical

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development of the conceptual field (Fedunin, E.A. Lyashenko,
I.B., 2017: 62).
However, like other universal concepts has certain national
characteristics. V.V. Leontiev refers this concept to the category
of emotional concepts (Leontiev V.V., 2000).
In the work as the basic approach is adopted the approach of V.I.
Karasik (2002), which offers a three-tiered structure of the
concept, highlighting the conceptual / information-factual,
figurative and perceptual and value components in its structure.
The last component is the most interesting, because it reveals a
system of assessments, attitudes and norms of behavior.
Consideration of the concept from the position of this approach
has allowed to reveal its linguistic and cultural content the most
fully. Thus, the concept "flattery" is interpreted by the author
from the position of the analysis of its conceptual, value and
figurative aspects.
The concept proposed by Z.D. Popova and I.A. Sternin (Sternin I.
A., 2001)is used in the analysis of the conceptual aspect of the
concept, according to which the concept is organized on the
principle of the nucleus and periphery. The study showed that the
core of the conceptual field of the concept under consideration is
the lexeme "flattery", the zone of the near periphery includes
lexemes covering the largest number of features inherent to the
studied type (lie, deception, hypocrisy, manipulation), and the
zone of the far periphery consists of lexemes describing the
smallest number of such features. The following Russian lexemes
are in the periphery zone: dvoedushie, dvoemyslie, dvulichie,
dvurushnichestvo, iezuitstvo, komediya, krivodushie, lest',
lzhivost', lukavost', lukavstvo, neiskrennost', pritvornost',
pritvorstvo, tartyufizm, fal'sh', farisejstvo, fars, filisterstvo,
hanzhestvo, plutovstvo, kovarstvo, koryst', cinizm, raschet and
others.
In English, the concept "flattery" is transmitted by the following
lexical units: adulation, cajolement, flam, flattery, lipsalve,
sawder, soft sawder, soft soap, sycophancy, treacle, to blarney. In

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addition, the concept of "flattery" is reflected in many
phraseological phrases. The core of the concept consists of
lexemes: flattery, adulation (Leontiev, V.V., 2000).
The analysis of the value component of the concept "flattery"
showed that the value characteristic of flattery is very similar in
the considered linguistic cultures, but it can have different value
significance on the individual level. In the value aspect "flattery"
is considered as a way of manipulating. The attitude to flattery is
negative both in Russian and in English as evidenced by the
lexical and semantic field of the concept (sycophancy,
obsequious praise, obsequiousness, servility). On the other hand,
the practical material of the study showed that flattery is not a
homogeneous cognitive formation. Flattery can act as an
individual personal quality, exaggerated because of the desire to
please the addressee, and it can be used not for the purpose of
causing harm or manipulative influence.
The paper also analyzes the figurative aspect of the concept of
"flattery", the study shows that flattery is associated with
falsehood, sweetness in both linguistic cultures.
The study demonstrates that the concept "flattery" has a similar
semantic and lexical expression in the English and Russian
linguistic cultures, establishes the similarity of the conceptual and
value aspects of this concept in the studied linguistic cultures.
However, there are some differences at the level of the figurative
component because of the different mentality of the
representatives of this culture.
Keywords: flattery, concept, linguistic culture.

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ЛИНГВОКУЛЬТУРОЛОГИЧЕСКОЕ СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
КОНЦЕПТА «ЛЕСТЬ» В АНГЛИЙСКОЙ И РУССКОЙ
ЛИНГВОКУЛЬТУРАХ

Елизавета Б. Годунова

Институт иностранных языков

Российский университет дружбы народов (РУДН)
Москва, Россия,
e-mail: [email protected]
Аннотация.
В статье проанализированы современные трактовки понятия
«концепт», выделены основные подходы к исследованию
концептов, представлена характеристика концепта «лесть»
(«flattery») в английской и русской лингвокультуре с позиции
когнитивно-эпистемологического подхода (В.И. Карасик).
Цель статьи - рассмотрение содержательных аспектов
концепта «лесть» в русской и английской лингвокультурах.
Методы исследования включают общенаучный гипотетико-
дедуктивный, контекстуальный анализ; сопоставительный
анализ; описательный метод.
Проведенное исследование актуально, ибо глубокое
понимание концептосферы лингвокультуры позволяет более
полно охватить языковые и ментальные особенности
носителей языка, что, в свою очередь, способствует
формированию системы межкультурного взаимодействия.
Предметом данного исследования является концепт лести в
русской и английской языково-культурной среде. Указанный
концепт относится к категории универсальных, что
подтверждается высокой степенью его "культурной
разработанности", т.е. лексической разработанностью
концептуальной области (Fedunin E.A., Lyashenko I.B., 2017:
62). Однако, как и многие другие универсальные концепты,
изучаемый концепт имеет определенные национальные

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особенности. В.В. Леонтьев относит данный концепт к
категории эмоциональных (Leontiev V.V., 2000).
Рассматривая структуру концепта, мы основывались на том
знании и информации, которые он представляет, его
строении, структуре, функционировании и развитии. В
работе в качестве базового принят подход В.И. Карасик
(2002), который предлагает трехкомпонентную структуру
концепта, выделив в его структуре понятийный /
информационно-фактуальный, образно-перцептивный и
ценностный компоненты. Особый интерес представляет
именно последний компонент, т.к. он раскрывает систему
оценок, отношений и норм поведения. Рассмотрение
концепта именно с позиций данного подхода позволило
наиболее полно раскрыть его лингвокультурологическое
содержание. Таким образом, концепт «лесть»
интерпретируется автором статьи с позиции анализа его
понятийного, ценностного и образного аспектов.
При анализе понятийной составляющей концепта
использована концепция, предложенная З.Д. Поповой и И.А.
Стерниным (Sternin I. A., 2001), согласно которой концепт
организован по принципу ядра и периферии. Исследование
показало, что ядро понятийного поля рассматриваемого
концепта составляет лексема «лесть», в зону ближней
периферии входят лексемы, охватывающие наибольшее
количество признаков, присущих исследуемому типажу
(ложь, обман, лицемерие, манипуляция), а зону дальней
периферии составляют лексемы, описывающие наименьшее
число таких признаков. На периферии находятся следующие
русские лексемы: двоедушие, двоемыслие, двуличие,
двурушничество, иезуитство, комедия, криводушие, лесть,
лживость, лукавость, лукавство, неискренность,
притворность, притворство, тартюфизм, фальшь,
фарисейство, фарс, филистерство, ханжество,
плутовство, коварство, корысть, цинизм, расчет и другие.

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В английском языке концепт «лесть» передается
следующими лексическими единицами: adulation, cajolement,
flam, flattery, lipsalve, sawder, soft sawder, soft soap,
sycophancy, treacle, to blarney. Кроме того, понятие «лесть»
отражено во многих фразеологических оборотах. Ядро
концепта составляют лексемы: flattery, adulation (Leontiev,
V.V., 2000).
Анализ ценностной составляющей концепта «лесть» показал,
что ценностная характеристика лести во многом схожа в
рассматриваемых лингвокультурах, однако может иметь
различную ценностную значимость на индивидуальном
уровне. В ценностном аспекте лесть рассматривается в
качестве способа манипулирования адресатом. Отношение к
лести как в русской, так и в англоязычной среде является
отрицательным, о чем свидетельствует лексико-
семантическое поле номинации концепта (низкопоклонство,
подхалимство, угодливое восхваление, угодничество,
холопство). С другой стороны, практический материал
исследования показал, что лесть не является однородным
когнитивным образованием, то есть лесть может выступать
индивидуальным личностным качеством, преувеличенным
желанием угодить адресату, угодливостью, и не быть
использовано с целью причинения вреда или
манипулятивного воздействия.
В работе также проанализирован образный аспект концепта
«лесть», установлено, что в обеих лингвокультурах лесть
ассоциируется с фальшью (fake), слащавостью (sugary),
хитростью (cunning).
Проведенное исследование демонстрирует, что концепт
«лесть» («flattery») имеет близкое семантическое и
лексическое выражение в английской и русской
лингвокультурах, устанавливает схожесть понятийного и
ценностного аспектов данного концепта в изучаемых
лингвокультурах. Однако на уровне образного компонента
наблюдаются различия, представленные специфическими

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образами, обусловленными ментальностью представителей
данной лингвокультуры.
Ключевые слова: лесть, концепт, лингвокультура.

Вступление
Любая нация обладает собственной концептосферой, которая
является продуктом культурно-исторического опыта всей
национальной общности. Поэтому выяснение сущности
концептов, на основе которых формируются образы того или
иного этноса, необходимо для его адекватного
воспроизведения в другой языковой и культурной среде.
Процесс формирования и видоизменения концептов в
сознании представителей любого национально-культурного
социума является длительным и проходит определенные
стадии развития, как у отдельного индивида, так и у целого
социума. Факторами, влияющими на содержание и средства
его вербализации, выступают социально-экономические
условия, исторические события в определенную эпоху,
эстетические и материальные предпочтения и тому
подобное.
Концепт в современной лингвистической науке понимается
как основная единица культуры в ментальном мире человека,
включающая в себя информацию об актуальном или
возможном положение вещей в мире, то есть то, что человек
думает, знает, предусматривает. Как элементы
концептуальной картины мира концепты интегрируют всю
парадигму миров, начиная с восприятие жизненного мира и
обыденности к научной интерпретации, отраженной в
понятиях (Batsevich F.S., 2004: 11). Иными словами,
концепт - это основной элемент культуры в ментальном мире
человека или этноса; ментальное образование, обозначенное
в той или иной степени этносемантической спецификой.
Предмет и цель исследования
Актуальность данного исследования состоит в том, что
глубокое понимание концептосферы лингвокультуры

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позволяет более полно охватить языковые и ментальные
особенности носителей языка, что способствует
фомированию системы межкультурного взаимодействия.
Предметом данного исследования является вербализация
концепта лести в русской и английской языково-культурной
среде. Указанный концепт относится к категории
универсальных (Batsevich F.S., 2004), однако, как и другие
универсальные концепты, имеет определенные
национальные особенности. Цель настоящей статьи, таким
образом, - исследование содержательных аспектов концепта
«лесть» в русской и английской лингвокультуре.

Методология и методы
В современном обществе лесть является своего рода
социальным требованием. В большинстве случаев лесть как
форма коммуникации представляет собой ситуацию так
называемого прозрачного обмана, так как любой разумный
взрослый человек отдаёт себе отчет о своих реальных
достоинствах, способностях и возможностях и не может не
понимать, что собеседник их преувеличивает. Концепт
«лесть» на сегодняшний день является объектом немногих
исследований. Основными исследователя этого вопроса
считаются Х. Вайнрих, А. Вежбицкая, Л. Коулман, П. Кей,
А.И. Морозова и др. Наиболее полно данный концепт
раскрывается в работах С.В. Дорды и Е.С. Петелиной.
Последняя рассматривает его в рамках теории речевых актов
и сопоставляет с речевым актом похвалы (Petelina E.S., 1985).
Кроме того, лесть как эмоциональный концепт
анализируется в диссертационном исследовании В.В.
Леонтьева, в котором лесть изучается в сравнении со
смежными явлениями: с похвалой и комплиментом (Leontiev
V.V., 2000).
Все перечисленные исследователи рассматривают лесть как
одну из основных форм коммуникативного взаимодействия,
при которой человек использует искаженную подачу

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определенной личностно-ориентированной информации
(обман).
Так, исследуемый концепт лести является
основополагающим и универсальным для разных языковых и
концептуальных картин мира, а также для представителей
различных лингвокультурных сообществ. Лесть - сложная
категория мировоззрения, которая привлекала и привлекает
внимание исследователей еще со времен античности. С
лингвистической точки зрения лесть - малоисследованная
категория. Внимание к концепту "лесть" связано с
углубленным исследованием языка, смещением ориентации
лингвистических исследований в сторону когнитивно-
коммуникативной парадигмы.
Исследованию концептов в русле современной
лингвистической и смежных наук посвящено немало трудов
и научных исследований. Их проблематика охватывает
теории концептов (М.М. Полюжин), историю и методику
когнитивного анализа (С.Д. Попова, И.А. Стернин),
методику выявления концептов (А.П. Бабушкин),
исследования структуры концептов, исследования концептов
в национальном сознании (А.В. Городецкая, В.Ф. Старко,
Ю.С. Белозерова, И.В. Змиева), а также согласование
категорий "понятие-значение-концепт" (М.М. Болдырев, С.Г.
Шафиков, Р.В. Угринюк) и др. Принято выделять три
основных направления исследований в области современной
лингвистики, центральным понятием которых выступает
концепт, это - когнитивная лингвистика (работы
А.П. Бабушкина, Е.С. Кубряковой, З.Д. Поповой,
И.А. Стернина, Н.Н. Болдырева и др.), психолингвистика
(А.А. Залевская и Г.М. Фрумкина) и лингвокультурологии
(С.Г. Воркачев, В.И. Карасик, Г.Г. Слышкин, Д.С. Лихачев,
А. Вежбицкая, Ю.С. Степанов и др.).
Наибольшей популярностью в отечественной лингвистике в
последние годы пользуется так называемый когнитивно-
эпистемологический подход к изучению концепта. Его

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представители (О.В. Варзин, В.И. Карасик, В.А. Маслова,
Т.В. Матвеева, Н.В. Никитин, Н.М. Полюжин, З.Д. Попова,
О.С. Селиванова, И.А. Стерин, А.А. Хорошун, О.С. Яковлева
и др.), рассматривая структуру концепта, основываются на
том знании и информации, которые он представляет, его
строении, структуре, функционировании и развитии.
В.И. Карасик (Karasik V.I., 2002) выделяет в структуре
концепта образно-перцептивный, понятийный или
информационно-фактуальный компоненты и ценностную
составляющую, т.е. оценку и нормы поведения.
Понятийный субстрат концепта, по мнению большинства
исследователей, является определяющим. Этот элемент
формируется фактической информацией о реальном или
воображаемом объекте, который служит основой для
образования концепта. По мнению Г.Г. Слышкина, к
понятийной составляющей концепта следует отнести также
слои или признаки, выделенные Ю.С. Степановым.
Структура концепта, по его утверждению, включает в себя:
основной (актуальный) признак; дополнительный
(пассивный, исторический) признак; внутреннюю форму
(обычно не осознаваемую) (Batsevich F.S., 2004: 94).
Образная составляющая лингвокультурного концепта
связана со способом познания действительности. В отличие
от понятийного компонента, она не всегда полностью
подлежит рефлексии. Образную сторону концепта
составляют все наивные представления, закрепленные в
языке, внутренние формы слов, которые служат для
выражения этого концепта, устойчивые мыслительные
картинки.
Ценностная составляющая не менее важна: «именно
ценностный принцип лежит в основе культуры, а концепт, в
свою очередь, служит ее исследованию» (Petelina E.S., 1985:
45). В то же время для ментальных концептов ценностный
компонент не является специфическим, поскольку он присущ

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любому ментальном образованию, что отражает духовную
жизнь человека.
По нашему убеждению, рассмотрение концепта именно с
позиций данного подхода позволит наиболее полно раскрыть
его лингвокультурологическое содержание.
Таким образом, концепт «лесть» может быть
интерпретирован с позиции анализа его понятийного,
ценностного и образного аспектов.
Результаты
При анализе понятийной составляющей концепта мы
руководствовались концепцией, предложенной З.Д. Поповой
и И.А. Стерниным (Sternin I. A., 2001), согласно которой
лингвокультурный концепт организован по принципу ядра и
периферии. Ядро понятийного поля рассматриваемого
концепта составляет понятие «лесть», в зону ближней
периферии входят понятия, охватывающие наибольшее
количество признаков, присущих исследуемому типажу, а
зону дальней периферии составят, соответственно, понятия,
включающие наименьшее число таких признаков.
Анализ словарей и справочной литературы позволил
установить, что в ядро номинативного поля концепта «лесть»
входят лексические единицы «мимикрия», «ложь» и др., на
периферии рассматриваются русские лексемы: двоедушие,
двоемыслие, двуличие, двурушничество, иезуитство,
комедия, криводушие, лживость, лукавость, лукавство,
неискренность, притворность, притворство, тартюфизм,
фальшь, фарисейство, фарс, филистерство, ханжество,
плутовство, коварство, корысть, цинизм, расчет и другие.
В английском языке концепт «лесть» передается
следующими лексическими единицами: adulation, cajolement,
flam, flattery, lipsalve, sawder, soft sawder, soft soap,
sycophancy, treacle, to blarney. Кроме того, понятие «лесть»
отражено во многих фразеологических оборотах: to lick smb's
boots, to pay courts to smb., to oil the wheels. Используются
также лексемы cant, carnival of second-hand emotions, cringe,

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convention, deceit, deceitfulness, deception, dissembling,
duplicity, false, falsity, fog-smitten land, good form, humbug,
hypocrite, imposter, imposture, insincerity, Jesuit, moral asthma,
pharisaism, phariseeism, phoneyness or phoniness (informal),
pretence, sanctimoniousness, sham, a sort of national illusion.
speciousness, two-facedness, Pharisee, phylactery.
На основании толковых и этимологических словарей
русского языка лесть можно рассматривать как «угодливое
восхваление, лицемерное восхищение кем или чем-нибудь,
внушаемое корыстными побуждениями» (Leontiev V.V.,
2000), «похвала с корыстной целью, лукавая угодливость,
притворное одобрение, униженное потворство».
Сложность изучения концепта лести заключается именно в
том, что она обычно претендует на то, чтобы реципиент
воспринимал ее как правду. Поэтому проблемой основной
идентификации высказываний на предмет лести является
именно выявление тех средств, которые маскируют лесть под
правду, выраженную в виде похвалы, комплимента и пр.
Среди таких средств исследователи отмечают восхваление,
гиперболу, попытки завоевания симпатии собеседника и
тому подобное. Еще одним основополагающим моментом в
процессе идентификации лести является контекст в широком
смысле этого слова и знания экстралингвистической
ситуации. Иными словами, если говорящий, обращаясь к
своему руководителю, говорит что-то вроде: "Мне в жизни
не случалось встречать такого опытного, умного человека.
Только такой человек как вы может так четко
сформулировать цель, так чутко относиться к подчиненным
и справедливо их наказывать .... и т.д." - лесть может
свидетельствовать о том, что человек говорит неискренне, то
есть врет.
В то же время следует отметить, что как в русской, так и в
англоязычной среде отношение к лести отрицательное, о чем
свидетельствует и собственно лексико-семантическое поле
номинации концепта «лесть». С другой стороны,

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практический материал исследования показал, что лесть
может быть индивидуальным личностным качеством,
преувеличенным желанием угодить адресату, угодливостью,
и не использоваться с целью причинения вреда или
манипулятивного воздействия. Когда же лесть нацелена на
преднамеренное введение в заблуждение, манипулирование с
целью собственной выгоды, то данное явление можно
квалифицировать как обман, инсинуацию.
Анализируя ценностную составляющую концепта «лесть» в
русском и английском языках, мы исходим из того, что все
многообразие предметов человеческой деятельности,
общественных отношений, природных явлений может
выступать в качестве предметных ценностей как объектов
ценностного отношения, то есть оценивается в контексте
«добра и зла, истины и неистины, красоты и безобразия,
допустимого или запретного, справедливого или
несправедливого и т.д.» (Petelina E.S., 1985). Следует
отметить, что ценности, присущие определенной
лингвокультурной общности могут изменяться с течением
времени, развиваются исторически в контексте социальных
трансформаций, исторических событий и лингвистической
динамики.
Говоря о лести как лингвокультурном концепте, следует
отметить, что его ценностная характеристика во многом
сходна в различных культурах, однако может иметь
различную ценностную значимость на индивидуальном
уровне. Так, в «Похвале глупости» Эразм Роттердамский
положительно отозвался о лести: «Лесть - это мед и приправа
во всяком общении между людьми». Однако в целом
большинство авторов признают лесть как явление
отрицательное. В Библии, которая считается основой
моральных ценностей у христианских народов, также
осуждаются льстецы, а Иисус, говорящий только правду,
становится примером. Главным символом лести
(обольщения) в Библии является обольщение Евы Змеем,

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что, собственно, и стало причиной свершения первородного
греха. В «Божественной комедии» Данте поместил льстецов
во второй ров восьмого круга, где они влипли в экскременты.
Интерпретируется это тем, что лесть, исходящая из уст,
подобна калу.
В ценностном аспекте лесть рассматривается в качестве
способа манипулирования. В.В. Зирка разделяет мнение о
том, что оценочные значения являются важным средством
манипулирования адресатом: «оценка имеет двойную
природу: как результат оценивания некоторых объектов она
когнитивной категорией; в то время как средство
воздействия на адресата - прагматичной категорией, и если
уж быть точным, манипулятивной категории» (Zirka V.V.,
2004:70).
Думаем, что подобное положение вещей можно легко
объяснить с позиций логической близости феноменов лести,
лжи и неискренности: лесть всегда неискренна, а значит
лжива. Неискренность всегда подразумевает лесть и ложь на
вербальном уровне.
Ценностное отношение к лести в русском языке наиболее
ярко передается эпитетами, которые сопровождают само
понятие «лесть» (бессмысленная, бесстыдная, велеречивая
(устар.), вероломная, витиеватая, вкрадчивая, высокопарная,
гнусная, грубая, грязная, демагогическая, завуалированная,
змеиная, изящная, искусная, коварная, красноречивая, лисья,
лицемерная, ловкая, лукавая) или его производными
(льстивый – лживый, коварный; лестный - соблазнительный,
заманчивый; желанный, приятный; одобрительный,
похвальный (отзыв), почетный). В то время, как в
английском языке ценностные нюансы в основном передают
синонимы. Некоторые значения слов, которыми
обозначается концепт лесть в английских словарях, дают
возможность уловить некоторые семантические нюансы:
flattery (лесть, самообольщение); adulation (лесть,
низкопоклонство, подхалимство); sycophancy

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(низкопоклонство, лесть); cajolery (лесть, обман,
умасливание, выманивание); palaver (лесть, переговоры,
пустая болтовня, лживые слова, совещание, дело) и др.
Образный аспект концепта «лесть» отображается
посредством тех образов, с которыми ассоциируется лесть у
представителей данной лингвокультуры, особенности его
образного воплощения. В основе представления о лести
лежат следующие метафорические образы:
- «прозрачной лести ожерелья» («В прохладе сладостной
фонтанов» А.С. Пушкин). Здесь эпитет распространяет
семантические признаки (соответственно, «быть
прозрачным») на метафорические конструкции в целом,
заставляя по-новому перегруппировывать и коррелирующие
семантические признаки самой конструкции. Получаются не
отдельные высказывания «низать лесть подобно
прозрачному ожерелью», а параллельные: прозрачными
оказываются и лесть, и ожерелье.
- махровая лесть (видимая, ярко выраженная, чтобы тот, к
кому она обращена, не сомневался, что это именно лесть, а
не нечто иное).
Образ лести нередко выражается посредством сравнения или
метафорического переноса качеств льстеца или самого
процесса лести:
- петь дифирамбы (льстить открыто, явно);
- лить елей (поливать елеем) – льстить, ублажать.
В сказках, баснях лесть как качество приписывается,
например, некоторым животным: «Кукушка хвалит петуха за
то, что хвалит он кукушку». Ярким примером описания
лести можно назвать образ Лисы в басне И. Крылова
«Ворона и Лисица» (Fedunin E.A., Lyashenko I.B., 2017).
В английском языке можно выделить следующие
метафорические образы лести: sweet talk (лесть,
умасливание); soap (мыло, мыльная опера, лесть, деньги);
sugar (сахар, сахароза, милый, милочка, душечка, лесть); flam
(фальшивка, лесть, фальшь, ложь, вранье); applesauce

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(яблочный соус, яблочное пюре, чепуха, лесть, ерунда);
sawder (лесть); soft soap (жидкое мыло, зеленое мыло, лесть);
treacle (патока, слащавость, лесть); soft sawder
(комплименты, лесть); lip salve (бальзам для губ,
гигиеническая губная помада, мазь для губ, лесть); apple
(яблоко, яблоня, чепуха, лесть); eyewash (очковтирательство,
глазная примочка, лесть, чушь) и др.
К тому же лексические значения всех эмотивных сленговых
номинантов являются средствами метафорического
переосмысления феномена лести в языковой культуре.
Выводы
Таким образом, проведенный анализ демонстрирует, что
концепт «лесть» («flattery») имеет свое семантическое и
лексическое выражение в английской и русской
лингвокультурах. Можно говорить о схожести понятийного
и ценностного аспектов данного концепта в изучаемых
лингвокультурах, однако, образный аспект представлен
специфическими образами, обусловленными ментальностью
представителей данной лингвокультуры.
Подытоживая, хотелось бы отметить, что тема
концептуального анализа и речевого выражения лести и
языковой манипуляции является пока недостаточно
исследованной и требует глубокого изучения, в частности, на
материале как английского, так и русского языков.
Перспективными представляются и исследования в
контрастивном плане, ведь в целом негативное восприятие
лести все же имеет определенные национальные
особенности.

Литература
Бацевич Ф.С. 2004. Основы коммуникативной лингвистики.
Киев: Академия, 120 с.
Даль В.И. 2005. Толковый словарь живого великорусского
языка: в 4 т. 2-е изд. М.: Русский язык, 683 с.

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Зирка В.В. 2004. Манипулятивные игры в рекламе:
лингвистический аспект. Днепропетровск: ДНУ, 291 с.
Карасик В.И. 2002. Языковой круг: личность, концепты,
дискурс. Волгоград: Перемена, 116 с.
Леонтьев В.В. 2000. Концепт “Flattery” в структуре
английской языковой личности // Вестник ВолГУ, 6: 27-32.
Петелина Е.С. 1985. Некоторые особенности речевых актов
похвалы и лести. Синтагматический аспект
коммуникативной семантики. Нальчик, 273 с.
Федюнина И.Э., Ляшенко И.В. 2017. Фразеологическая
объективизация лести как формы поведения и коммуникации
в русском и английском языках // Научные ведомости. Серия
Гуманитарные науки, 7(256): 82 – 86.

References
Batsevich, F.S. 2004. Linguistics communicative basis.
Academy, Kiev, 120 pp.
Dal, V.I. 2005. Explanatory dictionary of the great Russian
language, 2nd ed. Russian language, Moscow, 683 pp.
Zirka, V.V. 2004. Manipulative games in advertising: linguistic
aspect. DNU, Dnepropetrovsk, 291 pp.
Karasik, V.I. 2002. Language circle: personality, concepts,
discourse. Peremena, Volgograd, 116 pp.
Leontiev, V.V. 2000. Concept “Flattery” in the English structure
of language personality. Vestnik VolGU, 6: 32.
Petelina, E.S. 1985. Some features of speech acts of praise and
flattery. Syntagmatic aspect of communicative semantics.
Nalchik, 273 pp.
Fedunina, I.A. Lyashenko, I.B. 2017. Phraseological
objectification of flattery as a form of behavior and
communication in Russian and English languages. Scientific
statements. 7:86.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-113-122

LANGUAGE PLANNING IN THE REALITY

OF MULTILINGUALISM (THE CASE OF FINLAND)

Elena A. Kartushina

Moscow City Teacher Training University

Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The paper focuses on the issue of status language planning under
the conditions of multilingualism. The author points out two
major types of difficulties with regard to status language
planning. The first relates to social and ideological matters and
concerns the purity of the language existing in the community.
The second one relates to legal matters and is contingent to
observing the compliance with several international agreements
and treaties.
The objective of the current research paper is to make a review of
those language status planning measures in polilingual
environment. Language status planning is considered as certain
measures of the authorities with regard to establishing the status
of a certain language on certain territory of state. Language
planning is just one type of language policy as the latter concerns
not only planning of status of some languages but also language
in the education sphere and language corpora.
The subject matter of the research became solely the status
planning towards minority languages (besides Finnish as a title
and national language of the Finnish republic) under the
condition of multilingualism. Moreover, the country has long had
the long history of bilingualism (i.e. two official languages
Finnish and Swedish) and, being a part of the EU, it faces
migration, and as a result, challenges of a big number of

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languages on its territory. Bearing this in mind, the methods
included the analysis of the Finnish Republic in-laws (particularly
Language Laws, Saami Languages Act etc.) and also
International treaties which Finland signed as a contract party.
Having analysed all the minority languages that have been
reflected in Finnish Language Acts, the paper also shares results
of questionnaire of the Russian people living in Finland on their
attitude of recognising Russian language as a minority language
in Finland. The paper also contains results of the questionnaire
conducted through surveymonkey.com among Russian
community living in Finland. The survey of the Russian language
in Finland has shown that the recognition of one's own language
as a minority language is not necessary, which is due to the
functions performed by the language
A secondary perspective of the research was to identify what
other (minority) languages are reflected in the language policy of
Finland and what languages should be reflected as minority ones
if they have not received such a status so far.
As the analysis of the research shows, the difficulty in
implementing language policy in conditions of multilingualism is
also connected with the fact that any recognition at the official
level of a certain language situation component, to some extent,
affects the status of the national language of the country. It is
difficult to accept something new and alien, which would
immediately become an integral part of everyday life «on legal
grounds». As far as the notion of minority language is concerned,
it is essential to underline that official recognition of a language
status may not be an adequate measure of a language policy
Moreover, in conditions of multilingualism, in all probability we
are dealing with a situation that can be characterized as
polyglossia. By analogy with this definition of diglossia,
polyglossia can be defined as such a type of multilingualism, in
which there is one language that should be used, for the most
part, in official situations, and several low languages functioning
in everyday communication. Another resolution, that the review

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under question implies, is that we should reconsider the notion of
‘minority language’ per se. Perhaps, description of the spheres of
language use (sometimes on official grounds) can provide for
more practical application than designating a status of a minority
or a majority language.
Keywords: multilingualism; status planning; language policy;
minority language; Russian language in Finland

Introduction
Globalisation changes the area a certain language has been spread
within. On the territories of many states there occur many
languages whose presence there was almost impossible to predict
even a few years ago. Global languages begin to compete with
minor national languages as their functions intervene and their
spheres of influence mix. Migration of languages of such a kind
affects language situation in general, which can be of interest for
researchers of social linguistics and language planning.
According to H. Kloss and A. Verdoodt (Kloss, Verdoodt, 1969:
10), language status planning is considered as a set of actions and
measures taken by the authorities with regard to establishing the
status of a certain language on certain territory of state. As the
researchers remark, both corpora planning (i.e. regulating
standard language use in terms of spelling, choice of words and
grammar) and language status planning (i.e. establishing the
functions and status of a language situation component) make
essential elements of language policy as a whole.
Objectives
The objective of the research was to identify what other
(minority) languages are reflected in the language policy of
Finland and what languages should be reflected as minority ones
if they have not received such a status so far.
The subject matter of the research became solely the status
planning towards minority languages (besides Finnish as a title
and national language of the Finnish republic) under the
condition of multilingualism. Moreover, the country has long had

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the long history of bilingualism (i.e. two official languages
Finnish and Swedish) and, being a part of the EU, it faces
migration, and as a result, challenges of a big number of
languages on its territory. Bearing this in mind, the methods
included the analysis of the Finnish Republic in-laws (particularly
Language Laws, Saami Languages Act etc.) and also
International treaties which Finland signed as a contract party.
At the first stage of our review we analysed the approaches
towards multilingualism within social linguistic as well as within
other spheres of humanities. The key point underlying the
phenomena of the multilingualism is that it has not been
prescribed anywhere as an official EU strategy. Multilingualism
is rather viewed as reality of our times and not as a policy or line
of development.
Methodology and sub headings
Language policy with regard to Multilingualism
Multilingualism as a current phenomenon, to certain extent,
originates from the European charter on minority languages
(signed in Strasburg in 1992), which also mentioned majority
languages and minority languages as parts of multilingual
environment.
Moreover, for decades linguists considered that knowing many
languages has been a virtue. But as J. Bloomaert argues,
multilingualism is not that positive as it may seem and as
linguists have regarded so far. Multilingualism clashes upon
many contradictions that exist within each community and
society and as such incites danger (Blommaert, Leppänen, Spotti,
2012: 9). The researcher also states the key principle of a
language policy in a multilingual environment, i.e. efficiency and
loyalty principle - all languages should be ranked in the language
policy according to the degree of importance (Blommaert, 2010:
101).
Nevertheless, this principle may be difficult to be put into
practice. In case of the Finnish language policy the first obstacle
for realising the efficiency and loyalty principle are legal issues.

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While implementing the language policy and ranging the
importance of a language and taking into consideration the
interests of national communities in Finland, the language policy
should foremost be guided by obligations under legal documents.
Language policy should be in accordance with many laws and by-
laws as follows: Constitution, Administrative Proceeding Act
(1992), Agreement between the Northern States (1987), General
Agreement between Finland and Russia (1992), European Charter
on Human Rights (1990), European Charter on Minority
Language (1990), EU member state agreement, Saami Language
Act (1991), Language Act (1922; 2004). The obligations under
each treaty and internal policy laws may contradict each other
and thus become the main reason for a discrepancy between the
real state of affairs and the national policy as far as the language
policy is concerned. Such a contradiction is mostly indicative
with regard to the status and practical role of Swedish language in
Finland.
Swedish as a second official language in Finland
In 2004 when the second Language Act was adopted, the
situation with Swedish language was completely reverse to when
the first Language Act was taken in 1922. In fact the current
Language Act was meant to save Swedish language from
oblivion. At present teaching Swedish at Finnish schools is
regulated also by the Native Language Act (2004) that provides
for two academic hours for a native language and the right to
defend the thesis on your native language.
While signing the European Charter on minority and regional
languages, Finland indicated that Swedish is a less spread official
language. This fact places Swedish language on a par with a
minority language.
We should claim that de facto Swedish language in Finland is
minority language, though de jure, according to the Constitution
of Finland, it is the second official language.
The fact that Swedish language language is still the second
official language in Finland may be explained by the reluctance

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to make alterations to the Constitution of Finland, but in general
the co-existence between these two languages, Swedish and
Finnish, is quite peaceful. As MacRae pinpoints, «in the war
between Swedish and Finnish there will never be dead or
wounded, it will always be a «tug-of-war» game» (MacRae, 1999
140).
On the other hand, due to ambiguity of the term ‘official
language’ we may not state to what extent a minority language
can be different from a national language. UNESCO ones
addressed to linguists with some recommendations to make a
distinction between the notions of ‘national’ and ‘official’
language. Nevertheless, based on the case review of Finnish and
Swedish as two official languages, we can draw a conclusion, that
the official language is the one that has an official recognition
within the state. It may or may not be equal to the minority
language, and may differ from the state national language by the
degree of spread and usage.
Russian language in Finland: the language of migrants or the
minority language?
As for the status of Russian language in Finland we can observe
certain ambiguity in its language planning. On the one hand, it is
a language of a migrant community (Russians) (Latomaa,
Nuolijärvi, 1999). On the other hand, within the community, a
minor group of old Russian has been accepted as a national
minority. In accordance with the Framework Convention on
national minorities protection (1997) there are Saami, Roma,
Jews, Tartar, Swedish Finns, and «old Russians»
(Vanhavënälaiset), whose ancestors (a grandparent or a great
grandparent) moved to Finland that are recognised as national
minorities in Finland. Thus only «old Russians» are regarded as a
minority, and Russian language so far has not had an official
status either a minority language or a language of education.
With regard to Russian language, both countries are bound with
the Agreement between Russia and Finland (1992), which
requires from both sides to guarantee national identity protection.

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Though we could point out the following factors in favour of
legally accepting the Russian as a minority language:
1) Organisational and media representation. Russian community
in Finland has their own work group in the European Agency for
the Less Used languages. In Helsikni the Center for Russian
language (Suomen Venäjänkielisten Yhdistysten Liito ry) and
culture has long been established (in 1953). In Finland there are
two Russian-Finnish schools and also a few pre-schools for
children. As for the mass media representation, the Russian
community has free excess to the Spektr newspaper, YLE
Russian speaking service and the radio Sputnik.
2) Among other factors there are some historical reasons.
Geographical and historical causes could have been in favour of
the Russian language to play a more important role in the
development of the language situation in Finland. There were
grounds for the Russian language to become a second language in
Finland early in 19th century.
3) Another factor is a geographical one. Russian is spread in the
eastern area of the country, i.e. Imatra and Lappenranta. It is not
accidental that more students there would choose Russian as a
second language.
4) The economic factor should also be taken into consideration.
For decades the turnover rate has always been high between
countries. As E. Protasova and A. Mustajoki point out, doing
business required increase in translation volume and mutual
interest in two languages (Mustajoki, Protasova, 2015: 73).
In October-December 2018, we conducted a survey within
Russian community living in Finland using the surveymonkey
service. The purpose of the study was to identify the attitude of
the Russian people towards the official recognition of the Russian
language in Finland. In total, 187 people took part in the survey.
The age and gender of informants were taken into account, as
well as the period of living in Finland. 32 % of the respondents,
among which 19 % women, voted for accepting Russian language
as a language of national minority in Finland. 65 % of

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respondents were against (41 % of them are men). The average
age of informants was 35-40 years. The average residence time in
Finland made 5 years.
Results
In interpreting the results of our survey, we would like to note
that, firstly, the Russian diaspora in Finland is not yet ready for
accepting the Russian language as an official language. Perhaps
we should consider the psycholinguistic characteristic of the
native as a concept, which is connected with the sacred function
in the language, the native language as the value of knowledge.
Status planning in the context of multilingualism entails certain
difficulties, both of formal (legal) nature, related to the need to
implement international agreements, and of socio-cultural,
ideological nature, reflecting the practical, objective situation and
the recognition of national rights. However, even specific
measures in the field of language planning may not contribute to
changing the language situation. For example, Swedish is actually
the language of the national minority, though its legal status is the
status of the second official language. Moreover, as the survey of
the Russian language in Finland has shown, the recognition of
one's own language as a minority language is not necessary,
which is due to the functions performed by the language (the
function of the world language and the uniting function of the
language of the diaspora).
The difficulty in implementing language policy in conditions of
multilingualism is also connected with the fact that any
recognition at the official level of a certain language situation
component, to some extent, affects the status of the national
language of the country.
Conclusion
In conditions of multilingualism, in all probability we are dealing
with a situation that can be characterized as polyglossia. C.
Ferguson defined diglossia as a special kind of bilingualism, in
which there is a high language which is used in official situations
and a low language, limited by the sphere of the family,

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communication with friends and / or household spheres
(Ferguson, 1959: 330). By analogy with this term, polyglossia
can be defined as such a type of multilingualism, in which there
is one language that should be used, for the most part, in official
situations, and several low languages functioning in everyday
communication.
Another resolution, that the review under question implies, is that
we should reconsider the notion of ‘minority language’ per se.
Perhaps, description of the spheres of language use (sometimes
on official grounds) can provide for more practical application
than designating a status of a minority or a majority language.
The practical reason for this can be the fact that in each
communication context people endeavour to find a way to
communicate no matter what. If there is a will there is a language.

References
Blommaert, J. 2010. The sociolinguistics of globalization / J.
Blommaert. – Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University
Press, 213 p.
Bloomaert, J., Leppänen, S., Spotti, M. 2012. Endangering
multilingualism. In Dangerous multilingualism: Northern
perspective on Order, Purity and Normality. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, Pp. 5-25.
Ferguson, C. 1959. Diglossia. In Word. Vol. 15(2): 325–350.
Kloss, H., Verdoodt, A. 1969. Research Possibilities on Group
Bilingualism: A Report. Quebec: International Center for
Research on Bilingualism, 91 p.
Latomaa, S., Nuolijärvi P. 1999. The Language Situation in
Finland. In Language Planning and Policy in Europe: Hungary,
Finland and Sweden. Edited by: Robert B. Kaplan, Richard B.
Baldauf Jr. Pp. 125-232.
MacRae, H. 1999. Conflicts and Compromises in Multilingual
Societies. Helsinki, 145 p.
Mustajoki A., Protassova E. 2015. Finnish-Russian relationship:
the interplay of Economics, history, psychology and language.

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Vestnik Rossijskogo universiteta druzhby narodov. Serija:
Lingvistika. Vol. 19(4): 69-81.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-122-131

ENGLISH TEXTBOOK:
a tool for enabling cross-cultural competence

Elena M. Kitaeva¹, Olga V. Ozerova²

Saint-Petersburg State University

Saint-Petersburg, Russia
¹e-mail: [email protected]
²e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The article reviews influence of the English language as a Lingua
Franca on the structure and content of the latest textbooks in
English. Research shows that intertextual inclusions, that define
content and structure of the textbook factors, as well as its
exercise design, are borrowed from various international sources.
Researchers speak about English as Lingua Franca (ELF) with its
own formal and functional characteristics. A new status of the
English language has resulted in changes of its pragma-
communicative aspect. Consequently, textbooks present ELF,
thus becoming an efficient and beneficial platform for training
cross-cultural communication skills on a global scale. The
textbook can be viewed as a text constructed according to
intertextuality rules. The fact is that majority of intext inclusions,
both written and oral, are borrowed from international,
multicultural sources. Learning material presents quotations,
written, visual and audio texts related to multiple different ethnic
communities and cultures rather than British or American ones.
Audio assignments train students to understand different accents.
A distinguishing factor of modern textbooks is authenticity. By

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authentic texts (including audio material) we mean the ones
created for real-life purposes, and later used in the teaching
process. Authenticity of learning material promotes development
of language and speech skills and can be viewed as highly
beneficial because authentic educational content: reflects how
language operates in a natural social context; varies in genre and
topics; enhances communication during lessons; familiarizes
students with multiple cultures and ways to communicate in
cross-cultural environment.
Textbooks are filled with photos, interviews, articles created by
people of various ethnic, race and religious backgrounds. In fact,
each topic and theme are discussed from the viewpoint of
different cultures; thus, students learn not only the English
language, but they perceive world culture in its diversity. Such
methodology strategy is highly beneficial for developing
student’s global worldview and multicultural outlook.
A comparative analysis of content, video and audio materials,
quotations and allusions which constitute a textbook body was
performed. The range of textbooks includes all levels of
Language Leader (Pearson/Longman, 2011); Keynote (National
Geographic Learning 2016); Unlock (Cambridge, 2014); Cutting
Edge (Pearson/Longman, 2013); Outcomes (Cengage Learning,
2016).
50 teachers working with high school and university students
were interviewed.
Linguistic characteristics were analyzed comparing ELF v. EN on
the basis of VOICE corpus.
Study shows that the language content of modern textbooks of the
English language correlates with ELF rather that EN. Textbooks
structure and educational materials introduced in them represent
facts, customs, traditions, events of international community life,
rather than from distinctively British or American cultural
background. The statistical range can be estimated as much as a
75/25 % correlation.

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Only 12 % of teachers, who were interviewed, said that they
realize multinational educational content of textbooks. Moreover,
of these 12 % only 7 % implement the idea of English as Lingua
Franca in their educational training.
Considering these results, the following could be recommended:
teachers’ awareness of the language they teach, namely ELF
rather than EF, should become a priority for educationalists who
manage teacher training, and especially teacher further education.
Seminars and conferences should be provided for teachers on a
regular basis, which will cover both linguistic and socio-
pragmatic aspects of the issue. Teachers of English should adapt
changes in their methodology approaches. It is essential that
teachers in their work provide the culturally diverse and multi-
dimensional understanding of English as LF and encourage
students to promote their cognitive competence in English.
Teachers should adapt to these changes in their methodology.
Motivation to learn English rather than any other foreign
language has changed, so students and teachers’ requirements to
textbooks changed as well.
Key words: cross-cultural communication competence, text
inclusions, authentic material, English as Lingua Franca (ELF),
English of native speakers (EN)

Introduction
The process of education nowadays is generally aimed at
developing soft skills along with the hard ones. Moreover, many
researchers name soft skills as the most efficient tools for
successful work life; thus, recognizing and evolving the
importance of soft skills acquisition has been a challenging task
for educationalists and curriculum designers. Consequently, the
focus shifts to the development of universal skills, that are
necessary to be acquired during a learning process. “XXIst
century skills are also called 4 C’s: Creative thinking,
Collaborating, Communicating, Critical thinking. These are

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considered to be essential keys for success in life” (Medina
Brakamonte N.A., Kitaeva E.M., 2019: 92).
Considering globalization tendencies in the modern world and
growth in communication contacts across nations in all spheres of
life, the skills and competences in cross-cultural communication
are becoming of primary importance. It is worth noticing, that
priority nowadays should be put on developing cross-cultural
sensitivity and awareness in a global sense, i.e. ability to easily
and successfully communicate and cooperate/collaborate in
culturally diverse communities, whether they are learning,
academic, business or neighborhood ones. Thus, recognizing the
necessity of cross-cultural skills and competences on a global
scale to be developed should become a priority task for
educationalists, curriculum designers and text-book authors.
It is well established that through learning a foreign language a
communicative and cognitive competence in students is being
evolved and developed. Cognitive competence is a multifaceted
skill for today’s homo communicans: it allows to solve various
issues and perform tasks using a foreign language and establishes
necessary links to help multiple intelligences and global
worldview evolve in a linguistic persona. This competence is
considered to be one of the primary prerequisites for successful
cross-cultural communication.
Obviously, through acquisition of a foreign language people get
acquainted with culture and traditions of a target language.
Accordingly, contents of text-books in foreign languages are
mostly oriented on the materials that cover history, culture,
present-day life of a target-language country. Methodology
traditions used to create a worldview based on British and
American lingua-culture, highlighting the history, customs and
traditions of British and American native speakers (see most
popular textbooks created by Charles Ewart Eckersley: the four
volumes of Essential English for Foreign Students).
However, nowadays the ability to proficiently communicate by
means of one language in a multi-ethnic community is essential.

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Such communication presumes that people are ready to perceive
mentality, way of life and values of different cultures, rather than
that of the language they apply. They are ready to overcome
barriers built up by stereotypical assumptions, to avoid possible
conflicts, to communicate with other people realizing bringing to
life global human connections and links (Jenkins J., Cogo A.,
2011).
Therefore, if we talk about competences to
communicate/collaborate in a multicultural environment, the
language educational materials: text-books, resource materials for
teachers, etc. should be designed with consideration of these
essential issues.
Structure of Modern Textbooks. Сonceptual Aspect
Worldwide, the motivation aspect for modern students to study
English (in contrast to other foreign languages) has shifted
dramatically. The number of people, who use English in their
communication with other foreigners rather than English native
speakers, is growing rapidly. English is acquiring, if not has
already acquired, the status of a global international
communication language (Crystal, 2003; Seidlhofer B., 2005). As
quite a few researches notice, a new status of the English
language has resulted in certain changes in the language itself,
first of all in its pragma-communicative aspect (Ranta, 2013).
Nowadays, researchers speak about English as Lingua Franca
(ELF) with its own formal and functional characteristics, the
latter distinguishing it from the English of native speakers (EN)
(Jenkins J., Cogo A, 2011). Evidently, English as a lingua franca
needs to be explicitly promoted and emphasized.
VOICE web-site defines ELF as an independent language system
requiring to be researched, and which is used for communication
among people of various language communities
(https://www.univie.ac.at/voice/). Moreover, majority of
researchers distinguish between ELF and English as a foreign
language (EF), and these considerations should be taken into
account in the teaching-learning process (Jenkins, Cogo, 2011).

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The issue of specificity in grammar and lexis of ELF as compared
to EF and EN requires further meticulous empiric research.
Nevertheless, investigation into pragmatic aspects of ELF
(Crystal D., 2003; Ranta E., 2013) has affected the structure and
contents of English textbooks.
The textbook can be viewed as a text constructed according to
intertextuality rules, where the latter can be regarded as a
semantic and text-structural category. It is necessary to point out
that vast majority of intext inclusions, both written and oral, are
borrowed from international sources. Learning material presents
quotations, written, visual and audio texts related to multiple
different ethnic communities and cultures rather than British or
American ones. Audio assignments train students to understand
different accents (e.g. German, Norwegian, Russian, etc.). The
priority of the textbook is to teach how to establish successful
cross-cultural communication integration. Due to intext
inclusions a high level of cross-cultural competence and tolerance
in students can be achieved (Kitaeva E.M., 2017).
A distinguishing factor of modern textbooks is authenticity. By
authentic texts (including audio material) we mean the ones
created for real-life purposes, and later used in the teaching
process. These texts help aim at communicative approach in
teaching a foreign language outside language natural
environment.
Textbooks are filled with photos, interviews, articles created by
people of various ethnic, race and religious backgrounds. In fact,
each topic and theme are discussed from the viewpoint of
different cultures; thus, students learn not only the English
language, but they perceive world culture in its diversity. Such
methodology strategy is highly beneficial for developing
student’s global worldview and multicultural outlook.
The textbook can be viewed as a space of intertextuality where
there are numerous intexts reflecting cross-cultural
communication. For example, in Language Leader (LL) every
Module starts with quotations, among the latter we can find

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statements by a German philosopher, Austrian psychologist,
Swiss Architect, writer from Guatemala, etc. Reading
assignments include intexts with information about different
countries, e.g. LL Elementary in its very first module presents
information about San Paulo, Mumbai, Venice and Lima. The
second Module presents Dutch pilots and a Japanese manager to
students, while the second one invites them to speak about life in
a desert along with festivals in Thailand, Spain and United Arab
Emirates, etc.
Global approach to a textbook structure is especially evident in
architextual inclusions of audio and video texts. People speak
English and communicate in English, but they speak with
different accents. Pragmatically it develops not only listening
skills, but also encourages students to get acquainted with various
accents and gives an opportunity to adapt to specifics of different
pronunciation schemes.
Authenticity of learning material promotes development of
language and speech skills and can be viewed as highly beneficial
because authentic educational content:
- reflects how language operates in a natural social context;
- varies in genre and topics (fiction, culinary recipes, articles from
newspapers, journals and magazines, films, lectures, interviews,
etc.);
- is interesting for students and motivate them to study;
- enhances communication during lessons;
- familiarizes students with multiple cultures and ways to
communicate in cross-cultural environment.
Thus, the language represented through authentic materials
reveals language in a natural social context. Authentic texts
reflect objective worldview, ideas and concepts accepted in world
community.
Taking all this into account, it is essential that teachers of English
as ELF should be aware of a new textbooks content, should give
a new meaning to the content of language education, update and
upgrade methodology, and above all, change the ways they

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manage information. However obvious it may seem, the results of
the study show that only minority of them fully realize the
importance of multicultural approach to textbook content
formation.
Method and materials
A comparative analysis of content, video and audio materials,
quotations and allusions which constitute a textbook body was
performed. The range of textbooks includes all levels of
Language Leader (Pearson/Longman, 2011); Keynote (National
Geographic Learning 2016); Unlock (Cambridge, 2014); Cutting
Edge (Pearson/Longman, 2013); Outcomes (Cengage Learning,
2016).
50 teachers working with high school and university students
were interviewed.
Linguistic characteristics were analyzed comparing ELF v. EN on
the basis of VOICE corpus.
Results
Study shows that the language content of modern textbooks of the
English language correlates with ELF rather that EN. Textbooks
structure and educational materials introduced in them represent
facts, customs, traditions, events of international community life,
rather than from distinctively British or American cultural
background. The statistical range can be estimated as much as a
75/25 % correlation.
Only 12 % of teachers, who were interviewed, said that they
realize multinational educational content of textbooks. Moreover,
of these 12 % only 7 % implement the idea of English as Lingua
Franca in their educational training.
Considering these results, the following could be recommended:
teachers’ awareness of the language they teach, namely ELF
rather than EF, should become a priority for educationalists who
manage teacher training, and especially teacher further education.
Seminars and conferences should be provided for teachers on a
regular basis, which will cover both linguistic and socio-
pragmatic aspects of the issue. Teachers of English should adapt

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129
changes in their methodology approaches. It is essential that
teachers in their work provide the culturally diverse and multi-
dimensional understanding of English as LF and encourage
students to promote their cognitive competence in English.
Conclusion
Contemporary textbooks of the English language are structured
and organized so that, on the one hand the teaching/learning
material encourages students to learn and perceive English as a
modern Lingua Franca, as a language of international
communication with integrating function. On the other hand,
through teaching/learning the English language, students master
communicative competences and acquire global world outlook
which integrates both variety and unity of the world, develop
cross-cultural literacy (understanding of different cultures) with
open-minded and unbiased approach, empathy and tolerance.

References
Medina Brakamonte N.A., Kitaeva E.M. Collaborative
Educational Approach as Contact Work Technology in Higher
School. Modern Technologies for Teaching and Learning in
Socio-Humanitarian Disciplines. Darinskaia, L. (ed.). USA, IGI
Publishing; 2019, 90-113.
Crystal D. English as a Global Language – Cambridge University
Press, 2003, 150 p.
Cutting Edge. Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, UK, 2013. 186 p.
Jenkins J., Cogo A., Dewey M. Review of Developments in
Research into English as a Lingua Franca – Cambridge
University Press, 2011, pp. 281-315.
Keynote. National Geographic Learning, Andover, UK, 2016.
183 p. (ADVANCED).
Kitaeva E.M. English Textbook as Space for Cross-Cultural
Communication Training – Collection of Articles;
NATSRAZVITIYE, Saint-Petersburg. 2017. p. 114-119.
Language Leader. Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, UK, 2008.
160 p. (ELEMENTARY).

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Language Leader. Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, UK, 2008.
184 p. (INTERMEDIATE).
Language Leader. Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, UK, 2008.
192 p. (UPPER-INTERMEDIATE).
Language Leader. Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow, UK, 2011.
192 p. (ADVANCED).
Outcomes. National Geographic Learning, Andover, UK, 2016.
214 p.
Ranta E. Universals in a Universal language? Exploring Verb-
Syntactic Features in English as a Lingua Franca – University of
Tampere, Finland, 2013, 211 p.
Seidlhofer B. English as a Lingua Franca – Vienna English
Working Papers, 2005, p. 1-12.
Internet resources: VOICE-Online 2.0: https://www.univie.ac.at/
voice/

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-131-139

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
AND ACADEMIC DISCOURSE:
SEARCH FOR MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING

Marina M. Raevskaya

Department of the Spanish Language

Lomonosov Moscow State University
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Nowadays, the use of English as the lingua franca of the modern
academic community in various scientific knowledge areas
occurs in an international context that goes beyond national
cultures. However, the so-called academic English itself is a
product of intercultural communication, as well as some kind of

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agreement, demonstrated and reached by the academic
community owing to their communication needs for last fifty
years.
Nevertheless, during the study in the EALF (English as Lingua
Franca in Academic discourse) perspective, the necessity to
rethink some aspects of using English for academic purposes,
such as successful communication (intelligibility), functional and
pragmatic acceptability, intercultural communication, as well as
the problem of monolingualism in academic circles
(monolingualism in academia) were stated.
The paper uses as a basic the definition of academic discourse as
implemented in the system of higher education culturally-marked
communication system, possessing both linguistic and
extralinguistic plans, using a certain system of professionally-
oriented signs and taking into account the status-role
characteristics of the main participants of communication
(scientists as researchers and / or teachers, as well as students).
Such consideration allows integrating within the framework of an
integration approach the study of scientific and pedagogical
discourses as two varieties of one generic institutional unity,
often realized by the same participant, who at the same time acts
as a teacher and a researcher.
Any official scientific communication has signs of cultural
correlation with the oral and written tradition that its author has
learned and practices despite the goal to contribute in the most
standardized form to the common fund of world civilization
knowledge. The intercultural competence development in a
particular academic community depends on its needs (for
example, the need to manifest its cultural identity) and various
extra-linguistic factors (academic traditions, institutional
conventions and knowledge concepts). Academic discourse,
despite the status of qualified participants, localized chronotop,
conventionally organized goal, intentionally “fixed” strategies,
limited nomenclature of genres, and a strictly specified precedent
phenomena arsenal (names, statements, texts and situations),

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however reveals features that are clearly beyond the fairly rigidly
established genre framework and allows the academic identity of
its participants to be shown.
It was found that due to a particular cultural tradition, the style
influences academic and scientific writing in the 2nd foreign (in
this case, English) language: authors who have an excellent
academic style in their native language tend to pass it on to their
2-English-language texts. It concerns not only the linguistic
characteristics, but also rhetorical ways: the argumentation of
Asian scholars, for example, may seem less structured to an
English editor; German and Spanish authors do not follow the
linear structure adopted by British colleagues, etc.
At the same time, the “language personality” of a scientist has the
opportunity to “break” the frameworks regulated by the
conventional norm and go beyond them, demonstrating that
he/she belongs to a certain scientific school, research and
terminological tradition.
In addition, the traditional introduction of foreign terms (mostly
originating from the ancient Greek) into the terminological
apparatus of another language can generate terminological
doublets when the same phenomenon receives several
designations, etc.
In view of the foregoing, editors of high-rated scientific
publications are encouraged to remember that English academic
discourse, understood as EALF, is just a means for the
international scientific communication and should be considered
within a broad intercultural aspect. In general, it is interesting that
today the international scientific community in the globalized
English-speaking scientific context has clearly positioned the
desire and right not only to preserve, but also to demonstrate its
academic identity formed in the higher education institution
(alma mater) of their country.
Key words: academic identity, scientific discourse, English as an
academic lingua franca, academic interculturality, academic
discourse

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133
Introduction
Nowadays, the use of English as the lingua franca of the modern
academic community in various scientific knowledge areas
occurs in an international context that goes beyond national
cultures. However, the so-called academic English itself is a
product of intercultural communication, as well as some kind of
agreement, demonstrated and reached by the academic
community owing to their communication needs for last fifty
years.
Purpose of the study
Nevertheless, during the study in the EALF (English as Lingua
Franca in Academic discourse) perspective, the necessity to
rethink some aspects of using English for academic purposes,
such as successful communication (intelligibility), functional and
pragmatic acceptability, intercultural communication, as well as
the problem of monolingualism in academic circles
(monolingualism in academia) were stated (Allen J. P. B. &
Widdowson H. G. 1994).
Methodology and sub headings
The paper uses as a basic the definition of academic discourse
proposed by L.V. Kulikova & N.G. Burmakina: implemented in
the system of higher education academic discourse is a culturally-
marked communication system interpreted as “normatively
organized speech interaction, possessing both linguistic and
extralinguistic plans, using a certain system of professionally-
oriented signs, taking into account the status-role characteristics
of the main participants of communication (scientists as
researchers and / or teachers, as well as students)” (L.V. Kulikova
& N.G. Burmakina 2018, p. 297). Such consideration allows
integrating within the framework of an integration approach the
study of scientific and pedagogical discourses as two varieties of
one generic institutional unity, often realized by the same
participant, who at the same time acts as a teacher and a
researcher. Moreover, T. Popova, who considers academic
discourse together with a scientific one in a single paradigm of

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scientific and educational communication, notes that academic
interaction in a different situational context is creative and not
strictly formal (Popova T.G. 2015).
Results/Findings
In order to support cross-cultural research in English as the
second academic language, a project of modular multilingual and
multicultural academic communication (MAGICC) was
announced, which aims to “integrate multilingual and
multicultural academic communication competence as BA and
MA graduates learning outcomes” (MAGICC website:
www.unil.ch/magicc/home). Despite the fact that the MAGICC
project is mainly aimed at students and teachers of higher
educational institutions, the editorial boards of scientific
publications are also indicated as the target readership, which
ultimately should become more susceptible to the intercultural
author's environment.
At the same time, the intercultural competence development in a
particular academic community depends on its needs (for
example, the need to manifest its cultural identity) and various
extra-linguistic factors (academic traditions, institutional
conventions and knowledge concepts). Academic discourse,
despite the status of qualified participants, localized chronotop,
conventionally organized goal, intentionally “fixed” strategies,
limited nomenclature of genres, and a strictly specified precedent
phenomena arsenal (names, statements, texts and situations),
however reveals features that are clearly beyond the fairly rigidly
established genre framework and allows the academic identity of
its participants to be shown.
Many studies showed differences in the interpersonal cultural
values expression in the resulting academic texts in different
languages - English and Spanish, English and French, English
and Italian, English and Finnish, English and Russian, English,
German and Spanish. According to the research data, the
academic language used by British, American, German, Spanish,
Korean and other scholars has particular discursive and rhetorical

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135
features directly related to the historical and cultural
circumstances in which it developed (see: Clouet R. 2017).
It was found that due to a particular cultural tradition, the style
influences academic and scientific writing in the 2nd foreign (in
this case, English) language: authors who have an excellent
academic style in their native language tend to pass it on to their
2-English-language texts. It concerns not only the linguistic
characteristics, but also rhetorical ways: the argumentation of
Asian scholars, for example, may seem less structured to an
English editor; German and Spanish authors do not follow the
linear structure adopted by British colleagues, etc. (see: Clouet R.
2017). Thus, the hypothesis was confirmed that there is no single
universal academic discourse, contrary to what H.L. Gallego
Mayordomo (Gallego Mayordomo J. L. 2002) in his study of the
intercultural aspect of academic language asserts.
Discussion
Any official scientific communication has signs of cultural
correlation with the oral and written tradition that its author has
learned and practices despite the goal to contribute in the most
standardized form to the common fund of world civilization
knowledge. In this case, most likely, the identification self-
positioning in its academic variety will also be implemented at
the article topic, terminological vocabulary, cultural texts and
discursive formulas level.
So, for example, the “language personality” of a scientist has the
opportunity to “break” the frameworks regulated by the
conventional norm and go beyond them, demonstrating that
he/she belongs to a certain scientific school, research and
terminological tradition: in particular, the traditional designation
of words in the Spanish linguistics according to the fixed stress
position - palabras agudas, llanas o graves, esdrújulas (the
words with the stress on the ultimate, penultimate and pre
penultimate syllable, respectively) are coexisting with variants of
Greek origin - oxítinas, paroxítonas, proparoxítonas.

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In addition, the traditional introduction of foreign terms (mostly
originating from the ancient Greek) into the terminological
apparatus of another language can generate terminological
doublets when the same phenomenon receives several
designations, such as, for example, in Spanish: silepsis -
discordancias legitimadas (resolved mismatch); oraciones
asindéticas - yuxtapuestas (asyndetic sentences), oraciones
paratácticas - coordinadas (co-ordinated/compound sentences),
oraciones hipotácticas - subordinadas (sudordinated/complex
sentences); prótasis - la oración subordinada (subordinate clause
of a complex sentence), apódosis - la oración principal (the main
part of a complex sentence); solecismo - uso incorrecto sintáctico
(incorrect syntactic usage, not distorting the meaning of the
statement), etc.
Obvious discrepancies in the mental and language resources
choice are found by M. Perales-Escudero and J. Swails, who
study the similarities and differences in the abstracts to scientific
texts in English and Spanish (Perales-Escudero, M. and Swales,
J.M. 2011). Thus, when presenting the results of their research,
the Spanish-speaking authors seek to achieve greater
persuasiveness due to the use of practically absent in English
emphatic structures, preference of more boosted statements,
stronger epistemic commitment, bare assertations, almost twice
as common use of inanimate subject with an animate “volitional”
verbs. In addition, the intercultural divergence of English and
Hispanic academic presentation tradition reveals itself in the
predominant pronominal self-mention in Spanish. This
phenomenon is evaluated from a north American perspective as
“somewhat hortatory and overbearing” continental practice,
emphasizing (if not sticking out) the role and authority of the text
creator (Perales-Escudero, M. & Swales, J.M. 2011, p. 62). Thus,
the creative nature of academic communication predetermines the
possibility of traditional culturally-marked forms characteristic
within a particular national academic practice.

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In addition, studying the problem, K. Hyland believes that the
academic self-positioning manifests itself both in the texts we
generate and language resources we choose, moving from hidden
cognition and acquiring a social construction in discourse
(Hyland K. 2011). Referring to the survey of academic
community with not native English, the author defines their
general condition as a lack of comfort and a certain alienation in
the EALF communication: “They sometimes complain that the
voice they are forced to use requires them to “talk like a book” by
adopting a formal and coldly analytical persona” (Hyland K.
2011, p. 10).
In view of the foregoing, editors of high-rated scientific
publications are encouraged to remember that English academic
discourse, understood as EALF, is just a means for the
international scientific communication and should be considered
within a broad intercultural aspect. In general, it is interesting that
today the international scientific community in the globalized
English-speaking scientific context has clearly positioned the
desire and right not only to preserve, but also to demonstrate its
academic identity (Escobar Cachón J.D. 2018; Vázquez G. 2009)
formed in the higher education institution (alma mater) of their
country.

References
1. Burmakina N.G., Кulikova L.V. 2018. Academic discourse.
Institutionality, style, genres. – М.: Ed. URSS, - 200 p.
2. Popova Т.P. Some features of academic discourse // News of
the Volgograd State Pedagogical University, 2015. - P. 85-91.
3. Allen, J. P. B. & Widdowson, H. G. 1994. Teaching the
communicative use of English. In International Review of
Applied Linguistics 12 (1): 1-20.
4. Clouet, R. 2017. The intercultural dimension of English as an
Academic Lingua Franca (EALF) in scientific publications. In
Revista de Lenguas para Fines Específicos 23(2): 313-333. URL:

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https://ojsspdc.ulpgc.es/ojs/index.php/LFE/article/.../834
[Accessed 05.02.2019].
5. Escobar Cachón J.D. 2018. Universalismo, identidad y
discurso académico en el contexto de globalización. In
Literatura: teoría, historia, crítica 20(2): 155-184. URL:
http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/lthc.v20n2.70881 [Accessed
02.02.2019].
6. Gallego Mayordomo, J. L. 2002. Dimensión intercultural del
lenguaje académico y necesidades comunicativas en la enseñanza
de EPFA (español para fines académicos). In ASELE Actas. XIII:
274-287. URL:
https://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/...ele/asele/.../13_0274.pdf
[Accessed 03.02.2019].
7. Hyland, K. Projecting an academic identity in some reflective
genres // Ibérica. - 2011. - № 21. - P. 9-30. – URL:
www.redalyc.org/html/2870/287023883002/ [accessed:
22.12.2018].
8. Perales-Escudero, M. and Swales, J.M. Tracing convergence
and divergence in pairs of Spanish and English research article
abstracts: The case of Ibérica // Ibérica. - 2011. - № 21. - P. 49-
70. – URL:
https://www.researchgate.net/.../277258974_Tracing_conver...
[Accessed 05.12.2018].
9. Vázquez G. 2009. El discurso académico español: entre la
identidad académica y la globalización del conocimiento. In XX
Congreso Internacional de la ASELE. El español en contextos
específicos: enseñanza e investigación. Comillas. 117-127. URL:
https://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/...ele/asele/asele_xx.htm
[Accessed 03.02.2019].

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-140-150

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

ASSESSMENT AT THE MULTILINGIUAL UNIVERSITY
CLASSROOMS

Roza F. Zhussupova1, Gulshat Z. Beysembaeva2

L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University

Astana City, Kazakhstan
1
e-mail: [email protected]
2
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) defines as an
ability to participate in foreign language communication and now
is the priority of TEFL. ICC includes understanding cultures,
nonverbal communication, awareness of students’ own cultures
and culture of foreign languages. During teaching English for
multilingual students in Kazakhstan the most crucial point that
teachers often face is to measure students’ language skills which
they have achieved through designed tests, quizzes, projects,
presentations, debates, online testing programs, etc. Proposed
activities learn and accommodate new civilization stages,
creatively find ways to manage the dynamics of differences in
cultures, intergroup posture, and the accompanying stress.
Nevertheless, the most pivotal aspect at achieving high level of
ICC concludes in complete assessment of ICC. However, ICC
achievement is hard to assess because of its vast content and
subtleness of perception.
The purpose of our study is to measure key components of ICC in
order to observe and experimentally check multilingual students’
academic achievement. From literature review, we distinguish
three main components of ICC as cultural knowledge, attitude
and behavior. These ICC skills are required to understand and

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work successfully in another culture or in transnational
companies. What is more, the cultural knowledge, attitude and
behavior expand to include elements as follows: attitudes,
knowledge, skills of interpreting and relating, skills of discovery
and interaction, critical thinking awareness and political
education.
The research was conducted at the L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian
National University, Astana city during the 15 weeks in 2018.
The experimental teaching was organized for 30 third year
students of the speciality “Foreign Languages: Two Foreign
Languages”. The participants were 19-20 years old learners of
different nationalities: Kazakh, Russian, Uzbek, German, Kirgiz,
Ukraine, etc. They master their own native language, the
language of communication either Kazakh or Russian, and less
than one foreign language.
The evaluation of ICC formation is done through formative and
summative assessment, namely in the form of rubrics, evaluation
list and checklists at the beginning and after experimental
teaching. Rubrics, evaluation list and checklists define the criteria
of performance based activity and tasks to be used which
elements are used to find the success of the students’ public
speaking skills.
Rubrics consists typically two sections: scores along with one
axis of the grid and language behavior descriptors inside the grid
for what each score means in terms of language performance.
Language categories along one axis and scores along the other
axis and language behavior descriptors inside the grid for what
each score within each category means in terms of language
achievement. Rubrics, evaluation list and checklists help students
become more thoughtful judges of the quality of their speech and
those of their peers. Additionally, these assessment tools save
teachers’ time spent on evaluating student work. They are easy to
use, very vivid and creative.
Actually in comparison with the control group, the moderated
average variance of the experimental group is higher in many

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scores. The results point out that all participants of the control
group had made some improvements after the study but the
improvement was not as huge as the one made by the
experimental group learners.
The results show that the students improve their foreign language
acquisition, cultural awareness, self-esteem and motivation.
Moreover, after conducting experimental teaching we propose the
methodological guidelines for selection of assessment types and
strategies, setting appropriate tasks and making rubrics.
Keywords: Intercultural communicative competence assessment;
multilingual skills

Introduction
The primary purpose of assessment is to support student learning
because its process engages students in behaviors and activities
that support them to interact. The important point is that
thoroughly organized assessment provides scope for students to
show their level of achievement and to what extent the learning
objectives have been achieved. A well-designed task discerns
between excellent, good and poor levels of achievement.
Theoretical value is identified through integrative approach to the
ICC study and its formation during assessment process. The three
components of ICC as knowledge, attitude and skills involve
cognitive science, affection and behavioral science; therefore, the
ways of assessing each of them varies.
Literature review
The term communicative competence was created by Dell Hymes
on the basis of specific concept of N. Chomsky "linguistic
competence" which is used by scientist to nominate an inner
mental grammar of the individual, arguing that language is
presented here in the form of an abstract sets of rules which is
most clearly reflected in the individual unconscious intuitive
representations of language (Chomsky N., 1965: 154). D. Hymes
defined the communicative competence as inner knowledge
situational appropriateness of the language (Hymes D., 1972:

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269-293). Thus, communicative competence involves knowledge
of relative and other languages, providing possession of ways of
interaction and communication skills with people, the
performance of different social roles in society, and the ability to
use different communication objects to resolve specific situations.
Communicative competence has completely a clear structure with
main components of which are the various competencies
characterizing it from different speech activities (Grishaeva L.I.,
1999: 78-81). There is an indisputable common view that the
knowledge of the culture, values and national characteristics of a
foreign-language conversational partner allows language to be
fully used as a means for intercultural communication and that
this is a precondition for mutual-understanding between
individuals and societies from different cultures generally
(Elizarova G.B., 2005: 6-7).
During the last century the question of the interrelationship
between language, society and culture has not only pedagogical
interest but it has been central to the studies of philosophy,
history, culturology, ethno-linguistics, anthropology, linguistics
and other academic disciplines, especially as regards the applied
aspects of intercultural communication (Ter-Minasova S.G.,
2000: 33).
Studies in ‘intercultural communication’ have established that
one must bear in mind two groups of defining characteristics
when considering the process of intercultural communication:
firstly, intercultural communication is complicated by a range of
factors, namely, communicative factors (situation, style and genre
of language, form of communication, the presence of non-verbal
means of communication, forms of behavior), psychological
factors (type of reception, reaction, stereotyping, empathy;
various types of reaction to a foreign culture such as alienation,
assimilation, acculturation), cultural factors (basic outlook,
norms, values, experience); secondly, different circumstances,
situations and types of contact create different types of
intercultural communication (Galskova N.D., 2001: 3-8).

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According to S.S. Kunanbayeva the intercultural communicative
competence includes the following subcompetences: lingual
cultural, social, social cultural, conceptual, personally centered,
cognitive and communicative. At the present stage of
development of foreign language teaching methodology there is a
necessity and the need to strengthen the socio-cultural training
component of intercultural communicative competence. Learning
a foreign language, students are attached to a different culture,
"the teaching of languages - it is always intercultural
communication" (Kunanbayeva S.S., 2000: 58-68).
The assessment of ICC is a field that is rife with controversy
because the reason lies in the validity of the test. The validity of a
test must be referenced against the skill, performance, ability, or
whatever the instructional program purports to instill. In other
words, unless what is being tested or assessed is clarified,
adequately appropriate measurement tools cannot be developed
(Bachman L.F., Palmer A.S., 2010: 45-52). Therefore, before
developing the method of ICC assessment, the content of
assessment must be clarified.
The most appropriate ICC assessment was proposed by Lafayette
R.C. and Schulz R.A. that culture can be learned as active
cultural knowledge or passive cultural knowledge. They
suggested three culturally oriented goals that can be tested in
EFLT in reality: knowledge, understanding, and behavior
(Lafayette R.C., Schulz R.A., 1997: 577-593). The three
components of ICC as knowledge, attitude and skills involve
cognitive science, affection and behavioral science; therefore, the
ways of assessing each of them varies.
First, assessment of cultural knowledge on the microlevel should
be placed in specific situations. Cultural knowledge and the
situation in which an intercultural encounter happens are
inseparable. The explanation of a communicative behavior varies
with situations. The situation decides whether a communicative
behavior is appropriate and consistent with cultural norms.

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Second, the content of cultural knowledge should be clearly
defined. What have been taught should be assessed. The content
of assessment limits the tasks that the students are realistically
asked to perform on a test. Cultural knowledge assessed should
focus on the knowledge which can influence intercultural
communicative behaviors.
Third, knowledge on host culture should be included in the
assessment. For a long period of time, host culture is ignored in
culture teaching. However, without a deep understanding of one’s
own culture, a person’s knowledge on intercultural
communication is incomplete and unsystematic which definitely
affects the efficiency of intercultural communication.
The ICC assessment has gained popularity in the field of second
language teaching during the past few years. Rubrics provide the
criteria for assessing students' work. They can be used to assess
virtually any product or behavior, such as essays, research
reports, portfolios, and works of art, recitals, oral presentations,
performances, and group activities. Judgments can be self-
assessments by students; or judgments can be made by others,
such as faculty, other students, fieldwork supervisors, and
external reviewers. Rubrics can be used to clarify expectations to
students, to provide formative feedback to students, to grade
students, and/or to assess courses and programs. The term
‘rubrics’, has been used in the field of assessment for more than
two decades now. Andrade defines a rubric as ‘a scoring tool that
lists the criteria for a piece of work’ and one that ‘articulates
gradations of quality for each criterion, from excellent to poor’
(Andrade H., 2000: 13-18).
A good activity never guarantees the accurate determination of a
student’s competency at a given task. At this point, rubrics stand
for this main requirement. Since it specifies the skill being
examined and what constitutes various levels of performance
success.

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Methodology
The procedure
The research was conducted at the L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian
National University in Astana city. The time duration was the
autumn term 2018. The experimental teaching was organized for
30 Pre-Service students. They were third year students of the
speciality “Foreign Languages: Two Foreign Languages”.
The participants were 19-20 years old learners of different
nationalities: Kazakh, Russian, Uzbek, German, Kirgiz, Ukraine,
etc. They master their own native language, the language of
communication either Kazakh or Russian, and less than one
foreign language.
15 weeks had been scheduled for data collection.
The discipline under this research was Public speaking according
to the syllabus.
Each group is divided into two subgroups due to the academic
aptitude: subgroup “A” and subgroup “B”, 15 students in each.
Subgroup “A” overall has the same scores and level of
knowledge as subgroup “B”.
The research was held in group “B” which called experimental
with implementing teaching speaking was assessed with the help
of rubrics, while group “A” control has a traditional teaching
approach.
Students are quite united; they respect and value each other. The
academic proficiency of the whole group is high enough. There is
no evident leader in the class.
Results
We conducted a pre-experimental data analysis of the students’
writing and speaking skills before the experiment so that to check
it after experimental teaching (Table 1).

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Table 1 - The data of students’ achievement in developing
ICC skills before experiment
Score 95- 90- 85- 80- 75- 70- 65- 60- 55- 50- 0-
(points) 100 94 89 84 79 74 69 64 59 54 49
A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D F
Control 8 16 16 15 14 12 11 8 - - -
group (%)
Experimental 6 14 15 13 13 14 13 10 2 - -
group (%)

The results of ICC skills development before experiment were

counted by rubrics. As far as it seen, the control group passed the
tests more successfully and got the higher scores than
experimental one. In comparison 95-100 points received only 6 %
of students in the experimental group but in control group – 8 %.
60-64 points in experimental group were 10 % comparing to
control group 8 %. 55-59 points scored 2 % in the experimental
group.
Then we organize experimental teaching with using performance
based activities that were aimed at defining the behavior,
conducting activities and defining the criteria.
In order to construct a good rubric focus on measuring ICC skills
exactly, assess cultural performances and decisions play the key
role. Even though based on the general guidelines a general rubric
design was organized and used multiple times.
So our teaching process was organized in following details:
1. Defining the behavior to be assessed. Expected student
outcomes, what they should accomplish at the end of each unit
and end of each term should be clarified.
2. Choosing the activity. After the determination of the purpose
of the assessment, we choose an activity and consider issues
regarding time constraints, resources, and how much data is
required.
3. Defining the criteria. Third step after the decision of activity
and tasks to be used, defining of which elements of the
project/task are used to find the success of the students’

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performance. This part is aimed to provide an understanding “a
rubric in language teaching”. It consists typically two sections:
scores along with one axis of the grid and language behavior
descriptors inside the grid for what each score means in terms of
language performance; language categories along one axis and
scores along the other axis and language behavior descriptors
inside the grid for what each score within each category means in
terms of language performance.
We conducted a post-experimental data analysis of the ICC skills
of students before the experiment so that to check it after
experimental teaching (Table 2).
Table 2 - The data of students’ achievement in developing ICC
skills after experiment
Score 95- 90- 85- 80- 75- 70- 65- 60- 55- 50- 0-
(points) 100 94 89 84 79 74 69 64 59 54 49
A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D F
Control 8 16 16 15 14 13 12 6 - - -
group (%)
Experimental 8 15 16 14 14 13 10 10 - - -
group (%)

After experimental teaching both groups we conducted tests and

got the following results described above in the Table 2. The
results of speaking after experiment were counted by rubrics. As
far as it seen, both the control and experimental groups passed the
tests nearly equally. More successfully were the students from the
experimental group because they got the same scores in 95-100
points. The experimental group received 10 % of students in the
experimental group in 65-69 scores just as in the control group
12 %. The experimental group improved their scores and nobody
got 55-59 points.
Findings
Actually in comparison with the control group, the moderated
average variance of the experimental group is higher in many
scores. The results point out that all participants of the control
group had made some improvements after the study but the

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improvement was not as huge as the one made by the
experimental group learners.
Comparing the results of ICC skills before and after experiment
as a whole we concluded that scores of control and experimental
groups improved and even the students from experimental group
got the higher points after experimental teaching.
Conclusion
Research done in English as a second language contexts is also
rare and hence how far the University students make use of
rubrics for self-assessment and the effects of rubrics on the
development of language skills, mainly the productive skills i.e.
writing and speaking, are worth investigating.
Thus the present study attempted to address the problem of the
ICC skills development while studying the improvement of
students’ cultural knowledge, attitude and behaviour of
multilingual students in Kazakhstani Universities alongside with
the effects of provision of tasks used for assessing to students and
other means of teaching. The results reflected a wide range of
professional opinions, personal reflections as well as pedagogical
and linguistic experiences. It gave a new input in terms of initial
education and ongoing training to teachers and teacher trainers at
various levels of instruction.

References
Andrade H. 2000. Using rubrics to promote thinking and
learning. Educational leadership journal. 57(3): PР. 13-18.
Bachman L. F., Palmer A. S. 2010. Language assessment in
practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 98pp.
Chomsky N. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. 1965. Boston:
MIT Press, РР.154
Hymes D. 1972. On Communicative Competence. In J.B.Pride
and J.Holmes (eds.). Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin,
РР. 269-293.

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Lafayette R. C., Schulz R. A. 1997. Evaluating cultural learning.
In P.R. Heusinkfeld (Ed). Pathways to Culture. Yarmouth, ME:
Intercultural Press. PP. 577-593
Galskova N.D. 2001. Intercultural teaching: problems in goals
and learning contents in foreign languages teaching. Journal
Foreign Languages in schools, №4. PP. 3-8
Grishaeva L.I. 1999. National-specific cultural facts learning as a
task of non native language teaching. Crucial problems of foreign
languages teaching in schools and high schools. Lecture complex
for students of foreign languages department. Voronezh,
Academia: 155 рр.
Еlizarova G.V. 2005. Culture and foreign language teaching.
Saint-Petersburg: КАRО: 352 рр.
Кunanbayeva S.S. 2000. The modernization of foreign language
education: the linguocultural-communicative approach: Almaty,
KazUMOIMYA: РР. 58-68.
Теr-Мinassovа S.G. 2000. Language and intercultural
communication. Mоscow, Slovo: 624 рр.

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TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING
DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-151-160

PECULIARITIES OF TRANSLATION OF DIFFERENT

TYPES OF METAPHORS IN PUBLICISTIC TEXTS

Vera Y. Kuznetsova (Barbazyuk)

Military university, Moscow, Russia

e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
The present research is an attempt to investigate the translation of
different types of metaphors in publicistic texts. The study aims
to analyze the translation of metaphor from English into Russian.
It is proved that metaphorical aspects and messages presented in
publicistic texts must be adequately translated and cannot be
ignored. The study is also interested in complex cases of the use
of different metaphors. The research shows the role of
linguacultural aspect in the process of translation. Language
material was collected by the method of continuous sampling.
The findings got from the analyses of the data show that there are
some mismatches between the metaphorical elements. It is shown
that there are no “one to one” correspondence between the
metaphoric elements in English and Russian.
Metaphors in publicistic texts are integral tools of the speech as
they help to present in a short and expressive form the attitude of
the speaker to the situation. They do not only provide certain
information, but also form public opinion. Thus, the metaphors
become not just a figurative unit of speech, but play a conceptual
role.
The realities of social and political life, the balance of power in
the struggle for power are reflected in metaphors presented in
publicistic texts. Since the main feature of these texts is a high

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degree of manipulation on people's minds, it is very important to
determine the role of metaphors as a specific mechanism of
communication.
Metaphor in publicistic texts is an effective tool through which
the speaker’s speech becomes more expressive and associative.
In modern studies of metaphor, there are two approaches to its
description:
 Semasiological (metaphor is defined as one of the types of
figurative meaning, which is based on similarity).
 Cognitive (related to metaphorical human thinking).
According to semantic classification of metaphors there are:
 sports metaphor (election race, final straight);
 medical metaphor (healthy competition, symptoms of a crisis);
 financial metaphor (trust);
 theatrical metaphor (political duet);
 construction metaphor (to make a fortune);
 technical metaphor (pull down on the brakes);
 meteorological metaphor (political climate);
 military metaphor (army of the unemployed).
The main problems translators face in translating metaphors in
publicistic texts is the complexity in understanding, interpreting,
and recreating. One should take into consideration the fact that
metaphors have many hidden meanings that should be taken into
account.
The translator should try to bring his translation close to the
connotative meaning. It is really difficult to find an equivalent
which totally and equally matches the original or concept if the
translator sticks to the mere denotative equivalents of the
metaphorical words. To clarify the point, it should be added that
the images should be selected according to their underlying
meaning. The translator should comprehend the differences
between various cultural and social structures. In fact, there
should be a reasonable relation between the translator's selected
images and the original ones.

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Let us analyze the following example of the translation of
metaphors from English into Russian.
1) Take it from those of us who’ve been on the front line of that
culture war: Old media won. // Заберите это у тех из нас,
кто был на передовой этой культурной войны: старые
СМИ победили.
Presented above figurative speech elements relate to a military
sphere (front line of that culture war… won). They are connected
and actively used to express the problems and attitude to the
situation. Connection of metaphors used in the example leads the
text to a new deep sense and new hidden plot («front line of that
culture war… won» («передовой этой культурной войны…
победили»).
It should be noted that the main concern in translating metaphors
is how to best convey their hidden message and beauty.
Keywords: metaphor, translation, publicistic texts, equivalents

Introduction
In the context of the growing role of mass media, the problem of
translating publicistic texts is particularly relevant. One of the
typical features of publicistic texts is their saturation with stylistic
means that help to increase the influence on the recipient. Based
on the analysis of different publicistic texts, it can be concluded
that the most frequent stylistic tool used in news reports is
“metaphor”.
It is not a secret that metaphor is a highly important tool of
communication and quite complex phenomenon to study. Very
often it is very difficult to provide fully equivalent translation of
them. It therefore provokes important questions about their nature
and possible transferability across languages and cultures. These
questions are widely being discussed in many ways by different
scientists.
Thereby, translation of metaphors will be always considered as
problematic

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Objectives/Purpose of the study
The practical work of translators and translation studies provide
an opportunity to constantly improve the theory and practice of
translation, but it should be pointed out that there are still
different views on some issues, which are associated with
different processes in society and attitudes to translation and
communication. Indeed, the theory of translation has come a long
way of development. Today there are a lot of questions and
problems that require rethinking. Nevertheless, there are some
ideas with which all scientists agree, namely, in order to become
a highly qualified translator it is necessary to constantly improve
translation and professional skills. This is especially important
when it is connected with translation of metaphors and
phraseological units.
Problems connected with the translation of metaphors are
essential for publicistic texts. They are in the center of scientific
attention since they carry a special information load in the field of
communication.
Dealing with the translation of metaphors, a translator must know
their meanings not only in a foreign language, he must
understand and find equivalents in his native language, as well as
know how they influence public opinion. That is why the
translation of metaphors is one of the most difficult tasks of
translation.
The purpose of this article is to analyze and justify the need for
special study of the features of the translation of different types of
metaphors from English into Russian in publicistic texts.
Translation of metaphors from one language into another is a
very complicated task for translators as it requires 3 steps:
understanding, interpreting, and recreating.
Thus, the main task of a translator is the compliance of the
translation with the requirements of adequacy and equivalence.
Methodology
A comprehensive survey of the related materials provided a
concise overview of what has been studied and achieved in the

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field of translation. The aim of the research is to examine the data
using qualitative method in order to find meaningful general
patterns which will then lead to the findings that will be derived
from the data.
Translation theorists have long attempted to describe and explain
the process of translation of metaphors. In line with this many
methods of translation have been proposed in order to be used in
the translation process.
According to P. Newmark, the metaphor has two main functions:
connotative and aesthetic. The connotative function of a
metaphor lies in its ability to characterize any subject. Aesthetic
function implies the ability to strengthen the aesthetic impact and
to arouse interest in the reader (Newmark P., 1988: 89). In
addition to these functions, it is worthwhile to mention the
pragmatic effect that the author of the text brings, using stylistic
means. In order to ensure adequate translation and preserve the
pragmatic equivalence of metaphors as well as their connotative
and aesthetic components, translators must be careful in choosing
the methods of translation.
As noted above, metaphors in publicistic texts are effective tools
through which the speaker’s speech becomes more expressive
and associative.
In modern studies of metaphor, there are two approaches to its
description:
 Semasiological (metaphor is defined as one of the types of
figurative meaning, which is based on similarity).
 Cognitive (related to metaphorical human thinking).
According to semantic classification of metaphors there are:
• sports metaphor (election race, final straight);
• medical metaphor (healthy competition, symptoms of a crisis);
• financial metaphor (trust);
• theatrical metaphor (political duet);
• construction metaphor (to make a fortune);
• technical metaphor (pull down on the brakes);
• meteorological metaphor (political climate);

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• military metaphor (army of the unemployed).
In the book "The Practical Basis of Translation" T.A. Kazakova
gives a classification of methods of translation, and also gives
recommendations on the transfer of stylistic means. The author
considers the metaphor to be the most common stylistic form
(Kazakova T.A., 2008: 64). T.A. Kazakova believes that the
translation of a metaphor depends on the closeness of the cultural
and speech traditions of the source language and the language of
translation. In cases where the measure of implied similarity in
the source language and the target language is different, it is
recommended applying the method of addition or omission
(explication or implication).
V.V. Alimov suggestes two translation methods namely the
semantic and communicative translation methods (Alimov V.V.,
2005). “Communicative translation attempts to produce on its
readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the
readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as
closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second
language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original”
(Newmark P., 1988: 4).
Based on a combination of the theoretical concepts of P.
Newmark, T.A. Kazakova and V.V. Alimov the problems of
translation of metaphors will be examined. After collecting the
data it will be analyzed with the aim of making a sort of a
comparison of translations and to achieve a comprehensive
understanding of the peculiarities of translation of metaphors.
The data will be chosen based on how best to answer the research
question which was mentioned earlier.
The method of collecting data in this research will be conducted
through examining publicistic texts.
Result/Findings
As mentioned above the study attempts to answer which
translation problems professional translators can face in
transferring metaphors in publicistic texts from English into
Russian. After analyzing the data it was found that metaphors can

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lead to serious translation problems. Besides, there are no
standardized solutions, no standard translation guidance or
principle standards for the translation of individual metaphors
that the translators can use. Only context and knowledge of an
interpreter can help to translate them properly.
Metaphors can lead to a semantic gap between both languages.
Translators sometimes fail to convey all the nuances of
metaphors due to lack of awareness and being unaware of
differences in norms and conventions between languages (in this
case between Russian and English). Some examples are given
below.
1) Even when you hew strictly to the facts, in those situations
any nuance comes out as a painful parsing. You feel like Bill
Clinton, clinging to the definition of “is’’ as your last line of
defense (Bergus.org) // Даже, когда вы строго
придерживаетесь фактов, в этих ситуациях любой нюанс
приводит к неприятному разбору. Вы чувствуете себя
Биллом Клинтоном, который цепляется за определение
«есть/ было» как за последний аргумент.
2) Take it from those of us who’ve been on the front line of that
culture war: Old media won (Bergus.org). // Заберите это у
тех из нас, кто был на передовой этой культурной войны:
старые СМИ победили.
3) Where does the rise of the apps leave the news business that
has been brought to a dead end? (Bergus.org) // Куда же рост
популярности приложений завел новостной бизнес,
который оказался загнанным в угол?
4) Q: What is your top complaint about the news media?
My complaint is that the print/ tv news media treats the Internet
as some disgusting thing under a microscope not knowing
anything about it (Bergus.org). //
Какая ваша главная претензия к новостным средства
массовой информации? Моя претензия к печатным /
телевизионным средствам массовой информации состоит в

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том, что, не зная об Интернете ничего, они
рассматривают его (Интернет) под микроскопом как
нечто отвратительное.
Presented above figurative speech elements relate to different
spheres: military (front line of that culture war), construction
(hew strictly to the facts), medical (disgusting thing under a
microscope) etc. but actively used to express the problems and
attitude to the situation. To understand and translate the first
example correctly translators must understand the idea with Bill
Clinton and “is”. For this it is important to read his speech: “It
depends on what the meaning of the word ‘is’ is. If the - if he - if
‘is’ means is and never has been, that is not - that is one thing. If
it means there is none that was a completely true statement” (The
Washington post, August 17, 1998). Only after this one can
understand the deep sense of the image presented in the first
example. Metaphors used in the second example are closely
connected and lead the text to a new deep sense. For example,
«front line of that culture war… won» («передовой этой
культурной войны… победили»).
It should be noted that the main concern in translating metaphors
is how to best convey their hidden message and beauty.
Metaphors make it hard for the translators to understand the
general sense of the sentence. Inability to comprehend the
language due to lack of knowledge of the source language or lack
of proficiency lead to misunderstanding of the intended meaning.
Recommendations
The findings of the study present a number of recommendations
that can be useful and should be used by translators when
translating metaphors in publicistic texts.
 Translators are recommended to do some research about the
metaphors they are going to deal with before doing their
translations.
 It is important for translators to have the background
information relating to the subject. When translators understand

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the background of the original, it provides them with some hints
about the meaning and helps them better choose the word.
 Before starting the process of translation translators should
read and analyze the text comprehensively to make sure that he
correctly understands the text.
 Dictionaries are not the only source to use in dealing with the
meanings of military lexical units.
Conclusion
Summing up, it should be noted that the differences in the
systems of the English and Russian languages may limit the
possibility of full preservation in translation of the content of the
original and will require structural and semantic changes. It is
worth remembering that the translation must take into account the
features of the materials that need to be translated. When working
with English publicistic texts, translators need to remember that
these texts are characterized by abstractness of certain lexical
units. Knowledge of this feature will help to avoid mistakes when
translating.
As for translation strategies, most metaphors are transferred using
the technique of reproduction (i.e. the same image in the target
language). Other commonly used strategies are that of converting
metaphors into their sense in the target language. These strategies
are less risky and the most preferred. As a rule, deleting
metaphors was not pursued.

References
Alimov V.V. 2005. Theory of translation, 3rd ed., URSS,
Moscow, 160 pp.
Bergus.org. URL: http://nbergus.com/category/news-metaphor/
[Accessed January 12 2019].
Kazakova T.A. 2008. Practical basics of translation. English ↔
Russian: study guide / T. A. Kazakova. - St. Petersburg:
Perspective: Union, 319 pp.
Newmark P. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. – Harlow: Pearson
Education Limited, 292 pp.

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The Washington post. Clinton's Grand Jury Testimony, Part 4
(August 17, 1998). URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
srv/politics/special/clinton/stories/bctest092198_4.htm?noredirect
=on [Accessed January 12 2019].

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-160-168

THE BEST APPS FOR LEARNING AND TRANSLATING

FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Antonella Selvitella
Institute of Foreign Languages
Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
According to the latest data, there is a very prosperous market. If
for schools and classic media such as books, CDs and DVDs a
global sales decline of 2.1 percent is expected by 2018, for the
technology sector the expected growth is 73 percent by 2019
equal to one revolution of $ 14.5 billion. The advantages are
many after all: just have a smartphone or tablet in the pocket to
follow the lesson and perform the exercises, the absence of
books, paper and pen allows students to study anywhere and then
there is interactivity. So let's see the most promising apps on the
market.
The forerunner starts from Rosetta Stone (199 euros per course)
that uses the microphone of the device to check the
pronunciation. It is the daughter of a technological linguistics
colossus that made a fury at the time of courses on CD and DVD,
has a huge offer and in addition to the classic European languages
we also find Hebrew, Korean, Vietnamese, Chinese. If it is
important to learn well to speak any idiom, the vocal recognition
becomes fundamental in tonal languages such as tangerine where

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a same syllable can be pronounced in five different tones
assuming often opposed meanings.
Social learning - the connection of device instead can transform
the learning experience in a social key thanks to applications such
as Busuu (subscription from 9.99 euros). The teaching method is
classic, based on cards and images but in addition offers an online
exchange with other users. Busuu exercises are subjected to the
screening of native speakers who monitor them in real time
giving learners the advice and making them notice any errors
while they will control the work of others in the languages to
perfect. This creates a very fruitful cultural exchange that can
lead to the videochat where learners can make conversation with
foreign people and practice, having fun.
Another out-of-the-box approach is that of Memrise (subscription
of € 8.99). As the name suggests, this application aims at
memorizing words through visual learning: by associating words
and images, it stimulates the mind to remember what students are
learning. Here too, there are many languages and the European
ones such as English, German, Italian, French and Spanish are
divided according to the levels of the Common European
Framework of Reference to train students better for specific
examinations. Wanting there are also sections dedicated to
history, geography and quizzes of pure fun in addition to the
cards dedicated to learning foreign songs.
Easy and intuitive, it is impossible to speak of language apps
without mentioning Duolingo, the queen of learning via
smartphone. Available on iOS and Android, it is completely free
and before starting the lessons offers a short test to check our
level. Very interactive, allows learners to set daily goals and
choose a relaxed, normal or intensive learning style. Basic offers
French and English but those who know the language of
Shakespeare can also access Norwegian, Ukrainian, Russian and
even Esperanto. Keeping under control our every step forward,
Duolingo allows us to review the concepts in which we are
lacking and to study them again until we have learned.

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In also another celebrity in the industry is Babbel (subscription
from 9.99 euros), we follow step by step only that is focused
mainly on the conversation. From the first exercises we will learn
the phrases necessary to present and interact with each other and
then go deeper and deeper and study the grammar (Spatafora S.,
2016).
Keywords: apps for learning and translating foreign languages,
visualization, interactive approach in teaching foreign languages.

Introduction
There is nothing better than living for a period of time abroad to
learn a language. But not everyone can afford it or have the desire
to go and live outside.
To learn a language sitting comfortably on the couch, learners
can use other learning methods, easy to get and cheap.
In the near future, automatic translators will do everything for
people and it will no longer be necessary to know languages.
Systems for speech recognition combined with algorithms and
artificial intelligence will allow users to have a simultaneous
translator always with them but in the wait they just have to
study. The classic methods, however, are flanked by the app,
many small programs that take them into a new language or allow
them to refine it by inserting new elements of interaction into the
learning process.
Whether learners want to learn English, Italian, French, Spanish
or Chinese, today there are a lot of smartphone apps that allow
them to learn the language directly from their phone and from
anywhere in the world. More and more apps are developing,
technology is actually thinking about all the needs of the new era.
This article will show which are the best apps for learning and
translating languages.
Objectives/Purpose of the study
A market in full swing.
Duolingo – it is available in the Google Play Store, App Store
and Windows Phone, Duolingo is one of the best applications

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available on the market to learn the basics of any foreign
language.
To make the study more fun, the user must complete the exercises
trying not to make mistakes in order to get the highest score and
to unlock the next levels.
Duolingo uses its users' suggestions to improve the quality of the
questions and make the application easy to use. It is estimated
that 34 hours of study with the app are equivalent to a six-month
intensive course.
Busuu - with Busuu it is possible to learn 8 different languages.
In addition to the free online course available on the website,
learners can download the application for Android and iOS (also
available for the Apple Watch). To use the service learners, need
to pay a monthly or annual subscription and the cost varies
depending on the number of languages they want to learn.
The exercises are simple and designed directly by the community
that has more than 50,000,000 members.
Babbel - through the application of Babbel learners can perform
grammar or phonics exercises to improve their pronunciation. It
offers 13 language courses including Chinese, Turkish and Dutch.
To find out if the pronunciation of the words is correct, Babbel
offers users a series of exercises that can be performed thanks to
the use of speech recognition. The app is available in the Google
Play Store and App Store and the price varies depending on the
duration of the subscription (from 9.95 euros for the monthly
subscription to 19.95 for the quarterly subscription, up to 33.30
for the six-monthly and 59.40 for the annual).
Rosetta Stone - thanks to a personal tutor, learning one of the 24
languages offered by Rosetta Stone has never been so easy.
Rosetta Stone is a free application, but learners pay if they want
to unlock premium content and advanced courses. Through the
exercises, they will learn new vocabulary, the basics of grammar
and the correct pronunciation of words. In addition, they can
familiarize themselves with the specific vocabulary used on

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special occasions, such as business trips, and business
presentations. A business plan is also foreseen for companies.
Rosetta Stone is available for both Android and iOS and for the
Amazon Kindle Fire tablet.
Memrise - Memrise, unlike all the apps people have seen so far,
focuses mainly on visual memory: users must associate images
with words through the exercises. In this way, learning is faster
and fun. With Memrise learners can learn up to 40 new words per
hour and, to improve oral comprehension and pronunciation, the
recordings are performed by a native speaker.
Courses can be downloaded into the memory of their smartphone
so they can be consulted from anywhere and at any time. The
application is available in both Google Play and the App Store.
VocApp - VocApp is a free application available for Android and
iOS that allows users to learn new words quickly and easily
through the use of flashcards.
The flashcards are cards on which the foreign word is written to
be memorized, accompanied by its translation into Italian, for
example (Lana A., 2016).
VocApp is a tool that offers many options: learners can download
flashcards already created by users or create them by themselves
in just a few seconds from images, texts or even using their voice
via voice recognition (Saccotelli G., 2018).
Methodology and sub headings
The current methodology for learning and translating languages
in the modern era can only start from Google Translate, the
famous service created by Google that is also available in an
online version, as it is explained in the tutorial dedicated to the
best online translators. Google Translate is a 100 % free app,
available for Android and iOS and can translate hundreds of
languages by performing offline translations, instant camera
translations and even voice translations.
After downloading Google Translate on smartphone or tablet, the
learner should launch the app by tapping the Open button or by
pressing on its icon located in the home screen of device and, in

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its home screen, configuring the translator by choosing the main
language (Italian) and the most frequently used language
(English, Spanish, Chinese, etc.) and to save the settings by
clicking on the item Finish.
In the screen that opens, then it is necessary to type the text and
to translate in the Tap to type text field and, instantly, a blue box
will appear containing the translation of the phrase typed. If the
learner wants to translate a text, it is necessary to frame it with
the camera of your device, however, presses the symbol of the
camera and frames the text to be translated. After that, the
algorithm of Google Translate will recognize it and "magically"
will modify the words of the text framed, translating them into
the language chosen. To do voice translations, instead, the learner
should press the microphone symbol and start speaking, while
simultaneously the program will translate what the learner is
saying.
If the learner wants to perform offline translations with Google
Translate, needs to download the dictionaries that interest him.
To do so, it is necessary to press on the symbol (≡) and, in the
menu that appears on the left, tap on Translations offline and
press the arrow symbol next to the language desired to proceed
with its download. Once the download is complete (the learner
needs to download at least two languages to translate offline),
finally the translations will be in the languages downloaded even
without an Internet connection.
Even Microsoft Translator, the mobile translator designed by the
Redmond colossus, is a free solution that you should seriously
consider. Like the Google translator, Microsoft Translator can
perform offline translations, instant camera translations and voice
translations in more than 60 languages (some features are not
available for all languages). In addition to this, this translator
provides a practical phrasebook that can be used if necessary.
After downloading Microsoft Translator on Android device, iOS
and Windows 10 Mobile, the app starts and presses on one of the
symbols on the screen to start a translation. After that it is

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necessary to tap the microphone symbol to start a voice
translation, to press on the symbol of the keyboard to make a text
translation, to press the camera symbol to start an instant
translation using the camera of device, or to tap the two men
symbol to converse in real time with people who speak other
languages.
One of the most interesting aspects of Microsoft Translator is the
presence of an integrated phrasebook directly in the app. To
access this tool, presses the book symbol (lower right) and, in the
screen that opens, it is necessary to press on one of the available
categories to learn new terms to use during a trip. Note: this
translator is powered by machine learning and the text, image and
voice information provided for translation will be used to
improve Microsoft products and services. Microsoft is committed
to protecting users’ privacy by identifying their information and
making it secure (Aranzulla S., 2018).
Resuts and findings
Reverso Dictionary Translator (Android / iOS / online)
If learners are looking for an app that, in addition to acting as a
simple translator, can help users to become more expert in
speaking a certain language, Reverso Translate Dictionary could
do this. This semi-free solution not only allows learners to
instantly translate into 12 different languages, but also integrates
a search engine that offers examples of use from various sources:
movies, websites, newspaper articles and so on. It is thanks to
these examples that users can refine their language skills and
acquire more fluency in a foreign language.
After downloading the Reverso Dictionary on smartphone or
tablet, to start the app, it is necessary to select the source and
destination languages (Italian > English or Italian > Spanish) and
type in the search field, the term the user wants to translate. As a
result, the term typed will not only be translated instantly, but
will also be included in some examples that will help users to
understand how to use it in different contexts. This feature

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promotes language learning and is particularly useful for getting
better set when learners are in a foreign country.
If users want to make a simple translation and do not want to see
the examples proposed by Reverso, they should tap on the
symbol (≡) and, in the drop-down menu that appears, presses on
the voice Reverso Reverso; then type the term they want to
translate into the appropriate field and press the yellow Translate
button to start the translation, it is very simple.
Conversational translator (Android) - this free app, as its name
suggests, is a very useful tool for translating conversations. It is
useful for those people which are planning a trip abroad, they will
most likely have to converse with other people and Conversation
Translator will help them do just that. Internet connection is
required to use Conversational translator.
Speak to Voice Translator (Android) - this free solution allows
for accurate and accurate voice translations. Speak to Voice
Translator allows users to choose from four online translation
services (Google Translate, Microsoft Translators, Yandex and
Baidu) and requires Internet connection to work.
Talk and Translate (iOS) - this app works much like Speak to
Voice Tranlsator. It allows users to perform voice translations in
over 50 languages and text translations in over 100 languages. It
can be downloaded for free from the App Store but to access all
the features included in the app users need to purchase its
Premium version, which starts at 4.99 euros.
IHandy Translator (iOS) - this app features an all-screen user
interface that makes its use easier and more intuitive. IHandy
translator allows to do translations in more than 50 languages, it
is 100 % free and does not have any advertising banner. To work,
it requires an active Internet connection.
Word Reference (Android / iOS) - it is one of the best app-
dictionary dedicated to the English language. It allows you to
translate individual terms and to know the exact meaning. It's
completely free and requires an Internet connection to work
(Aranzulla S., 2018).

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Discussion
After analyzing the various language learning apps available on
the market, it is possible to get some conclusions. Surely, the
technology will create more and more applications, even
unimaginable applications such as the already existing virtual
journeys, the learners will even be able to live in another
dimension simply being at home. Probably the school system
thanks to this new era will have a sudden change, it is a risk that
is worth living but it is a risk that must give a development in
more human and cognitive development and not destroy it. It is
right that the new applications do not annihilate human values but
enrich the knowledge baggage and human development.

References
Aranzulla, S. 2017. App per tradurre. URL:
https://www.aranzulla.it/app-per-tradurre-1022465.html
[Accessed 20.10.2017].
Lana, A. 2016. Tecnologia. Corriere della sera 2016. URL:
https://www.corriere.it/tecnologia/app-software/cards/migliori-
app-imparare-lingue-smartphone-tablet/anche-indonesiano.shtml
[Accessed 08.02.2016].
Saccotelli, G. 2018. Life Style Viaggi. Gios Journey 2018. URL:
http://www.giosjourney.com/2018/01/21/app-per-imparare-le-
lingue/ [Accessed 21.01.2018].
Spatafora, S. 2016. Course Finders. URL:
https://coursefinders.com/blog/it/4968/italiano-5-miti-da-sfatare-
sullapprendimento-delle-lingue [Accessed 04.11.2016].

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-169-177

TRANSLATION OF THE TEXTS USING MACHINE

TRANSLATION SYSTEMS: LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS
OF THE EXAMPLES FROM LITERARY
AND SCIENTIFIC TEXTS

Jane M. Zakovorotnaya

Southern Federal University

Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Current machine translation approaches include rule-based
machine translation (RBMT), statistical or corpora-based
machine translation (SMT or CBMT), hybrid machine translation
(HMT) (Nikolaev I.S., 2017: 158) and neural Machine
Translation (NMT). The architecture and algorithms represent
machine translation (MT) systems’ methods and ways to solve
the Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks. To study results of
current state-of-the-art approaches, we performed a linguistic
analysis of two different texts, translated by three Russian MT
systems - PROMT Translator, Yandex Translator and ETAP-4
MT system. Text 1 is the first excerpt from the science-fiction
novel “Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy” by Douglas Adams
(Adams D., 1979: 12), and Text2 is the second excerpt from the
academic article “Asymptotically Optimal Contextual Bandit
Algorithm Using Hierarchical Structures” by Mohammadreza
Mohaghegh Neyshabouri et al. (Neyshabouri M.M., 2018: 923).
Observed results demonstrate the effectiveness of the different
approaches employed by the examined MT systems.
Text 1: “Far out in the uncharted backwaters of the unfashionable
end of the western spiral arm of the Galaxy lies a small
unregarded yellow sun. Orbiting this at a distance of roughly

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ninety-two million miles is an utterly insignificant little blue
green planet whose ape-descended life forms are so amazingly
primitive that they still think digital watches are a pretty neat
idea”.
Text 2: “We propose an online algorithm for sequential learning
in the contextual multiarmed bandit setting. Our approach is to
partition the context space and, then, optimally combine all of the
possible mappings between the partition regions and the set of
bandit arms in a data-driven manner. We show that in our
approach, the best mapping is able to approximate the best arm
selection policy to any desired degree under mild Lipschitz
conditions”.
PROMT Translator is an RBMT system. This approach is based
on bilingual dictionaries, morphology and syntax rules of source
language (SL) and target language (TL). The translation of text1
reveals an accurate parsing, but some incorrect morphological
affixes and suffixes. Conversely, in text 2, the academic style is
misinterpreted due to the lack of specific scientific terms.
Therefore, these errors are explained by the lack of wordforms
and expressions in RBMT system dictionaries.
Yandex.Translator is an HMT system that combines SMT and
NMT approaches. In the beginning, this system trains on a
massive parallel corpora to make probabilistic language models
and translation models of SL and TL. In translating, the system
uses the CatBoost algorithm to calculate the context of sentences
and chooses the most probable translation model for each part of
the text. The linguistic analysis of two translations revealed errors
such as incorrect syntax and wrong translations of scientific
terms. Consequently, in MT systems based on a statistical
approach, the main cause of mistakes is the absence of translation
models in training parallel corporas.
ETAP-4 MT System use the lexical functions to systematize
semantic relationships between lexical units of SL and TL. In
addition, this MT system trains on syntactically marked texts
from the Russian National Corpus. As a result, several mistakes

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are detected in translations: extra words, incorrect morphological
affixes, incorrect syntax and untranslated words. This results in
the system’s inability to correctly recognize several expressions,
due to the complexity of the original grammatical structures.
Thus, the linguistic analysis of MT systems translations reveals
that the quality of machine translation largely depends on the
appropriate choice of machine translation systems, based on the
user’s knowledge of the underlying methods used by various
systems to solve NLP problems.
Keywords: machine translation, NLP, analysis, machine
translation systems

Introduction
The development of digital technologies has led to the emergence
of new interdisciplinary research in linguistics, such as machine
translation. This is an automatic translation of texts from source
language (SL) to target language (TL) without human
involvement. Today the service of machine translation (MT) are
widespread in Russia, and many companies, such as Yandex or
PROMT, combine different approaches to make their own MT
systems. It is important to mention that machine translation
approaches vary according to the principles and algorithms of
operation. The classification includes the rule-based machine
translation (RBMT), statistical or corpora-based machine
translation (SMT or CBMT), hybrid machine translation (HMT)
(Nikolaev I.S., 2017: 158) and neural machine translation (NMT).
Objectives/Purpose of the study
The objectives of this paper are two texts translated by three
Russian MT systems - PROMT Translator, Yandex Translator
and the ETAP-4 MT system. The purpose of this study is
researching the quality and effectiveness of current approaches in
state-of-the-art MT systems.
Methodology
We performed a linguistic analysis of two different texts,
translated by three high mentioned Russian MT systems. Text 1

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is an extract from the science-fiction novel “Hitchhiker’s Guide
to the Galaxy” by Douglas Adams (Adams D., 1979: 12), Text2 -
from the academic article “Asymptotically Optimal Contextual
Bandit Algorithm Using Hierarchical Structures” by
Mohammadreza Mohaghegh Neyshabouri and his colleagues
(Neyshabouri M.M., 2018: 923).
Text 1: “Far out in the uncharted backwaters of the
unfashionable end of the western spiral arm of the Galaxy lies a
small unregarded yellow sun. Orbiting this at a distance of
roughly ninety-two million miles is an utterly insignificant little
blue green planet whose ape-descended life forms are so
amazingly primitive that they still think digital watches are a
pretty neat idea”.
Text 2: “We propose an online algorithm for sequential learning
in the contextual multiarmed bandit setting. Our approach is to
partition the context space and, then, optimally combine all of the
possible mappings between the partition regions and the set of
bandit arms in a data-driven manner. We show that in our
approach, the best mapping is able to approximate the best arm
selection policy to any desired degree under mild Lipschitz
conditions”.
Results/ Findings
The studied MT systems - PROMT Translator, Yandex.
Translator, ETAP-4 MT System - have performed the translations
of the two examined texts that allow performing the following
linguistic analysis of these results.
PROMT Translator. Text 1: “Далеко в неизведанных болотах
немодного конца западной спиральной руки Галактики
находится небольшое игнорируемое желтое солнце.
Вращение вокруг этого на расстоянии примерно девяноста
двух миллионов миль является совершенно незначительной
небольшой синей зеленой планетой, произошедшие обезьяной
формы жизни которой так удивительно примитивны, что
они все еще думают, что цифровые часы - довольно
отличная идея”.

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172
PROMT Translator is a transfer rule-based machine translation
system. The work of this system is based on bilingual
dictionaries, morphology and syntax rules of the source language
(SL) and target language (TL) (Nikolaev I.S., 2017: 161). The
analysis of this extract shows that the majority of the words are
translated correctly at the lexical level, likely a result of the
massive bilingual and specialized dictionaries. Furthermore, the
parsing of the whole text is relatively correct, and the meaning of
the first sentence is reconstructed correctly. Nevertheless, the MT
system made a number of mistakes in the second sentence, such
as incorrect construction of grammatical relations between words,
wrong definition of the meaning of the word form “orbiting”,
inadequate coreference between the “желтое солнце” and the
pronoun “этого”, inaccurate translation of the construction “ape-
descended life forms” (произошедшие обезьяной формы
жизни). As a result, understanding the meaning of the second
sentence is difficult.
PROMT Translator. Text 2: “Мы предлагаем алгоритм
онлайн для последовательного изучения в контекстном
мультивооруженном урегулировании бандита. Наш подход
должен разделить пространство контекста и, тогда,
оптимально объединить все возможные отображения
между регионами разделения и набором рук бандита
управляемым данными способом. Мы показываем, что в
нашем подходе, лучшее отображение в состоянии
приблизить лучшую политику выбора руки до любой
желаемой степени при умеренных условиях Липшица”.
During translation of Text 2, the academic style is misinterpreted
because of the incorrect selection of translation models of some
terms and expressions, such as: “multiarmed bandit”
(мультивооруженный бандит), “data-driven manner”
(управляемый данными способ), “contextual setting”
(контекстном урегулировании), “online algorithm” (алгоритм
онлайн). In addition, incorrect parsing causes distortion of the
intended meaning. Therefore, the lexical and morphological

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errors are explained by the lack of wordforms and expressions in
the RBMT system’s dictionaries.
Yandex.Translator. Text 1: “Далеко в неизведанных водах
немодного конца западного спирального рукава галактики
лежит маленькое нерегулируемое желтое солнце.
Орбитальная Орбита на расстоянии примерно девяносто
двух миллионов миль - это совершенно незначительная
маленькая голубая зеленая планета, чьи формы жизни,
порожденные обезьянами, настолько удивительно
примитивны, что они все еще думают, что цифровые часы -
довольно аккуратная идея.”
Yandex.Translator is a hybrid machine translation system that
combines SMT and NMT approaches. To perform the translation
translate this system trains on a massive parallel corpora and
creates probabilistic language and translation models of the
source language (SL) and target language (TL). During the course
of translation, the system chooses the most probable translation
model using the CatBoost algorithm to calculate the context. The
result of the translation shows the following inaccuracies:
“нерегулируемое желтое солнце”; “Орбитальная Орбита”;
“формы жизни”, “порожденные обезьянами”; “цифровые
часы довольно аккуратная идея”. Despite the lexical error
“нерегулируемое желтое солнце” (unregarded yellow sun), the
main meaning of the first sentence can be understood due to the
competent parsing and correct translation of the other words.
However, the translation of the second sentence is inaccurate
because of the poorly chosen translation models.
Yandex.Translator. Text 2: “Предложен онлайн-алгоритм
последовательного обучения в контекстуальной многорукой
бандитской обстановке. Наш подход состоит в том, чтобы
разделить контекстное пространство и затем оптимально
объединить все возможные сопоставления между
регионами разделов и набором бандитских рук на основе
данных. Мы показываем, что в нашем подходе наилучшее
отображение способно аппроксимировать наилучшую

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политику выбора руки в любой желаемой степени при
мягких условиях Липшица”. The translation of this extract from
a scientific article was more accurate because this MT system
was trained on academic and scientific parallel texts from OPUS
corpora. However, the meaning of the first sentence is inadequate
due to the incorrect translation model of the scientific term
“multiarmed bandit” (контекстуальной многорукой
бандитской обстановке). Overall, the linguistic analysis of two
translated texts revealed such errors as an incorrect syntax and a
mistranslation of scientific terms. Consequently, in MT systems
based on statistical approaches, the main cause of mistakes is the
absence of translation models in training parallel corporas.
ETAP-4 MT System. Text 1: “Далеко прочь в заводях
немодного конца западной спиральной руки Галактики, не
отмеченных на карте, лежит маленькое нерасценённое
жёлтое солнце. Грубое вращение этого на расстоянии
относительно девяносто два миллиона миль, крайне
незначительная маленькая голубая зелёная планета, чья
жизнь неподвижные думать о цифровом часы,
спускающаяся человекообразной обезьяной, формируется -
,так удивительно примитивной, что они - довольно
опрятная мысль”.
ETAP-4 MT System implements translation on the lexical
functions that systematize semantic relationships between lexical
units of SL and TL. This MT system trains on syntactically
marked corpora, which is a part of the Russian National Corpus.
This translation of the literary text demonstrates extraneous
words (грубое вращение, жизнь неподвижные), incorrect
morphological affixes and suffixes (спускающаяся
человекообразной обезьяной, о цифровом часы), inadequate
coreferences between the noun “желтое солнце” and the
pronoun “этого”, as well as incorrect syntax in the second
sentence. All these errors cause distortions of the original
meaning.

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ETAP-4 MT System. Text 2: “Мы предлагаем онлайновый
алгоритм последовательное изучение в обстановке
контекстного мультивооружённого бандита. Наш подход
должен разбивать пространство контекста и, затем,
оптимально объединять все возможные отображения
между областями раздела и поставленным рук бандита в
способ, приводящийся в движение данными. Мы показываем,
что, в нашем подходе, наилучшее отображение может
аппроксимировать наилучшую политику выбора рук к любой
желательной степени при условиях мягкого Lipschitz”. There
are some inaccuracies in translation of the scientific terms “multi-
armed bandit” (мультивооружённого бандита), “data-driven
manner” (приводящийся в движение данными), incorrect
affixes and suffixes of wordforms and expressions
(приводящийся в движение данными; онлайновый алгоритм;
условиях мягкого Lipschitz), as well as incorrect construction of
grammatical relations between the elements. Thereby, there are
some unknown expressions, which the system is unable to detect
due to the complexity of the original grammatical structures.
Discussion
In conclusion, the linguistic analysis of different MT systems’
translations discover the advantages and disadvantages of each
MT approach. However, the results reveal that PROMT
Translator and ETAP-4 MT System performed the translation of
the two examined texts less correctly than the hybrid system
Yandex.Translator. Consequently, we believe that the future of
machine translation lies in the improvement of hybrid systems
with the advantages of neural models. Nevertheless, it is
important to emphasize, that found drawbacks and errors help to
understand the point of the problems of each MT approach and
the ways of the enhancement of various MT systems. This means
that the quality of machine translation depends on the appropriate
choice of MT systems, based on the user’s knowledge of the
underlying methods used by different systems to solve NLP
problems.

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References
Adams D. 1979. The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, Del Rey
Books, UK, 163 pp.
ETAP-4 MT System 2019. The automatic online translation
service // http://cl.iitp.ru/ru/etap4 [Accessed February 22 2019].
Neyshabouri M. M., Gokcesu, K., Gokcesu, H., Ozkan, H. 2018.
Asymptotically Optimal Contextual Bandit Algorithm Using
Hierarchical Structures. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks
and Learning Systems 30 (3): 923-937.
Nikolaev I. S., Mitrenina O.V., Lando T.M. 2017. Applied and
computational linguistics, 2 ed. Moscow, 316 pp.
Promt Translator 2019. The automatic online translation service.
https://www.translate.ru [Accessed February 20 2019].
Yandex. Translator 2019. The automatic online translation
service. https://translate.yandex.ru [Accessed February 21 2019].

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-177-185

POETIC INVERSION UNDER TRANSLATION

Bakhyt N. Zhanturina

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The paper aims at syntactic constructions under poetic
translation, at the intersection of strategies in the initial Emily
Dickinson’s lyric and a Russian translated variant.
With the cognitive basis in mind, the production of a translated
variant needs a cognitive support in the textual composition, their
linear and stanzaic strong positions of the beginning and the end.

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The translated version pursues the same communicative strategy
in the imperative, exclamations and statements throughout the
text but for two exceptions, grounded in the linguistic asymmetry
of English and Russian word order (non-equivalence of
communicative types of grammatical inversion, the second –
poetic inversion). The initial text is loaded with double syntax
and elliptical constructions, which remains uncompensated under
Russian translation.
The question is open: whether the extra emphatic loading of
initial constructions could be rendered under translation or it
belongs the aura of poetic diction specific to each language.
Non-canonical constructions marked by subject-predicate
modification may produce complex inverted constructions with
dual interpretation.
English word order is employed in four speech acts in the
opening stanza of lyric № 187 How many times these low feet
staggered, translated by Arkady Gavrilov. It is clear that
communication is actual, the narration refers to the present: an
exclamation in Line 1 and statement in the declarative in Line 2
introduce the Speaker. The Speaker’s voice is directed to the
partner as compulsion with the imperative try / (you) try (if) you
can lift…. (if with direct order of subject - predicate is implied in
an indirect question after the imperative). However, another non-
canonical sentence with indirect word order in a general question
can you stir… introduces the Speaker’s expectation for an answer
in a dialogue. Punctuation seems dislocated: exclamation mark
follows the question, hyphen in the end of Line 2 is indicative of
an incomplete thought in a statement, a hyphen follows a
question, hyphens in the middle of lines are markers of the
imperative.
The communicative strategy is to involve the Reader into
communication, the narrative strategy is to share the state of mind
in a dialogue.
Stanza 2 inherits the communicative vector from Stanza 1, which
is textually represented by parallel imperative constructions in

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Lines 5-7; Stanza 3 provides syntactic complexity caused by
inversion and paired by ellipsis. The double syntax effect in buzz
the dull flies… arises if two speech acts overlap and are fused into
one construction. Treating the initial buzz as an imperative leads
us to a communicative gap: the subject dull flies in the imperative
sounds absurd (*you buzz the dull flies), the location of buzz
produces full emphatic inversion in the line initial position and a
statement in the inverted construction. The imperative is dictated
by the perceptual and narrative inertia in the dialogue with the
reader, prepared by the previous composition in 2–7. Lines 9 and
10 are identical with partial emphatic inversion models: brave
shines the sun in prosaic version would be the sun shines brave,
fearless the cobweb swings => the fearless cobweb swings.
Keywords: inversion, double syntax construction,
communicative and textual strategies, cognitive support

Introduction
Emily Dickinson’s ambiguity in adaptation of syntax has
traditionally been treated as ‘poetic license’ for syntactic oddity
and semantic obscurity based on lapses from grammatical
conventions often deforming the Reader’s perception and
expectations, as R.L. Lair puts it (Lair, 1967). Rearrangement of
canonical syntactic constructions in subject-verb sequence in a
prosaic linear sequence of the sentence is classified as inversion
(Kobrina, 2007; Gurevich, 2008). It is generally acknowledged to
be a basic grammatical deviation, alongside with poetic ellipsis, a
conventional pattern of rhythmically gapped poetic composition
in a line and or stanza. Poetic inversions give natural stress to the
stanzaic and structural linear composition of the lyric; they are
organized in the initial and final positions of both poetic lines and
stanza so as to put special emphasis (or foregrounding) on
significant details about the poet’s experience of the event
described; they are also a troublesome example of syntactic
compression in Miss Dickinson’s “crabbed style”, a term
employed by M. Galperin (Galperin, 2012). A more drastic

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cognitive implication might be that Emily Dickinson’s syntactic
oddity results from the dynamic overlap of the communicative
and narrative strategies in a lyric, which is indicative of an extra
emphatic loading in poetic diction.
Objectives
The present paper is devoted to English syntactic constructions
and their translated variants in Russian, the focus of research
being the intersection of communicative and textual strategies in
both texts [the original one by Emily Dickinson and its Russian
translation by A. Gavrilov (the translation chronologically
belongs to the end of the nineties)]. Our purpose is to trace the
overlap of strategies in syntactic constructions in the initial
English lyric and in the final product of poetic translation with
the basis of the linguistic theory of translation, primarily, full and
partial equivalence and non-equivalence concepts.
Methodology
With respect to cognitive linguistics basis, the interpreter of Miss
Dickinson’s lyric is treated as the most sophisticated Reader of
the poetic text; the perception of the initial text and production of
a translated variant wholly rely on the so-called cognitive
supports in the composition of the text. The composition of each
line and stanza is metrically and rhythmically organized with
their strong initial and final positions, the composition of a stanza
also has its strong positions of the beginning and end. The verbal
and non-verbal organization of the whole texts is believed to
depend strongly on the cognitive supports in producing the
original and translated texts.
Results
It is relevant that the Russian translated version follows the same
communicative strategy in the imperative constructions,
exclamations and statements establishing the relations of full and
partial equivalence in translation. Throughout the whole poem
there are only two syntactic deviations in the models of
grammatical and poetic inversion, marked by the linguistic
asymmetry of English and Russian word order, thus

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demonstrating non-equivalence in their linguistic nature. The
former of the two strongly suggests the so-called non-equivalence
of the communicative type of full grammatical inversion with the
word-order in the respective speech acts and interrogative
utterances. The latter of the two syntactic modifications is an
analytical model of emphatic or poetic inversion, both full and
partial in questions and statements. The textual strategy of the
initial text also contains syntactic compression in double syntax
constructions and ellipsis, that produce a highly emphatic effect
while the Russian variant is devoid of it as it has been
commonplace practice to treat the linguistic phenomena of the
kind as a bulk of untranslated realia. The grammatical deviations
under study seem to be a powerful means typical of syntactic
compression in Emily Dickinson’s style, the violated non-
canonical word order in inverted and double syntax constructions
rules the excess emphatic effect of the initial English text. The
interpreter is confronted by a choice of deformations in the text:
either to get lost in grammatical placement and punctuation in the
translated text or to preserve the aura of poetic diction specific to
each poetic language. A. Gavrilov chooses the second.
Discussion
Subject-predicate placement in a linear sequence of the poetic
line and stanza are treated as non-canonical inverted
constructions and may produce an effect of double syntax, they
require rereading and allow dual interpretation of the normative
prose word order; they also are relevant in tracing dual textual
cohesive means included into the author’s communicative
(perceptual) and textual (narrative) strategies.
Normal English word order in its communicative status variety,
in 4 speech acts, respectively, is represented in the first two lines
of the opening stanza in lyric №187 How many times these low
feet staggered (1860), a translated text by Arkady Gavrilov
(Dickinson, 2001:104-105). In Lines 3\4 it is interrupted by a
repetitive use of a double construction with mixed
communicative and textual strategies:

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How many times these low Как уставали эти ноги
feet staggered
Only the soldered mouth can Лишь этот рот сказать бы
tell мог
Try – can you stir the awful Попробуйте сорвать
rivet заклепки!
Try – can you lift the hasps of Попробуйте сломать замок!
steel!
No doubt, communication here is actual, the narration refers to
the present moment, that of actual intercourse: both an
exclamative sentence in Line 1 and a statement in the declarative
sentence (with inappropriate punctuation marks) in Line 2
introduce the Speaker, who is in a certain agitated state of mind at
seeing a dead lady and seems to be lamenting about it. The
Speaker’s voice addresses the partner of communication and
renders a compulsion to act in the imperative try / (you) try (if)
you can lift…. The missing conjunction if is easily recovered
from the context when the usual placement of subject and
predicate is strongly implied in the normative sequence of an
indirect question in reported speech that follows the imperative
verb in the verb-phrase. Instead of it one can see another non-
canonical sentence with an indirect word order of a general
question in direct speech, can you stir… follows the imperative
verb and marks another speech act. The imperative strategy is
complicated by a direct address to the partner, moreover, it fails
to render only an address but the Speaker’s expectation for an
answer in a dialogue (though unnecessary if it is a rhetoric
address). The Reader is, thus, involved into narration to a greater
extent as if he/she were real witness of the event described.
Punctuation also seems chaotic, out of place and overloaded
throughout the stanza, its markers do not follow the speech act
they refer to: an exclamation mark at the end of the quatrain
crowns the question, a hyphen in the end of Line 2 manifests an
incomplete thought in a statement (though it sounds complete), a
hyphen in the end of Line 3 serves as a substitute for an

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interrogation mark in a question, hyphens in the middle of Lines
3-4 are found in the end of the imperative and the beginning of a
direct question. The anticipated exclamation mark appears only in
the end of the quatrain.
The communicative strategy is to involve the Reader into
communication while the narrative strategy is to share the state of
mind with the reader by modelling a dialogue as an actual
intercourse.
The translated version is equivalent to the communicative and
narrative strategies of the initial Lines 1\2 though it fails to render
the interplay of strategies in the last lines and only partially
presents the imperative phrase in an irregular metric pattern, thus
lacking the extra emphatic meanings of the original.
Dickinson’s vector of communication in Stanza 2 corresponds to
that of Stanza 1 in parallel grammatical constructions of the
imperative rendering an address to the partner in Lines 5-7. The
narrative strategy coincides with the communicative aim, thus
providing textual cohesion of the two stanzas and emphasizing
the actual communication style while producing the script of an
epitaph. Contraction in the translated version makes the text
rather monotonous not only rhythmically but semantically as
well: hot so often, if you care, never a thimble more shall wear
have been totally omitted and uncompensated in Russian verb
phrases of the imperative.
Stroke the cool forehead – hot Погладьте этот лоб
so often холодный -
Lift – if you care – the listless Приподымите прядь волос –
hair
Handle the adamantine fingers Дотроньтесь до застывших
пальцев -
Never a thimble – more – shall Им столько сделать
wear довелось!
In Stanza 3, the final part of the poem, there is an arresting
example of complexity caused by inversion paired with ellipsis as
a syntactic means of emphasis.

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Buzz the dull flies – on the Жужжит назойливая муха
chamber window
Brave - shines the sun through В окне, и пыль в луче
the freckled pane дрожит
Fearless – the cobweb swings Бесстрашно виснет
from the ceiling паутина -
Indolent Housewife – in Хозяйка в праздности
Daisies lain! лежит!
In contrast to the double syntactic construction in Lines 3\4, the
ambiguous effect of dual syntactic meanings in Lines 9\10
depends totally on the composition effect and the perceptual
inertia of the initial lyric, a single syntactic construction and one
semantic form are used with double implication. In Line 9 buzz
the dull flies… arises if two speech acts seem to be fused into one
construction (Zhanturina, 2017:165). The first impulse is to treat
the initial verb buzz as an imperative verb that in the beginning of
the line is in wake with the previous Stanza. The narrative inertia
is sure to lead us to a communicative gap as with the subject dull
flies the imperative sounds absurd (*you buzz the dull flies), thus,
we are only tempted to read it as imperative. Actually, the verb-
predicate buzz occupies the sentence initial position preceding the
subject the dull flies as a constructive element in full emphatic
inversion and produces a statement based on the inverted
construction with emphasis on the predicate. On the one hand, the
imperative modality is dictated by the perceptual inertia in the
dialogue with the reader, prepared by the previous context of the
1 and 2 quatrains, where the address to the reader is repeated
several times in Lines 2–7. On the other hand, the inverted
construction on the basis of the verb buzz is motivated by a
change in the textual narrative strategy: it is the Speaker’s inner
monologue with no partner involved, it is the poet who expresses
emotions.
Punctuation is again misleading: hyphens indicate the end of each
line, double syntactic meanings are hyphenated, an exclamation

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mark in a statement with missing syntactic elements (omission of
because in the end of Line 11, the auxiliary be\ is in Line 12).
Syntactically Lines 9 and 10 of the final Stanza are constructed
according to a partial emphatic inversion model: in Line 9 the
inverted construction is brave shines the sun, which in its prosaic
canonical version would be the sun shines brave, with the stative
verb shine and the predicative brave (the predicative is
emphasized); Line 11 (fearless the cobweb swings => the
fearless cobweb swings) is structurally and stylistically identical
to Line 10.
In the translated variant the inverted constructions loaded with
extra emphasis (highly emotional and bright in alliterations) are
replaced by lapidary statements though metrically regular.

References
Gurevich V.V. 2008. Theoretical Grammar of English.
Comparative Typology of the English and Russian Languages.
Moscow: Flinta : Nauka, 168 p.
Dickinson, E. 2001. Stikhotvoreniya: Sbornik [Selected Poems],
ed. l. M. Gavrilova. Moscow: OAO “Raduga”. 448 p.
Zhanturina B.N. 2017. Double Syntax Constructions under Poetic
Translation. In Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Seriya 22.
Teoriya Perevoda 1: 165-176.
Kobrina N.A. 2007. Word Order in English Sentence and its
Functional Modifications. Saint-Petersburg: Nestor-Istoriya, Pp.
133-148.
Lair, R.L. 1967. Emily Dickinson’s Fracture of Grammar. The
Ohio State University. 177 p.
Galperin M. 2012. The Obscurity of Emily Dickinson, An
Examination of “Tell all the Truth”. In Naukoviy visnik
mizhnarodnogo gumanitarnogo univarsitetu 5: 30-33.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-186-193

PECULIARITIES OF TRANSLATION OF MILITARY

SLANG FROM ENGLISH INTO RUSSIAN

Vera Y. Kuznetsova (Barbazyuk)¹, Alexander E. Vorobyev²

¹Military University
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
²Moscow State Linguistic University
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The present research is an attempt to investigate the translation of
military slang. The study aims to analyze the translation of
slangisms from English into Russian. It is proved that special
knowledge is vital for adequate translation of them. Language
material was collected by the method of continuous sampling.
The findings got from the analyses of the data show that for
successful implementation of the task, the translator must be
proficient in military slang and be knowledgeable about military
affairs as well as to know the characteristics of foreign armed
forces.
Besides, dealing with military slang translators must not only
know and understand it in a foreign language, but also be able to
find equivalents in their native language. That is why translation
of slangisms is one of the most difficult tasks of military
translation.
Military slang is very extensive. It covers most of the spheres of
military life. Almost all concepts, types of property, weapons,
military equipment have names in both literary and informal
languages. This is due to the need for a brief designation of
objects and phenomena in everyday life and the professional
activities of military personnel. Also, military slang promotes the

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rapprochement of servicemen who previously belonged to
different social groups.
It is known that military slang is formed in various ways:
• lexico-semantic word formation;
• morphological word formation;
• (reduction, conversion);
• the emergence of phraseological units;
• borrowing from foreign languages;
• territorial dialects of the English language.
Let us analyze the examples of the formation of slangisms from
modern English military slang:
1. Lexico-semantic word formation: bird – вертолет, самолет;
rat – казарменная крыса; rack – кровать; head – уборная, pig –
пулемет; juice – топливо.
2. Composition: fighter cop [from Fighter Control and Operator]
– авиадиспетчер.
3. Affixation: ate-up – сомнительный; string-puller –
артиллерист.
4. Abbreviation: heli – вертолет; Hot LZ – посадочная зона,
находящаяся под обстрелом; BZ – Здорово! Хорошо! (для
выражения одобрения); S2 – начальник разведки батальона и
бригады; G2 – начальник разведки дивизии и более крупных
соединений и объединений.
5. Conversion: locked and loaded – в полной боевой
готовности.
6. The emergence of phraseological units: gong show – а) выход
из под контроля; б) показ медали; to goon up – завалить дело.
7. Foreign borrowing: fauji – военный; Habib – друг.
8. Slang borrowings: tool of democracy – автоматическая
винтовка M-16.
Knowledge of military slang is a must for a military translator.
All military texts are full of specific military words, abbreviations
and idioms. Many of these terms and definitions can be diverse,
i.e. they can have a huge variety of interpretations, depending on
the context.

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There can also be a case, when there is a necessity of translating
idiomatic military expressions and slang. In this case one has to
rely on a dictionary, as well as his own skills. Words like
«Rodney» (офицер), «Bird» (вертолет, самолет), «Heli»
(вертолет), «Snake» (вертолет огневой поддержки), «Slick»
(невооруженный вертолет), «Dustoff» (санитарный вертолет,
эвакуация больных и раненых вертолетом), «Mattel»
(название M16, произошло от названия производящей ее
американской компании), «Doggie» (так в сленге других
видов ВС называются в/с СВ), «Pig» (пулемет М-60) can give
a headache to a translator not being used to military slang.
Military abbreviation is another challenge for a translator, and, in
fact, a huge challenge. There is a whole ocean of abbreviations
and one can get lost in it. However, if you work in a specific
field, it would be helpful to know those of that concrete field.
Various dictionaries of military abbreviations can help.
The practical value of the research is that the data are related to
the armed forces. The material can be used in the development of
theoretical courses on military translation.
This information is addressed to novice translators and teachers
of military translation.
Keywords: military slang, translation, military abbreviations,
slang formation

Introduction
International global challenges connected with military
interventions in various countries have led to an increase in
interest toward the military language and military interpreting.
Thereby, studying English military slang is particularly useful in
modern times as translation of military slang will be always
considered as problematic. The article considers the notion of
English military slang and peculiarities of its translation. It is
proved that military slang is an informal speech with expressive
and emotional connotations standing apart from literary language.
The article also describes different means of English slang word

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formations. Information presented will be useful for novice
translators and teachers of military translation.
Objectives/Purpose of the study
The object of this study is to analyze English military slang and
peculiarities of its translation. The purpose of this article is to
justify the need for special study of the features of the translation
of military slang from English into Russian. The material was
taken from foreign and domestic dictionaries of English military
slang and military texts.
Methodology
The term “slang” has many different connotations. “Slang” is a
lexical layer that is outside the limits of the literary language and
has expressive and emotional connotations. By English military
slang we understand part of slang in the vocabulary of the
English language, which is used primarily to denote military
concepts in the Armed Forces of the United States and England.
It is important to take into account the fact that there are a lot of
differences in the use of military slang by representatives of
different English-speaking countries. In other words, “military
slang is an array of colloquial terminology used commonly by
military personnel, including slang which is unique to or
originates with the armed forces. In English-speaking countries, it
often takes the form of abbreviations/acronyms or derivations of
the NATO Phonetic Alphabet, or otherwise incorporates aspects
of formal military terms and concepts”(1).
Translation theorists have long attempted to describe and explain
the process of translation of military slang. In line with this many
methods of translation have been proposed in order to be used in
the translation process. V.N. Shevchuk conducted research
focused on the translation of military slang and presented results
in his book “Reference book of the military translator” (Shevchuk
V.N., 2016). His main aim was to develop the ability to correctly
perceive military lexical units and clearly orientate translators in
extremely extensive interlanguage homonymy.

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Based on theoretical concepts of V.N. Shevchuk, peculiarities of
translation of military slang will be examined. After collecting
the data it will be analyzed with the aim of making a sort of a
comparison of translations and to arrive at a comprehensive
understanding of the process of translation of military slang. The
data will be chosen based on how best to answer the research
question which was mentioned earlier.
The method of collecting data in this research will be conducted
through examining military texts and dictionaries.
Result/Findings
Military slang is very extensive and it covers different spheres of
military life (types of property, weapons, military equipment).
This is due to the need for a brief designation of objects and
phenomena in everyday life and the professional activities of
military personnel. Also, military slang promotes the
rapprochement of servicemen who previously belonged to
different social groups.
It is known that military slang is formed in various ways
(Chart 1).
Chart 1. Slang formation

lexico-semantic
word formation

morphological
territorial dialects
word formation
of the English
(reduction,
language
conversion)
Slang
formation

the emergence of
borrowing from
phraseological
foreign languages
units

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Examples of the formation of modern English military slang and
peculiarities of their translation are given below:
1. Lexico-semantic word formation: bird – вертолет, самолет;
rat – казарменная крыса; rack – кровать; head – уборная, pig –
пулемет; juice – топливо.
2. Composition: fighter cop [from Fighter Control and Operator]
– авиадиспетчер.
3. Affixation: ate-up – сомнительный; string-puller –
артиллерист.
4. Abbreviation: heli – вертолет; Hot LZ – посадочная зона,
находящаяся под обстрелом; BZ – Здорово! Хорошо! (для
выражения одобрения); S2 – начальник разведки батальона и
бригады; G2 – начальник разведки дивизии и более крупных
соединений и объединений.
5. Conversion: locked and loaded – в полной боевой
готовности.
6. The emergence of phraseological units: gong show – а) выход
из-под контроля; б) показ медали; to goon up – завалить дело.
7. Foreign borrowing: fauji – военный; Habib – друг.
8. Slang borrowings: tool of democracy – автоматическая
винтовка M-16.
There can also be a case, when there is a necessity of translating
idiomatic military expressions and slang. In this case one has to
rely on a dictionary, as well as his own skills. Words like
«Rodney» (офицер), «Bird» (вертолет, самолет), «Heli»
(вертолет), «Snake» (вертолет огневой поддержки), «Slick»
(невооруженный вертолет), «Dustoff» (санитарный вертолет,
эвакуация больных и раненых вертолетом), «Mattel»
(название M16, произошло от названия производящей ее
американской компании), «Doggie» (так в сленге других
видов ВС называются в/с СВ), «Pig» (пулемет М-60) can give
a headache to a translator not being used to military slang.
Military abbreviation is another challenge for a translator, and, in
fact, a huge challenge. There is a whole ocean of abbreviations
and one can get lost in it. However, if you work in a specific

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field, it would be helpful to know those of that concrete field.
Various dictionaries of military abbreviations can help.
Recommendations
The findings of the study present a number of recommendations
that can be useful and should be used by translators when
translating military slang.
 Military translator should be familiar with slang in different
military fields as well as has to keep up to date with the current
issues concerning global security and military operations.
 Translator must develop intercultural competence to ensure
successful communication and accurate translation.
 Translators must do some research about the slang words they
are going to deal with before doing their translations.
 Dictionaries are not the only source to use in dealing with the
meanings of military slang.
Conclusion
In the course of studying this issue, we investigated a huge layer
of slangisms that exist in the ranks of the armed forces of the
armed forces of the English-speaking countries. As mentioned
above, “English military slang is very extensive and displays all
aspects of the life and work of military personnel, along with the
standardized language. English military slang can be formed in
various ways” (Mohammad F.H., 2016: 52). It is obvious that
military slang has a pronounced emotional, evaluative and
expressive tone.
This study has practical application in the work of translators
working in the military field. Understanding the distinctive
features of slang will allow the translator to more accurately
orient himself in the use of various elements of military
vocabulary and to correctly distinguish them stylistically. This
shows the need to include the study of military slang in the
educational courses of future military translators.
Summing up all the material it should be mentioned that
knowledge of military slang is a must for a military translator. All
military texts are full of specific military slang, abbreviations and

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idioms. Besides, they can have a huge variety of interpretations,
depending on the context. Thus, knowledge formation of
slangisms will improve the level of translation. As translation is
not simply transferring words with similar meaning in another
language but of finding appropriate ways of saying things.

References
Howling Pixel. Military slang1. URL: https://howlingpixel.com/i-
en/Military_slang [Accessed 12.02.2019].
Mohammad F.H. 2016. Translating Military Slang Terms from
English into Formal Arabic. In Research on Humanities and
Social Sciences 6(24): 52-62.
Shevchuk V.N. 2016. Reference book of the military translator.
Saint-Petersburg: LLC “Publishing House “Rus”, 400 p.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-193-205

STUDYING A MODULAR SOFTWARE:

FROM A COMBINATORAL METHODS
TO THE PRACTICE OF TEACHING TRANSLATION

Alla H. Guseva

Russian State University for the Humanities (RGGU)

Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
The article reviews the process of learning how to work with
specialized translation software (STS), and considers the
following main technologies: computer-based systems: MT
(Machine Translation) and TM (Translation Memory, memory or
translation database), including TM (Terminology Management)
and TMS project management (Translation Management System)
and PM (Project Management). STS represents specialized

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translation software including the listed translation as well as
information systems.
«Informatics and Information Technologies in Linguistics»
(«IITL») course is given to the first-year students of the Institute
of Linguistics and the Institute of Philology and History of the
RSUH («Linguistics» degree, «Translation and Translation
Studies» specialization), particularly the future translators shall
master the professional application software required for their
activities at the beginning.
The purpose of this publication is to introduce the IITL program
developed according to the combinatorial technique, the essence
of which is to master how to work in various automated
translation systems, STS and vocabulary databases, use on- and
offline utilities, as well as to learn the practices of working in
information environment using ICT, hardware and software used
in practical activities of translation community, acquisition of
basic knowledge about online techniques for individual and group
processing of specialized hypertexts in foreign language, training
on using multilingual database and creating your own electronic
glossary, as well as building of awareness of the role and place of
STS in organizational and management activities of translation
agencies.
Methods: the combinatorial technique allows the teacher to
experiment and simulate variable educational modules such as,
for example, «IITL», and also solves the problem of professional
use of foreign information mediators and STS. The structure of
section 2 «Systems and Translation Technologies» comprising
lectures and practical exercises, structured according to the
principle of combined thematic clusters (1 lesson – 4 hours): the
first contact lesson represents an interactive visualization lecture
and is dedicated to introduction to a particular STS module, the
second lesson, practical one, is held on the same day after the first
lesson in order to capture information and exercise the skills in
the certain technology using electronic translation systems (ETS).

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Summary: A). Taking into account the requirements of the
employers and that almost all translation agencies and large
corporations use the recently mentioned two translation systems,
the author of the combinatorial teaching technique of the section
2 «Translation Systems and Technologies» pays more attention to
Trados Studio Professional software. This software represents a
unified information environment for translation and editing,
translation project management, streamlining of corporate
terminology and connection with machine translation services.
B) All the tools necessary for translation, working with
terminology and project management operate within a single
platform. Among the innovative features that increase the
efficiency of translation, it is necessary to mention the following:
1. intellectual substitution and quality control tools; 2. advanced
features for interacting with editors; 3. computerization of routine
tasks and a variety of reports for effective project management;
4. facilitation of learning and use as well as customizable
workspace; 5. support of files of all basic formats (both MS Word
and specialized formats, like Adobe InDesign); 6. powerful tools
to maximize the use of ready-made translations; 7. Improvement
of expert-friendliness due to the function of editing translations in
MS Word; 8. enhancement of basic system capacity using SDL
OpenExhcnage portal applications; 9. open API as an opportunity
for deep integration and customization; 10. Integration of
terminological search and machine translation into the program.
B). As SDL Trados Studio is a modular system, students is
additionally motivated by the group processing of a text or a text
corpus. Correctly and logically structured TMS (Translation
Management System) and PM (Project Management) modules
allow to manage large multilingual projects.
Thus, students work at practical classes according to the
developed algorithm using STS based on combinatorial technique
and individual research route.
Finally, it should be noted that in the era of perverseness of ICT,
the teaching methods on formation and improvement of the

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professional translation competencies require a new
methodological approach. In this context, the combinatorial
technique seems to be the most variable, and the proposed text
corpus and hypertext processing technology is an effective
professional translation tool. Harness of SDL MultiTerm
(Translation Memory, Translation Management System) by the
students shows that active use of this type of STS helps to master
translation skills, and specialized literature study allows to form
clear understanding of translation systems that meets today’s
requirements of employers.
Keywords: specialized translation software, combinatorial
methodology, translation project management system,
terminology base

Introduction
At the present development stage of specialized translation
software (STS), as well as due to the widespread of
communication platforms, employers place high demands to
graduates on mastery of information and communication
technologies (ICT) for translation. It is this fact that explains the
introduction into the compulsory curriculum of such courses as
«Computer Science and Information Technologies in Linguistics»
(«IITL») for the first year students of the Institute of Linguistics
and the Institute of Philology and History of the RSUH
(«Linguistics» degree, «Translation and Translation Studies»
specialization).
Let’s examine the interconnection and interdependence of
traditional educational modules on mastery of professional
interpretation skills and such specialized courses as, for example,
IITL, and also determine what is the combinatorial teaching
techniques using STS and ICT.
Firstly, the teaching procedure of course on ICT mastery for
professional translation is not random. While the «Informatics
and Information Technologies in Linguistics» course is given at
the beginning of the course, at medium stage and finalization of

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the training the students are consistently mastering the following
specialized courses: «Computer Lexicography» (3rd year),
«Electronic Translation Resources» (3rd year) and «Translation
software» (5th year). «IITL» course allows to determine the
degree of STS involvement in professional translation activities
as well as to master certain translation strategies and technologies
for specialized hypertext and text corpuses.
Secondly, the professional competencies of future translators
developed and improved in the process of mastering «IITL»
programs are mandatory for competent and effective professional
activity regardless of the work area: literary translation,
processing of foreign language materials, copywriting in foreign
language, editorial activities, media, interpretation, specialized
translation (technical, financial, legal, economic, etc.).
Objectives/Purpose of the study
Analysis of the methodological concept of «IITL» course;
classification of professional computer-based translation tools.
Objective: to present the program of «IITL» course, developed
according to the combinatorial methods; to draw up the basics of
work in computerized translation systems, STS and dictionary
databases.
Methodology and sub headings
The research methodology comprises integrative approach used
in development of the IITL course program as well as
combinatorial methods used in structurization of the content of
the sections.
3.1. Terminology.
3.2. Combinatorial technique.
4.1. Methodological concept of «IITL».
4.2. Characteristics of ETS.
5.1. Role of STS Modules.
5.2. Wrap-up.
Terminology
Further, it is necessary to specify the conceptual framework of
this publication. First of all, it includes electronic translation

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systems (ETS). In accordance with the classification of the well-
known translator-researcher V.N. Shevchuk, the electronic
systems necessary for linguists and translators to master and
professional use are divided into the following groups:
«information systems that provide automated search for linguistic
and extralinguistic information on the Internet, as well as
management of information flows (encyclopedias, electronic
library catalogs, term banks, search servers, etc.); computer
translation systems such as PROMT, Translation Memory,
StyleWriter, Transcheck, etc.; communication systems that allow
the translator to communicate with the customer by e-mail and
with the colleagues through the translation portals and websites»
(Shevchuk, V.N., 2013: 18). The modules and translation systems
listed in the definition are studied introductorily, depending on
the optimal functionality and in accordance with the subject and
type of translation, and they are selected for work on individual
projects. Critical analysis of ETS allows students to develop
professional translation skills and saves time in processing of
hypertexts.
The development of ETS is based on the method of analytical
memorization, «the advantage of which significantly affects the
completeness, speed, accuracy and durability of memorization;
and the basic techniques of the logical processing are highlighting
semantic parts, drawing up a plan and correlating semantic
fragments to each other and to a previously known one; and
creating methods of semantic and logical processing of material
to be memorized is the main improvement mean of memory and
its effectiveness» (Azimov, E.G., Schukin, A.N., 2009: 180).
Combinatorial techniques
Let us turn to the combinatorial techniques of teaching «IITL»
course, the essence of which is to master how to work in various
automated translation systems, STS and vocabulary databases,
use on- and offline utilities, as well as to learn the practices of
working in information environment using ICT, hardware and
software used in practical activities of translation community.

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Acquisition of basic knowledge about online techniques for
individual and group processing of specialized hypertexts in
foreign language, training on using multilingual database and
creating your own electronic glossary, as well as building of
awareness of the role and place of STS in organizational and
management activities of translation agencies helped to achieve
the above mentions objectives.
What is the main advantage of the combinatorial methods/
technique? On the one hand, combinatorics in linguistics is
understood as «a feature of language units and their
corresponding speech units to enter into syntagmatic relations,
that is, in relations of compatibility» (Vlavatskaya, M.V., 2011:
142). On the other hand, the combinatorial technique initially
being a part of fundamental mathematics course implies
structurization of the whole and its parts using various
combination techniques. The author of this article proposes to
consider combinatorics as a teaching methodology and the main
didactic creation technology of «IITL» educational module.
The combinatorial methods allow a teacher to experiment and
simulate such variable educational modules as, for example,
«IITL», and also solve the problem of professional use of foreign
language information mediators and STS. The teacher should
help the students to learn and select the right educational and
scientific orientation, to master the skills of correct navigation in
diverse foreign language information network. It can be said that
practical lessons in this case can be considered as monitoring of
their progress in translation activities, moderating of the
communication process in translation community, as well as
career guidance.
Thus, students work in practical classroom lessons according to
the developed algorithm using STS based on combinatorial
methods and individual research route.

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Results
Methodological concept of «IITL»
So, STS represents a specialized translation software that implies
both listed translation systems and information systems.
Communication systems in practical lessons on «IITL» received
less attention because this segment is studied in the third year in
«Electronic Translator Resources» course.
To be clear, the methodological concept of «IITL» is based on
review and processing of digital educational resources (DER)
through ETS, as well as on reviewing, commenting, abstracting
and summarizing the results of scientific researches using up-to-
date local and foreign methods and methodologies. Subject area:
comparative analysis and classification of texts on various
subjects, processing of foreign-language hypertext, compiling of
text corpuses, working with multilingual database, creating of
interactive thematic glossary, as well as applications (translation,
editorial activity) in language, professional and socio-cultural
communication. In the course of translation training, students
examine correlation processes in linguistics, philology, cultural
linguistics, humanities, computer science and translation practice
at the current stage of ICT development.
In accordance with the practice-oriented concept of «IITL»
mastering, students perform tasks in a sequential or parallel
modes in STS using electronic flowcharts, create presentation
essays, lexicographic databases (LDB), glossaries with
comments, text corpuses on selected areas of humanities.
Of course, the listed types of translation activities basically imply
major and time-consuming work on study of specialized
hypertext corpuses and lexicographical sources, foreign language
and grammatical materials, as well as on viewing and selecting of
multimedia materials. In this regard, a list of sources and DER
which students must supplement with proofs of their choice is
proposed as a base for interactive tasks.
Let us specify the teaching methodology of section 2 «Systems
and Translation Technologies», which includes lectures and

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practical exercises, structured according to the principle of
combined thematic clusters (1 lesson – 4 hours): the first contact
lesson – an interactive lecture-visualization – is dedicated to
introduction to an STS module, the second practical session is
held on the same day after the first lesson in order to capture
information and practice the working skills on a specific ETS
technology.
Characteristics of ETS
In terms of content, section 2 of the «IITL» program, considers
three main technologies: computer-aided translation (CAT A),
Machine Translation (MT) and Translation Memory (TM)
systems, including TM (Terminology Management) and TMS
project management (Translation Management System) and PM
(Project Management).
Taking into account the requirements of the employers and that
almost all translation agencies and large corporations use the
recently mentioned two translation systems, the author of the
combinatorial teaching technique in the section 2 «Translation
Systems and Technologies» pays more attention to Trados Studio
Professional software. This software represents a unified
information environment for translating and editing, translation
project management, streamlining of corporate terminology and
connection with machine translation services. All the tools
necessary for making translation, working with terminology and
project management operate within a single platform. Among the
innovative features that increase the efficiency of translation, it is
necessary to mention the following: 1. intellectual substitution
and quality control tools; 2. advanced features for interacting with
editors; 3. computerization of routine tasks and a variety of
reports for effective project management; 4. facilitation of
learning and use as well as customizable workspace; 5. support of
files of all basic formats (both MS Word and specialized formats,
like Adobe InDesign); 6. powerful tools to maximize the use of
ready-made translations; 7. Improvement of expert-friendliness
due to the function of editing translations in MS Word; 8.

201

201
enhancement of basic system capacity using SDL OpenExhcnage
portal applications; 9. open API as an opportunity for deep
integration and customization; 10. Integration of terminological
search and machine translation into the program (Systems TM,
2014: 17).
At the first stage of the practical work, students shall develop an
individual translation system, as TM SDL Trados Studio allows
to create an initial translation base based on the previously
translated documents. To create a new translation database, it is
necessary to download the source and its corresponding translated
file into Studio, and right after the software will automatically
merge them and create a translation database for the future
projects, and the merge technology automatically matches the
original and translated content. Customization of the Studio
workspace for the students is easy as all users of MS Office
applications know up-to-date intuitive interface of SDL Trados
Studio. Workspace is easily modified allowing to create a perfect
environment for making translations. For more convenience, the
preview window can be displayed a separate screen, and the
editor window can be moved to the top of the screen. Tools,
commands, reference resources are logically grouped, allowing
quick search of everything necessary.
At any time, a user can return to the original arrangement of
windows. The translation memory mechanism supplements high-
speed translation, SDL Trados Studio includes many innovative
features and tools that speed up the translation process almost
twice. We list what is necessary for processing of texts corpuses:
1. SDL Autosuggest entry, increasing effectiveness by 20 %
(manual input tracking application representing a list of suggested
words or phrases in the context and in the target language);
2. computerized formatting substitution or «Quick Place»
function (Lotus software for real-time collaboration of
participants from geographically dispersed areas); 3. quality
control tools that detect possible errors; 4. various filters that
allow editors to concentrate on a certain part of the translation; 5.

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support mode of track changes in MS Word files, helping
translators and editors to easily track all changes in the document.
Discussion
Role of the STS Modules
It should be noted that the use of professional software in
teaching of translation and «IITL» courses is associated not only
with the change of methodological paradigm, but also with the
change of technical and technological equipment used in the
educational process, that is reflected «in the widespread use of
new linguodidactic tools like multimedia computer programs
with video materials. The advantages of these means are the
following: they give the opportunity to give the novelty effect to
the traditional classroom lesson, allow the user to have visual
image of the content of information, and quickly get a new
information product in the volume and format meeting the
linguodidactic situation» (Terekhova, E.V., 2006: 147).
SDL Trados Studio is a modular system, students is additionally
motivated by the group processing of a text or a text corpus.
Correctly and logically structured TMS (Translation Management
System) and PM (Project Management) modules allow to manage
large multilingual projects. This module facilitates creation of a
project with a large number of files and several translation
languages for translators. Due to the convenient structure of
subprojects containing assigned files, translation bases and
terminological bases, translators can concentrate fully on the
translation. Verification of matches at the level of document and
paragraph using SDL technology Perfect Match ensures
particularly effective work with frequently updated projects. SDL
Perfect Match is a context matching form that compares updated
source files with the corresponding set of existing bilingual
documents, and not with the translation memory. Segment
matches (Perfect Matches) check the surrounding records to make
sure they match. In addition, if an existing bilingual document
was segmented incorrectly with the current document or merged
the segments, Perfect Match can dynamically combine up to three

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consecutive segments in the current document to improve the
matching results. The translations are then extracted from the
existing bilingual documents and transferred to the updated
source files.
Wrap-up
Thus, an integral part of classroom work is the organization of
group activities of a group of translators, simulating the real work
in translation agencies and is especially interesting for the
students without previous similar experience. SDL Trados Studio
is a starting point for collaborating through SDL Studio
GroupShare, allowing translators to coordinate work using
common projects and translation resources (documents,
translation databases, terminology bases and reference materials).
Project managers can assign specific tasks to the team members
with automatic e-mail notification of the start of work and the
readiness of files for download. It is important in the
combinatorial teaching methodology that «in order to achieve
maximum efficiency and consistency of translation, all
participants can work in real time using relevant resources:
terminology bases and translation bases» (Alba, 2017: 1). At any
time, the manager can monitor the status of the translation, which
allows for continuous work on the project.
During the assignment to compile a lexicographic database,
students work with SDL MultiTerm module, an integral and fully
integrated component of SDL Trados Studio, which allows to
manage and share terminology base. Terminology management
ensures quality of translations, that is an important factor for
ensuring coherent terminology; the terminology base is a key
linguistic resource. SDL MultiTerm is a server solution for
terminology management, maintaining and distributing verified
terminology guarantees the use of correct unified terms in
translation.
In conclusion, it should be noted that in the era of perverseness of
ICT, the teaching methods on formation and improvement of the
professional translation competencies require a new

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methodological approach. In this context, the combinatorial
technique seems to be the most variable, and the proposed text
corpus and hypertext processing technology is an effective
professional translation tool. Harness of SDL MultiTerm
(Translation Memory, Translation Management System) by the
students shows that active use of this type of STS helps to master
translation skills, and specialized literature study allows to form
clear understanding of translation systems that meets today’s
requirements of employers.

References
Azimov, E.G., Schukin, A.N., 2009. A new dictionary of
methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of
language teaching). Moscow: IKAR, 448 p.
Terekhova, E.V., 2006. Modern trends in the development of
automated translation. Scientific Bulletin VSAСU, Voronezh.
Modern linguistic and methodological and didactic research.
vol. 5: 146-152.
Translation Memory Systems TRADOS, 2019. National League of
Translators, Moscow. URL: http: //www.russian-
translators.ru/docs/TRADOS_ProductGuide.pdf/ [Accessed
January 29 2019].
Translations yesterday and today: how modern technologies
change the work of translator, 2017. Translator’s tools, TA Alba,
Nizhny Novgorod. URL:http://www.alba-
translating.ru/index.php/articles/technique.html/ [Accessed
February 01 2019].
Vlavatskaya, M.V., 2011. Theoretical problems of combinatorial
linguistics. Lexicology. Lexicography: monography. Novosibirsk:
NSTU, 508 p.
Shevchuk, V.N., 2013. Information technology in translation.
Electronic resources of translator 2. Moscow: Zebra E, 384 p.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-206-225

CORPORA ANALYSIS IN RESEARCH

OF “FALSE FRIENDS” PHRASEMES

Ekaterina V. Pivovarova

Far Eastern federal university

Vladivostok, Russia
e-mail: [email protected] 

Abstract
Corpora analysis tends to be one of the most popular methods in
linguistic research. It has become recently one of the active
research methods for studying phraseology and describing
phraseological units, their actual meanings, usage, stylistics and
connotations. Corpora analysis provides a lot of help in
investigation of phraseological “false friends”: dealing with texts
collections one can get an idea of modern phraseological means,
dynamics of their development, appearing of new actual
meanings and obsolescence of the old ones being the questions
that play a significant role in identifying phraseological “false
friends”. The paper presents tentative results of the research into
translator’s (interpreter’s) phraseological “false friends” in
German and Russian and aims to establish the role of corpora
analysis as the main investigation tool.
Phraseological units have always been in the focus of linguistic
interest. As almost every scientist tried and named these units in
their own way, nowadays we have to deal with a great variety of
coinages: phrasemes, praseological units, idioms, set phrases etc.
Following the German phraseological studies tradition, we accept
“phraseme” and “phraseological unit” as generic terms to refer to
all types of set phrases. We take phraseological units to mean set
phrases that differ from free word combinations in
reinterpretation of lexical and grammatical components,

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fixedness, component separability. They are reproduced as a
whole and usually reveal no fixed model in their composition.
The phenomenon of the so called translator’s (interpreter’s)
phraseological “false friends” deserves special consideration.
This type of phrasemes may hinder adequate comprehension of
foreign speech and provoke mistakes in translation.
Phraseological “false friends” differ in nature from lexical “false
friends”. Lexical “false friends” share sound or graphic form,
which may cause misunderstanding, whereas “false friends”
phrasemes may not sound alike but evoke identical images and
differ in actual meaning. Phraseological “false friends” may also
differ in meaning scopes or connotations in two languages.
The following corporus analysis is based on the German language
corpus DeReKo created by the German Language Institute in
Mannheim. The corpus appeared in the mid-1950s and has
become the largest German corpus supplied with all necessary
lemmata (corpus annotations). The corpus is provided with a
special tool “COSMAS” (Corpus Search, Management and
Analysis System) which enables the researcher to choose one of
15 libraries, set restrictions and get background information like
source, author, publisher etc. The present research deals only with
the latest data in German and leaves out other variants of the
German language (Austrian and Swiss). Only 30 first contexts
(hits) containing a target phraseme are taken into consideration.
This number seems to be enough because new meanings that are
not usually fixed in the dictionaries appear not later than in the
15-th hit. For another thing the contexts tend to repeat after the
30-th hit in the corpus.
The corpus research of 30 German phraseological “false friends”
has produced the following results:
- some phrasemes or their certain meanings have become
obsolete because they are not to be found in DeReKo anymore.
Modern dictionaries have to be improved as they provide no
information about these changes;

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- some phrasemes are often used in their literal meaning which
indicates a certain connection between components of a set
phrase an its meaning and argues that components may influence
the usage of a set phrase as a whole;
- set phrases marked as “colloquial” in dictionaries are rare in
the corpus, because they are unusual for the written language;
- certain phrasemes are used in meanings other than those
recorded in modern dictionaries. Such instances need special
consideration because they do not definitely point out the
development of some new phraseological meanings but can be a
result of a false usage.
The method of corpora analyses proved out to be of great
assistance in phraseological research and in research of “false
friends” phrasems in particular. It is used not only to establish
and characterize such units but also to get a lot of help in
answering theoretical questions, e.g. classification of
phraseological “false friends”.
Keywords: phraseology, corpora analysis, “false friend”
phrasemes

МЕТОД КОРПУСНОГО АНАЛИЗА В ИЗУЧЕНИИ

ФРАЗЕОЛОГИЗМОВ-«ЛОЖНЫХ ДРУЗЕЙ»
ПЕРЕВОДЧИКА

Екатерина В. Пивоварова

Дальневосточный федеральный университет

Владивосток, Россия
e-mail: [email protected] 

Аннотация
Корпусный анализ является одним из ведущих методов
исследования в лингвистике. В последние десятилетия
данный метод стал широко применяться в области
фразеологии. Он оказывает неоспоримую помощь в

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выявлении и описании фразеологических единиц, их
значений, употребления, стилистических особенностей и
коннотаций. Корпуса иностранных языков стали важным
источником и средством для анализа «ложных друзей»
переводчика на фразеологическом уровне. Данное
исследование посвящено исследованию «ложных друзей»-
фразеологизмов в паре немецкого и английского языков и
ставит своей целью определить роль корпусного анализа как
основного метода исследования в данной области.
Фразеологические единицы (ФЕ) всегда вызывали живой
интерес у исследователей, поэтому сегодня мы можем
наблюдать обилие терминов, используемых для
наименования устойчивых выражений: фразеологизм,
фразема, фразеологическая единица, идиома и т.д. Следуя
традициям немецкой школы фразеологии, в данном
исследовании мы используем термин «фразеологическая
единица» и «фразеологизм» как родовое понятие для всех
типов устойчивых выражений и понимаем под этим
термином устойчивые сочетания, основными признаками
которых являются переосмысление лексико-грамматического
состава, устойчивость, раздельнооформленность,
воспроизводимость и немоделированность.
Под «ложными друзьями» на фразеологическом уровне
понимаются фразеологические единицы двух языков,
вызывающие ложное отождествление из-за: а) сходства
морфо-синтаксических структур; б) наличия единого образа
при расхождении структуры; в) наличия схожих
компонентов внутри фразеологизма; г) расхождения объема
значений у аналогичных фразеологизмов. Для возникновения
ложных ассоциаций достаточно наличия хотя бы одного из
перечисленных признаков.
Анализ фразеологизмов-«ложных друзей», представленный в
данной работе, основывается на материале корпуса
немецкого языка DeReKo. Корпус DeReKo бал создан в
Институте немецкого языка в г. Маннгейм в середине 50-х

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годов и на сегодняшний момент является самым обширным и
качественно аннотированным. Работа в корпусе
осуществляется при помощи основного инструмента
COSMAS (Corpus Search, Management and Analysis System –
система поиска, управления и анализа данных). Данный
инструмент позволяет работать с новейшими данными в
одном из 15 существующих архивов, устанавливать
ограничения, получать метаданные об источниках.
Настоящее исследование ограничено литературным
немецким языком и исключает австрийский и швейцарский
вариант. Для анализа мы используем только первые 30
контекстов. Это количество кажется нам достаточным,
поскольку при исследовании большего количества можно
обнаружить совпадение приводимых в корпусе отрывков,
содержащих искомый фразеологизм. К тому же было
установлено, что сдвиги в значении фразеологизмов
происходят уже с 15-го контекста, а далее только
повторяются.
Анализ 30 потенциальных фразеологических «ложных
друзей» переводчика в корпусе немецкого языка DeReKo
позволил нам установить, что значения некоторых ФЕ
являются устаревшими, поскольку ФЕ с этими значениями
более не встречаются в корпусе. Употребление отдельных
ФЕ происходит крайне редко, что может также
свидетельствовать об отмирании определенных значений или
нетипичности данных единиц для письменной речи. В обоих
случаях необходимо вносить корректировки в словарные
статьи и указывать на произошедшие изменения.
С другой стороны, следует обратить внимание на то, что
определенные ФЕ употребляются в корпусе в ином
фразеологическом значении, не указанном в словарях.
Объяснение этого феномена требует определенной
аккуратности, т.к. не все значения, не зафиксированные в
словарях, являются действительно новыми. Некоторые из ФЕ
могут быть ошибочно использованы авторами статей.

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ФЕ, имеющие в словарях помету «ugs.» (разг.), довольно
редко встречаются в корпусе, что говорит о том, что
использование разговорных устойчивых выражений не
характерно для письменного языка публицистики.
Довольно часто ФЕ употребляются как свободные сочетания,
что подтверждает взаимосвязь структуры некоторых ФЕ и их
значения, а также говорит о воздействии компонентного
состава на употребление ФЕ.
Метод корпусного анализа оказывает неоспоримую помощь
в изучении «ложных друзей»-фразеологизмов. Он позволяет
не только определять и сравнивать значения единиц в двух
языках, но и выявлять нюансы в стиле и коннотациях,
определять разницу в употреблении. Корпусный анализ
помогает решить также определенные теоретические
вопросы, например, вопрос о классификации ФЕ-«ложных
друзей».
Ключевые слова: фразеология, корпусный анализ, “ложные
друзья” - фразеологизмы

Вступление
Сравнительно-сопоставительный метод исследования,
несомненно, являлся ведущим на протяжении всего
существования фразеологии как отдельной науки. В связи с
техническим прорывом, произошедшим в последние
десятилетия, этот метод получил развитие в области
корпусного анализа. Данные, полученные на основании
использования сравнительно-сопоставительного анализа в
корпусах, способны отразить «живое» состояние языка,
определить тенденции в развитии фразеологического
состава. Одним из наиболее спорных вопросов в области
фразеологии, провоцирующих многочисленные дискуссии,
становится проблема «ложных друзей» переводчика.
Дискуссии подлежит вопрос о самом существовании
«ложных друзей»-фразеологизмов, их определении,
причинах возникновения и классификации. Данное

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исследование рассматривает «ложных друзей» переводчика
на фразеологическом уровне в паре языков немецкий -
русский в рамках корпусного анализа и ставит своей целью
определение роли корпусного анализа при выявлении
фразеологических «ложных друзей».
Предмет и цель исследования
Предметом данного исследования является
функционирование фразеологизмов-«ложных друзей»
переводчика в маннгеймском корпусе немецкого языка
DeReKo. Цель исследования – определение роли метода
корпусного анализа в исследовании функционирования
фразеологических «ложных друзей» переводчика.
Методология и методы
Основные методы исследования, примененные в данной
работе:
- метод сплошной выборки (использовался при отборе
потенциальных «ложных друзей» из словаря устойчивых
выражений «Duden. Redewendungen. Wörterbuch der
deutschen Idiomatik. Band 11» (Duden, 2013);
- сравнительно-сопоставительный метод;
- метод корпусного анализа.
Определение фразеологизмов
Необходимость определения фразеологизмов или
фразеологических единиц (далее ФЕ) проистекает из
несогласованности, существующей в самом названии единиц
данного типа. На обилие и разнообразие терминов
указывают Х. Бургер, Д.О. Добровольский, П. Кюн, Н.Р.
Норрик (Burger H. et al., 2007: 1), И.А. Стернин и
Ч. Флекенштейн (Sternin I., Fleckenstein Ch., 1994: 76),
словарь устойчивых выражений Дуден (Duden, 2013: 9).
Д. Добровольский и Е. Пиирайнен утверждают, что в
«европейском исследовании фразеологии» существует
единство во мнении о том, что «фразема» и «фразеологизм»

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являются родовым понятием для всех устойчивых
словосочетаний» (Dobrovol´skij D., Piirainen E., 2009: 11).
В данном исследовании в качестве родового понятия мы
будем оперировать терминами «фразеологизм», а также
«фразеологическая единица».
Что касается определения собственно фразеологизмов или
фразеологических единиц, то здесь также стоит сказать, что
«палитра» определений весьма разнообразна. Подходы к
определению ФЕ зависят от того, какими свойствами авторы
наделяют исследуемые единицы.
В российской фразеологии под фразеологическими
единицами принято понимать сочетания слов, т.е.
раздельнооформленные образования с полностью или
частично переосмысленными компонентами,
фразеологическими значениями. Такой точки зрения
придерживаются Я.И. Рецкер (Retsker Ya.I., 2004: 144), В.Н.
Телия (Teliya V.N., 1998: 559), А.В. Клименко (Klimenko
A.V., 2007: 111).
В немецкой фразеологии фразеологизмы отделяются от
свободных словосочетаний и предложений по критериям
идиоматичности, семантико-синтаксической стабильности,
лексикализации и воспроизводимости (Fleischer W., 1990: 30-
63).
В данной работе ФЕ определяются как устойчивые
сочетания, основными признаками которых являются
переосмысление лексико-грамматического состава,
устойчивость, раздельнооформленность, воспроизводимость
и немоделированность.
Понятие фразеологизмов-«ложных друзей» переводчика
Определением фразеологических «ложных друзей»
занимались как российские, так и немецкие лингвисты.
Основываясь на трудах Д. Добровольского и Е. Пиирайнен
(Dobrovolskij D., Piirainen E., 2009: 109),
Е. Хальштайнсдоттир (Hallsteinsdóttir E., 2001: 180), Э. Рооса,
Н.В. Дубининой и Л.В. Кульчицкой, можно утверждать, что

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под «ложными друзьями» на фразеологическом уровне
понимаются фразеологические единицы двух языков,
вызывающие ложное отождествления из-за а) сходства
морфо-синтаксических структур; б) наличия единого образа
при расхождении структуры; в) наличия схожих
компонентов внутри фразеологизма; г) расхождения объема
значений у аналогичных фразеологизмов. Для возникновения
ложных ассоциаций достаточно наличия хотя бы одного из
перечисленных признаков.
Корпусное исследование ФЕ-«ложных друзей
переводчика»
Практическое исследование фразеологизмов можно
разделить на несколько этапов.
Первый этап заключается в отборе потенциальных «ложных
друзей» из «Словаря устойчивых выражений серии Duden»
(Duden, 2013). Отбор фразеологических «ложных друзей»
осуществляется методом сплошной выборки и основывается
на схожести морфосинтаксических структур и/или схожести
образов двух выражений в немецком и русском языках.
На втором этапе каждый немецкий фразеологизм,
отобранный из печатного варианта, подвергается проверке в
онлайн-версии словаря Duden (https://www.duden.de).
Онлайн-версия помогает установить более полные значения
немецких фразеологизмов (коннотации, стиль, регистр,
актуальность использования в современном языке),
поскольку ее обновление происходит регулярно в отличие от
печатного варианта.
Третий этап охватывает корпусный анализ отобранных
единиц с учетом полного списка их значений, указанных в
обеих версиях словаря. Корпусный анализ проводится на
материале корпуса немецкого языка DeReKo. Корпус
DeReKo бал создан в Институте немецкого языка в г.
Маннгейм в середине 50-х годов и на сегодняшний момент
является самым обширным и качественно аннотированным.
Работа в корпусе осуществляется при помощи основного

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инструмента COSMAS (Corpus Search, Management and
Analysis System – система поиска, управления и анализа
данных). Инструмент COSMAS позволяет выбрать 1 из 15
существующих в корпусе архивов. Для данной работы была
избрана самая последняя версия «Архива письменного
языка», которая содержит несколько субкорпусов. В случаях,
когда невозможно найти контексты употребления
определенной единицы в этом архиве, мы обращаемся к
более ранним версиям архива, в которых содержатся
публикации старше 12 месяцев. Данное исследование
ограничено литературным немецким языком и исключает
австрийский и швейцарский вариант. Для анализа мы
используем только первые 30 контекстов. Это количество
кажется нам достаточным, поскольку при исследовании
большего количества можно обнаружить совпадение
приводимых в корпусе отрывков, содержащих искомый
фразеологизм. К тому же было установлено, что сдвиги в
значении фразеологизмов происходят уже с 15-го контекста,
а далее только повторяются. Подробный анализ каждого
контекста, в котором встречается фразеологизм, позволяет
установить его актуальное значение (значение единицы,
отличное от прямых значений ее компонентов), сравнить со
значениями, указанными в словарях, выявить коннотации и
т.д. Последним этапом в работе с корпусом является анализ
на наиболее частотное совместное использование
фразеологизма с другими языковыми единицами, что, в свою
очередь, позволяет выявить возможные дополнительные
семы в значении фразеологизма.
Параллельно с этим собираются все значения, имеющиеся у
фразеологического псевдо-аналога в русском языке. При
поиске значений русской единицы мы опираемся на Большой
фразеологический словарь русского языка В.Н. Телия (Teliya
В.Н., 2017), Большой русско-английский фразеологический
словарь С.И. Лубенской (Lubenskaya S.I., 2014), Большой
толковый словарь современного русского языка Д.Н.

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Ушакова (Ushakov D.N, 2005), Словарь русского языка
С.И. Ожегова (Ozhegov S.I., 1987), а также электронные
словари: «Учебный фразеологический словарь»
(https://phraseologiya.academic.ru), «Словарь фразеологизмов
русского языка онлайн»
(http://www.onlinedics.ru/slovar/frazeolog.html), «Словарь
фразеологизмов» (http://frazbook.ru/frazeologizmy). В тех
случаях, когда мы не можем вычленить наличие той или
иной семы в русском фразеологизме, мы прибегаем к
помощи «Национального корпуса русского языка»
(http://www.ruscorpora.ru/search-main.html).
Корпусный анализ ФЕ «sich auf die Hinterbeine setzen
(stellen)» и «стоять на задних лапках»
Данная пара фразеологизмов является потенциально
«ложными друзьями», т.к. буквальный перевод немецкого
выражения на русском языке - «вставать (садиться) на задние
ноги/лапы» и вызывает прямые ассоциации с русским
выражением «стоять на задних лапках» на основании
схожести морфосинтаксических структур.
Немецкий фразеологизм имеет 2 варианта: с глаголом sich
stellen (становиться) и sich setzen (садиться), поэтому мы
подвергаем каждый вариант немецкого фразеологизма
отдельному анализу в корпусе DeReKo.
Sich auf die Hinterbeine Стоять на задних лапках
stellen (setzen)
Duden, 2013 (ugs): (разг., уничижит.) Заискивать,
1. sich sträuben, widersetzen угодничать (чаще чтобы что-л.
(противиться); получить или из страха
2. sich anstrengen, Mühe geben потерять благосклонность кого-
(стараться). л.)
Duden online (ugs.) – то же
самое значение

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216
Употребление немецкого фразеологизма «sich auf die
Hinterbeine stellen» в корпусе DeReKo:
Значение Пример Количество
контекстов
Прямое SAZ11/SEP.00869 Saale- 30%
значение – Zeitung, 09.09.2011, S. 34; ohne
вставать на Titel
задние … Pferdefreunde treffen sich in
ноги/лапы Hessen Bad Hersfeld.
Galoppierende Westernpferde, die
so schnell stoppen, dass der Sand
hochspritzt. Geschickte Pferde, die
Schritte zur Musik machen und
sich auf die Hinterbeine stellen.
Oder Reiter und Pferde, die bei
Spielen durch die Gegend
preschen. Das und noch viel mehr
können sich Pferdenarren am
Wochenende bei einem großen
Festival in Hessen anschauen.
Первое SBZ03/MAI.04090 Saarbrücker 25%
словарное Zeitung, 10.05.2003; Nur noch
значение - ein Ritter von der traurigen
противиться Gestalt
In dieser Woche hat Eichel eine
weitere schwere Schlappe
einstecken müssen. Obwohl
er sich "auf die Hinterbeine
stellte" (ein Mitarbeiter), musste
Eichel die Explosion der
Tabaksteuer akzeptieren.
Gesundheitsminister Ulla Schmidt
hatte dies verlangt, die Grünen
hatten sie unterstützt, und der
schwankende Kanzler war in
Richtung der Steuerlügner
umgekippt…

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217
Второе SBZ07/APR.11843 Saarbrücker 35%
словарное Zeitung, 27.04.2007; Sieg für die
значение – fröhlichen Jägersleut‘
стараться Zum Abschluss der
Preisverleihung schrieb Schneider
den Karnevalisten ins Stammbuch,
sich mehr Gedanken um originelle
Kostüme zu machen. Damit weiter
genügend Menschen zum Umzug
kämen, müsste man „sich auf die
Hinterbeine stellen und auch
andere Gruppen wie Kindergärten
oder Schulen ansprechen“, damit
diese am Umzug teilnehmen.
Данный фразеологизм употребляется относительно часто в
своем прямом значении в качестве свободного
словосочетания и только тогда, когда речь идет о животных.
Данные случаи не представляют трудностей в понимании и
дальнейшем переводе для неносителей немецкого языка.
Употребление фразеологизма в первом и втором словарном
значении («противиться» и «стараться») происходит
практически с одинаковой частотностью и в данных
контекстах немецкий фразеологизм может быть ложно
отождествлён с русским фразеологизмом. Немецкий «sich auf
die Hinterbeine stellen» и русский «стоять на задних лапках»
имеют разную этимологию и разные образы, чем
объясняется разница в их актуальном значении. В основе
немецкого фразеологизма лежит образ защитной или
атакующей стойки, характерной для четвероногих животных
(например, лошадей или медведей). Русский фразеологизм
был впервые придуман И.А. Крыловым и употреблен в басне
«Две собаки». Одна из собак была ласкова по отношению к
своему хозяину, заискивала перед ним, в результате чего
получала больше ответной любви, чем остававшийся верным
годами сторожевой пес, исправно несший свою службу.

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218
Согласно русскому фразеологизму, лебезя и заискивая,
можно извлечь собственную выгоду.
Анализ на совместное использование немецкого
фразеологизма с другими лексемами показал, что в
большинстве контекстов (103 из 150) выражение является
статистически неспецифичным. Однако в 47 контекстах
фразеологизм используется совместно с глаголом «müssen»,
что свидетельствует о наличии семы принуждения, которая и
способна стать причиной отождествления с русским лже-
аналогом. К тому же стоит отметить, что разница между
немецким и русским фразеологизмом существует не только в
значении, что является первостепенным, но и в коннотациях:
и немецкий и русский фразеологизм существуют только в
разговорном стиле, однако русская единица имеет еще
помету «уничижительный», которая отсутствует в немецком
языке.
Учитывая все вышеприведенные доводы, мы можем сделать
вывод о том, что немецкий «sich auf die Hinterbeine stellen» и
русский «стоять на задних лапках» являются
фразеологизмами - «ложными друзьями» переводчика или, в
терминах классификации Г. Гизатовой (Gisatova G.K., 2009:
99-104), полными межъязыковыми фразеологическими
омонимами.
Рассмотрим второй вариант немецкого фразеологизма с
глаголом «sich setzen».
Употребление немецкого фразеологизма «sich auf die
Hinterbeine setzen» в корпусе DeReKo:
Значение Пример Количество
контекстов
Прямое DEC13/JUL.04674 50%
значение – Darmstädter Echo, 19.07.2013;
вставать на Vollbremsung auf den
задние Hinterbeinen
ноги/лапы Die Reiterin beschleunigt dabei
das Pferd auf gerader Linie im

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219
Galopp, ehe sie es mit dem
Stimmkommando "Whoa" und
tiefem Einsitzen abrupt abbremst,
sodass es sich auf die
Hinterbeine setzt und auf den
Hinterhufen weiterrutscht, bis es
mit den Vorderbeinen zum
Stillstand kommt. Und dabei jede
Menge Staub aufwirbelt…
Первое 0%
словарное -
значение –
противиться
Второе RHZ03/FEB.00228 Rhein- 50%
словарное Zeitung, 01.02.2003; Horizonte
значение – erweitern, Rat anbieten
стараться … Anne freut sich, dass sie sofort
nach dem Gespräch zur BBS
gehen kann, um die Anmeldung
abzustimmen. Sie weiß jetzt, dass
sie sich auf die Hinterbeine
setzen muss, um ihren
Traumberuf realisieren zu
können.

Выражение «sich auf die Hinterbeine setzen» используется в

корпусе гораздо реже, чем его синоним с глаголом «sich
stellen». В 4-х архивах нам удалось найти лишь 14 контекстов
с этим фразеологизмом. Редкое употребление фразеологизма
можно объяснить тем, что он не типичен для письменного
языка. Выражение используется как в прямом значении
(когда речь идет о поведении животных), так и во втором
словарном значении «стараться» и может быть ложно
отождествлено с русским фразеологизмом «стоять на задних
лапках». Хотя морфосинтаксические структуры русского и
немецкого фразеологизма совпадают не полностью, их

220

220
сходный внутренний образ может стать причиной ложного
отождествления. Фразеологизмы-«ложные друзья» с
частично совпадающей морфосинтаксической структурой,
сходным образом и расходящимся значением мы, вслед за Г.
Гизатовой (Gisatova G.K., 2009: 99-104), относим к классу
полных межъязыковых паронимов. Анализ на совместное
использование данного фразеологизма с другими лексемами
невозможен в виду отсутствия в корпусе достаточного
количества контекстов.
Результаты
Анализ 30 потенциальных ФЕ-«ложных друзей» переводчика
в корпусе немецкого языка DeReKo позволил нам
установить, что значения некоторых ФЕ, приведенные в
печатной и электронной версии словаря Дуден, являются
устаревшими, поскольку ФЕ с этими значениями более не
встречаются в корпусе. Употребление отдельных ФЕ
происходит крайне редко, что может также
свидетельствовать об отмирании определенных значений или
нетипичности данных единиц для письменной речи. В обоих
случаях необходимо вносить корректировки в словарные
статьи и указывать на произошедшие изменения.
С другой стороны, следует обратить внимание на то, что
определенные ФЕ употребляются в корпусе в ином
фразеологическом значении, не указанном в словарях.
Объяснение этого феномена требует определенной
аккуратности, т.к. не все значения, не зафиксированные в
словарях, являются действительно новыми. Некоторые из ФЕ
могут быть ошибочно использованы авторами статей.
ФЕ, имеющие в словаре Дуден помету «ugs.» (разг.),
довольно редко встречаются в корпусе, что говорит о том,
что использование разговорных устойчивых выражений не
характерно для письменного языка публицистики.
Довольно часто ФЕ употребляются как свободные сочетания,
что подтверждает взаимосвязь структуры некоторых ФЕ и их

221

221
значения, а также говорит о воздействии компонентного
состава на употребление ФЕ.
Заключение
Метод корпусного анализа стремительно развивается во
фразеологии, что объясняется развитием и доступностью
технических средств, обогащением корпусов,
достоверностью полученных данных. Корпусные
исследования позволяют работать с актуальным
фразеологическим составом языка, предоставляют
информацию о динамике и тенденциях развития
фразеологизмов. Метод корпусного анализа в изучении ФЕ-
«ложных друзей» переводчика позволяет не только
определять и сравнивать значения единиц в двух языках, но
и выявлять нюансы в стиле и коннотациях, определять
разницу в употреблении. Корпусный анализ помогает решить
также определенные теоретические вопросы, например,
вопрос о классификации ФЕ-«ложных друзей». Данные,
полученные при корпусном исследовании во фразеологии,
могут быть применены в лексикографии, теории и методике
преподавания немецкого языка как иностранного, а также в
теории и практике перевода.
Ключевые слова: фразеология, корпусный анализ,
фразеологимы-«ложные друзья» переводчика.

Литература
Burger H., Dobrovol´skij D., Kühn P., Norrick N.R. 2007.
Phraseologie: Objektbereich, Terminologie und
Forschungsschwerpunkte. // Phraseologie / Phraseology:  Ein 
Internationales  Handbuch  Zeitgenössischer Forschung / An
International Handbook of Contemporary Research / Burger H. et
al. // De Gruyter. Pp. 1-10.
Dobrovol´skij D., Piirainen E. 2009. Zur Theorie der
Phraseologie. Kognitive und kulturelle Aspekte. Tübingen:
Stauffenburg Verlag, 2011 pp.

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222
Duden. 2013. Redewendungen. Wörterbuch der deutschen
Idiomatik. Bd. 11. –Berlin, Mannheim, Zürich: Dudenverlag, 928
pp.
Duden. URL: http://www.duden.de/ (дата обращения
01.03.2019).
Fleischer W. 1997. Phraseologie der deutschen
Gegenwartssprache. – Tübingen: Niemeyer, 299 pp.
Гизатова Г.К. 2009. «Ложные друзья переводчика» в
лексико-фразеологических средствах русского, английского
и немецкого языков // Вестник ЧитГУ, 4(55): 99-104.
Hallsteinsdóttir E. 2001. Das Verstehen idiomatischer
Phraseologismen in der Fremdsprache Deutsch. Hamburg: Dr.
Kovač, 332 pp.
Клименко А.В. 2007. Ремесло перевода. Практический курс.
М.: АСТ Восток-Запад, 636 с.
Учебный фразеологический словарь. URL:
https://phraseologiya.academic.ru/ (дата обращения
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Лубенская С.И. 2004. Большой русско-английский
фразеологический словарь. М.: АСТ-ПРЕСС КНИГА, 1056 с.
Ожегов С.И. 1987. Словарь русского языка. М.: Русский
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обращения 01.03.2019).
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Валей, 240 с.
Sternin I.A. Fleckenstein Ch. 1994. Studien zur kontrastiven
Lexikologie und Phraseologie. Voronez, 114 p.
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энциклопедический словарь. Языкознание / под ред. В. Н.
Ярцевой. М., c. 559-561.

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Телия В.Н. 2017. Большой фразеологический словарь
русского языка. Значение. Употребление. Культурный
комментарий. М.: АСТ-Пресс, 784 с.
Ушаков Д.Н. 2005. Большой толковый словарь современного
русского языка. М.: Альта-Принт, 1239 с.
 
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Burger H., Dobrovol´skij D., Kühn P., Norrick N.R., 2007.
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(Eds.), Phraseologie / Phraseology: Ein Internationales Handbuch
Zeitgenössischer Forschung / An International Handbook of
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Verlag, Tübingen, 2011 pp.
Duden. 2013. Redewendungen. Wörterbuch der deutschen
Idiomatik. Band 11. Dudenverlag: Berlin, Mannheim, Zürich, 928
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Gisatova G. 2009. Interpreter’s false friends in lexical and
phraseological units of the Russian, English and German
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Hamburg, 332 pp.
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EDUCATION AND TEACHING

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-226-238

DIDACTIC GAME AS A METHOD OF TEACHING

CHILDREN IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Ekaterina M. Kosheleva

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
The article reveals gaming techniques in teaching English at the
initial stage of teaching English to preschoolers.
Teaching younger students a foreign language is caused by the
desire to use the potential of the age most favorable for mastering
the language. Preschool age is the most favorable for learning a
foreign language. The plasticity of the natural mechanism of
language learning by young children, imitation abilities, natural
curiosity and the need for new knowledge, the absence of a
“frozen system of values and attitudes,” as well as the so-called
“language barrier” promotes the practical solution of the tasks
facing learning English.
Didactic games are used to broaden horizons and cognitive
activity, they form specific skills and abilities necessary for
practical activities, and general education skills are developed
during their implementation.
Didactic games perform many functions in the process of child
development, facilitates the learning process, helps to master the
material, develops the necessary competencies. Therefore, the
game, being the main activity of the child, allows overcoming
most of the difficulties associated with the conditional nature of

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foreign language communication and enhancing the positive
impact of a foreign language on the development of a personality.
The abundance of game situations, fairy tales creates an
atmosphere of joy, creativity, the favorable psychological climate
in the classroom.
There is a good reason to highlight the purpose of using games in
the classroom foreign language:
1) the development of specific speech skills;
2) development of necessary abilities and mental functions;
3) cognition (in the formation of the actual language);
4) memorization of speech material.
With the help of educational games, children learn to think
independently, to use their knowledge in various conditions
following the task.
Many educational games teach children to find characteristic
signs in objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, to
compare, group, classify objects according to certain signs, to
draw correct conclusions, to summarize. Many studies are
devoted to the theme of the game and its influence on the
development of a preschooler's child. (L.S. Vygotsky, A.N.
Leontiev, S.L. Rubenstein, B.G. Ananyev, D.B. Elkonin).
Teachers create whole systems of educational games (F. Frebel,
M. Montessori, E.I. Tiheeva, Z.M. Boguslavskaya, E.O.
Smirnova, M. Z. Biboletova, Trubanova N. N.).
As a result, a study was conducted at the “English Stars”
children's center, where six preschool children aged five years
studied. The following games were used during the lessons:
“Who is in the house?”, “Find the card,” “On the farm,” “What
can you see?”, Ball game “Hello! Good-bye! ”, Counts “One Fox,
Two Foxes ... ”, song-game: “Walking, walking” as well as
dramatizing games“ Goldilocks and the three bears,” “Turnip.”
After using the educational game, the kids fixed lexical material
on topics-figures, animals, family members, fairy tales, colloquial
structures I can see ..., This is ..., Give me ..., familiarity phrases.
By the end of the training, the majority of pupils have

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communicative and cognitive competencies, monologue,
dialogical skills in the framework of the program; they can make
4-7 sentences about themselves, their family, friend, favorite toy,
describe an animal, a subject.
One of the effective methods of teaching communication is an
educational game, because it brings speech activity closer to
natural norms, helps develop communication skills, promotes
effective processing of language program material, provides
practical instruction in teaching, helps to eliminate indifference,
boredom, and formalism from the educational process - the
school. Didactic games in a group of children have inexhaustible
possibilities of recreating the most diverse relationships that
people enter into in real life.
Key words: preschool education, English, game, technique

Introduction
The role of a foreign language is increasing in connection with
the development of economic ties, in connection with the
internationalization of the struggle for peace and the
environment, due to the need for public diplomacy.
An essential role in solving the problem of teaching preschoolers
a foreign language belongs to the system of additional education
of children as a particular space in which a range of favorable
conditions is created for full use of gaming technology than the
primary education system allows.
An important role in solving the problem of teaching
preschoolers a foreign language belongs to the system of
additional education of children as a unique space in which a
range of favorable conditions is created for more extensive use of
gaming technology than the primary education system allows.
Building a foreign language at the initial stage is essential. The
main activity of the preschooler child is the game.
Teaching preschool children is unthinkable without the use of
educational games. Their use well helps the perception of the
material, and therefore the child takes an active part in the

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cognitive process. Gaming techniques and methods are
characterized by versatility: they can be used at different stages of
the lesson, adapted to different goals and objectives. The game
performs many functions in the process of child development,
facilitates the learning process, helps to master the material,
develops the necessary competencies.
Therefore, the game, being the main activity of the child, allows
overcoming most of the difficulties associated with the
conditional nature of foreign language communication and
enhancing the positive impact of a foreign language on the
development of a personality. The abundance of game situations,
fairy tales creates an atmosphere of joy, creativity, a favorable
psychological climate in the classroom. Everything is involved in
the game: both weak and active students.
The use of gaming tools, forms enriches the pedagogical process
of teaching preschool children a foreign language, makes it more
interesting, has a beneficial effect on the child’s general
psychological development, his speech abilities, and on the
expansion of his general outlook.
The subject of the study is an educational game as a means of
raising and educating children of middle preschool age.
To achieve the goal of the study, we set the following goals:
- Consider the game as the primary method of teaching children
the English language.
- To prove the effectiveness of the use of educational games in
the mental education of children of middle preschool age.
Purpose of the study
The game, being the main activity of the child, allows
overcoming most of the difficulties associated with the
conditional nature of foreign language communication and
enhancing the positive impact of a foreign language on the
development of a personality.
There is a good reason to highlight the purpose of using games in
the classroom foreign language:
1) the development of specific speech skills;

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2) development of necessary abilities and mental functions;
3) cognition (in the formation of the actual language);
4) memorization of speech material.
With the help of educational games, children learn to think
independently, to use their knowledge in various conditions
following the task.
Methodology
In our time, scientists (Z.M. Boguslavskaya, O.M. Dyachenko,
E.O. Smirnova, and others) are moving towards the creation of a
series of games for the full development of children's intelligence.
In such games, there are often no fixed rules. The authors call the
proposed educational games developmental.
D.B. Elkonin emphasized that the game is a complex
psychological phenomenon, which gives the effect of general
mental development. According to C.D. Ushinsky, the child
“lives” in the game and traces of this life remain deeper in it than
traces of real life. In the game, the child learns to subordinate his
behavior to the rules of the game, learns the rules of
communication with people, develops his mental abilities and
cognitive interests, which are especially important for successful
learning in school. Playing for a child is a serious occupation.
In Soviet pedagogy, the system of didactic games was created in
the 60s in connection with the development of the theory of
sensory education. Its authors are famous teachers and
psychologists: L.А. Wenger, A.L. Usova, VN Avanesova, and
others. In recent times, the search for scientists
(Z.M. Boguslavskaya, O.M. Dyachenko, N.E. Veraksa, E.O.
Smirnova, A.K. Bondarenko, N.Ya. Mikhalenko, N. Korotkov,
and others) go in the direction of creating a series of games for
the full development of children's intelligence.
At present, as in the past, great importance is attached to the
educational game. There is its noticeable effective impact on the
intelligence of the growing up child, which confirms the
experience of many years of practice working with children not

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only in the work of famous teachers but also in the work of
teachers and educators in general.
Playing as a leading method of teaching and educating
preschoolers in English classes
The didactic game is a multifaceted, complex pedagogical
phenomenon. It is a game method of teaching children, a form of
education, independent play activity, a means of comprehensive
personality education, as well as one of the means of developing
the cognitive activity of children of senior preschool age.
The technology of the educational game is a specific method of
problem-based learning. At the same time, play activity of
children of preschool age has a valuable property: in it, cognitive
activity is self-movement, since information does not come from
the outside, but is an internal product, the result of the activity
itself. The information thus obtained generates a new one, which,
in turn, entails the next link, and so on until the result of the
training is achieved (Leontiev A.A. 2005: 29).
The educational game as a means of developing the cognitive
activity of children of senior preschool age contains great
potential possibilities:
1) activates cognitive processes; fosters interest and attentiveness
of children of senior preschool age;
2) develops abilities; introduces children to life situations;
3) teaches them to act according to the rules, develops curiosity;
4) consolidates knowledge and skills.
The structural element of the game is a game task carried out by
children in play activity. Two tasks - didactic and game - reflect
the relationship between learning and play. In contrast to the
direct formulation of a didactic task in a classroom in a didactic
game, it is carried out through the game task; it determines the
game actions, it becomes the child’s task, it stimulates the desire
and need to solve it, it activates the game actions (Smirnova,
E.O., 2003: 61).
L.S. Vygotsky and D. B. Elkonin call the game the principal
activity of a preschooler, but scientists mean not that it prevails in

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his practice among all other activities, but that it is she who
during this period leads the development of the preschooler
(Vygotsky L.S., 2006: 200).
Moreover, a lot has already been written about the children's
game; the issues of its theory are so complex that a single
classification of games still does not exist.
I.L. Sholpo offers his version of the classification of educational
games that can be used in foreign language classes with
preschoolers.
The author subdivides the educational games into situational,
competitive, rhythm music and art.
Situational games include role-playing games that simulate
situations of communication on one or another occasion. They, in
turn, are divided into games of a reproductive nature, when
children reproduce a typical, standard dialogue, applying it to a
given situation and improvisational games that require the use
and modification of various models. Naturally, there can (and
should) arise an intermediate moment when an element of
improvisation is introduced into the reproductive game.
The most competitive games include mastering vocabulary and
grammar. The winner is the one who is better at speaking the
language material. These are all sorts of crosswords, "auctions,"
desktop and printed games with linguistic tasks, command
execution, and so forth.
Rhythm music games are all kinds of traditional games such as
round dances, songs, and dances with a choice of partners that
contribute not so much to mastering communicative skills as
improving the phonetic and rhythmic melodic aspects of speech
and immersion into the spirit of language, for example: "All
around the Butter-Cup."
Artistic, or creative games are a kind of activity that stands on the
border of the game and artistic creation, the path to which lies for
the child through the game. They, in turn, can be divided into
dramatization (setting small scenes in English); graphic games,
such as graphic dictation, application, and so forth; and verbal

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and creative (selection of rhyme, the collective composition of
comic inscriptions, the collective composition of little fairy tales).
On the border of situational improvisational games and original
dramatizations there is such an activity as an improvisation on the
theme of a famous fairy tale, which has already been lost in a
well-established form. For example, the game "Turnip" or
"Teremok," in which new characters and replicas appear. They
appear depending on the number of players and the mastering of
new vocabulary (Sholpo, I.L., 2008: 7).
In addition to the educational function, the educational game acts
as a means of comprehensive education of the child's personality:
Mental education:
The content of didactic games forms in children the right attitude
to the phenomena of social life, nature, objects of the surrounding
world, it systematizes and deepens knowledge about the
surrounding world and labor activity.
Didactic games develop children's sensory abilities. The
processes of sensation and perception underlie the child's
knowledge of the environment. An acquaintance of preschoolers
with the color, shape, size of the subject allowed to create a
system of didactic games and exercises on sensory education.
They are aimed at improving the child's perception of the
characteristic features of objects. Didactic games develop the
speech of children: the vocabulary is replenished and activated,
coherent speech develops, the ability to correctly express one's
thoughts. The didactic tasks of many games are designed to teach
children to make up independent stories about objects,
phenomena in nature and social life (Elkonin D.B., 2012: 21).
Moral education:
At preschool children, moral ideas are formed about respect for
objects around them, toys as products of adult labor, standards of
behavior, relationships with peers and adults, positive and
negative personality traits.
In working with young children, the main content of educational
games is the assimilation of cultural and hygienic skills and

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behavioral culture by children. These are favorite games: “Putting
the Doll to Sleep,” “Breakfast of the Doll,” Birthday of Masha,”
“Let's Dress the Doll for a Walk.” The name of the games itself
directs the attention of the educator to the fact that children while
playing, learn the cultural and hygienic skills, norms of behavior
so that they develop positive game relationships (Usova A.P.,
2006: 56).
Labor education:
Many educational games form in children respect for the working
person, evoke interest in the work of adults, a desire to work
themselves. Some of the skills of labor children acquire in the
manufacture of material for educational games. Older
preschoolers select illustrations, natural material, make cards,
chips, board games for children of younger groups. If the guys
themselves are preparing the attributes for the game, then they
more carefully treat them. So along with ready-made games,
teachers can carry out useful materials for work with children.
Aesthetic education:
Didactic material must meet hygienic and aesthetic requirements:
toys should be painted with bright colors, artistically decorated,
placed in boxes and folders convenient for storage. Bright,
beautiful didactic toys attract the attention of children, make them
want to play take off. All material for educational games is stored
in a group in a particular place accessible to children for its use
(Mukhina V.S., 2007: 115).
Physical education:
The game creates a positive emotional recovery, causes well-
being and at the same time requires a certain tension of the
nervous system. Motor activity of children during the game
develops the brain of the child. Especially important are games
with didactic toys, in the process of which small muscles of hands
are developed and strengthened, which also favorably affects the
mental development of children, the preparation of a child’s hand
for writing, and visual arts. In the games, there are also such traits

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of the child's character, which can serve as an example for others:
companionship, responsiveness, modesty, and honesty.
Results
As a result, a study was conducted at the “English Stars”
children's center, where six preschool children aged five years
studied. Classes were held at least twice a week, with a duration
of 35 minutes. The classes were held according to a modular
program, which included the following topics - numbers, animals,
family members, toys, fairy tales, conversational patterns I can
see ..., This is ..., Give me..., familiarity phrases. The following
games were used during the lessons: “Who is in the house?”,
“Find the card,” “On the farm,” “What can you see?”, Ball game
“Hello! Good-bye! ”, Counting“ One Fox, Two Foxes ... ”, song-
game:“ Walking, walking ”as well as dramatizing games“
Goldilocks and the three bears,” “Turnip.”
When studying the theme “Toys,” the game “On the Farm” was
used, and also the guys made masks from paper, painting and
thinking through them independently, thanks to which, the
children later turned into animals, called them and told them what
they could do. After that, a drama game was used, connected with
the life of animals, both real (in the forest, on a farm, in a zoo, in
a circus, and so forth) and magical, when animals behave like
humans (Sholpo, I.L., 2008: 16).
When we went through the topic of "Family," we played "Lotto"
(we put images of all family members on one big card, and we
also use movement verbs:
the character stands / lies (the same image is horizontal + bed) /
sits (the same image + chair) / jumps (same image + jump rope) /
flies (same image horizontally face down on top of the cage or +
plane) (Negnevitskaya, E.I., 2007).
Studying the topic of numbers, we used rhythm music rhyming
games:
One, one, one
Little Jim, run!

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Two, two, two,
Run after sue!
Three, three, three,
And then after me!
One little two little
Three little frogs.
Four little, five little,
Six little frogs.
Seven little, eight little,
Nine little frogs.
Ten little frogs
On a big brown log.
Do not be afraid to enter several rhymed texts or songs at once
and pronounce or sing them in a hoax: so much more fun for both
the children and the teacher. It is interesting for babies if verses
and songs are used motivated in the lesson: they are included in
the general plot, are connected with a mobile game, appear
together with an individual character, precede some
organizational moments.
The content of any fairy tale, the story becomes familiar to
children due to their inclusion in various activities, working out
both individual words and understanding of the entire text as a
whole. For this, the plot is drawn, molded, depicted on a model,
played out on toys. We used different types of theater for children
(table, finger, puppets, toys, costumes) and played different
situations:
- we will tell a new tale about Sleeping Beauty, about Puss in
Boots, about Little Red Riding Hood, about Kolobok, about
Masha and Bears, about the Wolf and the fox, about the Turnip;
- The wizard lives in the desert and can at any time get anything
out of the ground;
- Baba Yaga lives in a small house in the forest; she wants to drag
all the children out of the city. Children put her in a rocket and
send her into space;

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- Skeleton says that he was once a brave knight and defeated a
dragon (and each of the three heads of a dragon has a particular
character, you must speak to her differently from others), and
then he married a princess and became king.
Thus, it can be said that the didactic game is a wordy,
complicated, pedagogical phenomenon: it is also a playful
method of teaching children of middle preschool age, a form of
teaching children, and independent play activity, and a means of
comprehensively educating a child (Antonova, T.V., 2007: 44).
Conclusion
The method of teaching classes should be based on the age and
individual characteristics of the structure of the linguistic abilities
of children and should be aimed at their development. The
teacher should comprehend classes in a foreign language as part
of the overall development of the child's personality, associated
with his sensory, physical, intellectual education.
Teaching children a foreign language should be communicative
when the child masters the language as a means of
communication, that is, not only learns individual words and
speech patterns but learns to construct statements based on
models known to him following the communicative needs arising
from him. Communication in a foreign language should be
motivated and focused. It is necessary to create in a child a
positive psychological attitude to foreign language speech. The
way to create such a positive motivation is the game. Games in
class must be episodic and isolated. An end-to-end gaming
technique that combines and integrates other activities in the
process of learning a language is necessary. The basis of the
game technique is the creation of an imaginary situation and the
adoption by the child or teacher of a particular role.
The educational value of the game largely depends on the
teacher’s professional skills, on the child’s knowledge of the
child’s psychology, taking into account his age and individual
characteristics, on the right methodological guidance of children's
relationships, on the precise organization and conduct of all kinds

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of games. Using gaming technologies in their practice, teachers
of additional education have a real opportunity to enhance the
educational process, to develop communication skills
significantly.
Teaching a foreign language in the institution of additional
education for children is aimed at nurturing and developing
children through the subject on the basis and in the process of
practical language acquisition as a means of communication.

References
Antonova, T.V. 2007. Features of the social behavior of children
in the game: Guide games in preschool institutions. Pedagogy,
Moscow, 250 pp.
Elkonin, D.B. 2012. Creative role-playing games for children of
preschool age. Pedagogy, Moscow, 384 pp.
Leontiev, A.A. 2005. Psychological background of the early
acquisition of a foreign language. Modek, Voronezh, 418 pp.
Mukhina, V.S., Wenger, L.A. 2007. Psychology: a textbook for
universities. Academy, Moscow, 446 pp.
Negnevitskaya, E.I. 2007. Foreign language for the smallest:
yesterday, today, tomorrow. Science, Moscow,111 pp.
Sholpo, I.L. 2008.How to teach a preschooler to speak in English.
Special literature, Saint Petersburg, 120 pp.
Smirnova, E.O. 2003. Child psychology. Vlados, Moscow, 215
pp.
Usova, A. P. 2006. The role of the game in the upbringing of
children. Pedagogy, Moscow, 258 pp.
Vygotsky, L.S. 2006. The game and its role in the mental
development of the child. Exmo, Moscow, 512 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-239-255

TEACHING SPANISH THROUGH MUSIC

Maria A. Istrakova1, Taisia I. Larkina2, Yulia V. Zubkova3

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ friendship university of Russia (RUDN-University)
Moscow, Russia
¹e-mail: [email protected]
²e-mail: [email protected]
³e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
For a long time, teachers of foreign languages have been looking
for the most effective ways of teaching foreign languages.
Options for mastering basic knowledge in any foreign language
are presented in the form of teaching methods. The difficulty lies
in choosing the most suitable one of their large number. The
choice of one method or another is determined by theoretical
grounds. The basis of this study is general scientific methods:
observation and questioning, by means of which the interrelation
of the level of linguistic students' training with the use of music in
general, and in particular songs, in teaching a foreign language
was revealed.
When learning a foreign language, it is important not only to gain
knowledge of the grammatical structure of the language and its
lexical composition, but also to learn about the main sociocultural
phenomena of the country where the language is spoken.
Speaking about the Spanish language, this is quite difficult to
realize due to the diversity of customs and traditions of the
countries of Latin America and Spain. The use of music in the
classroom can help in this, because music, and in particular, the
lyrics are a valuable source of information, thanks to which it is
possible to form the correct linguistic competences at students.

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Using music in Spanish classes, the teacher introduces cultural
characteristics and historical phenomena to students.
This article investigates the method of teaching a foreign
language through music, particularly through the songs “Cuba
que linda es Cuba”, “Viva Venezuela mi patria querida” and
“Simón Bolívar”. The first two songs are associated with the
name of the most famous politician in South America, who
struggled for the independence of the Spanish colonies. The third
song describes the main facts which every student learning
Spanish should know about Cuba. Using these songs during the
lesson, the teacher will help students learn the historical
characteristics of the countries (to follow the life path of such
great people as Simon Bolivar and Fidel Castro), as well as feel
the national flavor of Cuba and Venezuela. In our opinion, using
such stories, the teacher influences the students' interest and
motivation, and use of songs also helps to create warm and
friendly environment for students, which is important in the
process of teaching the language.
Studying cultural and historical features of countries of Latin
America is very important, but with the help of these songs you
can also explain to students the peculiarities of using Preterito
Indefinido in the Spanish language and pay student’s attention to
the endings of verbs in Preterito Indefinido to help them
remember the main features of the formation of this time in
Spanish.
In addition, these songs can also help in expanding the
vocabulary with the words used in them: we explain new words,
such as independencia (independence), pegar un grito (making
sound), libertad (freedom), memoria (memory).
Thus, using the example of just one song, you can teach students
the history of Venezuela, as well as focus on the grammatical
structure of sentences in the text and expand the vocabulary. We
conducted a survey among students of the Institute of Foreign
Languages of Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia to
identify the significance of using songs in Spanish lessons. The

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results of the study show that about 98% of students cannot
remember any songs in the languages they study, which most
fully convey the characteristics of the national spirit of the
country. First of all, this is due to the fact that teachers do not use
songs in foreign languages in the learning process. However,
according to the students we interviewed, it is much more
interesting to study the cultural features and historical facts of a
particular country, listening to songs in a foreign language than
reading textbooks.
Taking into account the data obtained during the study, it can be
concluded that the majority of students believe that using songs in
foreign languages during lessons will undoubtedly make the
learning process more effective and interesting, and will also
motivate students to do various language tasks. Accordingly, to
the question of teachers "Is it necessary to use songs in foreign
languages in the learning process," the answer is "yes." Summing
up our research, we can state that music, in all its manifestations,
was and still is a valuable information carrier. Being a witness of
history, it carries in itself a lot of information through years and
centuries, preserving it for future generations.
Keywords: methods of teaching a foreign language, Spanish,
method of teaching, music, cultural aspects of learning foreign
languages

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ОБУЧЕНИЕ ИСПАНСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ ЧЕРЕЗ МУЗЫКУ

Мария А. Истракова1, Таисия И. Ларкина2,

Юлия В. Зубкова3

Институт иностранных языков

Российский университет дружбы народов
Москва, Россия
¹e-mail: [email protected]
²e-mail: [email protected]
³e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
На протяжении долгого времени преподаватели искали
наиболее эффективные способы обучения иностранным
языкам. Варианты овладения начальными знаниями в любом
иностранном языке представляются в виде методов
преподавания. Трудность заключается в выборе самого
подходящего из их большого количества. Выбор того или
иного метода обусловливается теоретическими основаниями.
Основой данного исследования являются общенаучные
методы: наблюдение и опрос, посредством которых были
выявлены взаимосвязь уровня подготовки студентов-
лингвистов с использованием музыки в целом, а в частности
песен, при обучении иностранному языку. При изучении
иностранного языка важно не только овладеть знаниями о
грамматическом строе языка, его лексическом составе, но
также и иметь представления об основных социокультурных
явлениях страны изучаемого языка. В случае с испанским
языком это сделать довольно трудно из-за многообразия
обычаев и традиций стран Латинской Америки и Испании.
Помочь в этом может использование музыки на занятиях,
ведь музыка и тексты песен являются ценным источником
информации, благодаря которому у студентов формируются
правильные лингвистические компетенции. Используя
музыку на занятиях испанским языком, преподаватель

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знакомит студентов с культурными особенностями и
историческими явлениями. В настоящей статье
рассматривается метод обучения иностранному языку через
музыку, а именно через песни «Viva Venezuela mi patria
querida», «Simón Bolívar» и «Cuba que linda es Cuba». Две
первых связаны с именем самого знаменитого политического
деятеля Южной Америки, который возглавил борьбу за
независимость испанских колоний. Последняя описывает
главные факты, которые должен знать про Кубу каждый
студент, изучающий испанский язык. Используя данные
песни на занятиях, преподаватель поможет студентам
усвоить исторические особенности стран изучаемого языка,
(проследить жизненный путь таких великих людей, как
Симон Боливар и Фидель Кастро), а также почувствовать
национальный колорит Кубы и Венесуэлы. По нашему
мнению, используя подобные рассказы, преподаватель
влияет на заинтересованность и мотивацию обучающихся, а
песни еще и помогают создать благоприятную для обучения
дружескую обстановку в коллективе, что немаловажно при
обучении языку. Изучение культурных и исторических
особенностей латиноамериканских стран очень важно, но на
примере данных песен можно также объяснить студентам
особенности употребления Preterito Indefinido в испанском
языке. Также стоит обратить внимание на окончания
глаголов в Preterito Indefinido, чтобы запомнить основные
особенности образования этого времени в испанском языке.
Помимо этого, данные песни могут помочь в овладении
новой лексикой, которая используется в них: объясняем
новые слова, такие как independencia (независимость), pegar
un grito (издавать звук), libertad (свобода), memoria (память).
Таким образом, на примере одной песни можно обучить
студентов истории Венесуэлы, а также сделать акцент на
грамматическом строении предложений в тексте и обучить
новой лексике. В данной статье для выявления значимости
применения песен на занятиях испанского языка нами был

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проведен опрос среди студентов Института иностранных
языков Российского университета дружбы народов.
Результаты которого показывают, что около 98 % студентов
не могут назвать песни на изучаемых ими языках, которые
наиболее полно передают особенности национального духа
какой-либо страны. Прежде всего, это связано с тем, что
преподаватели не используют песни на иностранных языках
в процессе обучения. Однако, по мнению опрошенных нами
студентов, гораздо интереснее изучать культурные
особенности и исторические факты той или иной страны,
слушая песни на иностранном языке, чем читать учебные
пособия. На основании данных, полученных в ходе
исследования, можно сделать вывод о том, что большинство
студентов считают, что использование песен на иностранных
языках на занятиях, несомненно, сделает учебный процесс
более эффективным и интересным, а также будет
мотивировать учащихся к выполнению различных языковых
заданий. Соответственно на вопрос преподавателей
«Необходимо ли использовать песни на иностранных языках
в процессе обучения», без сомнения, можно ответить «да».
Подводя итоги нашего исследования, мы можем заявить, что
музыка, во всех своих проявлениях, являлась и до сих пор
является ценным носителем информации. Будучи свидетелем
истории, она несет ее в себе сквозь годы и века, сохраняя для
будущих поколений.
Ключевые слова: методы обучения иностранному языку,
испанский язык; методика преподавания; музыка,
культурологические аспекты изучения иностранных языков.

Вступление
Испанский язык с каждым днем становится популярнее по
всему миру. Знание лексики, а также культурных и
исторических особенностей испанского языка очень важно
при овладении им на высоком уровне. У студента,
изучающего иностранные языки, наступает момент, когда

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знания грамматики и фонетики достигли своего пика, но
имеющихся лексических знаний недостаточно для уровня
профессионала. А иногда бывает по-другому: студент знает
на достаточно высоком уровне лексику, фонетику, правила
грамматики, но не умеет их применять в конкретных
языковых ситуациях. Очень часто одни преподаватели
заставляют студентов заучивать слова, которые
впоследствии уходят в пассивный словарный запас, а потом
и вовсе теряются в глубинах сознания; другие, более
креативные, используют карточки, стикеры и мнемотехнику,
облегчая тем самым заучивание новых слов. Касательно
обучения грамматике, в вузах и школах до сих пор
используется проверенный временем грамматико-
переводной метод, который также не дает студентам ясного
представления о «живом» языке. Методика, которая
предлагается в этой статье, – проста, но вместе с тем
эффективна. Использование песен на уроках иностранного
языка не является нововведением. Многие преподаватели
успешно применяют ее на практике много лет. Например,
И.Ю. Пашкеева (Pashkeeva, I.Y., 2014: 9) описывает опыт
Казанского химико-технологического института (КХТИ), где
в 1970-х годах применялся интенсивный метод обучения
иностранным языкам с использованием музыки.
Предмет и цель исследования
При изучении иностранного языка важно не только овладеть
знаниями о грамматическом строе языка, его лексическом
составе, но также и иметь представления об основных
социокультурных явлениях страны изучаемого языка. В
случае с испанским языком это сделать довольно трудно
вследствие многообразия обычаев и традиций стран
Латинской Америки и Испании. Помочь в этом может
использование музыки на занятиях, ведь музыка, а в
частности, тексты песен являются ценным источником
информации, благодаря которому у студентов формируются
правильные лингвистические компетенции (Göher, Vural F.,

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2018: 4). Используя музыку на занятиях испанским языком,
преподаватель знакомит студентов с культурными
особенностями и историческими явлениями. В данной статье
в качестве примера рассматриваются песни о двух странах
Латинской Америки – Венесуэле и Кубе. Используя их,
преподаватель поможет студентам усвоить исторические
особенности стран изучаемого языка, (проследить
жизненный путь таких великих людей, как Симон Боливар и
Фидель Кастро), а также почувствовать национальный
колорит Кубы и Венесуэлы.
Предмет данного исследования: применение песен в качестве
вспомогательного материала при обучении испанскому
языку.
Цель исследования: выявить значимость применения песен
при обучении испанскому языку.
В связи с целью и предметом исследования был проведен
опрос среди студентов Института иностранных языков
Российского университета дружбы народов. Текст опроса и
его итоги приводятся ниже.
Методология исследования
В методологической основе представленного исследования
лежит концептуальный подход, т.к. изначально было
выдвинуто ключевое положение о необходимости
использования песен при обучении испанскому языку. Также
исследование проводилось, опираясь на опыт коллег,
которые успешно применяют музыку, обучая студентов
иностранным языкам (Millington, N. T., 2011: 7).
Популярность испанского языка растет, а в связи с этим
растет и спрос на быстрые и эффективные способы обучения
языку. По словам Д. Крамера, песни, в отличие от диктантов,
не связанных с реальным языком, имеют контекст, который
помогает студентам быстрее запоминать слова (Kramer, D.,
2001: 5).

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Результат
Обучение культурным и историческим особенностям
испанского языка в Венесуэле
Венесуэла является одной из стран Латинской Америки.
Другое название страны - Боливарианская Республика
Венесуэла. Эту страну также называют «Жемчужиной
путешественников», и это действительно так. Ведь именно
там находится самый высокий водопад во всем мире,
национальные парки, заповедные территории и многое
другое. Более того, Венесуэла – это страна с богатой
историей и своей особенной, неповторимой культурой. Все
это не просто общие фразы: именно такие факты должны
повышать мотивацию студентов к изучению испанского
языка. Венесуэле посвящены такие песни, как «Viva
Venezuela mi patria querida» и «Simón Bolívar». Они связаны с
именем самого знаменитого политического деятеля Южной
Америки, который возглавил борьбу за независимость
испанских колоний. Он заставил считаться со своим мнением
почти полмира. Многие политические деятели США считали
его угрозой американскому демократическому обществу, т.к.
благодаря ему вот-вот должно было возникнуть очень
сильное и влиятельное государство – Соединенные Штаты
Южной Америки. Кому-то может показаться, что эта история
про Симона Боливара не важна при обучении языку. Зачем
студентам рассказывать какие-то истории, если проще дать
новые слова по теме война? Но, используя подобные
рассказы, преподаватель влияет на заинтересованность и
мотивацию обучающихся, а используя песни еще и помогает
создать благоприятную для обучения, дружескую обстановку
в коллективе, что немаловажно при обучении языку.
Историческое наследие Венесуэлы следует изучать,
используя песню «Viva Venezuela mi patria querida», в
которой жители Венесуэлы выражают свою благодарность
Симону Боливару за освобождение от испанского
господства. Об этом говорят следующие строчки:

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Gracias a la providencia
hemos los venezolanos
que nos dio a ese ser humano
para nuestra independencia.
В Венесуэле имя Симона Боливара очень популярно.
Венесуэльцы страдают своего рода оригинальной
национальной болезнью, которая называется
«боливароманией». Именем этого национального героя
называют почти все: провинции, города, улицы, площади и
даже денежные единицы (боливиано - в Боливии, боливар - в
Венесуэле). Более того, самая высокая вершина страны - пять
тысяч метров – это пик Боливар. Альпинисты, покорившие
его, во время восхождения несли на себе бюст Боливара,
чтобы установить его как можно выше. И им это
удалось - бюст стал самым высокогорным Боливаром в мире.
В Венесуэле обязательно каждый год 24 июля отмечается
день рождения Симона Боливара. Таким образом,
совершенно не удивительно, что в песне «Viva Venezuela mi
patria querida» венесуэльцы называют Симона Боливара
вторым Иисусом:
Cuando Bolivar nacio
Venezuela pego un grito
diciendo que habia nacido
un segundo Jesus Cristo.
Далее следуют строки:
Bolivar no esta muerto
siempre estara en la memoria
por eso lo recordamos
y asi lo dice la historia.
Симон Боливар действительно навсегда в памяти и сердце
венесуэльцев. Ему посвящают песни, пьесы, романы, статьи.
Про него писали такие всемирно известные писатели, как
Габриэль Гарсия Маркес и Фердинанд Брюкнер. Даже

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установка памятников проходит строго при выполнении
определенных условий: если Боливар одержал победу в
сражении непосредственно в окрестностях данного города,
его бронзовое изваяние должно сидеть верхом на коне с
обнажённым оружием. Те же города, через которые или
рядом с которыми он хотя бы однажды проезжал, должны
ограничиваться только бюстом героя.
Таким образом, мы понимаем, что Симон Боливар является
очень важной личностью в Венесуэле, его по-прежнему
любят и ценят. Песню «Viva Venezuela mi patria querida»
знает, пожалуй, каждый образованный и уважающий себя
венесуэлец, поэтому эту песню должен знать каждый
студент, изучающий испанский язык, чтобы лучше понимать
его носителей.
Обучение грамматическому и лексическому материалу на
примере песни «Viva Venezuela mi patria querida»
Изучение культурных и исторических особенностей
Венесуэлы, как одной из стран Латинской Америки, очень
важно, но на примере этой песни можно также объяснить
студентам особенности употребления Preterito Indefinido в
испанском языке: первые строчки песни quién la libertó mi
hermano fue Simón Bolívar указывают на то, что Preterito
Indefinido употребляется для обозначения действия, которое
произошло или было завершено в прошлом. Также стоит
обратить внимание на окончания глаголов в Preterito
Indefinido, чтобы запомнить основные особенности
образования этого времени в испанском языке.
Далее переходим к обучению лексике, которая используется
в этой песне: объясняем новые слова, такие как independencia
(независимость), pegar un grito (издавать звук), libertad
(свобода), memoria (память).
Таким образом, на примере одной песни можно обучить
студентов истории Венесуэлы, а также сделать акцент на
грамматическом строении предложений в тексте и обучить
новой лексике.

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Обучение культурным и историческим особенностям
испанского языка на Кубе
Следующая песня, которую мы рассмотрим: Cuba! que linda
es Cuba! Куба! Прекрасная Куба - одна из стран Латинской
Америки, которую часто называют Островом Свободы. Здесь
невероятная по своей красоте природа, роскошные пляжи, а
также знаменитые кубинские сигары и ром. И все это – Куба.
Многие студенты начинают учить испанский только потому,
что им нравятся ритмы кубинских танцев и необычайная
культура этой страны. Музыка – одна из самых важных
частей кубинской культуры и жизни. Кубинцы очень любят
петь, многие владеют музыкальными инструментами, и,
конечно, сложно представить кубинца, не умеющего
танцевать. На Кубе танцуют все – и малыши, и взрослые и
пожилые люди. Про Кубу, её национальных героев написано
множество песен, но в данной статье остановимся на одной:
«Cuba que linda es Cuba».
В этой песне описаны главные факты, которые должен знать
про Кубу каждый студент, изучающий испанский язык.
Первые шесть строчек песни посвящены описанию
невероятно красивой природы Кубы. Например,
yo te invito a que busques por el mundo,
otro cielo tan azul como tu cielo.
Una luna tan brillante como aquella
Que se filtra en la dulzura de la caña
Но, поди, поищи и узнай –
Что в твоей стране небо, как рай!
И луна здесь светит, как яхонт,
Словно твой тростниковый сахар!
Все, кто хотя бы раз побывал на Кубе, говорят, что небо там
совершено другое! Такого по-райски голубого неба нет ни в
одной стране мира. И, как мы можем догадаться из

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последних двух строчек, Куба – одна из стран-
производителей сахарного тростника.
Следующая строчка первого припева дает освещение самому
яркому событию в истории Кубы – революции.
Un Fidel que vibra en la montaña
Здесь Фидель, поживший в горах
Главный кубинский революционер, передовая личность в
истории революции Кубы, бывший президент Республики
Куба – Фидель Кастро, которому когда-то пришлось какое-то
время жить в горах.
Un rubí, cinco franjas y una estrella.
Треугольник и звезда в пяти полосах.
Эта строчка повествует нам о национальном флаге
Республики Куба, который состоит их треугольника, пяти
полос и звезды.
Lindo es tu cielo, lindo es tu mar
Cuba eres faro de libertad!
Небо прекрасно, прекрасно море
Куба, ты – маяк свободы
Действительно, Куба – Остров Свободы, где наградой за
революцию и все страдания стала именно свобода.
Ay que palmeras hay en la Habana
Какие же пальмы в Гаване
Из этой строчки студенты могут узнать, что столица Кубы –
Гавана и славится она своими пальмами.
Lindo es tu cielo, tu alma es fiel
Viva barbudos, viva Fidel!
Твое небо прекрасно, твоя душа - колыбель
Да здравствуют барбудос, да здравствует Фидель!

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Обучение грамматическому и лексическому материалу на
примере песни «Cuba! que linda es Cuba!»
За последней строчкой кроется очень интересный факт из
биографии Фиделя Кастро и истории революции Кубы,
который поможет студентам с легкостью запомнить
лексический материал. Дело в том, что, когда Фидель Кастро
и его сторонники жили в горах, у них не было
приспособлений, для того чтобы побриться, поэтому все они
были с бородами. Barbudo в переводе с испанского означает
«бородатый».
При использовании этой песни на уроках испанского языка,
следует обратить внимание на такие грамматические явления
в испанском языке, как Imperativo Afirmativo y Subjuntivo,
которые мы видим в строчках ¡Oye! Tú qué dices que tu Patria
no es tan linda, te invito a que busques. Также первый куплет
может стать идеальным примером для обучения
использования обороту tan como: no es tan linda, no es tan
bello, cielo tan azul como tu cielo, una luna tan brillante como
aquella.
Таким образом, использование данной песни при обучении
испанскому языку позволяет рассказать студентам
исторические факты, касающиеся кубинского общества, а
также объяснить некоторые лексические и грамматические
особенности испанского языка.
Использование музыкального материала на занятиях
иностранным языком
В последнее время довольно часто преподаватели
иностранных языков высших учебных заведений задаются
вопросом: «Необходимо ли использовать песни на
иностранных языках в процессе обучения или это пустая
трата времени?» Нами было проведено исследование,
главной целью которого являлось получение ответа на
данный вопрос. Студентам 3-го и 4-го курсов Института
иностранных языков Российского университета дружбы
народов было предложено ответить на следующие вопросы:

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1. Как вы считаете, служат ли иностранные песни
мотивацией для изучения иностранных языков?
Да/нет/затрудняюсь ответить
2. Часто ли вы слушаете музыку на иностранных языках?
Да/нет/затрудняюсь ответить
3. Считаете ли вы уместным использование песен на
занятиях иностранным языком?
Да/нет/затрудняюсь ответить
4. На ваш взгляд, могут ли песни на иностранных языках
служить иллюстрацией лингвострановедческих явлений
данной страны?
Да/нет/затрудняюсь ответить
5. Можете ли вы назвать песню на изучаемых вами языках,
которая наиболее полно передаёт особенности
национального духа какой-либо страны?
Да/нет (если ваш ответ «да», то приведите пример)
6. Что для вас является наиболее важным в песне на
иностранном языке: мотив или содержание?
Да/нет (если ваш ответ «да», то приведите пример)
Возраст наших респондентов варьировался от 19 до 22 лет.
Всего в нашем опросе приняло участие 50 студентов.
На первый вопрос 44 человека ответили «да», 4 человека –
«нет», 2 человека – «затрудняюсь ответить». На второй
вопрос все 50 студентов единогласно ответили «да». На
третий вопрос 43 респондента дали положительный ответ, 5
респондентов – отрицательный, и 2 человека выбрали
вариант «затрудняюсь ответить». На четвертый вопрос
поступило 24 ответа «да», 24 – «нет», 1 - «затрудняюсь
ответить». На пятый вопрос 48 студентов ответили «нет», и
только 2 человека выбрали ответ «да», а в качестве примера
привели песню «God save the Queen». На последний шестой
вопрос 25 студентов выбрали вариант ответа «мотив», 25
студентов ответили «содержание».

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Заключение
Из нашего исследования становится очевидным, что около
98 % студентов не могут назвать песни на изучаемых ими
языках, которые наиболее полно передают особенности
национального духа какой-либо страны. Прежде всего, это
связано с тем, что преподаватели не используют песни на
иностранных языках в процессе обучения. Однако, по
мнению студентов, гораздо интереснее изучать культурные
особенности и исторические факты той или иной страны,
слушая песни на иностранном языке, чем читать учебные
пособия.
На основании данных, полученных в ходе исследования,
можно сделать вывод о том, что большинство студентов
считают, что использование песен на иностранных языках на
занятиях, несомненно, сделает учебный процесс более
эффективным и интересным, а также будет мотивировать
учащихся к выполнению различных языковых заданий.
Соответственно ответом на вопрос преподавателей
«Необходимо ли использовать песни на иностранных языках
в процессе обучения», без сомнения, можно ответить «да».
Подводя итоги нашего исследования, можно без сомнения
сказать, что музыка являлась и до сих пор является ценным
носителем информации. Будучи свидетелем истории, она
несет ее в себе сквозь годы и века, сохраняя для будущих
поколений.
Некоторые считают, что музыка – это лишь способ
расслабиться и развлечься. Однако, с помощью песен и
иностранных языков, мы имеем возможность не только
насладиться звучанием и исполнением иностранной музыки,
но и понять ее смысл, который пытается передать нам автор,
тем самым узнавая исторические и географические факты о
какой-либо стране (Madrakhimova, M.S., 2018: 6).
Так, на примере двух стран Латинской Америки, мы
показали, как посредством знания иностранного языка
можно узнать страну изнутри с ее культурными

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особенностями, традициями и обычаями, а также оказать
студентам помощь в освоении новых правил грамматики
испанского языка, а также в изучении новой лексики.
В ходе нашей работы мы увидели, что жители данного
региона являются ярыми патриотами своих стран, воспевая
родину и национальных героев.
Информация, собранная в процессе нашей работы,
значительно расширила наш кругозор в области истории
испаноговорящих стран. Более того, результаты нашего
исследования могут быть использованы в процессе обучения
студентов испанскому языку, делая занятия максимально
эффективными и интересными, что также подтвердил опрос,
который мы провели среди студентов Института
иностранных языков Российского университета дружбы
народов.

References
Göher, Vural F. 2018. The significance of music in teaching
Turkish. Novye issledovaniya Tuvy 1: 10.
Kramer, D. 2001. A blueprint for teaching foreign languages and
cultures through music in the classroom and on the web. The
Association of Departments of Foreign Languages (ADFL)
Bulletin 33(1): 29-35.
Madrakhimova, M.S. 2018. Teaching a foreign language through
music. Dostizheniya nauki i obrazovaniya 19 (41): 62-63.
Millington, N. T. 2011 Using songs effectively to teach English
to young learners. Language Education in Asia 2(1): 134–141.
Pashkeeva, I.Y. 2014. Using songs in teaching foreign language.
Vestnik Kazanskogo tekhnologicheskogo universiteta 17(5): 361-
365.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-256-267

DISTANCE E-LEARNING COURSES FOR USE

IN EDUCATIONAL PROCESS AT UNIVERSITIES

Olga E. Novokhatskaya

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Over the past decade in the system of higher education the most
relevant and widely demanded form of education for students is
distance learning using e-learning courses. In Russia, as in other
countries of the world, e-learning has gained immense popularity
and has become widely used along with traditional forms of
education. The article describes the advantages of e-learning and
distance learning technologies in the organization of the
educational process for students and teachers, and for educational
institutions.
The study used SWOT-analysis of the introduction of distance e-
learning courses in the system of training University students to
teaching. The analysis aims to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of education using e-learning courses, as well as
external opportunities and threats to implement this approach.
Distance learning is implemented through educational Internet
portals, created on the basis of educational institutions, and is
carried out using modern telecommunication technologies (on-
line and off-line) without direct contact between the teacher and
students.
The formation of competencies of the teacher of distance learning
can take place as efficiently as possible in the refresher courses in
the distance learning mode. To develop a distance learning

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course, the teacher needs to form information competencies, and
to implement – communication and communication
competencies, as well as personal self-improvement. How to
improve the quality of the educational process with the help of
distance learning? What conditions are necessary for the
implementation of such training? The answer to these questions
was obtained based on the analysis of scientific publications and
research of domestic and foreign scientists, as well as on the
generalization of experience with remote electronic training
courses.
Distance e-learning is a rather complicated process, it requires not
only moral and material costs, but also appropriate training of the
teacher. The success of the introduction of e-learning in the
system of modern higher education is determined by a
sufficiently high motivation of the teaching staff and students. It
is possible to tell with confidence that today students more ready
to use e-learning than teachers, as the current modern generation
is widely developed skills in social networks and computer
technology.
SWOT analysis of distance e-learning revealed the advantages of
blended learning against traditional (face-to-face) or only
electronic, carried out offline and online
Involvement of University teachers in e-distance learning is
possible if you develop a well-thought-out system of motivation.
Since the development of an electronic educational complex and
the subsequent work in it requires a lot of time and effort, it is
necessary to solve the problem of reducing the overall workload
of the teacher. The second important issue is to ensure the interest
of the teaching staff through a system of additional incentive
supplements to wages. The lack of adequate remuneration for the
creation and work with the e-learning complex leads to the fact
that the preference for distance learning is given to professors and
associate professors (who have higher pay and less load)
compared to the Junior teaching staff. The solution of these issues
on the part of the University management can lead to the

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successful implementation of e-learning in the educational
process and meet the needs of modern society and the labor
market in workers capable of self-education throughout life. The
integration of e-learning in the educational process, the use of
distance learning technologies are not administratively defined
mechanism, and historically natural new learning technology.
Thus, the components of methodological support of e-learning of
students for additional professional programs should be a
specially organized methodical system, which is based on modern
approaches to improving the quality of continuing education of
professionals, takes into account the peculiarities of education of
adult students, uses the achievements of modern digital didactics.
Keywords: e-learning course, distance education, blended
learning, higher-education system

Introduction
Currently, the informatization of the education system involves
not only the computerization of the educational process, but also
"the implementation of educational programs with the use of
distance learning technologies." And the result of such education
should be the competence of students: hard skills-competencies
or skills that ensure the implementation of professional functions
and soft skills competence that increase the efficiency of life in
society.
The modern educational standard of higher education provides
for the choice of new strategies of education, in which the
implementation of the competence approach is carried out. This
strategy can be the assimilation of classroom work with e-
learning. To date, blended learning, which is a combination of the
traditional approach (face-to-face) with training based on the use
of modern computer technologies (Abrami P.C., 2012), becomes
more relevant due to the reduction of classroom hours and the
increase in independent work of students.

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Currently, e-learning is becoming the main direction of
improving the competitiveness of education in Russia (Altunay
D., 2013), and in other countries (Burns M., 2013).
The implementation of educational programs with the use of e-
learning in universities should be carried out provided the
creation of a base that includes electronic educational resources
in the form of electronic educational complexes in different
disciplines, telecommunication technologies and technical means
to ensure the development of educational programs regardless of
the location of students (King E., 2015).
To improve the quality of distance learning, not only educational
IT-technologies are required, but also careful methodological
training, which allows classrooms and independent work with
electronic educational complexes to interact with each other and
create a single educational space of the University (Maheridou
M., 2011).
Electronic education at the present stage can be a means of
forming the ability to self-education, as it involves a large amount
of independent work of the student. According to Shurygin,
remote electronic education contributes to the development of
independent work and according to the views of Shabanov (West
E.R., 2011) gives the student the opportunity to independently
form and improve a certain system of knowledge, skills and
abilities. Distance learning allows to transfer a student from a
passive consumer of knowledge to an active Creator (Cole J.,
2008), who is able to formulate a problem, analyze ways of its
solution and come to an optimal result.
Higher school has a great potential for the introduction of
electronic educational systems in the process of education, among
them – the presence of its own servers and websites, computer
classes, competent professionals, electronic educational
environments (LMS MOODLE).
At the present stage of development of e-learning in the education
system uses a variety of tools to create distance learning courses.
The most popular distance learning systems are such systems as

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"Prometheus», "ASSOCIATE", "WebTutor", "eLearning 3000",
"OROKS", Competentum. Magister, 1C: Education 3.0.
"Prometheus». Developed for the organization of full e-learning
and covers the full range of services related to the organization of
distance and blended learning on the Internet. Allows you to
create educational content, including electronic textbooks,
training computer programs, electronic tests for independent
testing of students' knowledge, electronic libraries (Bonk C.,
2005). Refers to commercial distance learning systems and is a
classical model of University education.
"WebTutor". It has a wide versatility, includes convenient tools
for the preparation of modular training materials, monitoring and
analysis of training results, working with training groups, forum,
chats, etc. (Burns M., 2013).
"OROKS". Used to create training programs and modules. It is
designed to support the scenario of the learning process, remote
control of knowledge, organization of joint work of the subjects
of the educational process, monitoring of the educational process.
"eLearning 3000". It is used to organize the learning process in
the social and humanitarian sphere. Designed to support the
educational process in universities and retraining. The system
supports the use of such distance learning tools as online teaching
AIDS, audio and video training materials with animation
elements, laboratory workshops, electronic libraries, interactive
testing, means of communication between the teacher and
students (Bonk C., 2005).
Competentum. Magister. It is a modular system that allows you to
create multimedia learning materials, plan and control the
learning process. It has wide opportunities of calendar planning
of educational process, management of creation, delivery to
pupils of educational materials, to analyze efficiency of
educational process, and also to create information banks of data
of educational institution (West E.R., 2011).
1C: Education 3.0. It is a multifunctional electronic system
designed to maintain and automate the educational process in the

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school. In this system, you can create new training courses, as
well as use ready-made training products created by other users.
The technical capabilities of the system allow you to edit, add and
download various multimedia materials and use them in the
learning process. This system contains a variety of educational
complexes in the form of visual, animation, reference, test
resources, flash games.
Materials and Methods
We used the SWOT-analysis of implementation of remote
electronic training complexes in the system of preparation of
students to pedagogical activity. The analysis revealed the
strengths and weaknesses of education with the use of electronic
educational systems, as well as external opportunities and threats
for the implementation of this approach. The correlation analysis
of interactions for each of the four groups of combinations is also
carried out: strengths – opportunities, weaknesses – opportunities,
strengths – threats, weaknesses – threats. Correlation analysis is
needed to enhance potential opportunities and mitigate risks when
implementing a blended learning system.
Results
Today, remote electronic educational complexes are actively
developed and widely implemented in the educational process in
various academic disciplines (Maheridou M., 2011). LMS
MOODLE system allows you to organize training in the process
of joint problem solving and to exchange knowledge between the
teacher and the students, and between the students themselves.
This system is easy to use, reliable and flexible (Burns M., 2013).
One of its strong points is wide opportunities for communication
and control of educational activity of students. The electronic
system allows monitoring and evaluation of the quality of
education, stimulate the correction of inaccuracies and errors,
increasing the level of development of the discipline.
Discussion
In order to increase the effectiveness of training using IT-
technologies it is necessary to find out: what is the positive effect

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of electronic educational systems in teaching students and what
risks may arise when using them.
SWOT-analysis of distance learning involving an electronic
educational course.
Strengths
1. Flexible training schedule.
The student can study the training module at any time convenient
for him. In the presence of Internet access on a personal cell
phone (smartphone) training becomes available anywhere; to
study the material of the discipline at an individual pace, focusing
on the established time frame; to be in the learning process and
during the disease (Cole J., 2008).
2. The opportunity to use for training a variety of information
content, including electronic.
In the classroom, due to time constraints, it is not always possible
to demonstrate different versions of information (video clips,
presentations, audio recordings), may be missing or outdated
printed sources, which is corrected with the help of electronic
training complexes.
In the educational institution, not all classrooms are equipped
with computer equipment and have access to the Internet, while
electronic educational complexes provide ample opportunities for
the use of educational content.
3. A wide range of "tools" to test and control knowledge, skills to
apply knowledge.
MOODLE has a variety of resources for the control of
knowledge: tests and tasks, essays, interactive lecture, group chat,
forum, etc. To identify the skills to apply the knowledge you can
use: case assignment, preparation of questions and tests to the
topic of study, group projects on-line, etc.
4. Control of student's work with remote electronic educational
complex. MOODLE allows you to monitor the activities of
students, periodically monitor their progress and store their
results.

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5. Feedback. Feedback in the on-line and off-line mode allows to
individualize training, to carry out consultations, to carry out
personal communications between the student and the teacher
(King E., 2015).
6. Development of skills of independent work. When studying the
discipline with the use of electronic educational systems, the
main emphasis is on independent work of the student,
contributing to the formation of self-learning skills and self-
organization, as well as rational planning of educational time
(Altunay D., 2013). The student can independently determine the
number of repetitions of training modules and the need to re-
study the individual sections of the course.
7. Psychological comfort. The use of distance learning electronic
systems reduces the degree of nervousness of students in the
performance of control tasks (tests, tests, exams).
8. Improving the quality of learning through visualization. The
use of various methods of delivering information to students
through an interactive lecture, video, sound makes it possible to
make the studied material more visual, and therefore
understandable and memorable.
Weakness
1. Insufficient motivation of teachers and students to work with
electronic educational complexes.
In the case of a large number of students checking problem-
developing tasks becomes resource-intensive. The lack of
financial compensation reduces the interest of teachers in their
use, which reduces the effectiveness of distance learning.
Classroom communication of the teacher with students motivates
them to work more than communication on-line and off-line.
2. The problem of identification of the student performing tasks
in electronic educational complexes.
Control of students 'knowledge is in the "blind spot" of the
applicant, as he has no idea who exactly solved the task. Students
have the opportunity to give the results of someone else's work
for their own.

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3. Asynchronous in the work of the teacher and students.
A teacher is more likely to be unable to interact directly with
students (for example, there is no immediate feedback) at a time
when a student needs to answer questions or needs the help of a
teacher. The student cannot hear the questions of fellow students
as during the traditional training (West E.R., 2011).
4. High time costs for the development of electronic educational
complex and work with it.
Competence approach requires the introduction of a variety of
creative tasks in the distance, for the development and
verification of which requires a sufficient amount of time.
5. The lack of choice in the performance of tasks by students.
The implementation of the competence approach in electronic
educational complexes is associated with the development and
implementation of a wide variety of tasks. All jobs are equal to
the system to 100 %. The more tasks, the less the point "cost" of
each. This eliminates the possibility of variable performance of
tasks by students, otherwise they will not gain a threshold number
of points
6. Increasing the workload and disruption of the rhythm of life of
students.
With an increase in the number of electronic educational
complexes in various disciplines, the development of which
includes students, increases the volume of tasks that can lead to
fatigue and reduced efficiency.
Environmental features that increase the efficiency of e-learning.
1. Information material of Internet sites for solving problems,
finding answers to questions, performing creative tasks
(excluding testing, limited in time), students can use the Internet.
2. Check assignments for plagiarism. The teacher can use the
system "Antiplagiat" to check the independence of the tasks of
students
3."Symbiosis" of classroom and distance learning. The mixed
model, in which classroom and distance learning mutually
complement each other, increases the efficiency of education

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4. The possibility of continuous updating of educational material
in the distance learning complex. E-learning complex contains a
variety of educational materials that can be updated periodically
to avoid obsolescence of information
5. Simultaneous training of a large number of students.
Environmental threats that reduce the effectiveness of e-learning.
1. The absence of a legal framework regulating the use of
copyright information resources.
The distance learning complex uses links to author's materials
(videos, movies), posted in the open access to YouTube by other
users. In case of copyright infringement, the material from the
site is removed and the links stop working. To avoid this
situation, the teacher has to download the material and put it in
personal documents on the server of the University, which also
violates copyright.
2. Lack of distance learning opportunities. The student may not
have: a personal computer or access to the Internet; necessary
skills to work with the electronic training complex: to download,
attach and send tasks, fill in the Glossary.
3. Lack of necessary competencies of the teacher. The teacher
may have a low level: knowledge of modern IT-technologies
(using Skype, chatting, forum). Therefore, today's need is to
prepare teachers of all educational institutions to work in the
system of distance learning (Altunay D., 2013).
4. Technical complexity. With simultaneous work on the training
site of a large number of students and simultaneous sending of
tasks to the teacher, the system can be overloaded and give
failures
5. Conservatism of the education system. Not all students are
ready to work independently (Bonk C., 2005), and many teachers
are still set to implement the traditional form of education.
Conclusion
Our SWOT-analysis of the introduction of e-distance learning has
shown that the use of e-learning systems in the educational

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process of higher education will improve the quality of education
provided:
* formation of cognitive motivation of students in the process of
development of new forms of education through advanced
training in electronic educational complexes, followed by
classroom work;
* availability of professional competences of teachers on creation
of distance electronic educational complexes;
* enhancing the ability to monitor the educational achievements
of students;
* rational combination of technologies of classroom and self -
development of educational material by students.
The results of the SWOT analysis can be used to develop a
strategy for the development of distance learning in universities,
to plan activities to strengthen the weaknesses of e-learning
through existing opportunities; to minimize threats; to use the
environment to improve the effectiveness of e-learning.

References
Abrami P.C., Bernard R.M., Bures E.M., Borokhovski E., Tamim
R.M. 2012. Interaction of distance education and online learning:
Using evidence and theory to improve practice. The Next
Generation of Distance Education: Unconstrained Learning, 49-
69.
Altunay D. 2013. Language learning activities of distance EFL
learners in the Turkish open education system as the indicator of
their learner autonomy. Turkish Online Journal of Distance
Education, 14 (4): 296–307.
Bonk C., Graham C. 2005. Handbook of blended Learning:
Global Perspectives, Local Designs. San Francisco, Pfeiffer
Publishing, 32.
Burns M. 2013. Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes,
Models and Methods. Available from: URL:
http://idd.edc.org/sites/idd.edc.org/files/DE%20Book-final.pdf
[Accessed 12 April 2018].

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Cole J., Foster H. 2008. Using Moodle. Teaching with the
Popular Open Source Course Management System. Sebastopol,
O’Reilly Media Inc., 284.
King E., Boyatt R. 2015. Exploring factors that influence
adoption of e-learning within higher education. British Journal of
Educational Technology. 46 (6), 1272–1280. Available from:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/bjet.12195
[Accessed 23 April 2018].
Maheridou M., Antoniou P., Kourtessis T., Avgerinos A. 2011.
Blogs in distance education: An analysis of physical educators’
perceptions of learning. Turkish Online Journal of Distance
Education 12 (1), 95–107.
West E.R. 2011. Insights from research on distance education
learners, learning, and learner support. American Journal of
Distance Education 25 (3): 135–148.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-267-276

TO THE QUESTION OF MODELING A LANGUAGE

SYSTEM FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES
IN THE FRAME OF AN INVARIANT APPROACH

Elena S. Orlova

N.I. Lobachevsky Nizhny Novgorod State University

Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
Foreign language acquisition brings forth an everlasting
opposition between a verbal organization system and learning
procedure which is epitomized in the classic maxims: what to
teach and how to teach. A coherent unification of these two
different spheres is supposed to be implemented in the framework
of a particular approach to language learning which is not

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actually entirely feasible, as there is often a gap distancing
language per se and language learning. The essential nature of
each approach appears to be alternately expressed either in terms
which are closer to language or by those biased towards its
acquisition. The major premise of developing a new approach
conceptualization is that language learning procedure is to
harmonize with the learner reflection on and reasoning about
basic notions such as entity, name, reference, meaning, sense and
other functional discourse characteristics practiced in instruction.
This way of increasing the learner’s vision of expressive means
furthers the development of language notions already obtained
and shapes a firmer grasp of new sense-making patterns.
Harmonization of these processes develops the learner’s
awareness of their own universal outlook which results in
handling typical problems at the junction ‘thought - foreign
language speech’ more efficiently. Therefore, the axis is modeled
in the coordinates of the user inner speech outwardly manifested.
The entire process simulation bases on the underlying function of
language cognition known as predication. Two predicatively
joined items - argument and predicate - is the start of any
communication. In other words, the unification of the opposed
fundamental origins of thought and speech is implemented in the
phenomenon of predication. Predication explicates genuine
features of language at large which reveal themselves in the form
of a junction of the deepest content and most surface expression
means. The generation of predications is the most important
function of cognition due to which the real and individualized
worlds mentally converge. Being independent of the particular
content of a discourse fragment, the minimal (binary) predication
formula can be used as an element of overall instruction modeling
and a unit of instruction and assessment calculus. The use of
binary units can be instrumental in establishing a dynamic
congruence of the learner mental codes and L2 speech patterns
due to the extension of the idea of argument-predicate
interrelations and rules of their chaining. Thus, the didactic

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projection of predication is an invariant unit of sense formation
that can be transferred into learning and teaching practice. The
structure of predication reproduces an invariant constituent of
thought - speech process and provides its unity, entireness and
permanent reproducibility despite all dynamics and diversity of
particular communicative contexts. The binary unit property
being the minimal sense bit capable of further concatenation is
the base for the development of the invariant approach to
language learning. The invariant approach to language learning
presupposes the formation of the learner’s ability to initiate,
perform, control and improve the complicated procedure of
transforming their thought into speech. New mental
representations of information are obtained through the
complicated interaction of inner thought attributes of reasoning,
inferring, imagining and problem-solving. None of these results is
achievable unless ideas and words are properly joined up, i.e.,
predicated. The binary predicative unit used as the ultimate basis
of the invariant approach is an element capable of reconciliation
of thought and speech which are entities of different nature. The
binary unit represents the interface where information passes
from one sphere to the other, each time being interpreted into the
codes corresponding either to inner speech - thought
(thought - inner speech) - sound speech patterns. Relying on this
language model the learner acquires lasting knowledge
determining their thinking and culture level which is the gain of a
fundamental caliber.
Key words: predication, invariant, modeling, approach, unit

Introduction
The entire system of language learning and teaching methodology
has always been split and opposed by the two underlying
maxims: “what to learn’ and “how to learn”. The dilemma
reflects a global issue of language learning science imposed by
the duality of its subject field. The language learning domain is
formed by language and its acquisition. Being seemingly similar

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but actually distinct entities, language rules and procedural intake
are assumed to be unified and harmonized in order to produce a
homogenous learning space. This is considered to be done in the
framework of an approach to the study of a language. Approach
is defined as a fundamental methodological category whose idea
is axiomatically identified as a collection of coherent premises of
language and its acquisition by the acquirer (the learner). Despite
the formidable status of an overarching term accepted by the
professional community the notion of approach is notable for its
fuzzily described functional content that challenges its
instrumental potential and divests it of its dominant conceptual
role in the system of methodological constructs. In contemporary
language learning science the category of approach is presented
by a stable nomenclature list which is repeatedly referred to in the
literature. The list being imposing enough, there is virtually only
one common ground and one macro-principle according to which
the approaches are classified. The classification is reduced to the
degree of proximity to either the language system or to the way of
its acquisition. Thereby any approach is alternately biased
towards either the structural or communicative extremities
mapping the original duality of the subject field but not resolving
the problem of its heterogeneity.
Purpose of the study
The goal of the study is the development of an approach
originally conceived to be conceptually established in the
framework of a theoretical model construed as a functional
domain relied on a common ground which is invariant in 1) the
structures of source and target languages, 2) the source and target
languages’ discourse, 3) the acquirer’s internal and external
speech. Virtually, establishing the relations between the facets
mentioned implies specifying a correspondence that associates
arguments represented symbolically by f (x, y, z …) with a
typical or unique meaningful setting. The functional performance
results in forming an expression which contains a variable term
(argument) and whose meaning is determined when particular

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values of the variable are specified. The function in question gets
delineated at the intersection of verbal activity vectors and is
designated as predication.
Methodology
Predication entirely corresponds to this standard as it is the act of
joining initially independent objects of thought expressed by self-
determining words - predicate and argument - in order to convey
any idea. Predication is a most important function of language
cognition due to which the real and individualized worlds
converge in the learner’s mind. The objective knowledge of the
intellectual agent determines their understanding of how entities
are related to each other and what predicates indicate these
relations. The way the learner predicates their utterances on the
verbal norms of communication is a reliable benchmark for their
competence in their choice of the discourse elements brought
about by their adequate knowledge of the environment and verbal
communication norms established by society.
As is indicated in the definition given in (Bussman H., 2006:
931), predication is linguistically realized by predicates.
Predicates imply all words giving information about a thing. That
is why we can call them information words. Predicate is “a unit
seen as taking arguments. “Usually equivalent, therefore, to a
verb: e.g. in I bought a coat the verb buy would be a predicate
whose arguments are I and coat. Also of e.g. an adjective, or any
other unit that might be seen as taking arguments, e.g. at some
underlying level” (Matthews, P.H., 2014: 314). Thus, predicate is
a language element used for the characterization of objects by
describing their properties and relations. We accept this
signification of predicate as it is this treatment of it that is capable
of supporting and further developing methodological projections
of the invariant approach. In terms of the invariant approach, any
word can be considered to be a predicate if it provides a bit of
information about the argument used.
Thus, observing the principle of a more universal code inherent in
the entire conception of the invariant approach, we extend the

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boundaries of the notions predicate and argument. In linguistics
and logic the idea of predicate was originally considered as a
property of an entity, and predication implied the fact that the
subject of a judgment was characterized by a certain indication
expressed by the predicate. The definition of predicate accepted
in our research permits to reconsider the once dominating
conceptualization. We consider predicate to be an element used
for the reconstruction of factual and ideal things or contexts. It
allows to evade the traditional association of the word only with
the part of a sentence following the subject and to remove the
constraint on using predication as a universal conceptual base
(Orlova E.S., 2019: 89).
We can also interpret argument as a variable element licensed by
a specific predicate disregarding the former being the subject or
object in the utterance. This notion is in keeping with the
argumentation given by H. Reichenbach:
… ‘the structure of language is obviously adapted to the use of
many-place predicates, but traditional grammar does not
recognize such functions. It conceives every sentence as being
written in the subject-predicate form, i.e., in our terminology as
being derived from one-place predicate. Thus in ‘Peter is taller
that Paul’ the word ‘Peter’ is conceived as the subject, and the
phrase ‘is taller that Paul’ is construed as the predicate. Such an
interpretation, however, does violence to the structure of the
sentence, in which both the terms ‘Peter’ and ‘Paul’ occupy the
same type of logical position; they are both subjects in the sense
that something is said about them, formulated in the phrase ‘is
taller than’ (Reichenbach, H, 1980: 252-253).
The structure of predication reproduces an invariant constituent
of thought - speech process and provides its unity, entireness and
permanent reproducibility despite all dynamics and diversity of
particular communicative applications. The idea of predication
reveals genuine features of language at large which expose
themselves as the wholeness of the deepest content and most
superficial expression. Therefore, the functional origin of

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predication is an ideal unit of thought code which has an absolute
universal meaning. It is designated as an invariant, and the
approach under consideration acquires the same contingent name
(Orlova E.S., 2019: 93). Predication is exercised through the
correlation of information with reality or by the intellectual
agent’s attitude to what is being talked about. The minimal
predication is a binary unit expressed by the known formula f(x),
where f is a predicate conveying information about x, which is an
argument signifying reference. According to philosophers and
linguists of many generations it is the binary unit that makes
language the dominating formation of discourse simultaneously
framing “grammar of thought”. The binary structure (the binary
unit) is the only primary notion that provides “the identity of
diversity” - the value constantly being sought for by many
researchers. The binary predication unit is capable of extending
into complicated meaningful chains.
The binary predication structure of the form f(x) which is
presumed to be the instruction unit in the invariant approach
instrumentation is exactly the element incorporating thought and
speech qualities in the conscious intellectual act of inner speech
deriving into a sound or written outward utterance. The binary
code unit is the function, or operation, by means of which a
certain correspondence relation is reproduced or established. In
terms of language learning, it is the correspondence of speech
intension and its outward expression. Actually two predicatively
joined items is the start of communication. That is why the
method designed on the base of the binary code units provides the
learner’s sequential access to the major steps of communication.
These steps involve consistent planning and implementation of a
communicative event, namely, the initiation of a speech
intension, the formation of an inner predication or proposition,
the articulation of an utterance, the perception of an utterance by
the interlocutor, the analysis of the perceived message, the
synthesis of the sense made and its verification or interpretation.
The unification of the opposed fundamental origins - argument

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and predicate - is implemented in the phenomenon of predication.
Therefore the minimal binary predicative combination naturally
becomes the unit of speech and the unit of language teaching and
learning applied by the method belonging to the invariant
approach domain.
Predication explicates genuine features of language at large
which reveal themselves in the form of a junction of the deepest
content and the most surface expression means. For these
combined formulas of verbal thought and language to be
introduced in actual instruction, it is necessary to reconsider
standard notions of predicate. In accordance with the
interpretation given by logic and cognitive science we treat the
notion as a language expression used for describing entities
through their actions, properties and relations. The interpretation
of predicate accepted in our research is not confined to the
narrower understanding of the term. According to the common
view of predicates, they are words belonging to the principal
parts of speech such as noun, verb or adjective. The invariant
method treats predicate in the broadest sense of the term as any
word supplying information about an object but not only as “a
part of the sentence following the subject”.
Conclusion
Hence, the reasoning above shows that predication is an invariant
feature of the verbal thought of any individual speaking any
language. It has been ascertained that the predication form of
sense interpretation permits to explicate the following
peculiarities intrinsic to thought and speech process, which in
their turn are relevant to L2 acquisition.
(1) The generation of predications is the most important function
of cognition due to which the real and individualized worlds
mentally converge. The notions of global synthesis rules are
determined by the individual’s objective knowledge about how
entities are co-related and, consequently, what predicates these
relations can be shown with. It is predication that reflects how
competent the speaker is at their choice of utterance components

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objectively stipulated by their adequate knowledge of the reality
and verbal communication norms set up by society.
(2) Being independent of the particular content of a discourse
fragment, the minimal (binary) predication formula can be used
as an element of overall instruction modeling and a calculus unit.
The latter opens up unprecedented possibilities of describing the
entire procedure of language education in quantitative terms.
(3) The use of binary patterns can be instrumental in establishing
a dynamic congruence of the learner’s mental codes and L2
speech due to the extension of the idea of argument-predicate
interrelations and expansion of their taxonomies.
These characteristic features are fully exploited in the invariant
method of language learning which has been claimed as a
derivative of the invariant approach. The binary unit constant
produces the notional medium for the principles of the invariant
method to be carried through.
The principle of generalization deals with the objective
controversy between unlimited language resources and restricted
acquisition capacities of the learner typically aggravated by the
limited schedule time. In fact, this is the problem of selecting and
organizing instruction content. The issue is known to be hard to
resolve because of the diversity and multiplicity of language
constituents on the one hand and the biased nature of approach in
general, on the other. In the framework of the invariant method,
the analysis of consistently functioning units through attraction
patterns delineates the pivotal nomenclature of lexical entries
assessed in terms of practical communicative competence to a
level expected in a literate society. The sequential chaining of
predications draws more and more arguments into
communication, with many of them being recursive. In this way a
vocabulary corpus relevant to a particular course of L2 study can
be formed. The vocabulary corpus developed in the result of the
invariant method application does not only fix the items but also
orders them as exponents of various functional styles of
communication.

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The generation of a minimal binary predication unit might
transpire in different modes of thought - speech activity and at
different levels of language awareness attained by the learner.
The training activities imply practice at different levels of
communication adequacy. There might be different fashions of
the interaction between the teacher and the individual student,
correspondingly. The level ordering of binary unit concatenations
allows for distinguished ordered series of procedures, in which
one phase of language assimilation must precede another. On the
other hand, the infinite recurrence of binary units at each stage of
language practice in the exponent, explanatory, descriptive,
replicating creative modes of speech action makes those
predication complexes a perfect instrument for articulating the
learner’s individual motives, verbal preferences and power of
expression. Hence, the principle of individualization and
differentiation is observed.

References
Bussman H. 2006. Routledge Dictionary of Language and
Linguistics. (G.P. Trauth & K. Kazzazi Trans. & Ed.). New York:
Routledge. 1034 p.
Matthews P.H. 2014. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Linguistics. (3d ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 443 p.
Orlova E.S. 2019. An Invariant-Based Approach to Second
Language Acquisition: Emerging Research and Opportunities.
IGI-Global: Hershey, Pennsylvania. 180 p. doi:10.4018/978-1-
5225-8220-5
Reichenbach H. 1980. Elements of Symbolic Logic. New York:
Dover Publications, Inc. 444 p.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-277-286

CASE STUDY METHOD HAS BEEN SO WIDELY USED

BY UNIVERSITIES, WHICH TEND TO COMBINE THIS
METHOD WITH TRADITIONAL LECTURE FORMAT

Galina A. Petrova

Department of Foreign Languages

Plekhanov Russian University of Economics
Moscow, Russia
[email protected]

Abstract
The article aims at analyzing the educational process, modern
methods of teaching a foreign language. It is known that
methodology should take into account the psychological laws of
memory and thinking, the perception and reproduction of the
language material, the formation of foreign professional
communicative competence. According to the work of modern
psychologists, it has been experimentally proved that the students
retain much more comprehended material in their memory than
during the rote memory, the most effective result of the foreign
language professional communication is achieved through
professional tasks. Therefore, the Case Study method has been so
widely used by universities, which tend to combine this method
with traditional lecture format. If the Case Study course is
properly arranged and run, it gives both parties a most exiting
feeling that is a sensation of being an active participant of a big
deal. The Case Study is able to be related to the realistic
professional context and it provides a detailed analysis in the
certain case. As a research method the Case study is used in many
situations in order to contribute to the knowledge of individual,
group, social, business phenomena. The Case Study is often used
as a research method on social disciplines such as psychology,

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sociology, social work, business, education, in the field of
economics. When the Case Study is used in the descriptive
research it describes a business situation that we have observed or
been told about. The event has happened before and what is
written does not affect what happened. And we have not been
able to influence what happened. When Case Studies are used
empirically they are used to start a role play between peers, and
in that way they gain understanding and students are able to
describe their actions. Students are part of what course of action
is taken. The main benefit of the Case Study is that the Case
Study is able to be related to the realistic professional context and
it provides a detailed analysis in the certain case. It is said that the
Case Study method has strength in obtaining the detailed and
relevant experience. The internal validity is so high that makes
the Case Study very valuable. The courses of English for Special
Purposes (ESP) tend to focus on promoting the communicative
skills that are usually applied to future professional format. These
skills are the core and employability skills, being on the top target
list of the University education. With foreign languages that are
the most efficient discipline to train these skills, the present
research is motivated to find out the main features of the Case
Study or the Case Analysis courses in order to explore ESP
courses at the Russian University. It is known that for each level
of the educational process, its own system of authentic tasks in
the foreign language training should be elaborated. Providing a
motivational factor in the process of formation of foreign
professional communicative competence through the organization
of students’ speech activity in the logic of solving professionally
important tasks. In such a phased correspondence of the students’
course, there are very sufficient opportunities for the truly active,
creative forms of work that produce the natural language in a
foreign language. Learning a foreign language is not considered
as a process of information transfer, but as a proper and high-
quality organization of pedagogical conditions for the

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development of a student’s personal professional growth in
conditions of professionally oriented education.
Key words: Case Study method, ESP course, HBS,
comprehended memory, mastering cognitive strategies, problem-
solving, communicative skills in realistic professional context

Introduction
According to the new trend, there are the professional self-
determinations, mastering cognitive strategies with the value
bases that are called the personal linguistic space.
Therefore, a surge of interest in learning foreign languages has
massively demanded a new approach to the teaching of foreign
languages. All this forces us to develop other approaches to the
learning of foreign language communication.
The foreign language training as well as education is a process of
interrelated activity of a teacher and a student, which is carried
out with their specific interaction.
It should be noted that both the ability to learn and the success of
learning are relatively independent of the biologically determined
age characteristics of students. On the one hand, they depend on
such factors as education, the intellectual level of the students’
development, and on the other hand, on the organization of the
learning process, the presence of conscious real motives,
respectively, on the presence of cognitive interests, etc. Actually,
the Case Study method has been so widely used by other
universities, which tend to combine this method with traditional
lecture format, the Case Study is used to explore or to describe a
phenomenon or to explain a business situation, to dispute or
challenge the issue of the lesson.
The purpose of this research is to present the Case study method,
as a modern method of teaching a foreign language, to analyze
the educational process of the foreign language training at the
university using “Case Analysis” and to report the presentation in
a fair way.

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Methodology
According to Vygotsky’s research modern methods of teaching a
foreign language are interconnected with the psychology
(Vygotsky, L.C., 1999). This is determined by the fact that
methodology should take into account the psychological laws of
memory and thinking, the perception and reproduction of the
language material, the formation of foreign professional
communicative competence.
Actually, the most effective result of teaching professional
communication is achieved through tasks, while remaining in the
framework of foreign language training; they have to pose a
specific professional task (Leontiev, A.A., 1991).
It is known that for each level of the educational process, its own
system of authentic tasks in the foreign language training should
be elaborated. In such a phased correspondence of the students’
course, there are very ample opportunities for the truly active,
creative forms of work that produce the natural language in a
foreign language.
Nevertheless, Lyapidus points out that the knowledge of a
language is not able to be included in the range of qualities that
inherently characterize like the philosophical, political and
aesthetic knowledge, the identity of a specialist. It is known that
the following requirements are presented to the modern specialist:
the ability to conduct information retrieval, logically to interpret
the extracted information, to use different types of work
(individual or in a team) (Lyapidus, B.A., 1986).
However, in order to shape the identity of a specialist who
practically speaks a foreign language, the teacher has to know
clearly what the purposeful effects are aimed at. If you are from
the business department, you have probably heard of Harvard
“Case Study” or the Harvard Case method. It is considered that it
is the pedagogical educational system of choice at one of the
world’s most elite business school. This “Case Study” or so
called Case Analysis method makes students imagine themselves
in the role of CEO (chief executive officer) running the company
studied in the Case.

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Students are required to come to the class prepared to make a
solid argument for one course of the direction and then to
convince their peers of it with rhetorical speech (presentation).
The role of a teacher is to facilitate a class – wide discourse,
calling on students to answer the questions.
From early stages of the lessons a teacher has to stress in the Case
Study course about the four “P”:
 Preparation – if a student does not read and analyze the Case,
and then formulate an action plan, the case discussion will mean
little;
 Presence – if the students are not present, they are not able to
learn and add their unique thoughts to the group discussion;
 Promptness – students who enter the classroom late, they
disrupt the discussion and damage the decorum of the Case study
process;
 Participation – regular participation, the responsibility for
sharing their understanding and judgment with the class to
advance the group’s collective skills and the knowledge.
Moreover, if the Case Study course is properly arranged and run,
it gives both parties a most exiting feeling, that is a sensation of
being an active participant of a big deal (Zubkova, E.V., 2002).
Before graduating, Harvard Business School (HBS) students
complete 500 of these “Case Studies”, so called
“decision - forcing” exercises, which are thought to be effective
tools for training the future corporate leaders, compared with
discussing issues and theory in the abstract (Maclellian, L.,
2018).
Actually, the Case Study method has been so widely used by
other universities, which tend to combine this method with
traditional lecture format, but at Harvard, it is adopted
exclusively, it is called to be synonymous itself.
However, the authors argue that Wallace Donham, the man
credited with establishing the Case Study method as a force at
HBS in 1920, he had evolved views of business education and
that contradict - the sense that management lessons should be

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viewed through the narrow lens of the Case (Maclellian, L.,
2018).
Nevertheless, it is known that Donham’s iconic Case method that
now is central to the HBS brand and its value, annual income. It
has been given a convenient origin story that created a new,
accepted truth.
It is considered that Case studies are able to be used for both the
descriptive and empirical research.
When the Case Study is used in the descriptive research it
describes a business situation that we have observed or been told
about. The event has happened before and what is written does
not affect what happened. And we have not been able to influence
what happened.
When Case Studies are used empirically they are used to start a
role play between peers, and in that way they gain understanding
and students are able to describe their actions. Students are part of
what course of action is taken.
The main benefit of the Case Study is that the Case Study is able
to be related to the realistic professional context and it provides a
detailed analysis in the certain case. It is said that the Case Study
method has strength in obtaining the detailed and relevant
experience. The internal validity is so high that makes the Case
Study very valuable.
According to Merriam’s research who points out that the unique
strength of the Case Study is that its ability to handle and
combine multiple kinds of data collection methods (documents,
interviews, questionnaires, observations) (Merriam, S.B., 2009).
Murphy explains this strength as a research method is not
destructive. Our task as a teacher is to focus student’s group on
questionnaires and participating in observation as valued
(Murphy, M., 2014).
Case Studies are seen as a critique case because collecting and
analyzing the event is a highly labour intensive activity, they
often cause much stress, even for skilled research students.
The main drawback is that the Case Studies are highly specific
that is they relate to a particular context or a few Units.

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However, another researcher argues that the complexity of the
Case Study comes from that this method generally involves
several sources of data, it may include multiple cases within a
study, and this method is able to produce a lot for analysis (Soy,
S., 2015).
Results
The courses of English for Special Purposes (ESP) tend to focus
on promoting the communicative skills that are usually applied to
future professional format. These skills are the core and
employability skills, being on the top target list of the University
education at large (Tikhonova, E., Raitskaya, L., Solovova, E.N.,
2018).
The literature survey of ESP courses urges the teacher to stress
the following skills:
 Communicative skills including oral communication
 Written skills
 Presentation skills
 Social skills
 Information skills
 Critical thinking
 Problem-solving
 Mixed soft skills related to personal attributes
With foreign languages that are the most efficient discipline to
train these skills, the present research is motivated to find out the
main features of the Case Study or the Case Analysis courses in
order to explore ESP courses at the Plekhanov Russian University
of Economics.
“Case Analysis” is regularly used for all business departments as
a “method” of personalized integrative learning of ESP, indeed
“Case Studies” or the “Case Analysis” are stories with
educational message. Therefore, the Case Studies allow students
to practice business and communicative skills in realistic
professional context; the articles from “Financial Times” reveal
students to the authentic English while developing their
understanding of the world of business; the authentic video of

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real business issues exposes students to English as it is used, both
formal and informal and the business issues that students are able
to clash in their careers.
The following positions are needed for the effective process of
communication skills and the professional language ability at the
classroom while exploring the Case Analysis:
 Setting objectives for students to reach
 The Case – teaching is the art and skill
 The Core of Case is a teacher who is the navigator, facilitator
The Case Studies are and have always been at the classroom, it is
known that they are a hot topic for discussion, when it comes to
its use as a scientific method. Most researchers agree that the
Case Study method is relevant for further research. The Case
Studies or the Case Analysis are related to the realistic
professional context, contemporary human or business situations
and they are able to provide the relevant data. Its detailed results
are not taken out of the context and help create new challenge as
well as add the strength to the previous research. Like all research
methods the Case Study should be used when it is the most
appropriate plan for addressing the research issue.
Conclusion
The literature review allows us to draw the following conclusions
that the search for a solution to the indicated problem lies within
the framework of interdisciplinary research, the basis of different
subject ideas about the formation of foreign professional
communicative competence.
 Learning a foreign language is not considered as a process of
information transfer, but as a proper and high-quality
organization of pedagogical conditions for the development of a
student’s personal professional growth in conditions of
professionally oriented education.
 Providing a motivational factor in the process of formation of
foreign professional communicative competence through the
organization of students’ speech activity in the logic of solving
professionally important tasks.

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 The effectiveness of the learning process implies to focus on
organizing learning situations rather than the random
memorization, using a Case Study or so called Case Analysis
providing the reflective, comprehended memorization, addressing
to the professionally trend of the foreign language subject.
 Even if the Case Study as a method is faced with a lot of
criticism and disadvantages, the researchers continue to use the
Case study method with success in carefully planned studies of
the realistic professional situations, business issues.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Plekhanov Russian University of
Economics.

References
Vygotsky, L.C. 1999. Thinking and speaking. Moscow: Maze,
pp. 215.
Leontiev, A.A. 1991. General methods of teaching a foreign
language. Moscow: Russian language, pp. 360.
Lyapidus, B.A. 1986. Problem of the content of learning a
foreign language in a non-linguistic university. Moscow: High
school, pp. 134.
Zubkova, E.V. 2002. International unions and partnerships in
business education, development through mutual enrichment. In
Business education 1: 57-61.
Maclellian, L. 2018. The problem with Harvard Business school.
Case studies. September. URL: http://qz.com/work/ [Accessed on
24 Sept, 2018]
Merriam, S.B. 2009. Qualitative Research: a guide to design and
implementation. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass, Higher
and Adult Education Series, pp. 320.
Murphy, M. 2014. What are the benefits and drawbacks of Case
Study research? 2014/05/24. URL: http://socialtheoryappied
.Com/[Accessed on 24 May, 2014]

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Soy, S. 1997. The Case Study as a research method. University of
Texas at Austin. URL: http://www.ischool.utexasedu/ [Accessed
on 28th Feb, 2010]
Tikhonova, E., Raitskaya, L., Solovova, E.N. 2018. Developing
soft skills in English for Special Purposes Courses: the Case of
Russian Universities. In Proceedings of International
Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on Social sciences and
Art (SGEM) Vol. 5: 223-231.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-286-296

INTERACTIVE APPROACH AS AN EFFECTIVE TOOL

FOR TEACHING SPANISH IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Marina G. Petrova1, Fama G. Gilal2,

Hassanet Sadouri3, Refka Diouani4
1
Institute of Foreign Languages
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Institute of Foreign Languages
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
3
Higher Institute of Languages of Tunis, Carthage, Tunis
e-mail: [email protected]
4
Higher’ Institute of Languages of Tunis, Carthage, Tunis
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
There are many active and interactive methods in modern
methodology. We will focus on those that have been researched
and already tested in the personal professional and pedagogical

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practice at the Institute of foreign languages of Peoples’
Friendship University of Russia (PFUR).
The objectives of the study are to find the impact of interactive
approach on the students in Spanish Language learning and
suggest measures for teaching language skills by using an
interactive approach.
It is assumed that the program of teaching a language is based on
knowledge, skills, and abilities acquired in the necessary course
of the general education school. However, the practice of work
shows that students have different levels of training. The reason
is that the prospective university students of PFUR are the school
leavers not only from different regions of Russia but abroad. A
different social environment plays here of great importance.
Some students have not studied a foreign language at all or
studied the other language. It requires a differentiated approach to
the students to develop a sense of self-confidence in their
abilities. Moreover, undoubtedly, the interactive method of
teaching foreign languages assists the teachers. It is aimed at the
simultaneous solution of several problems: communicative-
cognitive, communication skills teaching; concrete-cognitive,
considering a specific educational situation; socially-oriented,
shaping and developing adequate socialization of a person outside
the educational situation.
The effectiveness of the learning process depends on the
implementation of the following principles: an integrated
approach to the communicative-situational basis; interactivity;
differentiated approach; inclusion; variability of the operating
mode; problematicity (both in the organization of teaching
materials, and the learning process itself).
The novelty of the use of interactive methods includes important
and necessary key points, tasks that are entirely unnecessary in
traditional methods, widely used in our education system until
recently. The interactive method requires the mandatory inclusion
of each student studying the Spanish language in the process of
learning and practical application. It forms the skill of teamwork,

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where an educator brings the leadership skills up and increases
cognitive motivation. Interactive methods of work develop the
skills of self-study, self-searching for materials on the studied
topic, teach the skills of successful communication. Such activity
in the classroom allows the student to take responsibility for joint
and own activities. It is necessary for the formation of the
personal qualities of a linguistic student. It is important not the
number of the received information but how it was obtained, the
ability to apply it in practice and whether it is personally
significant for students. A teacher is required to make a severe
change in his/her professional thinking and activities in order to
change his/her educational activities.
A control group of students from the Institute of Foreign
Languages was taken to conduct experimental training. It
included three stages: 1) preparatory; 2) the stage of experiential
learning; 3) the stage of processing and interpreting the data. In
the course of experimental training, the teachers formulated the
purpose and tasks, defined the ways of checking the
effectiveness: testing, oral questioning, video interviewing, and
conversation. The goal of experiential learning is to evaluate the
effectiveness of learning Spanish using interactive techniques in a
group with a threshold level of proficiency in Spanish. The
formulated goal has determined a range of specific tasks that we
solved in the course of experiential education:
- to test the effectiveness of training using interactive forms of
education;
- to improve the level of speaking skills of students in Spanish
classes.
Thanks to experimental learning students enhanced their
motivation and developed communicative competence, which is
too important in our contemporary world.
Keywords: Spanish, interactive approach, communicative
competence, cognitive motivation, interactive techniques.

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Introduction
In recent years, the problem of active and interactive methods of
teaching a foreign language in modern society is becoming
particularly relevant. It is connected with integrative processes in
culture and economy. In this regard, there is a need for scientific
and methodological support and discipline. The teacher is faced
with the question: what effective methods of teaching a foreign
language to use in order to achieve the ultimate goal, i.e., ensure
the formation of communicative competence among students of
the university. Interactive and active teaching methods are a
system of rules for the organization of productive interaction
between the students and with the teacher. They are in the form of
educational, business, role games and discussions, in which they
learn new experience and acquire new knowledge.
Foreign language skills mean the success and relevance of a
specialist in his/her professional world. In the last two decades,
there have been tremendous changes in the development of
technical means of instruction. Moreover, tendencies in education
have changed substantially.
Objectives/Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study is to disclosure the main characteristics
of interactive learning a foreign language through the example of
teaching Spanish at a university (on the example of the Institute
of Foreign Languages of Peoples' Friendship University of
Russia).
Methodology and sub headings
Nowadays, the methodology of teaching foreign languages has
tended to move from a communicative approach to its variety, an
interactive approach. Western methodologists proposed it.
However, they have not developed an unambiguous
understanding of the term "interactive approach" yet been. Such
authors as W. Rivers, L.V. Lier, S. Heath, E. Hatch identify it
with a communicative approach. From the point of Lier's view,
the interactive model of language mastery assumes that learning
occurs in time and the process of participation in speech events.

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For the first time, the concept of "interaction" appeared in
sociology and social psychology. The definition of the concept of
"interactive methods" consists of definitions of the concepts
"method" and "interactive" (interaction). The method in pedagogy
is interpreted as a way of purposeful interaction of a teacher and
the students for the solution the pedagogical tasks. In the concept
of "interaction," two terms can be distinguished: "inter" is
between and "share" is enhanced activity. Thus, the interaction
can be interpreted as an intensified activity between someone.
Proceeding from this, interactive methods are a way of targeted
intensified interaction between the teacher and students in
creating optimal conditions for their development (Zhuk A.I.,
Koshel N.N., 2003: 228).
In our opinion, interactive training is in demand for the following
reasons. Firstly, for teachers of a foreign language, the problem
of finding new, improved methods and techniques for increasing
the students' cognitive interest in learning a foreign language,
strengthening the motivation in the teaching process is topical.
One of the ways to solve this problem is the use of interactive
methods of teaching a foreign language. In our case, it is an
orientation to the students of a language college. Secondly,
interactive training is a useful tool for optimal intensification of
educational work. Under the intensification, it is necessary to
understand the achievement of the goal of training with a minimal
amount of the effort of students and teachers. We should consider
such indicators as the quality of instruction and time-saving. Its
main components are: increasing the focus of training, enhancing
its motivation, informational capacity of the content of education,
the use of modern teaching methods, the activation of teaching
methods and the pace of training activities, the development of
reflexive work skills, the use of computer technologies in the
educational process and other new information technology
training tools. Thirdly, interactive methods allow teachers to plan
and build training in such way that all students (regardless of
their number in the training group) can participate in the

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educational process, namely, be involved in active language
practice in the classroom (Obskov A.V., 2012: 120-121).
Our university uses different teaching methods to ensure the
effectiveness of the learning process. It is a joint activity of a
student and a teacher, where the teacher is an organizer of the
process, and the student is an active participant. The advantage of
the interactive method of learning from the traditional form of
training is that all students are actively involved in language
practice in the class. The goal of interactive learning is to create
such conditions by the teacher, in which students can discover,
acquire and construct knowledge themselves.
It is the main fundamental difference between the goals of
interactive learning and the goals of the traditional education
system.
Among the necessary pedagogical conditions for the
implementation of interactive teaching in foreign languages are
the following:
- mutual communication in a foreign language with the purpose
of making and producing authentic information, equally
interesting for all participants, in a situation that is important for
everyone;
- a joint activity characterized by the interconnection of three
objects: the producer of information, the recipient of information
and the situational context;
- changing the traditional role of the teacher in the learning
process, the transition to a democratic style of communication;
- the reflectivity of learning, conscious and critical
comprehension of the action, its motives, quality, and results both
from the teacher and students (Kashlev S.S., 2005: 10).
In the experiential learning, the following research methods were
used: questioning, interview, survey, methodological and
pedagogical observation, study and synthesis of methodological
and pedagogical experience, methods of mathematical statistics
and data processing.

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Results/Findings
One of the tasks of teaching a foreign language is the formation
of communicative competences of students in the field of
professional communication. It is communication on topics
related to the future profession and studied in the profile-oriented
foreign language course. These are the role games and dialogues
on the topics "Purchases in the marketplace," "Travelling in
Spain," "Holidays in Spain and Russia," "New places." With the
goal of training in the field of professional communication,
students must reach such level of proficiency in a foreign
language that will enable them to conduct a simple conversation
on the topics studied with foreign colleagues and partners having
the same level of education. In the classroom, a teacher teaches
the students to improve a studied language, exchange ideas and
solutions of the problem and use the vocabulary on this topic.
Among the interactive methods of teaching, we would like to
highlight some of the most effective ones in the practice of
teaching a foreign language as a means of intercultural
communication.
One of those methods of teaching is it a discussion. For example,
within the framework of the course "Spanish as a foreign
language," the study of topics can anticipate the discussion by
students in pairs or small groups of citations and statements of
famous representatives of literature, architecture, and art.
This method of teaching contributes to the development of
students' skills of intercultural communication because students
become acquainted with the rules of speech etiquette of a
different discussion. They learn to choose the correct form for
processing their arguments and ideas, taking into account the
cultural identity of the native speaker. The students get
acquainted with the cultural features of the foreign-language
discussion.
Another effective method of teaching a foreign language is the
use of a method of joint analysis of situations in the practice of
teaching foreign languages (case-study). The case-study is

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oriented not only on the wording but also on the solution of the
problem. Since the basis of cases is examples from real life, they
are remarkable material which allows combining the knowledge
of students about the cultural and communicative features of the
countries of the studied language with the practical experience of
applying the acquired knowledge.
The use of role-play method undoubtedly contributes to the
development of skills and ability of intercultural communication
by creating the specific situations of intercultural communication
in the learning process.
The next innovative method is multimedia learning. It is the
combination of various media types as text, audio and video
materials by the help of which teacher presents information to the
learners. By using information technology as an innovative
teaching and learning strategy in a problem based learning
teacher tries to motivate learners to active knowledge through
real-life problems (Azamzhonova Kh. N., 2016: 80).
In group sessions, there are such interactive teaching styles as
brainstorming, buzz session, incident process, Q&A sessions.
These techniques are useful not only for generating creative ideas
but helps students to pull together, map team-idea, interact online,
develop a workable solution.
For increasing the effectiveness of the learning process, the
teachers of the control students’ group of PFUR used the
following interactive techniques: creative tasks; small group
work; educational games (role-playing, imitations, business
games and educational games); project methodology (social
projects, competitions, radio and newspapers, films, exhibitions,
performances); warm-ups; study and consolidating the new
material (interactive lecture, work with visual aids, video and
audio materials, “a student as a teacher”, “a student teaches a
student”, a mosaic (use of questions, Socratic dialogue);
discussion of complex issues and problems (“Opinion scale”,
“Discussion in the style of a television talk show”, debates,
symposium); problem solving (Decision Tree, Brainstorming,
Case Analysis, Negotiation and Mediation, Ladders and Snakes);

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cluster, comparative diagram, puzzle, targeted reading and a
number of others.
Interactive methods are focused on a broader interaction of
students not only with the teacher but also with each other and on
the dominance of the learners' activity in the learning process. It
is important not the number of received information, but how it
was obtained, the ability to apply it in practice, and whether it is
personally significant for students. The teacher needs a serious
change in his/her professional thinking and activities to change
the learning activity.
The IFL offers to fulfill the following rules for effective language
teaching:
• The questions of the teacher should stimulate a response, a
practical experience, discussion.
• The teaching aids must hold the students' attention.
• Encouraging student's participation motivates the learners who
have a loose command of the language
Discussion
A foreign language as an educational subject especially accepts
interactive forms of learning. When teaching a foreign language,
we teach communication in all possible forms and at all possible
levels. It allows forming a culture of communication, dialogue
culture between the students and the teacher. Only
communication generates mutual understanding, trust, and
support, readiness for creative interaction. The subject-subject
relations, which have been proclaimed but not always manifested
in practice, can be realized just in dialogue. Communication
involves constant feedback, the reaction of the interlocutor,
reflection and rethinking. It can be done by working online
whether it is online communication, real-time (chatting),
conferences and round tables, discussions, or communication of
students in a foreign language via e-mail with foreign peers, and
maybe on a television channel. Only such training can be called
interactive and creative, if it goes beyond the traditional lesson,
continues in the after-school time, both at home and at school
(Petrova M.G., 2016: 51).

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The interactive method requires the mandatory inclusion of each
student studying the Spanish language in the process of learning
and practical application. It forms the skill of teamwork, where an
educator brings the leadership skills up and increases cognitive
motivation. Interactive methods of work develop the skills of
self-study, self-searching for materials on the studied topic, teach
the skills of successful communication and, as a result, increase
their auto-evaluation (Komina O.A., 2012).
The peculiarity of interactive learning is that the student receives
not done knowledge from the teacher, but learns to receive them
in a favorable psychological situation. In the process of his/her
cognitive activity, the student actively argues, defends his/her
point of view, where he/she assimilates various ways of knowing.
It is the main difference from other methods of teaching a foreign
language.
Practice shows that interactivity contributes:
• achievement positive results in an interactive approach in
Spanish;
• the incentive to work in a group developing the imagination,
creativity and thinking of the student as a participant in the
learning process;
• the beginning of the distribution, planning, and reorganization
of some content in the Spanish classes;
• improving the quality of graduates in the four basic skills of
speaking.

References
Azamzhonova, Kh. N. 2016. Interactive methods of activities in
teaching foreign languages. In: Proceedings of the 2nd
International scientific conference, Krasnodar, Russia, pp. 79-81.
Kashlev, S.S. 2008. Interactive pedagogy as an innovative
phenomenon. In: Proceedings of the international scientific and
practical Conference “Pedagogical interaction in the system of
rest and recreation for children and youth: interactive
pedagogy,” Minsk, Belarus, pp. 5-13.

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Komina, O.A. 2012. Interactive methods of teaching foreign
languages in medical higher education institutions. URL:
http://sci-article.ru/stat.php?i=1429541590 [Accessed February 12
2019].
Obskov, A.V. 2012. To the problem of organizing interactive
teaching of a foreign language at a higher educational institution.
TSPU Bulletin 11(126): 120-124.
Petrova, M.G. 2016. Innovative space of the modern school:
Television competition in the activity teaching of a foreign
language at the stage of pre-profile preparation. Scientific
Technologies, Moscow, 164 pp.
Zhuk, A.I., Koshel N.N. 2003. Active teaching methods in the
system of advanced training of teachers. Minsk: AVERSEV,
336 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-296-305

THE FEATURES OF THE CREATIVE WRITING

AS A METHOD TO ELABORATE STUDENTS’
EFFICIENT SKILLS

Galina A. Petrova¹, Larisa G. Medvedeva²,

Elena Y. Nadezhdina³

¹Plekhanov Russian University of Economics

Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
²Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
³Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics
Tomsk, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The article aims at analyzing the creative writing and its
application within the diverse methods to the enhancement of the
written speech in the context of the foreign language training.

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Nevertheless, the experience of teacher’s practice points out that
student’s written essay does not meet the requirement of the
creative writing that shows the inefficiency of the approach for
the essay in the foreign language training and needs its
improvement. The goal of the creative writing in the process of
the foreign language training and the influence of the approach on
different creative thinking components have been examined into.
The features of the creative writing as a method to elaborate the
students’ efficient skills are reviewed in this article. Unlike
speaking, the written text means the strict requirements that are
assessed on saving the standard language. Introduced to the
audience, the written text is not able to be changed any more,
which results are in the content. According to the practice of
teaching, student’s written work does not meet the requirements
of the creative writing, which shows the inefficiency of the
approach of the creative writing in the process of the foreign
language training and requires its improvement.
As a result of our research, the approaches to introduce the
creative writing into the teaching process are proposed. By the
foreign language training the specialist receives information on
the specialty, expanding and forming a new linguistic space. The
task of the modern teacher, taking into account the professional
model, is to prepare the future specialist. The variety of activities
in the foreign language learning process and dynamics of
changing requirements for a professional in modern society make
it necessary for the student to have a creative approach when
applying professional skills and, therefore, to introduce into the
learning process activities aimed not only at mastering the
knowledge, but also developing the critical thinking, creative
abilities and personality traits. The students’ creative writing aims
are to present his outlook and subjectivity of feeling as well as the
uniqueness of his mind. At the same time, the creative writing
requires the student to be linguistically experienced and aware, to
have mastered the language respectively, relatively and think
fairly. Learning a foreign language the specialist receives

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information on the specialty, expanding and forming a new
linguistic space. It is considered that there is the correlation of the
creative writing with various approaches to train the written
speech. It is considered in this research that there have been
defined three approaches of the teaching written speech:
prescriptive, linguistic and active. The creative writing combines
three approaches to the foreign language teaching. It is known
that while working upon the writing it encourages the student to
correct an essay by themselves and to study grammar rules,
which leads to use the alternative learning resources. It should be
noted that the undertaken research proves that there is a huge
educational potential of the creative writing process with the
necessity of improving the existing method of the written speech
training. The distinguished approach can be referred to the
foreign language training process in different forms of the verbal
expressions. The given conditions are met in order to improve the
efficiency, the writing tasks have to be selected according to the
educational goal and the knowledge level of students’ training.
Contemporary requirements of educational system imply not only
interactivity in the classroom, but also a high degree of student
autonomy and this imposes serious obligations on the teacher
including the ability to organize an independent project work and
students’ scientific research, to provide regular feedback, a
transparent system of control and evaluation.
Keywords: the creative writing, the education system, the
professional skills, modern projects, the prescriptive, linguistic
and active approaches

Introduction
The contemporary trends of the educational system, such as
modern technologies, innovative approaches lead to an increase
in the amount of self-conducted training done by the student in
the process of the foreign language training. The education is able
to assume both the collection of the information received from
different external resources (reading the foreign literature,

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communication on the foreign chat forums, travelling abroad,
etc.) and handling the information collected while using internal
resources of the higher education directly aimed at foreign
language training (course books, media resources etc.) with a
view of participating in several projects, scientific research and
conferences. The variety of activities in the foreign language
learning process and dynamics of changing requirements for a
professional in modern society make it necessary for the student
to have a creative approach when applying professional skills
and, therefore, to introduce into the learning process activities
aimed not only at mastering the knowledge, but also developing
the critical thinking, creative abilities and personality traits.
Taking into account the objective given in the framework of the
foreign language training, it is vital to point out that there is the
communicative feature regularized by the federal standard and
supported by the enhancement of cross-cultural relationships as
well as the experience in the foreign language training. Any kind
of information turns into a form of competition under the modern
conditions of social development, and the student who is unable
to communicate in such a manner automatically becomes
uncompetitive in the labour market. The speaking form in the
foreign language training is highlighted, while not enough
attention is still given to such a productive form of speech as the
creative writing at the foreign language training. The purpose of
our research is to analyze the creative writing and its application
within the diverse methods to the improvement of the written
speech in the context of the foreign language training.
Methodology
According to the practice of teaching, student’s written work does
not meet the requirements of the creative writing, which shows
the inefficiency of the approach of the creative writing in the
process of the foreign language training and requires its
improvement. It forejudges the preamble of the creative writing
to the teaching process of the foreign language training which
points out that there is the creative writing in non-traditional

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genres, the individual style of composition, presupposing
irregular thinking of the student. The main objective of the
creative writing is the student’s self-expression, which means
artistic freedom, an opportunity to creatively express different
ideas, thoughts, and perceptions (Basova, A.N., 2006). The
students’ creative writing aims are to present his outlook and
subjectivity of feeling as well as the uniqueness of his mind. At
the same time, the creative writing requires the student to be
linguistically experienced and aware, to have mastered the
language respectively, relatively and think fairly.
However, there are the resemblances of the gained formats of the
communication; Solovova E.N. suggests a number of diversities
(Solovova, E.N., 2006). The student of the written text works
independently, which helps him to organize his text better. Unlike
speaking, the written text means the strict requirements that are
assessed on saving the standard language. Introduced to the
audience, the written text is not able to be changed any more,
which results are in the content.
The creative writing is a universal age-diverse technology for the
written speech improvement. The authorial training course is
based on this technology and intended to help in breaking the
psychological barrier before the writing process in order to teach
the techniques of imagining and thinking facilitation for creating
texts, as well as to help in learning some rhetoric strategies of
written speech and written communication rules.
The creative writing technology is based on Donald Murray’s
written speech samples. The obtained and original interactive
exercises, team activities, films and videos etc. are used (Petrova,
G.A., Koshel, E.Y., Rura, E.G., Efimova, O.V., 2015). Donald
Murray was a pioneer of work on literacy, his idea that students
should think of themselves as writers, when the professor from
University of New Hampshire changed the way of writing that is
taught across the United States and the English speaking world
with the publication of “A writer teaches writing revised”. The
research of Donald Murray revealed writing as a natural human

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need for self-expression and a way to develop critical thinking
skills. Murray points out that his writing process provides
guidelines for readers developing their own writing. Murray
compared a writer’s voice in language to music and noted its
significance as the key factor in capturing an audience. According
to Newkirk, the greatest lesson that he gained from D. Murray
was the feature of the students as a writer. “If students were to
progress as writers, they had to cease to imagine themselves as
students”. Murray encouraged students “in effective writing and,
especially, the essay writing, the author reveals thoughts and
felling, that the reader had experienced but may have denied…
and that is the strength of many essays”(Newkirk, T., 2013).
It is considered that the following positions are needed for the
efficient writing:
 The ability to write regularly is needed. Writing regularly
allows students to generate new ideas, to elaborate the main
features of the creative thinking, such as visual thinking and
imagination.
 The writer’s personal motivation is vital. Teachers must
determine the topics that make students be engaged and
inquisitive. This leads to the improvement of intuition that is the
ability to direct to a detailed discourse, to find answers to difficult
questions and to perceive the truth by guessing it.
 Patterns are required. Creating a written text is a skill to be
trained. Moreover, the teacher plays a significant part, training
the samples of the creative texts in the classroom.
 The author looks for the audience motivating the advantage by
the fact that the real audience will read the lines coming on the
paper, and the impression will be shared promptly.
The optimal form of learning a foreign language involves a
combination of educational standards and personal self-
developing principles. In order to be able to communicate
successfully and efficiently in the language of their specialty,
each student has to have a definite vocabulary for specific

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disciplines. Moreover, the student also has to have the deep
knowledge of his specialty. The formation of a foreign language
professional thesaurus is closely interrelated with the
development of communicative competence of a specialist
through such skills as reading texts, translating, listening,
speaking, developing discourse and performing tasks related in
creative writing. The formation of a thesaurus is certainly closely
related to the problem of the formation of a specialist himself
(Medvedeva, L.G., 2012). Through language the specialist
receives information on the specialty, expanding and forming a
new linguistic space. It is considered that there is the correlation
of the creative writing with various approaches to train the
written speech. Sysoeva E. E. defines three approaches of the
teaching written speech: prescriptive, linguistic and active
(Sysoeva, E.E., 2007). The essence of the prescriptive manner is
to gain the language accuracy of the written text, whereas the
content remains more important. The main features characterizing
the linguistic approach are: a large number of linguistic exercises
and strict control over the writing process. The activity approach
is aimed at the text production on the basis of the individual
creative work carried out by a student or a group. The creative
writing combines three approaches to the foreign language
teaching. It is known that while working upon the writing it
encourages the student to correct an essay by themselves and to
study grammar rules, which leads to use the alternative learning
resources. Therefore, the creative writing can easily obtain a
linguistic direction through its form: essays, the exciting movie
reviews, compositions – sketches and fascinating advertisements,
poetry, etc. By setting the topic, the learner can vary the style of
the creative writing, an appeal to the international affairs of the
Russian Federation or to a football team to support. At the same
time, it is obvious that the main purpose of the creative writing is
to create the process of the realization and framing the thoughts.
This work is to be redone and edited several times in order to
make your thoughts clear to the reader.

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Results
The Higher Vocational Education is the most important social
and state institutions that perform the function of preparing the
young generation to solve future professional tasks in a specific
area of activity, ensuring a high level of formation of various
skills and abilities, as well as the ability to improve them. The
Vocational education today is understood as a process of
formation and development of the human personality. A survey
conducted among students at Russian universities showed that
there were 30-35 percent of students that explained the
insufficiently high result of mastering a language training course.
However, teachers see their part exclusively in the development
of students’ subject (professional) competence, while expecting
that learning a new content in English will lead to the
development of students’ speech and language skills.
Nevertheless, Gorodetskaya L.A. points out that the exchange of
information and opinions, with foreign colleagues during the
conferences held in English, has become a regular form of
communication for many Russian scientists. Experts demonstrate
a more confident command of English than two decades ago they
increased qualitative pronunciation, proficiency in vocabulary,
naturalness of building sentences, and understanding of speech in
the framework of professional communication (Gorodetskaya,
L.A., 2018).
According to Solovova E.N. key skills of the teacher are the
ability to create an interactive environment in the classroom, the
ability to explain complex terms, the use of a reflective approach
to learning and the desire to help students improve their foreign
language skills. At the same time, the development of a modern
higher educational system implies not only interactivity in the
classroom, but also a high degree of student autonomy and this
imposes serious obligations on the teacher including the ability to
organize an independent project work and students’ scientific
research, to provide regular feedback, a transparent system of
control and evaluation (Solovova, E.N., Kozlova, Z.A., 2017).

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Actually, are teachers able to adapt to different learning
situations, to analyze and evaluate the performance of work by
students, while doing so in compliance with academic standards
adopted in a specific subjects and the scientific English speaking
environment? It may require a special training for teachers. It is
proved that the relevance of this task is able to serve as the fact
that the universities of Oxford and Cambridge have already
developed special courses for the retraining of teachers. Among
the many questions in the courses, there are sections where they
study technologies for lectures and seminars. However, only
those who paid the course they could receive a certificate.
Conclusion
The creative writing plays a significant role in the foreign
language training. It provides an ability to analyze the gained
knowledge, to stimulate the improvement of speaking and writing
skills in a foreign language. It also shapes the creative, critical,
decisive and imaginative thinking, which acts as a powerful
growth of the personality and defines one’s readiness to change,
puts aside any stereotypes. In the creative thinking process, the
intellectual abilities of a person and their creative potential reveal
themselves to the full express in acquiring the knowledge rapidly
and use it independently.
To sum up, it should be noted that the undertaken research proves
that there is a huge educational potential of the creative writing
process with the necessity of improving the existing method of
the written speech training. The distinguished approach can be
referred to the foreign language training process in different
forms of the verbal expressions. The given conditions are met in
order to improve the efficiency, the writing tasks have to be
selected according to the educational goal and the knowledge
level of students’ training.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Plekhanov Russian University of
Economics, Tomsk State University.

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References
Basova A.V. 2006. Writing and written speech in the context of
teaching a foreign language revisited. In Language. Culture.
Education: Collection of materials from the international
scientific conference “Readings from Ushinskiy”, 2: pp. 54-63.
Solovova E.N. 2006. Foreign language training method: A core
of lectures. Moscow: Prosvesheniye, 165 pp.
Petrova G.A., Koshel E.Y., Rura E.G., Efimova O.V. 2015. Topic
– related creative writing as a means of forming foreign language
productive skills. In Sociosphere, 2: pp.121-123.
Newkirk Tom. 2013. Pioneering work of Donald Murray.
University of New Hampshire, URL:
http://www.unh.edu/unhtoday/ [Accessed on May, 2013]
Medvedeva L.G. 2012. Goals, content and principles of the
formation of students’ foreign language thesaurus. Actual
problems of modernization of management and economics:
Russian and foreign experts. Materials of the All-Russian
scientific-practical conference. pp. 417-421.
Sysoeva E.E. 2007. Forming communicative competence in
written speech in the context of the foreign language training. In
Foreign language at school 5: pp. 6-15.
Gorodetskaya L.A. 2018. Scientific discussion in teaching
Academic English. In Interaction of language and cultures.
Materials of International conference. Chelyabinsk: South Ural
State University, Tianjin University of Foreign Languages, pp.
166-169.
Solovova E.N., Kozlova Z.A. 2017. Global EMI phenomenon –
English as communication. Messenger of VSU, a series of
Problems of higher education, 4: pp.144-149.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-306-316

FORMATION OF THE ECONOMIC COMPETENCY

OF THE HEAD OF AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
WITHIN ADVANCED TRAINING SYSTEM

Marina G. Sergeeva

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The worldwide shift to the market economy has radically
changed the key guidelines within the professional education
goals, including the training process of future managers. Today
the professional activity performed by the head of an educational
institution (HEI) is inalienable from the economic issues. The
modernization of the education system presupposes the creation
of the educational services market, altering the status and
broadening the economic self-sufficiency of educational
institutions, which leads to certain increase in rectors’ and
directors’ responsibility level and the need to improve their
professional competency. The modern society is awaiting the
appearance of a new manager who is eager and bound to provide
the effectiveness of an educational institution within the market
reality.
We define the essence of the concept of “the HEI’s professional
competency” by clarifying its content through a distinction with
similar notions: “competency” («компетентность») and
“competence” («компетенция»). Analysis of numerous studies
dedicated to the nature of competency in specifying the
theoretical essence of the above-mentioned notions leads us to the
conclusion that they are closely interrelated. In its most general

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form, the concept of “competency” means the characteristic of a
person (competent, knowledgeable, enjoying full professional
rights), while the concept of “competence” describes what the
person has (duties, range of issues, abilities, knowledge and
skills). According to A.V. Khutorskoy and I.A. Zimnyaya, we
distinguish “competency” and “competence” as common and
individual, as “alienated, pre-set requirements” and a personal
quality (characteristics); as “potential – urgent, cognitive –
personal”, respectively.
The theoretical analysis of the economic aspect of the HEI’s
professional activity served as the basis for singling out the new
professional quality, which we defined as the economic
competency. It allows the HEI to successfully complete economic
tasks of different complexity levels. Being an individual’s
qualitative characteristic, the HEI’s economic competency is
determined by the nature of his/her professional activity and is a
unity of theoretical (economic knowledge), practical (economic
experience), motivational readiness and ability to carry out this
activity, which is embodied in material, socio-economic and
personally significant product – sustainable functioning of the
educational institution.
The following criteria of the economic competency were singled
out: the assimilation of economic and legal knowledge
(knowledge-based) – awareness of concepts, terms, definitions
that form the basis of the chosen profession; mastering relevant
skills (activity-based) – analyzing and designing real economic
situations, choosing ways to solve economic problems, work with
legal texts, predict the future; the formation level of value-
oriented economic activity (motivational) – the motives of
professional activity, the mental acceptance of the market
economy, the consistency of economic and social goals, the
concentration on achieving a high level of the economic
competency; formation of personal qualities (personality-
focused) – understanding the economic competency as one of the
leading professional values, adequate self-assessment of one’s

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abilities. The mentioned criteria indicate the complexity of the
process of forming the economic competency within the system
of the HEI’s advanced training.
To determine the degree of the economic competency formation
in the educational process of the advanced training system, we
identified four levels of the HEI’s economic competency
formation: insufficient, basic, advanced and leadership. Each
previous level determines the next and is included in its
composition. The insufficient level was manifested in the HEI’s
inability to solve most of the standard economic tasks. The basic
level characterized the HEI’s ability to solve standard economic
tasks at the reproductive level. The advanced level was associated
with successful fulfillment of standard and non-standard tasks.
The leadership level corresponds to the HEI’s ability to
creatively solve economic problems, to foresee the emergence of
economic problems, to make preemptive economic decisions;
ensure a high level of competitiveness of the educational
institution. In real practice a manager’s level was determined by
the nature of economic tasks that he/she can solve without
assistance.
Keywords: economic competency, educational institution,
advanced training system

Introduction
The transition of society to the market economy has changed the
priorities in the professional education objectives in general and
in the training of future managers in particular. Nowadays the
professional activity fulfilled by the head of an educational
institution (HEI) is inseparable from the economic context. The
concept of reforming the education system requires the formation
of the educational services market, changing the status and
expanding the economic independence of educational
organizations, which entails certain progress in managers’
responsibility level and the necessity to increase their
professional competency (Raven J., 1998; Slobodchikov V.I.,

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2000; Bogolyubov L.N., 2002; Borytko N.M., 2006; Sergeeva
M.G., 2015). Social expectations suggest the emergence of a new
type of manager who has the need and willingness to ensure the
competitiveness of an educational organization in the educational
services market.
The HEI’s economic activity is to provide the organization with
the resources needed for its effective functioning and the demand
for educational services. The structure of financing educational
institutions is becoming more complicated and includes multi-
level, multi-channel transition to the “normative-per-capita”
financing principle. However, many HEIs are not ready to fully
implement management activities in the new economic
environment. The problem of creating the economic competency
is complicated by the fact that the training of education managers
began in relatively recent past, and today there are much fewer
qualified managers than necessary. At present, there is a change
in the economic knowledge paradigm, which is reflected in the
economic culture of society and is determined in the individual’s
economic competency (Raven J., 1998). The drawbacks of
economic education may be eliminated by the HEI
himself/herself or within the advanced training system.
Purpose of the study
In this regard, the requirements for the system of advanced
training, which plays a major role in the provision of educational
services that are adequate to the level of modern problems, are
increasing. This system is designed to form a sufficient level of
economic knowledge and skills so that the HEI can make
decisions taking into account the interrelation of organizational,
financial, marketing tasks and act to achieve the highest possible
economic result with the lowest possible moral expenses.
Methodology and methods
In the context of modernizing the Russian education system, the
key factor is the compliance of the professional competency of
people who run educational institutions with the challenges of the
time.

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We define the essence of the concept of “the HEI’s professional
competency” by clarifying its content through a distinction with
similar notions: “competency” («компетентность») and
“competence” («компетенция»). Analysis of numerous studies
dedicated to the nature of competency in specifying the
theoretical essence of the above-mentioned notions leads us to the
conclusion that they are closely interrelated. In its most general
form, the concept of “competency” means the characteristic of a
person (competent, knowledgeable, enjoying full professional
rights), while the concept of “competence” describes what the
person has (duties, range of issues, abilities, knowledge and
skills). According to A.V. Khutorskoy and I.A. Zimnyaya, we
distinguish “competency” and “competence” as common and
individual, as “alienated, pre-set requirements” and a personal
quality (characteristics); as “potential – urgent, cognitive –
personal”, respectively.
In other words, competency is an individual’s quality (or a set of
qualities), which presupposes the possession of competencies,
including a personal attitude to an activity, while competence is a
given content of competency that must be mastered in order to be
competent in a relative field. Therefore, competence is an
individual’s ability to act independently and responsibly, to make
informed decisions based on his/her knowledge and skills, social
experience within the framework of prescribed authority.
This means that a competence, being a part of the whole and
reaching a certain level due to enrichment with new knowledge,
skills and acquired experience, “turns” into competency as a
person’s integral quality.
Competency determines the level of an individual’s qualification
and professionalism and is directly related to the concept of
“professional competency” (Selevko G.K., 1998; Serikov V.V.,
1999; Lebedev O.E., 2004). Our analysis of scientific literature
allowed us to identify at least two interpretations of the category
“professional competency”: as a normative characteristic and as a
personal characteristic. Based on the identified provisions, we

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share this position of scientists and believe that professional
competency is an integral characteristic of a manager, testifying
to his/her ability to fulfill managerial activities.
Thus, we conclude that the HEI’s professional competency is
determined by a set of competences characterized by the ability to
use theories and concepts, knowledge in various fields of activity
and acquired experience; the ability to positive intellectual,
volitional self-development, interaction with other individuals
and groups; the presence of motives to respect personal rights and
interests in the course of managerial activities; responsible
attitude to one’s duties.
One of the most important components of forming the HEI’s
competency is the understanding of new, specific requirements
for employees of the administrative apparatus, which are
generated by the changed situation on the educational services
market in the context of reforming. At the present stage,
educational institutions are provided with financial and economic
independence, freedom in building educational programmes,
taking into account consumers’ needs, which implies mastering
economic knowledge to effectively manage an educational
institution.
The theoretical analysis of the economic aspect of the HEI’s
professional activity served as the basis for singling out the new
professional quality, which we defined as economic competency.
It allows the HEI to successfully complete economic tasks of
different complexity levels.
Being an individual’s qualitative characteristic, the HEI’s
economic competency is determined by the nature of his/her
professional activity and is a unity of theoretical (economic
knowledge), practical (economic experience), motivational
readiness and ability to carry out this activity, which is embodied
in material, socio-economic and personally significant product –
sustainable functioning of the educational institution (Ryzhakov
M.V., 1999; Selevko G.K., 2006; Bolotov V.A., Serikov V.V.,
2009). In this sense, the HEI’s economic competency acts as a

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structural component of his/her professional competency,
providing the ability to effectively solve economic tasks of
different complexity levels, determining the HEI’s willingness to
navigate difficult economic conditions, make economic decisions
independently and responsibly, and as a result provides the ability
to effective management that allows an educational institution to
stay competitive in the market reality.
Results
The structure of HEI’s economic competency involves
knowledgeable, activity-based, motivational and personal
components that provide the leader’s professional and personal
development and self-development, the formation of his/her
abilities. These components are characterized by three types of
competences: marketing, business and economic-legal, which
integrate economic knowledge and skills, providing the
successful solution of professional tasks. The marketing
competence will allow the educational institution to occupy its
niche in the educational services market and form its special
mission; the entrepreneurial competence will contribute to the
manager’s ability to correctly and deeply analyze the factors of
the external environment and the institution’s internal potential,
which determine the effectiveness of activities in the field of
educational services; the economic and legal competence will
help the HEI to use financial resources efficiently, without risk.
The economic competency is considered within the interaction
unity of all structural components.
The system of criteria and indicators of the economic competency
was formed in conformity with the developed organizational and
didactic model. Based on the identified components of the
economic competency, a tool was created to identify its
effectiveness through an integrated method of personnel
assessment centre – tests, role-playing and business games, tasks,
exercises, questionnaires, projects, which, taking into account
complementary procedures, allowed an objective comparison of
results of the HEI’s economic training within advanced training

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We singled out the following criteria: the assimilation of
economic and legal knowledge (knowledge-based) – awareness of
concepts, terms, definitions that form the basis of the chosen
profession; mastering relevant skills (activity-based) – analyzing
and designing real economic situations, choosing ways to solve
economic problems, work with legal texts, predict the future; the
formation level of value-oriented economic activity (motivational)
– the motives of professional activity, the mental acceptance of
the market economy, the consistency of economic and social
goals, the concentration on achieving a high level of the
economic competency; formation of personal qualities
(personality-focused) – understanding the economic competency
as one of the leading professional values, adequate self-
assessment of one’s abilities. The mentioned criteria indicate the
complexity of the process of forming the economic competency
within the system of the HEI’s advanced training.
Discussion
To determine the degree of the economic competency formation
in the educational process of the advanced training system and,
above all, its components – knowledge-based, activity-based,
motivational and personality-focused – we identified four levels
of the HEI’s economic competency formation: insufficient, basic,
advanced and leadership. Each previous level determines the next
and is included in its composition. The insufficient level was
manifested in the HEI’s inability to solve most of the standard
economic tasks. The basic level characterized the HEI’s ability to
solve standard economic tasks at the reproductive level. The
advanced level was associated with successful fulfillment of
standard and non-standard tasks. The leadership level
corresponds to the HEI’s ability to creatively solve economic
problems, to foresee the emergence of economic problems, to
make preemptive economic decisions; ensure a high level of
competitiveness of the educational institution. In real practice a
manager’s level was determined by the nature of economic tasks
that he/she can solve without assistance.

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The national tasks of the education system include the training of
highly educated, competent specialists with a developed
individual style of professional activity and a system of
competencies that would allow them to effectively realize their
creative potential within the market economy, ensuring the
solution of professional tasks at a high success level. The existing
network of educational institutions of postgraduate professional
education covers the whole range of services for personnel’s
advanced training and retraining. Our analysis of works on HEI’s
advanced training enabled us to distinguish a feature of the
advanced training system, which is determined by an adult
student.
The theoretical analysis of a specific educational type satisfying
the educational needs of people engaged in independent
professional activity, served as the basis for identifying
methodological approaches to forming the HEI’s economic
competency. This process is regarded by us within competence-
based and personally-oriented approaches enriched with
synergistic ideas. The main provision of forming the HEI’s
economic competency is the observance of the advanced training
principles: facilitation (assisting the student in realizing his/her
latent potential abilities); subjectivity (“cultivation” of a goal in
synergistic interaction between a teacher and a student);
psychological comfort (creating and maintaining the atmosphere
of trust, positive attitude, respect as the basis of personal growth);
contextuality (focus on vital and professionally important goals,
the role of the head manager); variability (choice of educational
content and forms) and reflexivity (orienting the subjects of the
educational process to the self-analysis of interaction and its
result).
The potential of the advanced training system within the HEI’s
economic competency formation is determined by the fact that
modelling the educational process enriches the students with new
knowledge, skills and acquired experience (i.e. masters their
competences) and increases the competency level. The new result

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integrates what has been achieved by students in the process of
self-education and professional activity with new personal
achievements.
Conclusion
The study is aimed at solving an important problem of modern
postgraduate education – ensuring the effectiveness of improving
the HEI’s professional qualifications. We have implemented the
professional and economic aspect of the problem, in particular –
the formation of the HEI’s economic competency through
advanced training, the relevance of which is determined by the
need for a new type of a manager who would be able to
effectively solve economic problems and ensure the
competitiveness of an educational institution.
Effective formation of the HEI’s economic competency should be
provided by the advanced training system capable of introducing
the teaching process in a personally-oriented context: compliance
of the manager’s training content with the goals, objectives and
results of his/her professional activity; building an educational
process tailored to the HEI’s individual needs; design of the
educational program considering the manager’s previous
experience; modular training with distributed assessment and
adjustment of individual programmes based on the control
results; the variability of training terms, depending on the initial
level of the HEI’s preparedness; the formation of special
knowledge, skills and abilities, qualities necessary and sufficient
for the successful solution of economic tasks.

References
Bogolyubov, L.N. 2002. Basic social competences in the course
of social science. Teaching history and social studies at school, 9:
4-12.
Bolotov, V.A., Serikov V.V. 2009. Competency model: from the
idea to the educational programme. Pedagogy, 10: 8–14.
Borytko, N.M. 2006. Teacher’s diagnostic activity. Academy
Publishers, Moscow, Russia, 284 pp.

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Lebedev, O.E. 2004. Competency approach in education. School
technologies, 5: 3–12.
Raven, J. 1998. Competence in Modern Society: Its
Identification, Development and Release. Hodder Arnold H&S,
London, the UK, 260 pp.
Ryzhakov, M.V. 1999. Key competencies in the standard:
opportunities for implementation. Standards and monitoring in
education, 4: 20–23.
Selevko, G.K. 1998. Modern educational technology. Public
Education, Moscow, Russia, 255 pp.
Selevko, G.K. 2006. Encyclopedia of educational technology. In
2 volumes. Volume 2. Scientific Research Institute of School
Technologies, Moscow, 816 pp.
Sergeeva, M.G. 2015. Competency model of the graduate in the
context of continuing professional education. Moscow Institute of
Linguistics, Moscow, 180 pp.
Serikov, V.V. 1999. Education and personality. Theory and
practice of designing educational systems. Logos Publishing
Corporation, Moscow, 272 pp.
Slobodchikov, V.I. 2000. Psychology of human development.
School press, Moscow, 416 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-317-327

MODEL OF THE PROCESS OF FORMATION

RESEARCH SKILLS OF A FUTURE FOREIGN
LANGUAGE TEACHER

Galina V. Sorokovykh1, Olga S. Kutepova2

1
Department of French Language and Linguodidactics
Moscow City Pedagogical University, the (GAOU VO MGPU)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Department of Special Language Training
State Moscow Technical University of Civil Aviation (MSTU GA)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
In modern education is widely used design model of the
educational process, which is used for planning the whole
educational process, and for the construction of individual
lessons. Modeling a foreign language lesson is a certain set, a
typical sequence of training actions of teachers and students in
the classroom in the process of mastering the latest foreign
language skills and abilities.
Methodical model is nothing but a self-developing system that
allows a person to continue to cope with atypical tasks. And this,
in our opinion, distinguishes theoretical systems from those
models that mistakenly reflect the connections of the material
world, and therefore are not effective in the learning process. It is
the effectiveness of the functioning of a model can be a criterion
of its proximity to the original, proof that it accurately reflects not
only the structure of the simulated system, but also the functional
relationships between its components.

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Modeling is therefore not so much a kind of mental activity as a
strategy, the direction of any mental activity that guarantees her
good luck.
To create an installation instruction, the teacher must, performing
each type of task, analyze how he does it, isolate the individual
operations and their exact sequence, consider whether the student
can go the other way, to assess this path in terms of its
effectiveness. Thus, the installation instruction is a postoperative
description of the correct algorithm of activity when performing
this type of tasks and description of other possible ways, together
with an explanation that they are inadequate to the nature of the
activity or goal.
Project game technologies, as well as the technology of problem
and contextual learning can be used as the leading learning
technologies.
It is necessary to mention the organizational and methodological
conditions that will be required for the implementation of our
model. The organization of the process of training and education
with the use of intensive communication system and the use of
relaxopedic components creates conditions for the accelerated
formation of communicative and speech competence, the
transition to specialized training.
Pedagogical suggestion as an effective means of educational
process can influence the motivation of communicative and
speech behavior of students, promote the effective use of mental
reserves of students.
The study of the interaction of conscious and unconscious
components of the psyche of students during the educational
process in a foreign language opens up opportunities for targeted
psychological and pedagogical impact on the development of a
sense of language (linguistic competence), creative thinking of
foreign language teachers in the process of assimilation and
processing of foreign language information. The latter is
impossible without the dynamic management of the motivational

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sphere of students, the formation of their positive attitude,
readiness for training activities.
Direct transfer of educational material in a foreign language, first
with translation into the native language, then without it, is
accompanied by elements of the second plan – nonverbal means:
mimics gestures. All of them form a certain communicative
situation. Such situations when they are repeated psychologically
adjust the student to the readiness to perceive the material in a
foreign language and understand it without translation into their
native language. Foreign language information becomes part of
the communicative interaction at all its stages and the
intensification of the communicative cycle of the learning process
is carried out. It also acts as a means of motivation for further
cognitive activity.
Thanks to the structural analysis of the material that is used in the
learning process, the teacher is able to determine the supporting
elements of the relationship that form the system of presentation
and affect the effectiveness of the entire didactic system. The
structure of the educational material can significantly affect the
motivation for learning, students ' interest in the process of
obtaining knowledge and the development of scientific thinking.
In the analysis of the content of training is important in each
discipline to determine the structural elements (topics, concepts,
sections) on which the learning process will be carried out at the
level of knowledge, skills, abilities, creative application in
practice of theoretical concepts.
Modeling a foreign language lesson involves the following
successive stages: the definition of the problem, the theme and
purpose of the lesson, content, methods, techniques, tools and
forms of training.
Key words: research skills, methodical model, foreign language
teacher

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Introduction
In modern education is widely used design model of the
educational process, which is used for planning the whole
educational process, and for the construction of individual
lessons. Modeling a foreign language lesson is a certain set, a
typical sequence of training actions of teachers and students in
the classroom in the process of mastering the latest foreign
language skills and abilities.
Methodical model is nothing but a self-developing system that
allows a person to continue to cope with atypical tasks. And this,
in our opinion, distinguishes theoretical systems from those
models that mistakenly reflect the connections of the material
world, and therefore are not effective in the learning process. It is
the effectiveness of the functioning of a model can be a criterion
of its proximity to the original, proof that it accurately reflects not
only the structure of the simulated system, but also the functional
relationships between its components.
Modeling is therefore not so much a kind of mental activity as a
strategy, the direction of any mental activity that guarantees her
good luck.
Objectives/Purpose of the study
To create an installation instruction, the teacher must, performing
each type of task, analyze how he does it, isolate the individual
operations and their exact sequence, consider whether the student
can go the other way, to assess this path in terms of its
effectiveness. Thus, the installation instruction is a postoperative
description of the correct algorithm of activity when performing
this type of tasks and description of other possible ways, together
with an explanation that they are inadequate to the nature of the
activity or goal.
In the works of V. V. Kraevsky, the model appears before us as a
set of components that recreate certain connections, sides and
functions of the subject of study. That is, in the interpretation of
the concept of "model" there are four main features:
- it is materially created or mentally built system;

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- it reflects only the object of study;
- it can replace the object of study;
- studying it, we get new information about the object of study.
The productivity of pedagogical activity in many respects
depends on the correct choice of the educational model by the
teacher. Yu. K. Babansky advises, choosing an educational model
to take into account six main criteria reflecting a variety of
factors: the principles and regularities of the learning process; the
content of the discipline; the goals and objectives of teaching; the
educational potential of students; the ability of teachers
themselves and the external conditions of learning.
Obviously, the choice of the educational model is influenced by
all these structural components.
The optimal choice from the point of view of the system
approach is to find between the structural components and the
object of learning dependencies, as well as dependencies between
the object and the subject of pedagogical influence, the subject of
the General activity of the teacher and students and learning
objectives. In this approach, the system is considered as a set of
many elements that are in mutual communication and form a
unique integrity. If one of the elements changes, other elements
change and the system can be destroyed. To create a system
requires not only its elements, but also knowledge of the links
between them. In this situation, each structural component of the
system is in direct and feedback with other components.
But once you define the structural components, you cannot
immediately describe the system or model. To do this, you need
to describe the relationship of the elements of the system, as well
as the relationship between the components of the model to create
a system based on the specified structural elements.
Methodology and sub headings
N. V. Kuzmina suggested using five functional components to
work with models: 1) Gnostic; 2) constructive; 3) constructive;
4) organizational; 5) communicative (Kuzmina, N. B., 2013: 2).

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The sphere of knowledge of the teacher is limited to the Gnostic
component. It is assumed that the teacher must know his subject,
as well as have knowledge of pedagogical communication and
psychological characteristics of students, their own personality,
activities, that is, self-knowledge.
The project component consists of the teacher's opinions on
important educational tasks, as well as priority tasks of education,
strategies and ways to solve them.
The constructive component is manifested in the ability of
teachers to plan their activities and manage the activities of
students, taking into account the most important goals of
education and training for the next period (lesson, curriculum).
The communicative component is revealed in communicative
skills of the teacher with students, in his communicative activity.
The communicative component affects the quality of education, if
communication optimally affects the solution of didactic
problems.
Skills of the teacher concerning the organization of the
professional activity, stimulation of students make an
organizational component.
Another model of the functional components of pedagogical
activity was developed By V. I. Ginetsinsky within the
framework of the system approach. He identified four functional
elements: 1) presentation; 2) stimulating; 3) corrective;
4) diagnostic (Ginetsinsky, V. I., 2013: 1).
Presenting the material to students, the teacher implements the
function of the presentation or reveals the element of the
presentation. Emphasis is placed on the process of presentation of
the material in isolation from specific forms of education.
The formation of students ' interest in the material, which is
presented by the teacher, forms a stimulating function. It is based
on a question-and-answer system with an assessment of the
answers.
The correction function is aimed at comparing and correcting the
results of students ' activities.

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And feedback is achieved by diagnostic function.
If a function prevails over others, it indicates the use of a
particular learning method. For example, the task method
assumes the dominance of the stimulating function.
A complex model of the educational process, so that the ball is
created by us using information and communication technologies,
is a structural relationship of the target, meaningful, technological
and effective components of the education system. These
components include: argumentation of the choice of learning
objectives; content of training programs (activity, information
and educational and evaluation - effective blocks); conditions of
model effectiveness; teacher and students, training activities and
their results.
Results/Findings
Analyzing the target component of our model, we have identified
the main objectives in the implementation of the learning process
based on information and communication technologies
(Trofimova, N. Ya, 2015: 4). Summarizing the educational,
educational and developmental aspects of education, the target
component of the model can be defined as follows:
- development of students' abilities to effective independent
activity, creativity in the modern information society with rich
data flows;
- education of information culture, in particular: development of
skills of selection and sorting of information, familiarization with
the latest methods of data processing, inculcation of practical
skills of information processing with the help of a computer.
Modeling a foreign language lesson involves the following
successive stages: the definition of the problem, the theme and
purpose of the lesson, content, methods, techniques, tools and
forms of training. The following lesson models are known in the
domestic method of teaching foreign languages: 1) lessons in
which the activities of students are aimed primarily at the
development of skills and abilities to use language material;

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2) lessons in which there is a practice of students in speech
activity.
The methodical model of development of research skills of a
foreign language teacher includes the following provisions
(Kuleshova, I. A., 2013: 3):
- in order to create conditions that guarantee the purposefulness
of the process of development of a foreign language teacher, it is
necessary to develop a pedagogical system based on a set of
General scientific and private, philosophical methods and
approach that correspond to the problems;
- it is desirable that the pedagogical system of development of
communicative competence of a foreign language teacher is
based on the principles of combining reproductive and heuristic
methods, complementarity and continuity, combining
interdisciplinary knowledge, professional and socio-cultural
orientation, group cooperation and variability;
- the development of communicative competence of a foreign
language teacher is carried out within the limits of both formal
foreign language teaching and non-formal education, for
example, through participation in scientific schools, conferences,
linguistic programs, competitions, quizzes, etc. another type is
informal education-preparation for participation in the above
activities, writing student papers, creating a language portfolio,
diary, etc.;
- you can use the change of roles of teachers and students in the
formation of communicative competence of a foreign language
teacher;
- a good option can be the formation of cultural, educational and
educational environment aimed at understanding the values,
mastering the rules of behavior, the study of the specifics of the
culture of the country whose language is being studied. This
environment can improve the efficiency of student training;
- formation of communicative competence of a foreign language
teacher is carried out using project technologies;

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- the process of formation of communicative competence of a
foreign language teacher is a combination of formal, informal and
informal education, as we wrote above, as a single system of
continuous linguistic education. In this system, the student must
take an active position and become a successful subject of
communicative activity;
- the effectiveness of the formation of communicative
competence of a foreign language teacher is possible only with
the organization of such a sequence of training: from ideas to
knowledge, from knowledge to skills, from skills to competence
and professionalism.
Discussion
Creating a theoretical model of formation of communicative
competence (in relation to foreign language teachers), we not
only used conceptual ideas, but also analyzed the experience of
implementation and implementation of foreign language training
of teachers that has developed in the best universities of our
country. We also turned to the personal experience of foreign
language teachers.
Our model of formation of communicative competence of a
foreign language teacher in its structure contains the target,
content, process-technological and productive elements, which in
interaction are designed to ensure its stability and productivity.
The target element is a combination of goals and objectives of the
system, in the complex solution of which the proper level of
communicative competence of a foreign language teacher is
achieved. The choice of system objectives is the basis for further
design of the system content. The development of competencies
that form the communicative competence of a foreign language
teacher is designed to ensure the achievement of the goal of
General development, education and education, which are closely
intertwined.
Among the educational objectives include the development of
personal qualities that are necessary for professional activity, the
formation of interest in the culture of the country, the language of

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which is studied. Among the educational goals are: the formation
of a General culture of personality and professionalism of future
teachers of a foreign language; the accumulation, preservation,
improvement of knowledge about a foreign language; motivation
for self-education. Developing goals include: and self-expression
of the individual, ensuring the so-called personal reflection. The
General or integrative goal of the model of formation of
communicative competence of a foreign language teacher is to
develop readiness and ability to a full-fledged interpersonal
dialogue with representatives of other cultures as native speakers
of a foreign language.
The content element is revealed in the unity of the components of
formal, non-formal and informal education. That is, it implies a
harmonious combination of traditional lectures, seminars and
practical classes using didactic materials, as well as all kinds of
language conferences, competitions, Olympiads. Also, non-
traditional forms of training of future teachers of a foreign
language include: programs of student camps, quizzes,
preparation for language competitions, independent research
work, etc.
With the target, meaningful and effective elements of the
theoretical model of the projected system of formation of
communicative competence of a foreign language teacher should
interact and procedural and technological element. It is a set of
methods and phases of implementation of the model, as well as a
set of actions of the participants of the educational process,
focused on the development of this competence.
Project game technologies, as well as the technology of problem
and contextual learning can be used as the leading learning
technologies.
Each phase of the development of our competence is
accompanied by a basic form of implementation of the activities
of students (different forms of classes). It can be a traditional
activity that does not go beyond the academic type of training
that corresponds to formal education. Or maybe an independent

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educational activity within the framework of non-formal and
informal education.
The effective component is the ratio of the elements of
communicative competence of a foreign language teacher
(motivational, cognitive and reflexive-evaluative) and evaluation
features of the formation of individual components. These
features include: the level of severity and nature of motivation to
learn a foreign language; the degree of understanding of
information in a foreign language; the presence of students '
reflexive skills and ability to self-government.

References
Ginetsinsky, V. I. 2013. Forms modeling of pedagogical
competence. Moscow: Mysl, pp. 109-111.
Kuzmina, N. 2014. Pedagogical modeling: skills and
competences. Moscow: System, pp. 220-222.
Kuleshova, I. A. 2013. Models of competence development.
Moscow: Science, pp. 206.
Trofimova, N. M. 2015. Information and communication
technologies in the formation of intercultural competence.
Moscow: Mysl, pp. 201.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-328-346

TEACHING SEMIOTICS IN THE CONTEXT

OF PHILOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Inna G. Merkoulova

State Academic University of the Humanities

Moscow, Russia
University of Sorbonne
Paris, France
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Semiotics is the science of signs, sign processes, signification and
communication. Modern semiotics is interdisciplinary (referring
to philology, philosophy, anthropology) and relies on a dialogue
between two European cultures: Russian and French. It was in
these countries that the rapid development of discipline began in
the second half of the 20th century (Moscow-Tartu School in
Russia, Paris School Semiotics in France).
The Russian semiotic tradition began in 1962 with the
Symposium on the Structural Study of Sign Systems (Vyacheslav
Ivanov, Vladimir Toporov, Yuri Lotman), with the participation
of the Structural typology sector of the Institute of Slavic Studies
of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The symposium in the USSR
and the Linguistic Conference held in the USA in Bloomington
played the role of a catalyst for the creation of the International
Association for Semiotic Studies (L'Association Internationale de
Sémiotique (IASS-AIS), founded in Paris in 1969 with the
participation of Roman Jakobson and Algirdas Julien Greimas,
and for the subsequent development of semiotic science.
In Russia, the semiotic school began with simple and easily
structured semiotic models: gesture system, etiquette, system of
traffic signs. Further, the Moscow Semiotic School and Y.M.
Lotman made the texts the center of scientific attraction, in which

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they learned to see “non-obvious” interpreted meanings using
semiotic methods.
French semiotics scientists (in particular, the Paris School
founded by A.J. Greimas) were largely associated with the well-
known French school of philosophy and psychology (Lacan,
Bachelard, Deleuze, Bataille, Derrida). This determined the code
system and the referential attitudes of the presentation of semiotic
works, when the behavior of the person and the model of his
thinking became the most important. In modern French semiotics,
special attention is given to semiotic practices. The basic
principles of today's French semiotic school are that discourse
and semiotic practice are presented not in the form of static
schemes (for example, semiotic squares), but in continuous,
dynamic or affective aspects (semiotics of passions).
Interest and attention to semiotics has now flared up with a new
force, firstly, because of the attention to the distinction between
semiotic systems of anthropoids and man, which turned out to be
interesting both in itself and as a possible predictable path to the
origin of human communication and human language. Secondly,
European globalization requires understanding and describing the
typology of semi-ethical codes for a common understanding of
not only linguistic structures, but also the history of behavioral
models in the field of joint scientific research, understanding of
historical facts, international relations, economic projects,
medicine, etc.
Today, semiotics as a discipline is widely represented in higher
education institutions in Europe (France, Italy, Spain, Belgium,
Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, Bulgaria), Latin America (Brazil,
Peru, Argentina), USA, Canada, Asia (South Korea, China), the
World Congresses of the International Association for Semiotic
Studies are held regularly. In modern Russia, semiotics as a
science begins to become more popular in the applied aspect, in
the form of special courses in universities in the humanities
departments.

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In one of the most significant semiotic works of recent years,
Jacques Fontanille’s book, Forms of Life (Fontanille, J.: 2015),
the science of meaning is understood primarily as a science of
questions: “You asked me a question, what was the point of the
question? ". It is logical to regard semiotics as a science of
questions: it offers numerous methods to explore the meaning of
practices, texts, and objects that characterize human culture.
Semiotics has developed approaches to describe the emergence of
the meaning of sign systems and communities, such as texts,
images, or social interactions. She is able to talk about their
meaning, going hand in hand with other humanities - philology,
history, philosophy, psychology, anthropology, economics,
sociology. But in order to effectively raise the question of the
impact of technological progress on our society, semiotics needs
an immanent plan. Such a plan today is life forms, elements of the
semiosphere - signs, texts, objects and practices endowed with
meaning and symbolically expressed principles: they affect our
feelings and emotional states, they also determine the meaning of
our existence and our behavior.
The presentation will describe the experience of teaching
semiotics at the State Academic University of the Humanities on
the basis of the Russian Academy of Sciences (2018-2019
academic year, special course “Historical Semiotics”), as well as
the question of the place of this science in the teaching of
humanities, in particular philological sciences, on the example of
Russia and France.
Keywords: Semiotics, Paris School Semiotics, Moscow-Tartu
School, intercultural dialogue

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О ПРЕПОДАВАНИИ СЕМИОТИКИ В СИСТЕМЕ
ФИЛОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ НАУК

Инна Г. Меркулова

Государственный академический университет

гуманитарных наук, Москва, Россия
Университет Сорбонна, Париж, Франция
e-mail : [email protected]

Аннотация
Семиотика – наука о знаках, коммуникативных системах и
возникновении значения. Современная семиотика отличается
междисциплинарностью (обращаясь к филологии,
философии, антропологии) и опирается на диалог двух
европейских культур: русской и французской. Именно в этих
странах началось бурное развитие дисциплины во второй
половине ХХ века (Московско-Тартуская школа в России,
Парижская семиотическая школа во Франции).
Российская семиотическая традиция началась в 1962 г., с
проведением при участии сектора структурной типологии
Института славяноведения АН СССР Симпозиума по
структурному изучению знаковых систем (Вячеслав
Всеволодович Иванов, Владимир Николаевич Топоров, затем
Юрий Михайлович Лотман). Симпозиум в СССР и
проведенная в том же году Лингвистическая Конференция в
США в Блумингтоне сыграли роль катализатора для
создания Международной ассоциации семиотики (The
International Association for Semiotic Studies - L’Association
Internationale de Sémiotique (IASS-AIS), основана в Париже в
1969 г. с участием Романа Якобсона и Альгирдаса Жюльена
Греймаса) и для последующего развития семиотической
науки.
В России семиотическая школа начинала с простых и легко
поддающихся структурированию семиотических моделей:

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жестовая система знаков, система этикета, система знаков
уличного движения. В дальнейшем Московская
семиотическая школа и Ю.М. Лотман центром научного
притяжения сделали тексты, в которых учились
семиотическими методами видеть «неочевидные»
интерпретируемые смыслы.
Французские ученые-семиотики (в частности, основанная
А.Ж. Греймасом Парижская школа) в течение ХХ века во
многом были связаны с широко известной французской
школой философии и психологии – с именами Лакана,
Башляра, Делеза, Батая, Деррида. Это определило кодовую
систему и референциальные установки изложения
семиотических работ, когда во главу угла ставились
поведение человека и модели его мышления. Поэтому в
современной французской семиотике особое внимание
уделяется теме семиотических практик. Основные принципы
сегодняшней французской семиотической школы
заключаются в том, что дискурс и семиотическая практика
представлены не в виде статичных схем (например,
семиотических квадратов), но в непрерывном, динамичном
или аффективном аспектах (семиотика страстей).
Интерес и внимание к семиотике в настоящее время
вспыхнули с новой силой, во-первых, из-за обострившегося
внимания к различию семиотических систем антропоидов и
человека, что оказалось интересным как само по себе, так и
возможным прогнозируемым путем к происхождению
человеческой коммуникации, человеческого языка. Во-
вторых, несомненность наступающей европейской
глобализации требует осмысления и описания типологии
семиотико-этнических кодов для общего понимания не
только языковых структур, но и истории поведенческих
моделей в сфере совместных научных исследований,
осмысления исторических фактов, международных
отношений, экономических проектов, медицины и др.

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Сегодня семиотика как дисциплина достаточно широко
представлена в высших учебных заведениях Европы
(Франция, Италия, Испания, Бельгия, Финляндия, Литва,
Эстония, Болгария), Латинской Америки (Бразилия, Перу,
Аргентина), США, Канады, Азии (Южная Корея, Китай),
регулярно проводятся Всемирные конгрессы
Международной ассоциации семиотики. В современной
России семиотика как наука начинает становиться более
востребованной в прикладном аспекте, в виде специальных
курсов лекций в вузах на гуманитарных факультетах.
В одной из значительных семиотических работ последних
лет – книге Жака Фонтания «Формы жизни» (Fontanille, J. :
2015) науки о смысле понимаются прежде всего как науки о
вопросах: «Вы задали мне вопрос, в чем смысл вопроса?».
Считать семиотику наукой о вопросах логично: она
предлагает многочисленные методы, чтобы исследовать
смысл практик, текстов и предметов, характеризующих
человеческую культуру. Семиотика разработала подходы,
чтобы описать возникновение значения знаковых систем и
общностей, таких как тексты, образы или социальные
взаимодействия. Она способна говорить об их смысле, идя
рука об руку с другими гуманитарными науками -
филологией, историей, философией, психологией,
антропологией, экономикой, социологией. Но для
эффективной постановки вопроса о влиянии
технологического прогресса на наше общество семиотика
нуждается в имманентном плане. Таким планом сегодня
являются формы жизни, то есть элементы семиосферы –
знаки, тексты, предметы и практики, наделенные значением
и символически выраженными принципами: они влияют на
наши чувства и эмоциональные состояния, они же
определяют смысл нашего существования и наше поведение.
В выступлении будет изложен опыт преподавания семиотики
в ГАУГН на базе РАН в 2018-2019 учебном году (спецкурс
«Историческая семиотика»), а также поставлен вопрос о

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месте данной науки в системе преподавания гуманитарных
дисциплин, в частности филологических наук, на примере
России и Франции.
Ключевые слова: семиотика, Парижская семиотическая
школа, Московско-Тартуская школа, межкультурный диалог

Введение
Что мы называем семиотикой?
Существуют несколько определений этой науки. Согласно
энциклопедическому классическому определению на
русском языке, семио́тика или семиоло́гия (от греч. σημεῖον
«знак, признак») – наука, которая исследует свойства знаков
и знаковых систем.
Семиолог и литературовед Юрий Михайлович Лотман (1922-
1993) понимал под семиотикой науку о коммуникативных
системах и знаках, используемых в процессе общения
(Lotman, Y.M. 2000: 10). Близкое понимание термина
находим у лингвиста Юрия Сергеевича Степанова (1930-
2012): он называет семиотикой науку о знаковых системах в
природе и обществе и отмечает, что она близка к
лингвистике, поскольку последняя изучает самую полную и
совершенную из систем связи – человеческий язык.
Семиотика развивается на стыке наук и черпает свой
материал из лингвистики, кибернетики (сегодня мы бы
говорили о цифровых технологиях), психологии, биологии,
этнографии, социологии, истории культуры,
литературоведения и отдает этим наукам свои обобщения.
«Ученый-семиотик должен уметь наблюдать повсюду, среди
примитивных племен или в современных индустриальных
городах, как путешественник, биолог, этнограф, лингвист,
терпеливый исследователь всякой и особенно человеческой
природы» (Stepanov, Y.S. 2018: 6).
Во французской традиции (Парижская школа Альгирдаса
Жюльена Греймаса) термин «семиотика» трактуется как
изучение знаков и их значения. Предметом науки называется

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возникновение самого этого значения. Иными словами: как
возникает смысл?
Мы предлагаем трактовать семиотику как науку о знаках,
коммуникативных системах и возникновении значения.
Современная семиотика отличается междисциплинарностью
и опирается на диалог двух европейских культур: русской и
французской. Именно в этих странах началось бурное
развитие дисциплины во второй половине ХХ века
(Московско-Тартуская школа в России - (Вячеслав
Всеволодович Иванов, Владимир Николаевич Топоров,
Юрий Михайлович Лотман); Парижская семиотическая
школа во Франции – Ролан Барт, Альгирдас Жюльен
Греймас, Жак Фонтаний).
Методология исследования
Российская семиотическая традиция началась в 1962 г., с
проведением при участии сектора структурной типологии
Института славяноведения АН СССР Симпозиума по
структурному изучению знаковых систем (Вяч. Вс. Иванов,
В. Н. Топоров, затем Ю. М. Лотман). Симпозиум в СССР, и
проведенная в том же году Лингвистическая Конференция в
США в Блумингтоне сыграли роль катализатора для
создания Международной ассоциации семиотики (The
International Association for Semiotic Studies - L’ Association
Internationale de Sémiotique (IASS-AIS), основана в Париже в
1969 г. с участием Р. Якобсона и А. Ж. Греймаса) и для
последующего развития семиотической науки (AIS-IASS.
http://iass-ais.org/presentation-2/short-history/).
Российская семиотическая школа начинала с простых и легко
поддающихся структурированию семиотических моделей:
жестовая система знаков, система этикета, система знаков
уличного движения. В дальнейшем Московская
семиотическая школа и Ю.М. Лотман центром научного
притяжения сделали тексты, в которых учились
семиотическими методами видеть «неочевидные»
интерпретируемые смыслы. Особое внимание уделялось

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мифологии, связанной со «скрытой памятью языка и
культуры» (Ivanov, Vyach. (Eds.). 2010: 9).
Французские ученые-семиотики (в частности, основанная
А.Ж. Греймасом Парижская школа) в течение ХХ века во
многом были связаны с широко известной французской
школой философии и психологии (Лакан, Башляр, Деррида и
др.). Это определило кодовую систему и референциальные
установки изложения семиотических работ, когда во главу
угла ставились поведение человека и модели его мышления.
Поэтому в современной французской семиотике особое
внимание уделяется теме семиотических практик. Основные
принципы сегодняшней французской семиотической школы
заключаются в том, что дискурс и семиотическая практика
представлены не в виде статичных схем (например,
семиотических квадратов), но в непрерывном, динамичном
или аффективном аспектах.
Интерес и внимание к семиотике в настоящее время
вспыхнули с новой силой, во-первых, из-за обострившегося
внимания к различию семиотических систем антропоидов и
человека, что оказалось интересным как само по себе, так и
возможным прогнозируемым путем к происхождению
человеческой коммуникации, конкретно – человеческого
языка. Во-вторых, несомненность наступающей европейской
глобализации требует осмысления и описания типологии
семиотико-этнических кодов для общего понимания не
только языковых структур, но и истории поведенческих
моделей в сфере совместных научных исследований,
осмысления исторических фактов, международных
отношений, экономических проектов, медицины и др.
Сегодня семиотика как дисциплина широко представлена в
высших учебных заведениях Европы (Франция, Италия,
Испания, Бельгия, Финляндия, Литва, Эстония, Болгария),
Латинской Америки (Бразилия, Перу, Аргентина), США,
Канады, Азии (Южная Корея, Китай), регулярно проводятся
Всемирные конгрессы Международной ассоциации

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семиотики. В 2017 г. интерес к семиотике как дисциплине
был проявлен со стороны ЮНЕСКО, с проведением в
Организации Конгресса к 100-летию основателя Парижской
школы А.Ж. Греймаса.
На сегодняшний день в мире издаются семиотические
журналы, входящие в международные базы Scopus и Web of
Science: Semiotica – США, Lexia - Италия, Actes sémiotiques -
Франция, Sign Systems Studies - Эстония (основан в 1962 г.
Ю.М. Лотманом как «Труды по знаковым системам») и др.
Современное состояние семиотики в России
После окончания в 1986 г. Летних школ по вторичным
знаковым системам в Тарту (организовывались Лотманом с
1964 г. и стали основой Московско-Тартуской
семиотической школы), академиком Вяч.Вс. Ивановым были
предприняты шаги с целью привлечения внимания к
семиотике и смежным гуманитарным наукам – философии,
антропологии, лингвистике - с созданием в 1992 г. Института
мировой культуры МГУ и в 2003 г. Русской
антропологической школы РГГУ. Помимо лекций Иванова
по семиотике и антропологии в этих институтах проводились
международные конференции по культурологической
тематике.
В современной России семиотика как наука начинает
становиться более востребованной в прикладном аспекте, в
виде специальных курсов лекций в вузах на гуманитарных
факультетах (РГГУ, Европейский университет Санкт-
Петербурга, Ульяновский госуниверситет), с 2000 г.
Институт филологии Сибирского отделения РАН выпускает
журнал «Критика и семиотика», ориентированный на теорию
литературы и языка.
С 2007 по 2017 г. при поддержке Отдела структурной
типологии Института славяноведения РАН в Москве в Доме
Балтрушайтиса И.Г. Меркуловой совместно с М.В.
Завьяловой и коллегами из Института славяноведения РАН,
Сорбонны и Вильнюсского университета были проведены

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научные конференции на тему «Семиотика и гуманитарные
науки», направленные на развитие диалога российской и
французской семиотических школ, распространение
наследия А.Ж .Греймаса в России, в частности издание в
2007 г. перевода на русский язык «Семиотики страстей»
А.Ж. Греймаса и Ж. Фонтания (Greimas, A.J., Fontanille, J.
2007 (2015, 2nd ed.): 327) и в целом на «перезагрузку»
российской семиотической школы. На 13-м всемирном
конгрессе Международной ассоциации семиотики в Каунасе
в 2017 г. нами, вместе с коллегами из РГГУ и ГИРЯП,
впервые была организована российская секция «Семиотика
мультимодального цифрового текста». В 2018 г. в
Финляндии на Симпозиуме «Источники креативности» (г.
Миккели), посвященному юбилею почетного президента
Международной ассоциации семиотики Ээро Тарасти, были
достигнуты договоренности о проведении конференций
финских и французских семиотиков совместно с
российскими коллегами. В 2018-2019 учебном году в ГАУГН
на базе РАН мы также разработали спецкурс «Историческая
семиотика».
Для эффективного развития семиотического направления в
России в 21-м веке необходимо объединить усилия и создать
группу молодых исследователей, с которыми будут
проводиться конференции, семинары, с участием
признанных российских экспертов, работающих в разных
институтах страны.
Результаты исследования
Практическое применение семиотики
Об актуальности семиотики в наши дни, ее внутренней
эволюции в контексте современного общества писал
выдающийся представитель российской семиотической
школы Вячеслав Всеволодович Иванов: «При всем
разнообразии существующих подходов к семиотике (…) есть
несколько общих выводов, сближающих исследователей.
Едва ли не главный из них состоит в нужности этой науки.

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Не только из-за методологических потребностей разных
частных дисциплин, занятых конкретными системами
текстов и знаками, но и из-за социальных приложений этого
знания оно оказывается насущным». Задача семиотики,
говорит Иванов, – описывать семиосферу, без которой
немыслима ноосфера. «Семиотика должна помочь
ориентироваться в истории. Совместные усилия многих, кто
этой наукой или целым циклом наук занимался, должна
помочь ее окончательному будущему становлению. Разные
подходы могут оказаться дополнительными по отношению
друг к другу и облегчить создание общей картины знаков и
текстов, из которых складывается история человеческой
культуры» (Ivanov, Vyach. Vs. 1999: 631, 792).
Другой выдающийся представитель европейской семиотики,
создатель Парижской семиотической школы, француз
литовского происхождения, родившийся в России,
Альгирдас Жюльен Греймас (1917-1992), говорил о
дисциплине так: «Смысл термина «семиотика» может быть
различным, в зависимости от того, что он обозначает: А.
Некоторую выраженную величину, которую предлагается
познать; В. Предмет познания, в том виде, в котором он
появляется в результате своего описания; С. Совокупность
средств, при помощи которых познание становится
возможным» (Greimas, A.J., Courtés, J. 1993: 339).
В XX веке ученик Греймаса, создатель Финской
семиотической школы, руководитель Международного
института семиотики (в финской Иматре, затем в литовском
Каунасе) и многолетний президент Международной
ассоциации семиотики, профессор Хельсинского
университета, семиотик и музыковед Ээро Тарасти (р. 1948)
отмечал: «Мы должны посмотреть на историю нашей
дисциплины. Что сделало ее совершенно новой в 1960-е, эту
славную эпоху структурализма, когда семиотика стала
находить свое место в институтах? С одной стороны, говоря
о таких традиционных темах высокой культуры, как

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искусство, история, мифология, культурное
наследие, - новшество или модернизм (семиотики) состояли
в том, чтобы применить к этим сферам кардинально новую
точку зрения, основанную на теории информации,
лингвистике, кибернетике и компьютерных исследованиях.
Этот новый взгляд обладал эффектом дистанцирования: все
представало в ином, неожиданном свете, отвечающем
модным требованиям тогдашней эпохи – эффективности,
точности, формализму, структурному анализу. С другой
стороны, в это же время появилась насущная потребность
изучать «популярную» культуру – кино, рекламу, моду,
гастрономию, медиа - все так же с помощью формального и
строгого описания. Это семиотическое описание подняло сам
предмет исследования на высокий академический уровень.
Что касается оригинальности и «новшества» семиотики как
науки в XX веке, то структурализм давно уступил место
постструктурализму и постмодернизму. Но складывается
впечатление, что мы живем не в мире «пост- » чего-либо, а в
эпоху вызовов, требующих неожиданных и немедленных
решений. Убежден, что любая наука, будь она самой
абстрактной и теоретической, складывается на основе
личного опыта и субъективных представлений ученых и
исследователей о мире на сегодняшний день. Я предложил
бы назвать такую науку «неосемиотикой». Другой аспект:
любая наука, семиотика в том числе, - деятельность
идеологическая. Поэтому среди актуальных вопросов – есть
ли так называемая «семиотическая» идеология, которая
гарантировала бы интерес к семиотике как к прогрессивной
науке? Часто семиотику критиковали как раз за то, что она
изучает, как «функционируют» предметы и явления, не
задаваясь вопросом, а что мы сами с этими предметами и
явлениями должны делать? Может быть, «семиоэтика» как
подразделение дисциплины смогла бы всерьез этим
заняться» (Tarasti, E. (Eds.) 2009: 3).

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Ученик и соавтор Греймаса по книге «Семиотика страстей»,
руководитель нашей российско-французской кандидатской
диссертации, профессор и почетный президент университета
Лиможа, основатель Лиможского семиотического центра и
Федерации французской семиотики Жак Фонтаний (р. 1948),
ставит вопрос более радикально: каково место семиотики и
ее применение в вузах и институтах? По его мнению, «в
любой области знания нет и не может быть научных
исследований вне институтов. Даже самые независимые
исследователи-индивидуалисты не могут обойтись без
учреждений, которые организуют конгрессы и коллоквиумы,
создают журналы и серии публикаций, находят на них
финансирование. «Измерение институционализации
дисциплины с целью ее преподавания – это существование
некоей доктрины, общей для определенных научных кругов.
Однако, будучи изначально специфическим и независимым
научным проектом, семиотика существует одновременно
между несколькими «парадигмами», одни теоретические
течения возникают и исчезают, другие расширяются и
трансформируются. Кроме того, находясь на пересечении
многих дисциплин, семиотика сама участвует в эволюции
этих дисциплин. С образовательной точки зрения нам всегда
не хватаем временной дистанции, чтобы оценить решающие
факторы. По тем же дисциплинарным причинам, в
зависимости от того, преподается ли семиотика в разрезе
филологических наук, или информационных и
коммуникационных технологий, или истории искусства, или
маркетинга, наша точка зрения на решающие факторы
меняется, так как мы оптимистически думаем, что каждая из
указанных дисциплин занимается семиотической базой».
Сложность преподавания семиотики состоит не в сложности
последней как дисциплины, ибо все науки сложны и
требовательны. Главная проблема заключается в том, что эта
сложность нестабильна: «в тот день, когда мы сможем
создать настоящий учебник, который собрал бы все знания,

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необходимые для обучения настоящего семиотика-
специалиста, и о нем сказали бы, что без этого учебника
нельзя воспитать ни одного семиотика, тогда
институционализация преподавания семиотики сделает
колоссальный шаг вперед». Если перед нами сегодня будет
поставлена задача разработать полную образовательную
программу по семиотике, мы сможем прийти к консенсусу,
чтобы использовать в ней тексты авторов-основателей
дисциплины: Соссюра, Пирса, Ельмслева, Бенвениста,
Греймаса и Эко. «Отдавая дань памяти основателям
дисциплины, и в частности, А.Ж. Греймасу, кажется
необходимым задать вопрос о функционировании науки в
институтах, которые мы создали, чтобы продолжить его
дело, будь то исследовательские лаборатории и учебные
программы, участие в крупных международных конкурсах
или способность сформировать популярную теоретическую
и методологическую базу». Отдавать честь ученому такого
масштаба, как Греймас, - это не только помнить его.
Глубокой ошибкой было бы считать данью памяти учителю-
основателю то мнение, согласно которому его ученая мысль
сохранится путем бесконечного воспроизводства самой себя,
сохраняя методы работы эпохи Греймаса. «Сегодня намного
более убедительным было бы предложить
институциональную организацию, достойную сегодняшнего
времени, на основе которой семиотическая мысль могла бы
жить и развиваться в будущем» (Fontanille, J. 2013:
http://epublications.unilim.fr/revues/as/4808).
Заключение
По словам французского антрополога Клода Леви-Стросcа,
двадцать первый век будет веком гуманитарных наук или его
не будет. Семиотические методы, применяемые в смежных
гуманитарных науках, открывают новые перспективы
решения насущных проблем современного общества.
Приведем несколько примеров:

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- успехи в дешифровке спирали ДНК, благодаря применению
статистических семиотических методов дешифровки древних
текстов (биосемиотика);
- применение в дипломатической практике «диалога
культур» понятия семиосферы, предложенного Ю.М.
Лотманом. Заимствованный «чужой» элемент системы
перемещается с периферии в центр, становясь «своим» и
нормативным: семиотика культуры (Lotman, Y.M. 2000: 112);
- управление психическими эмоциональными состояниями
путем анализа модальных составляющих человеческого
поведения – хотения, долженствования, знания, могущества
и верования: семиотика страстей (Greimas, A.J., Fontanille, J.
1991: 20);
- использование цифровых технологий, возможностей медиа
и рекламы на основе семиотических моделей «зон
напряжения» дискурса, привлекающих зрителя/ читателя
(семиотика напряжения, семиотика дискурса);
- трактовка и восстановление исторических фактов не только
через «ретроспективный взгляд ученого» извне (Lotman, J.M.
2004: 220), но и изнутри, в контексте истории культуры,
реконструируя систему представлений, обуславливавших
восприятие и реакцию на общественные события
определенного периода (семиотика истории).

Литература
Греймас, А.Ж., Фонтаний, Ж. 2007 (2015, 2-е изд.).
Семиотика страстей. От состояния вещей к состоянию души.
Перевод с французского И.Г. Меркуловой, предисловие Кл.
Зильберберга. ЛКИ, Москва, 340 с.
Иванов, Вяч.Вс. 1999. Избранные труды по семиотике и
истории культуры, ЯРК, Москва, Т.1, 795 c.
Иванов, Вяч.Вс., Будрайтис, Ю., Фонтаний, Ж., Меркулова,
И., Настопка, К., Николаева, Т., Цивьян, Т., Завьялова, М.
(Ред.). 2010. Современная семиотика и гуманитарные науки.
Сборник материалов конференции к 90-л А.Ж. Греймаса и

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выходу на русский язык книги А.Ж. Греймаса и Ж. Фонтания
«Семиотика страстей. От состояния вещей к состоянию
души». ЯСК, Москва, 395 с.
Лотман, Ю.М. 2000. Семиосфера (Культура и взрыв. Внутри
мыслящих миров). Искусство-СПБ, СПБ, 705 с.
Степанов, Ю.С. 2018. Семиотика. Изд. 3. Ленанд, Москва,
168 с.
Actes sémiotiques. Dossier Journée d’hommage à la mémoire
d’A.J.Greimas. 2013. NAS № 116.
http://epublications.unilim.fr/revues/as/4808 [Consulté le 5 mars
2019].
Association internationale de sémiotique-IASS. http://iass-
ais.org/presentation-2/short-history/ [Consulté le 5 mars 2019].
Greimas, A.J., Courtés, J., 1993. Sémiotique. Dictionnaire
raisonné de la théorie du langage. Hachette supérieur, Paris. 454
pp.
Greimas, A.J., Fontanille, J. 1991. Sémiotique des passions. Des
états de choses aux états d’âme. Seuil, Paris, 340 pp.
Greimas, A.J., Fontanille, J. 1984. Entretien. Langue française,
61: 121-128.
Fontanille, J. 2013. La sémiotique de Greimas dans les
institutions. Actes sémiotiques. NAS № 116.
http://epublications.unilim.fr/revues/as/4808
Fontanille, J. 2015. Formes de vie. Presses Universitaires de
Liège, Liège, 275 pp.
Lotman, J.M. 2004. L’explosion et la culture. Traduction du russe
d’I. Merkoulova, révision et préface de J. Fontanille. Pulim,
Limoges. 228 pp.
Tarasti, E., Forsell, P., Littlefield, R. (Eds.) 2009.
Communication : Understanding/Misunderstanding. Proceedings
of the 9th Congress of the IASS/AIS Helsinki-Imatra. 11-17 June
2007. Acta semiotica Fennica, XXXIV, V.1, ISI, Imatra, 665 pp.

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Fontanille, J. 2013. La sémiotique de Greimas dans les
institutions. Actes sémiotiques. NAS № 116.
http://epublications.unilim.fr/revues/as/4808
Fontanille, J. 2015. Formes de vie. Presses Universitaires de
Liège, Liège, 275 pp.

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Lotman, J.M. 2004. L’explosion et la culture. Traduction du russe
d’I. Merkoulova, révision et préface de J. Fontanille. Pulim,
Limoges. 228 pp.
Tarasti, E., Forsell, P., Littlefield, R. (Eds.) 2009.
Communication : Understanding/Misunderstanding. Proceedings
of the 9th Congress of the IASS/AIS Helsinki-Imatra. 11-17 June
2007. Acta semiotica Fennica, XXXIV, V.1, ISI, Imatra, 665 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-346-356

COMPOSITIONAL SPECIFICITY OF ARTISTIC TEXTS

WITH SACRAL COMPONENTS

Yulia Kulchenko

Southern Federal University

Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
In the paper the author sets some goals and puts forward various
tasks to solve the problem connecting with the location of
quotation and allusion as main means with the help of which the
sacral component is realized in the Russian and English literary
texts. In this regard the relevance of the topic under study is due
to the urgent need for theoretical understanding and practical
study of the problem of placing a sacral metacomponent in the
space of an artistic text. This study attempts to analyse the
compositional structure of texts. And on the basis of the obtained
data the author of the paper highlights the main parts of the
artistic text in which the writers most often use the sacral
component. This study is devoted to the consideration of the
theoretical and the practical basis of the study of the sacral
metacomponent in artistic texts, in connection with which the
author solves the general and specific problems of using the

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sacral component in various segments of the artistic text. In
addition to what has already said, the paper compares the use of
the sacral metacomponent in two languages - in Russian and
English. The author pays significant attention at the problem of
the relationship between the compositional structure of an artistic
text with a sacral component and an artistic text without the
subtext under study. In this paper the text is considered both as a
work of art and as an object of linguistic research. Moreover the
quotation and allusion in the text appear to be the main
metacomponents with the help of which the “sacral” is expressed
in the text of the artwork.
In the study the author of this paper gradually examines and
analyzes the use of compositional features of the text. At the
same time a comparison of the structural specificity of both
Russian and English artistic texts with the sacral component is
made.
This study states that the main text positions in which the author
uses the sacral metacomponent are the title, epigraph, “the actual
text” (beginning, end) and the after-text part (chronological
name).
The title of the text presents the quotation and allusion with the
sacral component without reference to their classification, more
precisely, according to the principle of their frequency use in this
part of the text. The next is the epigraph that represents the level
of the text in which sacral quotation is most often used. As for the
“actual text”, this is the largest in frequency of the use of sacral
metacomponents of the artistic text. The post-text part is studied
by the author rather as part of the compositional structure of any
artistic text generally accepted in linguistics and literary criticism.
The problem of the compositional structure of a literary text is
studied by many scholars not only in literary criticism, but also in
philology. Among the linguists who dealt with the problem of the
notion of a text, its features in general, and also compositional
peculiarities in particular, can be called I.R. Galperin (1986) and
his work "The Text As An Object of Linguistic Research",

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O.L. Kamenskaya (1990) who wrote the book “Text and
Communication”, N.S. Valgina (2003) and her course book “Text
Theory” etc. In scientific works linguists, as a rule, investigate
the question of the compositional construction of an artistic text,
analyze its structural originality, etc. At the same time the
problem of the positional use of a metacomponent in the text by
the author remains practically unexplored. There are some
scientific works devoting to the problem of the metacomponents
used in texts. Among these papers one may call the works by
A. Wezhbitska “Metatext in The Text” (1978), V.А. Lukin’s
“The Artistic Text: The Basics of Linguistic theory and Elements
of Analysis” (1999) and some others.
Keywords: metacomponent, sacral, artistic text, compositional
structure, positional specificity, quotation, allusion

Introduction
The use of the sacral metacomponent is made by the author of the
artistic text in its various structural parts. At the same time in the
choice of the location of the sacral component the author is
guided, depending on belonging to a particular literary school, a
generally accepted tradition of constructing an artistic text or his
own intuition. In any case, the author realizes his pragmatic
intentions, giving the text an emotional coloring that is essential
for the reader to understand the content of the text with the sacral
component.
Objectives/Purpose of the study
This paper puts the goal of a theoretical and practical
substantiation and description of the use of sacral
metacomponents (quotation and allusion) on the examples of both
Russian and English texts of artistic works, such as "Nunc
Dimittis" by R. Dahl, “Selected Grain” by N.S. Leskov, V.
Shydlouski’s “Christmas Kontak”, “Scaffold” by Ch. Aitmatov
and some others.
To achieve the set goals it’s necessary to put forward the
following tasks: to consider the specific features of the

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compositional construction of an artistic text with a sacral
component, to investigate what place the sacral component
occupies in the structure of an artistic text, to analyse whether
there are some different peculiarities in the position of
metacomponents with sacral meaning in Russian and English
texts.
The scientific novelty of the problem under study is that for the
first time in this paper the problem of sacral metacomponents
positioning in an artistic text is posed, the identification and
description of the compositional features of artistic texts in which
the authors sacredly or unknowingly use the sacral component are
proposed.
Methodology
In this paper such linguistic methods as descriptive, comparative,
contextual analysis and graphematic text analysis method are
used.
Results
The text of the artwork has a traditional structure with perceptible
borders. V.A. Lukin, devoting a considerable part of his research
to the problem of the structure of a literary text, identifies three
parts in it: the beginning - the text in the text - the end
(Lukin V.A., 1999: 126). In this case, the scientist believes that
the beginning of the text (title) comes closer to the end, and both
they are connected with the text in the text.
S.G. Nikolaev structures the text of a work of art in the following
way (Nikolaev S.G., 2004: 142):
A) Pretext part consisting of:
•author's name;
• titles;
• subtitle;
• initiations;
• epigraph.
B) Actually the text, which is divided into:
• the beginning of the text ("inception");
• meaningful semantic middle;

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• end of text.
B) Post-text part:
• designation of the date of creation of the work (chrononym);
• designation of the place of creation of the work (toponym).
Let us apply the above structure to determine the specificity of
the compositional construction of an artistic text with a sacral
component.
The title in the artistic text plays a particularly important role,
since the reader’s initial acquaintance with the text comes from it.
The subtitle and dedication serve as an aid to the author. The
epigraph also has considerable autonomy, since it usually
represents the “text in the text” and stands out visually,
graphically. It occupies a special place in the text - it is used
immediately after the title on the right or in the centre of the text.
It is believed that in the absence of a title, the subtitle and
epigraph become independent, act as a title and express the main
idea of the work.
In artistic texts with a sacral component, the complete
composition of the pretext part is rare. Most often the authors
resort to the use of sacral metatext means in the title and less
often in the epigraph of the text. On the one hand, the use of the
sacral component in these parts of the artistic text is dictated by
the author’s desire to draw the reader’s attention to the problem
stated in the main part of the text.
Let us turn to some examples of the introduction of the sacral
component in the titles of works of art.
«Встань и иди» Иисус говорит ему: встань, возьми
(Ю. Нагибин) постель твою и ходи (Ин. 5,6-5,23)
«Ловцы И говорит им: идите за Мною, и Я
человеков» сделаю вас ловцами человеков (Мф.
(Е. Замятин) 4,8-4.24)
˂…˃ благодаря Бога и Отца, призвавшего
«Власть тьмы» нас к участию в наследии святых во
(Л. Толстой) свете, избавившего нас от власти тьмы
˂…˃ (Кор. 1,13-1,28)

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«Моление о Отче мой! Если не может чаша сия
чаше» миновать Меня, чтобы Мне не пить ее, да
(И. Никитин) будет воля Твоя (Мф. 26,35-26,51)
«Благодетельны Притча о добром самарянине (Лк. 10,
й самарянин» 30)
(В. Жуков)
«Тайная Событие, описанное апостолом Павлом
вечеря» (1 Кор. 11, 19-11, 3)
(С. Есенин)
The following examples of headings with the sacral component
are found in English literature:
“Be fruitful and multi- Be fruitful and multiply (Genesis
lie” (R. Wilson) 1:22)

“The Grapes of Wrath” The angel swung his sickle on the

(J. Steinbeck) earth, gathered its grapes and threw
them into the great winepress of
God’s wrath. (Revelation 14:19)
“The Skin of Our Teeth” My bone cleaveth to my skin and to
(Т. Wilder) my flesh, and I am escaped with the
skin of my teeth (Job 19:20)
The connection and integrity of the title with the actual text are
very obvious. But in artistic texts in which the producer uses the
sacral component, there is not always a close connection between
the title and the text's “body” itself. Sometimes the authors
deliberately use sacral quote or allusion in the title or epigraph,
while the substantive-semantic part of the text does not contain a
sacral plot. Although the purpose of the authors using the biblical
allusion or quotation in the pretext part is clear - to emphasize the
significance of the work, to influence the reader emotionally.
Choosing the sacral component in the title the author from the
first words of the text emphasizes the importance of his ideas and
thoughts. Appeal to the Bible in the title of the text orients the
recipient to the disclosure of moral, spiritual aspects in the text.

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With the help of the title it is possible to correlate the content of
the work with the plot, artistic characters, the imaginative world,
recreated by the author in the text. In addition, the title of the text
displays the author's vision, establishes a connection between the
producer and the reader of the work. Consider a few examples of
the use of the sacral component in the title in Russian and English
texts. The American writer Francine Rivers has a number of
works that have a biblical allusion in the titles, which means the
expression of the sacral. Each of the mentioned books tells about
women directly or indirectly participating in the life of Christ:
1. “Tamar” \ «Фамарь»;
2. “Rahab” \ «Раав»;
3. “Ruth” \ «Руфь»;
4. “Bathsheba” \ «Вирсавия»;
5. “Maria” \ «Мария».
The title of “The Lame Shall Enter First” story by written
Flannery O ’Connor has a parallel with gospel events. The theme
stated in the title is fully disclosed in the work and has religious
overtones.
The title of the story by R. Dahl "Nunc Dimittis" contains a sacral
metacompact - an allusion to the event from the Gospel of Luke,
in which, according to legend, the elder Simeon, tired of life and
praying God to give him death, opens that he will die after
meeting Messiah:
«Now let go of Thy servant, o Lord, according to Thy word, in
peace; as thou seest my eyes Thy salvation, thou hast prepared
before the face of all men, the light in the revelation of tongues,
and the glory of Thy people Israel» (Luke 2: 29-32).
An interesting fact is that the events in the story of R. Dahl are
not religious by nature and do not belong to the biblical story.
The author alludes only the title of the text, thus achieving an
expressive stylistic effect.
The use of sacral metatext in the epigraph of a literary text is
quite common. In this case, the authors more often use a
quotation to express the sacral component. Thus, in the story

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“Selected Grain” by N.S. Leskov used the exact Gospel quote for
the purpose of emotional impact on the recipient from the first
lines of the story (Leskov N.S., 2014: 279):
Спящим человеком прииде враг
и всея плевелы посреди пшеницы.
Мф. 13: 25
In the substantive aspect, the text itself is the most significant part
of the artistic text with a sacral component. In the artistic text one
can distinguish the beginning and the final part, between which
the semantic center is contained. The artistic text with the sacral
component is visual, but graphically not divided into initial,
middle and final parts, unless the author himself verbally
indicates the boundaries of the text.
Authors of literary texts can use one or several biblical events as
the basis of a plot and dedicate an entire work to them. Then the
sacral component “stretches” to the whole “actual text”. A
scientist has a difficult task to precisely specify the place of
application of the sacral metacomponent. Examples of such use
of the sacral in the artistic text are the works of L. Andreev
"Judas Iscariot" and "Samson", A.I. Kuprin “Shulamith”, Maria
Corelli “Barabbas. The story of Christ's time" etc.
As for the post-text part, the purpose of which is to convey to the
reader the facts, date, place of creation of the artistic text, it is not
essential for the author, therefore this part is not used at all or
very rarely in the texts of artistic works with the sacral
component. Therefore, not every part of a literary text admits a
sacral meta-component in its composition, which is manifested
through such metatext components as quotation and allusion.
In a number of other artistic texts the text of an artistic work with
a sacral component does not have a special compositional
specificity. In general, the structural parts of the text under study
fully correspond to the positions of any traditional artistic text
without the component under study.
Thus, in the artistic text with the sacral component can be
identified:

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 title;
 epigraph (optional use by the author);
 the beginning of the text;
 middle of the text;
 final part.
Artistic poetic texts with a sacral component have a special
compositional structure. In addition to the above parts of the
artistic text, there are:
 the beginning of the stanza;
 final part.
In the poem by V. Shydlouski “Christmas Kontak” there is an
example of the use of the sacral metacomponent - the stanza-
allusion (Right-Glorious Calendar, 2018: 10), which refers the
recipient to the Gospel story of the Nativity of Christ (Matt., I, 18
25). It is noteworthy that in this text the allusion is used by the
author at the beginning and at the end of the poetic text:
Того, Кто вечно был и И в небе ангелы поют,
есть, И пастухи спешат с холма,
Рождает миру Дева днесь. И пред Звездой идут волхвы.
И Неприступному Ему – И в эту ночь познали мы.
Непостижимому Уму Как ради нас родиться мог
Земля нашла уже приют. Младенец – Он же вечный Бог.

It is important to keep in mind that the structure of the “proper

text”, here we are talking about an artistic text with a sacral
component, is divided into visually definable
segments - paragraphs, chapters, subheadings. These parts also
allow for the introduction of a sacral metatext.
An example of the use of the sacral component in a paragraph of
a literary text will be found in the novel “Scaffold” by Ch.
Aitmatov (Aitmatov Ch., 2005: 33):
«В то утро над холмом, широко распахнув крылья, точно
подвешенная к небу на невидимой нити, беззвучно и плавно
кружила одинока птица, через равные промежутки времени
пролетая над территорией большого сада. То ли орел, то ли

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коршун, кроме них, ни у одной птицы не хватило бы
терпения так долго и однообразно летать в жарком небе.
Перехватив случайный взгляд, брошенный на птицу Иисусом
Назарянином, стоящим перед ним, переминаясь с ноги на
ногу, прокуратор вознегодовал и даже оскорбился. И сказал
желчно и жестоко:
- Ты куда очи возводишь, царь Иудейский? То твоя смерть
кружит!»
In the above example the author describes the meeting of Jesus
Christ with Pontius Pilate on the eve of condemnation and
crucifixion. This fragment of an artistic text refers the reader to a
fragment from the Gospel of Matthew (Matt. 27: 11-14). The
sacral component is expressed at the lexical level through an
allusion.
Considering the specificity of the object of our study and the fact
that there is no explicit graphic selection of each structural part of
an artistic text, the exception is an epigraph, paragraph, chapters
and subchapters, one or more sacral metacomponents.
Comparing with each other the compositional parts of an artistic
text with a sacral component and a traditional artistic text (a text
that does not contain sacral component), we can consider the use
of the sacral component as the main object of scientific research.
Consequently, it is rational to study and analyze the sacral
metacomponent of the title and subheading, the sacral
metacomponent of the epigraph, the sacral component of the
paragraph, head, fragment of the text. In each listed segment, the
sacral component is expressed at the lexical and stylistic levels,
as well as with the help of the order of words, punctuation marks
and means of selection (italics, quotes).
Discussion
So, we come to the following conclusions.
The compositional structure of an artistic text with a sacral
component is multi-stage and, in fact, it does not have distinctive
features from the structure of an artistic text without a sacral
component. Moreover, some parts of the structure of the text are

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not graphically outlined, while others, on the contrary, have
visual borders.
The sacral metacomponent can not be used by the author in any
part of the text. Most often, the producers enter the sacral in the
title and "the actual text" in the beginning or middle part. The use
of the sacral metatcomponent in the post text part (chrononym
and toponym) was not revealed by us at all. Due to the fact that
these segments of the text are cognitive in nature, revealing small
facts about the creation of a work, it is difficult to imagine the use
of the sacral component in this part of the text. Despite the
positional difference in the use of sacral metacomponent in
Russian and English-language texts, it is used for the purpose of
emotional and expressive impact - to draw the reader’s attention
to hidden meanings, to confirm the author’s thoughts, to make the
recipient think about what is happening in the artistic text.

References
Aitmatov C. 2005. Scaffold. Moscow: Publisher: Azbuka, 33 pp.
Leskov N.S. 2007. Novels and stories. Moscow: Publishing house
"Nikeya", pp. 279-311.
Lukin V.A. 1999. The artistic text: Basics of linguistic theory and
elements of analysis. Moscow: Publishing house "Os-89", 126 pp.
Nikolaev S.G. 2004. Phenomenology of bilingualism in the
works of Russian poets. Rostov-on-Don: “Old Russians”
Publishing House, Part 1. 147 pp.
Orthodox calendar. 2018. St. Petersburg: The Light of Christ
Publishing House, Synopsis, 10 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-357-371

ISSUES IN MODERN INFORMATION

AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
IN TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
AT UNIVERSITIES

Elena V. Yakovleva¹, Ruben V. Agadzhanyan²

¹Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]
²State-funded budget educational institution of Moscow city School No. 166
Moscow, Russia,
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The authors focus on the issues of current interest in the practice
of teaching foreign languages to university level students.
Nowadays the whole process is lead by both the Federal
Government Educational Standards and the use of information
and communication technology. The article highlights such
aspects of this technology as project activity, the development of
critical thinking and multilevel teaching.
Within the format of philological studies paradigm the authors
adhere to anthropocentric approach to teaching academic
disciplines to university level students. In context to these
circumstances personality features of the teacher appear to be in
the limelight, as they account for the expected level of teaching
and the depth of the discipline’s profile, as well as the connection
of the latter with other branches of the humanitarian study. The
article looks into current information and communication
technologies and views them as applicable to multilevel teaching.
As foreign language classes present a classical educational
pattern, its characteristics are viewed in terms of the subject «A

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practical course of a foreign language». Due attention is given to
practical creative tasks that imply the use of the corresponding
project elements and require a quest for historical, economic,
sociological and other data.
As a result, project culture provokes creative thinking, the
students’ ability to take part in hypothetical discussion of social
and cultural realia and their ability to form prognosis concerning
probable solutions.
The technology of critical thinking vividly shows that it results
from the project technology. The final product cannot succeed if
not grounded in the text to be reproduced by the participants.
Illustrations and comments are indispensable here. These come to
life at the expense of the technical means and media devices. The
article argues the technology of critical thinking can be
successfully employed at the stage when the students are working
out the material content components or when they decide how
detailed the narration, or how big its volume.
The authors refer to a variety of methods to be used. This is
particularly intricate when issues of a foreign language culture
are being dealt with. Final questions, charts and essay writing,
role play and brainstorm are just a few of the issues here.
All the above mentioned methods are part of a didactic system as
they aim at working out a set of humanitarian values related to
different students’ activities, speech activity included. Multilevel
teaching appears to be one of such methods. When applied in a
Secondary school classroom it results in less advanced students
getting more help from the teacher. More advanced learners also
appear at an advantage, as the teacher is free to structure the class
correspondingly and meet their requirements. The above
mentioned features enhance the chance for the students to
experience the so-called educational success.
The authors conclude by saying that the technology of multilevel
teaching can be used in a University level classroom with certain
reservations. Whereas Secondary school level requirement,
expectations and materials are same for all the students,

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University level requirements as well as teaching materials reflect
not only the specific interest of the students, but also the level of
their advancement. Thus, language groups of different levels can
function within one year of studies.
Key words: information communication technology, project
activity, critical thinking, multilevel teaching.

АКТУАЛЬНЫЕ ИНФОРМАЦИОННО-
КОММУНИКАЦИОННЫЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ
И ВОПРОСЫ ПРЕПОДАВАНИЯ
ИНОСТРАННОГО ЯЗЫКА В ВУЗЕ

Елена В. Яковлева¹, Рубен В. Агаджанян²

¹Институт иностранных языков

Российский университет дружбы народов
Москва, Россия
e-mail: [email protected]
²Государственное бюджетное образовательное
учреждение Школа № 166
Москва, Россия
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
Внимание авторов публикации сосредоточено на вопросах,
актуальных для процесса преподавания иностранного языка
в вузе с учетом современных требований к следованию
федеральным государственным образовательным стандартам
и использованию разнообразных информационно-
коммуникационных технологий. В статье рассматриваются
особенности таких технологий, как проектная деятельность,
технология развития критического мышления и технология
разноуровневого обучения.
Оперируя в филологической предметной парадигме, авторы
демонстрируют антропоцентрический подход к решению
вопроса о преподавании академических дисциплин в вузе. В

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этих обстоятельствах индивидуально-личностные
особенности преподавателя играют важную роль и
обеспечивают учебному процессу должный уровень глубины
проникновения в предмет, широты представления его
междисциплинарных характеристик и логических связей с
другими отраслями гуманитарного знания. В центре
внимания автора оказываются такие современные
информационно-коммуникационные технологии, как метод
проектной деятельности и метод развития критического
мышления. Оба эти метода применимы в технологии
разноуровневого обучения, о чем также идет речь в статье.
Практические занятия иностранным языком являются
классической образовательной моделью, особенности
которой рассматриваются в статье на примере особенностей
преподавания дисциплины «Практический курс
иностранного языка». Практические, творческие задания,
требующие от обучаемых применения соответствующих
проектных элементов для решения проблемных заданий,
часто связанных с поиском исторических, экономических,
социологических и других сведений и фактов,
рассматриваются. В ходе обсуждения отмечается, что
культура проектирования провоцирует творческое
мышление, способность студентов к гипотетическому
осмыслению обсуждаемых социально-культурных реалий,
способность прогнозировать возможные варианты решения
исследуемых задач.
Рассмотрение особенностей технологии критического
мышления показывает, что оно становится возможным в
результате применение технологии проектной деятельности.
Конечный продукт невозможно подготовить без опоры на
выверенный текст, воспроизводимый участниками, и
наличия сопутствующих основному тексту иллюстративных
и развивающих положения доклада материалов,
демонстрируемых с помощью технических средств с
использованием медийных и цифровых технологий. В статье

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обосновывается возможность использования технологии
критического мышления на предварительном этапе, когда
перед студентами стоит задача определения содержательных
компонентов представляемого материала,
последовательности их предъявления, степени детализации
приводимой информации или, например, объема и качества
иллюстративного материала, на основе анализа которого
аудитории будут предъявляться основные выводы.
Авторы статьи ссылаются на различные методические
приемы, за счет применения которых может быть успешно
осуществлены рассматриваемые технологии, в том числе в
случае обучения особенностям иноязычной культуры и
иностранному языку как ее части: контрольные вопросы,
составление таблиц, написание эссе, ролевые проекты,
учебно-мозговой штурм, прием корзины идей,
интеллектуальная разминка, прием перекрестной дискуссии.
В статье также упоминается такой аспект применения
технологий обучения иностранным языкам, как их
встроенность в единую дидактическую систему, так как
педагогические технологии, направленные на воспитание у
обучающихся системы базовых гуманитарных ценностей, в
том числе связанных с речевой и языковой деятельностью
как на родном, так и на иностранных языках, продолжают
оставаться востребованными в высшей школе.
Одной из таких технологий является разноуровневое
обучение. В контексте средней школы эта технология
обнаруживается в том, что учебный процесс организован
таким образом, что на уроке обнаруживается возможность
слабому ученику получить помощь от учителя, который
может уделять ему отдельное внимание. С другой стороны, в
другом образовательном коллективе преподаватель может
уделить больше внимание сильному обучающемуся или
группе сильных обучающихся, желающих глубже
продвинуться в предмете. И та и другая особенность

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повышают уровень мотивации обучаюшихся и помогают им
испытать так называемый «учебный успех».
Авторы приходят к выводу о том, что перенесение
технологии разноуровневого обучения в образовательный
контекст высшего учебного заведения, может оказаться
результативным до определенного предела, поскольку если в
средней школе программные требования обязательны для
всех обучающихся и учебный материал также одинаков в
более сильных и более слабых классах, то в академических
группах специального факультета Университета или
Института иностранных языков есть возможность
реализовать технологию разноуровневого обучения
несколько иначе. Могут быть сформированы языковые
группы, в которых обучение начинается по учебникам более
продвинутого уровня при общем единстве требований к
программе экзамена/зачета и объему опосредованного
лингвистического материала.
Ключевые слова: информационно-коммуникационный,
проектная деятельность, критическое мышление,
разноуровневое обучение.

Введение
Особенности преподавания иностранного языка студентам
специальных факультетов и отделений высших учебных
заведений сегодня отражают многие из черт федеральных
государственных образовательных стандартов и
закрепленного в них представления о деятельностном
характере профессиональных взаимоотношений
преподавателя и студента.
Так, системно-деятельностный стандарт, которым
руководствуется преподаватель, открывает для него
практически неограниченное поле деятельности с
применением наиболее современных информационно-
коммуникационных технологий (ИКТ).

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Отметим, что филологическая предметная парадигма
предполагает антропоцентрический подход к преподаванию
практически всех дисциплин. В силу этих обстоятельств,
индивидуально-личностные особенности преподавателя все
так же, как и раньше продолжают играть очень важную роль
и в случае возможности их адекватной реализации
обеспечивают учебному процессу должный уровень глубины
проникновения в предмет, широты представления его
междисциплинарных характеристик и логических связей с
другими отраслями гуманитарного знания. Следовательно,
такие черты, как однообразность, монотонность,
повторяемость и недостаточно-выраженные эстетическая и
даже эмоциональная составляющие, представляют трудность
в меньшей степени, чем в случае так называемых точных
дисциплин или дисциплин инженерного профиля.
Цель исследования
Далее, решая вопрос об особенностях педагогических
технологий применительно к филологической парадигме
дисциплин, представляется возможным подчеркнуть
синергетические характеристики всего процесса
современной педагогической деятельности, представленной
как совокупность приемов, форм, методов и средств
передачи не только профессионального, но и социального
опыта преподавателя, которые определяют выбор им
технического оснащения осуществляемой деятельности.
Понятно, что в условиях реализации требований ФГОС
преподавателю приходится определять какие из наиболее
актуальных технологий в большей степени созвучны не
только преподаваемому им аспекту филологического знания,
но и объективным характеристикам студенческой аудитории
и его собственным как преподавателя.
Методы исследования
В нижеследующем изложении остановимся на нескольких
современных технологиях, в последние годы динамично
развивающихся и оказывающихся рельефно выраженными в

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преподавании многих дисциплин лингвистической
направленности. Рассмотрим проектную технологию,
технологию развития критического мышления и технологию
разноуровневого обучения.
Так, метод проектов известен с начала XX века и
традиционно ассоциируется с передачей философского
знания, в том числе образовательного в США (Дж. Дьюи
(1915), В.Х. Килпатрик (1918)), а также России (С. Т.
Шацкий (2011). Популяризаторы этого метода видели своей
целью представления предмета столь привлекательным для
аудитории, что студенты обнаруживали бы личную,
практическую заинтересованность в усвоении предлагаемых
знаний, ассоциируя их с успешным началом своего
профессионального совершенствования и карьерным ростом.
В современных филологических студиях проектный метод
как нельзя лучше может быть реализован в тех случаях,
когда его использование обеспечивает студенту
последовательное и углубленное знакомство с материалом,
расширение парадигмы профессиональных знаний в
изучаемой области и возможность представления
результатов работы в совместном результирующем продукте,
подготовка которого потребует от него овладения
возможностями, обеспечиваемыми обращением к
современным цифровым технологиям интернет-ресурсам и
базам данных.
Роль преподавателя в случае обращения к проектной
технологии не вступает в противоречие с классическим
представлением о деятельности научного руководителя,
студенческой курсовой или дипломной работы. Научный
руководитель или консультант такого проекта может указать
студенческой мысли желаемое направление, строго не
регламентируя процесс поиска необходимой информации, но
на основе селективного подхода сможет определить
информацию, количество и качество которой будет наиболее

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оптимально коррелировать с достижением заявленных в
проекте целей.
Понятно, что все сказанное выше связано с особенностями
высших учебных заведений их курсовых и дипломных
проектов. Поскольку целью проектной технологии является
стимулирование интереса обучаемых к аспектам профессии,
для освоения которых необходимо овладение ими
определенной суммой знаний, вопрос практической
полезности проведенного исследования с применением этого
метода решается однозначно. Что касается научной новизны
и теоретического значения проектного исследования, и то и
другое напрямую связаны с качеством его проведения.
Результаты исследования
В современных условиях в процессе реформирования
образования в целом, общая демократизация отношений
между преподавателем и студентами, а также поиск
активных форм познавательной деятельности последних
обеспечили проектному методу успешное и повсеместное
использование.
Отметим также, что элементы проектной технологии могут
наблюдаться и в такой классической образовательной
модели, как практические занятия иностранным языком в
рамках дисциплины «Практический курс иностранного
языка». Здесь преподаватель предлагает студентам
практические, творческие задания, требующие от них
применения желаемых проектных элементов для решения
проблемных заданий, часто связанных с поиском
исторических, экономических, социологических и других
сведений и фактов. Культура проектирования провоцирует
творческое мышление, способность студентов к
гипотетическому осмыслению обсуждаемых социально-
культурных реалий, способность прогнозировать возможные
варианты решения исследуемых задач.
Представляется возможным говорить о том, что проектная
методика оказывается успешной на фоне высокого уровня

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коммуникативности студенческой группы и способностью
студентов адекватно вербализовать известные им сведения
на языке-цели также с возможностью двустороннего
перевода.
Теперь обратимся к популярной в образовательном
контексте технологии критического мышления. Отметим
сразу, что рассмотренная нами выше проектная технология
ориентирует обучающихся иностранному языку с ее
применением на подготовку проекта, то есть конечного
продукта, например, в виде выступления на конференции.
Такой продукт невозможно подготовить без опоры на
выверенный текст, воспроизводимый участниками, и
наличия сопутствующих основному тексту иллюстративных
и развивающих положения доклада материалов,
демонстрируемых с помощью технических средств с
использованием медийных и цифровых технологий. С
учетом сказанного выше становится понятным, что
технология критического мышления может быть
использована на предварительном этапе, когда перед
студентами стоит задача определения содержательных
компонентов представляемого материала,
последовательности их предъявления, степени детализации
приводимой информации или, например, объема и качества
иллюстративного материала, на основе анализа которого
аудитории будут предъявляться основные выводы.
Литература вопроса определяет критическое мышление,
лежащее в основе анализируемой технологии, как
определенный тип, позволяющее с одной стороны не
принимать информацию без тщательного анализа, а с другой
быть способным воспринимать новые идеи и методы в
процессе осмысливания поставленной задаче и определения
путей ее решения (Халперн, 2000: 21).
Как известно, сильные, продуктивные характеристики
объекта или явления являются естественным продолжением
его слабых, непродуктивных и опирающихся на

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сомнительную доказательную базу, сторон. В случае
обращения к технологии критического мышления, решение
задач совершенствования качества владения иностранным
языком обучающимися может затрудняться их
ориентированностью на реализацию свободы выбора и
персональною ответственность за принимаемые решения как
условия применения данной технологии (там же: c. 22).
Имеется в виду, что процесс углубленного изучения
иностранного языка как части более объемного комплекса
культурологически значимых особенностей контекста, в
котором данный иностранный язык реализуется
естественными носителями с учетом релевантных для них
представлений о литературной и профессиональной норме
речеупотребления его устной и письменной разновидностей
в определенный исторический период, часто учитывает
анализ и воспроизведение характерных учебных материалов,
предлагаемых обучающимся для освоения не только на
аналитической, но и на имитационной основе.
Следовательно, в тех случаях, когда языковая подготовка
специалистов включает изучение определенных лексико-
грамматических, синтаксических, стилистических,
фонетических и многих других особенностей нормативного
речеупотребления на данном языке, ни о какой свободе
выбора и принятия индивидуальных решений в вопросах
отработки определенных моделей, контекстов, типов
синтаксических конструкций, а также особенностей
социальных диалектов речь не идет.
Таким образом, оказывается, что технология критического
мышления обнаруживает свою продуктивность, если ее
использование обусловлено представлением о критическом
мышлении как о синониме углубленного аналитического
осмысления, для осуществления которого обучающимся
необходимо развивать такие качества, как наблюдательность,
информированность, культура речи, культура общения,
эмоциональная сдержанность и стремление к постоянному

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расширению сферы своей личных и профессиональных
интересов.
В литературе вопроса много внимания уделяется различным
методическим приемам, за счет применения которых может
быть успешно осуществлена технология критического
мышления, в том числе в случае обучения особенностям
иноязычной культуры и иностранному языку как ее части.
Здесь можно встретить и более традиционные, такие как
контрольные вопросы, составление таблиц, написание эссе,
ролевые проекты, так и методы пополнившие методический
арсенал учебного процесса в последние десятилетия: учебно-
мозговой штурм, прием корзины идей, интеллектуальная
разминка, прием перекрестной дискуссии (Телячук, Лесина,
2007).
Далее представляется актуальным обратить внимание на
такой аспект применения технологий обучения иностранным
языкам, как их встроенность в единую дидактическую
систему. Уходя корнями в образовательный контекст
получения знаний на этапе средней школы, педагогические
технологии, направленные на воспитание у обучающихся
системы базовых гуманитарных ценностей, в том числе
связанных с речевой и языковой деятельностью как на
родном, так и на иностранных языках., продолжают
оставаться востребованными в высшей школе.
Одной из таких технологий является разноуровневое
обучение. В контексте средней школы эта технология
обнаруживается в том, что учебный процесс организован
таким образом, что на уроке обнаруживается возможность
слабому ученику получить помощь от учителя, который
может уделять ему отдельное внимание. С другой стороны, в
другом образовательном коллективе преподаватель может
уделить больше внимание сильному обучающемуся или
группе сильных обучающихся, желающих глубже
продвинуться в предмете. И та и другая особенность
повышают уровень мотивации обучаюшихся и помогают им

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испытать так называемый «учебный успех» (Бухаркина,
2003: 11).
Выводы
Можем ли мы полностью перенести технологию
разноуровневого обучения в образовательный контекст
высшего учебного заведения, где все обучающиеся по
определению обладают необходимыми профессиональными
данными и мотивацией для углубленного изучения предмета
и особенностей изучаемого языка, как системы на разных
уровнях его освоения? Можем, но до определенного предела,
поскольку если в средней школе программные требования
обязательны для всех обучающихся и учебный материал
также одинаков в более сильных и более слабых классах, то в
академических группах специального факультета
Университета или Института иностранных языков есть
возможность реализовать технологию разноуровневого
обучения несколько иначе. Могут быть сформированы
языковые группы, в которых обучение начинается по
учебникам более продвинутого уровня при общем единстве
требований к программе экзамена/зачета и объему
опосредованного лингвистического материала.
Говоря о разноуровневом преподавании иностранного языка
на специальном факультете университета или института, мы
сталкиваемся с необходимостью решить проблему
сосуществования на одном курсе более сильных и более
слабых языковых групп. Так, если в первый год обучения
такая ситуация складывается естественно на основе оценки
разницы в подготовке абитуриентов, то на средних курсах, и
тем более на выпускном, разница в степени продвинутости
материала и качественности результатов его усвоения, о чем
свидетельствуют промежуточные и финальные тесты, не
может не вызывать вопрос о равнозначности
результирующих баллов в итоговых аттестационных
документах. Значит ли это, что идея разноуровнего обучения
требует дополнительного исследования и не может

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приниматься за основную образовательную модель для этого
уровня профессиональной подготовки.
Литература
Bacila, Carlos Roberto. 2012. The Life of Dale Carnegie and His
Philosophy of Success. New York: Amazon, 309 p.
Бухаркина М. Ю. 2003. Технология разноуровневого
обучения // Иностранные языки в школе. № 3. С. 11-12.
Дьюи Дж. 1915. Психология и педагогика мышления / пер. с
англ. Н. М. Никольской; под ред. (и с предисл.) Н. Д.
Виноградова. Москва: Мир, 202 с.
Kilpatrick William Heard. 1918. The Project Method [Text] /
William Heard Kilpatrick // Teachers College Record 19, p. 319-
334.
Телячук В. П., Лесина Е. В. 2007. Инновационные
технологии в начальной школе. Харьков: Основа, 240 с.
Халперн Д. 2000. Психология критического мышления.
СПб.: Санкт-Петербург, 512 c.
Шацкий С. Т. 2011. Американские педагоги у нас в гостях //
Шацкий С. Т. Школа для детей или дети для школы: Избр.
пед. произв.: В 2 т. Москва: АСОРУ, T. II. С. 41-48.

References
Bacila, C. R. 2012. The Life of Dale Carnegie and His
Philosophy of Success. New York: Amazon, 309 p.
Bukharkina, M. U. 2003. Technologies of multilevel education.
An article in Foreign languages in school. In Journal of science
and methodology 3: 11-12.
Kilpatrick, W. H. 1918.The Project Method. In Teachers College
Record 19: 319-334.
Dewey J. 1915. Psychology and Pedagogical thinking. /
Translated from English by N. М. Nikolskaya; General editor N.
D. Vinogradova. Мoscow: Mir. 202 p.
Hulpern, D. 2000. Psychology of critical thinking. SPB.: St.
Petersburg, 512 p.

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Shatskiy, S. T. 2011. American educationists visiting us. In
Shatskiy S. Т. The school for children and children for school:
Selected ped. works.: In 2 volumes. Мoscow: ASORU, V. II.: 41-
48.
Telyachuk, V. P., Lesina, E. V. 2007. Innovative technologies in
Primary School. Kharkov: Osnova, 240 p.

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GENERAL AND SPECIFIC LINGUISTICS

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-372-383

VARIABILITY OF TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY

BY THE EXAMPLE OF METAPHOR AND METONYMY

Gulshat Z. Beysembaeva1, Roza F. Zhusupova2

L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University

Astana city, Kazakhstan
1
e-mail: [email protected]
2
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The article deals with the problem of the secondary nature of the
meanings of prototypical terms-invariants. A detailed study of
variants of the terms-prototypes is carried out using the theory of
prototypes of E. Rosh. The prototype term is considered as an
invariant cognitive model of human thinking. The substantiation
of the presence of metonymy and metaphor phenomena in the
scientific texts of considered electric power industry term system
is given. A presentable series of examples, which is the evidence
base of the conducted research, is provided. It is proved that
terms-variants as well as invariants can enter the sphere of
fixation with equal ability and equal right, firmly entrenched as a
variant of the term-prototype, that is characterized only for this
particular terminological system. The presentational number of
examples is a fragmentary consequence of the analysis of more
than 350 texts in Russian, German, and French. Also there are a
number of examples in this work which most clearly demonstrate
the necessity of metaphorical transfer. It is proved by authors
that the presence of metonymic and metaphorical transfers in the
term systems of the studied sublanguage is a necessary and

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unavoidable consequence of the dynamic development of the
language itself.
In the terminological systems of the languages analyzed in the
framework of this study, in the terminological system of the
German language, in particular, the frequency functioning of a
similar terminological combination (TC) in the scientific text is
less pronounced. This fact is explained by the desire of the
German language for a clearer, more limited polysemantic
variability of terms of the language for special purposes (LSP),
the so-called language savings, which corresponds to the
international requirements of INFOTERM regarding the
requirements of brevity and accuracy of the meaning of a term.
In relation to the subject of this study, we have taken as a basis
the principle of a unified category, according to which the
meanings of a word can be considered as forming a category.
The authors give a clear justification for the fact that, in relation
to each individual area of knowledge, a polysemantic term can be
unambiguous, and, conversely, an unambiguous term can acquire
a polysemantic character. The main meaning of the term, or
word, on the basis of which the term is created, is a semantic
support for its new meanings and uses (lexical-semantic variants
and contextual variants).
The same principle of nuclear, central importance is relevant for
the texts of science of the considered terminological system of the
French language. The unified principle of nuclear location,
otherwise, the Central invariant, in our opinion, the closely
related factor of the considered sublanguage as a term system one
of the Romano-Germanic groups. This fact is undoubtedly a
historically determined factor in the parallel development of
European scientific thought, which provoked the interpenetration
of both invariants and variants of the term systems of interest to
us.
On the basis of the foregoing, the authors put forward the
following hypothesis: "in the framework of the theory of
prototypes E. Roche, we have considered the secondary meanings

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(narrowing of the value, expansion of the value, displacement) is
nothing more than variants of the terms of prototypes.
In this work, this postulate is considered in application to a fair
number of examples of the use of the scientific term LSP in the
term systems of the German, French, Russian languages.
Thus, the invariants - terms, which have metonymic and
metaphorical transfers, revealed in the course of the research, are
a natural aspect of the polysemantic variability of the terms
considered by us.
Key words: prototype, invariant, substitution, metaphor,
metonymy

Introduction
Variability as a linguistic phenomenon is a multifaceted process
carried out through various techniques, methods and ways that
are characterized for each specific language. Nevertheless, there
is a common tendency of language variability for all languages,
one of which is the tendency of occurrence and application
especially in the professional language, the phenomena of
metaphoric and metonymic transfers. This technique can be
manifested in different linguistic cultures according to the
national, cultural, cognitive specifics of the language. In this
article, we consider one of the types of language variation,
namely, technical terms that we consider as prototypes-invariants
from the point of view of metaphor. In the language for specific
purposes (hereinafter, LSP), more precisely in the language of
scientific and technical literature, metonymy is used quite often to
designate a subject or phenomenon based on one of its features.
Objectives: invariants – prototypes of electrical engineering term
system in multi-structural languages.
Purpose of the study: analysis of the metaphoric and metonymic
component of invariants - prototypes of the electrical engineering
terminology system.

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Research methodology
The purpose of this work is not to study metaphor as a linguistic
phenomenon, which has been studied quite well in a number of
works. In this research, we adhere to the point of view of G.
Lakoff (Lakoff G., 2011: 101) and V.M. Leychik (Leychik V.M.,
2008: 58) that figurative metaphors can be simultaneously
cognitive”. In the course of this study, we identified a number of
figurative metaphors, some of which can be attributed to
cognitive.
For example: Could we exist without an optical window? This is
an indispensable condition of the fact of our life. Without the
optical radio window, our astronomers would not have known the
joys of triumphal science and a whole series of surprising
discoveries (radio astronomy) for many decades. The metaphor
“optical window” acts as a tool of knowledge in the field of radio
astronomy, carrying in itself also an emotional and expressive
shade. “... Without an optical radio window, they would not have
known the joys of triumphant science ...”. Similar metaphors of
N.D. Arutyunova are called "intellectual metaphors" (Arutyunova
N., 1990: 91).
In the LSP metonymy is used quite often to designate a subject or
phenomenon based on one of its features. Metonymic nomens can
be substituted by direct equivalents of the target language in
translation.
For example:
1. Les semi-conducteurs sont très aptes à jouer le rôle des relais.
Semiconductor devices can be successfully used as a relay.
N. semi-conducteurs fully substitutes N. relais, which in fact is
characterized for Russian-language version of the TС data: TС
“semiconductor devices” absolutely replaces the term “relay”.
The analysis of texts of specialty showed that in the studied
sublanguage the metonymy of the following types prevails: action
– the result of action; action - place of action; material - subject
of material; repository - its contents.

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Let’s consider this linguistics phenomena on a number of the
following TCs of the electric power engineering sublanguage we
study: ionosphere cloud (prototype - invariant), ionization cloud,
artificial ionization cloud, artificial ionosphere cloud, plasma
ionization clouds, ionospheric radio channel – variants (Ageyeva
E.T., 2012: 57). These TCs function largely in scientific text of
the specialty of interest to us. (According to the data of statistical
analysis we carried out, Metonymy is present largely in scientific
texts, whereas the phenomenon of metaphorization is more
peculiar to both literary and LSP texts).
The following examples of the terminological system of the
Russian language taken from original sources in the specialty
serve as an evidence base of the functioning of these TCs:
1. As a result of the artificial effect, new ionization plasma
clouds can form in the ionosphere, which under appropriate
conditions lead not only to quantitative but also to qualitative
changes of the characteristics of the information signal in the
communication channel (Ageyeva E.T., 2012: 49).
The prototype - invariant “ionospheric cloud” is a metonymic
transfer as a part to the whole.
2. In particular, at certain spatial positions of the artificial
ionospheric cloud at the receiving point effects of almost
complete attenuation of the signal, multipath, focusing and
defocusing may occur (Ageyeva E.T., 2012: 57).
In this example, the principle of metonymic transfer is also exists,
but already as “material - an object from material”, “... an
artificial ionospheric cloud”.
Metonymy exists here as a repository instead of content. In
addition, the TC “cloud of ionization” is a variant of the TC
“ionosphere cloud” (Danilkin N.P., Zhbankov G.A., Zhuravlev
S.V., Kotonayeva N.G., 2014: 509).
Let’s consider the reflection of the phenomenon of metonymy on
the basis of the theory of prototypes in the following examples of
scientific and literary texts:

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1. The field of a magnet is a longitudinal, magnetic wave. In this
magnetic wave, due to the change in density, a magnetic field
arises in the form of a standing longitudinal magnetic wave.
In this case, metonymy is based on the replacement of almost
whole CT according to the principle - a representative of the class
instead of the whole class, i.e. the notion of a “magnet field” is
nothing more than a “longitudinal magnetic wave”.
There is the same technique in French analogue of the text:
L'aimant de champ est une onde magnétique longitudinal. Dans
cette vague magnétique, en raison de changements dans le saut de
densité dans le champ magnétique se pose sous la forme d'une
onde magnétique longitudinal debout.
The TC l'aimant de champ (magnet field) is substituted by the
MCTC “une onde magnétique longitudinal” (“longitudinal
magneticwave”) (Khmelnik S.I., 2008: 9).
The terminological system of the German language also did not
avoid the use of metonymy especially in the texts of the scientific
style.
For example:
Zu dem in Spalte auftretenden Freguenzbegriff sei erklärt, dass
man unter Freguenz – symbolisiert durch den griechischen
Buchstaben Ƴ – die Zahl der Schwingungen pro Sekunde
versteht. - the notion of frequency shown in the column means
that the frequency indicated by the Greek symbol Ƴ is the
number of oscillations per second.
Metonymic transfer is based on the principle of action - result of
an action, where the ST Freguenz - (frequency) is an action,
while the MCTC die Zahl der Schwingungen pro
Sekunde - (number of oscillations per second) is the result of an
action;
An important factor acquiring special significance in the correct
interpretation and understanding of the basic
invariants - prototypes of the field of electric power industry that
we are interested in is metaphor.

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Results
We have analyzed more than 350 texts in Russian, German and
French. Below are a number of examples that most clearly
demonstrate the need of metaphorical transfer. These phenomena
provide great accessibility in the understanding and application of
the interpretation of special terms, both by professional
specialists who are familiar with the terminology of the
sublanguage we are studying, and not by specialists.
For example:
1. Es besteht, sofern man einigen schmalen Spektralausschnitten
mittlerer Wellenlängen und von den komplizierten
Durchlässigkeitsverhältnissen im Revier der kosmischen
Höhenstrahlung absieht, aus zwei etwas unlänglicheren
Bereichen:
... if you do not take into account some narrow spectral sections
of the wave lengths of the medium and complex permeability
coefficients in the area of cosmic rays, it will consist of two
slightly elongated areas:aus elektomagnetischen Strahlungen
zwischen ƛ = 200 nm bis ƛ = 3000 nm, sogenanntes “optisches
Fenster” - from electromagnetic radiation from ƛ = 200 nm to ƛ =
3000 nm, also called “optical window”;
Metaphorical transfer is based on a certain similarity of the form
of radio frequency radiation with the lexeme “window” of the
commonly used language. In addition, according to the theory of
E. Rosh, the TC “Radiogrequenzstrahlung” being a central
invariant-prototype can be substated by absolute variants:
“Radiofenster”, “optisches Fenster”.
Also in the course of the study we identified the frequency of the
TC “ionospheric humps”, which has a clearly defined
metaphorical characteristic as the similarity between two subjects
or phenomena, namely, the shape of the subject (on which the
metaphorical transfer is based, can relate to the shape of the
subject, to the location of parts, to the nature of his actions, to
color, etc.).

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Below examples are taken from the scientific magazine called
“Radiation flows, ionosphere, thermosphere”. The term
combination “ionospheric humps” that we are interested in
functions in almost every sentence, and it is duplicated within
some texts.
Examples:
1. There are two processes in the formation of ionospheric
humps:
the first one: the intra-ionospheric electrostatic interaction of
electron clouds “rolling down” from the poles to the equator
interact with each other.
the second one: the interaction of electron clouds with the solar
electric charge, and the Earth's magnetic field changing during
the day under the influence of the Sun.
2. Such interaction forms an increased concentration of electrons
in the subtropical region, ionospheric humps.
Metaphorical transfer is based on the fact that the TS “electronic
cloud” is represented as an “ionospheric hump”, i.e. as a form of
an subject, more precisely as a similarity with a bulging camel
hump (Belokurov G., 2015).
The next TC in terms of frequency of use in a scientific text and
having a metaphorical characteristic is the TC “electronic
cloud”.
Examples:
1. From the night side the electron cloud rises above the magnetic
field and by the configuration of the magnetic field the maximum
density of the electron cloud shifts to the equator.
In this example the metaphoric transfer is based on the fact that
the TC “electronic cloud” is represented as a cloud with a
maximum concentration of electrons, i.e., as a form of an subject,
more precisely as a similarity by analogy with a cloud as a natural
phenomenon with a maximum concentration of rain dust
(Belokurov G., 2015).
Concerning terminology system of the German language it should
be noted that the frequency functioning of a similar TC in the

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scientific text is less pronounced, which is probably due to the
aspiration of the German language for more clearer more limited
polysemantic variability of the terms of the LSP.
There are examples below in which the variant of the TC
“Ionosphäre” (ionosphere) is used only twice throughout the
section located on 21 pages of text devoted to the description of
this phenomenon of physics.
1. Die natürlichen Fluktuationen bei der Energieeinstrahlung auf
die Ionosphäre sind wesentlich größer als das, was IRI
hochschickt (Von Florian Freistetter, 2010).
Many invariants of terms-prototypes of the terminology system of
the German language that reflects one or another physical
phenomenon have N. “Welle” - waveas the central term.
Example:
1. Aber was macht nun eigentlich wirklich dort? Was bringt es
uns, wenn irgendwelche Leute in Alaska Radiowellenin Richtung
Ionosphäre schicken? – But what is actually there? What does
this bring to us if any people in Alaska send radio wavesin the
direction of the ionosphere.
Metaphorical transfer exists in the TC data by analogy with the
wave-like movement of radio frequencies, electromagnetic
radiation, electromagnetic wavelength, as well as mental waves
transmitted at a certain frequency of several Hz.
2. Die üblichen Gedankenwellen, die unser Gehirn erzeugt,
reichen von 14 Hz bis 40 Hz. Diese Frequenzspannweite schließt
nur Dendriten (Zellfortsätze von Nervenzellen) ein, die man in
Gehirnzellen der linken Hirnhemisphäre (rationale Hirnhälfte)
vorfindet.
In our opinion, the above examples of scientific nature are quite
convincing, so we suppose it interesting to consider the
functioning of these prototypes-invariants in the following
examples of the literary text:
1. Les hautes lames du Pacifique viennent mourir à ses
pieds… - Dying and falling the high water shafts of the Pacific
Ocean was going back to his feet.

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2. Les lignes parallėles des flots écumeux se succėdent avec
lenteur. Ȧ quelque distance de la mer les sables ont une couleur
grisâtre; sans cesse battus par les vagues, ils sont parfaitement
unis, d’une consistence très solide (Cendrars) (Maurène M.C.,
2003: 88).
In this example there is also a metaphorical transfer based on the
nature of the action of the waves.
The terms used in the above examples which are prototypes-
invariants performing the function of the central terms are given
on the scale of amplification and increasing of the power of the
waves. In other words, according to the theory of E. Rosh, the
terms highlighted in sentences are the best examples reflecting
the brightest colors of the world perception, otherwise, the mental
perception of the surrounding reality.
According to the philosophers John Austin and Ludwig
Wittgenstein, “word meanings can be viewed as forming a
category where each meaning is a member of this category”
(Lakoff G., 2011: 35).
Discussion
The meanings may not be similar in the question of the presence
of common features, however, they may be related to each other
by some other relations that can be precisely defined. Moreover,
these relations provide an opportunity to consider the basic
meanings as forming a single category, i.e. relations provide
some explanations on how and in what way one word or one term
can be applied to express different semantic meanings.
Based on the above there is the conclusion:
According to the theory of prototypes by E. Roche, the secondary
meanings we are considering (narrowing the value, expanding the
value, displacement) are nothing but variants of the terms of the
prototypes. The terms-invariants with metonymic and
metaphorical transfer identified in the course of the study are
natural aspect of the polysemantic variability of the terms we
have considered. These invariants-prototypes often characterized
by expansion of meaning, are determined first by means of

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communication with the mechanism and logic of knowledge, i.e.
with extra-linguistic reality which serves as an impetus for
language change.

References
Ageyeva E.T. 2012. Numerical experiment to evaluate the effect
of the artificial ionospheric ionization cloud on the state of a
decameter radio channel. In Systems. Methods. Technology,
4(16): pp. 57-61.
Arutyunova N.D. 1990. Metaphor and discourse. In Theory of
metaphor. Moscow: Progress, 512 pp.
Danilkin N.P., Zhbankov G.A., Zhuravlev S.V., Kotonaeva N.G.
Transionospheric radio sounding. In Method for diagnosing the
presence of ionospheric irregularities. Moscow: Nestor –
Academic. 2014. – Т. 54, № 4. ‒ pp. 508-519.
Leychik V.M. 2008. People and words: how words are born and
live in Russian. - Ed. 2nd, rev. and add / ed. G.V. Stepanova.
Moscow: Progress, 213 pp.
Lakoff, D. 2011. Women, fire and dangerous things. What
categories of language say about thinking. Book 1: Mind outside
the car / lane. from English Ib Shatunovsky. Moscow: Gnosis,
792 pp.
Maurène M.C., Shigarevskaja N.A. 2003. Thesaurus of the
French language. Moscow : Progress, 350 pp.
Khmelnik S.I., Mukhin I.A., Khmelnik N.I. 2008. Dokads of
independent authors. In Longitudinal waves of a permanent
magnet, pp. 9-24.
Sb 2010. Von Florian Freistetter. HAARP: Erdbebenwaffe,
Gedankenkontrolle – oder ganz normale Wissenschaft?
http://scienceblogs.de/astrodicticum-simplex/2010/08/04/haarp-
erdbebenwaffe-gedankenkontrolle-oder-ganz-normale-
wissenschaft/. [Accessed February 2 2015].
Belogem 2009. Belokurov G. Radiation flows, ionosphere,
thermosphere. Auroras, ozone holes and ionospheric humps.

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http://www.belogem.ru/1_elektra/01_1_elektra.html. [Accessed
March 14 2015].

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-383-399

WAYS OF REPRESENTATION OF THE CONCEPT

"SOUL" IN KALMYK LANGUAGE

Olga K. Bavaeva

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
One can name numerous articles, dissertations studying different
concepts including the concept “soul” in Russian, English and
other languages. Over last decades lots of articles and papers
have turned up studying concepts of Kalmyk language, the
language spoken in one of the regions of Russian Federation.
Among them concepts “happiness”, “destiny”, “nomads”,
“compassion”, “time”, “modesty” just to name. As for the
concept “soul”, which is thoroughly examined in Russian and
other languages, it hasn’t attracted due attention of linguists
studying concepts in Kalmyk language. Though, it is the one that
undoubtedly can be referred to basic concepts of Kalmyk culture.
Besides, an alarming fact that Kalmyk language is included in the
number of endangered languages makes it utterly important to
study the language. Thus this article is a way to contribute our bit
to preserve this beautiful and ancient language.
The article studies the ways to represent the concept “soul” in
Kalmyk language speaking community. The linguistic material to
be studied is taken from verses by modern poet Badma Vaskaev
as the outstanding representative of Kalmyk speaking community.

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The poetry by this author reflects the beauty, linguistic wealth and
diversity of Kalmyk language as well as the essence of Kalmyk
way of thinking and world outlook.
Badma Vaskaev was a connoisseur of Kalmyk language and
Kalmyk, Russian and world literature. He highly appreciated the
treasure of Kalmyk culture the legendary heroic epos “Jangar”
and poetry by famous poet D.N. Kugultinov. These facts define
the depth and creative power of the poetry by B. Vaskaev.
The ideas of this article are based on theories of concept worked
out by prominent Russian linguists V.I. Karasic, I.A. Sternin, S.G.
Vorkachev, E.M. Vereschagin, V.G. Kostomarov and others.
The concept in the article is understood as conventional mental
unit designed for comprehensive study of a language, mentality
and culture as it is defined by V.I. Karasic. The idea of a frame,
which is traditionally used in cognitive study as a tool to describe
metaphors, is employed here to fully depict the ways of forming
the concept “soul”.
Semantic, component and context analysis uncovered ways
representing the concept under consideration. The idea of
individual concepts existing along with those belonging to some
groups, nations, and the whole humanity mentioned in the article
by V.I. Karasic and G.G. Slyshkin prompted the choice of the
linguistic material for the article.
The semantic analysis of the verses resulted in working out
several frames that shape the concept “soul” in the poetry under
consideration. Metaphoric use of words that do not have literal
meaning “soul” enlarges the ways to convey the idea of the
concept.
Having studied the linguistic material it can be concluded that in
Kalmyk language the notion of soul can be expressed with the
help of several words such as: седкл sedkl, чееҗ chedge, сүмсн
sumsn, өрч oerch. In the studied verses the word өрч oerch bears
the notion of the concept “soul” while in the dictionary this
meaning is not reflected. Besides in spoken Kalmyk language this
word is not used in the meaning of soul.

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Analysis has showed that: firstly, sometimes words representing
the concept acquire their meanings only due to the context.
Secondly, there are cases when one and the same word bears two
meanings in one sentence, literal and metaphoric. And finally,
often two words manifesting the concept can be found in one line,
facilitating or even contrasting lexical meanings of one another.
It is necessary to mention that the word седкл sedkl is a core
word which is mainly used to represent “soul” both as a national
concept and an individual one.
Key words: concept “soul”, frame, individual concepts

КОНЦЕПТ “ДУША” В КАЛМЫЦКОЙ ЯЗЫКОВОЙ

КАРТИНЕ МИРА

Ольга К. Баваева

Институт иностранных языков

Российский университет дружбы народов
Москва, Россия
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация.
Можно привести многочисленный список статей,
диссертаций, посвященных изучению различных концептов,
в том числе и концепта «душа», в русском, английском и
других языках. За последние десятилетия появилось
множество исследований концептов калмыцкой
лингвокультуры. Калмыцкий язык один из национальных
языков Российской Федерации.
К примеру, есть исследования таких концептов, как
“счастье”, “судьба”, “кочевники”, “кочевье”, “скромность”,
“сострадание”, “время” и др. Однако концепт “душа”,
тщательно изученный в русской и других лингвокультурах,
не получил должного внимания исследователей калмыцких
концептов. Между тем он, несомненно, может быть отнесен к

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базовым концептам калмыцкой лингвокультуры. Кроме того,
тот факт, что калмыцкий язык был внесен в список
исчезающих языков, придает важность и актуальность
изучению всех аспектов данного языка, включая и концепты.
Эта статья – попытка внести лепту в дело сохранения этого
красивого, богатого и древнего языка.
В настоящей статье рассматриваются способы репрезентации
концепта “душа” в калмыцкой лингвокультуре.
Лингвистическим материалом послужили поэтические
произведения современного поэта Бадмы Иджиляновича
Васькаева, яркого представителя калмыцкой литературы и
всего народа. Произведения поэта передают не только
красоту и богатство калмыцкого языка, но характер и
менталитет народа.
Бадма Васькаев был тонким знатоком родного языка.
Образованным и начитанным человеком, с глубоким знанием
калмыцкой, русской, мировой культуры и литературы. Он
высоко ценил древний богатырский эпос “Джангар”,
жемчужину калмыцкой культуры и языка. В своем
творчестве поэт часто обращается к этому произведению.
Корифей калмыцкой литературы Д.Н. Кугультинов был его
кумиром и учителем. Это определяет силу и глубину
поэтического дара Бадмы Васькаева.
Теоретической основой исследования послужили работы
отечественных когнитологов и лингвокультурологов, таких
как В.И. Карасик, И.А. Стернин, С.Г. Воркачев, Е.М.
Верещагин, В.Г. Костомаров. В данном исследовании
концепт понимается как условная ментальная единица,
направленная на комплексное изучение языка, сознания и
культуры. Для моделирования концепта применяется
традиционная единица когнитивистики – фрейм.
В.И. Карасик, описывая базовые характеристики концепта,
говорит о существовании индивидуальных концептов, наряду
с групповыми, этнокультурными и общечеловеческими. Это

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положение определило выбор материала исследования и его
направление.
В настоящем исследовании рассматривается концепт «душа»
в творчестве современного калмыцкого поэта Бадмы
Васькаева. Для достижения поставленной цели проведен
анализ примеров, собранных из стихотворений поэта
методом сплошной выборки. Использование лексико-
семантического, компонентного, контекстуального анализа
отобранного материала с их переводом на русский, или
подбором эквивалентов к ним, позволяют выявить способы
объективации концепта в данных произведениях.
Исследование выявило особенности репрезентации концепта
“душа” в индивидуальной картине мира поэта. Так, лексемы
“седкл”, “өрч”, “чееҗ” овеществляют концепт «душа»
посредством определенных фреймов. Анализ лексического
материала приводит к выводу, что исследуемый концепт
моделируется посредством таких фреймов, как: “живое
существо”, “предмет – пуля, стрела, попадающая в цель”,
“нравственный критерий”, “музыкальный инструмент”,
“вещество способное кипеть”, “жилище”, “вместилище”,
“емкость”, “море”.
Семантический, контекстуальный анализы показывают что,
во-первых, в некоторых случаях лексические единицы,
объективирующие концепт, приобретают значение
исследуемого концепта только в определенном контексте.
Чаще всего это лексемы “өрч” и “чееҗ”. Во-вторых, есть
случаи, когда одно слово реализует два значения:
литеральное, например: “грудина” и имплицитно,
метафорическое значение “душа”. В-третьих, в некоторых
примерах два слова, репрезентирующих концепт, могут
использоваться одновременно, дополняя и подчеркивая,
деннотативное и коннотационные значения друг друга. В
таких случаях концепт “душа” манифестируется лексемами
“седкл” или “чееҗ” и гораздо реже лексемой “өрч”. Согласно
результатам анализа, это может объясняться тем, что лексема

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“өрч” не имеет закрепленного в словаре значения “душа”.
Как было сказано выше, нет и зафиксированных случаев
употребления этой лексемы в значении «душа» в разговорной
речи. Таким образом, можно сделать вывод, что такая
объективация данного концепта – характерная черта
индивидуальной картины мира поэта. В калмыцком языке
также имеется лексема “сүмсн”, “бесплотная субстанция,
покидающая тело в момент смерти”, “привидение”. Случаев
употребления данной лексемы в рассмотренных примерах не
встречается.
Таким образом, в произведениях поэта, соответственно, в его
индивидуальной картине мира концепт “душа”
объективируется посредством следующих лексических
единиц: “седкл”, “чееҗ”, “өрч”. Причем из трех этих единиц
ключевой и наиболее распространенной является лексема
“седкл”, “душа”, которая и дает название концепту.
Практически в каждом стихотворении можно обнаружить
данный концепт, что указывает на его важность для поэта и
всей калмыцкой лингвокультуры.
Ключевые слова: концепт “душа”, фрейм, индивидуальный
концепт.

Вступление
За последнее десятилетие появилось множество
исследований различных концептов калмыцкой
лингвокультуры. Однако концепт “душа”, тщательно
изученный во многих лингвокультурах, до сих пор не
получил должного внимания калмыцких исследователей.
Между тем, данный концепт может быть отнесен к базовым
концептам калмыцкой лингвокультуры, наряду с такими, как
“род”, “судьба”, “счастье”, “кочевье”, “кочевник” и др.
Калмыцкий язык был внесен ЮНЕСКО в список
исчезающих языков Российской Федерации. Этот тревожный
факт обязывает носителей данного языка изучать все аспекты

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родного языка, и всемерно способствовать его сохранению и
развитию.
Предмет исследования
В настоящем исследовании рассматриваются способы
репрезентации концепта «душа» в творчестве современного
калмыцкого поэта Бадмы Васькаева.
В.И. Карасик, описывая базовые характеристики концепта,
говорит о существовании индивидуальных концептов, наряду
с групповыми, этнокультурными и общечеловеческими. Это
положение определило выбор материала исследования и его
направление.
Цель исследования
Системное описание лексических средств репрезентации
концепта «душа» в произведениях поэта и выявление
способов моделирования данного концепта в
индивидуальной картине мира.
Методология исследования
Для решения поставленных задач были использованы
следующие методы: лексико-семантический, компонентный,
контекстуальный анализ, метод моделирования концепта
посредством фреймов. Языковым материалом послужили
словарные дефиниции лексических единиц,
объективирующих концепт, результаты анализа примеров,
отобранных методом сплошной выборки из сборника стихов
Бадмы Васькаева.
Теоретической основой исследования послужили работы
отечественных когнитологов и лингвокультурологов (В.И.
Карасик, И.А. Стернин, С.Г. Воркачев, Е.М. Верещагин, В.Г.
Костомаров). В данном исследовании концепт понимается
как условная ментальная единица, направленная на
комплексное изучение языка, сознания и культуры. Для
моделирования концепта применяется традиционная единица
когнитивистики – фрейм.
Как известно, можно выделить индивидуальные, групповые
(социокультурные), этнокультурные и общечеловеческие

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концепты. Причем «индивидуальные концепты богаче и
разнообразнее, чем любые коллективные, поскольку они
являются «производными сознания и опыта отдельных
индивидов» (Karasic V.I., Slyshkin G.G., 2005: 13). Поэтому в
настоящем исследовании предпринята попытка исследовать
концепт «душа» в индивидуальной картине мира.
Анализ стихотворений из сборника “Төрскн һазрин заль”
“Тепло родной земли” показал, что для объективации
концепта «душа» используются три лексемы: седкл, чееҗ,
өрч. По мнению Н.Н. Болдырева, «структура и содержание
различных концептов выявляются через значения языковых
единиц, репрезентирующих данный концепт, их словарные
толкования, речевые контексты» (Boldirev N.N., 2004: 26)
В калмыцко-русском словаре под редакцией Б.Д. Муниева
приводятся следующие значения данных лексем:
седкл – 1. мысль, дума, размышления, 2. сердце, душа,
психика (Muniev B.D., 1997: 447);
өрч – 1. анатомич. грудо-брюшная преграда, диафрагма
подсердечная мышца; 2. разг. грудь (Muniev B.D., 1997: 425);
чееҗ – 1. Грудь, грудина. 2. перенос. душа, ум (Muniev B.D.,
1997: 646).
Лексема «седкл» обозначает некую субстанцию, не имеющую
материального, физического выражения. В разговорной речи
часто встречается сочетание – седклтә күн, т.е. имеющий
седкл «душу», или цаһан «белый» седклтә – душевный
человек.
Чееҗ обозначает грудь, грудину и иногда может иметь
значение «душа». В то время как лексема өрч не имеет
лексикографического значения “душа”, “нематериальная
бессмертная субстанция”.
Следует отметить, что в калмыцком языке для обозначения
«бессмертной субстанции» используется слово сүмсн,
нематериальная сущность, которая покидает тело человека в
момент смерти. Иногда она покидает тело человека, когда он
сильно напуган. Например, сумсн уга; сумсн-сур уга – душа в

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пятки ушла. В калмыцком варианте без души, сүмсн-сүр
редупликат, где сүр отдельного значения не имеет; сүмсән
алдх, букв. упустить, уронить душу. В рассмотренных
поэтических произведениях Бадмы Васькаева примеров с
данной лексемой не встречается.
Приведем примеры актуализации концепта «душа»
посредством лексемы «седкл».
Седкл душа как живое существо
Менрсн седклчнь генткн тусад (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 24)
менрсн седклчнь – менрх – онеметь. Менрсн причастие
«онемевший». Здесь седкл «душа» способна, как живое
существо, онеметь. В то же время в сочетании с глаголом
тусх в значении “прийтись по душе, понравиться” седкл тусх
– тусх попасть, данное сочетание объективирует
представление о душе как о неком материальном объекте,
пуле, стреле, которая попадает в цель. В данном примере
лексема “седкл” использована в лексикографическом
значении “душа”, далее по воле автора эта лексема
метафоризируется и создается образ и живого существа, и
предмета, пули, стрелы. Выражение «седкл тусх»
встречается в разговорном калмыцком языке, т.е. оно
отражает традиционное представление калмыков о душе. В
то время как выражение “менрсн седклчнь” отражает
индивидуальное видение поэта. В.Г. Гак отмечает: «В таких
частных закономерностях, касающихся сдвигов в значениях
слов, отражаются особенности общечеловеческой культуры,
характерные интеллектуальные ассоциации и вместе с тем
выявляются специфичные черты каждого отдельного языка и
культуры, отражаемой в нем» (Gak V.G., 1977: 19).
Рассмотрим следующий пример:
өрчд деврсн седклән хадhлнав
В данном примере концепт “душа” вербализуется лексемой
седкл как субстанция, вещество, которое может выкипать,
идти через край. В то время как өрч используется в прямом
значении: грудь, грудная клетка. Хранит в груди душу,

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которая выкипает, идет через край. Такой яркий образ,
репрезентирующий концепт, конечно же является авторским.
Душа, как живое существо, может успокоиться:
Седклдм төвкнлт үүдәhәд (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 29).
Седклдм – моей душе, төвкнлт – успокоение, үүдәһәд –
пораждать, вселять. Представление о душе как о живом
существе также бытует в калмыцкой лингвокультуре. В
разговорной речи люди говорят: седклм төвкнвә, что
означает «теперь я спокоен», «я успокоился».
Душу, как живое существо, можно тяжело ранить:
седклин күнд шавтав
шав – рана, шавтав – я имею рану, я ранен, күнд – тяжелый.
Душа, как живое существо, испытывает эмоции, в данном
случае радость:
Ховд ханҗ, седклм байрлна
Душа может болеть:
Сяяхн чини цогцас
седклин гемтә йовнав (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 25)
Cедклин гемтә букв. душевная болезнь, с болезнью души
йовнав – букв. хожу, нахожусь. Из описанных трех образов,
последние два характерны для общей калмыцкой
лингвокультуры, они встречаются в разговорной речи.
Душа может звать, взывать к кому-либо, в данном случае
душа обращается к матери:
Седкләрн экән дууднав
Седкләрн душой экән свою мать дууднав зову
Следующие примеры актуализируют фрейм: вместилище,
жилище.
Седклдм, иньгм, дангин бәәнәч (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 11)
Седклдм – в моей душе, иньгм – любимая, бәәнәч – живешь,
находишься, дангин – всегда. Душа – жилище, в котором
обитает любимая.
цальград седклимм гүүнд тодлгдсн (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 20)
- душа емкость, имеющая глубину.

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Седклимм гүүнд – седклимм – моей души, гүүнд – в глубине,
тодлгдсн – запоминаться, запечатляться.
В следующих примерах седкл вербализует фрейм
«нравственный критерий» человека, зачастую используется с
прилагательным цаhан, белый.
В стихотворении, посвященному корифею калмыцкой
литературы Д.Н. Кугультинову, по мысли автора
стихотворения, наследие поэта останется в памяти потомков,
освященное светлыми помыслами и чистотой души великого
поэта.
Деерлсн биш, цаhан седкләр
Даван кесн ачнь тодлгдна (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 19)
Цаһан белый седкләр – душой, кесн ачнь – наследие,
тодлгдна – от тодлх помнить, запоминать. Еще один пример
из стихотворения о матери: Экинм седкл чидлм чанhана
Cветлая душа матери, знание и понимание высоты и чистоты
ее души придают силы при воспоминаниях о ней.
Чик седкл, чилгир санан (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 45)
Чилгч угаhар чеежитн сарулдтха
В данном примере, чик правильный, праведный. Праведная
душа чик седкл здесь подразумевается праведная, достойная
жизнь, жизнь по-совести позволит жить легко, без тяжести на
душе.
Чееҗитн сарулдтха –
Чееҗ расширяется, становится просторным, светлым
актуализируется фрейм помещение. Обе лексемы седкл и
чееҗ вербализуют концепт “душа”, но каждая лексема
раскрывает, актуализирует свой фрейм.
саак чееҗм энлнә
саак опять, чееҗм – моя душа энлх – скорбит
Еще один актуализатор концепта «душа» в калмыцкой
лингвокультуре – это чееҗ грудина, грудь.
Фрейм «живое существо» также объективируется,
опредмечивается данной лексемой. Лирический герой
взывает к любимой:

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Чееҗдм, хәәмнь, амрл уга (Vaskaev B.I. 2013: 11).
Чееҗдм моей душе, амрл покой, отдых, уга – нет. Душа не
находит покоя как живое существо.
зовсн чееҗм ханhана
Зовсн – страдающий, ханһана – удовлетворяет, успокаивает;
страдающая душа находит успокоение, удовлетворение.
Согласно мнению И.А. Стернина, З.Д. Поповой, концепт
«включает как свою составную часть психологически
реальное значение и «лексикографическое» значение, но по
объему своего содержания остается неизмеримо больше, чем
оба вышеназванных значения» (Popova Z.D., Sternin I.A.,
2005: 8).
Так, в следующих примерах концепт «душа» актуализируется
посредством двух значений слова. Первое
лексикографическое значение «грудина», и в то же время
некий материальный объект, который может расширяться.
Это значение становится понятным по контрасту с другим
выражением, бытующем в калмыцком языке - чееҗ бүтнә,
которое описывает состояние скуки, подавленности, тоски.
уудулж чееҗән ханhалав (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 22)
Уудулх расширять.
Ханһах – имеет значение – утолить, удовлетворить, насытить.
В сочетании с данным словом лексема “чееҗ” объективирует
концепт “душа”. Таким образом, здесь слово чееҗ
актуализирует фрейм живое существо и предмет, который
может расширяться. Глагол уудулх активирует сему “грудина”
чееҗ, она может расшириться, в то время как ханһалав
“утолил” вызывает образ души как живого существа, которое
может утолять жажду, например.
Күчтә дольган чееҗм дүүргәд (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 12)
Күчтә дольган мощная волна заполнила душу, чееҗ – некая
емкость, которую можно наполнить, дүүргх – наполнять.
җирhлтә акчм чееҗдм асна
душа – чееҗ вместилище, в котором горит огонь.

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Җирһлтә – счастливое, агчм – мгновение, чееҗдм – в душе
моей, асна – горит.
В следующем примере лексема чееҗ актуализирует фрейм
музыкальный инструмент.
чееҗинм судц көндәв
чееҗинм – моей души, судц – струны, көндәв – тронул,
коснулся.
Душа вместилище для всего мира, всего сущего. В данном
примере вербализатором концепта выступает лексема өрч –
грудина, грудная клетка.
өрчдән делкә теврҗ багтав (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 19)
Өрчдән – в своей душе, в груди, делкә – мир, народ, теврх –
обнять, взять обеими руками и поднять, багтав – вместить.
Буквально обнял весь мир, и поместил в своей душе, груди.
күмни чееҗд санань асна – его мысль горит в душе/груди
всего человечества.
Фрейм “предмет, материальный объект” актуализируется в
следующем примере:
Баh насни санан (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 23)
бәрҗ өрч цокв - воспоминания о юности застучали в груди.
Бәрҗ причастие от глагола бәрх держать. Здесь душа некий
предмет, который можно держать, удерживать и стучать по
нему. Несмотря на то, что в данном примере все же
превалирует сема «грудь», можно утверждать наличие семы
“душа”, т.к. речь идет о воспоминаниях молодости, которые
всколыхнулись, застучали в груди, в душе. Воспоминания
санан актуализируют концепт “душа” в слове өрч в данном
примере. Здесь также активируются два значения
литеральное, лексикографическое, и имплицитно реализуется
значение “душа”.
В следующем примере актуализируется фрейм “вещество,
способное кипеть”.
Эмин чееҗ бульглна
Эрклдж өвртм асна (Vaskaev B.I. 2013: 13)

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Здесь лексема чееҗ сохраняет сему “грудина”, но в
сочетании с глаголом бульглх бурлить актуализируется сема
“душа, бурлящая, переполняющая грудь”. Следующая
строчка усиливает сему “душа” – она (душа) ластясь, горит,
сияет в груди.
Еще один пример, в котором душа – вещество, которое может
размокнуть, и вещество, способное стать свежим,
проветрится, или живое существо, которое может развеяться,
чееҗм девтәәҗ, сергәсн болв (Vaskaev B.I. 2013: 14)
чеежм – мою душу, девтәәҗ деепричастие от девтәәх –
замочить, размочить, сергәх – освежить, прийти в себя,
очнуться.
Душа как некое вещество может разгореться и как море стать
бурным, покрыться волнами.
җирhләр чееҗм асҗ дольгалхла (Vaskaev B.I., 2013: 33)
Җирһләр – счастьем, чееҗм моя душа, асҗ – разгораясь,
разгоревшись, дольгалхла – волноваться, если разволнуется,
станет бурным.
В этих примерах реализуются метафорическое значение и
лексикографическое значение, моделируя концепт “душа”.
Результаты
Ввыполненное исследование позволяет сделать вывод, что в
творчестве Бадмы Васькаева концепт “душа”
репрезентируется лексемами “седкл”, “өрч”, “чееҗ”
посредством фреймов “живое существо”, “предмет – пуля,
стрела, попадающая в цель”, “нравственный критерий”,
“музыкальный интструмент”, “вещество, способное кипеть”,
“жилище”, “вместилище”, “емкость”, “море”.
Всего в работе было рассмотрено тридцать четыре примера, в
которых используются лексемы “седкл”, “өрч”, “чееҗ”. Из
них в одиннадцати примерах используется лексема “седкл”.
Лексема “чееҗ” встречается в двенадцати примерах, но в
некоторых случаях она реализует свое буквальное значение
“грудина”. Случаев употребления лексемы “өрч” в значении
“душа” выявлено только три.

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Проведенный семантический и контекстуальный анализ
позволил сделать вывод, что, во-первых, концепт “душа”
чаще всего репрезентируется лексемой “седкл” в изученном
лексическом материале. Во-вторых, иногда при употреблении
лексем “чееҗ”, “өрч” только контекст моделирует концепт.
В-третьих, есть случаи, когда в одном предложении
используются два актуализатора концепта, тогда одна
лексема активирует свое денотативное значение, другая
реализует переносное значение.
Редкое использование лексемы “өрч” для объективирования
концепта “душа” может объясняться тем, что данная лексема
не имеет закрепленного в словаре значения “душа”. Также
это слово в таком значении в разговорной калмыцком языке
не употребляется. Таким образом, можно сделать вывод, что
такая объективация данного концепта – характерная черта
индивидуальной картины мира поэта.
Заключение
Среди рассмотренных примеров есть как индивидуально-
авторские фреймы, репрезентирующие концепт, так и
фреймы, характерные для всей калмыцкой лингвокультуры.
Кроме того, значения концепта “душа” в основном совпадает
со значениями данного концепта в других языках, например,
в русском, английском (Варданян Л.В., 2007; Перевозникова
А.К., 2002). Но в калмыцком языке имеется несколько
лексем, вербализирующих этот концепт.
Из трех лексических единиц ключевой и наиболее
распространенной является лексема “седкл”, “душа”, которая
и дает название концепту.
В калмыцком языке также имеется лексема “сүмсн”,
“бесплотная субстанция, покидающая тело в момент смерти”,
“привидение”, которая в рассмотренных произведениях не
встречается.
Практически в каждом стихотворении можно обнаружить
данный концепт, что указывает на его важность для поэта и

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всей калмыцкой лингвокультуры, поскольку поэт и его
поэзия являются выразителями менталитета народа.
Следует отметить, что большое количество способов
объективации данного концепта, «высокая номинативная
плотность» (по выражению В.И. Карасика) свидетельствует о
его важности для поэта и калмыцкой лингвокультуры в
целом.
Данную статью можно рассматривать как начало для
дальнейшего изучения концепта “душа” в других текстах,
устойчивых сочетаниях, фразеологизмах, паремиях
калмыцкого языка.

Литература
Болдырев Н.Н. Концептуальное пространство когнитивной
лингвистики // Вопросы когнитивной лингвистики. 2004.
№ 1. С. 18-37.
Васькаев Б.И. Тепло родной земли. Элиста, 2013. 166 с.
Варданян Л. В. Этнолингвокультурный концепт «душа» в
английской, русской и эрзянской языковых картинах мира:
дисс. … канд. филол. Наук. М., 2007. 210 с.
Гак В.Г. К типологии лингвистических номинаций //
Языковая номинация (Общие вопросы). М.: Наука, 1977. С.
230–293.
Карасик В.И., Слышкин Г.Г. Базовые характеристики
лингвокультурных концептов // Антология концептов / под
ред. В.И. Карасика, И.А. Стернина. Т. 1 Волгоград:
Парадигма, 2005. 352 с.
Калмыцко-русский словарь под ред. Б.Д. Муниева М.:
Русский язык, 1977. 768 с.
Перевозникова А.К. Концепт душа в русской языковой
картине мира: дисс. ... канд. филол. Наук. М., 2002. 184 с.
Попова З.Д., Стернин И.А. Основные черты семантико-
когнитивного подхода к языку // Антология концептов / под
ред. В.И. Карасика, И.А. Стернина. Т. 1 Волгоград:
Парадигма, 2005. 352 с.

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References
Boldyrev N.N. 2004. Conceptual sphere of Cognitive Linguistics.
In Issues of Cognitive Linguistics, 1: 18-37.
Vaskaev B.I. 2013. My motherland’s warmth”. Elista, 166 pp.
Vardanyan L.V. Ethnic linguocultural concept “soul” in English,
Russian and Erzya linguistic world-image: dissertation of
Candidate of Philological sciences, M., 2007, 210 pp.
Gak V.G. 1977. Types of Linguistic Nominations // Nomination
in languages (General Issues). Moscow: Nauka, pp. 230-293.
Karasic V.I., Slyshkin G.G. 2005. Basic Characteristics of
linguocultural concepts. In Anthology of concepts. Editers: V. I.
Karasic, I.A. Sternin. Volume 1. Volgograd: Paradigma, 352 pp.
Muniev B.D. 1977. Kalmyk-Russian dictionary. Moscow:
Russian Language, 768 pp.
Perevoznikova A.K. The conept “soul” in Russian linguistic
world-image: dissertation of Candidate of Philological sciences,
M., 2002, 184 pp.
Popova Z.D., Sternin I.A. 2005. The main features of the
semantic-cognitive approach to a language. In Anthology of
concepts. Volume 1. Volgograd: Paradigma, 352 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-399-417

FUNCTIONAL PECULIARITIES OF ANTONYMS

(ON THE BASIS OF WORKS BY MUKHAMMAD YUSUF)

Dilbar R. Djumanova

Uzbekistan State World Languages University

Tashkent, Uzbekistan
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
The choice of topic is due to the following circumstances. Firstly,
as it is already noted above, the problem of antonyms is not

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sufficiently developed in the Uzbek language: there are only
separate sections on antonyms and antonymy in the textbooks on
the Uzbek language. Secondly, the choice of the topic is due to
the urgency of the problem of clearly delineating the system units
of the Uzbek vocabulary and determining their role in live Uzbek
speech.
The main purpose of this article is to identify the functional role
of antonyms in poetic works of Muhammad Yusuf’s in the Uzbek
language. Tasks are as follows: the study and translation of the
poetic works of Muhammad Yusuf in order to identify antonyms
in them and analysis of the peculiarities of the stylistic use of
antonyms in his works.
The theoretical significance and scientific novelty of the article is
determined by the fact that antonym pairs are discussed, they are
used in the works of Muhammad Yusuf (in Uzbek); fragments of
some works of Muhammad Yusuf have been translated into
Russian; for the first time, the poems of Muhammad Yusuf are
analyzed and the functionality of the antonyms in his works are
investigated.
The materials of the article can be used in university in the
process of studying the relevant topics of such disciplines as
"Lexicology", "Comparative Typology", as well as during the
practice of translation.
For the analysis of antonyms we have chosen poetic works of
modern Uzbek poet Muhammad Yusuf in the Uzbek language. It
should be noted that the poems of Muhammad Yusuf, published
in the Uzbek language quite recently, in 2004, have not yet
become the object of linguistic analysis of researchers, and are
not translated into Russian.
One of the main purposes of the use of antonyms in the works of
the Uzbek poet Muhammad Yusuf is to indicate the limit of
manifestation of quality, properties, phenomena, attitudes,
actions.

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Sometimes in the works of Muhammad Yusuf, antonyms are used
to express an assessment of opposing properties, objects, actions,
states.
An analysis of the poems of Muhammad Yusuf shows that he
often uses antonyms to convey the complexity, depth and
inconsistency of the human soul, interpersonal and inter-ethnic
relations. His poetry is filled with longing, love for his people, for
a simple farmer who works from morning till evening on the
field. He also uses antonyms to convey the opposite actions of a
person:
Analysis of the works of Muhammad Yusuf allowed us to draw
the following conclusions and generalizations. The main function
of using Uzbek antonyms in speech is the expression of
opposition. The poetic world of Muhammad Yusuf is complex
and diverse. His poetry organically combines a variety of
emotional, ideological and stylistic layers, deep poetry and
heartfelt publicism. The creative way of the poet is full of
historical events, his poetry has reflected all the events, all the
changes taking place in our life. Analysis of the poems of
Muhammad Yusuf showed that he has a contrasting vision of the
world, which allows the poet to show the phenomena,
relationships, properties that surround him with all their
contradictions and difficulties, problems, constant search for
truth, truth, and search for himself.
Antonyms in the poetry of Muhammad Yusuf are used in
combination with other artistic means, in particular, the use of
cultural, historical and literary associations, such as proper
names, contributes to the enrichment of individual author's
antonymy, is used to express various oppositions.
Key words: antonyms, enantiosemia, contrast, opposition

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ФУНКЦИОНАЛЬНЫЕ ВОЗМОЖНОСТИ
АНТОНИМОВ (НА МАТЕРИАЛЕ ПРОИЗВЕДЕНИЙ
МУХАММАДА ЮСУФА)

Дильбар Р. Джуманова

Узбекский государственный университет мировых языков

Ташкент, Узбекистан
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация.
Выбор темы обусловлен следующими обстоятельствами. Во-
первых, как уже отмечалось выше, проблема антонимов
недостаточно исследована в узбекском языке: в учебниках по
узбекскому языку есть только отдельные разделы по
антонимии и антонимам. Во-вторых, выбор темы обусловлен
актуальностью проблемы четкого разграничения системных
единиц узбекского словаря и определения их роли в живой
узбекской речи.
Основной целью данной статьи является выявление
функциональной роли антонимов в поэтических
произведениях Мухаммада Юсуфа на узбекском языке.
Задачи заключаются в том, чтобы изучить и перевести
поэтические произведения Мухаммада Юсуфа с целью
выявления в них антонимов и проанализировать особенности
стилистического использования антонимов в его
произведениях.
Теоретическая значимость и научная новизна статьи
определяются тем, что в ней анализируются пары антонимов,
которые используются в поэтических произведениях
Мухаммада Юсуфа (на узбекском языке); фрагменты
некоторых произведений Мухаммада Юсуфа переведены на
русский язык; впервые проанализированы стихи Мухаммада
Юсуфа и исследована функциональные возможности
использования антонимов в его произведениях.

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Материалы статьи могут быть использованы в высшем
образовательном учреждении в процессе изучения
соответствующих тем по таким дисциплинам, как
«Лексикология», «Сравнительная типология», а также во
время практики перевода.
Для анализа антонимов мы выбрали поэтические
произведения современного узбекского поэта Мухаммада
Юсуфа на узбекском языке. Следует отметить, что
стихотворения Мухаммада Юсуфа, опубликованные на
узбекском языке совсем недавно, в 2004 году, еще не стали
объектом лингвистического анализа исследователей и не все
переведены на русский язык.
Одной из основных целей использования антонимов в
произведениях узбекского поэта Мухаммада Юсуфа является
указание на предел проявления качества, свойств, явлений,
установок, действий.
Иногда в работах Мухаммада Юсуфа антонимы
используются для выражения оценки противоположных
свойств, объектов, действий, состояний.
Анализ стихотворений Мухаммада Юсуфа показывает, что
он часто использует антонимы, чтобы передать сложность,
глубину и непоследовательность человеческой души,
межличностных и межэтнических отношений. Его поэзия
наполнена тоской, любовью к своему народу, к простому
фермеру, который работает с утра до вечера на поле. Он
также использует антонимы, чтобы передать
противоположные действия человека.
Анализ поэтических произведений Мухаммада Юсуфа
позволил сделать следующие выводы и обобщения.
Основной функцией использования узбекских антонимов в
речи является выражение оппозиции. Поэтический мир
Мухаммада Юсуфа сложен и разнообразен. Его поэзия
органично сочетает в себе разнообразные эмоциональные,
идеологические и стилистические пласты, глубокую поэзию
и душевную публицистику. Творческий путь поэта полон

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исторических событий, его поэзия отразила все события, все
изменения, происходящие в нашей жизни. Анализ
стихотворений Мухаммада Юсуфа показал, что у него
проявляется контрастное видение мира, что позволяет поэту
показать явления, отношения, свойства, которые его
окружают, со всеми их противоречиями и трудностями,
проблемами, постоянным поиском правды, истины и
поисками себя.
Антонимы в поэзии Мухаммада Юсуфа используются в
сочетании с другими художественными средствами, в
частности, использование культурных, исторических и
литературных объединений, таких, как собственные имена,
что способствует обогащению индивидуальной авторской
антонимии, используется для выражения различных
оппозиций.
Ключевые слова: антонимы, энантиосемия, контраст,
оксюморон, противопоставленность

Вступление
В данной статье рассматриваются функциональные
возможности антонимов узбекского языка на материале
произведений художественной литературы. Антонимы
(слова с противоположными значениями) стали предметом
лингвистического анализа сравнительно недавно, и интерес к
изучению узбекской антонимии заметно возрастает, о чем
свидетельствует появление целого ряда специальных
лингвистических исследований по антонимии, однако
следует отметить, что в узбекском языке проблема
антонимов и антонимии менее разработана, чем в русском
языке.
Методология и метод
Одним из первых к проблеме противоположных по значению
слов обратился Л.А. Булаховский, который дал определение
антонимов, рассмотрел их особенности употребления в речи

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(Bulakhovsky L.A., 1953). Он одним из первых рассмотрел и
такое явление, как энантиосемия.
Очень подробно исследовал антонимы Л.А. Новиков,
который классифицировал слова по противоположным
значениям по нескольким параметрам (Novikov L.A., 1988).
Однако до сих пор существуют некоторые разногласия как в
понимании антонимов, так и в их классификации. По этому
поводу очень верно заметил Э.А. Вартаньян (Vartanyan E.A.,
2001). Так, он отмечает, что принято считать, что простое
противопоставление, достигаемое «приклеиванием» к слову
приставок не-, без(с)-, анти-, контр-, противо-, псевдо-, и т.п.
(хороший – нехороший, полезный – бесполезный, наука –
псевдонаука), еще не превращает эти слова в антонимы. А
потому к антонимам следует относить лишь такие слова,
корни которых различны. Однако, по мнению Э.Д.
Вартаньяна, к подобному утверждению некоторых авторов
следует подойти с осторожностью, поскольку не существует
правил без исключений. К антонимам относят такие пары,
как начало – конец, сладкий – соленый. Между тем эти пары,
как отмечает Э.Д. Вартаньян, представляют собой слова
одного корня, и историческое развитие значений слов
превратило их в слова противозначные.
Существующие разногласия в понимании антонимов, в их
классификации можно объяснить сложностью самого
объекта изучения – слова, а также существующими
сложными отношениями между словами в языке, где каждое
слово многозначно, и в каждое слово можно вложить свой
смысл.
Результаты
Для анализа антонимов выбраны поэтические произведения
современного узбекского поэта Мухаммада Юсуфа на
узбекском языке. Необходимо отметить, что стихотворения
Мухаммада Юсуфа, опубликованные на узбекском языке
совсем недавно, в 2004 году, еще не стали объектом

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лингвистического анализа исследователей и не переведены
на русский язык.
Главная цель данной статьи заключается в выявлении
функциональной роли антонимов в языке поэтических
произведений Мухаммада Юсуфа на узбекском языке. С этой
основной целью тесно связаны такие частные задачи, как
изучение и перевод поэтических произведений Мухаммада
Юсуфа с целью выявления в них антонимов и анализ
особенностей стилистического использования антонимов в
его произведениях.
Теоретическая значимость и научная новизна статьи
определяются тем, что рассмотрены антонимические пары,
которые используются в произведениях Мухаммада Юсуфа
(на узбекском языке); переведены на русский язык
фрагменты некоторых произведений Мухаммада Юсуфа;
впервые проанализированы стихотворения Мухаммада
Юсуфа и исследованы функциональные возможности
антонимов в его произведениях.
Материалы статьи могут быть использованы в вузовском
обучении в процессе изучения соответствующих тем таких
дисциплин, как «Лексикология», «Сопоставительная
типология», а также в практике перевода.
Рассмотрим стилистические цели использования антонимов
в произведениях узбекского поэта Мухаммада Юсуфа.
Одной из основных целей использования антонимов является
указание на предел проявления качества, свойства, явления,
отношения, действия:
Номус учун номни эмас, рухни ўстир,
Оғир кунда ёвдан қочган – ёвга дўстдир
Юрт чорласа сувларни кеч, ўтларга кир –
Фидойилар керак бизга, фидойилар.
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 8).

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[Для чести не имя, а дух укрепляй,
кто от врага убегал, в тяжелые дни может врагу стать другом,
если родина запылает, возьми воду, войди в огонь –
самоотверженные нам нужны, самоотверженные.]
В данном отрывке используются антонимические пары сув –
ўт (вода - огонь), ёв – дўст (враг - друг), причем слово «ёв»
(враг) является устаревшим. Отметим, что в произведениях
Мухаммада Юсуфа это слово используется чаще, чем
современное «душман» с тем же значением:
Ўлса ўзи ўлар,
Сўзи ўлмайди,
Хамиша бархаёт насл шоирлар <…>
Кўкка туташ тоғдир шоирнинг зўри,
Тоғни ерга кўмиб бўларми ахир?..
Душмани тан бериб, қуриқлаб уни,
Эхтимол, энг яқин дўсти сотгандир…
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 84).
[Если умрет, то сам,
но слово не умрет,
истинные поэты всегда живы.
Разве можно гору похоронить в земле?
Признав врага, видя его, возможно,
самый близкий друг предал….]
В данном отрывке даны антонимические пары ўлар –
ўлмайди (умрет – не умрет), тоғ – ер (гора – земля), душман
– дўст (враг – друг), которые, помимо указания на предел
проявления свойства, действия, обладают яркой
образностью.
Тирик инсон бир куни оч, бир кун тўқдир,
Бир кун тўкин, бир кун бурда нони йўқдир
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 11).
[Живой человек один день может остаться голодным,
на другой день стать сытым,

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один день у него может быть дом – полная чаша,
на другой день может не найтись и кусочка хлеба.]
Антонимы также используются в произведениях Мухаммада
Юсуфа с целью актуализации высказывания или усиления
образа, впечатления.
Нима дейсан яна газеталарга,
Қанотли, қанотсиз ракеталарга.
Кўзингга термулган планеталарга,
Йигирманчи аср, аҳволинг ёмон
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 123).
[Что можно сказать еще газетам,
крылатым и бескрылым ракетам.
Планетам, которые смотрят тебе в глаза,
двадцатый век, у тебя плохое положение]
Иногда в произведениях Мухаммада Юсуфа антонимы
используются для выражения оценки противоположных
свойств, предметов, действий, состояний.
Кимга қурғон – уларга кенг майдон тегар,
Мард мушкулни енгар, номард бўйин эгар
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 8).
[Кому-то могильный холмик – другим достанется широкая
площадь, храбрец трудности одолеет, трус шею выгибает].
В этом отрывке сравнивается поведение двух людей –
храбреца (мард) и труса (номард).
У М. Юсуфа используются часто антонимы для утверждения
двух противоположных свойств, качеств, действий:
Бу бешафкат,
Бу беозор дунёда,
Бу шундай кенг,
Бу шундай тор дунёда,
Кимлар келиб,
Кимлар кетар дунёда

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Қўнғизнинг хам Ватани бор дунёда,
Нега йиғлар крим татар дунёда
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 113)
[В этом бесславном,
в этом безобидном мире,
в таком просторном
и в таком узком мире,
в мире, куда приходят и откуда уходят,
в мире, где даже жук имеет свою родину,
почему в этом мире плачут крымские татары.]
В этом стихотворении говорится о сложности,
противоречивости мира, оно построено на контрасте: кенг –
тор (широкий - узкий), келиб – кетар (пришел - ушел), что
способствует яркой образности.
В произведениях М. Юсуфа антонимы часто используются
также для утверждения одного из противопоставляемых
признаков, действий или явлений реальной жизни за счет
отрицания другого:
О, ота юрт,
Она маскан,
Ўҳшаингни топай қайдан!
Сен-ку менга зор эмассан, сенсиз қандай яшайин ман
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 25).
[О, страна отца,
обиталище матери,
как и где я найду похожее?
Ты-то во мне не нуждаешься, можешь прожить без меня,
а я как проживу без тебя?]
Антонимы используются в произведениях Мухаммада
Юсуфа как яркое выразительное средство, что позволяет
показать реальную действительность, жизнь, явления,
свойства, отношения, внутренний мир человека в полном

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объеме, в постоянном непрерывном движении и
диалектическом развитии.
Одной из самых распространенных в художественной речи
фигур, основанных на антонимии, является антитеза – прием
противопоставления контрастных по своему характеру
словесных образов, раскрывающих противоречивую
сущность обозначаемого, несовместимость различных
сторон предмета, явления или самих предметов и явлений.
Ким отлиқ,
Ким пиёдадир,
Ким қисқа,
Ким зиёдадир
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 24).
[Кто на лошади,
кто без,
кто без достатка,
кто с излишком].
Поэтический мир Мухаммада Юсуфа сложен и
многообразен. Его поэзия органично сочетает в себе
разнообразные эмоциональные, идейные и стилистические
пласты, глубокую поэтичность и проникновенную
публицистику. Творческий путь поэта насыщен
историческими событиями, в его поэзии нашло отражение
все события, все изменения, происходящие в нашей жизни.
Анализ стихотворений Мухаммада Юсуфа показал, что ему
свойственно контрастное видение мира, которое позволяет
поэту показать явления, отношения, свойства, окружающие в
полной мере, со всеми их противоречиями и сложностями,
проблемами, постоянными поисками правды, истины,
поисками самого себя.
В общем составе используемых М. Юсуфом антонимов
выделяется большая группа таких, которые служат для
контрастного изображения человека с эмоциональной,
психологической и нравственной стороны: бор – йўқ (есть -

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нет), ёз – қиш (лето - зима), ёв – дўст (враг - друг), ўлдинг –
туғилган (родился - умер), оқ – қора (белый - черный), офтоб
чиқиб – офтоб ботар (рассвет - закат), келишди – келмайди
(пришел – не пришел), мард – номард (храбрец - трус), куз –
баҳор (осень - весна), тун – тонг (ночь - день), йиғлаб – кулар
(плакать - смеяться), сенинг– менинг (твой - мой).
Ялпизлари
Кўкка туташ,
Тунлари зар,
Тонги маржон
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 23).
[Мята зеленеет,
дни как золото,
ночи как коралл].
Дунё ўйинларни ўйлаб ўйим ёнди,
Сенинг ўйинг эмас, менинг ўйим ёнди.
Минг йиллик бўз кўйлагим, тўним ёнди,
Ўзбек билан туркни кимлар уриштирди
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 125).
[Размышляя об играх мира,
мой дом сгорел, не твой дом,
а мой дом сгорел.
Столетней давности ситцевое платье и халат сгорели.
Так, кто же поссорил узбеков и турок?].
Қондош эдинг, ноланг менинг нолам бўлди,
Онанг менинг онам, боланг болам бўлди
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 125).
[Ты был мне близок по крови,
твоя печаль стала моей печалью,
твоя мать стала моей матерью,
твое дитя стало моим ребенком].
Қиз ўқ уйда сарин сабо эсмайди,
Қиз йўқ уйда жамбил-райхон ўсмайди.

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Гоҳо ўғил ўз ишидан ортмайди,
Қиз тасин ҳар қадамда эслайди.
Кўзларига сургай юрган изингиз,
Қай ўғилдан камдир, айтинг, қизингиз
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 60).
[В доме, где нет дочери, утром нет свежести;
в доме, где нет дочери, джамбил-райхон не растет.
Часто сын занят своими делами,
ему не до отца;
дочь же вспоминает своего отца каждый миг.
Скажите, чем ваша дочь хуже сыновей?]
Анализ стихотворений Мухаммада Юсуфа показывает, что
он часто привлекает антонимы, чтобы передать сложность,
глубину и противоречивость человеческой души,
межличностных и межэтнических отношений. Его поэзия
полна тоски, любви за свой народ, за простого дехканина,
который работает с утра до вечера на поле:
Офтоб чиқар,
Офтоб ботар,
Чўғлар сочиб танангга,
Бир кунгина бормай қўйсанг
Нима қилар далангга?..
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 106).
[Солнце восходит,
солнце садится.
Твое тело горит как на углях.
Что произойдет с полем,
если ты всего лишь один денечек не выйдешь в поле?]
Отангни сотишса, изламадинг ҳам,
Болангни отишса, йиғламадинг ҳам
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 110).
[Предали твоего отца, ты даже его не искал;
Выстрелили в твоего ребенка, ты даже не плакал.]

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Это позволяет утверждать, что в поэзии существует
определенный психологический тип героя.
Баҳорда эшик очган қўлларим музлаб қолди,
Нега болам келмайди, нега болам келмайди?..
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 102).
[Руки, открывавшие дверь весной, заледенели.
Почему мой ребенок не вернулся домой?
Почему мой ребенок не вернулся домой?]
Здесь необходимо обратить внимание на то обстоятельство,
что весна (баҳор) в Узбекистане – очень теплое время года,
настолько теплое, что руки никак не могут заледенеть, и на
этом Мухаммад Юсуф делает особый акцент.
В данном стихотворении прием контраста ярко показывает
драматизм ситуации, сложность и напряженность разрыва
между героями.
Анализ стихотворений М. Юсуфа показал, что используемый
поэтом прием контраста ярко передает драматизм,
трагичность сложившейся ситуации, но тематика несколько
иная – мать ждет сына:
Осмонларнинг бағрида неча ойлар тўлишди,
Қалдирғочлар қуёшга парвоналар бўлишди.
Фозилим билан кетган лайлаклар ҳам келишди,
Нега болам келмайди, нега болам келмайди?..
[Сколько раз луна наполнялась,
сколько раз ласточки тянулись к солнцу.
Уже вернулись аисты, которые ушли с Фозилом.
Но почему мой сын не вернулся домой?
Почему мой сын не вернулся домой?]
Мухаммад Юсуф использует антонимы для передачи
противоположных действий и поступков человека:
Омад келар – кетар экан,
Жон дўстинг ҳам сотар экан.

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Ортингдан тош отар экан,
Хайрон кетдим дарё кечиб
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 79).
[Удача может прийти, может уйти,
и близкий друг может предать,
может бросить камень тебе вслед, -
удивленный, бреду я по жизни].
Своеобразной чертой системы контраста поэзии М. Юсуфа
является использование собственных имен людей как
символа противоположных человеческих начал, при этом
поэт противопоставляет образы, имеющиеся в оригинале,
или противопоставляет их сам:
Сен Хўжандсан,
Чингизларга
Дарвозасин очмаган,
Темур Малик орқасидан
Сирдарёга сакраган
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 76).
[Ты Хужанд,
который не открыл ворота Чингизидам,
и вслед за Темуром Маликом
бросился в Сырдарью.]
Отметим также особенность использования
противопоставления солнце - луна, которое символизирует
противопоставление мужского и женского начал и корнями
своими восходит к устному народному творчеству.
Қиз бор уйда тонглар эрта отмайди,
Томда офтоб, айвонда ой ётмайди.
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 60).
[В доме, где есть дочь, рано не рассветает,
солнце не садится на крышу, а луна - на балкон].

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Севамизки, чўлларинг ҳам бизга жаннат,
Тупроғинг ҳам Макка мисол муқаддасдир
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 40).
[Мы любим, и даже степи твои для нас рай,
и пески твои, как и Мекка, для нас священны].
Особую выразительность имеет оксюморон, который также
широко используется в поэзии Мухаммада Юсуфа:
Ўғлига от бўлиб чўкиб,
Қизларига алла айтган,
Белбоғига борин тўкиб,
Тўйга бориб, тўймай қайтган
(Muhammad Yusuf. 2004: 23).
[Сыну был вместо коня,
дочерям пел колыбельные,
все, что имел, всем раздавал,
возвращался со свадеб голодным].
Оксюморон позволяет Мухаммаду Юсуфу острее, тоньше
передавать национальные особенности своего героя, причем
следует отметить, что в данном фрагменте поэт несколько
видоизменил узбекскую пословицу «тўйга бориб, тўйиб бор»
(букв.: на свадьбу иди сытым).
Заключение
Анализ произведений Мухаммада Юсуфа позволил нам
сделать следующие выводы и обобщения. Основной
функцией использования в речи узбекских антонимов
является выражение противопоставленности,
противоположности. Стилистическими целями
использования антонимов в произведениях Мухаммада
Юсуфа являются указание на предел проявления качества,
свойства, явления, действия, отношения; усиление образа,
впечатления; выражение оценки противопоставляемых
свойств, предметов, состояний, чувств, отношений,
действий; утверждение одного из противопоставляемых

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признаков, действий или явлений реальной жизни за счет
отрицания другого.
Антонимы используются в произведениях Мухаммада
Юсуфа как яркое выразительное средство, что позволяет
поэту показать реальную действительность, жизнь, явления,
свойства, отношения, внутренний мир человека в полном
объеме, в постоянном движении и развитии.
Антонимы в поэзии Мухаммада Юсуфа используются в
сочетании с другими художественными средствами, в
частности, нередкое у М. Юсуфа использование культурно-
исторических и литературных ассоциаций, например, имен
собственных, способствует обогащению индивидуально-
авторской антонимии, служит для выражения различных
противопоставленностей.

Литература
Булаховский Л.А. 1953. Введение в языкознание. Москва:
Учпедгиз, 177 с.
Вартаньян Э.А. 2001. Путешествие в слово. Москва: ООО
«ТИД «Русское слово - РС», 304 с.
Мухаммад Юсуф. 2004. Улуғимсан Ватаним (Шеърлар).
Ташкент: «Ижод дунёси», 191 c.
Новиков Л.А. 1988. Русская антонимия и ее
лексикографическое описание // Львов М.Р. Словарь
антонимов русского языка. Москва: Русский язык, с. 5-30.

References
Bulakhovsky L.A. 1953. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow:
Uchpedgiz, 177 pp.
Vartanyan E.A. 2001. Journey to the word. Moscow: TID
Russian Word - RS, 304 pp.
Muhammad Yusuf. 2004. Ulugimsan Vatanim (Shearlar).
Tashkent: Izhod Dunyosi, 191 pp.

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Novikov L.A. 1988. Russian antonymy and its lexicographical
description. In Lvov M.R. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian
language. Moscow: Russian language, pp. 5-30.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-417-426

TO FLEE OR TO FIGHT: A STUDY

INTO LANGUAGE ANXIETY, ITS LEVELS,
CORRELATION WITH ACHIEVEMENT
AND MEANS OF REDUCTION

Maria V. Molchanova

National University of Science and Technology «MISIS»

Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Studying a foreign language is tightly connected with a number
of physiological and psychological phenomena related to how a
person processes, reacts to and stores knowledge about language.
According to the input hypotheses, specifically the affective filter
hypothesis, ability of a learner to acquire language is negatively
influenced by such feelings as fear or embarrassment (Krashen
S.D., 1981: 38). This special type of fear - later coined language
anxiety - experienced in a language classroom was thoroughly
examined in the 80s of the previous century by Elaine Horwitz,
who claimed that this type of nervousness can seriously
constraint the second language acquisition and learning processes
(Horwitz E.K., 1986: 125). Over the last three-four decades
language anxiety has been widely researched by both theorists
and practitioners due to the fact that the English language has
settled in the international community as the lingua franca, thus
ubiquitous learning of it is still an upward trend. More and more
universities around the world make strong emphasis on English

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language programs in their curricula, considering this discipline
to be part and parcel of scoring high in all sorts of educational
ratings. At the same time, one can observe a certain scarcity of
practical research on language anxiety conducted in the context
of the Russian higher education. The purpose of this study is to
attempt to cover this gap by conducting a series of efforts aimed
at exploring whether such phenomenon as language anxiety is
applicable to the Russian higher education context, whether it can
noticeably affect the second language acquisition and learning
processes and whether it is possible to reduce the language
anxiety within the framework of a classroom. The stages
comprised 1) measuring levels of language anxiety in the cohort
of students who entered NUST MISIS in 2014 using Foreign
Language Anxiety Scale (Horwitz, 1986); 2) studying the
correlation between levels of language anxiety and achievement
in language (based on overall IELTS band); 3) conducting a focus
group with 13 students from the same cohort who demonstrated
medium and high language anxiety levels in questionnaires; 4) a
series of in-class oral activities aimed at reducing language
anxiety levels and 5) re-administering the FLCAS questionnaire
in the same group after the intervention to see if the teacher was
able to reduce the anxiety levels. This study revealed that: 1) the
majority of participants of the baseline measurement (over 60 %
out of 200) had the medium level of language anxiety; 2) the
correlation with achievement - although conspicuous and of both
positive and negative natures for different groups - proved not to
be significant; 3) the main trigger of feeling nervous in class
appears to be spontaneous speech; 4) dynamics in language
anxiety, although it appears impossible to isolate the intervention
from extraneous variables such as, for instance, learning itself,
turned out to be of both positive and negative nature (level of
language anxiety decreased with 7 students and increased with 5).
Further research into the factor of language anxiety seems
feasible as a strong presence of the latter has been identified in
the context of higher education second language learning in

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Russia and no direct recommendation whether to intervene with
this affect factor or not can be given to the practitioners.
Keywords: ELT, language anxiety, IELTS, oral skills,
communication apprehension

Introduction
With the English language conquering the international
community as the lingua franca, more and more universities
around the world make an emphasis on the English language
programs in their curricula. At the National University of Science
and Technology “MISIS” (Russia, Moscow), as of 2017, 50 % of
graduates were required to have obtained B2 level (CEFR) upon
completion of their English language course. Undoubtedly, this
applies pressure on all stakeholders of the academic process,
especially students, who already encounter multiple academic
challenges in the contemporary higher education process.
Studying the second language itself - regardless of how vastly it
has been explored by both theorists and ELT practitioners - has
always been associated with a number of psychological
difficulties impeding the process. Language anxiety as an
affective variable can be attributed to one of the categories of the
affective filter (Krashen S.D., 1982: 29), which, in its
turn, - among other factors - determines success in the second
language learning. According to Horwitz, language anxiety is ‘the
subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and
worry, associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous
system’ (Horwitz, Horowitz, Cope, 1986: 126) occurring in
classroom situations. There are three factors triggering anxiety in
language learning: communication apprehension, fear of negative
evaluation and test anxiety.
Objectives
This research focuses on the following aspects: 1) studying
language anxiety levels and the main trigger among the cohort of
NUST ‘MISIS” students who enrolled in 2014 as well as the
correlation between their language anxiety levels and

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achievement (IELTS performance) and 2) seeking for a means of
reducing language anxiety in a group of 22 students (A2-B1) in
their final semester before IELTS assessment.
Methodology
(Baseline Measurement)
In May 2017, a baseline measurement of language anxiety was
carried out among over 200 students from the cohort of those,
who entered the University in 2014. The number of tested
students accounted for approximately 30 % of all 3rd-year
students studying English in their 6th semester. 48 % were male
students and 52 % - female. Language levels of the subjects
varied from A2 to B2.
The baseline measurement employed the instrument developed
by Elaine Horwitz in 1986 - Foreign Language Classroom
Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), - which comprises 33 questions and the
Likert scale aimed at identifying the level of a learner’s language
anxiety and the key trigger (triggers): 1) communication
apprehension, 2) fear of negative evaluation and 3) fear of tests.
During their language classes, students were offered to complete
the FLCAS questionnaire where questions were presented in both
the English and Russian languages. The term ‘language anxiety’
was not mentioned in oral presentations preceding the
questionnaire. The participants were guaranteed that their results,
although not anonymous, would remain undisclosed for their
teachers, may not in any way affect their grades, and would be
analyzed solely amass. Moreover, only those students who orally
agreed to participate were given the questionnaires. It should be
noted that only 2 students out of 203 refused to participate in the
measurement. Students were also offered the contact email of the
researcher, in case they were interested in test interpretation and
their personal results.
(Correlation with achievement in language)
Previous research (Macintyre & Gardener, 1991) has shown that
language anxiety may affect language achievement, which in
recent years most commonly has been measured through course

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grades and standardized proficiency tests. Thus, having obtained
FLCAS results from the baseline measurement, they were
correlated with overall results of mock IELTS test, which is
typically administered at approximately the same period of time
for students of the 3rd year at NUST «MISIS». Language anxiety
levels and their correlation with achievement will be presented in
the Results section.
(Focus Group and Intervention)
In the next stage of the research, a group of 21 students with
medium level of language anxiety and 1 students with a high
score was formed from those students who had been through the
baseline measurement in May 2017. Starting in September 2017
these students were launched in their last semester of the English
language programme which is typically succeeded by the final
IELTS test. A short survey and a focus group were carried out in
the first and the second classes of the course to allow for a better
understanding of students feelings and needs regarding their
language learning and anxiety.
Basing on the results of the survey and the focus group, the
students were offered 2 cycles of 4 different oral activities aimed
at improving their oral performance (and gaining more
confidence in language):
1. speaking carousel/speaking stations: short presentation of
news from www.breakingnewsenglish.com
2. memorizing a short poem
3. practising a tongue twister
4. spontaneous speaking on short tasks from cards (e.g. tell about
a time when something strange happened to you).
Each cycle lasted approximately 1 month. Each task was given
once. The tasks were distributed evenly in the course planner to
let all the materials and events scheduled by syllabus to take their
place duly.
After each cycle students had an anonymous survey aimed at
finding out which of the oral activities in the cycle they perceived
as the most effective for gaining confidence in language and why.

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(Second Measurement of Language Anxiety)
Upon completion of the semester in December 2017, FLCAS was
re-administered again to compare the results of anxiety levels in
May and December. 13 students (out of 22) were able to attend to
the questionnaire for the second time.
Findings
(Baseline Measurement)
In the baseline measurement in May 2017, 65 out of 203
participants were diagnosed as having low language anxiety
(LoLA), which accounted for 32 % of all the tested group. 138
students demonstrated medium (MedLA) and high language
anxiety (HiLA) against the scale: 128 (63 %) and 10 (5 %),
respectively. Moreover, the distribution of result in the biggest
group of participants with medium language anxiety was uneven,
with a strong incline towards medium-high rather than low-
medium results: 97 (Med-Hi LA) and 31 (Lo-Med LA),
respectively.
(Correlation of Language Anxiety Levels and Performance)
In this research a correlation between level of language anxiety
and overall IELTS result was performed using Kronbach method.
Overall, a certain correlation between levels of language anxiety
and IELTS performance has been identified. On average, the
correlation accounted for -.25, with the least negative correlation
in LoLA group (-.026) and the highest negative correlation (-.18)
in the MedLA group. It is interesting to notice that there is a
slight positive correlation in high language anxiety group (+.04).
In other words, it is the students with medium language anxiety
who are quite likely to feel the negative effect of their anxiety
level on performance, while the same phenomenon acts as a
positive influencing factor for students who are prone to a high
anxiety in classroom (they might feel the urge to study more in
order to compensate for their anxiety in language). Thus, it was a
group of students with medium language anxiety who were
selected for the intervention class.

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(Focus Group)
The focus group was aimed at in-depth understanding of reasons
of anxiety in classroom and encouraging students’ ideas
regarding how to overcome it. 16 students attended the focus
group. Among other reasons for anxiety, students named the
following 4 as most provoking: a) fear of making a mistake (6
mentions), b) (negative) judgment of other people (5 mentions),
c) lack of consistent practice (5 mentions) and d) stronger
students dominating in speaking activities (5 mentions).
In the needs survey which succeeded the focus group, the group
were asked to choose one or 2 preferable types of activities to be
focused on throughout the forthcoming semester that in their
opinion would help them increase confidence in language (and
reduce language anxiety). The options were:
1. Vocabulary focus
2. Grammar focus
3. Focus on oral speech (including IELTS speaking practice)
4. Focus on pronunciation
5. Focus on feedback to oral speech
The majority of students have voted for an extended practice of
oral speech in class.
(Second Measurement of Language Anxiety)
The second FLCAS was administered closer to the research final
timeline (start of December). 13 out of 23 students were available
for the second measurement. 8 of them demonstrated a lower
anxiety level compared to May 2017, while 5 students
demonstrated the opposite trend.
Levels of Anxiety: Measurement 1 (May 2017)
and 2 (December 2017)
Student Initial LA Exit LA Dynamics
Student 1 96 91 -5
Student 2 106 107 1

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Student 3 105 114 9
Student 4 116 108 -8
Student 5 83 62 -21
Student 6 93 114 21
Student 7 103 100 -3
Student 8 100 106 6
Student 9 95 83 -12
Student 10 77 59 -18
Student 11 98 67 -31
Student 12 123 130 7
Student 13 87 85 -2

Comparison of Achievement for Students with Positive and

Negative Dynamics in LA
Dynamics in IELTS
Student Dynamics in LA
Overall Band

Student 1 -5 1

Student 2 1 1

Student 3 9 0.5

Student 4 -8 0.5

Student 5 -21 0

Student 6 21 1

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Student 7 -3 0.5

Student 8 6 0.5

Student 9 -12 0.5

Student 10 -18 0.5

Student 11 -31 0

Student 12 7 1

Student 13 -2 0

The given table demonstrates that there appears to be no

consistent interdependence between the dynamics in language
anxiety and achievement, although it is interesting to see that out
of 8 students who demonstrated lower anxiety levels 3 have
scored the same band in their final IELTS compared to the mock
exam, which took place 6 months earlier, while 3 students whose
anxiety levels had grown demonstrated a stronger achievement
compared to the rest of the group.
Discussion
Among other findings, the fact that the majority of 200 students
tested against FLCAS within the present research demonstrated
medium and high anxiety levels stands out and may require
further attention of those dealing with students on everyday basis.
However, the most prominent conclusion to be made on the
results of the research is that the highest negative correlation
between anxiety level and achievement takes place in the
medium-level anxiety group, while a high-anxiety category of
participants have consistently demonstrated better achievement
(hopefully, not by the sake of developing a stress).
Still, it has proven impossible in the given research to
consistently lessen anxiety levels in the group of students who

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were exposed to the intervention. This might have been caused by
the following factors:
1. the researcher/teacher did not manage to create a positive
atmosphere in class that would allow for fearless communication
2. language anxiety is a complex inherent phenomenon which
cannot be influenced by external factors solely
3. the research timeline for the intervention (1.5 months) did not
allow for a profound change to take place.
Further research into the issue might reveal interesting and
valuable knowledge about the practice of second language
teaching in the context of the Russian higher education.

References
Horwitz, E.K., Horwitz, M.B., Cope J. 1986. Foreign Language
Classroom Anxiety. The Modern Language Journal 70(2): 125 –
132.
Krashen, S.D. 1982. Principles and Practice in Second Language
Acquisition, 1st ed. Pergamon Press Incorporation, 202 pp.
Macintyre, P.D., Gardner, R.C. 1991. Language Anxiety: Its
Relationship to Other Anxieties and to Processing in Native and
Second Languages. Language Learning 41(4): 513-534.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-427-440

PARAGUAYISMS. PARAGUAYAN SPANISH

AND GAURANI.
JOPARÁ - "THE THIRD LANGUAGE" OF PARAGUAY.
JUAN MANUEL MARCOS "GUNTER’S WHINTER"

Igor Yu. Protsenko

Norte University, Asunción, Paraguay

Institute of Foreign Languages
Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
In the article the peculiarities of the linguistic situation of
Paraguay are analyzed: the typical lexical units,
paraguayisms - "the linguistic units of Spanish and Guarani that
are contrasted with the spoken Spanish of other countries of Latin
America and Spain, which pose certain difficulties of rapid
comprehension for Spanish speakers".
The description and general classification of paraguayisms is
made from several points of view.
Formal classification: phonetic paraguayisms; grammatical
(morphosyntactic); lexicals (even idioms and turns of speech).
Lexico-semantic calcification - from the point of view of the
appearance of connotations.
The linguistic situation of Paraguay is presented as the only one,
"ideal bilingualism", with certain nuances of multilingualism.
Author rescues some peculiarities, most notable of the Spanish
and Guarani of Paraguay.
Article first reveals the linguistic units that belong to the lexical
paraguayisms of Spanish and Guaraní. The classification of
Spanish paraguayisms (occasionalism) is offered.

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It is stated that lexical paraguayisms belong to idioms - fixed
expressions whose meanings cannot be deduced from the words
that compose it. It is a linguistic custom that allows condensing
an idea in a few words and transmitting this concept to all those
who share the same language
It offers the differentiation between proverbs and idioms. An
idiom, on the other hand, of saying, does not educate, does not
have that intention. Describe a situation, a personality trait and
nothing else. For example: Being a pig or eating more than a
remorse. An idiom can be a phrase or a single word
Speaking of the Paraguayan Guarani, it is stressed that it is not
only the language, but the philosophical stone of the race that
reveals its origin and destiny and is based on the own
cosmogony - set of beliefs, experience that form the culture of the
people, among which find the mythical story about the origins of
the world or the evolution of the Universe. According to the
Guarani, language is something divine because it was invented
and given to them by their God, Ñamandú.
Pay attention to the importance of careful analysis of the
mentality of the Guarani for the correct translation of written and
oral texts because the Guarani cosmogony takes us back to the
origins of the creation of the world, with a simplicity and
simplicity that any reasonably reasonable person can understand
without the complications of "mysteries" of which most civilized
cultures are full.
The historical aspects of the coexistence of Spanish and Guarani
are mentioned.
The author rescues the most remarkable peculiarities of the
Spanish of Paraguay and the Guarani. It is noted that the conquest
situation gave certain advantages to the development of the
Guaraní. There was no imposition of one culture over the other.
On the contrary, both of them went through a mutual process of
linguistic enrichment. This condition led to the mixture of two
different cultures and languages and the appearance of the "third

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language" of Paraguay - jopará (guarañol, hispanicized Guarani),
which de facto is the "main language" of Paraguay today.
Some aspects of the formation of jopará are clarified:
morphosyntactic, lexical, in the first place.
Notice that the characteristics of the Paraguayan linguistic
situation are observed not only for the spoken language of the
people, but are they reflected in contemporary Paraguayan
literature, firstly in Juan Manuel Marcos's novel "Gunter's
Winter", one of the ten most outstanding novels in the history of
Paraguayan literature.
In the base of this novel the functions of the paraguayisms in the
literature are shown, its aesthetic value is underlined in the
culture, the history and the soul of the Paraguayan people in
general.
Keywords: bilingualism, Paraguayan Spanish, Paraguayan
Guarani - language of images, paraguayisms, semantics,
jopara - "third Paraguayan language", "Gunter's Winter"

PARAGUAYISMOS. ESPAÑOL Y GAURANÍ

PARAGUAYO.
JOPARÁ – “LA TERCERA LENGUA” DEL PARAGUAY.
JUAN MANUEL MARCOS “EL INVIERNO DE GUNTER”

Igor Yu. Protsenko

Universidad del Norte, Asunción, Paraguay

Instituto de las Lenguas Extranjeras
Universidad Rusa de la Amistad de los Pueblos (RUDN universidad)
Moscú, Rusia
e-mail: [email protected]

Resumen
En el artículo se analizan las peculiaridades de la situación
lingüística del Paraguay las unidades lexicales típicas,
paraguayismos – “las unidades lingüísticas del español y guaraní

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que se contrastan con el español hablado de otros países de
Hispanoamérica y España, que plantean ciertas dificultades de
comprensión rápida para hispanohablantes”.
Se hace descripción y clasificación general de los paraguayismos
desde varios puntos de vista.
Clasificación formal: paraguayismos fonéticos; gramaticales
(morfosintácticos); lexicales (incluso modismos y giros de la
habla).
Calcificación léxico-semántica – desde el punto de vista de
aparición de las connotaciones.
La situación lingüística del Paraguay está presentada como la
única, “bilingüismo ideal”, con ciertos matices del plurilingüismo
Se mencionan los aspectos históricos de la coexistencia de
español y guaraní.
Autor rescata algunas peculiaridades, más notables del español
del Paraguay y del guaraní.
Artículo en primer lugar revela las unidades lingüísticas que
pertenecen a los paraguayismos lexicales del español y del
guaraní.
Se ofrece la clasificación de los paraguayismos españoles
(ocasionalismos). Presta la atención a la formación de los verbos
en la base de los sustantivos paraguayos. Se subraya que los
sufijos diminutivos se usan sin ningunas connotaciones, se
analiza la variedad de apocopes y abreviaciones.
Se declara que a los paraguayismos lexicales pertenecen
modismos – expresiones fijas cuyos significados no puede
deducirse de las palabras que la componen. Se trata de una
costumbre lingüística que permite condensar una idea en pocas
palabras y transmitir dicho concepto a todos aquellos que
comparten una misma lengua
Se ofrece la diferenciación entre los refranes y modismos. Un
modismo, en cambio, de refrán, no educa, no tiene esa intención.
Describe una situación, un rasgo de personalidad y nada más. Por
ejemplo: Ser un puerco o comer más que un remordimiento. Un
modismo puede ser una frase o una palabra sola.

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Hablando del guaraní paraguayo se subraya que es no solamente
la lengua, sino la piedra filosófica de la raza que revela su origen
y destino y se basa en la cosmogonía propia – conjunto de
creencias, experiencia que forman la cultura del pueblo, entre las
que se encuentran el relato mítico referente a los orígenes del
mundo o la evolución del Universo. Según creen los guaraníes la
lengua es algo divino porque fue inventada y regalada a ellos por
su Dios, Ñamandú.
Presta la atención a la importancia de análisis minucioso de la
mentalidad de los guaraníes para la traducción correcta de los
textos escritos y orales porque la cosmogonía guaraní nos
remonta a los orígenes de la creación del mundo, con una
sencillez y simplicidad que cualquiera medianamente razonable
puede entender sin la complicaciones de “misterios” de las que
están llenas la mayoría de las culturas civilizadas.
Se nota que la situación conquistadora dio ciertas ventajas al
desarrollo del guaraní, sin someter una cultura por otra, al revés,
como favor de la una y la buena disposición de otra lo que llevó a
la mezcla de dos culturas y lenguas diferentes y aparición de la
“tercera lengua” del Paraguay – jopará (guarañol, guaraní
hispanizado), que de facto es la “lengua principal” del Paraguay
de hoy.
Se aclaran unos aspectos de la formación de jopará:
morfosintácticos, lexicales, en primer lugar.
Presta la atención que las características de la situación
lingüística del Paraguay se observan no solamente para la lengua
hablada de la gente, sino se reflejan en la literatura paraguaya
contemporánea, en primer lugar en la novela de Juan Manuel
Marcos “El invierno de Gunter”, una de diez novelas más
destacadas de toda la historia de la literatura paraguaya.
En la base de dicha novela se muestran las funciones de los
paraguayismos en la literatura, está subrayado su valor estético
para entendimiento de la cultura, la historia, el alma del pueblo
paraguayo en general.

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Palabras claves: bilingüismo, español paraguayo, guaraní
paraguayo – lengua de las imágenes, paraguayismos, semántica,
jopara – “tercera lengua paraguaya”, “El invierno de Gunter”

Introducción
Una de las características más notables del Paraguay es la
situación lingüística. En las regiones fronterizas con Brasil, como
Pedro Juan Caballero, Ciudad del Este, por ejemplo, se observa la
situación del plurilingüismo (español-portugués-guaraní, por
ejemplo).
Existen culturas y lenguas de las etnias indígenas minoritarias de
tupí-guaraní que en la vida cotidiana usan sus lenguas nativas
entre los que están aché mbyā, avā, chripā, pā’i tavyterā etc.
Estas lenguas se están perdiendo, pero hoy día son casi 49 % de
la población del país (Torres C.D., 2017).
Pero a pesar de la variedad de las lenguas que se conviven en el
país, Paraguay se considera como el país bilingüe, español-
guaraní que establece en la Constitución Nacional del 1992,
articulo 40 “El Paraguay es un país pluricultural y bilingüe. Son
idiomas oficales el castellano y el guaraní” (Constitución de la
República del Paraguay, 1992: 39).
Objetivo de la investigación
El objetivo de la investigación es revelar la noción
paraguayismos, describir el bilingüismo paraguayo, sus
peculiaridades de punto de vista de semántica histórica, su
reflexión y funciones de los paraguayismos en la literatura
paraguaya.
Bartomeu Meliá menciona que para entender el bilingüismo
paraguayo hay que contar con los factores históricos y socio-
psicológicos de la mestización del pueblo, adaptación mutua
social y psicológica de los aborígenes y conquistadores en el
proceso de la creación de la sociedad socio-cultural monolítica y,
como resultado, su “bilingüismo folklórico” (Meliá B., 2013: 59].
Ya, según la confirmación de Antonio Guasch
“Psicológicamente, español y guaraní se constituyen, cada uno

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por su parte, en la lengua de la “razón” y la lengua del “corazón”,
lo culto y lo íntimo…” (Guasch A., 1983: 11). “El pueblo estudia
y piensa en castellano, pero ama, odia y pelea en guaraní”,
(Benítez J.P., 1955: 171; Meliá B., 2012: 60).
El español del Paraguay se compone de dos capas –
panhispanismos y paraguayismos.
Los paraguayismos – “la palabra, partícula, el lema o la locución
de procedencia española y del guaraní, y de otras lenguas que
caracterizan el español hablado en el Paraguay, especialmente si
se contrasta con el español de otros países de Hispanoamérica o
con el de España, y que, por lo general, fuera del Paraguay,
plantea alguna dificultad de comprensión rápida para los
hispanohablantes hispanoamericanos” (Pane L., 2014: 25], para
los que estudian el español como lengua extranjera y para los
traductores.
Desde el punto vista de la clasificación formal los paraguayismos
son: fonéticos (fonológicos), gramaticales (morfosintácticos),
lexicales (con fraseologismos y modismos inclusive).
La finalidad de la investigación
La finalidad de la investigación está en cuestión de revelar las
peculiaridades del español y guaraní paraguayo, mostrar las
peculiaridades del habla real de los paraguayos que se revela en
la existencia de la “tercera lengua del Paraguay” (guaraní
hispanizado) – jopará que de hecho es el habla principal de los
paraguayos de hoy y es el resultado de intercomunicación e
interpenetración de dos culturas diferentes, europea (española) e
indígena (guaraní).
El español del Paraguay (paraguayismos españoles).
En este artículo mencionamos algunos ejemplos de los
paraguayismos lexicales.
Muy popular en el Paraguay es el uno de los ocasionalismos de
varias categorías.
1. En la base de los sustantivos se forman:

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- los verbos: guitarrear – ‘tocar la guitarra’, tererear – ‘tomar
tereré’ – bebida típica del Paraguay en la base de la hierba mate
con el agua fría.
- otros sustantivos: panchero – el que vende pancho (Rubinsztein
N., 2013: 123). Pancho en Paraguay es lo que en España se llama
‘perrito caliente’.
2. El uso de los sufijos diminutivos sin ningunas connotaciones:
chausito del chau, derechito de derecho – en Paraguay ‘recto’;
3. El uso de los apocopes a breviaciones: bibli – ‘biblioteca’,
finde – ‘fin de la semana’, Facu – ‘facultad’, Majo – María José,
Josema – José María, pyo – ‘paraguayo’ (usan los jóvenes en las
redes sociales). PY – es el código internacional del país, el
Paraguay, o – terminación del género masculino del gentílico.
A los paraguayismos lexicales pertenecen modismos –
expresiones fijas cuyos significados no puede deducirse de las
palabras que la componen. Se trata de una costumbre lingüística
que permite condensar una idea en pocas palabras y transmitir
dicho concepto a todos aquellos que comparten una misma
lengua (http://definicion.de/modismo/).
Por ejemplo.
Andar detrás – es una expresión que casi podría asemejarse al
estar pescando (estar cazando – en su sentido figural). No
obstante, se refiere a alguien que quiere descubrir algo, obtener
algo o también tratar de especular a una dama.
Comer comida – de primer punto de vista parece tautología, pero
en el Paraguay tiene el significado comer, sin ningunas
connotaciones.
Modismo un poco tiene dos aceptaciones.
La primera. Utilizado como ‘por favor’: Andá un poco a hacer
eso…; vení un poco.
La segunda. El término podría ser referido a las expresiones de
sorpresa, como: ¡Mirá un poco!. Se refiere a una reflexión o
comentario final ante un hecho circunstancial que ha producido
asombro, quizás disgusto, o seguramente, sorpresa.

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Guaraní paraguayo (paraguayismos del guaraní) no es
solamente la lengua, sino “la piedra filosófica de la raza. Revela
su origen y destino, le habla de su estirpe y sugiere su linaje
divino” (Bogado H.B., 2012: 96) que se basa en la cosmogonía
propia – conjunto de creencias, experiencia que forman la cultura
del pueblo, entre las que se encuentran el relato mítico referente a
los orígenes del mundo o la evolución del Universo. Según creen
los guaraníes la lengua es algo divino porque fue inventada y
regalada a ellos por su Dios, Ñamandú.
“La cosmogonía guaraní nos remonta a los orígenes de la
creación del mundo, con una sencillez y simplicidad que
cualquiera medianamente razonable puede entender sin la
complicaciones de “misterios” de las que están llenas la mayoría
de las culturas civilizadas” (Bogado H.B., 2012: 47)
Es la premisa que nos convence determinar el guaraní como la
lengua de imágenes.
Por ejemplo. Palabras que obtuvieron significados en la base de
onomatopeya. Al caminar por la selva el indio oye ruidos que
produce hojarasca seca debajo de sus pies pirirí así aparece
palabra con el significado ‘chisporrotear, chisporroteo’.
El ‘viento’ para un guaraní es Yvytu – ‘aliento de la tierra’,
síntesis de yvy – ‘tierra’ y pytú – ‘aire, respiración, vaho,
aliento/espíritu’.
La fantasía del indígena lleva a la aparición de las palabras con
los significados nuevos en la base de las asociaciones
metafóricas.
El beso no formaba parte de las costumbres del guaraní. La
noción aparece con la llegada de los primeros que aplican en su
habla la palabra hetū – ‘oler, percibir olores’ (actualmente en los
diccionarios el significado para ‘besos’ sale marcado como el
significado figural) (Guarania F., 2012: 224).
Tejuruguai – ‘latigo’, sintesis de teju – ‘lagarto’y tuguai – ‘cola’.
(Tovar A., 1949: 4).
El problema con el que se enfrenta el guaraní es como nombrar
los objetos nuevos. La solución se ofrece en dos formas.

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La primera, es el uso de las palabras intactas del castellano.
Aunque contra más palabras prestadas, menos queda de la lengua
original.
La otra opción es nombrar los objetos nuevos a través de la
descripción. Por ejemplo, la palabra “avión”. En la novela “El
invierno de Gunter” de Juan Manuel Marcos hay una frase “… ha
tenido suerte de conseguir lugar en este avión” (Marcos J.M.,
2013: 47). En la traducción de la misma novela al guaraní
encontramos: guyra pepoatãnguéra (Marcos J.M., 2014: 30]. El
sentido de avión de forma de: guyra – ‘pájaro’; pepo –‘ala’, atã –
‘duro’, nguéra –‘todo juntos‘. Es decir, ‘un pájaro con alas
duras’.
El desarrollo de las relaciones y condiciones de civilización y
económicas provocaron los movimientos semánticos o
desplazamiento de los significados de las palabras.
Más abajo, en la tabla №1, están presentes unos ejemplos de
dicho fenómeno (Meliá B., 2013: 99).
Tabla 1
Cambios semánticos en las palabras
del guaraní dependiendo de la época
PALABRAS PRE- SIGLO XVII SIGLO XXI
COLONIAL (Montoya)
Japói manos abiertas dar cosas, dar regalo, obsequio
comer
Tepy venganza venganza, paga precio de algo
Kuatia marca, dibujo pintura, dibujo, papel, carta
papel,
Karai chamán, mago español, señor, bautizado
cristiano
Tupã Dios del trueno Dios de los Un Dios de los
y de las lluvias cristianos Guaraníes,
chamán
La tercera lengua del Paraguay: Jopará.
La situación conquistadora dio ciertas ventajas al desarrollo del
guaraní, sin someter una cultura por otra, al revés, como favor de

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la una y la buena disposición de otra lo que llevó a la mezcla de
dos culturas y lenguas diferentes y aparición de la “tercera
lengua” del Paraguay – jopará (guarañol, guaraní hispanizado),
que de facto es la “lengua principal” del Paraguay de hoy.
Ya en el siglo XVIII el misionero austriaco Martín
Dobrizhoffer dice: “Pues después que los primeros españoles se
adoptaron de esta provincia … los españoles corrompían
miserablemente la lengua india y las indias la española. Así nació
una tercera o sea la que usan hoy en día” (Dobrizhoffer M.: 149-
150; Meliá B., 2013: 69).
El fenómeno de jopará se observa en siguientes áreas (unos
ejemplos).
1. Formación de las palabras nuevas en la base de las raíces de
los vocablos de dos lenguas.
- en la lengua coloquial de los paraguayos hay palabras en las que
una parte es del español, otra del guaraní: chamigo – che en
guaraní ‘mi’, amigo del castellano (Marcos J. M., 2013: 76).
2. Guaranismos con morfología y sintaxis del español.
- a la palabra guaraní se añaden los marcadores gramaticales del
castellano: casa llena de poras – es pluralización hispanizada del
guaraní pora – ‘fantasma’ (Marcos J.M., 2013: 214);
- uso de las partículas gramaticales del guaraní junto con
unidades lexicales castellanas: …esta ko’ es una ciudad
enorme… (Marcos J.M., 2013: 275). Partícula ko en guaraní
frecuenta en las oraciones declarativas e intensifica la
confirmación. La frase dicha se puede entender así ‘ésta y no otra
ciudad es enorme’.
Para mostrar el fenómeno de joparpá sacamos unos ejemplos del
cuento “Cárcel de arena” de la escritora paraguaya Lita Pérez
Cáceres.
“… ningún po guasú del gobierno llegaba hasta allí” (Pérez
Cáceres L., 2012: 25). Po en el guarani ‘mano’, guasú ‘grande’.
En la forma metafórica se entiende ‘el que tiene todo el poder en
sus manos grandes’, ‘gran jefe’.

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“El agua allí es morotí sakã y corre rápido” (Pérez Cáceres L.,
2012: 29). Morotí – ‘color blanco, blancura’, sakã –
‘transparente’.
Las funciones generales de los paraguayismos se revelan muy
bien claro en la novela “El invierno de Gunter” de Juan Manuel
Marcos.
1. Caracterizan la época de la creación de la novela.
2. Permiten descubrir los rasgos del carácter, filosofía interior de
los protagonistas.
3. El uso de los paraguayismos en la novela demuestra la
exfoliación de la sociedad paraguaya durante la época de la
creación de la novela. En primer lugar eso se nota en el uso de los
pronombres tú y vos:
4. Los paraguayismos hacen conocer la mitología, leyendas,
costumbres e historia del Paraguay.
Conclusión
Bilingüismo paraguayo se caracteriza como “bilingüismo ideal”
desde el punto de vista formal, y como “bilingüismo folclórico”
desde punto de vista de historia del desarrollo de la sociedad
paraguaya y la semántica histórica del español y el guaraní
paraguayos.
Todo lo mencionado más arriba en el artículo encuentra su reflejo
en la vida cotidiana de los paraguayos en varios niveles y en la
literatura moderna.
Por ejemplo, los paraguayismos en la novela “El invierno de
Gunter” de Juan Manuel Marcos se usan con varias funciones.
Los que nombran a los representantes de la fauna, la flora, la
comida, los objetos de la vida cotidiana – es decoración del
escenario en el que actúan los protagonistas de novela.
Los paraguayismos que pertenecen al léxico mitológico revelan el
alma del pueblo paraguayo, explican los hechos de los actores del
espectáculo que se llama la “vida de los paraguayos durante la
época de Stroessner”.

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Las palabras del guaraní – es la música que envuelve toda la
acción con su magia, acariciando el oído de los protagonistas y de
los lectores.
Este artículo no pretende en verdades como puños. La finalidad
principal de análisis presentado es descubrir para Europa el
Paraguay, su cultura, tradiciones, costumbres a través de la
situación lingüística, provocar discusión sobre los temas
mencionados.
En las investigaciones posteriores merece la pena prestar atención
a la situación lingüística del Paraguay desde el punto de vista de
semántica histórica, tanto del español como del guaraní hasta
cuando sea posible, para entender mejor el fenómeno del
“bilingüismo ideal” que se observa en el país.

References
Bogado Samaniego, Hugo Benjamín. 2012. The Guarani.
Reminiscence of the Adamic Language. Servilibro. 177 pp.
Guarania, Felix. 2010. Guaraní kuaareta. Encyclopedia.
Etymological-grammatical dictionary. Asuncion. Fondec. 513 pp.
Guasch Antonio. 1983. The Guaraní language: grammar and
anthology of prose and verse. 6a. ed., recast and enhanced.
Asuncion. Loyola. La Nación. URL:
https://www.lanacion.com.py/foco/2018/07/02/cheraa/ [Accessed
10.09.2018]
Marcos, Juan Manuel. 2013. Gunter’s Whinter. Critical edition
por K. Lewis Tracy. Asunción. Servilibro. 449 pp.
Marcos, Juan Manuel. 2014. Gunter araro’y. Asunción. Norte
University. 284 pp.
Pane, Leni. 2014. The Paraguayisms II. Asunción. Criterio
Ediciones. 197 pp.
Pérez Cáceres, Lita. 2012. Cruel stories. Anthology. Asuncion.
Nore University. 179 pp.
Rubinsztein, Natalio. 2013. Paraguayan idioms. Glossary Natalio
and vos. Asunción. Criterio Ediciones. 152 pp.

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Torres, Carlos Darío. 2017. Paraguay of many languages. La
Noción. URL: https://www.ultimahora.com/paraguay-muchas-
lenguas-n1098569.html. [Accessed 29.09.2018]
Tovar, Antonio. 1949. Semantics and etymology in the Guaraní.
THESAURUS. Volume V. Núms 1,2,3. Cervantes virtual center.
URL: https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/thesaurus/pdf/05/
TH_05_123_051_0.pdf [Accessed 10.09.2017]

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-440-449

REGIONAL VARIATION OF THE CANADIAN

NATIONAL ENGLISH VARIANT

Victoria V. Sokolovskaya

Military Academy,
Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
The article deals with the issues of regional variation of the
Canadian national English variant CE (Canadian English).
Linguists have been showing a great interest in such a section of
linguistics, as dialectology. Can a dialect be regarded as an
official language and its variety, or as a deviation from the
standard? “We have to recognise that, paradoxically enough, a
‘language’ is not a particularly linguistic notion at all. Linguistic
features obviously come into it, but languages for reasons that are
as much political, geographical, historical, sociological and
cultural as linguistic.” (Chambers J., and Trudgill P., 2004: 4).
Language is a primary means of communication, information
sharing, accurate speaking and is being constantly changed and
developed by native speakers, who occupy different territories
and represent different social, professional strata. This

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phenomenon attracts linguists for a detailed study. Language is
indicated in a new paradigm. It is explained from the position of
its involvement in human cognitive activity, in connection with
the social conditions of the existence. The historical globalization
process, which “compresses” the world into time, space,
influences the language changes. All existing territorial
boundaries become hypothetical. Intercultural communication has
an impact on the linguistic situation. The idea that the language as
a single monolithic structure has been replaced by understanding
it as a heterogeneous structure. Linguistic and extralinguistic
factors lead to these constant changes. The language has the
ability to undergo constant changes and can be characterized by
the phenomenon called variation. Variants of a language appear
as a result of its differentiation under the influence of linguistic,
sociolinguistic, extralinguistic factors. Variation is observed at all
levels of verbal communication (phonetic, morphemic, lexical,
syntactic, stylistic). Territorial, social, gender, professional, age
affiliation are taken into consideration. The structure of the
society, its functioning, history also have a great influence on the
language variation formation and development. The variability of
the language implies the peculiarities of its use by native
speakers.
Sometimes it is not easy to distinguish between the concepts
“language variant” and “dialect speech”. We can emphasize that
both of these concepts are described as a variant of the
pronunciation of the language specific to a certain group of
people. However, the main difference is that some variants
become independent languages, whereas dialect speech cannot be
regarded as it is.
Studying dialects makes it possible to understand the origins of
the language, its historical past, it allows to trace and understand
the features of the literary norm, social and professional dialects,
language variants. It clarifies rules of grammar and
pronunciation, explores word meaning origins.

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The literary norm is formed on the basis of one or several local
dialects and language features of any local dialect can be
explained by strict historical regularity. Some time ago the dialect
was considered to be a non-standard, low-level form of the
language, a kind of fluctuation from the norm - regarded as a
deviation from the correct or standard form of the language.
Today there is another point of view, linguists suggest that the
speakers know one dialect minimum and standard English, for
example, may be indicated as the same dialect as any other forms
of English. From the standpoint of some researchers, no dialect is
superior to any other. “We will accept the notion that all speakers
are speakers of at least one dialect – that standard English, for
example, is just as much a dialect as any other form of English –
and that it does not make any kind of sense to suppose that any
one dialect is in any way linguistically superior to any other.”
(Chambers J., and Trudgill P., 2004: 3).
Keywords: territorial variation, dialect, regional dialects,
language norm

Introduction
Modern linguists are more and more interested in such section of
linguistics, as dialectology. There are different opinions on
whether to put dialects on the same level as the official language
and consider them as a real variety or as a deviation from the
standard, the correct form of the language. As N.F. Mikheeva
points out “Dialectology is one of the difficult and
multidimensional sections of linguistics.” (Mikheeva N.F., 2014:
1). Regional dialects and the literary language, are regarded as the
main varieties of the language. Dialects studying allows
researchers to collect invaluable material to understand the
origins of the language. Language, being a key means of
communication, information sharing, accurate speaking, attracts
linguists for its detailed study. It is being constantly changed and
developed by native speakers, who occupy different territories
and represent different social, professional strata. Language is no

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longer considered to be "in itself and for itself», it is shown in a
new paradigm from the position of its involvement in human
cognitive activity, in connection with the social conditions of the
existence. The language changes are also established by the
historical globalization process, which “compresses” the world
into time, space. All existing territorial boundaries become
hypothetical. Intercultural communication has an impact on the
linguistic situation.
A more detailed study reveals how multifaceted is the
language; the idea of the language as a single monolithic structure
has been replaced by the heterogeneity of the language structure,
this can be explained by linguistic and extralinguistic factors. The
language has the ability to undergo constant changes and can be
characterized by the phenomenon called variation. Variants of a
language appear as a result of its differentiation under the
influence of linguistic, sociolinguistic, extralinguistic factors.
Variation is observed at all levels of verbal communication
(phonetic, morphemic, lexical, syntactic, stylistic). Territorial,
social, gender, professional, age affiliation are taken into
consideration. The structure of the society, its functioning, history
also have a great influence on the language variation formation
and development. The variability of the language implies the
peculiarities of its use by native speakers. The language use
specifics, limited by the phonetic, morphemic, lexical, syntactic,
stylistic features are inherent in any person’s speech. The
informant has knowledge of the language behavior standards. He
begins to acquire such knowledge from the moment when he
learns to speak, imitating others. The environment has a huge
impact on the level of language proficiency. “Variation has a
sociolinguistic nature and characterizes the peculiarities of the
language of the society, not individuals.” (Proshina Z., 2010:
244). The scientific attention of linguists to the phenomenon of
the English language variation is explained by the heterogeneity
and complexity of its composition, the peculiarities of its
functioning in different language situations and territorial areas.

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The language variation is associated with the external factors
influence and manifests itself in the diversity of existence forms,
its social and territorial differentiation. Each territorial variation
is a spatial as well as social, cultural and historical projection of
the language.
Purpose of the study
The goal of the research is to determine the sociolinguistic status
of English dialects variety in Canada. The territorial variation of
the English language in Canada is of great scientific interest,
covering sociolinguistic and extralinguistic factors. There is a
process of the language democratization. This tendency is
reflected in the change in the language standard, which becomes
less mandatory and open to the elements located outside. This
process leads to a decrease in the standard level.
Methodology
Russian (see works of R.I. Avanesov, F.P. Filin, P.S. Kuznetsov,
V.G. Orlova, L.L. Kasatkin, L.I. Barannikova, N.F. Mikheeva,
T.I. Vendina, S.K. Pozharitskaya and others) and foreign linguists
(J.K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, etc.) showed and are showing a great
interest in the detailed study of dialects. Some aspects require
detailed research. Practically in Russian linguistics there are no
works devoted to a detailed study of Canadian English dialects.
Canadian English is clearly distinguished from the British and
American variants.
A significant reason for this fact is the presence of French as the
second state language. CE (Canadian English) is a mixture of
American and British English, French, Indian languages, as well
as set expressions created by Canadians. Canada is a country of
immigrants from different regions of England, Scotland, Ireland,
America, France, it accepted a significant number of settlers
exploring new territories. “Canadian English is notable for its
comparative lack of regional variation, with a very similar type of
English spoken by most people across the vast territory between
Victoria and Halifax.” (Boberg C., 2016: 11).

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If we consider the language features, we can pay attention to the
fact that Canadians follow the grammar rules of “classical
English” and the spelling coincides with the British spelling
more. “In terms of vocabulary, it is well known that Canadian
English follows American norms in most transatlantic
differences.” (Boberg C., 2016: 8).
This fact can be explained by the United States of America close
neighborhood, English-speaking settlers arrived in Canada from
the American colonies in the period 1776-1793 after the
American Revolution, the Loyalists wished to remain in British
North America. The modern Canadian national version is
perceived as American.
In Canadian English there is a whole lexical layer, which is of
Canadian origin. This lexis is thematic and related to the
peculiarities of nature, the Canadian style of living. Some of the
words are caribou, chinook, husky, igloo, kayak, moccasin,
moose, raccoon, skunk, sockeye, toboggan, wapiti and wigwam.
Results
Historically, the territorial variation of a language is closely
related to aspects such as time and space: when native speakers
choose new places of residence and live apart for a long time.
Keeping traditions, the language develops independently,
contributing to the emergence of phonetic, semantic, grammatical
features, a dialect of the language appears.
The study of dialects is based on the study of languages in their
historical context of development, therefore, only “conservative”
rural areas, where you can find “old” forms of the studied
languages can help you in the research. However, then the
following questions are raised. Who can be considered the "native
speaker" of the researched dialect? Were his ancestors born in
this community or not? If not can he be considered the “a native
speaker” of the dialect?
It should be emphasized that the integration process affects the
dialect formation. Divergent processes underlie the regional
variation of the Canadian national variant. A territorial disunity

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and cultural isolation of the settlements from each other
contributed to the emergence of dialects.
The immigrants living together in the same territory came from
the same region or country, they engaged in joint activities,
preserved and developed the culture of their ancestors. Each
territorial variant was a spatial, social, cultural, historical
reflection of the language.
It is necessary to consider each dialect in detail
The dialect of Canadian English in the Atlantic provinces is very
similar to the dialects of fishermen in Ireland and Scotland. The
dialect spoken in Newfoundland, or on the Island, is very
interesting and difficult to understand. Even Canadians from
other provinces cannot comprehend it.
Such a significant difference in language is due to the fact that
Newfoundland and the main part of Canada were founded at
different times by immigrants from different places. They had
different histories, as well as great differences in their languages
and culture. “Notably distinct are Newfoundland, which was
settled mainly from southwestern England and southeastern
Ireland.” (Labov W., Ash S., Boberg C., 2006: 217)
The dialect creation was influenced by immigrants from England,
Ireland, Scotland, France. Newfoundland English is full of unique
expressions as follows: “Where ya at?” instead of “Where are
you?”, “I’m just after doing it” instead of “I’ve just done it”,
“Have you wrote the letter?” instead of “Have you written the
letter?”, “I always calls her Anna” instead of “I always call her
Anna”, “You’re some crooked” instead of “You’re grouchy”, and
“fadder” or “me fadder” instead of “father, my father” etc.
As for the lexis, “The Newfoundland dialect (NLE) is
characterised by the retention of many words and meanings that
have either disappeared or are now archaic elsewhere, as well as
by the preservation of a host of more localised regional items that
were brought to the area from southwest England and southern
Ireland.” (Clarke S., 2010: 102). “Rather than abandoning their
linguistic roots these speakers have become more bidialectal, or

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more proficient at manipulating standard supralocal
pronunciations alongside traditional community norms.” (Clarke
S., 2010: 148).
Quebec English is a dialect spoken in the French-speaking
province of Quebec. The dialect is greatly influenced by the
French language speakers adhering to French pronunciation.
There is also intensive use of the mixture of French and English
which is called “Frenglish” and you can hear such phrases like
“take a decision”, “put your coat” and “close the TV”.
Those who live along the Ottawa River speak the Ottawa River
Valley dialect. It is influenced by Scottish, Irish and American
English. These different cultures are reflected in the features of
pronunciation and colloquial speech. “Rones” is used instead of
the word “gutters”, and the words “cot” and “caught” are
pronounced differently, although they are a homophone in
standard English. Also in this dialect, the phrase “for to” means
“in order to” instead of “to”. For example “He bought beautiful
earrings for to make a present.” Most people living in other parts
of Canada consider this dialect to be “rural”.
Central Canadian English is spoken in the provinces of Alberta,
Manitoba and Saskatchewan. This dialect is considered as
Canadian variant of the English language. Its characteristic
feature is the "Canadian raising", a change in the pronunciation of
vowels located before voiceless consonants. It is very similar to
American English, although some British influence is retained, as
well as some Canadian sounds. For example, for someone from
the United States, the word “map” may sound like “mop,”
Southern Ontario, a province of Ontario, is the most densely
populated in the country. Many political and cultural terms
appeared here and later became widely used in other parts of the
country.
British Columbia province, with the largest city Vancouver, is
located in the west of the country and is separated from other
parts of Canada by rocky mountains. The dialect, known as
Pacific Western English, is spoken in the provinces of British

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Columbia and Yukon. It has similar features with Californian
English. Here the pronunciation of “r” differs from other dialects.
English Lunenburg is spoken in the county of Lunenburg, Nova
Scotia Province. This dialect was strongly influenced by German
settlers and has a clear pronunciation. The sound “r” is dropped
after the stressed syllables, “v” is pronounced instead of “w” and
“d” instead of “th”. Most words are created by direct translations
from German. “get awake” is used instead of “wake up”, and “all
gone” is completely reduced to “all”.
Canadian Aboriginal English is a language that has been the
language of indigenous peoples for a long time. This language is
spoken mainly in the Northwest Territories, in the provinces of
Nunavut and Yukon.
Discussion
It is very difficult sometimes to distinguish between the concepts
"language variant" and "dialect speech", both of these concepts
can be described as a variant of the pronunciation of the language
specific to a certain group of people. However, the main
difference is that some variants become independent languages,
whereas dialect speech cannot be regarded as it is.
Studying dialects makes it possible to understand the origins of
the language, its historical past, trace the features of the literary
norm, social and professional dialects, language variants. It
clarifies rules of grammar and pronunciation, explores word
meaning origins.
The literary norm is formed on the basis of one or several local
dialects, and language features of any local dialect can be
explained by strict historical regularity. Some time ago the dialect
was considered to be a non-standard, low-level form of the
language, a kind of deviation from the norm - regarded as a
deviation from the correct or standard form of the language.
Today there is another point of view, suggesting that the speakers
know at least one dialect. Standard English, for example, is the
same dialect as any other forms of English, and no dialect is
superior to any other from a linguistic point of view.

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References
Boberg, C. 2016. Newspaper dialectology: Harnessing the power
of the mass media to study Canadian English. American Speech
91(2): 109-138.
Chambers, J., Trudgill, P. 2004. Dialectology. Cambridge
University Press, United Kingdom, 232 pp.
Clarke, S. 2010. Newfoundland and Labrador English. Edinburgh
University Press, Edinburgh, 212 рр.
Labov, W., Ash, S., Boberg, C. 2006. The Atlas of North
American English Phonetics, Phonology and Sound Change.
Mouton de Gruyter, New York, 318 рр.
Mikheeva N.F. 2014. About the new direction in Spanish
dialectology – Intervariant dialectology of the Spanish language.
International journal of applied and fundamental research 1: 1-
10.
The Canadian Encyclopedia 2016. Canadian English.
www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-english
[Accessed February 25 2019].
Proshina Z.G. 2010. Variance of the English language and
intercultural communication. Personality. Culture. Society 12 (2):
242-252.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-449-459

THE CORE ZONE OF THE CONCEPT “ROMANTIC”

IN RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH LINGUOCULTURES

Alina S. Zagrebelnaya

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Language in its specificity and social significance in society takes
a very special place. Pointing to this role of language, many

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linguists emphasize that language is the focus of the spiritual
culture of a people, the main form of manifestation of national
and personal identity, a means of storing and accumulating
knowledge. Currently, the search for new ways of research has
led to the formation of ideas about the intercultural ontology of
national (ethnic) consciousnesses, when images of consciousness
of one national culture are analyzed in the process of contrasting
comparison with images of consciousness of another culture. In
this regard, the term "concept" is widely used in various fields of
linguistic science. It entered the conceptual apparatus of cognitive
science, semantics and linguoculturology.
Language as a phenomenon of culture captures and reflects in
some indirect way both the system of values, moods, assessments
that currently exist in a given society, and values that are eternal
for a given culture. Thus, the language keeps the culture and
passes it from generation to generation, so it plays a significant
role in the formation of the personality, national character, ethnic
community, people, and nation.
For the first time, the term “romance” began to be used in the
17th century. From then until now, this phenomenon of language
and culture enriched semantically has attracted particular
attention of linguists and is the object of scientific research by
many scientists (V.V. Vanslov, A.M. Gurevich, V.I. Kuleshov,
G.A. Gukovsky, and others).
Up to the XX century, the concept "Romance" was considered in
the literary aspect in the framework of the more extensive
direction of romanticism. However, the linguistic and, in
particular, the linguoculturological description of the meaning of
the concept “Romance” still causes certain difficulties.
Considering the history of the development of the concept
“Romance” in the English and Russian linguistic cultures, we can
say that nowadays under the concept “Romance”, the British
often mean love (the relationship of two people) and the linguistic
objectification of this concept is due to emotional lexical units
(love, excitement, fascination, glamor, etc.), and in the Russian

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linguistic and cultural community, the concept "Romance",
compared to the English equivalent, has much less broad
associative orientation (the dream, the enthusiasm, mystery, fairy
tale, etc.). It follows that the interrelation of culture, emotional
sphere and language is manifested in the basic meanings
(concepts) of each linguistic culture. Being an integral component
of spiritual culture, emotions, for all their universality, manifest
in different languages certain specificities of the verbalization of
the “Romance” / “Romantic” concept, due to the inherent
speaker's subjectivity in interpreting the surrounding reality.
In this study the following has been done:
1. The core of the semantic field of the concept “Romance”, as
well as the concept “Romantic”, is determined on the basis of the
dictionary data analysis. The internal form and keywords (core)
of this concept are selected based on the criteria of direct
nomination, figurative values; genre–forming stylistic means are
elements of indirect nomination.
2. A range of lexical units is revealed, which are used in one
particular semantic sphere.
The structure of this concept is a complex multifaceted
phenomenon. The concept center is the notion “Romantic”, which
dynamically acquires many new meanings and demonstrates a
model of development from the center to the periphery of certain
lexemes, the main of which are: in English – excitement, love, in
Russian – mechta, skazka, vostorgennost’. However, linguistic
expression of this notion is not the same in the compared
languages.
Keywords: spiritual culture, concept "romantic",
linguoculturological approach

Introduction
In recent years, the focus on the linguistic research of language
personality (linguistic persona), increased interest to a person, a
comprehensive study of the different modes of a human being led
to a new integrative framework – linguopersonology, with the

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speaker having a wide range of social roles and features of
communicative behavior. The term “linguistic persona” is
clarified and supplemented in the works of Russian linguists: the
subject, involved in communication, is embodied in a variety of
“personal” phenomena – an intellectual person (thinking person),
a language personality (manifesting itself in speech activity,
having a certain sum of knowledge and ideas), speech personality
(realizing itself in communication and implementing a particular
strategy and tactics of communication), communicative
personality (actually acting in a real situation) (Puziryev A.V.,
Krasnikh V.V., 2001: 113), discursive personality (sometimes
creating a certain discourse in the form of continuously
renewable or completed, fragmentary or whole, oral or written
message) (Plotnikova S.N., 2005: 5).
As a part of the study of the person’s communicative behavior,
their way of life, value priorities, it becomes possible to single
out the sociocultural or ethnocultural types “generalized
representatives of the relevant society who act not as a guide to
imitation, but as a stable type that constantly appears in the
concept–sphere” (Karasik V. I., Yarmakhova E.A., 2003: 53).
According to A.A. Zalevskaya, "... the body of the text, taken by
itself, without a person signifying it, does not contain any internal
energy, it cannot self-organize structurally" (Zalevskaya A.A.,
2002: 64). In other words, the text considered separately from the
speaking subject, his intentions, is inanimate, abstracted, faceless
substance. The modern linguistic paradigm is characterized by a
pronounced anthropocentric orientation. The transition to
anthropocentric linguistics, an increased interest to a person leads
to linguists focusing on the language personality, linguocultural,
social and communicative/personality types.
Let us clarify that we distinguish between the notions of
“linguocultural,” “sociocultural” and “communicative” type. For
the purposes of our study, the social and ethnic characteristics of
a discursive personality - a communicative type - are not relevant,
since we understand the latter “as a typical representative of a

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group of communicative individuals united by common features
of communicative behavior” (Mironenko M.V., 2007: 94).
Objectives/Purpose of the study
The research is targeted to identify definitions of the notions
“romance”, “romantic” from explanatory (monolingual) Russian
and English dictionaries, to systematize the currently existing
information about them.
Methodology
In the present study, we consider the term “communicative type”
as “a typical representative of the group of communicative
personalities united by common features of communicative
behavior <...> this type of personality does not depend on ethnic
and social characteristics and is manifested exclusively in the
specifics of communicative behavior” (Mironenko M.V., 2005:
39). In accordance with this, the modeling of the constant
characteristics of the communicative behavior of the romantic is
based on the following parameters of his/her communicative
behavior: goal, communicative strategy, communicative tactics,
and specific features of communicative behavior.
The first stage of studying romantic as a communicative type
involves defining its core concept.
Language is a kind of mirror, a mirror of consciousness, which
reflects both the real world surrounding a person and the national
character, the mentality of the people, the system of values and
the picture of the world. One of the units describing the
worldview is a concept, since it is implemented in the language
and contains linguistic and cultural knowledge, representations,
perceives of the real world. (Dzyubenko A.I., Saltikova E.A.,
2013: 19). The concept combines the most diverse forms of
reality reflection, both rational and sensual. Since human thinking
is non-verbal, it is carried out using a universal object code and
its units, i.e. concepts (Popova Z.D., Sternin I.A., 2007: 7).
Nowadays, there are two main approaches to the study of the
concepts – linguocognitive and linguocultural.

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Representatives (N.A. Boldireva, A.A. Zalevskaya, I.A. Sternin,
A.P. Babushkina) of the first direction understand the concept as
a unit of operational consciousness, an undivided reflection of
reality.
The second approach suggests that the concept is a mental entity,
marked in varying degrees by ethno-semantic specificity
(N.D. Arutyunova, V.I. Karasik, S.G. Vorkachev,
V.I. Shakhovskiy).
We share the opinion that a concept is a complex mental
formation, marked by ethnocultural specificity, which can be
described in terms of the core and periphery. It is known that
concepts can be objectively studied only with the help of a
complex method of analysis.
Results/Findings
This article explores the conceptual aspect of the concept
"romantic" in the Russian and English linguistic cultures. The
study required the material of five Russian and five English
explanatory dictionaries. For our research, we use the following
Russian dictionaries: “Tolkoviy slovar’ russkogo yazika” by S.I.
Odgegov, “Slovar’ russkogo yazika” by N.U. Shvedov (Maliy
akademicheskiy slovar’), ”Tolkoviy slovar’ sovremennogo
russkogo literaturnogo yazika” (Bolshoi akademicheskiy slovar’),
“Tolkoviy slovar’ russkogo yazika” by D.N. Ushakov and
“Tolkoviy slovar’ givogo velikorusskogo yazika” by V.I. Dal’.
In the Russian language the notion "romantic" has the following
definitions:
ROMANTIC, n.
1. The follower of Romanticism (in the first and the second
meanings).
2. The representative of romanticism
3. Supporter of Romanticism in literature or in other types of art.
(Bor’ba romantikov s klassikami).
4. The person inclined to romanticism (in the third meaning).
5. A man imbued with romance, high feelings.

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6. A person who is romantically inclined, prone to reverie, to the
idealization of people and life.
We could notice that when interpreting the concept “romantic” in
the dictionaries of the Russian language, such words as
“romance” and “romanticism” are repeatedly mentioned. For the
most complete understanding of the "romantic" concept, it will be
necessary to consider the interpretation of the two presented
items.
ROMANCE, n.
1. Perception of the world, mentality, characterized by
idealization of reality, dreamy contemplation and sensitivity;
2. Something that contains ideas and feelings that emotionally
elevate a person; living conditions, environment, contributing to
the emotional and elevated attitude. (Romantika tvorcheskikh
iskaniy, R. trudnikh putey, R. Severa).
3. The same as romanticism (2 m.).
4. That which is imbued with romanticism (3 m.).
5. The element of feeling and emotional evaluation in anything.
(Romantika v dele bor’bi).
6. Something that creates an emotional, exalting attitude to
something.
ROMANTICISM, n.
1. The direction in literature and art of the first quarter of the XIX
century, opposing the canons of classicism and characterized by a
desire for national and individual identity, to the image of ideal
heroes and feelings, opposed to the surrounding reality.
2. The direction in literature and art, imbued with optimism and
the desire to show in vivid images the high purpose of the person.
3. The mindset, imbued with the idealization of reality, dreamy
contemplation of books.
4. Emotionally elevated, exalted attitude to something.
It is worth noting that “romance” and “romanticism” in many
explanatory dictionaries are identified with each other, although
this is not entirely correct. “Romanticism” seems more like a

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trend in literature, painting, art, economics, when “romance” is
mostly a feeling, an emotional attitude to something.
As for the etymology of the concept "romantic", this word comes
from the French. romantique "romantic", further from fr. roman
"romance", then from the article – fr. romanz "romance; novel",
then from Lat. Romanus "Roman", further from Roma "Rome",
further from an unidentified form.
In Russian, there are few synonyms to the word "romantic":
mechtatel’, idealist, vlublenniy, naivniy, etc.
Having examined the definitions of the lexeme “romance” in
various explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, we
identified the main semes of the semantic field of the Romance
concept: mechta, mechtatelnaya sozercatelnost’, geroika, pafos,
pod’em, pripodnyatost’, nereal’nost’, skazka, lagenda, vidumka,
etc.
Analysis of some dictionary articles selected from various
explanatory English dictionaries, such as The Oxford Dictionary
of Current English, The Cambridge English Dictionary, Collins
English Dictionary, Longman English Dictionary, Macmillan
English Dictionary, revealed that the conceptual core of the
“romantic” concept includes the following components of the
semantic structure of the core lexeme:
1) Someone who has a strong belief in love and likes to do things
that show their love.
Synonyms: lover (someone who is in a loving or sexual
relationship with another person), admirer (someone who is
attracted to a particular person in a romantic way), worshipper
(someone who loves someone or something very much), romeo (a
man who is very much in love with a woman) and so on.
2) Someone who believes that things are better or more exciting
than they really are.
Synonyms: optimist (someone who tends to expect that good
things will happen), idealist (someone who is idealistic), live wire
(a person who has a lot of energy and is interesting to be with),

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Pollyanna (someone who is always very happy and believes that
only good things will happen), etc.
3) A writer, artist, or composer whose work is based on the
tradition of Romanticism.
Synonyms: artist (someone who writes, makes films, or writes
music with great skill), master (a famous artist), school (a group
of writers, artists etc. whose work or ideas are similar).
Moreover, the concept “romantic” has the following meanings:
1) A person with romantic beliefs or attitudes.
(I am an incurable romantic).
2) A writer or artist of the Romantic Movement.
(Wordsworth, Coleridge, and the later romantics).
3) Someone who follows the late 18th and early 19th century
ideas of Romanticism, or who creates art, music, or literature in
the Romantic style.
(The German Romantics emphasized the uniqueness of each
intimate experience).
5) Someone who is not practical, and bases their ideas too much
on an imagined idea of the world.
6) A person who is romantic, as in being idealistic, amorous, or
soulful.
7) A person whose tastes in art, literature, etc., lie mainly in
Romanticism.
Having considered the meanings of lexical units verbalizing the
concept under study in various explanatory dictionaries of the
English language, we identified the semantic field “Romantic”,
which includes the lexemes: love, fascination, glamor, mystery,
excitement, passion, color, sentiment, adventure, fantasy, etc.
Note that the concept of “Romantic” in English lexicographic
sources is most often represented by lexical units in the following
grammatical masks: the noun “romance” and the adjective
“romantic”, less often the noun “romanticism” and the verb “to
romanticize”.
Thus, the concept “Romance” in the English linguistic culture
relies on a rich intertextuality and three-dimensional content of

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the precedent phenomena. But the most important thing is that
romantic notions (stable phrases and images, developed
metaphors and comparisons) continue to take shape, develop and
live an independent life.
Discussion
A comparative analysis of the concept "Romantic" in the English
and Russian texts revealed the following similarities and
differences.
The core lexeme of the concept "Romance" in English is the
lexeme "Romance". The study of the meaning of the lexeme
“Romantic” in English and Russian explanatory dictionaries and
in the dictionaries of synonyms allows us to determine that the
notion “Romantic” is most often implemented in similar
grammatical forms: noun (English “romance”,
“romanticist/romantic/sentimentalist”, Russian "romantika",
"romantik"); adjective (English "romantic", Russian "romantik").
In the course of the study, it was found that the variety of lexemes
representing the concept “Romantic” in the English language is
larger than the representation of the lexeme “Romantik” in
Russian explanatory dictionaries. So, 94 lexical units
participating in the formation of the semantic field of the concept
of “Romantic” were recorded (70 lexical units in English and 24
lexical units in Russian).
The structure of this concept is a complex multifaceted
phenomenon. The concept core is the notion “Romantic”, which
dynamically acquires many new meanings and demonstrates a
model of development from the center to the periphery of certain
lexemes, the main of which are: in English – excitement, love, in
Russian – mechta, skazka, vostorgennost’. However, linguistic
expression is not the same in heterogeneous languages. The
emphasis is shifted to the keyword, the meaning of which is
relevant for a particular language. In English, the keywords were
two lexemes: excitement, love; in Russian, the lexeme is mechta.
The study of dictionary definitions revealed significant features
not only of the lexeme “Romantic” in the grammatical form of an

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adjective, but also of no less frequently used language unit – the
noun “Romance”.

References
Dzyubenko, A.I. 2013. The concept “Beauty” in modern English
literature: gender aspect. Theory and practice of gender studies in
world science: materials of IV International scientific and
practical conference of 5-6 may 2013 year. Prague, 91 pp.
Zalevskaya, A.A. 2002. Some problems in theory of text’s
understanding. Moscow, 64 pp.
Karasik, V.I. 2003. Freak as a type of English linguoculture. In
Axiological linguistics: problems of communicative behavior.
Volgograd, 53 pp.
Mironenko, M.V. 2007. Joker as communicative personality:
thesis of philological science: 10.02.19. Volgograd, 228 pp.
Plotnikova, S.N. 2005. Language, communicative and discursive
personality: to the problem of delineation of concepts. Irkutsk, 5-
6 pp.
Popova, Z.D. 2007. The main features of the semantic – cognitive
approach to language. In Antology of concepts. Moscow, 7-9 pp.
Puziryev, A.V. 2001. Experiments of holistic system approaches
to linguistic and non-linguistic reality. 2002. Penza, 117 pp. In
Krasnikh, V.V. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics and
communication theory. Moscow, 324 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-460-470

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF STUDYING

MULTIDISCIPLINARY TERMINOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
IN MODERN LINGUISTIC TYPOLOGY

Natalia I. Zhabo

Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)

Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The present work is a theoretical research devoted to a new
formation, multidisciplinary terminological systems. The
scientific terminology trends are focused nowadays on the
integration processes in science. The purpose of the research is to
reveal allomorphic and isomorphic features of semantization,
systematization and functioning of multidisciplinary terms in
Russian, French, English within the framework of scientific
discourse of the last five years. The following tasks have been set
and are being solved: 1) To determine the content of the terms
"term", "multidisciplinary term", "multidisciplinary terminology
system"; to establish the properties of multidisciplinary terms
and parameters of their association; 2) To justify the
methodology of comparative multiparadigmatic analysis of
terms; 3) To analyze the peculiarities of conceptualization,
systematization, semantization of multidisciplinary terms in the
compared languages, their structural and typological features; 4)
To consider the functioning of multidisciplinary terms of
comparable systems. The hypothesis of the study is that modern
highly developed languages contain subsystems universal for
Germanic, Slavic and Roman groups of languages, and have
much in common in the ways of association. The study required
the following methods: 1) linguistic methods: comparative,

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representative method, the method of scientific description;
contextual and situational analysis, functional and semantic
analysis, lexical and semantic analysis, lexical and grammatical
analysis; 2) general scientific methods: analysis and synthesis,
induction and deduction, comparison, the method of hypothesis.
Results. The revealed properties of multidisciplinary
terminological systems are the following: 1) Integrity (single
system with a complex ordered structure); 2) Divisibility (they
are subdivided according to the thematic principle); 3)
Construction of thematically adjacent functional-semantic fields
on the principle of "core-periphery"; 4) Multiplicity, unification
of the levels of paradigm by some paradigmatic, syntagmatic,
epidigmatic, and hierarchical relations; 4) Purposefulness, focus
on providing one or two scientific branches with exact
definitions of the concepts demanded by science. The general
properties that "ensure the performance of the system" are the
following: 1) System-wide homogeneity, association upon
thematic features; 2) Intra-heterogeneity; 3) Self-organization of
a multidisciplinary terminological system, which develops and
exists as long as its elements are in demand of society as a
global, collective native speaker; 4) Centralization (the most
thematically common multidisciplinary terms are the main
elements of the core such as one-word ones, international ones,
frequently used in professional speech and everyday life); 5)
Emergence, as the new quality of the system arise due to the
combination of the elements into a single, integral system. A
multidisciplinary terminological system is a large system that
includes several thousand representations. In is a complex
system of interacting language units, so they are interrelated and
interdependent.
Discussion. Multidisciplinary terms of Russian, English and
French languages have a relatively stable semantics and semantic
structure. This property is supported for many of them by their
status of international vocabulary and a single sphere of use. In
addition, desemantization, re-semantisation and other semantic

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processes in the semantics of the considered terms also show
changes, appearance or disappearance of some semantic,
syntagmatic and stylistic characteristics. Thus, a
multidisciplinary terminological system is a unique universal
system capable of crystallizing, systematizing and generalizing
scientific data, unifying the scientific apparatus of an existing
database of related and (less often) distant scientific fields. It
potentiates a further development of the scientific picture of the
world. The scientific novelty of the research consists in the
introduction of the terms "multidisciplinary term",
"multidisciplinary terminological systems". On the basis of these
theoretical provisions, a French textbook was organized;
currently a similar practical work is underway to write a textbook
of the French language for future veterinarians.
Key words: linguistic typology, terminology, French language,
English language, multidisciplinary terms

Introduction
This research is devoted to a complex theoretical substantiation
of the existence of multidisciplinary terminological systems in
modern French, Russian and English languages, as being the
main languages of international communication for many
decades.
The relevance of the study is determined by the fact that the
general scientific trends of the early XXI century, echoing the
global trends of globalization, integration of societies, are
focused, as a consequence, on the principles of
anthropocentricity and system-centricity of modern science. The
unified information space created largely due to new information
technologies, in particular, the Internet, contributes to the
integration processes in science that require an interdisciplinary
approach to the study of scientific terms. The study of these
progressive permanent trends is a new, promising task of modern
linguistic typology, namely: the study of the features of linguistic
subsystems, the establishment of typological features of remotely

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related languages, isomorphism and allomorphism of their
language subsystems. Despite numerous developments in the
field of structural typology (see the works of V.D. Arakin, B.A.
Uspensky, V.N. Yartseva, V.G. Gak, etc.), contrastive linguistics
(V.I. Karaban, S.I. Terekhova, S.P. Denisova, K.I. Mizin et al.),
these problems require new solutions, as languages are
constantly evolving, interacting in the process of communication.
An integrated, multiparadigmal research in the field of
comparative terminology only started (Avdonina, M.Yu., Zhabo
N.I., Terekhova I.S., Valeeva N.G., 2016). A special study of
multidisciplinary terminological systems in multiparadigm
lighting has not previously been conducted.
Multidisciplinary terms and their paradigms in the relevant
systems of the studied languages in scientific and popular
scientific texts and journalistic texts are in the focus of the
present research.
The purpose of the research is to reveal allomorphic and
isomorphic features of semantization, systematization and
functioning of multidisciplinary terms in Russian, French,
English languages on the basis of a comparative
multiparadigmatic analysis of multidisciplinary terms within the
framework of scientific discourse.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks have been set and are
being solved:
1) To determine the content of the terms "term",
"multidisciplinary term", "multidisciplinary terminology
system"; to establish the properties of multidisciplinary terms
and parameters of their association;
2) To justify the methodology of comparative multiparadigmatic
analysis of terms;
3) To analyze the peculiarities of conceptualization,
systematization, semantization of multidisciplinary terms in the
compared languages, their structural and typological features;
4) To consider the functioning of multidisciplinary terms of
comparable systems.

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Research material: multidisciplinary terms of three languages,
selected by a continuous search in dictionaries, for example
(Centre National de resources Textuelles et Lexicales), glossaries
of terms, as well as scientific, journalistic and official texts of the
last five years.
Based on the generally accepted interpretation of the term
(Vasilieva, N.B., 1990: 508-509), a multidisciplinary term in the
research is understood as a linguistic unit that names and
explicates one, the same or similar concepts in different scientific
fields in one language.
The hypothesis of the study is that modern highly developed
languages contain subsystems universal for Germanic, Slavic and
Roman groups of the Indo-European languages, which explicate
the general concepts in these languages, and have much in
common in the ways of association.
Multidisciplinary terms we are being studying include polysems,
homonyms, and hyponymic terms used in different branches of
scientific knowledge.
By means of complex, comparative multiparadigmatic analysis it
is possible to reveal typological properties of languages in terms
of their expression and to provide interpretation of neologisms,
including using multilanguage news (Avdonina M. Yu, Rudneva
M. A., Valeeva N. G., Zhabo N. I., 2016).
Methodology
Multiparadigmatic and interdisciplinary approaches to the
comparative study of terms required the following methods: 1)
linguistic methods: comparative (the main in this study),
representative method (Yu.S. Stepanov), the method of scientific
description; 2) general scientific methods: analysis and synthesis,
induction and deduction, comparison, the method of hypothesis.
To determine the allomorphic and isomorphic characteristics of
the material contextual and situational analysis, functional and
semantic analysis, lexical and semantic analysis, lexical and
grammatical analysis have been used.

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Results
The general scientific properties of the first level, i.e. properties
that have a proper systemic (intrasystem) origin of
multidisciplinary terminological systems include the following:
1) Integrity (single system with a complex ordered structure);
2) Divisibility (due to their multi-disciplinary nature, they are
subdivided according to the thematic principle into many
adjacent and non-adjacent microfields and thematic groups);
3) Construction of thematically adjacent functional-semantic
fields on the principle of "core-periphery";
4) Multiplicity, hierarchy, unification of the levels of paradigm
by some paradigmatic, syntagmatic, epidigmatic, and
hierarchical relations;
4) Purposefulness, focus on providing one or two scientific
branches with exact definitions of the concepts demanded by
science.
The general scientific properties of the second series, i.e.
properties that "ensure the performance of the system"
(Shevchuk, D., 2010) include the following:
1) System-wide homogeneity, association upon thematic
features, which are dominant in relation to the semantic and
stylistic characteristics, evaluative and associative
characteristics, etc. From the point of view of linguistic typology
all these features are of an equal importance;
2) Intra-heterogeneity. This property is no less significant, it
allows limiting the multidisciplinary terminological system,
showing its originality in the whole as well as in each of the
languages under study separately;
3) Self-organization of a multidisciplinary terminological
system, which develops and exists as long as its elements are in
demand in science and are important for the further development
of society as a global, collective native speaker;
4) Centralized multidisciplinary terminological system (the most
thematically common multidisciplinary terms to be the main

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elements of the core such as one-word ones, international ones,
frequently used in professional speech and everyday life);
5) Emergence, as the new quality of the system which is not
inherent in its elements separately but arise due to the
combination of these elements into a single, integral system.
Thus, unlike all other language subsystems, the multidisciplinary
terminological system is both natural and artificial system if
speaking about its formation.
This is a natural system because it is based on naturally
developing units of a natural language; their quantity is big in all
three of the language systems we study.
And this is partly an artificial system, because its development is
entirely determined by the leading directions of modern science
development. To ensure their functioning, new terms have often
been created by scientists themselves to save gaps and lacunas in
the terminological system by calques, transcription,
transliteration, etc. (Rey, A. 2006).
As a multidisciplinary terminological system has got a core
leading element, it is a centralized system; it consists of a core
and peripheral zone.
In terms of size, a multidisciplinary terminological system is a
large system that includes several thousand representations.
In terms of complexity, it is a complex system of interacting
language units, so they are interrelated and interdependent. Their
consideration and study as a result is possible only not isolated
from each other.
For example, the newly published textbook of French for
landscape designers and gardeners first, in the first volume
(Zhabo N.I., Avdonina M.Yu., Krivosheeva E.N., Notina E.N.
2018) unified terms of gardening technologies (garden works,
agriculture techniques, soil expertise, history of European
gardens, ecology). The second volume (Zhabo N.I., Avdonina
M.Yu., Notina E.N., 2019) has enlarged the field giving into
economical, administrative and juridical aspects of landscaping

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practices, training business dialogues using emotional and
evaluative lexical units.
In terms of diachronical changes, the compared multidisciplinary
terminological systems are mainly static, since their elements are
included in databases, i.e. they have been in demand for many
decades by native speakers.
On the other hand, like other lexical units of any language, a
multidisciplinary term goes through the same evolutionary stages
of inclusion in the professional language along with the units of
literary, normalized language, and comes to obsolescence, or
temporarily exit from the active vocabulary for a certain period
of time or forever, depending on whether it would be in demand
in the future.
To a large extent, this dynamism is represented by
multidisciplinary terms-borrowings into French and Russian
from English, to a lesser extent, from other languages.
In all three languages under study, the main "age-old" source of
borrowing terms, including multidisciplinary terms, are the
ancient Greek and Latin languages, which is historically
determined.
Multidisciplinary terminological systems are multifunctional and
have an international nature.
Among their main functions are the following: nominative,
referential, informative and cumulative (preservation and
dissemination of accurate scientific data in the form of
unchangeable, postulated definitions), communicative and
intercultural (providing intercultural communication for
specialists-speakers of different languages), developing,
systematizing and training, etc.
Discussion
With all the mobility features of the lexico-semantic level of
each of the languages under consideration, multidisciplinary
terms of Russian, English and French languages have a relatively
stable semantics and semantic structure.

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This property is supported for many of them by their status of
international vocabulary and a single sphere of use (polytechnic
terms, medical terms, wider – terms of natural sciences,
philological terms, etc.).
In addition, desemantization, re-semantisation and other
semantic processes in the semantics of the considered terms also
show changes, appearance or disappearance of some semantic,
syntagmatic and stylistic characteristics.
In terms of interaction with the external environment,
multidisciplinary terminological systems are definitely not
isolated and closed. Their contacts with the external environment
– society – are bilateral: a) asks, urgent problems and needs of
society direct and push the development of such systems; b) the
systems in question might put the society or micro-society to a
higher stage of development.
Thus, a multidisciplinary terminological system is a unique
universal system capable of crystallizing, systematizing and
generalizing scientific data, unifying the scientific apparatus of
an existing database of related and (less often) distant scientific
fields. It potentiates a further development of the scientific
picture of the world.
The scientific novelty of the research consists in the introduction
of the terms "multidisciplinary term", "multidisciplinary
terminological systems", definition of their properties, selection
criteria (integral features), systematization; in the development
and application of comparative multiparadigmatic analysis of
such terms as language subsystems and relevant fragments of
pictures of the world of French, English and Russian languages,
which was done for the first time.
The practical significance of the present research lies in the fact
that the materials and results of the study can be used in courses
of general and comparative linguistics, linguistic typology, text
linguistics, comparative terminology, special courses in lexical
semantics, functional semantics.

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On the basis of these theoretical provisions, the material of the
above-mentioned textbook for learners of French language was
chosen and organized; currently a similar practical work is
underway to write a textbook of the French language for future
veterinarians.

References
Avdonina, M.Yu, Rudneva, M.A., Valeeva, N.G., Zhabo, N.I.
2016. Forming sociocultural competence on the basis of
multilanguage news. 3rd International Multidisciplinary
Scientific Conference on Social Sciences & Arts, SGEM 2016,
22 - 31 August 2016. Conference proceedings. Book 1. Volume
III: 341-346.
Avdonina, M.Yu., Zhabo, N.I., Terekhova, S.I., Valeeva, N.G.
2016. Termosystems of Ecological Discourse in English, French
and Russian: Multiparadigmal Approach to Research,
Translation and Training. RUDN University, Moscow, 204 pp.
Centre National de resources Textuelles et Lexicales. URL:
http://www.cnrtl.fr/ [Accessed February 01 2019].
Rey, A. 2006. Dictionnaire historique de la langue française,
3 vol., Le Robert, Paris, 4304 pp.
Shevchuk, D. 2010. Issledovanie sistem upravleniya
[Management Systems Study] URL:
www.e-reading.mobi/ chapter.php/103862/2/Shevchuk_-
_Issledovanie_sistem_upravleniya/ [Accessed February 20
2019].
Vasilieva, N.B. Termin. Lingvisticheskiy entsiklopedicheskiy
slovar'. Moskva: Sovetskaya entsiklopediya [Term. Linguistic
Encyclopedic Dictionary]. Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990.
PP. 508-509.
Zhabo N.I., Avdonina M.Yu., Krivosheeva E.N., Notina E.N.
2018. Landscape Architecture and Horticulture of the XXI
Century: Challenges and Requirements of the Time: French.
Textbook. RUDN, Moscow, Volume 1, 128 pp.

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Zhabo N.I., Avdonina M.Yu., Notina E.N. 2019. Landscape
Architecture and Horticulture of the XXI Century: Challenges
and Requirements of the Time: French. Textbook]. RUDN,
Moscow, Volume 2, 104 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-470-487

THE TECHNOLOGY OF SEMI-AUTOMATIC

META-MARKING PROGRAM OF KAZAKH
NATIONAL CORPUS

Aiman Zhanabekova1, Kunsulu Pirmanova2

1
A. Baitursynov Institute of Linguistics
Almaty, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Al-Farabi Kazakh National University
Almaty, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
In the study of the Kazakh language, it is necessary to pay much
attention to the field of linguistics and to study its world-class
theoretical and practical aspects.
Special editions of scientific journals have also been published,
with articles on general and specific issues relating to the design
and functioning of text boxes around the world
However, it is known that many issues are related to this case.
Linguistics require a special study of Kazakh linguistics. It
includes: definition of corpus linguistics and its basic concepts,
place in the structure of linguistics, methods, approaches, etc. At
the same time, the problem of understanding theoretical basis of
new trend is that the corpus is still far from being used in specific
research.
The subject of corpus linguistics was considered by professionals
in this field as one of the linguistic fields that study the situation

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of creating and using language corpuses. Some scholars consider
this subject in a narrow circle that only explains it in the context
of computer linguistics: "Corpus linguistics is a section of
computer linguistics that uses the development of common
principles and the use of linguistic corpuses (computer texts)
using computer technology." (Zaharov V.P., 2011: 7)
And the concept of computer linguistics, as a rule, can be
interpreted as a broad range of computer tools. Here we refer to
"computer tools" as computer programs, language data
processing and proper organization of computer technology and
so on. (Baranov A.N., 2003: 13-38).
And corpus linguistics is used only as a "tool". That is why
corpus linguistics could not do without compulsion. However,
given that computer plays an important role in all forms of
modern education, it can not be attributed to computer linguistics.
The above mentioned theoretical and practical aspects of corpus
linguistics should also be taken into account when creating a
database of Kazakh language texts on the basis of computer
corpus. While Kazakh corpus linguistics is formed as a special
branch of Kazakh linguistics, it allows Kazakh language
specialists to use large-scale experimental materials, to find
necessary language data and to make relevant edits. All this will
give a new look at the empirical approaches to Kazakh language
research. It also will help to introduce most important language
materials in the field of science.
At present, the nature of global corpus linguistics development is
to make national full texts a special research object. Therefore,
automated computer database of Kazakh language texts (with
theoretical and practical considerations) will be the most
important initiative of "Kazakh National Corpus" in the near
future. The results of such researches are one of the topical issues
in definition of styles, structural, semantic, functional
characteristics of Kazakh texts.
The texts are not only a collection of electronic versions of texts
in different styles of languages, but a modern language tool based

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on a computer program that automatically analyzes a language on
different language levels. Therefore, it is necessary to create
programs that make such automated analyzes on housings. Given
the fact that computer is capable of dealing with formal models,
there is a need to introduce a linguistic guide to computer
programs. Therefore, linguistic development of each level of
language enables the computer to automatically make language
analyzes as an important issue prepare linguistic products in the
applied direction.
In Kazakh linguistics there is a question of creating national
corpuses since the early stages of the XXI century. Department of
Applied Linguistics has been actively involved in the creation of
national corpuses in accordance with the requirements of
information technology at the A. Baitursynov Institute of
Linguistics. By the initiative of Professor A.K Zhubanov,
methods and techniques of corpus building were investigated and
studied by A. Zhubanov and A. Zhanabekova in the textbook
"Corpus linguistics" (Zhubanov A.K., Zhanabekova A.A., 2017:
5). Practically, since 2009 programs on introduction of linguistic
definitions have been developed and accumulated considerable
experience. At the same time, the morphology level analyzes
were first performed. This automatic program is called
morphological analyzer. D. Tokmyrzaev, a programmer of the
Institute of Linguistics, and K. Koibagarov, former researcher of
the Institute of Informatics, developed the software. Linguistic
and extralinguistic markings are realized with the support of
programmers D. Tokmyrzaev and K. Koibagarov, and a
mathematician, specialist in applied linguistics, professor
A. Zhubanov. Additionally, the specialist of applied linguistics,
doctor of philology A. Zhanabekova also contributed to the
development of the corpus. It is well-known that the development
of linguistic definitions requires the knowledge of the field of
linguistics. Professor A. Zhunisbek is engaged not only in
theoretical problems of the phonetics but also deals with the
programmatic areas of applied linguistics - textbooks,

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methodology, speech synthesis and analysis. At the same time,
the phonetic symbols of the case are based on the 3-step guide of
A. Zhunsbek (Zhunsbek A., 2018: 80).
In short, computer linguists say that computer language fund is
the ability of a scientist to look at his or her new subject in a new
way. The more linguistic foundation is, the deeper the language
structure is, the deeper the concept of the object being explored,
and the better of the "illumination" in the human knowledge field.
Likewise, the researcher's abilities will increase dramatically,
creative energy sources will emerge, and these new opportunities
will certainly be used to improve the systematic character of the
Kazakh language and careful understanding of the language.
Keywords: corpus, national corpus of the Kazakh language,
linguistic markings, meta-marking.

ТЕХНОЛОГИЯ ПРОГРАММЫ
ПОЛУАВТОМАТИЧЕСКОЙ МЕТАРАЗМЕТКИ
КАЗАХСКОГО НАЦИОНАЛЬНОГО КОРПУСА

Айман А. Жанабекова1, Кунсулу К. Пирманова2

1
Институт языкознания имени А. Байтурсынова
Алматы, Казахстан
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Казахский национальный университет имени аль-Фараби
Алматы, Казахстан
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
При изучении казахского языка необходимо уделять большое
внимание области корпусной лингвистики и изучать ее
теоретические и практические аспекты мирового уровня.
В специальных изданиях научных журналов также
публикуются статьи по общим и конкретным вопросам,
касающимся создания и работы текстовых корпусов по всему
миру.

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Однако известно, для казахского языкознания требуется
специальное изучение многих вопросов, связанных с
корпусной лингвистикой. Он включает в себя: определение
корпусной лингвистики и ее основных понятий, место
корпусной лингвистики в структуре языкознании, методы и
т.д. В то же время проблема понимания теоретической
основы новой тенденции гораздо далеки от использования
корпусов в конкретных исследованиях.
Специалисты в этой области рассматривали корпусную
лингвистику как одну из лингвистических областей, которые
изучают ситуацию создания и использования языковых
корпусов. Некоторые ученые считают эту тему узкой и
объясняют ее только в области компьютерной лингвистики:
«Корпусная лингвистика – раздел компьютерной
лингвистики, занимающийся разработкой общих принципов
построения и использования лингвистических корпусов
(корпусов текстов) с использованием компьютерных
технологий» (Zaharov V.P., 2011: 7) А понятие компьютерной
лингвистики, как правило, можно интерпретировать как
широкий спектр использования компьютерных
инструментов. Здесь мы называем «компьютерные
инструменты» компьютерными программами, обработкой
языковых данных и правильной организацией компьютерных
технологий и т. д. (Baranov A.N., 2003, 13-38).
А корпусная лингвистика использует компьютер только как
«инструмент». Вот почему корпусная лингвистика не может
обойтись без компьютерных технологии. Однако, учитывая,
что компьютер играет роль во всех формах современного
образования, их всех нельзя отнести к компьютерной
лингвистике.
Теоретические и практические аспекты вышеупомянутой
корпусной лингвистики также должны быть приняты во
внимание при создании базы данных текстов на казахском
языке на основе компьютерного корпуса. Если корпусная
лингвистика формируется как особый раздел казахского

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языкознания, она позволит многим специалистам по
казахскому языку использовать крупномасштабные
экспериментальные материалы, находить необходимые
языковые данные и вносить соответствующие изменения.
Все это способствует новому взгляду на эмпирические
подходы к достоверности исследований казахского языка и
внедрению наиболее важных языковых материалов в области
науки.
В настоящее время характер развития глобальной корпусной
лингвистики заключается в том, чтобы сделать
национальные полнотекстовые документы специальным
объектом исследования. Поэтому автоматизированная
компьютерная база данных текстов на казахском языке (если
рассмотреть с теоретическими и практическими сторонами)
станет наиболее важной инициативой «Казахского
национального корпуса» в ближайшем будущем. Результаты
таких исследований показывают, что казахские тексты
являются одим из самых актуальных вопросов при
определении их стиля, структуры, семантики,
функциональных сторон и так далее.
Тексты представляют собой не только коллекцию
электронных версий текстов на разных языках, но и
современный языковой инструмент, основанный на
компьютерной программе, которая автоматически
анализирует тексты на языковые уровни. Поэтому
необходимо создавать программы, которые делают такие
автоматические анализы на корпусах. Учитывая тот факт,
что компьютер способен работать с формальными моделями,
необходимо ввести лингвистическое руководство по
компьютерной программе. Поэтому лингвистическое
развитие каждого уровня языка, позволяющее компьютеру
автоматически проводить языковой анализ, является важной
проблемой, стоящей перед лингвистами, которые готовят
лингвистические продукты в прикладном направлении.

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В казахском языкознании стоит вопрос создания
национальных корпусов с ранних этапов XXI века. Отдел
прикладной лингвистики института Языкознания имени
А. Байтурсынова принимает активное участие в создании
национальных корпусов в соответствии с требованиями
информационных технологий. По инициативе профессора
А.К. Жубанова методы и технологии корпуса были
исследованы и изучены, под авторством А. Жубанова и
А. Жанабековой был написан учебник «Корпусная
лингвистика» (Zhubanov A.K., Zhanabekova A.A., 2017: 5).
Практически с 2009 года были разработаны программы по
внедрению лингвистических разметок и накоплен
значительный опыт. В то же время впервые были выполнены
анализы уровня морфологии. Эта автоматическая программа
называется морфологическим анализатором. Программу
создали программист Института языкознания имени
А. Байтурсынова Д. Токмырзаев и бывший научный
сотрудник института информатики К. Койбагаров. При
поддержке Д. Токмырзаева и К. Койбагарова реализуются
лингвистические и экстралингвистические замыслы, а также
идеи математика и лингвиста, специалиста по прикладной
лингвистике, профессора А. Жубанова и специалиста по
прикладной лингвистике и грамматике, доктора
филологических наук А. Жанабековой. Хорошо известно, что
разработка лингвистических определений требует знаний в
области лингвистики. Профессор А. Жунисбек занимается не
только теоретическими проблемами фонетики, но и
программными областями прикладной
лингвистики - учебниками, методологией, синтезом и
анализом речи. В то же время фонетические разметки
корпуса основаны на трехступенчатом руководстве
А. Жунисбека (Zhunsbek A., 2018: 80). В заключение
специалисты компьютерной лингвистики говорят, что фонд
компьютерных языков - это способность ученого по-новому
взглянуть на свой новый предмет. Чем больше

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лингвистическая основа, чем глубже языковая структура, тем
глубже концепция исследуемого объекта и области
человеческих знаний. Аналогичным образом значительно
возрастут способности исследователя, появятся творческие
источники энергии, и эти новые возможности, безусловно,
будут использованы для улучшения системного характера
казахского языка и его тщательного понимания.
Ключевые слова: корпус, национальный корпус казахского
языка, лингвистические разметки, метаразметка.

Вступление
Корпуса делятся на различные подкорпусы в зависимости от
их функции. Создание аннотированных корпусов, особенно
лингвистических разметок для лингвистических
исследований, очень важно и полезно. В зависимости от
того, поставлена эта разметка или нет, корпуса делятся на
аннотированные и не аннотированные. Даже если разметки
корпуса важны для лингвистических исследований, прежде
всего, необходимо отсортировать тексты в приложении и
предоставить точную информацию о них.
Типы разметок, которые прикреплены к корпусу, можно
разделить на две категории: лингвистические и внешние. Вне
лингвистические разметки включает в себя:
1) разметка, которая описывает функции форматирования
текста (темы, абзацы, пробелы и т. д.);
2) разметка, которая описывает автора и текст.
При этом информация об авторе может быть это не только
его имя, но и его возраст, пол, годы его жизни и т. д.
Текстовая информация, как правило, отличается от темы, на
каком языке она написана, год, место издания, название и
т. д. Наличие такой информации в корпусе позволяет искать
текстовую поисковую систему и, в то же время, создавать
необходимый инструмент для идентификации
соответствующего документа. Иногда это называется
экстралингвистическими разметками, а также используется

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как метатекстовая разметка или метаразметка. Есть также те,
кто определяет лингвистическую разметку как внешний тег,
а метаразметку внутренним тегом. Они включают текст и
информацию об авторе: автор, название, год, место
происхождения, жанр текста, тему, стиль, размер и т. д. Их
также делят на библиографические, типологические,
тематические, социальные, формальные (тексты, главы,
части, абзацы, предложения и т. д.) и технические
(исполнители, источники, извлеченные из электронных
версий, даты обработки, закодированное время и т. д.).
Предмет и цель исследования
Метатекстовая разметка - важная информация, которая
должна быть включена в любом случае, и лингвистические
разметки будут сделаны до введении текстов из разных
стилей. Известно, что исследования будут проводиться по
конкретной системе. Поскольку язык является очень
обширной и большой системой средств общения, изучение
языка может основываться на художественных или печатных
или исторических памятниках, а также на конкретном жанре,
стиле или конкретной теме, классифицируются как спирали.
Передача текстов с систематической структурой,
включенных в память корпуса, возможена только при
внедрении теоретических и практических методов
метаразметки. Поэтому проблема метаразметки должна быть
правильной, независимо от типа корпуса.
Метаразметки – в исследовательской работе незаменимый
источник для сбора материалов связанных с определением
периода, стиля, автора, темы и т.д. Метаразметки дают
возможность исследователю быстро найти информацию по
стилю, периоду, автору и т.д. И это достижение, безусловно,
является единственной силой для развития научно-
исследовательского потенциала современной развитой
страны.
Проблема метаразметок текстов корпуса изучается в отделе
прикладной лингвистики института Языкознания им.

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А. Байтурсынова по грантовому проекту на 2015-2017 годы и
по сей день. Также в 2016 году институт разработал
метаразметку для целевого проекта под руководством
А. Фазылжановой «Разработка и создание национального
корпуса Казахского языка». Специальное руководство было
выпущено для метаразметчиков и каждый стиль основан на
следующих пунктах, полях, в ячейках для типов вложения
корпуса. Ячейка состоит из 23 пунктов. Во время работы по
внедрению корпуса на основе латинского алфавита данная
программа разработки метаразметки была продолжена.
Таким образом, была создана полуавтоматическая программа
ввода метаразметки.
Методология и методы
У любого текста должен быть автор. Это: а) если у текста
есть автор, будет указано его полное имя; б) в случае
нескольких авторов даются имена коллективных авторов.
Такие как коллективные монографии, статьи в соавторстве и
т.д.; в) обобщенный автор, такие тексты (т. е. документы,
письма, тексты), написанные не отдельным лицом, а
коллективом, учреждением; г) некоторые авторы текста
могут быть неизвестны. Такие случаи особенно встречаются
в газетах и журналах. Авторов таких текстов иногда
отмечают условными именами. В случае если у текста нет
автора, или же если он неточный, то в метаразметке ячейка
предназначенная для автора не заполняется.
При разработке метаразметки нужно решить вопрос будут ли
писать только фамилию автора, необходимо ли написать
полное имя, отчество, фамилию или имя и отчество, чтобы
записать его в метаразметке. Также необходимо дать ему
фамилию до или после, это нужно для последовательности
метаразметки. Например: А. Кегенбекова; Автор:
Кегенбекова А.; Автор: Алтын Кегенбекова и т.д.
Некоторые тексты не предоставляют информацию об авторе.
Например, фольклорные сочинения распростроняются устно,
а автора нет. В этом случае таблица, в которой представлена

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информация об авторе, может быть оставлена пустой или вы
можете пометить ее как неизвестного автора. Иногда
приходиться добавлять дополнительные пункты в
отношении автора. Например, хотя сказки распростроняются
устно, есть автор, который собирает все эти сказки. В этом
случае вы можете ввести пункт под названием «состовитель»
в метаразметку.
Кроме того, информация, относящаяся к автору, может быть
изменена в следующих случаях. Если данный текст в корпусе
переведен. В переведенном тексте также необходимо
предоставить информацию об имени переводчика, в том
числе об оригинальном авторе.
Еще одна проблема, связанная с автором текста, заключается
в том, что при хронологии во многих газетах и журналах нет
никаких авторов. В этом случае автор может иногда быть
редактором газетного журнала, то есть имя редактора газеты
и есть информация об авторе (пол, возраст).
При записи информации об одном авторе в ячейки
метаразметок возникают различные проблемы с разными
стилями. А в некоторых текстах необходимо найти автора
или решить вопрос с переводчиком и состовителем.
Некоторые переводческие тексты могут включать как автора,
так и переводчика.
Другой тип метаразметки, связанных с автором - это возраст
автора. В некоторых корпусах указывается возраст автора
при написании произведения (Британский, Чешский), в
некоторых корпусах приводятся точные сведения о дате
рождения автора или указываются приблизительно
(Национальный корпус русского языка). То есть точные
сведения о дате рождения автора приводятся цифрами. А в
случае, когда трудно определить возраст автора, делается
разметка о том, что "неизвестно". При наличии
коллективных, обобщенных, неизвестных авторов возраст не
присваивается или при наличии коллективных авторов
можно поставить разметку «разное».

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Иногда авторы отдельных характерных текстов, таких как
дневник, личные письма, ставят имена, не давая их фамилий,
даются под условным названием, но с указанием пола и
возраста. В показе возрастных особенностей автора можно
записать число, месяц, год рождения без четкого указания
его возраста. Например: 14.06.1973.
В метаразметках иногда дается информация, касающаяся
пола авторов. Возможно, что автор является женщиной или
является мужчиной или не может быть четко выраженным
полом. Обычно пол автора указывается в том случае, если
автор текста является одним, а в коллективных текстах не
указывается пол автора. В случае неясности пола автора
ставится разметка «неизвестно». При наличии такой
фамилии, как А. Омар, невозможно установить мужчину или
женщину, при этом делается разметка о неизвестности либо
ячейка остается пустой. При заполнении ячейки,
относящейся «к полу», возникает вопрос, какой из авторов
текста, переводчика, редактора, составителя мы указываем
пол.
В программе метаразметки описываются готовые форматы,
чтобы не попасть в трудность записи таких разметок.
Разметчик выбирает один из них.
Исследователь башкирского языка З.А. Сиразитдинов указал
нацию автора и информанта (Sirazitdinov, Z.A., Buskunbaeva,
L.A., Ishmukhametova, A.Sh., Ibragimova, A.D., 2013: 32). А в
Национальном корпусе русского языка обозначение в
отношении нации не выдается.
Название текста, внесенного в корпус, также является одним
из основных метаразметок. У текста, введенный в корпус,
может быть не все заголовки. Если в тексте дано название
тем, они закладываются в систему метаразметок, а названия
текстов, под которыми не даны заголовки, не указываются.
Это, как правило, короткие тексты в газетах и журналах,
передаваемые внутри одной рубрики, следовательно, все
тексты, помещенные в корпус, описывают использование

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естественного языка, даже если заголовок отсутствует, но в
системе метаразметок не указывается или ставится отметка
«нет» при наличии только простой хроники, не имеющей
названия статьи. При наличии на телевидении, радио
(устного или письменного) текста, записывается название
телепрограммы. Проблема, в которой название текста может
раскрыть начало, возникает и в отношении текстов книг,
сборников. В книге, сборнике дается ли название текста, или
название книги, сборника присваивается как название
текста? При проставлении метаразметок в качестве
наименования текста изымаются подтексты внутри книги,
сборника. А на оборотной стороне книги, сборника дается
название в ячейке метаразметки источник. Это общая
позиция для всех текстов различных стилей. Если текст
получен из темы, полученной из учебника, то название
заголовка записывается. А название учебника указывается в
источнике. При наличии научных текстов в виде статьи,
название статьи записывается.
Одна из метаразметок о тексте – время написания текста. Как
правило, такие разметки извлекаются из сведений,
оставленных автором в конце текста при написании
произведения. Чаще всего время написания текста
определяется библиографическими, биографическими
исследованиями.
Дата (время записи): 21.01.2016 года
При отсутствии точной информации о времени подписки, ее
срок будет составлять около 5-10 лет.
Срок (время написания): приблизительно 1998-2000 годы
Иногда при отсутствии точных сведений о времени подписки
текстов снимается срок постановки в корпус. Срок записи
текста в корпус, в некоторых случаях, в ряду метаболизмов,
передается в специальной отдельной ячейке. Время ввода в
корпус совпадает со временем изготовления корпуса. В связи
с тем, что Национальный корпус казахского языка

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формируется только в настоящее время, записываются
последние годы. Например: 29.12.2016.
Кроме времени написания текста, относящегося к сроку,
можно также указать время публикации в специальной
ячейке метаразметок. В корпусе русского языка представлена
специальная ячейка под названием "Дата публикации".
Некоторые тексты (сочинение, монография, учебник и т. д.)
если в записанное время они будут опубликованы, то
некоторые будут обработаны и перепечатаны. Здесь
указывается время, когда книга вышла в свет, то есть
переиздана.
Дата (время написания): 1963 год
Дата публикации: 1991 год
Одна из метаразметок – информация о количестве
словосочетаний в каждом из текстов, внесенных в корпус.
Хотя соотношение стилей при вводе текста в корпус в
основном сбалансировалось, размеры текстов относительно
некоторых жанров различны. Например объявления,
поздравления, новости и т. д. очень короткое, количество
слов в них также может состоять из десятков слов. Поэтому
число словосочетаний в текстах, введенных в корпус,
достигает десятков тысяч словосочетаний. Количество
словосочетаний очень великое – объемные труды, чаще всего
такие как романы или монографии, введенные в корпус в
целом. Но иногда не все такие произведения и монографии
могут быть получены, а только определенные разделы.
Количество словосочетаний в текстах указывается в
присвоенной им системе метаразметок. При открытии
каждого текста, находящегося в отдельном файле, в нижней
части экрана компьютера появляется цифра в тексте, которое
необходимо ввести в метаразметку. Число словосочетаний
определяется при вводе текста посредством специальных
компьютерных программ. В некоторых корпусах также
представлена информация о количестве предложений в
текстах.

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В корпусах вместо словосочетания встречается применение
термина «словоформа».
Теперь одним из видов метаразметок является область
применения текста, которая является самой общей
типологической характеристикой текста. Так, в
Национальном корпусе русского языка представлено восемь
функциональных сфер применения. Это: учебно-научные,
производственно-технические, официально-деловые,
публицистические, рекламные, религиозные, литературные,
бытовые.
Разделение текстов на определенные тематические группы
также относится к одной из метатекстовых разметок.
Например, общественные науки, физика, биология,
путешествия, спорт, природа, искусство, политика и т. д.
Однако такое деление на тематические группы иногда
обусловлено. Так как некоторые тексты рассматриваются в
рамках нескольких тем, в отношении нескольких областей.
Поэтому, когда определенный текст относится к
тематической группе, они разделяются не только на одну
сферу, но и на несколько областей. В мировых корпусах
(корпус Браун, Национальный корпус русского языка и др.) в
художественной литературе зачастую не показываются
тематические группы.
Таким образом, типы метаразметок пополняются такими
ячейками, как тип текста (здесь указывается отношение
текста к определенному жанру); возраст аудитории (знание,
кому адресован текст определяет содержание текста и
используемые в нем языковые средства); специфика текста (в
которой речь идет о степени знаний аудитории); количество
(объем среды, использующей тексты); источник (это
источники, в которых получен текст); стиль текста; хронотоп
(поскольку выделение некоторых текстов по тематическим
группам затруднено, в некоторых корпусах необходимо было
указать время и место написания текста, то есть указывается

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место написания текста и отношение к определенному
периоду) и т.д.
Еще одна представляемая в описании текста информация о
том, какими шрифтами она написана. В связи с тем, что
тексты на казахском языке написаны алфавитом, который
основал А. Байтурсынов, латинскими, кириллическими
буквами, необходимо указывать график полученных текстов.
Корпуса по внутреннему стилю, по форме и т. д. по
критериям можно разделить на небольшие корпуса. Таким
образом, дается информация о том, к какому корпусу
относится в основном текст, полученный в ячейке
метаразметки. Такие небольшие корпуса называются
термином «подкорпус» на русском языке. На казахском
языке можно показать как субкорпус. Это: субкорпус
газетных текстов, устный субкорпус, мультимедийный
субкорпус, субкорпус художественных текстов, субкорпус
поэтических текстов, субкорпус официальных текстов и др.
В русском языке комплект этих небольших корпусов
называется «основной корпус». А весь набор этих
субкорпусов называют "Национальным корпусом".
В Национальном корпусе русского языка имя разметчика
также представлена в ячейке (разметчик). В создании
Национального корпуса казахского языка можно также
проинформировать о обозначенном человеке.
Результаты
По вышеперечисленным видам метаразметки к текстам,
вводимым в корпус, разметчики вводят метаразетку через эту
полуавтоматическую программу установки метаразметок.
Для этого сначала сохраним каждое произведение в
электронных текстах в отдельный файл и собираем их в
отдельную папку по автору, то есть храним файлы Word в
одну папку, а XML-файлы в отдельную папку. Автор текста,
дата написания, источник получения, стиль и т. д. Данные по
23 параметрам заполняются в программу метаразметок.
Затем загрузим электронный текст с инструкцией "Загрузить

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DOCX file» и сохраним метаразметку с помощью
руководства "Сохранить XML file".
Заключение
В настоящее время в отделе Прикладной лингвистики
Института языкознания имени А. Байтурсынова с этими 23
параметрами работает корпус текстов.
Таким образом, необходимость введения метаразметок в
создании корпуса не вызывает сомнений. Они позволяют
пользователю корпуса, особенно лингвистам-исследователям
и исследователям других областей науки быстро и легко
найти любую необходимую информацию.

Литература
Баранов А.Н. Компьютерная лингвистика // Введение в
прикладную лингвистику: Учебное пособие. – М.: Едиториал
УРСС, 2003. – С. 13-38.
Жубанов А.К., Жанабекова А.А. Корпусная лингвистика. –
Алматы: Казак тили, 2017. – С. 5.
Жунисбек А. Проблемы казахского языкознания. – Алматы:
Абзал-ай, 2018. – С. 80.
Захаров В.П., Богданова С.Ю. Корпусная лингвистика.
Иркутск: ИГЛУ, 2011. – 7 с.
Сиразитдинов З.А., Бускунбаева Л.А., Ишмухаметова А.Ш.,
Ибрагимова А.Д. Информационные системы и базы данных
башкирского языка. – Уфа: Книжная палата РБ, 2013. – С 32.

References
Baranov, A.N. 2003. Computational linguistics. Introduction to
applied linguistics: Tutorial. Moscow, 13-38 pp.
Zhubanov, A.K., Zhanabekova А.А. Corpus linguistics. 2017.
"The Kazakh Language" publishing house, Almaty, 5 pp.
Zhunisbek, A. 2018. Problems of Kazakh linguistics. Abzal-Ai,
Almaty, 80 pp.
Zakharov, V.P., Bogdanova S.Y. 2011. Corpus Linguistics.
IGLU, Irkutsk, 7 pp.

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Sirazitdinov, Z.A., Buskunbaeva, L.A., Ishmukhametova, A.Sh.,
Ibragimova, A.D. 2013. Information systems and databases of the
Bashkir language. Book Chamber of the RB, Ufa, 32 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-487-498

PROSPECTS FOR IMPROVING THE SCIENTIFIC

STYLE OF SPEECH (LINGUOPHILOSOPHICAL
ANALYSIS)

Ivan S. Samokhin1, Lyudmila Zh. Karavanova2

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
¹e-mail: [email protected]
²e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
This is an interdisciplinary study. When solving a specific
linguistic task, we rely on the scientific and philosophical thesis
that a person does not have the so-called “free will” (“freedom of
choice”). According to many scientists and philosophers, its
presence would suggest the loss of our actions, thoughts and
emotions from the cause-effect chain, which seems impossible
due to the law of causality, which regards any phenomenon as a
consequence of another phenomenon (cause). The great physicist
Albert Einstein called the doctrine of free will “completely
illogical”, a nonsense, “which must be struggled in every way”.
Common people’s faith in free will can still be justified by the
residual functionality of the illusion: the ability to regulate social
relations. Indeed, most human beings incline to Francis Bacon’s
opinion: what is most useful in action is most true in knowledge.
However, the dominance of such a position in the field of
scientific activity seems unacceptable. The goal of science is the
truth in the classical sense: the correspondence of knowledge to

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reality, “an adequate reflection of objective reality by a cognizing
subject, during which a cognized object is reproduced as it exists
outside and independently of consciousness”. This leads to one of
the most important characteristics of the scientific style of speech
– the objectivity of presentation. It should be noted that this
peculiarity contributes not only to the full transfer of information
to the target audience, but also to the consolidation (formation) of
the scientific worldview – both in the reader/listener and in the
author. This is due to the influence of language on thinking.
The linguistic phenomenon that resists the antiscientific idea of
free will is the category of impersonality. The main content of
this concept is “the meaning of grammatical objectlessness in
which language and thinking phenomena interact, reflecting
relations in the world around us” (Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, 1900).
This value allows understanding the reality through language and
is realized primarily in the so-called “impersonal sentences”, the
most important function of which is to indicate an independent
sign not related to the agent (action, condition). They reflect the
basic feature of science – the pursuit of objectivity.
We find it desirable to fight with the illusion of free will at
different levels: legal, pedagogical and so on (having such an
influential supporter as Albert Einstein). However, within this
study we are only interested in its weakening through language
transformations which could potentially affect the Russian
scientific style. As can be seen from the previous section, they
should be based on the category of impersonality. The most
radical and, in our opinion, effective way is to eliminate the
category of person from the scientific style. (We propose
eliminating it only in verbs, but not in personal pronouns. Since
in the latter this category is represented not by a number of
grammatical forms, but by the set of lexemes themselves, here it
has a special “modality” that does not reflect the illusion of “free
will”). At the same time, we consider it necessary to leave the
category of gender as a semantic-grammatical opposition in other
functional styles and the national language as a whole.

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We are proposing a number of lexical and grammatical
transformations that do not hinder, but rather contribute to
fulfilling the most important function of the scientific style – the
enrichment of the human mind with objective information about
the world. We are convinced that the improvement of thinking
through language must be precisely this. Distribution of such or
similar grammatical constructions in the scientific style seems
inevitable, since they are more conducive to objectivity,
generalization and abstraction of presentation. This process
should be accelerated whenever possible. Of course, sentences
that do not meet the official lexical and grammatical norms
should not be found in scientific publications, since this would
lead to the marginalization of science. However, the occurrence
of these structures in the literary language can be approximated
by using them as a professional jargon for interpersonal
communication.
Keywords: scientific style, language and thinking, the category
of impersonality, lexical and grammatical transformations, “free
will”, the law of cause and effect

Introduction
Researchers has different opinions on the role of the language
factor in the mental development of a human being. Wilhelm von
Humboldt absolutized the meaning of language, believing that it
is “an organ that forms thought” (cit. by: Pavlov V.M, 1967:
154). Based on the fact that activity and feeling depend on ideas,
and those, in their turn, depend on the language, the German
linguist concludes that all attitudes of people towards the
surrounding reality are based on its reflection in a language. In
the XX century, American scientists Edward Sapir and Benjamin
Wharf – the authors of the linguistic relativity hypothesis,
demonstrating the dependence of thinking on the national
language on new empirical material, – followed similar views.
In 1967, a book of scientific works “Language and Thinking”
was published in the USSR. It expressed the opinions of various

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specialists: linguists, historians, philosophers, physiologists, etc.
A year later, Noam Chomsky’s monograph “Language and
Mind” presented a concept advocating the congenital and
universal language abilities – and, therefore, the absence of any
relationship between the phenomena mentioned in the book’s title
(Chomsky N., 1968). However, this view of the problem is the
exception rather than the rule. Most linguists – M.A. Krongauz,
A.R. Luria, G. Lakoff, L.S. Vygotsky, A. Wierzbicka and many
others – believe that language affects thinking, but at the same
time they do not deny an inverse relationship.
An article published in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary
says that language affects thinking to a lesser extent than thinking
affects language; moreover, the mental component gradually
strengthens its position in this “rivalry” (Melnichuk A.S., 1990:
606–607). However, the Dictionary and other sources emphasize
certain milestones associated with the increasing role of
language, such as the emergence of sound speech and writing. It
is possible that another surge is approaching…
Purpose of the study
In any case, the ability to influence mental processes inherent in
the language allows it to be used to improve these processes. Our
conclusion is confirmed by numerous observations, according to
which language is an instrument for the thought formation (Allott
R., 1990; Chernyavskaya V.E., 2006). It is extremely important
to determine what exactly should be understood by the
improvement (optimization) of thinking. It is hardly worth
agreeing with the interpretation of state philologists from George
Orwell’s “Nineteen Eighty-Four”, who developed Newspeak, a
language designed to limit citizens’ cognitive-reflexive
possibilities. As for the modern non-industrial reality, we should
note the influence of euphemistic neologisms on people’s mind,
which is associated with the phenomenon of political correctness.
Perhaps the true purpose of their distribution corresponds to the
proclaimed one (i.e. introducing the idea of tolerance to other

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races, religions, etc.), and, perhaps, it does not, in some ways
even echoing the ideals of linguists from Orwellian Oceania.
One way or another, Newspeak and the “language of political
correctness” are similar in one fundamental aspect: the
knowledge promoted with their help is subjective. Therefore,
attempts to impose the culture of taboo and euphemisms on the
institute of science cannot but cause concern. We are going to
propose a number of lexical and grammatical transformations that
do not hinder, but rather contribute to fulfilling the most
important function of the scientific style – the enrichment of the
human mind with objective information about the world.
Methodology and methods
When solving a specific linguistic task, we rely on the scientific
and philosophical thesis that a person does not have the so-called
“free will” (“freedom of choice”). According to many scientists
and philosophers, its presence would suggest the loss of our
actions, thoughts and emotions from the cause-effect chain,
which seems impossible due to the law of causality, which
regards any phenomenon as a consequence of another
phenomenon (cause). The great physicist Albert Einstein called
the doctrine of free will “completely illogical”, a nonsense,
“which must be struggled in every way” (Einstein A., 2011: 52).
Free will is accepted without a solid proof – just with moral
justification – by some prominent thinkers (Plato, Saint
Augustine of Hippo, Immanuel Kant), but within scientific
worldview it should be considered an illusion.
Common people’s faith in free will can still be justified by the
residual functionality of the illusion: the ability to regulate social
relations. Indeed, most human beings incline to Francis Bacon’s
opinion: what is more useful in action is truer in knowledge
(Bacon F., 1978: 82). However, the dominance of such a position
in the field of scientific activity seems unacceptable. The goal of
science is the truth in the classical sense: the correspondence of
knowledge to reality. This leads to one of the most important

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491
characteristics of the scientific style of speech – the objectivity of
presentation.
It should be noted that this peculiarity contributes not only to the
full transfer of information to the target audience, but also to the
consolidation (formation) of the scientific worldview – both in
the reader/listener and in the author. This is due to the influence
of language on thinking.
Results
The linguistic phenomenon that resists the antiscientific idea of
free will is the category of impersonality. The main content of
this concept is “the meaning of grammatical objectlessness in
which language and thinking phenomena interact, reflecting
relations in the world around us” (Petrov A.V., 2007: 10). This
value allows understanding the reality through language and is
realized primarily in the so-called “impersonal sentences”, the
most important function of which is to indicate an independent
sign not related to the agent (action, condition) (Galkina-Fedoruk
E.M., 1958: 327; Svintsova I.Yu., 1993: 4; Lekant P.A., 2004:
144; Petrov A.V., 2007: 14).
The prevalence of impersonal sentences in scientific texts is due
to the striving for abstractness and generalization of presentation,
the need to “divert attention from the doer, to present the action
as accomplished by itself, fatally, or to outline the force,
spontaneity of the action” (Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky D.N., 1900:
196; cit. by: Eremina L.I., 1982: 45). In addition, for this
functional variety of language, the fundamental property of
impersonal sentences, highlighted by A. M. Peshkovsky, is “the
search for the true cause of the phenomenon” (Peshkovsky A.M.,
1956: 317–318). It reflects the basic feature of science – the
pursuit of objectivity.
The category of impersonality is a significant element of Russian
linguistic worldview, and the role of this component is constantly
increasing in our language (Peshkovsky A.M., 1956; Galkina-
Fedoruk E.M., 1958; Petrov A.V., 2007). Many scientists
associate this process with the development and improvement of

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thinking (Opt. cit.). According to N. Jarintzov, “the impersonal
form of verbs passes through the entire language and constitutes
one of the most characteristic features of the Russian way of
thinking” (cit. by: Wierzbicka A., 1996: 73). The basis of Russian
impersonal sentences are impersonal verbs, “calling the action or
state out of relation to the subject of the action” (Ulukhanov I.S.,
1998: 47).
The special status of the impersonality category distinguishes the
Russian language from English and other European languages,
which allowed A. M. Peshkovsky and A. V. Petrov to suggest
that the abundance of impersonal constructions reflects the
particular orientation of our culture, the unique specificity of our
mentality (Peshkovsky A.M., 1956; Petrov A.V., 2007). The
observation made by N. D. Arutyunova seems extremely
important and interesting: in the Russian language, the same
impersonal verbal predicates can be used to report on the state of
a person or the environment (потеплело (in the yard or in the
heart), занесло (fields with snow or a Moscovite to the Sahara
desert)). The author emphasizes the spontaneity, uncontrollability
of human manifestations, their kinship with the processes
occurring in nature (Moiseeva V.L., 1998: 12).
Thus, the Russian language rather rejects the idea of free will
than accepts it, which probably indicates the deep foreignness of
this concept for the Russian consciousness, in contrast to Western
European and American ones. This free will illusion seems to be
particularly inorganic for the Russian scientific style: knowledge
of the law of causality, inherent in the people of science, is
enforced with national faith in predestination, reflected in the
language.
Discussion
We find it desirable to fight with the illusion of free will at
different levels: legal, pedagogical and so on (having such an
influential supporter as Albert Einstein). However, within this
study we are only interested in its weakening through language
transformations which could potentially affect the Russian

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493
scientific style. As can be seen from the previous section, they
should be based on the category of impersonality. The most
radical and, in our opinion, effective way is to eliminate the
category of person from the scientific style. (We propose
eliminating it only in verbs, but not in personal pronouns. Since
in the latter this category is represented not by a number of
grammatical forms, but by the set of lexemes themselves
(Volodin A.P., 1990: 271), here it has a special “modality” that
does not reflect the illusion of “free will”). At the same time, we
consider it necessary to leave the category of gender as a
semantic-grammatical opposition in other functional styles and
the national language as a whole.
Such innovations will make standard sentences, such as «Мы
провели эксперимент…», unacceptable in the scientific
discourse. A similar idea can be expressed by a construction with
a short form of passive participle: «Нами проведён
эксперимент», since Russian participles do not have the category
of person. The presence of this category in the Russian verb will
make impossible even the use of a linking verb («…был
проведён…») – an element with a weakened lexical meaning.
It will be possible to make constructions with an impersonal verb
which cannot be used in the modern Russian language: «Нами
провелось эксперименту». The choice of the dative case for an
object noun is due to the fact that with such grammatical design
the action seems to “give itself” to its object. Besides, the use of
an alternative construction is not excluded: «Нами проведено
эксперименту», which is closer to the standard formulation with
the passive participle given in the previous paragraph.
Noteworthy is the variant «Нами провело эксперимент»,
created by analogy with such Russian sentences as «Его
переехало трамваем» and «Огнём выжгло траву» (the
examples are taken from: Wierzbicka A., 1996: 73). On the one
hand, this formulation is preferable to the previous two, since it
has a clearer, more solid support in the modern Russian language.
On the other hand, impersonal constructions that create this

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support are especially characteristic of colloquial speech and
folklore literature and, therefore, weakly correlate with the
official “scientific view of the world” (Vinogradov V.V., 1947:
465; Wierzbicka A., 1996: 74). As we see it, the second
circumstance is stronger than the first.
If the verb is intransitive in the infinitive, then the word denoting
the semantic subject of the action should be put in the dative case,
and the word that denotes the semantic object should be in any
other than nominative, depending on the control: «Нам
приблизилось к решению» (instead of «Мы приблизились к
решению»), «Лингвистам пребывается в растерянности»
(instead of «Лингвисты пребывают в растерянности»), etc.
This rule, in our opinion, does not come into sharp contradiction
with the modern Russian language. There is a sufficiently large
number of impersonal verbs, the semantic subject of which is
expressed in the dative case. They are especially numerous on the
border between the system and the norm of the language. The
dictionary of T.F. Efremova includes the impersonal verbs that
are not mentioned in the earlier dictionaries: «бежаться»,
«прыгаться», «отдыхаться», etc. (Efremova T.F., 2006).
It should be noted that the proposed grammatical transformations
lead to changes in the lexical composition, namely to the
emergence of verbal neologisms. For instance, in the Russian
language there are no such words as «провестись» and
«пребываться» (see the examples in the previous paragraph). It
is easy to imagine other neologisms of this kind: «войтись» /
«выйтись» («Термину вошлось в обиход / вышлось из
обихода»), «присутствоваться» / «отсутствоваться» («У рыб
присутствуется сердцу / отсутствуется шее»), etc. In future,
this side effect may enrich the national language.
Distribution of such or similar grammatical constructions in the
scientific style seems inevitable, since they are more conducive to
objectivity, generalization and abstraction of presentation. This
process should be accelerated whenever possible. Of course,
sentences that do not meet the official lexical and grammatical

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norms should not be found in scientific publications, since this
would lead to the marginalization of science. However, the
occurrence of these structures in the literary language can be
approximated by using them as a professional jargon for
interpersonal communication. This would allow scientists to get
used to the proposed changes, to fix them in their minds. For the
same reason, the appropriate options are permissible to use in
their own scientific work. Replacing these variants with
traditional ones, conforming to the language standard, should be
the duty of an editor or proof-reader who is not engaged in
research activities.
Conclusion
The strengthening of the linguistic category, reflecting the lack of
freedom, must be preceded by a more complete, deeper
comprehension of this lack. Otherwise, scientists simply will not
accept the corresponding changes, will not want to use new
constructions either in scientific works or in oral communication.
Many modern authors – Anthony Cashmore, George Ortega, Sam
Harris and others – believe that the free will illusion has already
fulfilled its evolutionary function and exists rather by inertia. If
their observations are correct, the humanity can declare war on
this ancient mirage in not too distant future. Such a situation
would mean that people realized the practical value of the
opposite, deterministic self-perception. Consequently, it will have
to be realized by social sciences – in particular, philology.
We believe that it would be reasonable to prepare the Russian
language for such significant extralinguistic changes. They are
unlikely in the coming years, but almost inevitable in the long-
term historical perspective.

References
Allott, R. 1990. The Power of Words. Language Origins Society,
Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
http://www.percepp.com/power.htm [Accessed December 2
2018].

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Bacon, F. 1978. The New Organon. In Works. Moscow: Mysl,
2(5): 214.
Chernyavskaya, V.E. 2006. Discourse of power and power of
discourse: issues of speech influence. Moscow: Nauka, 136 pp.
Chomsky, N. 1968. Language and Mind. New York: Harcourt,
Brace & World, 88 pp.
Efremova, T.F. 2006. Modern Dictionary of the Russian
language. In 3 volumes. Ed. by T.F. Efremova. Moscow: AST,
Astrel, Harvest, V. 1 (A – L) - 1165 pp. – V. 2 (M – P) – 1160 pp.
– V. 3 (R – I) – 974 pp.
Einstein, A. 2011. Einstein on religion. Moscow: Alpina non-
fiction, 144 pp.
Eremina, L.I. 1982. Word and context. In: Stylistics of fiction.
Ed. by A.N. Kozhin. Moscow: Nauka, pp. 45–76.
Galkina-Fedoruk, E. M. 1958. Impersonal sentences in modern
Russian. Moscow: Moscow University Press, 332 pp.
Lekant, P.А. 2004. Syntax of a simple sentence in the modern
Russian language. Moscow: Higher School, 247 pp.
Melnichuk, A.S. 1990. Language and thinking. In: Linguistic
Encyclopedic Dictionary. Ed. by V.N. Yartseva. Moscow: Soviet
Encyclopedia, pp. 606–607.
Moiseeva, V.L. 1998. Impersonal verbal predicates of the state of
a person in the Russian language worldview. Saint Petersburg:
Saint Petersburg State University, 16 pp.
Pavlov, V.M. 1967. The problem of language and thinking in the
works of Wilhelm Humboldt and in neo-Humboldtian
Linguistics. In Language and Thinking. Moscow: Nauka, pp.
152–161.
Peshkovsky A. M. 1956. Russian syntax in scientific coverage.
Moscow: State teaching and pedagogical publishing house of the
Ministry of Education of the RSFSR, 511 pp.
Petrov, A.V. 2007. The category of impersonality in Russian.
Arkhangelsk: M.V. Lomonosov Pomor State University, 43 pp.

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Svintsova, I.Yu. 1993. Russian impersonal verb sentences and
their distributors. Moscow: Peoples’ Friendship University of
Russia, 16 pp.
Ulukhanov, I.S. 1998. Impersonal verbs. In: The Russian
language: Encyclopedia. Ed. by Yu. N. Karaulov. Moscow: Big
Russian Encyclopedia, p. 47.
Vinogradov, V.V. 1947. The Russian language. Moscow: State
Pedagogical Publishing House, 784 pp.
Volodin, A. P. 1990. The category of person. In: Linguistic
Encyclopedic Dictionary. Ed. by V.N. Yartseva. Moscow: Soviet
Encyclopedia, pp. 271–272.
Wierzbicka, A. 1996. The Russian language. In Language.
Culture. Cognition. Russian Dictionaries. Moscow, pp. 33–87.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-498-513

COGNITIVE-LINGUISTIC MECHANISMS
OF SPEED-READING

Elena F. Brueva

Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University

Kaliningrad, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The current article is aimed at considering and studying several
cognitive-linguistic mechanisms of speed-reading such as
perception and understanding of the text, language iconicity and
anticipation.
The study was conducted using the following research methods:
a) induction and deduction; b) modeling of the latest modern
approaches to reading; c) systematic approach to the analysis of
previous studies; d) structural-functional method in practical
scientific research.

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If ordinary reading is a unity of perception and understanding of
the text, in which tracking of sound-letter and semantic
connections predominates, then speed-reading is dominated by
cognition, the ability to predict, anticipate and analyze the
material received, based on the person’s cognitive base.
Perception and understanding of the text are the most important
cognitive aspects of speed-reading.
When speed-reading as a special form of working on the text
takes place, perception and, consequently, understanding prove to
be somewhat different compared to ordinary reading. Every time
in the process of speed-reading, a person constructs a new,
contextually determined text model that includes both the
semantic content and the individual associations, personal
conclusions, activated models associated with the previous
experience.
The mode of emotionality also plays an important cognitive role
in creating the overall conceptual picture of the reading material.
Due to the fact that speed-reading considerably reduces the time
of working on the text, a person has the opportunity to maintain
an emotionally stable attitude to the reading material, and
therefore more fully experience the emotions overflowing from
the text.
At the same time, the speed of text processing also varies. The
reader can view some of its parts at high speed, wanting to know
the climax or the resolution of the plot, and can read the other
parts at slow speed, enjoying the artistic descriptions.
One more cognitive-linguistic aspect that affects the speed of
reading is the iconicity of the language.
A word, a sentence, and even a paragraph can be perceived as an
iconic sign. The text understanding in this case is generated by
the perception based on the formation and construction of images
and «pictures» of the reading.
The text as a sequence of characters is a heterogeneous
phenomenon, which is manifested in the use of different types of
characters in the text (indexes, symbols, icons and meta-signs)

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and in the sign encoding of the text. The text is brought to the
reader as «a complex device that stores a variety of codes that can
transform the messages received and generate the new ones, as an
information generator possessing the features of an intellectual
personality». The result is a holistic perception of phrases and
even paragraphs.
The third important cognitive mechanism that plays an important
role in developing speed-reading skills is anticipation. This is a
prediction of the subsequent contents based on the available ones.
In this regard, it is important to bear in mind the following. In
addition to essential information, any text contains significant
semantic massives that are not important for their understanding.
In the act of speed-reading, it is necessary to learn to ignore them
and highlight the basic semantic fragments of the text.
The represented material makes it possible to conclude that the
cognitive sphere of a person has a significant potential in working
with textual information. A person is able to work on the text
without visually focusing on each unit and anticipating the
vectors of its semantic development at the same time. Speed-
reading provides an opportunity to process the text in such a way
that the readable images are formed much faster than with
ordinary discrete reading. Due to the reduction of time for
working with the book, the reader holds the textual information
more emotionally and steadily.
Keywords: speed-reading, reading, cognitive linguistic,
anticipation, iconicity of the language.

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КОГНИТИВНО-ЯЗЫКОВЫЕ МЕХАНИЗМЫ
СКОРОЧТЕНИЯ

Елена Ф. Бруева

Балтийский федеральный университет имени И. Канта

Калининград, Россия
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
Цель данной работы – рассмотреть и исследовать некоторые
когнитивно-языковые механизмы скорочтения – такие как
восприятие и понимание текста, иконичность языка и
антиципация.
Методы исследования: а) индукция и дедукция;
б) моделирование новейших современных подходов к
вопросу чтения; в) системный подход к анализу
предшествующих исследований; г) структурно-
функциональный метод в практических научных
исследованиях.
Если процесс обычного чтения – это единство восприятия и
понимания текста, в котором, в первую очередь, доминирует
установка звуко-буквенных и смысловых связей, то в
процессе скорочтения главенствующую роль играет
когниция, умение прогнозировать, предугадывать и
анализировать полученный материал, опираясь на
имеющуюся у человека когнитивную базу.
Базовыми когнитивными аспектами скорочтения являются
восприятие и понимание текста.
При скорочтение как особом виде работы с текстом
восприятие и соответственно понимание происходит
несколько иначе по сравнению с обычным чтением. В
процессе скорочтения человек каждый раз конструирует
новую, контекстуально обусловленную модель текста,
которая включает в себя не только собственно смысловое

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содержание, но и индивидуальные ассоциации, личные
выводные знания, активированные модели, связанные с
предыдущим опытом.
Модус эмоциональности также играет важную когнитивную
роль для создания общей концептуальной картины
прочитанного. В связи с тем, что при скорочтении время
работы с текстом сокращается в разы, человек имеет
возможность сохранить эмоционально стабильное
отношение к прочитанному, тем самым более полно ощутить
эмоции, производные от текста. При этом скорость
обработки текста также варьируется. Одни его части
читатель может просматривать с высокой скоростью, желая
скорее узнать кульминацию или развязку сюжета, другие же
может прочитывать в медленном темпе, наслаждаясь
художественными описаниями.
Еще одним когнитивно-языковым фактором, влияющим на
скорость чтения, является иконичность языка.
Слово, предложение и даже абзац могут восприниматься как
иконический знак. Понимание текста в этом случае
порождается восприятием, основанным на формировании и
конструировании образов и «картинок» прочитанного.
Текст как последовательность знаков представляет собой
гетерогенное явление, что проявляется в использовании в
тексте знаков разных типов (индексов, символов, икон и
метазнаков) и в знаковой закодированности текста. В
результате достигается целостное восприятие фраз и даже
абзацев.
Третьим когнитивным механизмом, играющим важную роль
в формировании навыка скорочтения, является антиципация.
Это предугадывание последующих содержаний на основе
имеющихся. В связи с этим важно иметь в виду следующее.
Помимо существенной информации любой текст содержит
значительные смысловые объемы, которые не имеют
большого значения для их понимания. В акте скорочтения

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необходимо научиться пренебрегать ими и выделять
опорные смысловые фрагменты текста.
Представленный материал позволяет сделать вывод, что
когнитивная сфера человека имеет значительный потенциал
в работе с текстовой информацией. Человек способен
работать с текстом, зрительно не акцентируя внимание на
каждой единице, при этом предугадывая векторы его
смыслового развития. Скорочтение позволяет обрабатывать
текст таким образом, что образы читаемого формируются
значительно быстрее, чем при обычном дискретном чтении.
Вследствие сокращения времени на работу с книгой,
читатель более эмоционально и надежно удерживает
текстовую информацию.
Ключевые слова: скорочтение, чтение, когнитивная
лингвистика, антиципация, иконичность языка.

Объект исследования
Вопрос о скорочтении становится все более актуальным в
современном мире. Рост теоретического интереса к
быстрому чтению был стимулирован интенсивным
расширение текстового поля в жизни людей с приходом
инновационных технических средств и появлением
«глобальной всемирной паутины». Было подсчитано, что за
один день в настоящее время производится столько
информации, сколько раньше производилось в течение
столетий. В связи с этим скорочтение становится
необходимым навыком для гармоничного развития человека
на сегодняшний день. Скорочтение ставит перед собой
цель - увеличить эффективность сложнейшего когнитивного
процесса, который принято называть чтением. А также
создать новую более эффективную программу умственной
деятельности, обучить читателя новым «рациональным
способам кодирования поступающей информации».

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Метод исследования
В настоящей работе вопрос о скорочтении рассматривается с
точки зрения когнитивной лингвистики. Именно
«человеческие когнитивные структуры (восприятие, язык,
мышление, память, действие) неразрывно связаны между
собой в рамках одной общей задачи – осуществления
процессов усвоения, переработки и трансформации знания,
которые, собственно, и определяют сущность человеческого
разума» (Petrov V.V., 1988: 41).
Обсуждение вопроса
К чтению и его когнитивным основаниям по-разному
относились в разные исторические эпохи. Так, в Средние
века в общеобразовательной школе допускалось только
чтение вслух, тогда как в университетской среде допускалось
и даже рекомендовалось чтение про себя. Таким образом,
уход от привычного дискретного вокализируемого чтения
является естественным актом взрослого человека. А
скорочтение, в свою очередь, является наивысшей точкой
эволюции чтения.
Чтение – особая форма языкового общения, включающая
поиск, прием и изучение языковой информации. Это
сложный комплекс физиологических и психологических
процессов, в котором участвуют органы зрения, речи и
слуха. Управляющим органом чтения является головной
мозг, обрабатывающий информацию.
Быстрое чтение, или скорочтение, – это «нетрадиционные
методы чтения в целом, позволяющие усваивать
прочитанное более полно и качественно, чем при
использовании традиционных методов медленного чтения.
Скорочтение ставит перед собой цель - увеличить
эффективность чтения. А также создать новую более
эффективную программу умственной деятельности, обучить
читателя новым «рациональным способам кодирования
поступающей информации» (Andreev O., 2009: 59).

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Если процесс обычного чтения – это единство восприятия и
понимания текста, в котором, в первую очередь, доминирует
установка звуко-буквенных и смысловых связей, то в
процессе скорочтения главную роль играет умение
прогнозировать, предугадывать и анализировать полученный
материал, опираясь на имеющуюся у человека когнитивную
базу.
Предмет и цель исследования
Наиболее важными вопросами, рассматриваемыми в
когнитивном аспекте, являются восприятие и понимание
текста. Фоконье говорил по этому поводу, что помимо слов,
образующих доступную наблюдению «верхушку айсберга»,
в высказывании имплицитно присутствуют огромные
массивы информации, необходимые для понимания его
содержания. Сам человек не осознает, как именно идет
процесс извлечения смысла» (см. Skrebtsova T.G., 2011: 167).
В процессе чтения в коре головного мозга происходит
слияние двух потоков информации – внешней и внутренней.
Новые понятия, факты и концепты включает в себя
«внешняя» информация. Она, так или иначе, проходит через
призму «внутренней», где мы неосознанно используем
антиципацию или предугадывания, опираясь на имеющуюся
когнитивную базу. Внутренняя же информация, в свою
очередь, структурирует совокупность ранее накопленных
знаний. Таким образом, в результате когнитивной
деятельности создается система смыслов, из которой
формируется конечное понимание текста.
В процессе чтения осуществляются когнитивные операции,
нацеленные на порождение нового знания путем активации
структур рабочей памяти мозга при помощи специальных
операторов.
При скорочтение как особом виде работы с текстом
восприятие и соответственно понимание происходит
несколько иначе по сравнению с обычным чтением. В
процессе скорочтения человек каждый раз конструирует

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новую, контекстуально обусловленную модель текста,
которая включает в себя не только собственно текстовое
содержание, но и индивидуальные ассоциации, личные
выводные знания, активированные модели, связанные с
предыдущим опытом.
В той или иной степени у каждого человека в процессе
жизни формируется внутренний интрацептивный словарь,
набор телесных дескриптов, с помощью который человек
интерпретирует окружающую его действительность. Это
отражение также находит отклик в процессе чтения.
Ментальный лексикон формируется в памяти каждого
человека. Память – «сердце» нашего интеллектуального
функционирования, сосредоточие того, что составляет
личностный опыт человека и – одновременно – разделяемый
им с другими людьми его времени, поколения, социального и
возрастного статуса, формирующий коллективный опыт и
картину мира (Kubryakova T.S., 2004: 357).
Процесс скорочтения, подавляя субвокализацию и уводя
читателя от дискретности текста, активирует образное
мышление человека. Это, в свою очередь, позволяет не
читать текст линейно, а воспринимать его более крупными
структурными единицами. Чтение из математического
складывания отдельных лексем превращается в просмотр
фильма. Вычленив и усвоив основной «смысл» текста,
переданный знаковой системой, читатель переходит на
уровень интерпретации, начиная подключать эмоциональные
реакции, присваивать тексту личностные смыслы. Таким
образом, процессы рецепции, понимания и интерпретации
текста не протекают исключительно опираясь на
лексическую базу произведения. «Слова являются удобными
субститутами, средствами актуализации отсутствующих в
данный момент в непосредственном наблюдении
множественных и мультимодальных контекстуальных
признаков, при условии, что оба субъекта имеют
достаточный опыт взаимодействия в мультимодальном

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контексте (речевом, жестовом, телесном, визуальном,
аудиальном и любом другом) внутри сообщества»
(Kolmogorova A.V., 2013: 38).
Модус эмоциональности также играет важную когнитивую
роль для создания общей концептуальной картины
прочитанного. «В зависимости от эмоциональных состояний
субъекта, его мотивов, личностных установок и т.д. совсем
по-разному актуализируется система ассоциативных связей
между отдельными значениями, которые организуют
индивидуальный тезаурус» (Petrenko V.F., 2009: 73). Таким
образом, при обычном чтении длинного произведения
эмоциональное восприятие отдельных частей текста может
меняться. При скорочтении время работы с текстом
сокращается в разы, что дает более устойчивое
эмоциональное восприятие, тем самым канва прочитанного
имеет гораздо меньше разночтений, чем при обычном
чтении.
Мышление – невербально, соответственно, знаковая система
выступает лишь как проводник текстовой информации к
мыслительным процессам, где уже и формируется «картина»
прочитанного. Таким образом, человеческий мозг и
мышление способны обрабатывать текстовые объемы на
высокой скорости, тем самым сокращая путь преобразования
знаков в образы и формируя целостную картину.
В процессе обычного чтения образ воспроизводится
дискретно, по мере прочитывания слова за словом, поэтому
представить целостную картину сложно. Скорочтение же
напоминает просмотр фильма, особенно если это касается
художественного произведения.
Во время скорочтения темп обработки текста также
варьируется. Одни части читатель может просматривать на
высокой скорости, желая скорее узнать кульминацию или
развязку сюжета, другие же предпочитает смаковать в
медленном темпе. Скорочтение таким образом можно
сравнить с ездой на автомобиле. Существуют скоростные

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трассы, на которых мчишься, желая поскорее достигнуть
цели, и, напротив, есть красивые узкие улочки, где хочется
ехать медленно, наслаждаясь прекрасным видом и
рассматривая дословно все элементы вокруг. Если
сравнивать книги с дорогами, то одни предназначены для
«скоростного» чтения. В них детали почти отсутствуют, но
динамика и повороты сюжета будоражат. Другие книги
предназначены для «прогулок», где траектория движения не
так важна, как виды. Но существуют также и книги, которые
совмещают в себе и яркий, насыщенный сюжет, и при этом
наполненные выразительными деталями, на которые хочется
обратить внимание. Такие книги можно читать в очень
быстром темпе, время от времени останавливая свое
внимание на тех или иных деталях (Mendelsund P., 2016:
114).
В процессе скорочтения также создается своего рода
трехмерное пространство, в котором можно осязать, слышать
и даже чувствовать все происходящее в своем «внутреннем
мире».
Еще одним когнитивно-языковым фактором, влияющим на
рост скорости чтения, является иконичность языка.
Скорочтение как континуальное и холестичное
просматривание текста реализуется за счет когнитивной
блочной языковой базы человека. Слово, предложение и
даже абзац могут восприниматься как иконический знак.
Понимание текста в этом случае порождается восприятием,
основанным на формировании и конструировании образов и
«картинок» прочитанного. При обычном чтении данный
процесс принимает разорванную форму и теряет
целостность. Единственным усложняющим понимание
фактором при скорочтении может являться недостаточно
высокая скорость мышления читателя. Привыкший к
дискретной работе с текстом, человеческий мозг не всегда
способен переработать в кратчайшие сроки большие объемы

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информации, но эта проблема решается выполнением
определенных упражнений.
Текст как последовательность знаков представляет собой
гетерогенное явление, что проявляется в использовании в
тексте знаков разных типов (индексов, символов, икон и
метазнаков) и в знаковой закодированности текста. Текст
предстает перед читателем как «сложное устройство,
хранящее многообразные коды, способное
трансформировать получаемые сообщения и порождать
новые, как информационный генератор, обладающий
чертами интеллектуальной личности» (Lotman U.M., 2002:
162).
В процессе скорочтения достигается целостное восприятие
фраз и более сложных текстовых образований. При
скорочтении таким путем воспринимаются даже абзацы.
Приобретая навыки чтения как такового, человек обучается
распознавать всё более сложные образы – от простейших
палочек и кружочков до целых слов и сочетаний, которые
для него становятся единым иероглифом, картинкой,
пиктограммой. Таким образом, полноценное, осмысленное
восприятие текстовой информации происходит как во
времени, так и в пространстве. Текстовая информация
образует не линейную последовательность, а многомерную
пространственно-временную структуру.
Иконичность, накладываясь на повествовательную ткань, в
разы сокращает когнитивные пути понимания прочитанного.
Несмотря на то, что фонетическое письмо, к которому
относится и кириллица, воспринимается последовательно, с
помощью логической операции, учеными доказано, что в
мозгу существует определенный образ не только отдельных
слов, но также и предложений (Alpatov V., 2018: 200).
И. Р. Гальперин писал: «Языковая память говорящего
субъекта представляет собой грандиозный конгломерат,
накапливаемый и развивающийся в течение всей жизни. Она
заключает в себе гигантский запас коммуникативно

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заряженных частиц языковой ткани разного объема,
фактуры, разной степени отчетливости и законченности:
отдельные словоформы, каждая в окружении целого поля
более или менее очевидных сочетательных возможностей,
готовые словесные группы, в каждой из которых
просматриваются различные возможности модификации,
расширения, усечения, замены отдельных элементов,
синтактико-интонационные фигуры, лишь частично
заполненные отдельными опорными словами, в окружении
целых полей словоформ и словосочетаний, пригодных для их
полного воплощения; целые готовые реплики-высказывания;
различные риторические «жесты», за которыми
проглядываются более крупные речевые блоки, даже целые
тексты, ассоциируемые с такими «жестами», наконец,
отдельные куски текстов, относящиеся к различным сферам
и жанрам языкового существования» (см. Gak V.G., 1998:
104). Основной вывод на основе представленных в данном
отрывке положений таков: человек пользуется готовыми
языковыми моделями в своем коммуникативном общении, а
также задействует их в актах формирования коммуникации.
Третьим когнитивным механизмом, играющим важную роль
в формировании навыка скорочтения, является антиципация.
Это предугадывание последующих содержаний на основе
имеющихся. Человеку, овладевающему скорочтением,
необходимо усвоить этот навык. В связи с этим важно иметь
в виду следующее. Помимо существенной информации
любой текст содержит значительные смысловые объемы,
которые не имеют большого значения для их понимания. В
акте скорочтения необходимо научиться пренебрегать ими и
выделять опорные смысловые фрагменты текста.
Как работает прием антиципации или предугадывания путем
активизации ментального лексикона, можно увидеть в
текстах с пропущенными сегментами.
Например, в тексте со следующими пропущенными буквами:

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«В.тру по.азлось м.ло э.ого и он по.ум.л: «Есл. я дам Цве.ку
в.ю сво. м.щь и си.у, то он од.рит .еня че.-то еще б.ль.им». И
он д.хнул на Цв.т.к мо.ным д.хани.м свой лю.ви».
Заметно, что мозг человека способен сам додумывать и
формулировать предложения.
Еще один пример покажет, что зрительная система человека,
взаимодействуя с когнитивными процессами, может
воссоздавать даже усеченные тексты. Рассмотрим пример
такого текста:

Все дело в том, что происходит перераспределение

концентрации внимания на более важную информацию,
поскольку несущественная информация игнорируется. В
результате, времени на чтение затрачивается меньше, а
объем поступающей в мозг информации возрастает.
В природе каждого человека заложена способность к
предвосхищению - по отдельным деталям или фактам
человек делает прогнозирующие выводы. Это правило имеет
свое отражение в языковом сознании индивидуума. Е. Ф.
Тарасов определял данное явление как «совокупность
образов сознания, формируемых и овнешняемых с помощью
языковых средств – слов, свободных и устойчивых
словосочетаний, предложений, текстов и ассоциативных
полей» (Tarasov E.F., 2000: 26).

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Заключение
Представленный материал позволяет сделать вывод, что
когнитивная сфера человека имеет значительный потенциал
в работе с текстовой информацией. Человек способен
работать с текстом, зрительно не акцентируя внимание на
каждой единице, при этом предугадывая векторы его
смыслового развития. Скорочтение позволяет обрабатывать
текст таким образом, что образы читаемого формируются
значительно быстрее, чем при обычном дискретном чтении.
Вследствие сокращения времени на работу с книгой,
читатель более эмоционально и надежно удерживает
текстовую информацию. В результате окончательное
восприятие и осмысление книги становится более ярким и
целостным.
Таким образом, необходимо отметить, что феномен
скорочтения является малоисследованным процессом и
открывает огромное поле для исследований в таких областях
как когнитивная лингвистика, языкознание, теория языка и
других.

Литература
Алпатов В. 2018. Языкознание: от Аристотеля до
компьютерной лингвистики, Москва, 200 с.
Андреев О. 2009. Техника быстрого чтения. Самоучитель по
программе Школы Олега Андреева, Москва, 21-67 с.
Гак В.Г. 1998. Языковые преобразования, Москва, 104 с.
Колмогорова А.В. 2013. «Ризоморфный клубок»: когниция vs
коммуникация. Красноярск, 38 с.
Кубрякова Е.С. 2004. Язык и знание, Москва, 357 с.
Лотман Ю.М. 2002. История и типология русской культуры,
17 c.
Менделсунд П. 2016. Что мы видим, когда читаем, Москва,
114-143 с.
Петренко В.Ф. 2009. Основы психосемантики, Москва, 73 с.

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Петров В.В. 1988. Язык и логическая теория: в поисках
новой парадигмы, Москва, 41 с.
Тарасов Е.Ф. 2000. Сознание: содержание и
функционирование, Москва, 26 с.

References
Alpatov V. 2018. Linguistics: from Aristotle to computer
linguistics, Moscow, 200 p.
Andreev O. 2009. The techniques of speed-reading. Tutorial on
the Program of the school Oleg Andreev, Moscow, 21-67 p.
Gak V. G. 1998. Language transformations, Moscow, 104 p.
Kolmogorova A.V. 2013. "Is isomorphic to tangle": cognition vs.
communication. Krasnoyarsk, 8 p.
Kubryakova E. S. 2004. Language and knowledge, Moscow,
357 p.
Lotman Yu. M. 2002. History and typology of Russian culture,
17 c.
Mendelsund P. 2016. What we see when we read, Moscow, 114-
143 p.
Petrenko, V. F., 2009. Basics of psychosemantics, Moscow, 73 p.
Petrov V. V. 1988. Language and logical theory: in search of a
new paradigm, Moscow, 41 p.
Tarasov E. F. 2000. Consciousness: content and functioning,
Moscow, 26 p.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-514-529

ON SPECIFICS OF THE INTERDISCIPLINARY

TERM FORMATION

Anzhela I. Edlichko

Lomonosov Moscow State University

Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
The paper discusses some essential features of interdisciplinary
terms. Such terms appear as a result of the symbiosis of various
fields: linguistics and politics, linguistics and economics,
linguistics and sociology, etc. The author briefly analyzes some
extra-linguistic reasons for the formation of interdiscipline
terminology (e.g., language policy, language economics, feminist
criticism of language, gender linguistics): the development of
scientific views and the increase of scientific disciplines, inter -
and transdisciplinarity of modern sciences, globalization, etc. The
linguistic reasons for the emergence of interdisciplinary terms
include synonymy, the language economy, homonymy, etc.
The focus of this study is mainly aimed at structural, semantic
and functional features of terms, representing such a rapidly
developing interdisciplinary field as economics of language or
language economics. The analysis of theoretical literature on the
problem reveals the lack of knowledge of this problem in the
Russian linguistics. As a result, the author attempts to briefly
highlight the history of the development of the economy of
language, to highlight the stages of the emergence of terminology
and to find new terms included in the composition forming the
conceptual-terminological apparatus of the economy of language.
Both dictionary and context materials (research literature on the
economics of language; sociolinguistic, educational, and

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economic documentation; websites of translation and educational
companies, as well as media) were analyzed. In this study the
methods of lexicographic, corpus and structural-semantic analysis
were used. Lexicographical analysis shows that many
interdisciplinary terms are usually fixed not only in explanatory,
translated bilingual, but also in specialized dictionaries
(linguistic, sociolinguistic, sociological, political, etc.). Thus, the
terminology of feminist criticism of language, developed in
gender linguistics, is codified in dictionaries of different types.
Terms from the field of language economics are not yet fully
represented in lexicographical sources.
The conceptual and terminological apparatus of the language
economy is at different stages of development in different
languages. The study of structural-functional and pragmatic
characteristics of the terms makes it possible to speak about the
active development of the terminological system in the English
language and the emerging terminology in the Russian and
German languages.
Corpus and discursive analysis of interdisciplinary terms allows
us to build a hierarchical structure and identify thematic and
conceptual groups of the terminological field, forming a central, a
near-central and a peripheral zones. As the study shows, the term
systems are not closed, the boundaries between the adjoining
terminological systems of interacting disciplines are blurred. This
contributes to the quantification of terms and provides for term
systems overlapping.
As a result of the structures’ and semantics’ analysis of such
words, it is possible to find their semantic and formal features
(including their derivation). It is shown that most of the economic
terms in English and Russian are represented by word
collocations (including terms and/or term elements of various
disciplines), the dominant position is occupied by composites in
the German language, e.g.: Engl. language management, Rus.
языковой менеджмент (yazykovoj menedzhment), Germ.
Sprachmanagement. This phenomenon is explained by the

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peculiarities of word-formation types and models of the word-
formation systems of these languages. In the terminology, the
variability caused by assimilation of borrowed terms, most of
which are of English origin, is revealed. Structural and semantic
variation is typical, as a rule, for borrowed lexemes in German
and Russian.
The analysis of research literature and empirical material reveals
that interdisciplinary terms are mostly used in scientific and
official business functional styles and are not used in colloquial
speech. The results determine the place and the important role of
the interdisciplinary terminological vocabulary in the literary
subsystems of national languages.
Keywords: interdisciplinary term, intersystem terminologies,
variation.

О СПЕЦИФИКЕ ФОРМИРОВАНИЯ
МЕЖНАУЧНЫХ ТЕРМИНОСИСТЕМ

Анжела И. Едличко

Московский государственный университет

имени М.В. Ломоносова
Москва, Россия
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
В статье рассматриваются некоторые характерные
особенности межнаучных терминов. Такие термины
появляются в результате симбиоза различных наук и
научных направлений: лингвистики и политики, лингвистики
и экономики, лингвистики и социологии и др. Кратко
анализируются экстралингвистические причины
формирования и становления межсистемных терминологий
(например, языковой политики, экономики языка,
феминистской критики языка, гендерной лингвистики):

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развитие научных взглядов и увеличение количества
научных дисциплин, меж- и трансдисциплинарность
современных наук, глобализация и др. К языковым причинам
появления межнаучных терминов относятся синонимия,
стремление к языковой экономии, дифференциация
омонимов и др.
Фокус внимания в настоящем исследовании направлен в
основном на изучение структурно-семантических и
функциональных особенностей терминологической лексики,
представляющей такую активно развивающуюся
междисциплинарную научную область как экономика языка
(англ. economics of language, или language economics). Анализ
теоретической литературы по проблематике вопроса
указывает на недостаточную изученность названной
проблемы в отечественном языкознании. Вследствие этого
автором предпринимается попытка кратко осветить историю
развития экономики языка как научного направления,
выделить этапы появления терминологии, а также выявить
новые термины (с базовыми терминоэлементами), входящие
в состав формирующего понятийно-терминологического
аппарата экономики языка.
В качестве источников практического материала
использовались как словарные, так и текстовые материалы
(научная литература по экономике языка,
социолингвистическая, образовательная и экономическая
документация, сайты переводческих и образовательных
компаний, медиаисточники). Исследование проводилось с
помощью методов лексикографического, корпусного и
структурного анализа. Лексикографический анализ показал,
что многие межнаучные термины, как правило,
зафиксированы не только в толковых, переводных, но и в
специализированных словарях (лингвистических,
социолингвистических, социологических, политических и
др.).

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Понятийно-терминологический аппарат экономики языка
находится на различных стадиях развития в разных языках.
Исследование структурно-функциональных и
прагматических характеристик терминов дает возможность
говорить об активно развивающейся терминосистеме в
английском языке и формирующихся терминологиях в
русском и немецком языках. Данный факт объясняется
становлением указанного научного направления в США,
поддержкой этой концепции европейскими учеными и
появлением ряда научных работ также на английском языке
в странах ЕС.
Корпусный и дискурсивный анализ межнаучных терминов
позволил выстроить иерархическую структуру и выделить
тематико-понятийные группы терминологического поля,
образовывающие ядерную (центральную), околоядерную и
периферийную зоны межнаучных терминологий. Как
показало исследование, терминосистемы не являются
закрытым множеством, границы между соприкасающимися
терминологическими системами взаимодействующих наук
являются размытыми. Это способствует количественному
увеличению терминов и возможности наложения и
пересечения терминосистем.
В результате системного анализа структуры и семантики
таких слов удалось обнаружить их формальные признаки (в
т.ч. деривационный потенциал) и содержательные
закономерности. Показано, что бо́льшая часть терминов
экономики языка в английском и русском языках
представлена словосочетаниями, в т.ч. многокомпонентными
(включающими термины и/или терминоэлементы смежных
наук сформированного научного направления), в немецком
языке преимущественное положение занимают композиты,
ср.: англ. language management, рус. языковой менеджмент,
нем. Sprachmanagement. Данное явление объясняется прежде
всего особенностями словообразовательных типов и
моделей, характерных для словообразовательных систем

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исследуемых языков. В терминологиях выявлена
вариантность, вызванная процессами ассимиляции
заимствованных терминов, подавляющее большинство
которых – слова английского происхождения. Структурно-
семантическая вариантность характерна, как правило, для
заимствованных лексических единиц в принимающем языке
(немецком и русском). В терминологиях обнаружены такие
парадигматические категории, как семантическая
эквивалентная синонимия, гипонимические (родо-видовые)
отношения, отношения полисемии и др.
В результате анализа научной литературы и эмпирического
материала по исследуемой проблематике установлено, что
межнаучные термины, относящиеся к различным научным
дисциплинам, используются, как правило, в научном и
официально-деловом функциональном стилях и пока не
находят своего применения в разговорной речи. Полученные
результаты позволяют определить место и важную роль
появившейся межнаучной терминологической лексики в
литературных субсистемах национальных языков.
Ключевые слова: межнаучный термин, межсистемные
терминологии, вариантность.

Вступление
Развитие и взаимовлияние различных социально-
гуманитарных наук, например, лингвистики и политики,
лингвистики и экономики, лингвистики и социологии и др.,
приводит к появлению межнаучных терминов, называемых
также «межсистемны[ми], межотрослевы[ми],
профильны[ми]» (Buyanova, L.Yu., 2014: 179). Становлению
и развитию межнаучных терминологий и терминосистем
(например, в области социолингвистики, языковой политики,
экономики языка, феминистской критики языка, гендерной
лингвистики и др.) способствуют как экстра-, так и
интралингвистические причины. Рассуждая о причинах роста
терминологий и необходимости появления новой

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терминологической лексики (Grinev-Grinevich S.V., Sorokina
E.A., 2018: 22), исследователи указывают на наличие в
современном мире «15 тысяч научных дисциплин, [в
которых] работают свыше 5 млн ученых» (Komarova Z.I.,
2017: 17), а также на развитие науки по возрастающей и на
удвоение числа научных дисциплин каждые 25 лет.
Увеличению количества научных дисциплин также
способствуют меж- и трансдисциплинарность современных
наук, развитие глобализационных процессов во всех
областях научных знаний, миграционные процессы,
изменения в политических и экономических системах разных
стран и др. В качестве языковых причин появления
межнаучных терминов можно назвать развитие
синонимических рядов, стремление к языковой экономии,
дифференциацию омонимов и другие процессы.
В настоящее время активно развивается относительно новое
междисциплинарное научное направление – экономика
языка (англ. economics of language, или language economics)
(Marschak J., 1965; Grin F., 1994), в рамках которого
исследуются корпусные и статусные составляющие языка.
Вопросы соотношения языковых навыков как части
человеческого капитала впервые вызвали интерес
американских экономистов в 1960-х гг. в рамках
разрабатываемой в США экономической концепции
человеческого капитала, в основе которой находилась
проблема повышения потенциала человека на рынке труда. В
этот же период в научный оборот был введен термин
economics of language в одноименной статье американского
экономиста Джейкоба Маршака, посвященной проблемам
соотношения выбора языков vs. коммуникативных систем
для достижения экономических целей (Marschak J., 1965). В
дальнейших исследованиях американских и канадских
экономистов рассматривались вопросы, связанные с
анализом языка и экономики, влиянием моно-, би- и
полилингвизма на экономическую ситуацию страны,

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изучением разницы в оплате труда носителям
государственного и миноритарных языков в США,
особенностями экономического потенциала английского
языка как мирового и другие вопросы (Marusenko M.A., 2014:
141–142). Новое научное направление было поддержано
европейскими учеными-экономистами, в связи с чем
появился ряд научных работ на английском языке, в т.ч.
немецкоязычных авторов (Vaillancourt F. 1983; Grin F. 1990;
Wickström B.-A., 2012; Gazzola M., 2016; Ginsburgh V., Weber
Sh. 2016), что способствовало становлению и развитию
терминологии экономики языка именно на английском
языке. Исследования отечественных экономистов и
социолингвистов, рассматривающих вопросы соотношения
языка и дохода, языка и экономической активности,
экономики языковой политики, относятся к началу XXI в.
(Grishaeva E.B., 2006; Marusenko M.A., 2014; Kadochnikov
D.V., 2016; и др.).
Предмет и цель исследования
Формированию терминологии и терминосистемы экономики
языка способствует не только развитие теоретической мысли
в научных трудах ученых-экономистов и социолингвистов,
но и функционирование терминов в различных
эмпирических источниках официально-делового стиля. В
качестве источников практического материала в данной
работе использовалась научная литература по экономике
языка, словари и текстовые материалы (документация в
области изучения/преподавания языков и переводческих
услуг, экономические документы (например, бизнес-планы
языковых школ/курсов, статистическая отчетность),
контенты сайтов языковых образовательных учреждений
разного уровня и сайтов переводческих компаний,
социолингвистическая документация). Целью исследования
является выявление некоторых сущностных характеристик
межнаучных терминов из области «экономика языка» в
русском, английском и немецком языках.

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Методология и методы
Исследование проводилось с помощью методов
лексикографического, корпусного и дискурсивного анализа.
В результате лексикографического анализа выявлено, что
многие межнаучные термины, как правило, зафиксированы
не только в толковых, переводных, но и в
специализированных словарях (лингвистических,
социолингвистических, социологических, политических и
др.). Однако, если, к примеру, социолингвистические
термины или термины из области феминистской критики
языка кодифицированы в словарях разного типа, то термины
из области экономики языка еще не представлены в полной
объеме в лексикографических источниках, см. (Duden-online-
Wörterbuch).
Формирующаяся и развивающаяся межнаучная понятийно-
терминологическая база экономики языка включает термины
из различных областей: экономики, лингвистики,
лингводидактики, педагогики и др. Корпусный анализ таких
слов позволил выстроить иерархическую структуру и
выделить тематико-понятийные группы терминологического
поля, формирующие ядерную (центральную), околоядерную
и периферийную зоны терминологии экономики языка.
Результаты
Формирующийся понятийно-терминологический аппарат
экономики языка базируется на экономической
терминологии, соответственно, его ядро составляют такие
термины как англ. economics, incomes, tariff barriers, non-tariff
barriers, goods, proficiency, efficiency, benefits и др.; нем.
Kosten, Budget, Einkommen, Kunde, Markt, Marketing,
Management, Steuer, Konsum, Produktion, Produktivität, Kapital
и др.; рус. продукт, стоимость, бюджет, затраты, доход,
расход, клиент, рынок, маркетинг, менеджмент, бизнес,
продажа и т.д. Терминология экономики языка включает и
(социо)лингвистические термины, которые мы относим к
периферийной зоне, ср. англ./нем./рус.: language / Sprache /

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язык; language acquisition / Spracherwerb / усвоение языка;
multilingualism / Mehrsprachigkeit / многоязычие; language
vitality / Sprachvitalität / витальность языка; language policy /
Sprach(en)politik / языковая политика; language planning /
Sprachplanung / языковое планированиеstate language /
Staatssprache / государственный язык и многие другие. Союз
экономики и лингвистики наблюдается в появлении
многокомпонентных терминов-словосочетаний, относящихся
к околоядерной зоне: анг. economics of language,
macroeconomics of language, language proficiency, foreign
language proficiency, destination language proficiency, language
competency for labour market entry, cost theory of language
planning и др.; нем. wirtschaftliche Bedeutung von
Fremdsprachenkenntnissen, Lernkosten, Marktwert von Englisch,
ökonomischer Wert von Fremdsprachenkenntnissen, finanzielle
Vorteile einer Fremdsprache и др. В русском языке также
появилось большое количество межнаучных терминов в
области лингвистического образования и переводческой
деятельности, что позволяет выделить термины по объекту
названия. Такие межсистемные термины являются, как
правило, многокомпонентными терминами-
словосочетаниями: языковой менеджмент, маркетинговые
стратегии в образовании, образовательные услуги, экспорт
образовательных услуг, потребители образовательных
услуг, доходы от экспорта образовательных услуг, бизнес-
план языковой школы, клиент языковой школы,
лингвистический продукт и др. Анализ сайтов
переводческих компаний свидетельствует о возникновении
новых терминов в области переводческого менеджмента:
переводческие услуги, поставщик переводческих услуг,
заказчик перевода, переводческий продукт, стоимость
перевода, структура затрат переводческой компании и др.
Ввиду ограниченных объемов статьи приведем примеры
терминов, формирующих ядро, околоядерную и
периферийную зоны, на русском языке:

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Рис. 1. Терминологическое поле экономики языка
Как показывает материал исследования (Рис. 1), термины,
входящие в ядерную и перифирийную зоны, выступают в
качестве терминоэлементов межнаучных терминов,
формирующих околоядерную зону.
В процессе исследования выявлено такое качество термина
как вариантность, вызванная процессами ассимиляции
заимствованных терминов, подавляющее большинство
которых – слова английского происхождения. В ряде случаев
можно выявить эквивалентные терминологические
синонимы, ср. рус. языковой менеджмент –
лингвистический менеджмент, стоимость перевода –
цена за/на перевод, нем. wirtschaftlicher Wert von
Fremdsprachenkenntnissen – ökonomischer Wert von
Fremdsprachenkenntnissen, Sprachmanagement –
Linguistisches Management. В немецком языке, как видно из
последнего примера, могут использоваться как термины-
композиты, включающие автохтонный и интернациональный
компоненты, так и термины-словосочетания, состоящие из
заимствованных терминоэлементов. Также наблюдаются
гипонимические (родо-видовые) отношения, например:
потребитель образовательных услуг – клиент (языковой)
школы. Длина таких терминов может быть различной (чаще

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это – двух- и многословные единицы), при этом добавление
дополнительных компонентов связано с необходимостью
фиксации большего объема информации, ср.: language
proficiency → foreign language proficiency, destination
language proficiency и др.
Для терминологии экономики языка также характерно
явление полисемии. Так, в русском языке термин
образовательная услуга используется в следующих
значениях:
1) «полезный вид труда (здесь и далее выделено нами. –
А.Е.), непосредственно удовлетворяющий потребность
человека в образовании и как материальновещественный
продукт, позволяющий удовлетворять образовательную
потребность человека самостоятельно (учебники,
обучающие программы, пособия и т.п.);
2) совокупность результатов образовательного процесса
и сопутствующих ему вспомогательных процессов,
представленная высшим образовательным учреждением на
рынке образовательных услуг;
3) объём учебной и научной информации как суммы
знаний общеобразовательного и специального характера и
практические навыки, передаваемые личности по
определенной программе;
4) работа отдельного педагога или педагогического
коллектива <…˃;
5) экономическая категория, в которой
концентрированно выражены сложные экономические
отношения в области образования;
6) процесс формирования разнообразных способностей
человека к труду, т.е. инвестирование в человеческий
капитал, принимающий форму комплексного блага;
7) комплекс таких услуг, которые непосредственно
связаны с реализацией главных целей образования,
осуществлением его миссии» (Pugach V.N., Abdulina S.V.,
2013: 3–4).

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В данном случае наблюдается семантическая омонимия,
когда отдельное значение закрепляется за определенным
понятием. Как известно, многозначность присуща терминам
чаще всего на стадии становления терминологии.
Заключение
Таким образом, можно отметить, что экономика языка
является местом порождения и функционирования
специальной лексики. Исследование структурно-
функциональных характеристик терминов дает возможность
говорить об активно развивающихся терминологиях в разных
языках. Термины, относящиеся к сфере экономики языка,
являются результатом взаимодействия терминологических
единиц из области как экономики, так и к лингвистики (или
смежных дисциплин: лингводидактики, педагогики,
переводоведения и др.). Терминологическое поле экономики
языка представляет собой открытое множество, границы
между соприкасающимися зонами терминологических
систем (экономики и языка) не фиксированы. Структурные
особенности межнаучных терминов отличает
многокомпонентность, вариативность как универсальный
феномен. Наличие в основном терминов-словосочетаний
можно объяснить появлением многосоставных понятий,
необходимостью их номинации и дифференциации. Такие
термины способствуют систематизации парадигматических
отношений между языковыми знаками. Они являются
важной составляющей текстов официально-делового стиля,
поскольку обеспечивают точную передачу содержания.

Литература
Буянова Л.Ю. 2014. Терминологическая деривация в языке
науки: когнитивность, семиотичность, функциональность.
Москва: Флинта, 256 с.
Гринев-Гриневич С.В., Сорокина Э.А. 2018. Перспективные
направления развития терминологических исследований //

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Вестник Московского государственного областного
университета. Серия: Лингвистика. 5: 18–28.
Гришаева Е.Б. 2006. Типология языковых политик и
языкового планирования в полиэтническом и
мультикультурном пространстве (функциональный аспект). –
Красноярск: РИО КрасГУ, 278 с.
Duden-online-Wörterbuch. URL: http://www.duden.de/
[Accessed March 02 2019].
Gazzola, M. 2016. Economic research on English in Europe.
Investigating English in Europe: Contexts and agendas. In
English in Europe 6: 185–191.
Ginsburgh, V., Weber, Sh. (ed.) 2016. The Palgrave Handbook of
Economics and Language. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
XXIII, 748 pp.
Grin, F. 1990. The Economic Approach to Minority Languages.
In Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 11:
153–174.
Grin, F. 1994. The Economics of Language: Match or Mismatch?
In International Political Science Review. 15: 27–44.
Кадочников Д.В. 2016. Теоретико-экономический взгляд на
языковую политику // Вопросы экономики. - № 2. – С.128–
140.
Комарова З.И. 2017. Информационные вызовы современного
общества: лингвотерминоведческие и терминографические
процессы // Политическая лингвистика. 5 (65): 12–34.
Марусенко М.А. 2014. Языковая политика Европейского
Союза: институциональный, образовательный и
экономический аспекты. СПб.: Изд-во С.-Петерб. ун-та,
288 с.
Marschak, J. 1965. The Economics of Language. In Behavioral
Science (10): 135–140.
Пугач В.Н., Абдуллина С.В. 2013. Образовательные услуги:
общие понятия // Науковедение. № 2. С. 1–11. URL:
https://naukovedenie.ru/PDF/50evn213.pdf [Дата обращения:
20.02.2019].

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Wickström B.-A. 2012. Language as a renewable resource:
Import, dissipation, and absorption of innovations. In
International Journal of Computational Linguistics 3.1: 32–52.
Vaillancourt, F. 1983. The economics of language and language
planning. In Language Problems and Language Planning 7: 162–
178.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-529-538

ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY – CONNECTING

SOFT AND HARD SKILLS

Irina I. Lushnikova1, Ekaterina A. Drozdova2

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia,
1
e-mail: [email protected]
2
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The article is focused on the role of English language proficiency
in the process of intercultural communication and professional
development in the world of jobs and professions. It is shown that

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in the system of professional skills, which is traditionally divided
into “hard” (connected with professions and special functions that
employee performs) and “soft” ones (connected with
communicative and interpersonal skills) English language
proficiency performs a unique role in professional development
of modern employees form different spheres. Alongside with the
importance of the both types of skills there is a tendency with
growing demand for soft skills, which might be crucial in success
in career development. English language proficiency becomes an
essential skill in a number of jobs. A traditional look at English
language proficiency seen as “hard” skill of linguistic
professions, including translators, English language teachers, etc.
is being changed and undergoes the further process of
modification. The following situation is determined by a number
of factors with the major ones coming from the spheres of
technology and international communication. The first factor is
“communications revolution” (D. Gradoll), the second factor is
the growth of information with its rapid deterioration and
renovation. A complex of these highly interconnected factors
boosts dynamic changes in the world of jobs and professions,
which is marked by the international professional mobility, and
the necessity of life-long learning. In these circumstances due to
the need of employers and employees to update and enlarge
professional knowledge, English language proficiency becomes a
key characteristic of professional qualities not only for “white”
collars (employees traditionally engaged in managerial or clerical
positions) but also for the “blue” collar labour market segment
(professionals mostly connected with manual work). Still the
question about the place of English proficiency and its level is
under discussion. Due to the central idea of soft skills,
communicative skills build a core of it. It becomes evident that in
some jobs of the “blue” collar sector, English level proficiency
performs a linking role between hard and soft skills, and acquires
a tendency to the further raise of importance the both
communicative and cognitive skill in English language

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proficiency. The other important question here deals with the
necessary level of English language proficiency. The description
of soft skills points out the key idea of achieving communicative
and interactive result. The comparison of descriptors of CEFR
and the essential indicators of soft skills shows that the ground
for efficiency is dependable on the level. Efficient
communication and interaction start with the level B. The
questions discussed in the article cover some primary points of
the problem, and are aimed at further continuation and research
on the question. Thus there appears a vast field for the further
research in linguistics, intercultural communication, pedagogy,
management. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to point out a
key and linking role of English in the complex of professional
skills of professionals of different segments and spheres of labour
market. Methods: literature research, analysis, interpretation,
reasoning. Conclusions: the article shows that proficiency in
English being essential in the system of professional skills of
representatives of the modern “white” collar and “blue” collar
segments performs a linking role between soft and hard skills in
professional competence, still it’s becoming more evident that
there appearing more jobs and occupations where English
language proficiency becomes a hard skill. This happens due to
the dynamic changes in data production, its permanent
deterioration and necessity in updating. The positions mentioned
above open new questions to further studies in management,
linguistics, intercultural communication, pedagogy in direction of
developing new ways of learning the language as an instrument
of cognition and communication.
Keywords: the English language proficiency, soft skills, hard
skills, link, white collar sector, blue collar sector

Introduction
Professional sphere undergoes strong dynamic changes.
Technology and socio-economic factors influence labour market,
resulting in displacement of some categories of jobs and

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emergence of new ones. Due to internalization of sphere of jobs
and professions, changes also take place inside a number of jobs,
even traditional ones. The skills sets in these jobs look different
from the sets five years ago. According to recruitment experts
and analysts, one of the most evident tendencies in professional
and labour sphere is seen in the rearrangement in “soft” and
“hard” skills. The tendency takes development in different
spheres involving not only the “white” collar sphere, but also jobs
from “blue” collar sector. Researchers mention the development
of English as a means of international communication within the
main factors influencing this process.
Objectives
The objective of the study is to estimate the place and role of
English language proficiency in the “hard” and “soft” skills
domains. The purpose of the study is to analyze soft skills as a
separate notion, establish connections between hard, soft skill,
and English language proficiency in a hierarchy of skills, find the
sphere of application of English language proficiency for the
“white” and “blue” collar job segments.
Methods: literature research, analysis, interpretation, reasoning.
Discussions
Professional competence as a complex of “hard” and “soft” skills
undergoes strong changes in different professional spheres.
Proficiency in English being essential for the “white” collar
sector changes its function to be a hard skill for more jobs in this
sector, alongside with its appearing function to a connector
between soft and hard skills in the “blue” collar sphere. It is
stated that the further studies in linguistics, intercultural
communication, education are needed to continue the new ways
of learning the English language in the dynamic changing
conditions.
Traditional structure of professional competence is often seen as
a complex of “hard” and “soft” skills. Hard skills are related to
professions and some definite job functions a person performs.
Hard skills are quantifiable, specific and can be learnt in

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educational institutions. They are absolutely “taught” skills, while
soft skills are mostly related to individual personality. They are
interpersonal, behavioral and can be seen as “taught” only to
some extent. It’s remarkable that soft skills used to be viewed as
complements to hard skills. Still according to the data of
recruitment researches and analyses we can face a growing
demand for soft skills of employees in different segments of
economy. Recruiters also point out, that though there is a need for
the both types of skills, soft skills might be crucial to succeed in
working places in a number of jobs in the future (ICIMS, 2017).
In the analytical report of Deloitte soft skills are needed for the
both – the company and employee for successful development.
Their role is increasing at the moment: “soft skills intensive
occupations will account for two-thirds of all jobs by 2030,
compared to half of all jobs in 2000” (Deloitte, 2017). The top
three universal soft skills with a high demand in job market are
problem-solving, adaptability, and time-management (ICIMS,
2017). Taking into consideration definitions of the following
notions given by Business Dictionary, it should be stated that all
of them require prominent communicative and interactive skills.
For example, as a key characteristic of problem-solving there is
an indication to the ability to work on a problem, analyze its
details in order to come to a solution; adaptability is also
characterized by altering communicative and behavioral
strategies in changing environment; in time-management the
ability to prioritize tasks demands and readiness to manage (if
necessary to communicate with other participants) assignments
according to “time budgeting” (Business Dictionary, 2019).
It’s remarkable that soft skills are considered as a separate notion
and are illustrated in a number of dictionaries, whereas hard skills
are not specially defined. The main focus in the concept of soft
skills can be generalized as personal attributes that enable
individuals to “interact effectively and harmoniously with other
people” (Oxford Living Dictionaries, 2019). The analysis of soft
skills shows that the notion (with some extent of contingency)

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can be characterized by two approaches. The first approach
focuses on communicative and cognitive skills (self-motivation,
communication, negotiation, and conflict resolution). The second
one includes administrative skills such as time-management and
leadership alongside with cognitive-communicative complex. The
consideration of some examples and definitions from some
authoritative dictionaries illustrates the previous issue: “people’s
abilities to communicate with each other and work well together”
(Cambridge Dictionary, 2019); “skills that enable someone to
work well with other people, for example being able to
communicate effectively, or to work in or lead a team”
(Macmillan Dictionary, 2019); “soft skills are interpersonal skills
such as the ability to communicate well with other people and
work in a team” (Collins Dictionary, 2019). The Business
dictionary gives the following definition to the notion of soft
skills: “communicating, conflict management, human relations,
making presentations, negotiating, team building, and other such
ability, defined in terms of expected outcomes and not as a
specific method or technique such as statistical analysis”
(Business Dictionary, 2019). In all given definitions
communicative skills are mentioned as part of soft skills. It’s also
remarkable that in all of them there are some remarkable
indications pointing out the necessity of high level of
communicative skills resulting in efficiency in the process of
interaction. In this logics the question about the place of English
language proficiency originates here. Following essential
characteristics of soft skills as skills, which are mostly connected
with communication, it is easy to make a suggestion that English
language proficiency of a non-native speaker as a soft skill. Still
the answer is not so evident. The term “language proficiency” is
an “umbrella” term for different language levels. According to
definition in CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference
for Languages) overall language proficiency includes general
competences (savoir, savoir-faire, savoir-etre, savoir apprendre),
communicative language competences (linguistic, sociolinguistic,

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pragmatic), communicative language activities (reception,
production, interaction, mediation), communicative language
strategies (reception, production, interaction, mediation)
(Reference Level Descriptions, 2018). In our research we will
consider the level of proficiency sufficient for communication in
professional sphere later. It must be mentioned, that the notion of
soft skills is not definitely opposed to hard skills. According to
De Villiers, the both domains are more descriptive rather than
comprehensive (De Villiers, 2010). In view of this fact a soft skill
in one job may be a hard one in the other working conditions.
Apparently being a proficient language speaker is a “must” for
some linguistic jobs, including ELT teachers, interpreters,
business trainers, etc., but is it applicable for other occupations?
The answer to the question is highly interconnected with the
current development of globalization and its influence on
languages, social life, and economic development, which
establishes and determines combination of soft and hard skill in
the workforce. Here some major factors of the world economy
and social life should be specified. The first one, which shapes all
other, is a technological development worldwide. Technologies
change the way people communicate. As D. Graddol points out,
“the ‘communications revolution’ has, in many ways, just begun.
New communications media are changing the social, economic
and political structure of societies across the world” (D. Graddol,
2006: 42). Technological changes in the sphere of
communication are facilitating its further rapid development. The
Internet, modern technological devices including mobile phones
increase the level of international communication, “explosion of
international activity” (Crystal D., 2003: 10). This factor
facilitated the global expansion of the English language. The
other important factor is that technology allows people to
produce, renew, store, and exchange much more information than
it was ever possible in the history. This factor contributed to the
further communication intensification, facilitating the following
hi-tech development and the data increase. Being highly

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interconnected these factors caused the problem of data
deterioration, arose the necessity of a life-long learning and
covering bigger volumes of information (including international
layers) for being an up-to-date professional.
The tendency of the growth of English in international
communication and being a global language (Crystal D., 2003: 1)
influenced the importance of English proficiency for a number of
jobs of traditionally non-linguistic spheres. A traditional view on
seeing a good command of English as a typical requirement not
only for the above mentioned linguistic jobs, or at least the
“white” collar sector (employees who are usually engaged in
managerial and administrative work), has been much broadened.
Being an instrument for storing, searching, and analyzing data,
thus keeping professional knowledge ‘right on”, English language
proficiency also becomes a substantial skill of “blue” collar
employees (the “blue” collars sphere is associated with manual
work in construction, maintenance, manufacturing). The
intensification of cognitive language function, language as a
means of storing and exchange of information, widens the
necessity of knowledge of the language and experience of its
practice. Being a global language, English opened a number of
opportunities for the workforce worldwide. In the highly dynamic
world of modern professions and working sphere, and rapid
shifting context for people, organizations, communication sphere,
it is becoming an ordinary situation when people get a job far
away from a native place, or work on remote occupations using
the language of international communications. Thus, English
language proficiency becomes a key point in professional
mobility, efficiency in work and communication, showing its
linking role between hard and soft skills of employees in different
spheres. The second question connected with English language
proficiency is about the level necessary to efficiently use the
language as a means of communication, searching, analyzing, and
sorting the relevant professional information. What level does a
person need to have to be efficient in interacting at his/her job or

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working with data? The answer is to be given through the
analysis of definitions of the three key soft skills and the CEFR
descriptors. The analysis of descriptors shows that the efficient
realization of the key soft skills is based on efficient language
knowledge and practice and requires levels B and higher.
Conclusion
English language proficiency contributes to the professional
ability to search, analyze and process professional data from
international resources, and in this sense it performs the function
of a connector between soft and hard skills, enhancing the last
one with relevant professional information. This tendency is seen
in development of English language proficiency as a key part of
professional structure any of the “white” collars employees
becoming a hard skill for some of occupations, still the
requirement for the “blue” collar sector of economy undergo
sufficient changes in regard to usage of English as a means of
searching and analyzing new professional information. The
following tendencies enhance the importance of the further
studies in intercultural communication, management, pedagogy,
and linguistics opening new problems in the English language
acquisition and usage in rapidly changing modern world.

References
Business Dictionary. URL.
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/soft-skill.html.
[Accessed February 8 2019].
Cambridge Dictionary. URL.
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/soft-skills.
[Accessed February 8 2019].
Collins Dictionary. URL.
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/soft-skills.
[Accessed February 8 2019].
Crystal D. 2003.English as a global language. 2nd ed., Cambridge
University Press, 212 p.

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Deloitte. URL.
https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/au/Documents/E
conomics/deloitte-au-economics-deakin-soft-skills-business-
success-170517.pdf. [Accessed June 10 2018].
De Villiers, R. 2010. The incorporation of soft skills into
accounting curricula: preparing accounting graduates for their
unpredictable futures. In Meditari Accountancy Research, 18(2):
1-22.
Graddol D. 2006. English Next. Why global English may mean
the end of ‘English as a Foreign Language’. Printed in the United
Kingdom by Latimer Trend & Company Ltd, Plymouth © British
Council, 128 pp.
ICIMS. URL. https://www.icims.com/hiring-insights/for-
employers/ebook-the-soft-skills-job-seekers-need-now [Accessed
June 10 2018].
Macmillan Dictionary. URL.
https://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/soft-
skills. [Accessed February 8 2019].
Oxford Living Dictionaries. URL.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/soft_skills. [Accessed
February 8 2019].
Reference Level Descriptions (language by language). URL.
https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-
reference-languages/reference-level-descriptions. [Accessed
February 8 2019].

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-539-555

THE RELATION OF GRAMMAR TO KNOWLEDGE

Orynay S. Zhubayeva1, Altyn D. Kegenbekova2

1
A. Baitursynov Institute of Linguistics
Almaty, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Al-Farabi Kazakh National University
Almaty, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Nowadays anthropocentric orientation dominates in linguistics,
especially when it comes to human factor. The anthropocentric
principle is directed to the study of categorical disclosure of two
major functions in the dialectical domain, namely, cognitive and
communicative functions. Cognitive linguistics has firmly taken
its place in the paradigm of concepts in modern linguistics. In this
case, language acts as a tool for discovering the world. Cognitive
approach to language is a belief that linguistic form is ultimately
a reflection of cognitive structures, that is, structures of human
consciousness, thinking and cognition. Therefore, through the
system of signs of a natural language, we can achieve access to
the inner mental lexicon of people - the most important
mechanism of cognitive processing of information. Knowledge is
encoded in the semantics of language units. In cognitive
approach, we try to distinguish how we define knowledge and
share it, describing its specific features. The central category in
the cognitive approach to language is the category of knowledge.
Knowledge is a basic, fundamental form of cognitive
organization of knowledge about culture. Language is used to
determine the level of knowledge. Knowledge, reflected in
language, shows the results of human mental activity. Thinking is
done through language, thinking is shaped and expressed through

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language. Baytursynov believed that verbal art relies on three
bases of human consciousness — mind, fantasy, and mood.
However, in order to make other people understand your thoughts
precisely, you need to possess great mastery of the art of the
word. A. Baitursynov believed that the price of words can
become great only when they most adequately reflect the
feelings, experiences and thoughts of the speaker or writer.
Everyone can speak, but not everyone can convey the exact
meaning of their thoughts in their words. This is because the
thoughts of people expressed in words do not always coincide, it
happens quite often. Everyone can express himself or herself,
since they are people. However, not everyone can always use
words skillfully to accurately express their thoughts, feelings and
experiences. Speech and its graphic image are forms of
expression of thought. Therefore, speech and thought must
coincide. A word and a thought must match. All people should
achieve this if they want to understand each other correctly.
Nevertheless, in practice, something quite different happens.
Many people can talk for as long as they wish, and even
smoothly, but meaninglessly. Such people are simply called
talkers. However, a talker is not always a thinker. Consequently,
the word and thought are not identical, their form and content are
significantly different from each other (Baitursynov A., 1991:
343).
Relations of objective reality are reflected in language. Language
expresses a person's worldview. The image of the world is
perceived by consciousness through various human senses (sight,
hearing, skin, taste) and is formed as a result of information
processing. In the course of historical development, two types of
knowledge were formed - sensual and logical. If sensory
cognition is associated with sensation, perception and
representation through the human senses, then logical cognition
as a result of thinking is aimed at determining the essence,
specificity, patterns of any phenomena. Over time, knowledge is
ordered, systematized as a common collective worldview. It

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adopts the general character of speakers of a particular language,
becomes a part of culture. The stock of knowledge accumulated
over many centuries reflects traditions and customs, skills and
abilities, features of thinking, worldview, inherent in a certain
ethnic cultural community.
Each language reflects reality only in its own way, where
collective philosophy is reflected, and in addition to the scientific
image of the world, another image is also displayed. Due to the
variety of ways of perception, results are also different.
The peculiarity of the language is that it plays a major role in the
formation and accumulation, structuring (the process of
conceptualization) of knowledge about the world, as well as
creation and expansion of conceptual system. What surrounds us,
the whole world is displayed in words. A concept is a thought,
representation, knowledge of a subject about the world.
Therefore, the concept, while maintaining knowledge of the
world, creates a conceptual system. It enables a person to
analyze, compare different concepts among themselves, thanks to
which new concepts are created.
Grammatical concept is the result of generalization at the highest
level. In lexical system of a language, grammatical groups
appear, that is, parts of speech, lexical and grammatical groups,
and series. Categories reflected in grammar are mandatory, so
when studying morphology from a cognitive point of view, it is
possible to determine what is important for a particular language,
what cannot be outside the field of view of the speaker, which
parts of human experience are reflected in the picture of the
world, how they are classified.
Keywords: anthropocentrism, conceptualization, parts of speech

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ОТНОШЕНИЕ ГРАММАТИКИ К ПОЗНАНИЮ

Орынай С. Жубаева1, Алтын Д. Кегенбекова2

1
Институт языкознания имени А. Байтурсынова
Алматы, Казахстан
e-mail: [email protected]
2
Казахский национальный университет имени аль-Фараби
Алматы, Казахстан
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
На сегодняшний день в лингвистике господствует
антропоцентрическое направление, особое значение при этом
придается человеческому фактору. Антропоцентрический
принцип в исследовании направлен на глубокое раскрытие в
диалектологическом единстве двух важнейших функций
языка, в частности, познавательной (когнитивной) и
коммуникативной деятельности. Когнитивная лингвистика
прочно заняла свое место в парадигме концепций
современного языкознания, язык выступает в таком случае
как своего рода инструмент освоения знаний о мире.
Когнитивный подход к языку – это убеждение, что языковая
форма в конечном счете является отражением когнитивных
структур, то есть структур человеческого сознания,
мышления и познания. Поэтому через систему знаков
естественного языка открывается доступ к внутреннему
ментальному лексикону человека – важнейшему механизму
когнитивной переработки информации. Знания сначала
кодируются в семантике языковых единиц. При когнитивном
подходе определяется как передаются знания о бытие, его
специфические особенности. Центральной категорией в
когнитивном подходе к языку является категория знания.
Знание – основная, фундаментальная форма когнитивной
организации знаний о культуре. Язык применяется для
определения уровня знаний. Знание, отражаясь в языке,

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показывает результаты мыслительной деятельности
человека. Мышление осуществляется посредством языка,
мысль, оформляется и выражается с помощью языка.
Словесное искусство, полагал А. Байтурсынов, опирается на
три основания человеческого сознания – на ум, фантазию и
настроение. Однако, чтобы довести до сознания других свою
мысль в таком виде, в каком она у тебя сформировалась,
нужно обладать большим мастерством искусства слова. А.
Байтурсынов считал, что цена слов может стать великой
только тогда, когда они предельно адекватно отражают
чувства, переживания и мысли говорящего или пишущего.
Говорить могут все, но не всем удается передать в своих
словах точный смысл своих мыслей. Это происходит потому,
что и мысли людей, выраженные в словах, не всегда
совпадают, чаще не совпадают. Словом владеют все люди,
поскольку они люди, но не все и не всегда могут
пользоваться им умело, точно выразить с их помощью свои
мысли, чувства и переживания. Звуковая речь и ее
графическое изображение являются формами выражения
мысли. Поэтому речь и мысль должны совпадать. Совпадать
должны слово и мысль. Этого должны добиваться все люди,
если они хотят правильно понимать друг друга. Но на
практике происходит совсем иное. Очень многие люди могут
говорить сколько угодно долго и даже складно, однако
бессмысленно. Таких людей в народе называют просто
болтунами. Но болтун не есть мыслитель, а есть всего лишь
пустослов. Следовательно, слово и мысль не являются
тождественными, их форма и содержание значительно
отличаются друг от друга (Baytursynov А., 1991: 343).
Отношения объективной реальности находят отражение в
языке. Язык выражает мировоззрение человека. Образ мира
воспринимается сознанием через различные органы чувств
человека (зрение, слух, кожа, вкус) и формируется в
результате обработки информации. В ходе исторического
развития сформировались два вида познания – чувственное и

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логическое познание. Если чувственное познание связано с
ощущением, восприятиям и представлением через органы
чувств человека, то логическое познание в результате
мышления направлено на определение сущности, специфики,
закономерностей каких-либо явлений. Со временем знание
упорядочивается, систематизируется как общее
коллективное мировоззрение, принимает общий характер
говорящих на определенном языке, становится частью
культуры. Запас знаний, накопленных на протяжении многих
веков отражает традиции и обычаи, умения и навыки,
особенности мышления, мировоззрение, присущих
определенному этническому культурному сообществу.
Каждый язык отражает действительность присущим только
ему способом, где находит отражение коллективная
философия, и помимо научного образа мира отображается и
другой образ. В связи с разнообразием способов восприятия
результаты тоже получаются разные.
Особенность языка заключается в том что оно играет
главную роль в формировании и накоплении,
структуризации (процессу концептуализации) знаний о мире,
а также созданию и расширению концептуальной системы.
То что окружает нас, весь мир отображается в словах.
Концепт является мыслью, представлением, знанием
субъекта об объектах мира. Поэтому концепт, сохраняя
знания о мире, создает концептуальную систему. Это дает
возможность человеку анализировать, сравнивать между
собой разные концепты, благодаря чему создаются новые
концепты.
Грамматический концепт – результат обобщения на самом
высоком уровне. В лексической системе языка появляются
грамматические группы, то есть части речи, лексико-
грамматические группы, ряды. Категории, отраженные в
грамматике, являются обязательными, поэтому при изучении
морфологии с когнитивной точки зрения можно определить,
что является важным для определенного языка, что не может

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быть вне поле зрения говорящего, какие части человеческого
опыта нашли свое отражение в картине мира, как они
классифицируются.
Ключевые слова: антропоцентризм, концептуализация,
части речи.

Вступление
Человек, воспринимая накопленный до него багаж знаний,
воспринимает и жизненный опыт этнокультурной общности.
Познавательная деятельность человека направлена на
познание реальной действительности окружающей среды,
понимание своего места в мире на основе накопленных
знаний. Язык – средство, отражающее особенности
мировосприятия говорящего, показатель особой
национальной ментальности, основа культуры. По
утверждению М. Балакаева: «Человек получает знания,
воспитание через язык, обучает культуре, искусству, науке,
технике с помощью языка. Язык – одна из особенностей
нации, одна из форм национальной культуры.
Следовательно, в нем сохраняются признаки национального
сознания, мышления, характера. Такие особенности народа,
как культура, поверья, обряды, литературное наследие,
психическое состояние, через язык передаются от поколения
к поколению» (Balakaev M., 2008: 343).
Язык способствует развитию культуры. Мышление
определенного этнического и культурного сообщества
зависит от языка. Язык – дух народа, народный дух можно
увидеть через язык. Поэтому язык, культура каждой нации
имеют свои особенности. Их объединять, связывать между
собой нельзя. Культура и язык зависят от общих
закономерностей, присущих определенному этносу. Судьба
языка и судьба этноса между собой очень тесно
взаимосвязаны. Здесь уместно вспомнить слова
А. Байтурсынулы, имеющие глубокий смысл: «Народ,
утративший язык, теряет и себя» (Baytursynov А., 1991: 14).

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Для того, чтобы понять природу языка, его своеобразие,
необходимо обратить внимание на то, представителем какой
нации является говорящий.
Информация, собранная в результате познания и понимания
истинной реальности, находит свое отображение в языке.
Образ вселенной в основном бывает субъективного
характера, потому что в нем можно увидеть мировоззрение,
мнение одного конкретного человека. Он, создавая
определенный код через систему определенных категорий,
передаваемых от поколения к поколению, принимается в
готовом виде. Знания, накопленные человеком в результате
познания, изучения бытия, находят свое отражение в
языковых единицах.
Образ человека находит отражение в языковой семантике. В
связи с этим становится важным не человек, а образ человека
в языке. Исследуя язык, человечество воспринимает, познает
себя. Человек описывает ощущения, пропуская их через себя.
В связи с этим заслуживает внимания постулат К. Жубанова:
«Природе человека свойственно сначала познавать других, а
затем себя. Например, только после того, как узнал о
фотографировании, человек стал давать названия другим
предметам, стал называть себя подобием другого – себя
признавать малым миром, похожим на большую вселенную.
Это познание повлияло на язык. Например, в русском небо –
аспан, нёбо – таңдай; в казахском языке таң=адам название
вселенной, значит обладатель качества, свойственного
представителю свыше; небо=верхняя часть человеческого
тела. Путем осознания признаков отдельных частичек
человек, формируя атрибутивный портрет, познает мир»
(Zhubanov К., 1999: 119). Ученый характеризует языковые
явления в связи с тенденциями категоризации и
концептуализации человека (говорящего), т.е. разъясняет
названия предметов применительно к человеку, как
основной отправной пункт берется человек.

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Язык влияет формированию и накоплению, структуризации
(то есть процессу концептуализации) знаний о мире, а также
созданию и расширению концептуальной системы. Это
зависит от двусторонней особенностей семантики, то есть
семантика относится и к концептуальной системе, и к
языковой системе. Поэтому семантика является как бы
посредником, связывающим языковую и концептуальную
системы.
Концепт является мыслью, представлением, знанием
субъекта об объектах мира. Поэтому концепт, сохраняя
знания о мире, создает концептуальную систему. Это дает
возможность человеку анализировать, сравнивать между
собой разные концепты, благодаря чему создаются новые
концепты. Концепт с лексической (грамматической,
фразеологической и т.п.) точки зрения может
репрезентироваться. Поэтому необходимо различать между
собой концепты, репрезентированные через
вербальный/невербальный и вербальный основной концепт, а
также через языковые средства конкретного уровня.
Концепты в основном являются невербальными
образованиями. Их основой являются сенсорные и моторные
репрезентации.
Хочется предупредить о том, что в учебниках казахского
языка в определении конкретных и абстрактных имен
существительных неполностью учитывается сенсорное
восприятие. Здесь хотя и обращается внимание на
зрительную и физическую картину характеристики, вне поля
зрения остаются другие виды восприятия (вкус, осязание,
слух). Поэтому конкретные имена существительные
охарактеризованы как предметы, которых можно потрогать
руками, увидеть глазами, а «явление, понятия, которые
невозможно увидеть, но можно узнать в результате
человеческой мысли» отнесены к абстрактным
существительным (Isaev S., Nazargalieva G., Dauletbekova J.,
2002: 58). В трудах А.Байтурсынулы охвачены все органы

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чувств человека: «Предметы в основном бывают двух видов:
одни – конкретные предметы, которых можно увидеть
глазами, услышать, понюхать, попробовать на вкус,
почувствовать телом, другие – отвлеченные предметы,
которых невозможно увидеть глазами, услышать, понюхать,
узнать вкус, почувствовать телом, но которых можно понять
умом человека. Слова, выражающие наименования тех
конкретных и отвлеченных предметов, называем именами
существительными» (Baytursynov А., 1992: 199-200). Думаем,
что авторы учебников должны учесть квалификации,
относящиеся к сенсорному восприятию человека, при
группировке конкретных и отвлеченных имен
существительных должны быть охвачены все органы чувств.
В концептуальной системе можно определить часть,
создающую концептуальное пространство морфологии.
Однако, она не может быть самостоятельной, вне других
частей концептуальной системы. Потому что
концептуальное содержание имеет неодинаковую
характеристику, для объективации его разные части
участвуют несколько языковых уровней. Области,
проанализированные в традиционной лингвистике, как
лексика, морфология, синтаксис, семантика, лексика, в
когнитивной лингвистике рассматриваются в единстве
между собой и определяются общие позиции, присущие
системе мышления человечества. Каждая языковая единица
как механизм, глубоко определяющий когнитивный процесс
и способ структуризации смысла. И когнитивная грамматика,
и когнитивная семантика – как основа формирования смысла
– с когнитивной позиции являются способом создания
результатов познания.
Лексика репрезентует образ мира, который познал, усвоил
конкретный языковой коллектив, говорящий на
определенном языке, изучивший особенности предметов и
явлений, нашедших свое отражение в сознании человека.
Образ вселенной требует не только отдельных составляющих

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(предметов и явлений), но и понимания связей между ними.
Синтаксис проверяет связи разделяемых составляющих
вселенной. Морфология – является областью объективизации
языковых знаний, создающей знания о мире. В ней
накапливается запас знаний о методах концептуализации в
языке морфологических категорий и форм, она
характеризует место основных концептов, образующих образ
мира, в создании знаний о языке.
Предмет и цель исследования
Цель нашей статьи определить отношение грамматики к
познанию, что грамматические категорий строятся в
результате процесса концептуализации, то есть в основе
каждой грамматической категории лежит когнитивный
концепт. В концептуальном пространстве морфологии
сохраняются знания о языковом значении, категориях и
формах. Наряду с неязыковыми единицами язык в качестве
одного из объектов бытия тоже концептуализируется.
Морфология является одним из путей концептуализации
языкознания. Особенность концептуализации на уровне
морфологии состоит в том, что она, создавая знания, для
концептуального материала, полученного лексическим
путем, создает ряды, решетки, тем самым на определенном
уровне исполняет потребности лексики.
Грамматические концепты, изображающие способы
отображения в языке знаний о мире, направленные на
языковую систему, по сравнению с концептами,
передающимися лексическим путем, бывают относительно
стабильными. Поэтому грамматические концепты бывают
способны стандартизировать на общенациональном уровне.
Стабильность грамматических концептов характеризуется и
тем, что они связаны с категориальной частью
концептуального образа вселенной. Эту особенность
морфологических категорий К. Жубанов отмечает так: «Язык
меняется, но не все области меняются одинаково.
Грамматическая структура меняется очень медленно. Если

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будет меняться без остатка, то не было бы грамматики.
Следовательно, грамматика – стабилизация, установка
какого-то положения языка в определенное время. С
помощью этого она препятствует изменению звуковой
структуры. Поэтому долгое время они не отходят друг от
друга по звуковой структуре. Отсюда наблюдается их связь»
(Zhubanov К., 1999: 258).
Методология и методы
Для полного понимания языка и речевой деятельности,
лексические и грамматические концепты должны
характеризоваться в единстве. Морфологические концепты в
качестве ментальных структур в языковой структуре
отображаются через грамматические средства. Эти концепты
характеризуются в ментальных концептах. В казахском
языкознании морфологические концепты еще не стали
объектом специальных исследований. Однако, используя
описательно-аналитический метод, мы узнаем, что в трудах
ученых, внесших большой вклад в формирование и развитие
казахского языкознания, наблюдаем, что первые формы
когнитивной грамматики обсуждались в трудах
Ы. Алтынсарина, А. Байтурсынулы, К. Жубанова,
K. Кеменгерулы и др. ученых-исследователей.
Отмечаем, что при обучении казахских детей русскому
языку, Ы. Алтынсарин их классифицировал по частям речи,
брал за основу концепты несознательных чувств детей.
Исследователь лексические единицы группировал таким
образом:
Наименования предметов (Имя существительное): Құдай –
бог, пайғамбар – пророк, періште – ангел, кісі – человек, ата
– отец, әже – мать, баба – дед, дедушка, үлкен шеше –
бабушка, аға – старший брат, қан – кровь, тамыр – жилы,
бас – голова...
Зат-мақұлықтың қасиетінің аттары (Имя
прилагательное): жақсы – хороший, жаман – дурной,
ақылды – умный, ақымақ – глупый, батыр – храбрый, қорқақ

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– трусливый, сұлу – красивый, жұмсақ көңілді – добрый,
қатын алған кісі – женатый, кәрі – старый, жас – молодой.
Есеп аттары (Имя числительное): бір – один, екі – два, үш –
три, төрт – четыре, бес – пять, алты – шесть, он бір –
одинадцать.
Местоимение деген сөздің бөлімі: мен – я, өзімді – я, өзіңді
– ты, өзін – он, она, оно, они, оне / себя.
Ақыры өзгерілмейтін сөздер (үстеу, демеу) (Наречие и
союз): қашан, кезде, шақта, мезгілде, жеткен кезде – когда
дошел, бүгінде – ныне, кеше – вчера, ертең – завтра.
Глагол деген сөздің бөлімі: болуға еді – быть, оқуға –
читать, жазуға – писать, жаттауға – твердить, көруге –
видеть, баруға – идти, келуге – придти, шығуға – выйти
т.с.с. (Altynsarin Y., 2003: 170).
В предисловии своего труда исследователь отмечает: «Как
вообще всякий мальчик... не в состоянии сразу понять и
усвоить все указанные выше и подобные им изменения и
построения неродного языка, вследствие большего отличия
русского языка от киргизского. Поэтому, по нашему мнению,
для киргизских детей, прежде, нежели они приступят к
чтению русских книг с объяснением прочитанного,
необходима некоторая систематическая подготовка к
пониманию как отдельных слов, так и основных
грамматических правил. Без такой предварительной
подготовки, понятия учеников могут спутаться; дети не
будет в состоянии составить себе определенного
представления ни о какой грамматической особенности и
долго будут в говорить «он» вместо «она», «шел» вместо
«иду» и т.п.», – деп жазады (Altynsarin Y., 2003: 184).
В словарь ученого вошли только слова, важные для обучения
языку и создающие морфологический концепт языка.
Данный труд исследователя важен и первоначальным
представлением наименований частей речи, и с позиции
определения морфологических концептов. Ученый
использовал морфологический концепт в сознании детей в

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готовом виде. В связи с этим ученый в распределении
основных частей концептуальной системы по категориям
использовал морфологические концепты. При регистрации
концептуальной информации очень важны грамматические,
особенно морфологические концепты.
А. Байтурсынулы, учитывая взаимосвязь лексических единиц
и знаков, части речи относил к определенной
грамматической группе. Части речи – формируются на
основе категоризации окружающего через познавательную
деятельность человека. А также при рассмотрении частей
речи в качестве естественных категорий, находит
отображение когнитивная способность, основанная на
понимание многовекового опыта человека, на его
объективизацию языковыми средствами. Язык семантики
находит свое отображение с помощью частей речи, которые
изображаются в языковых знаках. Разные части речи (имя
существительное, имя прилагательное, глагол и др.) при
употреблении активизируют разные структуры сознания,
дает разные картины, влияние, то есть, описывая по-разному,
дают возможность появлению разных понятий. В качестве
когнитивного явления части речи показывают такие
особенности человека, как миропознание, прием, понимание.
С помощью этого выявляется ментальная особенность
субъекта – владельца познания. Эти особенности на языке
находят свое отображение в основных концептах
универсального характера, как пространство, время,
качество.
В трудах ученого метаконцепт «имя существительное»
определено с позиции концепта «предмет». В определении,
данному имени существительному, ученый отмечает:
«Некоторые слова называют сам предмет» (Baytursynov А.,
1992: 160). А.Байтурсынулы в качестве различия имени
существительного и имени прилагательного отмечает то, что
имя существительное называет сам предмет, а имя
прилагательное обозначает его признак. Ученый при

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классификации имени существительного и имени
прилагательного взял за основу логические категории. Это
явно вырисовывается и в определениях ученого, данных
имени числительному, местоимению и глаголу. Труд ученого
был предназначен для детей, поэтому он старался передать
основные понятия языкознания простым и понятным для
детей языком. Хотя существало общее наименование «Язык
– средство» (сарф казахского языка), при классификации их
по главам, они даны так: фонетика: звуковая система и виды
– морфология: система слов и виды – синтаксис: система
предложений и виды. То есть, в целом, язык охарактеризован
в виде системы и определены своеобразные особенности
каждой системы. Ученый при составлении учебников,
переходя от частного к общему, учитывал легкое усвоение
детьми учебного материала. Этими позициями ученого
руководствовались и следующие авторы учебников
(К. Жубанов, Т. Шонанов, К. Кеменгерулы и др.), которые
также различали части речи.
Результаты
В языке когнитивные, лексические и другие средства
находятся между собой в единстве. Исследователи, говоря об
аналогичных явлениях в ментальном сознании человека,
применяют разные наименования: концепты
грамматического вида, грамматические концепты и т.п. В
трудах Л. Талми, Н.Н. Болдырев (Boldyrev N.N., 2000: 123),
Н.А. Беседина (Besedina N.A., 2006: 469-475) отмечается, что
концепты, отраженные в виде грамматических концептов,
употребляются для изображения значимых понятий
реального бытия. Результаты исследования показали что,
грамматика как когнитивная система является фактором,
определяющим концептуальную структуру языка.
Категорийные значения становятся основой значения слов и
отражаются в рамках формы. Следовательно,
концептуальные категории образуют грамматические
категории. Морфологические категории в качестве

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морфологических показателей преобретают своеобразное
значение и создают грамматические категории.
В результате взаимосвязи концептуальных и семантических
уровней в концептуальной системе употребляются языковые
единицы. Важная часть концептуальной информации,
значения, необходимые для языка, находят свое отражение в
грамматике, особенно в морфологии языка. Это происходит
на основе естественного, логического отбора. Однако, все
значения находят свое отражение сначала на уровне лексики,
затем среди них только самые важные проходят на
морфологический, грамматический уровень. Когнитивная
деятельность морфологических единиц связана с процессом
мышления, с интеллектуальной и ментальной деятельностью
человека, с обработкой, квалификацией информации.
Заключение
Итак, в качестве части культуры, язык основывается на
человеческий опыт. Усваивая язык, говорящий говорит на
этом языке, принимает мировоззрение, присущее данной
культуре. Язык активно служит культуре и познанию. Знак
является способом передачи языкового сознания, с помощью
которого отражается история, культура народа. Знания
человека, накопленные вместе с познанием мира, находят
свое отражение в языковой семантике, создавая языковую
картину мира. Исследование семантики языковых знаков
дает возможность определить языковую (морфологическую)
репрезентацию. Это открывает путь выявлению того, что
было значимо для народа в определенный исторический
период, а что осталось вне поля зрения. Изучая языковую
семантику, можно определить закономерности языковой
концептуализации мира, восстановить языковую картину
мира.

Литература
Алтынсарин Ы. Собрание сочинений: в 2 т. Алматы:
Казыгурт, 2003. Том-1. С. 170-184.

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Байтурсынов А. Ак жол: стихи и переводы, публистические
статьи и литературное исследование. Алматы: Жалын, 1991.
С. 14-142.
Байтурсынов А. Примеры языка. Алматы: Ана тили, 1992.
С. 199-369.
Балакаев М. Проблемы казахского языкознания. Алматы:
Арыс, 2008, 343 с.
Беседина Н.А. Морфология как способ концептуализации
языкового знания // Вестник Тамбовского университета.
Серия гуманитарные науки. Тамбов, 2006. Вып. 4 (44): 469-
475.
Болдырев Н.Н. Когнитивная семантика. Тамбов:
Издательский дом ТГУ им. Г.Р. Державина, 2000, 123 с.
Жубанов К. Исследования по казахскому языку. Алматы:
Гылым, 1999. С. 119-258.
Исаев С., Назаргалиева К., Даулетбекова Ж. Казахский язык.
Алматы: Атамура, 2002, 58 pp.

References
Altynsarin, Y. 2003. 2-volume collected essay. Kazygurt,
Almaty, 1: 170-184.
Baytursynov, A. 1991. Ak Zhol: poems and translations, publicist
articles and literary research. Zhalyn, Almaty, 14-144 pp.
Baytursynov, A, 1992. Examples of language. Ana Tili, Almaty,
369 pp.
Balakayev, M. 2008. Problems of Kazakh linguistics. Arys,
Almaty, 343 pp.
Besedina, N.A. 2006. Morphology as a way to conceptualize
language knowledge. Bulletin of Tambov University 4 (44): 469-
475 pp.
Boldyrev, N.N. 2000. Cognitive semantics. Publishing House of
TSU named after G.R. Derzhavina, Tambov, 123 pp.
Zhubanov, K. 1999. Research on the Kazakh language. Gylym,
Almaty, 119-258 pp.
Isaev, S., 2002. Nazargalieva, K., Dauletbekova, J., The Kazakh
language. Atamura, Almaty, 58 pp.

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SOCIOLINGUISTICS
DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-556-577

THE POLYNOMIAL NATURE

OF THE SOCIOLINGUISTIC-CULTURAL TYPE
«STUDENT»

Maria V. Loginova

L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University

Astana, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The study hereby investigates the nuisance of the sociolinguistic-
cultural character «student». The purpose of the research is to
identify and describe the nominative space of the concept
«student», which is actualized in the linguistic consciousness of
the very representatives within a particular society. Therefore, the
main subjects to be analyzed are the nominal characteristics of a
proper representative of modern society. Based on lexicographic
sources, educational, information and discourses, as well as
survey results, conducted among 1-4-year students of different
specialties of four higher educational institutions in Astana,
relevant conclusions were made about the nominative density
(V.I. Karasik’s term). Students being the constituents of a
particular students’ society construct the image we are
considering to be a sociolinguistic classification of types,
«recognized by the specific characteristics of verbal and non-
verbal behavior and derived by valuable orientation» (Karasik
V.I., 2002: 18). Developing the theory of linguocultural types
(V.I. Karasik, O.A. Dmitrieva, O.V. Lutovinova, I.A. Murzinova,
E.A. Yarmakhova, L.P. Seliverstova, etc.), we consider the
student’s linguistic personality in terms of typology (Karasik V.I.,

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Dmitrievа O.A., 2005: 8). When modeling a linguocultural
typology as a concept of a classified person, the following
components are taken into account: conceptual, figurative and
value (according to V.I. Karasik). Describing the conceptual
nature of the type, the nomination of the «student» concept was
revealed due to historical, political, socio-cultural factors that lost
relevance, and vice versa. The current reforms in the education
system led to the emergence of new word forms in the
nominative field of the type «student». From the point of the
definitional characteristics, the student is represented as a high
school student, college student (colloquial), Cadet, lawyer
student, orientalist, naturalist, white-backed, etc. At present time,
the following nominations of a sociolinguistic-cultural type
«student» with a specific set of constitutive and differential
features can be found in various genres of academic, youth
(student) discourses. Depending on the relevant feature taken as
the basis for designation, students are distinguished: 1) according
to the form of education: full-time student - part-time student -
evening student - diary; 2) according to the system of payment
for educational services and free education: grantnik (grantovik)
– paysite – kvotnik - state employees - kreditnik; 3) a report on
academic performance: a debtor, an intern, an excellent student;
4) according to the intellectual activity: a nerdy student (botan) -
wise; 5) according to the educational programs («Bolashak»):
student-bolashakovets/bolashaker; 6) according to the faculty or
specialization: the most common names are Pravovik (lawyer),
Oriental, Naturalist, Inyazovets, Medic; 7) according to the
wealth and cultural nuances: a major student (wealthy), a hipster
student - representatives of golden youth; 8) according to years of
study: freshman (pervash); sophomore (second); third year
student; fourth-year (senior)/graduate. In the mass information
discourse, the author's vision of the classification of the student
society is widespread, for example, pseudoscientific
intelligentsia, headmen / (nerd) zadroty / dreamers, nihilists /
gold, social activists / youths / activists, talented and creative

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youth (based on the site «yvision.kz»). With the development of
innovative technologies and the possibility of virtual education,
the distance learning is gaining momentum, and it is possible that
such students will be called «distant (part time) students». The
special shape of the category of distance learning student does not
occur in a recognized Bachelor educational program: Bachelor
student, undergraduate student. The nomination «part-time» and
the type of part-time student will lose its image over time in their
consciousness, since in 2019 part-time education is no longer
provided. It should be noted that as part of the implementation of
multilingual education in Kazakhstani higher educational
institutions, a new form of organization of the educational
process has emerged – multilingual groups. In the student slang,
the multilingual tokens are already functioning, as a contraction
of the combination «Multilingual group» and «multilingual» – the
one who studies in this group. As for the survey, analysis of the
results showed the following: all 349 students familiar «student-
nerd/nerdy», «full-time students», «external student», «student-
paysite», «student-grantovik/grantnik», «vuzovets», «Graduate»,
«graduate student», «major student/wealthy». Furthermore, other
options were proposed by the students, such names as «student-
balmuzdak» (translated from Kazakh means «ice cream» or a
freshman) should be noted, which indicates the national
component and belonging to a certain linguistic culture; student –
ZhasOtanovets («Zhas Otan» - the youth wing of the political
party «Nur Otan»), here is the political involvement of the
respondents; student-freshman, a second-year; student-bully,
student-YPC (the first part is the abbreviation of the Youth Policy
Committee); student-ISS (focus on the specialty «Information
Security System»; names with a negative shade - student-rat,
strauss (apparently, from the word «monitor»). Thus, the
polynominative sociolinguistic cultural type «student» suggests a
special approach to modeling this image. Embodying the
educational values, a particular type forms the general
nomination «student» and at the same time, possessing a certain

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set of constitutive features, considered a prominent representative
of modern society and its values.
Key words: sociolinguistic-cultural type, nomination, nominative
density, definition

ПОЛИНОМИНАТИВНАЯ ПРИРОДА
СОЦИОЛИНГВОКУЛЬТУРНОГО ТИПАЖА
«СТУДЕНТ»

Мария В. Логинова

Евразийский национальный университет им. Л.Н. Гумилева

Астана, Казахстан
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
В контексте данного исследования находится
социолингвокультурный типаж «студент». Целью научного
изыскания является выявление и описание номинативного
пространства концепта «студент», актуализированного в
языковом сознании представителей студенческого социума.
Следовательно, предметной областью выступают
номинативные характеристики яркого представителя
современного общества как субъекта образовательного
пространства. На основе лексикографических источников,
учебного, студенческого, информационно-массового
дискурсов и результатов опроса, проводимого среди
студентов 1-4 курсов разных специальностей четырех
высших учебных заведений города Астаны, были сделаны
соответствующие выводы о номинативной плотности
(термин В.И. Карасика) рассматриваемого концепта.
Принадлежность студента к студенческому социуму дает
основания отнести рассматриваемый нами образ к
социолингвокультурной классификации типажей и
определить его, как яркого представителя того или иного

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социума, «узнаваемого по специфическим характеристикам
вербального и невербального поведения и выводимой
ценностной ориентацией» (Karasik V.I., 2004:13). Развивая
положения теории лингвокультурных типажей (В.И.
Карасик, О.А. Дмитриева, О.В. Лутовинова, И.А. Мурзинова,
ЕА. Ярмахова, Л.П. Селиверстова и др.), мы рассматриваем
студенческую языковую личность с точки зрения
типажности (Karasik, V.I., Dmitrieva, O.A., 2005: 8). При
моделировании лингвокультурного типажа, как концепта
типизируемой личности, учитываются составляющие
компоненты: понятийный, образный и ценностный (по В.И.
Карасику). При описании понятийной природы изучаемого
типажа были выявлены номинации концепта «студент»,
которые в силу исторических, политических, социально-
культурных факторов утратили актуальность, и наоборот,
проводимые в настоящее время реформы в системе
образования привели к появлению новых словоформ в
номинативном поле типажа «студент». С позиции
дефиниционных характеристик, студент представлен как
вузовец, втузовец (разг.), студиозус, студиоз (устар. шутл.),
курсант, слушатель, учащийся, правовик, восточник,
естественник, инязовец, белоподкладочник, бурсак, бурш,
ваганты (голиарды). В настоящее время в различных жанрах
учебного, молодежного (студенческого) дискурсах можно
встретить следующие номинации социолингвокультурного
типажа «студент» с определенным набором конститутивных
и дифференциальных признаков. В зависимости от
релевантного признака, взятого за основу обозначения,
различают: 1) по форме получения образования: очник –
заочник – вечерник – дневник; 2) по системе оплаты за
образовательные услуги и бесплатного образования:
грантник (грантовик) – платник – квотник – бюджетник –
кредитник; 3) по успеваемости: задолжник – летник –
отличник; 4) по интеллектуальной активности: студент-
ботаник (ботан) – зубрила; 5) по образовательным

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программам («Болашақ»): студент-болашаковец/болашакер;
6) по факультету или специализации: самые
распространенные наименования правовик, восточник,
естественник, инязовец, медик, педик; 7) по материальному
достатку и культурным оттенкам: студент-мажор
(мажорик), студент – хипстер – представители золотой
молодежи; 8) по курсам обучения: первокурсник (перваш);
второкурсник (второши); третьекурсник; четверокурсник
(старшекурсник-старшак)/выпускник/дипломник. В массово-
информационном дискурсе распространено авторское
видение классификации студенческого общества, например,
псевдонаучная интеллигенция, старосты/ задроты/
мечтатели, пофигисты/ золотые, общественники/
молодежники/ активисты, талантливая и творческая
молодежь (based on the site «yvision.kz»). С развитием
инновационных технологий и возможностью виртуального
получения образования набирает обороты дистанционная
форма обучения, возможно, таких студентов будут называть
«дистантник». Особой формы номинации студента
дистанционного обучения нет, как и не наблюдается у
общепризнанной образовательной программы бакалавриат:
студент-бакалавр, студент бакалавриата. Номинация
«заочник» и закрепленный в коллективном сознании типаж
заочника со временем потеряет свою актуальность,
поскольку с 2019 года заочной формы обучения больше нет.
Необходимо отметить, что в рамках реализации
полиязычного образования в казахстанских высших учебных
заведениях появилась новая форма организации учебного
процесса – полиязычные группы. В студенческом жаргоне
уже функционирует лексемы «полияз», как сокращение
сочетания «полиязычная группа», и «полиязычник» - тот, кто
обучается в этой группе. Что касается опроса, анализ
результатов показал следующее: всем 349 студентам
знакомы «студент-ботаник/ботан», «студент-очник»,
«студент-заочник», «студент-платник», «студент-

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грантовик/грантник», «вузовец», «выпускник»,
«дипломник», «студент-мажор/мажорик». Из вариантов,
предложенных самим студентом, следует отметить такие
наименования, как студент-балмұздақ (в переводе с
казахского означает «мороженое»), что свидетельствует о
национальном компоненте и принадлежности к
определенной лингвокультуре; студент - Жас Отановец
(«Жас Отан» – молодежное крыло политической партии
«Нұр Отан»), здесь присутствует политическая
сопричастность опрашиваемых; студент-перваш, втораш;
студент-задира, студент-КМПшник (первая часть – это
аббревиатура Комитета Молодежной Политики); студент-
сибовец (ориентация на специальность «Система
информационной безопасности»; наименования с
отрицательным оттенком – студент-крыса, страуста (видимо,
от слова «староста»). Таким образом, полиноминативность
социолингвокультурного типажа «студент» предполагает
особенный подход к моделированию данного образа.
Поскольку воплощая образовательные ценности,
рассматриваемый типаж выступает под общей номинацией
«студент» и в тоже время, обладая определенным набором
конститутивных признаков, является ярким представителем
студенческого социума и выразителем ценностных
ориентиров современного общества.
Ключевые слова: социолингвокультурный типаж,
номинация, номинативная плотность, дефиниция.

Предмет и цель исследования

Исследование языковой личности как основной ценности
современной антропологической лингвистики предполагает
различные направления, теории, подходы, позиции ее
изучения. Одним из таких направлений является теория
лингвокультурных типажей, базовой категорией которой
стал лингвокультурный типаж. С позиции типажности были
изучены большое количество обобщенных языковых

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личностей представителей разных лингвокультур («русский
интеллигент», «английский пират», «золотая молодежь» и
многие другие). В данной работе рассматривается
социолингвокультурный типаж «студент» как носитель
интеллектуального потенциала современного общества. В
качестве предмета исследования выступают номинативные
характеристики типажа. Соответственно, авторами
поставлена цель определить и охарактеризовать те
наименования, которые составляют номинативное
пространство концепта «студент».
Методология и методы
Для описания номинативного поля и номинативной
плотности концепта «студент» были использованы такие
методы, как лексикографический анализ, метод включенного
наблюдения, интерпретативный метод, а также методы с
элементами социо- и психолингвистических подходов, в
частности анкетирование, индивидуальная беседа. Как
свидетельствуют лексикографические наблюдения, толковые
словари отражают единую картину содержательной
наполняемости понятия «студент»: студент - учащийся
высшего учебного заведения (университета, института,
консерватории, академии) (Ozhegov, S.I., Shvedova, N.Yu.,
2006; Dmitriev, D.V., 2003; Ushakov, D.N., 1935; Evgenieva,
A.P., 1999; Denisov, P.N. и др., 1983: 588). В словарях
иностранных слов «студентом» может быть ученик или
учащийся высшего учебного заведения (Chudinov, A.N.,
1910; Moskvin, A.G., 2007). Согласно Историко-
этимологическому словарю современного русского языка
(Chernykh, P.Ya., 1999: 213), слово «студент» известно с XVII
века, и под таким сочетанием, как «тот студент»,
«студентовых вестей», подразумевались польские студенты,
позже (в начале XVIII в.) слово становится нейтральным,
«обычным словом»: «есть академия, в которой бывает
студентов… по 700 человек». Таким образом, словарные
дефиниции сводятся к однозначности определения статуса и

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предназначения студента в системе образования. Различные
варианты номинаций типажа «студента» предлагают словари
синонимов: 1) студент: вузовец (разг.), студиозус, студиоз
(устар. шутл.) (Aleksandrova, Z.E., 2001: 488); 2) студент:
курсант, слушатель, учащийся, вузовец, втузовец, правовик,
восточник, естественник, инязовец, белоподкладочник,
бурсак, бурш, студиоз, студиозус (Cheshko, L.A., 1969).
Каждая номинация большой семантической группы
содержит элемент культурно-исторической памяти,
зафиксированный в языковом сознании общества. К
примеру, белоподкладочник – это тот же студент, но с
франтовой внешностью (в мундире на белой подкладке). В
словаре Д.Н. Ушакова дается с пометой «дорев.» и
определяется как «враждебный революционному движению
и демократической части студенчества» (Ushakov, D.N.,
1935). Номинация «бурсак» происходит от слова «бурса»,
что обозначает духовное училище с общежитием, или
общежитие при духовном училище. Образ жизни в стенах
данного образовательного учреждения наложил отпечаток,
актуализированный в сочетании «бурсацкие нравы», то есть
грубые (Ozhegov, S.I., Shvedova, N.Yu., 2006). Представляет
интерес лексема «бурш», которая обозначает «студента» (или
«студента-корпоранта») только немецкого университета,
принятого в одну из студенческих корпораций, известных
кутежами, дуэлями и пр. (Chudinov, A.N., 1910; Popov, M.,
1911; Moskvin, A.G., 2007). Необходимо отметить
наименования «студента» в устаревшей шутливой форме
(студиозис, студиоз, школяр), с разговорным оттенком
(вузовец, втузовец), имеющие компонент специальности
(инязовец, правовик), а также отражающие в целом процесс
обучения (учащийся, поскольку по Ожегову, учащиеся могут
быть средних школ, техникумов, высших учебных
заведений). Для обозначения военнослужащего,
обучающегося в среднем или высшем учебном заведении
(воспитанника военного училища), и учащихся курсов

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существует такая номинация, как «курсант». (Krysin, L.P.,
2008; Ozhegov, S.I. and Shvedova, N.Yu., 2006). В
синонимическом ряду отсутствует лексема «ваганты»
(голиарды), ими было принято называть странствующих
студентов и школяров в Германии, Франции, Англии и
Северной Италии (XI-XIII вв.) (Georgieva, N.G. et al., 2011), в
других лексикографических источниках ваганты были
бродячие нищие студенты (в средневековой Западной
Европе), низшие лирики, школяры, недоучившиеся
семинаристы (Great Encyclopedic Dictionary, 2000; Keldysh,
Yu.V., 1973-1982; Gorkin, A.P., 2006).
Результаты
До сегодняшнего дня «студент» имеет достаточно
последовательную схему номинаций, закрепившихся в
коллективном сознании либо уже утративших свое значение.
В современном образовательном дискурсе образ «студента»
имеет нормативно-правовую основу, и в Законе об
Образовании РК (пункт 53-1) обозначен статус
студента - лицо, обучающееся в организации образования,
реализующей образовательные учебные программы
технического и профессионального, послесреднего и
высшего образования (Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan
«About education» July 27, 2007 No. 319-III (with amendments
and additions of December 3, 2015).
С позиции диахронического измерения в дореволюционный
период существовали студенты-аристократы и разночинцы; в
послереволюционный период доминировал политический
компонент, следовательно, были пролетарские, партийные
студенты, комсомольцы и беспартийные студенты, «от
которых за версту несет старым режимом», монархисты, а
также популярны были студенты-общественники и
студенты-активисты (Ilina, O.S., 2013: 35); в послевоенные
годы студентами становились «фронтовики» и «зеленая
молодежь», вчерашние десятиклассники (Ilina, O.S., 2011:
36).

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В настоящее время в различных жанрах учебного,
молодежного (студенческого) дискурсах можно встретить
следующие номинации социолингвокультурного типажа
«студент» с определенным набором конститутивных и
дифференциальных признаков. В зависимости от
релевантного признака, взятого за основу обозначения,
различают: 1) по форме получения образования: очник –
заочник – вечерник – дневник; 2) по системе оплаты за
образовательные услуги и бесплатного образования:
грантник (грантовик) – платник – квотник – бюджетник –
кредитник. Наименования «платник», «бюджетник» в
историческом измерении имели иные номинации
«своекоштный студент» и «казеннокоштный студент» (Ilina,
O.S., 2011: 34). Согласно толковому словарю Ожегова С.И. и
Шведовой Н.Ю., своекоштный – это устаревшее слово и
обозначает как «содержащийся и обучаемый на свой кошт;
противоположный «казеннокоштный»». Дается
единственный пример в сочетании со словом студент:
своекоштный студент. Само слово «кошт» тоже устаревшее
название расходов на содержание (по Ожегову С.И. и
Шведовой Н.Ю.). Казеннокоштный в том же толковом
словаре значит «содержащийся и обучаемый на казенный
кошт». В обоих наименованиях имеется уточнение «об
учащихся». Следовательно, своекоштный и казеннокоштный
имеет значение, связанное с учебной деятельностью. 3) по
успеваемости: задолжник – летник – отличник; 4) по
интеллектуальной активности: студент-ботаник (ботан) –
зубрила. По словарной интерпретации молодежного сленга
ботаник определен в трех значениях: как человек, который
слишком много учится; как скучный ученик, унылый зануда;
как «заученный» человек, отличник. (Walter, H. et al., 2005).
В другом словаре молодежного сленга ботаник носит
отрицательный оттенок, отмечен пометой «неодобр. и груб.»,
имеет варианты произношений бˊотан, ботˊан, бот´аник
(Студент, который постоянно занят учёбой, отличник),

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форму ед. ч. женского рода ботанка (студентка биологии,
кафедра ботаники), форму собирательного существительного
ботанье (неодобр. – прилежные, примерные студенты,
постоянно занятые только учебой) и производные лексемы
ботанить(ся)/ботанировать (усердно заниматься учебой),
ботать (учить, долго и усердно готовиться к экзаменам),
ботан-клуб (группа студентов, которые постоянно заняты
только учебой) (Zakharova, L.A. et al., 2014: 37). Также в
информационно-массовом дискурсе можно встретить
прилагательное «ботаническое»: Но некоторые
характерные черты «ботанического» поведения в них
присутствуют. «Ботаничка» – этакий «синий чулок»,
слишком коротко остриженная или с унылым мышиного
цвета хвостиком на голове, серо и скучно одетая,
неулыбчивая… Она все читает и читает или колотит
пальчиками по клавиатуре, не обращая никакого внимания на
мальчиков, подруг и весну (based on the site «zn.ua»). 5) по
образовательным программам («Болашақ»): студент-
болашаковец/болашакер. В 1993 году Указом Президента РК
Н.А. Назарбаевым была учреждена международная
стипендия «Болашак», в рамках которой проходили обучение
студенты бакалавриата (до 2011 года) (The history of the
program «Bolashak», WWW). На протяжении существования
программы сформировался определенный образ студента,
обучающийся по данной программе. В обиходном и
медийном дискурсе он получил номинацию, созвучной
названию программы, болашаковец – болашакер. И с
отменой обучения бакалавров (с 2011 по 2013 гг.) обращение
не утратило значения, а наоборот, к категории
болашаковец/болашакер стали относить магистрантов и
докторантов. Студент-болашаковец стал общей номинацией
для всех стипендиатов не зависимо от возраста, социального
статуса, материального положения. Образование
«болашаковец, болашакер» этимологически восходит к
казахскому слову (одноименной программы) болашақ, что в

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переводе означает «будущее». Болашаковец образовалось
при помощи продуктивного суффикса в русском языке –овец
(из одной категории -ец, -ист), образующий
существительные (от основ существительных) для
наименования лиц по их отношению к учреждению,
профессии, деятельности, идейному направлению (вузовец,
искровец, мичуринец, связист, журналист и др.); слова с
этими суффиксами употребляются главным образом в
книжных стилях речи; (Valgina, N.S. et al., 2002: 218).
Например: Заголовок «Акимы и боксер: самые успешные
болашаковцы». Пример из этой статьи «Стипендия
«Болашак» считается хорошей возможностью получить
образование за рубежом, не вкладывая большие суммы
собственных средств. Не всегда «болашакеры» становятся
успешными или известными, но есть среди них и те, кто
сегодня постоянно на слуху» (based on the site «nur.kz»). 6) по
факультету или специализации: самые распространенные
наименования правовик, восточник, естественник, инязовец,
медик, педик; 7) по материальному достатку и культурным
оттенкам: студент-мажор (мажорик), студент – хипстер –
представители золотой молодежи; 8) по курсам обучения:
первокурсник (перваш); второкурсник (второши);
третьекурсник; четверокурсник (старшекурсник-
старшак)/выпускник/дипломник.
С развитием инновационных технологий и возможностью
виртуального получения образования набирает обороты
дистанционная форма обучения, возможно, таких студентов
будут называть «дистантник». Особой формы номинации
студента дистанционного обучения нет, как и не
наблюдается у общепризнанной образовательной программы
бакалавриат: студент-бакалавр, студент бакалавриата.
Номинация «заочник» и закрепленный в коллективном
сознании типаж заочника со временем потеряет свою
актуальность, поскольку с 2019 года заочной формы
обучения больше нет. Необходимо отметить, что в рамках

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реализации полиязычного образования в казахстанских
высших учебных заведениях появилась новая форма
организации учебного процесса – полиязычные группы. В
студенческом жаргоне уже функционирует лексема «полияз»
как сокращение сочетания «полиязычная группа».
Социолингвокультурный типаж «студент», учитывая
аспекты и способы его реализации, актуализирован в языке
при помощи номинаций, образованных морфологическим
суффиксальным путем и сложением основ (Valgina, N.S. et
al., 2002: 215) (очник, заочник, вечерник, дневник, грантник,
платник, бюджетник, квотник и др.). В массово-
информационном дискурсе распространено авторское
видение классификации студенческого общества. При
номинации того или иного типа студента ложится в основу
не общепринятая система способов словообразования (как
очник, дипломник и т.д.), а сознательное нарушение норм
языка или норм речевого поведения с целью шутки,
скрашивания речи (Verbitsky, А.А., 2013). Приведем три
классификации с разных сайтов: 1) псевдонаучная
интеллигенция, старосты/задроты/мечтатели,
пофигисты/золотые,
общественники/молодежники/активисты, талантливая и
творческая молодежь (based on the site «yvision.kz»); 2) и
швец, и жнец, и на дуде игрец; специалист без диплома;
заблудшая душа; зверь в клетке (based on the site
«tmstudent.ru»); 3) «ботаник», «шарящий», «нормальный»,
«крутой», «ноль», «студент-иностранец» (based on the site
«levy.com»)
Номинативная плотность концепта представляет собой
«детализацию обозначаемого фрагмента реальности, его
множественное вариативное обозначение и сложные
смысловые оттенки обозначаемого» (Karasik, V.I., 2004: 112).
Для описания номинативной плотности (термин В.И.
Карасика) концепта «студент», актуализированного в
языковом сознании современных студентов, был проведен

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опрос среди обучающихся (всего 349) всех курсов разных
специальностей четырех университетов города Астаны
(Евразийский национальный университет им. Л.Н. Гумилева,
Казахстанский филиал Московского государственного
университета им. М.В. Ломоносова, Медицинский
университет Астана, Казахский университет технологии и
бизнеса). Респондентам необходимо было отметить
знакомые названия или предложить свой вариант
наименования слова «студент». Результат опроса показал
следующее: всем 349 студентам знакомы «студент-
ботаник/ботан», «студент-очник», «студент-заочник»,
«студент-платник», «студент-грантовик/грантник»,
«вузовец», «выпускник», «дипломник», «студент-
мажор/мажорик»; 2 отметили, что знакомы со
студиозусом/студиозус; никто из опрашиваемых не отметил
номинации «белоподкладочник», «бурсак», «бурш»,
«своекоштный/казеннокоштный», а один студент написал
напротив этих номинаций, что никогда не слышал. 1 студент
напротив хипстера написал – это я. Номинации «студент-
квотник», «студент-бюджетник», «студент-хипстер»,
«студент-кредитник», «студент-дневник», «студент-
вечерник» среди опрашиваемых не настолько популярны.
Причинами неоднозначного отношения к появлению и/или
замене, полной или частичной утрате своего номинативного
предназначения являются, во-первых, частотность
употребления, когда языковое явление («студент-очник»,
«студент-грантник/грантовик»), прочно закрепившееся в
сознании языкового коллектива и отражающее
коммуникативное поведение типичного студента, замещает
тождественное ему понятие («студент-дневник», «студент-
бюджетник»); во-вторых, социальная и территориальная
причастность к статусу «квотника»; в третьих, недостаточная
осведомленность о наличии существующих молодежных
субкультур (студент-хипстер). Студента-болашаковца или
болашакера отметили 255 респондентов, что свидетельствует

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о значимости стипендиальной программы «Болашақ». И
номинация «втузовец» больше вызвала недоумение, ее
отметили 21 студента. Из авторских вариантов были
предложены номинации: 3 студента написали «балмұздақ»
(что в переводе с казахского означает «мороженое»), 4
студента – перваш, 1 студент – втораш; 1 студент предложил
три своих слова – крыса, староста, страуста; 2 студента – Жас
Отановец, 1 студент – раб; 1 студент – КМЦшник; 1 студент
– студент-задира; 1 студент – простой студент; 1 студент –
сибовец (специальность «Системы информационной
безопасности»); 1 студент – студент, слетевший со
стипендии.
Заключение
Социолингвокультурный типаж «студент» – это обобщенный
образ представителя социальной группы, наделенный в тоже
время специфическими чертами, которые являются
узнаваемыми и признаваемыми в языковом коллективе.
Каждая из номинаций рассматриваемого типажа
идентифицируется и отождествляется с определенным типом
студента, отражающего типичное коммуникативное
поведение. Ядром номинативного поля рассматриваемого
типажа является лексема студент. Устоявшиеся номинации
социокультурного типажа «студент» и закрепившиеся
вариативные наименования связаны с развитием,
изменением, преобразованием образовательной системы
(студент-кредитник, грантник; болашаковец/болашакер), с
проводимой политикой в области образования
(полиязычник), с языковой раскрепощенностью и авторским
видением современного студента (студент-задрот, студент-
мечтатель, студент-крутой, студент-шарящий).

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Волгоград: Перемена, 2002. 477 с.
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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-577-591

INTERCULTURAL MEASUREMENTS OF VALUE

ORIENTATIONS OF REPRESENTATIVES OF UZBEK
AND FRENCH CULTURES

Abdimurod E. Мамаtov¹, Zulfiya B. Davronova²

¹National University of Uzbekistan named after M. Ulugbek

Tashkent, Uzbekistan
e-mail: [email protected]
²The Uzbekistan State University of World Languages
Tashkent, Uzbekistan
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
In this article, intercultural measurements are carried out to
identify similarities and differences in French and Uzbek
linguistic cultures, as well as difficulties in acquiring trainees
with linguocultural material at the level of value orientations,
language, discourse and behavior, since the concept of
intercultural communication is a complex system, all elements of
which function in close relationship and interdependence,
therefore, the work provides many definitions of the concept of
intercultural communication.
The methodological basis of the theory of intercultural
communication is a systems approach, in which the most basic is
the principle of the irreducibility of system properties to the sum

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of properties of its constituent elements. Here the main place
belongs to the integrative quality of the system, generated by the
interaction of the parts.
Measurement is a cognitive process that consists in comparing a
given fact or phenomenon with some of its value, taken as a
standard or norm. This is a method of empirical knowledge from
the epistemological position, behavioral acts, that is, discrete
units based on the emic and ethical approaches, are also subject to
intercultural measurement.
The language material that we have allowed us to use the method
of contrasting description in identifying widely used
communicative rules and strategies in French and Uzbek
linguistic cultures. In this regard, by intercultural dimensions we
understand the comparison and juxtaposition of linguistic and
cultural codes of various ethnic groups in certain parameters in
order to find similarities and differences between them, since the
essential features of the language and especially cultures are
revealed by comparison, with comparative learning of languages
and topics more cultures.
The article presents a taxonomy of measurements of value
systems: the individualism of the French and the collectivism of
Uzbeks, the politeness of the French, respect and reverence for
elders among Uzbeks, attitude to the money of the French and
Uzbeks, because by means of intercultural measurements as a
method of learning, students will master a certain amount of
background knowledge and will be able to recognize the
specificity value orientations, lifestyle, communication behavior
of speakers of the target language. In addition, awareness and
assessment of the new comes from the well-known in the native
language and culture, since it is the native language and culture
that serve as a measure of new linguistic and cultural facts,
phenomena and ways of expression. Intercultural measurements
are often intertwined with the problem of choosing possible ways
of analyzing cultural manifestations and the quality of approaches
to intercultural measurement is evaluated in terms of a

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constructive definition of where and how the results of the
analysis can be used.
In order to identify value orientations, mentality, the main
national traits of the French and Uzbek peoples, such cultural and
linguistic units as phraseological units, paremiological
expressions, metaphors and folklore material are reflected in the
analysis, which reflect the vital activities of the society, as they
reflect the people's world outlook as a set of value ideas,
knowledge, attitudes, worldview and attitude.
The question of value orientations, linguistic and cultural
characteristics of language, speech, behavior as an object of
learning is inseparable from the issue of language as a specialty.
In linguoculturology, a measurement is observed within the
boundaries of the opposition “own” and “alien” in order to
describe certain patterns. In the theory of intercultural
communication, this opposition is also one of the most significant
gnoseological tools, with the help of which the factors
determining the outcome of interaction between representatives
of different cultures are studied. Therefore, one should be ready
to learn a foreign culture and to perceive various intercultural
concepts, since, becoming participants of any kind of intercultural
contacts, people interact with representatives of other cultures,
often significantly different from each other, and each culture has
its own rules of conversation, closely related with culturally
conditioned ways to think and behave.
Based on the above, it can be concluded that the implementation
of intercultural measurements is necessary not only for theory,
but also for the practice of intercultural communication and
intercultural language learning as a specialty. Conducting
intercultural measurements in linguodidactic purposes helps to
identify areas of interlingual and intercultural interference,
defining difficulties in mastering a particular linguocultural
material taking into account intercultural oppositions, and also
using the opposition of one’s own and someone else’s, you can
describe the interaction between representatives of different

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ethnic groups. Thus, linguistic units expressing cultural concepts
are measured by linguistic and non-linguistic parameters at the
level of semantics, connections and cultural meaning.
Key words: intercultural measurements, linguoculturology,
contrastive description, value orientation, communicative
behavior

МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНЫЕ ИЗМЕРЕНИЯ ЦЕННОСТНЫХ

ОРИЕНТАЦИЙ ПРЕДСТАВИТЕЛЕЙ УЗБЕКСКОЙ
И ФРАНЦУЗСКОЙ КУЛЬТУР

Абдимурод Э. Маматов¹, Зульфия Б. Давронова²

¹Национальный университет Узбекистана имени М. Улугбека

Ташкент, Узбекистан
e-mail: [email protected]
²Узбекский государственный университет мировых языков
Ташкент, Узбекистан
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
Межкультурные измерения проводятся для выявления
сходств и различий во французской и узбекской
лингвокультурах, а также трудностей в овладении
обучаемыми лингвокультурологическим материалом на
уровне ценностных ориентаций, языка, дискурса и
поведения, так как понятие «межкультурная коммуникация»
представляет собой сложную систему, все элементы
которого функционируют в тесной взаимосвязи и
взаимозависимости, поэтому в работе приводится множество
определений понятия межкультурной коммуникации.
Методологической основой теории межкультурной
коммуникации является системный подход, в котором самым
основным используется принцип несводимости свойств
системы к сумме свойств составляющих ее элементов. Здесь

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главное место принадлежит интегративному качеству
системы, порождаемому взаимодействием частей.
Измерение представляет собой познавательный процесс,
заключающийся в сравнении данного факта или явления с
некоторым его значением, принятым за эталон или норму.
Это метод эмпирического познания с гносеологической
позиции. Также межкультурному измерению подвергаются
поведенческие акты, то есть дискретные единицы на основе
эмического и этического подходов.
Языковой материал, которым мы располагаем, позволил нам
применять также метод контрастивного описания при
выявлении широко используемых коммуникативных правил
и стратегий во французской и узбекской лингвокультурах.
Под межкультурными измерениями мы понимаем сравнение
и сопоставление языковых и культурных кодов различных
этносов в определенных параметрах, чтобы найти сходство и
различие между ними, так как существенные особенности
языка и культуры вскрываются при сопоставлении, при
сравнительном изучении языков и тем более культур.
В статье представлена таксономия измерений ценностных
установок: индивидуализм французов и коллективизм
узбеков, вежливость французов, уважение и почитание
старших у узбеков, отношение к деньгам французов и
узбеков, так как посредством межкультурных измерений как
приема обучения студенты будут овладевать определенным
объемом фоновых знаний и смогут осознать специфичность
ценностных ориентаций, уклада жизни, коммуникативного
поведения носителей изучаемого языка. Кроме того,
осознание и оценка нового идет от известного в родном
языке и культуре, так как именно родной язык и культура
выступают мерилом новых языковых и культурных фактов,
явлений и способов выражения. Межкультурные измерения
зачастую переплетаются с проблемой выбора возможных
способов анализа культурных проявлений, и качество
подходов межкультурному измерению оценивается с точки

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зрения конструктивного определения того, где и как можно
использовать результаты анализа.
С целью выявления ценностных ориентаций, ментальности,
основных национальных черт французского и узбекского
народов анализу подвергаются такие
лингвокультурологические единицы, как фразеологические
единицы, паремиологические выражения, метафоры и
фольклорный материал, которые отражают жизненную
деятельность социума, так как в них отражается
миропонимание народа как совокупность ценностных идей,
знаний, взглядов, миросозерцания и мироощущения.
Вопрос о ценностных ориентациях,
лингвокультурологических особенностях языка, речи,
поведения как объекта обучения неотделим от вопроса
обучению языка как специальности. В лингвокультурологии
наблюдается измерение в границах оппозиции «свой» и
«чужой» в целях описания определенных закономерностей.
В теории межкультурной коммуникации эта оппозиция
является одним из наиболее значимых гносеологических
инструментов, с помощью которых изучаются факторы,
обусловливающие исход взаимодействия между
представителями разных культур. Поэтому следует быть
готовым к познанию чужой культуры и восприятию
различных межкультурных понятий, так как, становясь
участниками любого вида межкультурных контактов, люди
взаимодействуют с представителями других культур,
зачастую существенно отличающихся друг от друга, и в
каждой культуре существуют свои собственные правила
ведения разговора, тесно связанные с культурно
обусловленными способами думать и вести себя.
На основе сказанного можно сделать вывод о том, что
осуществление межкультурных измерений необходимо не
только для теории, но и для практики межкультурной
коммуникации и межкультурного обучения языку как
специальности. Проведение межкультурных измерений в

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лингводидактических целях способствует выявлению зон
межъязыковой и межкультурной интерференции,
определению трудностей в усвоении того или иного
лингвокультурологического материала с учетом на
межкультурные оппозиции, также с помощью оппозиции
“свой” и “чужой” можно описать особенности
взаимодействия между представителями различных этносов.
Таким образом, языковые единицы, выражающие
культурные понятия, подвергаются измерению по языковым
и внеязыковым параметрам на уровне семантики, связей и
культурного смысла.
Ключевые слова: межкультурные измерения,
лингвокультурология, контрастивное описание, ценностная
ориентация, коммуникативное поведение.

Вступление
Межкультурная коммуникация представляет собой сложную
систему, все элементы которой функционируют в тесной
взаимосвязи и взаимозависимости. Сравнение западной и
восточной культур показывает, что различий в них гораздо
больше, чем мы можем это представить. Межкультурные
измерения французской и узбекской лингвокультур помогут
вскрыть глубинные различия между тем, что стоит за
словами этих языков, т.е. между культурными
представлениями о реальных предметах и явлениях
действительности, и самими предметами и явлениями.
В рамках одной статьи возможно провести сравнительно-
сопоставительный анализ лишь некоторых языковых единиц
французской и узбекской лингвокультур на уровне
ценностных ориентаций, коммуникативного поведения,
языка и дискурса.
В современной лингвистической литературе существует
множество определений понятия межкультурной
коммуникации. Так, например, по мнению Е.М. Верещагина
и В.Г. Костомарова, «…межкультурная коммуникация – это

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адекватное взаимопонимание двух участников
коммуникативного акта, принадлежащих к разным
национальным культурам» (Vereshchagin E.M, Kostomarov
V.G., 1990: 246).
Примерно такое же определение дает И.И. Халеева:
«…межкультурная коммуникация представляет собой
процесс общения (вербального и невербального) между
коммуникантами, являющимися носителями разных культур
и языков» (Khaleeva I.I., 1999: 5-14).
Согласно точке зрения О.А. Леонтовича, «…межкультурная
коммуникация есть непосредственный или опосредованный
обмен информацией между представителями разных
культур» (Leontovich O.A., 2007: 366).
Д.Б. Гудков считает, что межкультурная коммуникация есть
«общение языковых личностей, принадлежащих различным
лингвокультурным сообществам, и как любая коммуникация,
представляет собой взаимодействие «говорящих сознаний»
(Gudkov D.B., 2003: 288).
Как видим, во всех приведенных определениях отмечается,
что межкультурная коммуникация есть общение
представителей разных культур, говорящих на разных
языках.
В основе межкультурных измерений лежат сравнение и
сопоставление, для того чтобы выявить всевозможные
сходства и различия между лингвокультурами на уровне
ценностных ориентаций языка, дискурса и поведения.
Посредством межкультурных измерений мы познаем
культуру, так как «сравнение может выступать как способ
познания мира, способ закрепления результатов этого
познания в культуре» (Vereshchagin E.M, Kostomarov V.G.,
2001: 208).
Как справедливо отмечает С.Г. Тер-Минасова, «только
выйдя за рамки своей культуры, то есть столкнувшись с
иным мировосприятием, мироощущением и т.п., можно
понять специфику своего общественного сознания, можно

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увидеть различие или конфликт культур» (Ter-Minasova S.G.,
2000: 624).
Таким образом можно выявить, какой
лингвокультурологический материал может представлять
сложность для носителей узбекского языка, то есть
представляет трудности при изучении французского языка.
Предмет и цель исследования
С целью выявления ценностных ориентаций, ментальности,
основных национальных черт французского и узбекского
народов анализу подвергаются такие
лингвокультурологические единицы, как фразеологизмы,
паремиологические выражения, метафоры и фольклорный
материал, которые отражают жизненную деятельность
социума, так как в них отражается миропонимание народа
как совокупность ценностных идей, знаний, взглядов,
миросозерцания и мироощущения.
Предметом исследования данной статьи стало выявление
того, какой лингвокультурологический материал может быть
«чужим» для представителей узбекской лингвокультуры в
процессе изучения французского языка.
Методология и методы
В статье использовался сопоставительный метод при
изучении разного рода устойчивых словосочетаний
узбекского и французского языков. При этом велся учет не
только лингвистической составляющей, но и большое
внимание уделялось лингвокультурологическому аспекту.
Результаты
На основе анализа языкового материала, почерпнутого из
художественной литературы и фольклорных произведений,
выявлены следующие ценности и качества, которые присущи
французской и узбекской культурам.
Вежливость французов, уважение и почитание старших
у узбеков. Вежливость для французского коммуникативного
поведения приоритетна, она во французском обществе,
особенно в деловой сфере и сфере обслуживания, является

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обязательной составляющей имиджа продавца или
служащего в любой сфере деятельности. При встрече со
знакомыми французы задают меньше вопросов, чем узбеки,
также в повседневном общении они гораздо больше
извиняются. Французы очень приветливы и улыбчивы в
повседневной жизни. Во французском коммуникативном
поведении отмечается большая роль шутки, остроумия в
разговоре, обязательность этикетного общения с соседями и
знакомыми, смягченное выражение просьбы и отказа и др.
Таким образом, во французской культуре существуют свои
собственные правила ведения разговора, связанные с
культурно обусловленными способами мышления и
поведения.
В узбекской культуре особое внимание уделяется почитанию
семьи и уважению старших как нравственным началам
формирования личности. Первое слово дается старшему по
возрасту. Так, в узбекских сказках, да и в обиходной
разговорной речи узбеков, часто используется фраза:
Скажите Вы – Вы старше. В узбекской семье с детства
приучают почитать родителей, родственников, старших,
учителей. Особенно почитают и уважают родителей: Воля
отца божьей воли превыше. Отец сыну наставник.
Старость в узбекской культуре соотносится с мудростью,
поэтому для совета часто прибегают к аксакалам: Назидание
старшего – ум для младшего. Обычно считается, что
Старики в доме – золото в доме, Старики в доме – ангелы-
хранители.
Главную культурную ценность для узбекского народа
составляет семья, родственники и соседи, все они стараются
жить дружно и сообща. Национальная ментальность и черты
характера узбеков раскрываются в народных пословицах.
Например, об отношениях соседей существуют такие
пословицы: Не покупай дом, покупай соседа. Сосед пришел –
подмога подоспела и др.

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Разделение культур на индивидуалистические и
коллективистические является в межкультурной
коммуникации одним из показателей, так как с его помощью
объясняются различия в поведении представителей разных
культур.
Индивидуализм французов и коллективизм у узбеков. На
планете определенные группы людей живут в обществах, где
интересы индивида преобладают над интересами группы, –
именно эти общества и культуры являются
индивидуалистическими. По мнению многих
исследователей, французская культура является
индивидуалистической.
Как отмечает исследователь особенностей французского
коммуникативного поведения С.А. Моисеева, «французы
ценят свой индивидуализм, они стараются всегда
подчеркнуть свои индивидуальные отличия, присутствие в
их жизни права выбора, права поступить по-своему.
Французы – свободолюбивый народ, но вместе с тем
достаточно законопослушный» (Moiseeva S.A., 2005: 65-69).
Например: avoir soin de son individu – заботиться о своей
особе; chacun soigne son individu – своя рубашка ближе к телу
и т.д.). Во Франции нет традиции, чтобы родители содержали
взрослых детей, те сами должны зарабатывать себе на жизнь.
Любой молодой француз после школы может уйти из семьи,
поступать учиться или пойти работать.
Коллективизм является одной из основных ценностей
узбекского народа, и в узбекской культуре он
характеризуется чувством солидарности на основе равенства
и справедливости, сопричастностью общему делу,
вовлеченностью своим трудом и средствами в помощь
другим, отзывчивостью и неравнодушием к людям.
Такие реалии жизни узбекского народа, как «махалля»,
«хашар», «Навруз» и др., являются яркими примерами
коллективизма в узбекской культуре, в которых отражены
народные традиции, обычаи, обряды. Одной из ярких реалий

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жизни узбекского народа является понятие «махалля». В
Узбекистане административное деление проводится внутри
районов города или улиц села на махаллинские советы,
которые представляют собой местные органы
самоуправления, рассматривают и решают проблемы людей.
В узбекском «хашаре» (коллективный труд, оказание
бескорыстной помощи пострадавшим людям или какой-то
организации, например – школам, больницам, или очищение
территории и т.д.) воплощены такие лучшие нравственные
черты национального характера, как бескорыстная помощь,
трудовой энтузиазм, коллективизм, чувство ответственности
перед общиной, дружелюбие, взаимовыручка, сердечность,
сострадание, бескорыстие и т.д.
Празднование национального праздника «Навруз» (это
весенний национальный праздник, посвященный началу
нового года, который ежегодно отмечается 21 марта)
отражает такие понятия, как нравственное очищение,
прощение, чистота помыслов.
Приведем пример, в котором достаточно убедительно
отражается коллективизм как узбекского, так и русского
народов: на магистральной дороге встречные автомобили
начинают мигать фарами. Это значит, что надо сбавлять
скорость, так как впереди находится дорожно-патрульный
контроль. Для законопослушного французского народа
данный факт – это хулиганство и потенциальная опасность
для окружающих, а для узбеков и русских – знак
солидарности, взаимовыручки.
Отношение к деньгам французов и узбеков. По мнению
этнопсихологов Н. Яппа и М. Сиретты, французы в отличие
от американцев никогда не поклонялись «деланию» денег
как таковому (Yapp N., Sirett M., 1999: 72).
Оно не являлось составной частью культуры французов, они
не были столь одержимы им. Одной из национальных черт
французского образа жизни, которую считают большим
достоинством, является бережливость, которая иногда

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переходит в уродливую скупость. Скупость французов вошла
в поговорку: Economie vaut profit - экономия стоит прибыли.
Специфика национального характера французов проявляется
в том, что деньги являются важным компонентом культуры,
характерным для французской лингвокультурной общности,
так как понятие «деньги» связано с такими понятиями, как
«благополучие» (prov. Qui a de l’argent a des pirouettes – у
кого деньги, тому и удовольствие), «успех» (prov. Qui a assez
d’argent, a assez de parents – были бы деньги, а родня
найдется) и «процветание» (qui a de l’argent, a des coquilles –
живется, у кого денежка ведется), что является специфичным
для культурного сознания французов. Но, как отмечает
политолог Е. Островская, «некоторые черты национального
характера французов претерпели со временем определенные
изменения. Богатство рассматривается как проклятие, деньги
– как порождение и даже воплощение дьявола, богатый – как
дурной, нечестный человек…» (Ostrovskaya E., 2003: 40). Это
можно проиллюстрировать следующими примерами: argent
d’autrui nul n’enrichit - чужое добро впрок не идет, чужим
богат не будешь; l’argent ne fait pas le Bonheur – не в деньгах
счастье и другие.
Заключение
Интерес к материальной стороне жизни не представляет для
узбеков исчерпывающей жизненной ценности, хотя в
достаточной мере определяет цели и содержание
деятельности, что очень похожена французскую культуру. В
узбекской культуре отношение к деньгам отражается в
следующих пословицах: «Там где деньги, нет равенства»,
«Не деньги ищи – ума набирайся», «Не за деньгой гонись –
считать научись» и т.д. Узбекский народ способен терпеть
лишения и трудности в надежде на успех в будущем.
Попутно заметим, что в сегодняшней узбекской культуре
также наблюдается тенденция к культу денег и даже доллара.
Таким образом, обобщая результаты межкультурных
измерений французской и узбекской лингвокультур, можно

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сделать вывод, что культура находит свое яркое отражение в
языке, речи и поведении. Выявленные нами ценностные
ориентиры объясняют мировосприятие и, соответственно,
поведение представителей французской и узбекской культур.

Литература
Верещагин Е.М., Костомаров В.Г. 1990. Язык и культура.
Москва: Наука, 246 с.
Гудков Д.Б. 2003. Теория и практика межкультурной
коммуникации. Москва: Гнозис, 288 с.
Леонтович О.А. 2007. Введение в межкультурную
коммуникацию. Москва: Гнозис, 366 с.
Маслова В.А. 2001. Лингвокультурология. Москва:
Академия, 208 с.
Моисеева С.А. 2005. Особенности французского
коммуникативного поведения // Язык и межкультурная
коммуникация: Материалы 2-й межвуз. науч.-практ. конф.
29-30 марта, 2005 г. СПб.: Изд-во СПб ГУП, С. 65–69.
Островская Е. 2003. Политическая жизнь Франции в свете
выборов 2002 г. // Мировая экономика и международные
отношения, 3: 40–45.
Тер-Минасова С.Г. 2000. Язык и межкультурная
коммуникация. Москва: Слово/Slovo, 624 с.
Халеева И.И. 1999. Интеркультура – третье измерение
межкультурного взаимодействия // Актуальные проблемы
межкультурной коммуникации. Сб. научных трудов. Москва,
Изд-во МГЛУ, Вып. 444. С. 5–14.
Япп Н., Сиретт М. 1999. Эти странные французы. Москва,
72 с.

References
Gudkov D.B. 2003. Theory and practice of intercultural
communication. Moscow, Gnosis, 288 pp.
Khaleeva I.I. 1999. Interculture is the third dimension of
intercultural interaction. In Actual problems of intercultural

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communication. Sat scientific papers. Moscow, MGLU
Publishing House, Vol. 444: 5-14.
Leontovich O.A. 2007. Introduction to intercultural
communication. Moscow: Gnosis, 366 pp.
Maslova V.A. 2001. Linguoculturology. Moscow: Academy,
208pp.
Moiseeva S.A. 2005. Features of the French communicative
behavior. In Language and intercultural communication:
Materials of the 2nd Intercollege. Scientific-practical conf. March
29-30, 2005 - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of St. Petersburg
State Unitary Enterprise. Pp. 65-69.
Ostrovskaya E. 2003. Political life of France in the light of the
elections. In World Economy and International Relations. 3: 40-
45.
Ter-Minasova S.G. 2000. Language and intercultural
communication. Moscow: Slovo, 624 pp.
Vereshchagin EM, Kostomarov V.G. 1990. Language and
Culture. Moscow: Science, 246 pp.
Yapp N., Sirett M. 1999. These strange French. Moscow. 72 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-591-601

NEWS ON THE WEB CORPUS FOR RESEARCHERS

Anna V. Poloyan

Southern Federal University

Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
It is well known that the image of any foreign country is
predominantly formed by mass media. As a rule, not so many
people have the opportunity to visit other countries in order to
form their own opinion about them. So, it is important to monitor

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the mass media of other countries in order to know the opinion of
their people about Russia and Russians. The researcher may
choose whether to scroll thousands of news web pages for
necessary for his work information or to use electronic corpora
for the more effective results. Many of e-corpora have special
attribute for search. For example, it is possible to find certain
parts of the speech. It is also possible to compare various things
across different sections of the corpus – either time or country.
Some of these possibilities were used for the paper.
The study is devoted to the analysis of foreign mass media with
the help of the News on the Web e-corpus concerning the attitude
of foreign readers to Russia and Russians by means of a
quantitative calculation of the phrases “Russian + NOUN”. Such
laconic phrase is quite informative, besides the corpus allows you
to view the context in which it was used. The suggestions
expressed in the article are based both on quantitative data and on
the context. The corpus toolkit allows the researcher to look for
the data by year (from 2010 to the present); by selecting countries
(the corpus contains sources from 20 different countries). The
NOW corpus contains hundreds of sources such as: The Guardian
(GB), Fox News (US), National Post (CA), Telegraph.co.uk
(GB), The Nation Newspaper (NG), Times of India (IN), etc. The
peculiarity of this e-corpus lies in its volume and frequency of
replenishment: the NOW corpus contains more than 7 billion
words of the data from web-based newspapers and magazines.
Moreover, the corpus grows by about 300,000 new articles each
month. The NOW corpus belongs to the collection of BYU
corpora of Mark Davies. Basic access to the corpora is free and
that is specifically valuable both for students and for other
researchers. Access is limited by queries per day for different
levels – from 20 for “Unregistered user” to 200 for “Researcher”.
The corpus gives information about number of mentions
‘Russian’ for different countries: the leaders of them are the Great
Britain and the USA. Each country has own order for the phrases
“Russian + NOUN”, but all of them have next to the Russian

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such word as: president, government, federation, officials,
interference, ambassador, athletes, intelligence, state, meddling,
diplomats, authorities, spy, hackers, etc. As a part of the research
performed, the top-50 phrases were analyzed in its context. When
analyzing the context, it was revealed that most of the references
relate to world-class events (including the Winter Olympics and
the FIFA World Cup) and to world-class scandals (for example,
doping, sanctions, etc.).
It was found that the image of Russia in foreign mass media is
distorted through the prism of negative news. The mass media
discourse often demonstrates aggression, negativity, verbal
pressure, suggestion, etc. It can be explained by some factors.
Cautious attitude towards Russia remains from the Cold War
period and now it is very difficult for us to overcome
stereotypical models. Moreover, mass media has tendency to
hype something for popularity. Sociological researches of the
country image are of a practical interest and aimed at the analysis
of the social factors influence upon the image formation. It seems
that the research potential of such e-corpora with a large toolbox
could be perfectly useful for sociologists, psychologists, linguists
and for other researchers.
Keywords: corpora, news on the web, Russia, Russian, view
from abroad

Introduction
In modern society mass media texts, matched by a certain way,
become one of the main sources of stereotypes (Zheltukhina et
al., 2018: 557). Modern information technologies give the
researcher such a wide range of tools that neither linguists, nor
psychologists, nor sociologists could have imagined in the
precomputer era. Making sociological surveys requires many
hours of hard work: collecting information, processing and
analyzing it. Researchers’ interest in the media was justified by
the fact that the texts of media discourse, taken in the event
aspect, can reflect the mechanism of the society consciousness

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(Shabanova A.Yu., 2018: 142). The mass media carry the
information to the masses, and at the same time reflect the culture
of their country (Severina E.M. et al., 2018: 17). With the
appearance of the Internet, the researcher has got access to an
unlimited number of mass media discourse texts available for
analysis. The number of different tools for working with text
corpora is also increasing. With such corpora, we can see what is
happening with the language or culture in the last month or years.
Corpora of Mark Davies belong to just such a category of tools,
for example the News on the Web (NOW).
The NOW corpus contains 7.3 billion words of data from web-
based newspapers and magazines from 2010 to the present time.
Moreover, the corpus grows by about 140-160 million words of
data each month (from about 300,000 new articles), or about 1.8
billion words each year. It is possible to make different the
comparisons between dates and countries and to create
personalized collections of the texts based on website, and even
words in the web pages in the special virtual corpora.
Objectives of the study
One of the main objectives of the study is to learn the real state of
affairs concerning foreigners’ relation to Russia and Russians
abroad. The NOW corpus was chosen to analyze the mass media
of some foreign countries (USA, UK, Canada, New Zealand, etc.)
in their attitude to Russia. This aspect can be studied in various
ways. One of the methods is the quantitative analysis of the
phrases “Russian + NOUN”. Despite the conciseness of this
expression, it is quite possible to trace the attitude to the Russians
and to Russia as a whole.
Methodology
The research is based on a comparative analysis of the word
combination “Russian + NOUN” in the news texts from the News
on the Web corpus for the last 5 years (2014–2019).
Results
A preliminary quantitative analysis showed that the peak in the
use of the phrase “Russian + NOUN” falls on 2014 and 2018

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(mentioned over 100 times per 1 mln. words). When analyzing
the context, it was revealed that most of the references relate to
world-class events (including the Winter Olympics and the FIFA
World Cup).
As for countries we may say that among 20 different countries
represented in the corpus, the greatest interest in Russia can be
traced from the UK and the USA – 84 and 79 per mil (comp.
Canada – 50 per mil).
Phrases cause the greatest interest. Table 1 shows the 50 most
frequent of them in the last 5 years (2014–2019). Some years are
represented by two half-years for greater clarity.
Table 1 - The result of query: “Russian + NOUN”
frequency in 2014–2019
RUSSIAN + All 2014- 2014 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201
NOUN 1 -2 5-1 5-2 6-1 6-2 7-1 7-2 8-1 8-2 9-1
RUSSIAN 3051 115 113 229 503 495 399 380 574
1 911 708 797
PRESIDENT 9 0 1 3 1 6 4 4 4
RUSSIAN
1268 200 256 282 189 175
2 GOVERNME 277 251 214 226 417 254
6 1 6 7 8 5
NT
RUSSIAN
133 147 122 136
3 FEDERATIO 8511 421 257 217 296 806 951 158
6 9 3 7
N
RUSSIAN 294 126
4 7665 163 86 87 204 354 746 920 756 142
OFFICIALS 7 0
RUSSIAN
193 154 139 169
5 INTERFERE 7133 7 312 236
8 4 9 7
NCE
RUSSIAN
271 101
6 AMBASSAD 6046 15 7 22 34 103 915 778 402 42
4 4
OR
RUSSIAN 100 214
7 5917 20 10 11 209 409 822 985 246 54
ATHLETES 3 8
RUSSIAN
129 120
8 INTELLIGEN 4919 23 16 28 43 106 642 551 835 175
3 7
CE
RUSSIAN 122
9 4729 106 243 105 136 361 501 585 618 750 104
STATE 0
RUSSIAN 113 131 116
10 4703 80 942 68
MEDDLING 8 2 3

595

595
RUSSIAN + All 2014- 2014 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201
NOUN 1 -2 5-1 5-2 6-1 6-2 7-1 7-2 8-1 8-2 9-1
RUSSIAN 106
11 3721 20 9 476 812 320 410 290 306 9
AIR 9
RUSSIAN 208
12 3550 9 4 13 33 261 472 313 349 10
DIPLOMATS 6
RUSSIAN
13 AUTHORITI 3519 133 119 98 121 285 360 481 630 603 496 193
ES
RUSSIAN
14 3475 107 118 92 127 194 575 471 439 489 804 59
LEADER
RUSSIAN 149
15 2961 12 23 33 73 78 52 213 119 826 39
SPY 3
RUSSIAN
16 2603 69 86 56 143 253 398 374 352 456 325 91
NEWS
RUSSIAN
17 2555 84 107 78 110 203 349 354 468 416 320 66
MEDIA
RUSSIAN
18 2513 4 29 23 10 20 769 632 388 229 375 34
HACKERS
RUSSIAN
19 2482 62 34 45 56 170 370 367 228 859 281 10
EMBASSY
RUSSIAN
20 2338 269 129 57 107 333 397 306 178 252 302 8
FORCES
RUSSIAN
21 COUNTERPA 2181 34 12 22 71 180 415 368 301 241 509 28
RT
RUSSIAN 135
22 2148 3 3 7 15 24 456 235 54
LAWYER 1
RUSSIAN
23 2064 376 245 189 103 143 262 186 200 168 192
TROOPS
RUSSIAN
24 1999 47 303 330 629 613 77
ELECTION
RUSSIAN
25 1922 24 37 24 107 217 528 254 227 189 310 5
DEFENCE
RUSSIAN
26 1892 118 235 129 99 194 183 349 241 207 121 16
ECONOMY
RUSSIAN
27 1804 39 122 61 46 82 167 201 274 462 290 60
COMPANIES
RUSSIAN
28 AGGRESSIO 1707 60 76 118 50 212 285 306 135 227 228 10
N
RUSSIAN
29 REVOLUTIO 1658 61 50 55 64 82 160 318 621 104 122 21
N

596

596
RUSSIAN + All 2014- 2014 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201
NOUN 1 -2 5-1 5-2 6-1 6-2 7-1 7-2 8-1 8-2 9-1
RUSSIAN
30 1616 478 833 128 58 114 5
HACKING
RUSSIAN
31 1570 77 67 49 72 186 158 230 195 266 215 55
ROULETTE
RUSSIAN
32 1450 33 80 28 64 146 274 186 187 201 244 7
SIDE
RUSSIAN
33 1427 3 57 205 582 109 174 200 83 14
DOPING
RUSSIAN
34 1423 147 131 74 48 72 142 124 174 243 231 37
GAS
RUSSIAN
35 1400 49 64 15 29 153 217 142 237 170 308 16
ENERGY
RUSSIAN
36 1350 38 18 27 41 165 445 107 143 232 127 7
TEAM
RUSSIAN
37 1342 54 68 44 42 170 237 198 170 150 196 13
OIL
RUSSIAN
38 1328 69 120 88 61 186 171 216 207 105 97 8
MARKET
RUSSIAN
39 1287 5 13 17 74 103 350 157 184 160 220 4
DEFENSE
RUSSIAN
40 1267 24 20 22 60 84 302 124 125 300 197 9
MILITARY
RUSSIAN
41 1201 58 33 28 81 113 131 140 193 233 157 34
CITY
RUSSIAN
42 1189 20 5 3 32 30 163 219 299 409 9
AGENTS
RUSSIAN
43 WARPLANE 1188 6 10 147 332 358 89 84 93 69
S
RUSSIAN
44 1176 15 19 7 8 16 106 338 227 234 189 17
INFLUENCE
RUSSIAN
45 1160 10 58 30 128 181 259 172 54 109 151 8
AIRCRAFT
RUSSIAN
46 1156 92 46 71 43 59 131 117 203 275 119
PEOPLE
RUSSIAN
47 BILLIONAIR 1152 30 27 29 86 98 117 168 198 205 172 22
E
RUSSIAN
48 1152 3 3 299 155 220 25 26 76 341 4
PLANE
RUSSIAN
49 INVOLVEME 1136 15 8 21 19 12 186 304 161 258 145 7
NT

597

597
RUSSIAN + All 2014- 2014 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201
NOUN 1 -2 5-1 5-2 6-1 6-2 7-1 7-2 8-1 8-2 9-1
RUSSIAN
50 1111 52 72 69 67 94 201 99 138 159 156 4
ARMY
Sourсe: https://www.english-corpora.org/now/ (it needs to make a
quarry)

Discussion
The first place in the chart is given to such phrases as “Russian
President”, “Russian Government”, “Russian Federation” and
“Russian Officials”, what testifies of the special attention of
foreign media to the president, government and officials of the
highest level of the Russian Federation.
Example 1. CA (19-02-27) Title: “Russia says it will evacuate
Syria refugee camp, blaming US”. Source
https://nationalpost.com/
“Russian officials earlier this month set up temporary
accommodation centres for refugees in the camp and encouraged
its residents to leave while blaming the U.S. for trying to keep the
people there against their will”.
Example 2. GB (18-12-14) Title: “How Putin's Russia turned
humour into a weapon”. Source https://www.bbc.co.uk/
“Russian officials and media figures have since tried to turn the
English phrase ‘highly likely’ into a mocking catchphrase that
implies Russia is being blamed for everything with the flimsiest of
evidence”.
Since the presidential elections in the USA in 2016, the media in
various countries have started talking about “Russian
Interference”, “Russian Meddling”, “Russian Intelligence”,
“Russian Spy” and “Russian Hackers”.
Example 3. GB (19-02-17) Title: “Facebook needs regulation as
Zuckerberg 'fails' - UK MPs”. Source https://www.bbc.co.uk/
“The committee called on the government to reveal how many
investigations were currently being carried out into Russian

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598
interference in UK politics, particularly the EU referendum in
2016”.
Example 4. GB (19-02-17) Title: “Ex-FBI lawyer says two
Trump cabinet officials were 'ready to support ...”. Source
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/
“Trump has claimed that Comey, McCabe and cohorts of theirs
who worked on Hillary Clinton's email case and the Russian
meddling probe were 'crooked' cops, and that's why he got rid of
them”.
Example 5. US (18-12-06) Title: “Trump aide's appearances on
RT channel are focus for Russia inquiry”. Source
https://www.theguardian.com/
“The special counsel's alleged focus on RT is important because
the Russian news channel also has a close relationship with the
WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange, who in 2016 published tens of
thousands of emails stolen from senior Democrats by Russian
intelligence operatives”.
Example 6. AU (19-02-18) Title: “Global fear over Australian
cyber attack as dozens of US entities ...” Source
https://www.news.com.au/
“Cyber experts from across the globe warned Australia should be
worried after co-ordinated interference in the 2016 US
presidential election by Russian hackers. The attackers not only
spread misinformation, they released a tranche of Democrat
emails intended to damage Hillary Clinton and help Donald
Trump win the presidency”.
At the same time, “Russian Athletes” at the peak of the
discussions in connection with the doping scandal at the Olympic
Games in Rio (2016), as well as the “Russian Ambassador” in
connection with the assassination of Russian Ambassador Andrei
Karlov in Turkey (2017) or “Russian Diplomats” that were
expelled allegedly over the poisoning of an ex-spy Sergei Skripal
in Britain (2018).
Example 7. IN (16-03-09) Title: “To cheat or not”. Source
http://www.dnaindia.com/

599

599
“A WADA report in November alleged state-sponsored support
for doping in Russia and sought the ban on Russian athletes from
the 2016 Rio Olympics until the country cleans up its anti-doping
regime”
Phrases such as “Russian Business”, “Russian Women”, “Russian
History”, “Russian Tourists”, “Russian Academy”, “Russian
Interests”, “Russian Children” are at the end of the top-100.
The analysis of the phrases “Russian + NOUN” in the corpus
News on the Web showed that the foreign media prefers mainly
to broadcast scandalous news about Russia and, quite rarely,
positive: success and achievements. This distorts the general idea
of the true state of affairs in Russia among the foreign mass
media readers. It can be explained by mass media's ordinary
tendency to hype something for popularity. And it might hold up
because of the so-called “mass person” who obediently accepts
ready-made stamps and stereotypes, without caring for their
validity (Agapova E.A., 2018: 187). Russian image-makers
should take that fact into account and prepare for foreign mass
media press releases on some positive achievements.

References
Agapova E.A., Agapova S.G., Gushchina L.V., Finko M.V. 2018.
Information Culture of the Mass. In European Research Studies
Journal. Volume XXI, Special Issue 2: 187-194.
News on the Web (NOW). 2019. URL:
https://corpus.byu.edu/now/ [Accessed February 03 2019].
Severina, E.M., Agapova, S.G., Milkevich, E.S., Agapova, E.A.
2018. Culture as a Cultural Concept within the Cognitive
Context. In The International Journal of Interdisciplinary
Cultural Studies, 13(1): 15–28.
Shabanova, A.Yu. 2018. Structure and main parameters of the
media discourse. In Actual Problems in Modern Linguistics and
the Humanities: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference
on Research and Methodology. Moscow, March 16th, 2018.
Moscow: PFUR: 139–146.

600

600
Zheltukhina M.R., Repina E.A., Kovaleva N.A., Popova T.G.,
Garcia Caselles C. 2018. International media image of Russia:
trends and patterns of perception. In XLinguae. Т. 11. 2: 557–
585. DOI: 10.18355/XL.2018.11.02.45.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-601-611

SOCIALIZATION OF PERSONALITY WITHIN

THE COMPETENCY APPROACH

Marina G. Sergeeva1, Galina V. Zarembo2

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
1
e-mail: [email protected]
2
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The development of students’ social competency implies
projecting the content and modelling socially significant
situations, setting the social context of graduates’ future life and
contributing to fulfilling their educational potential. The nature of
the tasks facing the modern Russian society dramatically
increases the relevance of competency issues, both in
professional and non-professional activities. At the same time,
numerous studies in sociology, culturology and psychology
indicate widespread inadequate beliefs, expectations, values and
attitudes not only in ordinary citizens, but in leaders as well.
There is a very low interest in innovations, work productivity,
effective management, which is a universal, worldwide
phenomenon. The solution of the tasks facing modern Russian
society depends largely on people’s beliefs, expectations, values
and attitudes, determining their attitude to innovation, content,
effectiveness and efficiency of various types of activities. An
individual’s social adaptation (active inclusion in the social

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601
environment) implies achieving a certain level of social
competency as a necessary condition.
“Competency” is a characteristic of the subject and his/her
activity, which in reference and normative literature is often
defined as possession of knowledge allowing to judge about
something, to express a competent opinion. An increase in the
competency level is interpreted as a measure of the knowledge
depth and breadth. In other words, competency is primarily based
on existing knowledge, which is necessary to perform
professional duties and achieve personal goals. Therefore, the
modern understanding of competency includes both a person’s
ability to perform certain functions and certain mental qualities
(conditions) that allow one to act independently and responsibly.
It is important to emphasize that the competency is assessed
considering the activity results, not resources invested in their
achievement. Competency cannot be reduced to education,
efforts, etc.
The following types of competency are distinguished: 1) special
competency – ability to fulfill one’s professional activity at a high
level and to design one’s further professional development;
2) individual competency – ability to use the methods of self-
realization and individuality development within the profession,
readiness for professional growth, aptitude for individual self-
preservation, counteraction to professional burnout, ability to
rationally organize their work; 3) personal competency –
knowledge of personal self-expression and self-development
techniques, means of resisting professional deformation; 4) social
competency – knowledge of methods concerning joint (group,
cooperative) activities, cooperation and communication;
leadership and social responsibility for the achieved results.
Turning to the phenomenon of the social competency, we focus
on the types of motivation that modern society needs and the
factors which determine them. In other words, we are talking
about the stimuli that motivate members of society to gain the
key elements of the social competency – initiative, leadership,

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responsibility, effective work in cooperation with others. An
innovative person, striving for a high level of the social
competency, is characterized by: 1) attitude to the world, which is
characterized by curiosity and the desire to control (manipulate)
it, which is expressed in the persistent search for its main
regulators in order to influence and control various phenomena;
2) accepting responsibility for the bad aspects of life, coupled
with finding the best solutions and constant attempts to make
alterations; 3) frankness and tolerance towards fellow citizens, an
approving attitude towards their originality and striving for
innovations in all areas of life; 4) creativity, stimulating
originality and striving for novelty, indomitable curiosity.
In Russian pedagogy, the concept of the social competency has
been recently explored within discussions about the quality of
education, about what a student should be. At the same time, the
generalized form of this phenomenon includes various types of
readiness for certain activity types: professional labour activity;
family creation; performing civilian functions and improving the
society in which he/she will live; creative activity in any field;
preserving and strengthening the student’s physical and mental
health; awareness of the need to self-change and study throughout
life. In psychology, the social competency is often correlated with
the concept of “self-confidence”.
When considering the social competency, scientists tend to
include knowledge, social skills and abilities in its structure.
These components form the basis of the social competency.
Keywords: personality, socialization, modernization of
education, competence-based approach, social competence.

Introduction
Within the transition of modern Russia to civil society and
civilized market, special educational emphasis should be made on
preparing graduates to act as true members of society and citizens
of their country. A graduate of an educational organization should
have the social competency (not to be mixed with social

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competence, which is regarded by us as a term with a narrower
meaning): a complex of knowledge, skills, social and personal
characteristics, motivational readiness of their practical use in
professional and other situations.
The development of students’ social competency implies
projecting the content and modelling socially significant
situations, setting the social context of graduates’ future life and
contributing to fulfilling their educational potential (Tareva E.G.,
2001; Milovanov K.Y. et al., 2018; Skvortsov V.N., 2016, 2017).
The nature of the tasks facing the modern Russian society
dramatically increases the relevance of competency issues, both
in professional and non-professional activities. At the same time,
numerous studies in sociology, culturology and psychology
indicate widespread inadequate beliefs, expectations, values and
attitudes not only in ordinary citizens, but in leaders as well.
There is a very low interest in innovations, work productivity,
effective management, which is a universal, worldwide
phenomenon. The solution of the tasks facing modern Russian
society depends largely on people’s beliefs, expectations, values
and attitudes, determining their attitude to innovation, content,
effectiveness and efficiency of various types of activities. An
individual’s social adaptation (active inclusion in the social
environment) implies achieving a certain level of the social
competency as a necessary condition.
Purpose of the study
The concepts of “competency”, “professionalism” and
“qualification” are commonly used as synonyms. As a rule,
“professionalism” is understood as a set of a person’s individual
characteristics necessary to perform a particular activity, as well
as the normative professional requirements. “Qualification”
means, first of all, the requirements of professional activity to a
person in qualitative and quantitative terms (what he/she should
know and be able to do).
“Competency” is also a characteristic of the subject and his/her
activity, which in reference and normative literature is often

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604
defined as possession of knowledge allowing to judge about
something, to express a competent opinion. An increase in the
competency level is interpreted as a measure of the knowledge
depth and breadth. In other words, competency is primarily based
on existing knowledge, which is necessary to perform
professional duties and achieve personal goals. Therefore, the
modern understanding of competency includes both a person’s
ability to perform certain functions and certain mental qualities
(conditions) that allow one to act independently and responsibly.
It is important to emphasize that the competency is assessed
considering the activity results, not resources invested in their
achievement. Competency cannot be reduced to education,
efforts, etc.
Methodology and methods
Competency “resists” incompetency and overcompetency, which
is knowing the way to do a job better “than accepted”. In some
organizational structures (hierarchies), overcompetency is as
undesired as incompetency. According to G. L. Peter, a person is
promoted to higher positions until he/she reaches his/her level of
incompetency, i.e. until fulfilled duties become impracticable for
this individual.
The phenomenon of competency is actively and fruitfully studied
within the acmeological direction, focused on interdisciplinary
research, the extremely broad interpretation of the phenomenon,
the development of its structure, including such components as
reflexive, autopsychological, conflictological, social-perceptive,
etc. (Raven J., 1998; Serikov V.V., 1999; Bakhtigulova L.B.,
2014; Gavrilyuk O.A. et al., 2018). The competent behavior of
the individual depends on various factors, among which are the
following:
1) motivation and ability to engage in high-level activities, for
example, to take the initiative and responsibility, analyze the
work of an organization or political system;

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605
2) readiness to engage in subjectively significant actions, for
example, to strive to influence what is happening in the
organization or the society on the whole;
3) willingness and ability to help create a climate favouring the
support and encouragement of those who are trying to innovate or
are looking for ways to work more efficiently;
4) adequate understanding of principles underlying the
organization’s performance and adequate perception of one’s
own and other people’s role in the organization and the society;
5) valid understanding of a number of concepts related to the
management of organizational structures and society as a whole
(such concepts include: risk, efficiency, leadership, responsibility,
accountability, communication, equality, participation, welfare,
democracy).
Results
The phenomenon of competency has a certain hierarchy, which is
revealed through the scale, content and formation methods: a
competency fragment  competency element  special case
(segment) of competency  competency section  competency
area (sphere).
The following types of competency are distinguished (Markova
A.K., Milner B.Z., Raven J.) (Raven J., 1998; Bakhtigulova L.B.,
2014):
1) the special competency – ability to fulfill one’s professional
activity at a high level and to design one’s further professional
development;
2) the individual competency – ability to use the methods of self-
realization and individuality development within the profession,
readiness for professional growth, aptitude for individual self-
preservation, counteraction to professional burnout, ability to
rationally organize their work;
3) the personal competency – knowledge of personal self-
expression and self-development techniques, means of resisting
professional deformation;

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606
4) the social competency – knowledge of methods concerning
joint (group, cooperative) activities, cooperation and
communication; leadership and social responsibility for the
achieved results.
Ensuring the growth of competency is inextricably linked with
the system of personal values. Therefore, identifying an
individual’s value orientations, helping him/her to become more
fully aware of them, resolving value conflicts and evaluating
alternatives is the basis of any program of this kind. At the same
time, the thesis that both professional and personal development
should be based on a system of personal values is not congruent
to generally accepted ideas about a competent person.
The personality is formed, developed, self-realized and improved
in various ways changing itself and the fulfilled activity (as its
objective subject). The problem of personality self-development
has many aspects of consideration, both in theoretical and
practical terms. It should be emphasized that, despite the ever-
growing interest in it, the phenomenon of self-development
remains unsolved at the stages of forming an individual,
experiencing personal crises and an individual’s ability to
overcome them.
All modern studies of personality self-development can be
attributed to three areas:
1) functional (causal, reason-related), considering a person as a
purely functional being in all spheres of his/her life activity;
2) subject-targeted, shifting the emphasis on the value-semantic
characteristics of an individual, placing it in the center of cultural
ideals;
3) systemological, combining the two previous approaches based
on the principle of determining any event in a systematic way and
providing a holistic vision of the studied phenomenon.
An individual’s socio-psychological preparedness is expressed in
the nature of its self-organization. Managing a person’s behavior
(self-regulation) allows him/her to resolve conflicts, control
his/her behavior, “convert” negative experiences. L.I.

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607
Antsyferova defines personal – the highest – self-regulation form
as a process of self-creation. A person organizes and controls
his/her self-development by regulating the process of self-
nurturing, which is formed as a result of self-knowledge and
awareness of the discrepancy between the real “I” and the ideal
self-image in the future. Within harmonious self-nurturing, the
interests of self-nurturing and individual possibilities of self-
regulation correspond to external educational goals and images.
As an ideal result, this external goal is identified as personal.
Discussion
A person’s social competency implies that he/she: regards
himself/herself as a member of society; follows the moral and
ethical norms peculiar to the society; is aware of the need to focus
all his / her activities on what will be good for the society;
accepts social responsibility for the consequences of his/her
actions; collaborates with other members of society; is capable of
flexible change of social role; is ready to change and influence
the changes in interpersonal relationships; seeks and knows how
to arouse public interest in his/her professional and social
activities; strives to match his/her professional and social status
with individual and personal qualities.
Turning to the phenomenon of the social competency, we focus
on the types of motivation that modern society needs and the
factors which determine them. In other words, we are talking
about the stimuli that motivate members of society to gain the
key elements of the social competency – initiative, leadership,
responsibility, effective work in cooperation with others.
An innovative person, striving for a high level of the social
competency, is characterized by:
1) attitude to the world, which is characterized by curiosity and
the desire to control (manipulate) it, which is expressed in the
persistent search for its main regulators in order to influence and
control various phenomena;

608

608
2) accepting responsibility for the bad aspects of life, coupled
with finding the best solutions and constant attempts to make
alterations;
3) frankness and tolerance towards fellow citizens, an approving
attitude towards their originality and striving for innovations in
all areas of life;
4) creativity, stimulating originality and striving for novelty,
indomitable curiosity.
In Russian pedagogy, the concept of the social competency has
been recently explored within discussions about the quality of
education, about what a student should be. At the same time, the
generalized form of this phenomenon includes various types of
readiness for certain activity types: professional labour activity;
family creation; performing civilian functions and improving the
society in which he/she will live; creative activity in any field;
preserving and strengthening the student’s physical and mental
health; awareness of the need to self-change and study throughout
life. I.A. Zimnyaya says that “... all competences are social in the
broad sense of the word, because they are developed, formed in
society. They are social in their content, they are manifested in
this society; at the same time, social (in the narrow sense of the
word) competencies characterize the interaction of a person with
society and other people”
In psychology, the social competency is often correlated with the
concept of “self-confidence”. So, according to G.I. Sivkova, “the
social competency is the presence of confident behavior in which
various skills in the sphere of relations with people are automated
and provide an opportunity to flexibly change one’s behavior
depending on the situation”.
This idea is expressed even more definitely by V.G. Romekom,
who regards the social competency “... as a result of a special
style of confident behaviour, in which confidence skills are
automated and provide an opportunity to flexibly change the
strategy and behaviour plans, taking into account the narrow

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(particular social situation) and wide (social norms and
conditions) context”.
Therefore, each of the listed definitions has its own
characteristics, but their structure involves objectively necessary
common elements. When considering the social competency,
scientists tend to include knowledge, social skills and abilities in
its structure. As we can see, these components form the basis of
the social competency.
Conclusion
The analysis of the current state of an individual’s formation and
self-development, including the competency aspect, allows us to
formulate the following conclusions.
1. Personality is considered as a complex dynamic structural
formation. At the same time, the dominant, system-forming role
of orientation, motivation, value orientations, will, goal-setting is
emphasized. The formation and integration of the personality’s
main components create organic bonds with self-consciousness
and turn the personality into a subject of lifelong individual and
social development.
2. The phenomenon of self-development can be identified as the
main internal mechanism of personal development. At the same
time, “development” is interpreted as any qualitative change in an
individual’s consciousness and behaviour of an individual. At the
same time, self-development can lead to both personal growth
(self-improvement, competency-based improvement) and
deformation (degradation) of an individual.
3. The significance of personality’s self-development is
determined by its regulatory function. A person makes a decision
based on taking into account his/her subjective attitudes towards
different sides of the surrounding reality. This process includes
the person’s attitude towards himself/herself as a competent
subject of social relations and as an individual as a whole. The
degree of maturity is expressed in the ability to make competent
decisions and conscious choices in difficult situations. Those
who, based on an established system of relations and values,

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choose their own life paths, adapt to the conditions of activity
faster and easier, achieve a high level of competency, feel
satisfaction from it. Personal development is determined by the
person’s inclusion in various activities and satisfaction with it.

References
Bakhtigulova, L.B. 2014. Professional and educational activities
in the system development of university students. Moscow State
Forest University, Moscow, 440 pp.
Gavrilyuk, O.A., Tareva, E.G., Lakhno, A.V. 2018. Teachers’
professional autonomy as a mainspring of creativity and
innovation in foreign language teaching. International Journal of
Education and Teaching, 13 (1): 1–18.
Milovanov, K.Y., Zanaev, S.Z., Nikitina, E.E., Polovetsky, S.D.
2018. Education system: History and perspectives. Espacios, 39
(38): 18.
Raven, J. 1998. Competence in Modern Society: Its
Identification, Development and Release. Hodder Arnold H&S,
London, the UK, 260 pp.
Skvortsov, V.N. 2016. Universities as educational and cultural
centers of training specialists of the XXI century. In: Russia and
Kazakhstan on the way to universal education, Pushkin
Leningrad State University, Saint Petersburg, pp. 137 – 165.
Skvortsov, V.N. 2017. Continuing education as the basis of
modern scientific knowledge. Bulletin of Pushkin Leningrad State
University, 2: 157–161.
Serikov, V.V. 1999. Education and personality. Theory and
practice of designing pedagogical systems. Logos Publishing
Corporation, Moscow, 272 pp.
Tareva, E.G. 2001. Formation of rational style of educational
activities for university students: theory and technology. Irkutsk
State Linguistic University, Irkutsk, 200 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-612-624

THE IMPACT OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES

ON THE LANGUAGE OF FRENCH YOUTH

Tamara V. Slastnikova¹, Daria V. Gogol²

Institute of Foreign Languages

Moscow City University
Moscow, Russia
¹e-mail: [email protected]
²e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
The language of young people in its diversity is of great interest
to linguists at the present moment. Only dead languages do not
evolve and this is why SMS communication has become in a few
years a real phenomenon of the modern reality in which it is
difficult to escape these mini-messages that are sent during the
day. It is not a secret that the language of young people is like a
mirror, through which we can see all the changes that occur in
society at a certain stage of its historical development. For some
time our society has been influenced by two trends: the
globalization and the integration of society, which predetermines
the attraction of economic, political and cultural external links;
the strengthening the ideas of national (ethnic) identity. This
happens when the consciousness of society changes, adapts,
rebuilds itself, young people develop with a new vision of life
and a vision of the world quite different from that of their parents,
who impact directly on the verbal behavior of the youth. Today
the Internet is a system of possibilities. Communication is among
the most popular services. We can inoculate with many people,
without worrying about their place of residence, age, their degree
of knowledge (familiarity), etc. Such a mode of communication is
very current, especially among the modern young people who
feel the constant need for communication because of their age.

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Formerly this communicative need is complemented by reading,
music, art but, unfortunately, nowadays all this has moved aside.
With the appearance of the mobile phone, communication via
SMS has become even more convenient. The mobile phone
accompanies its owner everywhere and allows us to touch our
target directly and personally through a powerful and fast
message. Millions of SMS are sent every day in France. When we
send an SMS the number of characters is limited to 160. Thus, we
try to write a maximum of information in a minimum of space for
the sake of economy. It is with their friends that young people
spend most of their leisure time. Social networks and chats allow
them to chat all together in real time. Chatting is one of the most
popular activities on social networks: 86 % of young people chat
(survey of 2018). It does not cost them anything, unlike the
phone. Another attraction of the chat rooms is that you make new
acquaintances quickly. Chatter is an adaptation of English, but
the word chat was created by the French Academy that cannot
stand any more the fact that the young people turn the words
invented by English speakers instead of using ones of their own
(Both variants are correct: chatter/tchatter). Instant messaging
allows instant online communication, and does not keep sending
messages. Some common examples: Google Talk, MSN, Skype,
Yahoo, messenger ... There are also specialized chats in all kinds
of areas that provide meetings. In this report we will examine the
specificities of the virtual language that the French youth actively
uses. Then, we will study whether the new technologies have an
impact on the way adolescents write. Finally, we will tackle the
question of the influence of the argo borrowed by young people
on the writing of SMS and on the intercultural interaction because
all human society works with prohibitions, taboos, among others,
the social, political, religious, moral order which is conveyed by
the legitimized forms of language.
Key words: language of young people, SMS, specificities of the
virtual language, new technologies, borrowed argo.

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L’IMPACT DES NOUVELLES TECHNOLOGIES
SUR LE LANGAGE DES JEUNES FRANÇAIS

Tamara V. Slastnikova¹, Daria V. Gogol²

Institut de Langues Etrangères

Université de la ville de Moscou
Moscou, Russie
¹e-mail: [email protected]
²e-mail: [email protected]

Résumé
Le langage des jeunes dans sa diversité représente un grand
intérêt pour les linguistes au moment actuel. Seules les langues
mortes n’évoluent pas et c’est pourquoi la communication par
SMS est devenue en quelques années un véritable phénomène de
la réalité moderne dans laquelle il est difficile d'échapper ces
mini-messages que l'on s'envoie à longueur de journée. Ce n’est
pas un secret que le langage des jeunes est comme un miroir, on
реut у voir tous les changements qui se produisent dans la société
à un certain stade de son développement historique. Depuis un
certain temps notre société a été influencée par deux tendances:
• la mondialisation et l'intégration de la société, qui prédétermine
l'attraction de liens externes économiques, politiques et
culturelles;
• le renforcement des idées de l'identité nationale (ethnique). Cela
se produit quand la conscience de la société change, s'adapte, se
reconstruit, les jeunes se forment et se développent avec de
nouvelle vision de vie et une vision du monde tout à fait
différente de celle de leurs parents, qui a directement un impact
sur le comportement verbal des jeunes. Aujourd'hui, l'Internet est
un système de possibilités. Parmi les services les plus populaires
on peut citer la communication. On peut inoculer avec beaucoup
de gens, sans se soucier du lieu de résidence, de l'âge, du degré de
connaissance (la familiarité), etc. Un tel mode de communication

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est très actuel, notamment parmi les jeunes d'aujourd'hui, qui en
raison de leur âge ressentent le besoin de communication
constamment. Jadis ce besoin communicatif se compléter par la
lecture, la musique, l'art mais malheureusement tout cela
aujourd'hui s'est écarté au deuxième plan. Avec l’apparition du
téléphone portable, communiquer par SMS est devenu encore
plus pratique. Le téléphone portable accompagne partout son
propriétaire et nous permet de toucher directement et
personnellement notre cible à travers un message percutant et
rapide. Des millions de SMS sont envoyées chaque jour en
France. Lorsque nous envoyons un SMS le nombre de caractères
est limité à 160. Ainsi, nous essayons en un minimum de place,
d'écrire un maximum d'informations, par souci d'économie. C'est
avec leurs amis que les jeunes passent le plus volontiers leurs
loisirs. Les réseaux sociaux et tchats leur permettent de discuter
(tchatter), à deux ou à plusieurs, en temps réel. Tchatter est l'une
des activités les plus fréquentes sur les réseaux sociaux: 86 % des
jeunes le font (étude 2018). Cela ne leur coûte rien, contrairement
au téléphone. Ce qui fait aussi l'attrait des salons de discussion,
c'est qu'on у fait rapidement de nouvelles connaissances. Chatter
est une adaptation de l'anglais, mais le mot tchatter a été créé par
l'Académie française qui ne supporter plus que les jeunes
détourne les mots inventés par les anglophones au lieu d'utiliser
des termes bien de à eux (Les deux variantes sont justes:
chatter/tchatter). La messagerie instantanée permet une
communication en ligne instantanée, et ne conserve pas les
messages envoyés. Quelques exemples courants : Google Talk,
MSN, Skype, Yahoo, messenger... II existe aussi des chats
spécialisés dans toutes sortes de domaines, dont les rencontres.
Dans cet exposé nous examinerons les spécificités du langage
virtuel qu’utilise activement la jeunesse française. Ensuite, on va
étudier si les nouvelles technologies ont cependant un impact sur
la manière dont les adolescents écrivent. Pour finir, nous
aborderons la question de l’influence de l’argot emprunté par les
jeunes sur l’écriture des SMS et sur l’interaction interculturelle

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parce que toute société humaine fonctionne avec des interdits, des
tabous, entre autres, d’ordre social, politique, religieux, moral,
qui sont véhiculés par les formes légitimées de la langue.
Mots-clés: langage des jeunes, SMS, spécificités du langage
virtuel, nouvelles technologies, argot emprunté.
Introduction
La question de l’impact des nouvelles technologies sur la langue
de la jeunesse française est essentielle dans l’évolution d’un
champ scientifique, et provoque des débats nourris et vigoureux
parmi les linguistes au cours des dernières décennies. Il est à
noter que de nombreuses études scientifiques (dans les domaines
de la linguistique, la sociologie, l’anthropologie, la psychologie,
la communication, etc.) se sont déjà axés sur la nouvelle forme de
communication mise en œuvre à travers les nouvelles
technologies. On parle de la diversité et des normes de cette
langue (J. Gerbault), de la typologie et problématiques futures (R.
Panckhurst), on étudie le langage texto (J. Anis, A. Dejond, F.
Liénard, R. Laffont), des problèmes de phonétisation (M.
Lanvin), mais les connaissances accumulées restent partielles et
lacunaires. Les débats passionnés que ce sujet entraîne
témoignent de l’intérêt qu’il suscite. C’est en effet l’occasion
pour chacun de réfléchir sur la langue des jeunes et son évolution.
Le virtuel est doté d’un immense potentiel: nous pouvons
maintenant communiquer n’importe où et à tout moment parce
qu’il n’y a plus de barrière, la communication passe à travers le
temps et l’espace, et le monde est devenu une vaste autoroute de
l’information. Les nouvelles technologies font naître le progrès
dans la société, mais aussi l’incertitude face aux changements des
interactions sociales. Les jeunes confondent la réalité et le virtuel.
Les progrès techniques arrivent à une vitesse folle, le rythme
devient de plus en plus rapide. Désormais, chaque nouvelle
génération connait une ou plusieurs modifications importantes
dans son environnement, mais sa capacité d’adaptation ne change
pas pour autant. Il y a environ un siècle entre le journal et la
télévision, mais depuis un quart de siècle, les technologies de

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communications ne cessent de s'accroitre (Michaud P.-A.,
Bélanger R., 2010: 1230).
Les adolescents sont d’importants utilisateurs des nouveaux outils
que sont les téléphones mobiles, les ordinateurs, les consoles, les
lecteurs numériques portatifs et autres outils offrant l’opportunité
en un seul clic d’avoir accès à Internet (Caron A.H., Caronia L.,
2005: 21). Écouter de la musique, parler avec des amis sur
Facebook tout en réalisant des recherches pour un devoir d’école
est devenu banale pour un jeune aujourd’hui.
Objectifs / But de l'étude
Les jeunes ont la capacité de réagir instantanément à ce qui se
passe autour d'eux, avec confiance et légèreté, font leurs actes et
gestes résolus, audacieux, sans compromis. Ces prédispositions
ont tendance à trouver leur réalisation directe, principalement
dans la langue (Slastnikova T., 2016: 504). Voilà pourquoi depuis
l’apparition du téléphone portable en tant qu’intermédiaire
d’interaction, les puristes, les linguistes, les enseignants et les
parents s’inquiètent de l’influence négative du langage virtuel sur
le niveau du français national des écoliers.
La communication virtuelle, comme nous le savons, est l'une des
formes les plus populaires de la communication, appelée aussi 1a
communication médiée par ordinateur, cybercommunication ou
netspeak, les termes introduits par J. Gerbault dans son livre La
langue du cyberespace: de la diversité aux normes, sont les
formes de communication textuelle utilisant des dispositifs
numériques comme transmetteur et médiateur. Elles sont utilisées
notamment dans les SMS, la messagerie instantanée, les forums,
les jeux en lignes multijoueurs, le courrier électronique et le Web
(Gerbault J., 2008: 98).
Comme l'écrit F. Liénard, l'écriture SMS est une variété de
français écrit fortement dépendante de la technologie médiatrice
(Liénard F., 2009: 260). Les SMS et les tchats ont rencontré un
succès incontestable ces dernières années. Avec leur
développement est né un style d'écriture particulier qui a entrainé
un nombre de réactions chez les linguistes, sociologues,

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psychologues et autres spécialistes de la communication (Anis J.,
2001: 54).
Méthodologie
Afin d’établir les caractéristiques spécifiques du langage des
jeunes, on a recueilli des exemples des messages les plus
représentatifs en utilisant comme source : Anis J. 2001. Parlez
vous texto?, Veyrin-Forrer 2004 : Dictionnaire insolite français-
SMS, Poussevy 2010 : Parlez-vous le SMS ?, Mongaillard 2013:
Le petit livre de la tchatche. A l’étape suivante le matériel textuel
collectionné a été analysé en appliquant des méthodes
linguistiques diverses telles que l’analyse morphosyntaxique,
stylistique, sémantique et axiologique. L'analyse des tchats et des
SMS nous conduit à la conclusion que le langage virtuel est une
nouvelle langue, qu’utilise activement la jeunesse française et qui
a ses propres spécificités.
1. Langage virtuel : spécificités et statut linguistique
L'analyse des tchats et des SMS nous conduit à la conclusion que
le langage virtuel est une nouvelle langue, qu’utilise activement
la jeunesse française et qui a ses propres spécificités: la
grammaire et l'orthographe у sont bien souvent négligées, on écrit
comme on entend: Tu fe koi? (Tu fais quoi?), é twa? (et toi?). En
plus, les jeunes s'envoient des SMS en argot: bordel, merde,
putain, saloperie, mes deux. Puis, ils expriment leurs émotions
avec des émoticônes comme : D, ^^, :((, ou des acronymes
comme LOL, F2F, NC, OMG; abrègent les mots, en inventant de
nouveaux et utilisent les onomatopées glanées dans les bandes
dessinées comme chuuuut, crac. Ils mélangent le style familier à
celui soutenue: bosser, bouffer et ils utilisent excessivement de
l'argot. Ils suppriment encore des mots et des syllabes. Ainsi le ne
de la négation disparait dans la plupart des cas, par exemple: je
veux pas... ; ajoutons que c’est le verlan qui domine dans les
tchates et SMS: beur (arabe), zarbi (bizarre), cheum (moche),
meuf (femme) (Slastnikova T., 2013: 398). L’utilisation de on
pour nous, et de ça pour cela est aussi souvent: On sort ce soir ?
Ou bien ta encor besoin 2 récupéré?. On peut aussi souligner

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l’omission de à en tant que préposition locative ou temporelle:
Rdv cafèt a 10h ! → Rendez-vous cafèt à 10h; l’omission de de
en tant que préposition: besoin prendre l air → J’ai besoin
prendre l’air; – l’omission simultanée des pronoms sujet et COD:
Oui merci te souhaite aussi ensoleillé ke la mienne → Oui merci
te souhaite aussi ensoleillée que la mienne (Slastnikova T., 2014:
66).
Alors, telle écriture incorrecte ne fait pas seulement hurler les
défenseurs de la langue française, elle inquiète aussi de nombreux
parents et enseignants, qui y voient une menace sur le niveau
d’orthographe des adolescents. En vain. La position que nous
soutenons ici rejoint celle de P. Berry, qui rappelait encore
récemment que le langage SMS ne nuit pas à l’orthographe
traditionnelle: ce n’est pas parce qu’un élève écrit tu fé dans un
SMS qu’il ne sait pas que le verbe faire, conjugué à la deuxième
personne du singulier, s’écrit fais, il existe un registre de l’écrit
traditionnel et un registre de l’écrit SMS, les deux sont
indépendants l’un de l’autre. On ne mélange pas en discours les
langues étrangères que nous connaissons, ainsi la langue virtuelle
est étrangère pour celle nationale.
C’est le constat qu'écrire de manière traditionnelle ou des textos
dépendent des mêmes capacités cognitives parce que quand on
écrit un texto, on pratique justement de l'écriture phonétique et
pas de l’orthographe et on cherche à retranscrire les sons de la
façon la plus simple possible (Berry P., 2009). Donc, la baisse du
niveau en orthographe serait plutôt le résultat du peu de temps
consacré à l'étude de la langue à l'école voilà pourquoi c’est à
l'inverse, c’est l’orthographe traditionnelle qui influe sur la
pratique des SMS. Ce n’est pas le secret que les meilleurs élèves
en orthographe déforment plus rapidement les mots, autrement
dit, ils s’emparent plus vite du langage SMS, de bons élèves
créent beaucoup plus de textismes et néologismes, parce que leur
fantaisie linguistique est plus développée grâce à la grande
quantité de connaissances, en rupture avec le code traditionnel.

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Le langage SMS est le néo langage dont le maître mot est
créativité. Renouvelé, simplifié, toujours réécrit, le français des
tchats ou des textos naît des mises en situation (Anis J., 2001:
81). Alors, on peut constater qu’il n’y a pas de langage unique
dans l’emploi des SMS, cette nouvelle forme de communication
ne menace pas l’orthographe et la syntaxe du français. Mais, par
contre, elle permet à ces acteurs d’inventer de nouveaux mots,
d’intégrer autrement les émotions dans le discours, avec les
émoticones, d’imaginer des langages codés, secrets, bref de se
réapproprier la langue. Les nouvelles technologies ne déforment
pas le français, mais modifient simplement la façon de le
pratiquer.
2. Argot comme résultat de l’influence des nouvelles
technologies
Les jeunes savent qu’ils utilisent un code secret, la langue
secondaire. Ils parlent cyberlangue pour s’exprimer librement,
pour dissimuler des lacunes dans l'éducation, pour économiser du
temps et des efforts. Ensuite, ils enrichissent leur vocabulaire par
les locutions intéressantes, produisent l’échange culturel. Cela se
produit en déplaçant le bagage linguistique des émigrants vers le
pays de résistance, reflétant leur discours oral, transmis aux
locuteurs natifs par les emprunts occasionnels et l’argot en tant
que nouveau phénomène linguistique. Nous concluons que les
nouvelles technologies ont l’impact seulement sur le langage
traditionnel écrit, mais que le discours oral est influencé par les
emprunts et l’argot, venus d’ailleurs.
Toute langue a bel et bien toujours eu, génère continuellement et
aura toujours un registre argotique, qui permet la mise en place
des stratégies de contournement, voire aussi de cryptage, de
masquage. Les formes argotiques et les formes non légitimées
dites populaires de la langue française ne sont pas d’exception et
elles se rejoignaient et c’est une des raisons qui ont permis alors
aux mots des argotiers, des jargonneux de tel ou tel petit métier
de passer du statut d'argot particulier à celui d'argot commun
avant même de transiter par l'intermédiaire de la langue familière

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vers la langue française circulante, voire la langue académique,
celle que l'on peut aussi écrire, y compris à l'école.
3. Argot des cités ou argot de banlieue
Par exemple, les observations de J.-P. Goudailler sont tombées
sur les personnes qui vivent dans des cités de banlieue ou dans
des quartiers dits défavorisés – entre des tours et des barres – et
qui parlent de plus en plus fréquemment une forme de français
que certaines d'entre elles nomment verlan, d'autres argot, voire
racaille-mot. Cette variété de français, que l'on peut désigner par
argot des cités ou argot de banlieue est en réalité la manifestation
contemporaine la plus importante d'une variété de français, qui au
cours des dernières décennies, tout comme les diverses
populations qui l'ont parlée, a perdu tout d'abord son caractère
rural, par la suite toute indexation ouvrière, voire prolétaire, pour
devenir le mode d'expression de groupes sociaux insérés dans un
processus d'urbanisation.
Résultats / Constatations
Étant donné les pratiques langagières des communautés d'origines
diverses, de cultures et de langues non moins différentes, qui
cohabitent dans les cités ou les quartiers des grandes villes
françaises une interlangue émerge entre le français véhiculaire
dominant, la langue circulante, et l'ensemble des vernaculaires
qui compose la mosaïque linguistique des cités: arabe maghrébin,
berbère, diverses langues africaines et asiatiques, langues de type
tsigane, créoles antillais (à base lexicale française) pour ne citer
que ces langues.
Pour laisser leur marque identitaire dans la langue, les locuteurs
des cités et quartiers vont utiliser (Goudaillier J.-P., 2002: 10):
- des mots d’origine arabe (parlers maghrébins essentiellement)
ou d'origine berbère: ahchouma - honte (arabe hacma); arhnouch
– policier (arabe hnaec - serpent); casbah - maison
(arabe - qasba) ; haram - péché (arabe hraem); heps - prison
(arabe haebs); hralouf - porc (arabe hluf); maboul - fou, idiot
(arabe mahbûl); mesquin - pauvre type, idiot (arabe miskin);

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roumi - Français de souche (arabe rumi - homme européen);
shitan - diable (arabe cetan);
- des mots d'origine tzigane: bédo - cigarette de haschisch;
bicrav - vendre en participant à des actions illicites;
chafrav - travailler; choucard - bien, bon; chourav - voler;
craillav - manger; gadji - fille, femme; gadjo - gars, homme;
gavali - fille, femme; marav - battre, tuer; minch - petite amie;
racli - fille, femme; raclo - gars, homme; rodav - regarder,
repérer; schmitt – policier;
- des mots d'origine africaine: go - fille, femme; gorette - fille,
jeune femme;
- des mots d'origine antillaise: maconmé - homosexuel
(français - ma commère); timal - homme, gars (français - petit
mâle);
- des mots issus du vieil argot français: artiche(s) - argent;
baston - bagarre; bastos - balle; biffeton - billet; blase - nom;
caisse - voiture; calibre - arme; condé - policier; fafiot - billet;
flag - flagrant délit; mastoc - costaud, fort; serrer - attraper,
arrêter quelqu'un; taf - travail; taule - maison; tune - argent;
daron - père; taupe - fille, femme.
Discussion
La langue est une réalité multiforme, jamais figée, que nul ne
peut prétendre connaître dans toutes ses dimensions. Elle s'est
toujours adaptée et continuera de s’adapter aux besoins de ceux
qui la parlent. Les jeunes sont une catégorie démographique
particulièrement confrontée aux évolutions sociales, culturelles et
éthiques des cinquante dernières années (BTSA, 2019).
Dans le cas qui nous intéresse ici, on peut, sans se tromper,
affirmer qu’il y a effectivement un impact des nouvelles
technologies sur le langage des jeunes français, mais plutôt
positif, et l'origine est avant toute sociétale et remonte aux années
1960. L'accent a été mis, au moins aux Etats-Unis, sur une
approche plus informelle de l'écriture, favorisant l'expression par
rapport à la rigueur. Plus que nos capacités, c'est notre attitude
qui a changé. C’est pourquoi il ne faut pas alarmer sur le langage

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des jeunes et sur l’impact négatif de la technologie sur le niveau
de maitrise de la langue. Au même titre que la façon de s’habiller,
la façon de s’exprimer - c’est seulement un signe de distinction.
Le français est plus vivant qu’il ne le fut jamais, parce qu’il ne
coïncide plus avec le territoire national de ses origines: la langue
en elle-même est devenue un territoire, en partage avec bientôt
sept cent quinze millions de francophones aux accents les plus
variés et tous d’une équivalente légitimité. Accompagner ou
combattre la langue virtuelle - c’est le moment de choisir son
camp.

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Slastnikova T. 2016. SMS as a new form of dialogue culture in
the communicative space. The dialogue of cultures. Culture of
dialogue: in search of advanced social and humanitarian
practices. Materials of the First International Conference. Edited
by E.G. Taryova, L.G. Vikulova, pp. 503-505.
URL: https://crowulpirecal.firebaseapp.com/2841566927.pdf
[Accessed January 16 2019].
Veyrin-Forrer U. 2004. Dictionnaire insolite français-SMS. Paris:
Cosmopole Active Media, 95 р.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-624-637

LINGUISTICS IN GLOBAL EUROPE

Sabina N. Khanbalaeva

Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO - University)

Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
In the days of economic crises, the idea of Europe as a Common
Home is being threatened and with it the idea of a European
Community in the sense of a European Identity and a set of
Common European Values. Thereby, European cultures and

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languages are important components for common cooperation
and mutual respect of each other’s linguistic and cultural
background. Anyone who is multilingual and can speak and
understand more than one language will realize what the
European idea of the unity of cultures and languages in Europe is
about. There is no question concerning the existence of such a
common European unity, linguistic community and European
identity in the European communication between ethnic groups
and political systems, containing not only a linguistic, religious,
legal and technical basis but also the great amount of common
historical and social traditions in law, religion, social behaviour
etc.
The topic of this article will cover the development of linguistics
in Europe for the last years. It is therefore a summary of some
experience with efforts to Europeanize the science of language.
There is a tendency to criticize the social and political demise of
linguistics research during the past few years, but nevertheless to
point out the great prospects and possibilities of linguistics in
global Europe is no doubt of great importance. Linguists today
must be a completely new type of language science with wide
perspective in dealing with the languages of Europe and without
thinking of languages and cultures in Europe from a rather
limited national point of view. The world famous Ferdinand de
Saussure defined man’s multilingual capacity to learn, understand
and speak several languages as “la faculte du langage” (Saussure
F. de, 1990). He believed it to be a wonderful gift of man. Indeed
the monolingual view of man’s cognition as proclaimed by
traditional, structural and generative linguists was a fallacy.
Eurolinguistics has arrived as a new orientation and as a
challenge to people who are calling for a renewal of general
linguistics away from the obsession with empty formalism and
away from endless pragmatic and cognitive linguistics. What
brings Eurolinguists together now is the opening of a completely
new type of linguistics, for which time, space and social
dimensions play an indispensable role for linguistic descriptions.

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The very term “Eurolinguistics” containing the prefix Euro- is as
such a challenge, because it forces us to a much broader Europe-
wide perspective in dealing with the languages of Europe.
A new branch of linguistics has established itself in research but
has remained unrecognized or ignored in the mainstream of
today’s educational policy at the university level, both by the
educational establishment itself as well as the majority of the
established linguists. Politicians and educators have also
neglected the interaction of European languages and cultures,
especially concerning the study of linguistic minorities and their
languages, in spite of their assurances. Substantial economic
support in the form of new chairs and research funds for minority
languages are rare, because funding of new Eurolinguistic
projects and scholarly acceptance of the Europe-wide orientation
have hardly been forthcoming in European countries. Mother-
tongue education and English dominate the whole didactic field
in the schools and universities in spite of the proven advantage of
the spread of bi- and multilingualism for European
communication as an alternative to English.
Furthermore, even the growing number of publications on
language contact and conflict together with numerous
Eurolinguistics conferences and workshops throughout western
and central Europe have had little effect towards a
Europeanization of present-day language teaching.
Most young Europeans with a tertiary education remain
completely unprepared for European matters in politics,
economics and social challenges in thinking and acting European.
It is up to us after the shift of the millennium to create new
conditions for a fundamental reform in educational planning for
Europe. Such an overall educational plan for Europe does not
exist yet. Such a plan should, however, include all the specific
major and minor linguistic and cultural characteristics of the
European peoples, which all-European countries and ethnic
groups share together.

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The foremost goal of this educational plan is to introduce
Eurolinguistics as a subject in its own right, which is only one
part of the Europeanization process for schools and universities.
Keywords: linguistics research, new perspective of the European
languages, monolingual national research, multilingual capacity
to learn, to promote a multilingual goal, Linguistics in Global
Europe.

ЛИНГВИСТИКА В ГЛОБАЛЬНОЙ ЕВРОПЕ

Сабина Н. Хананбаева

Московский государственный институт международных отношений

(МГИМО университет)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация.
В условиях экономического кризиса под угрозой оказывается
не только идея Европы как общего дома, но и идея
Европейского сообщества, т.е. европейской идентичности, а
также система общеевропейских ценностей. В связи с этим
европейские культуры и языки становятся важными
компонентами сотрудничества, основанного на взаимном
уважении к лингвистическому и культурному прошлому
стран Европы. Любой, кто многоязычен, поймет, что означает
исключительно европейская идея союза культур и языков в
Европе. Не возникает вопроса относительно существования
такого общеевропейского союза, лингвистического
сообщества и европейской идентичности при общении
между этническими группами и политическими системами в
Европе, схожими в лингвистическом, правовом и
техническом аспектах, а также имеющими большое
количество общих исторических и социальных традиций в
правоведении, религии, социальном поведении и т.д.

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Тема данной статьи посвящена развитию лингвистики в
Европе за последние годы, поэтому в ней представлено
краткое изложение некоторого опыта попыток европеизации
науки о языке.
Появилась тенденция критиковать социальный и
политический крах лингвистических исследований за
последние несколько лет, но при этом исключительно важно
отметить широкие перспективы и ресурсы лингвистики в
глобальной Европе. Сегодня лингвистике не следует
рассматривать европейские языки и культуры с весьма
ограниченной национальной точки зрения, лингвистика
должна быть совершенно новым типом науки о языке с
неограниченными возможностями для работы со всеми
языками Европы. Известный лингвист Фердинанд де Соссюр
определял человеческое многоязычное умение обучаться,
понимать и говорить на нескольких языках, как «la faculte du
langage» (Saussure F. de, 1990). Он считал это чудесным
даром человека. Действительно, традиционные, структурные
и генеративные лингвисты заблуждались в своем
монолингвистическом представлении о человеческой
познавательной способности.
Евролингвистика появилась как новый языковой ориентир и
как вызов людям, которые призывают к обновлению общего
языкознания от навязчивости формализма, а также
прагматической и когнитивной лингвистики, то есть от
тенденций лингвистических исследований, которые сейчас в
моде. Евролингвистов объединяет открытие совершенно
нового типа лингвистики, для которой время, пространство и
социальные измерения играют важнейшую роль в
лингвистических описаниях. Сам термин «евролингвистика»,
содержащий приставку euro, – это как раз такой вызов,
имеющий широкую общеевропейскую перспективу в
изучении европейских языков.
Новая отрасль лингвистики утвердилась в научных
исследованиях, но осталась непризнанной или игнорируемой

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в русле современной образовательной политики на
университетском уровне как самим учебным заведением, так
и большинством признанных лингвистов. Взаимодействие
европейских языков и культур, особенно в области изучения
языковых меньшинств и их языков, также игнорируется,
несмотря на заверения политиков и преподавателей.
Существенная экономическая поддержка в виде новых
кафедр и исследовательских фондов для языков меньшинств
является редкостью, поскольку финансирование новых
евролингвистических проектов и научное признание
общеевропейской направленности в европейских странах
вряд ли ожидаются. Образование на родном языке и
английский язык доминируют во всей дидактической сфере в
школах и университетах, несмотря на доказанное
преимущество распространения двуязычия и многоязычия
для европейской коммуникации в качестве альтернативы
английскому языку.
Кроме того, даже растущее число публикаций о языковых
контактах и конфликтах, наряду с многочисленными
конференциями и семинарами по вопросам евролингвистики
по всей Западной и Центральной Европе, не оказало
существенного влияния на европеизацию современного
преподавания языков.
Большинство молодых европейцев с высшим образованием
остаются совершенно неподготовленными к сложным
европейским вопросам в области политики, экономики, а
также к социальным вызовам в мышлении и действиях
европейцев. Именно нам после смены тысячелетия предстоит
создать новые условия для фундаментальной реформы
образования в Европе. Такого общего образовательного плана
для Европы пока не существует. Между тем он должен
учитывать как основные, так и второстепенные
лингвистические и культурные особенности европейских
народов. Главной целью этого образовательного плана, на
наш взгляд, является представление евролингвистики как

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самостоятельного предмета в процессе европеизации школ и
университетов.
Ключевые слова: лингвистическое исследование, новая
перспектива европейских языков, монолингвистическое
национальное исследование, многоязычная способность
обучаться, поставить многоязычную цель, лингвистика в
глобальной Европе.

Вступление
Если отступить от убеждения, что человек рождается с таким
«faculte du langage» (Saussure F. de, 1990), то можно
предположить наличие гораздо большего интеллекта, чем
утверждалось ранее при формировании лингвистической
теории. Это означает фундаментальный сдвиг возможностей
от национальной лингвистики к лингвистике в масштабах
Европы. Новая перспектива взаимодействия европейских
языков в прошлом и в настоящем дает нам реалистическую
картину сближений и расхождений, вызванных различными
типами многоязычия. Этот сдвиг центральной идеи с
моноязыкового к многоязыковому представлению о
человеческом интеллекте проявился в течение последних лет
в создании новых лингвистических ассоциаций, где
исследовательский интерес направлен на языковой контакт.
Такое большое количество языковых типологий,
лингвистических меньшинств и языковых контактов
становится весьма обогащающим нововведением, вызывая
переориентацию лингвистического исследования. Благодаря
этому, кстати, открылись основные географические области
контактных лингвистических исследований, например, в
районах вокруг Северного и Балтийского морей,
Адриатического моря и даже Северной Атлантики и
Средиземного моря с Евро-Атлантическими и Евро-
Африканскими связями.
Для краткой формулировки возникающих контактных
изменений в языках, на которых говорят в разных

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географических областях, в настоящее время сложились
более благоприятные условия, чем пятьдесят лет назад,
благодаря подъему и развитию контактной лингвистики.
Предмет и цель исследования
Основной целью нашего исследования является презентация
проблематики современных европейских языков внутри
Европы (внутренняя евролингвистика) и за ее пределами
(глобальная евролингвистика). Дихотомия «внутренняя и
внешняя евролингвистики» была сформулирована как
исходное базовое разграничение в начинающихся новых
современных научных лингвистических исследованиях.
Создание межнациональных принципов в европейской
лингвистике может стать также основой для глобальных
лингвистических исследований. В этом смысле
евролингвистика – это не только европейская
социолингвистическая наука, но и одновременно наука о
роли мировой цивилизации в развитии лингвистических
инноваций языков мира (Letuchij A.B., 2016).
Если сейчас предпринять сравнительное изучение контактов
в регионах упомянутых выше морей, то окажется, что эти
контакты лучше рассматривать в контексте общеевропейской
культуры, чем в контексте моноязыковой теории, которая
существует на базе ранних национально–лингвистических
описаний. Ведь общеизвестно, что сравнительные описания
требуют более углубленного знания европейских вопросов,
чем работа в пределах моноязыковой национальной
структуры. К сожалению, при работе с европейскими
языками нас всех учили думать на языке национально-
генетических терминов и в строгих геополитических
границах. На данном этапе следует сделать исключение для
старого типа сравнительной лингвистики даже в зонах
действия различных языков.
Методология и методы
Сосредоточив внимание на развитии лингвистики в Европе
за последний период, нам придется описать и обсудить опыт

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некоторых проектов, публикаций и особенно двух
учреждений, которые имеют огромное значение для изучения
европейского многоязычия. Это Исследовательский Центр
многоязычия в Брюсселе и Международный центр
многоязычия в Удине. Образование таких многоязычных
центров с очевидной общеевропейской направленностью
дополняет одностороннее моноязыковое национальное
исследование в признанных университетах, поскольку это
явно свидетельствует о том, что лингвистическая
образовательная политика провалилась в своей
моноязыковой и антиевропейской направленности.
Исходя из этого, можно сделать вывод, что новая отрасль
лингвистики утвердилась в исследованиях, но осталась
непризнанной или незамеченной в главном направлении
сегодняшней образовательной политики на университетском
уровне. Эта тенденция характерна как для самих
образовательных учреждений, так и для большинства
авторитетных лингвистов. Политики и педагоги также
пренебрегли взаимодействием европейских языков и культур,
особенно касающимся изучения лингвистических
меньшинств и их языков. Финансирование новых евро-
лингвистических проектов, а также экономическая
поддержка создания новых кафедр и исследовательских
факультетов для изучения языков национальных меньшинств
оказывается весьма редко, поскольку идея общей
европейской направленности в лингвистике не находит
единодушного признания. В школах и университетах
преобладает образование на родном или на английском
языке, несмотря на доказанное преимущество
распространения би- и мультилингвизма для европейского
общения как альтернативы к исключительно английскому
варианту. Идея Вильгельма и Александра Гумбольдтов о
равновесии между исследованием и обучением сегодня не
признается в контексте европейской точки зрения

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относительно области языков всей Европы (Vidrina A.V.,
Stojnova N.M., 2014).
Можно было бы подробно обсудить социальные и
историографические причины такого медленного признания
евролингвистической парадигмы в гуманитарных науках, что
также связано с падением экономики и социального
престижа ЕС. Этот кризис может повлиять не только на
евролингвистику, но также на весь спектр гуманитарных
наук, которые связаны с положением Европы, и также с
европеизированными исследованиями и преподаванием
гуманитарных наук. В данном контексте мы бы хотели
вернуться к первоочередной задаче изучения взаимодействия
между европейскими языками и культурами и сосредоточить
внимание на лингвистических меньшинствах, многоязычной
личности, языковых контактах. Как уже отмечалось, мы
стоим на пороге фундаментального перехода от
национальной исследовательской программы по лингвистике
к глобальной парадигме, основанной на нашем пан-
европейском представлении о языках и культурах,
существующих в общении и взаимодействии.
Собственно говоря, даже растущее число публикаций на тему
языковых контактов и конфликтов, наряду с
многочисленными евролингвистическими конференциями и
мастер-классами по всей западной и центральной Европе, не
оказывают сильного воздействия на европеизацию
сегодняшнего обучения языку. Исключение составляют
несколько университетов, которые снисходительно относятся
к противоречию между все еще преобладающей
монолингвистической и национальной филологической
направленностью.
Сегодня, несмотря на все негативные тенденции в
традиционных европейских школьных и университетских
системах, мы все же наблюдаем лингвистическую
переориентацию среди нового поколения молодых
европейцев, открытых для более европейского подхода к

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обучению, что и проявляется в евролингвистической
деятельности, упомянутой выше. Такая деятельность
принадлежит будущему и поможет нам создать лингвистику
с человеческим лицом.
Для создания такой лингвистики необходимы следующие
предпосылки: 1) создание евролингвистической структуры,
приемлемой для всех лингвистов, участвующих в
исследовании и преподавании в духе известного девиза
Вильгельма фон Гумбольдта «Союз исследования и
обучения»; 2) создание направления европейской общности и
внесение вклада в создание европейской идентичности;
3) создание в масштабах всей Европы определенной
атмосферы среди исследователей, которые занимаются
общей лингвистикой, смежными гуманитарными
дисциплинами и национальной филологией, разрушая таким
образом моноязыковую монополию в исследовании и
преподавании языка.
Результаты
Совершенно новое интердисциплинарное направление в
гуманитарных науках - евролингвистика - открывает
возможности подготовки учителей и учеников нового
поколения европейцев, ориентированных на современное
европейское самосознание и самоопределение.
Кроме того, в ходе практического сотрудничества между
востоком и западом появится возможность осуществления
наиболее важной цели Европейского Союза: обеспечения
мира между народами и нациями Европы, а также
актуализации новой отрасли гуманитарных наук –
европеистики.
Несмотря на очевидные цели, изложенные в данной работе,
большинство молодых европейцев с высшим образованием
остаются полностью не подготовленными к европейскому
мышлению и поведению, к стоящим перед Европой
политическим, экономическим и социальным проблемам. В
новом тысячелетии от нас самих зависит создание новых

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условий для фундаментальной реформы в планировании
образования для Европы.
Следовательно, можно утверждать, что жители Европы сами
должны решить, как справиться с этой чрезвычайно сложной
задачей и изменить школьную и университетскую системы
таким образом, чтобы последние достижения в исследовании
контактной лингвистики и евролингвистики были включены
в новые учебные программы Болонской реформы после ее
предстоящего пересмотра компетентными лингвистами,
сведущими в контактной лингвистике и евролингвистике.
Впрочем, такое внедрение не наблюдается в сегодняшнем
применении лингвистических результатов в курсах
бакалавриата и магистратуры, вводимыми сейчас языковыми
кафедрами большинства европейских университетов. Это как
раз и является расхождением между исследованием и
преподаванием, о чем Вильгельм фон Гумбольдт
предупреждал своих современников двести лет назад (1810),
начиная c реформы прусских образовательных заведений в
Берлинском университете. То, что тогда было
фундаментальной реформой немецких университетов, теперь
станет реформой, направленной на европеизацию
университетов и школ всей Европы (Vidrina A.V., Stojnova
N.M., 2014).
Только заново разработанная многоязыковая программа или
план для европейцев может отвечать требованиям будущей
Европы с общими языками в духе Вандрушки (Wandruszka
M., 1990). Подготовка преподавателей и специалистов,
которые ориентируются в контактной и конфликтной
лингвистике, также является необходимым условием для
создания европейской идентичности, основанной на
обществе с одинаковыми культурными ценностями,
объединяющими европейский союз культур и языков в духе
девиза «Единство в разнообразии». Подобного
всеобъемлющего образовательного плана для Европы пока не
существует. Такой план, впрочем, должен включать все

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конкретные главные и второстепенные лингвистические и
культурные характеристики европейских народов, общие для
всех европейских стран и этнических групп.
Заключение
Впрочем, где бы ни проходила сегодняшняя полемика, в
политике или средствах массовой информации, в основном
она касается объема долгов в экономике как национальной
проблемы только в особых случаях с Грецией, Португалией,
Испанией, Ирландией, Италией и т.д. Вместо того, чтобы
рассматривать эти страны в контексте общей международной
озабоченности, что особенно важно для объединения
Европы, мы видим в этом исключительно отражение
национального эгоизма и возникновение угрозы ЕС как
экономическому и культурному блоку. Недостаток
европейской солидарности и недостаток справедливого
перераспределения финансов между севером и югом,
востоком и западом также представляют угрозу
общеевропейской лингвистической и культурной основе, к
которой принадлежит ряд разнообразных языков. В
сложившейся ситуации невозможно преодолеть сегодняшние
неразрешимые кризисы, не прибегнув к объединению. Мы
все должны сплотиться, чтобы остановить возврат к
национальному и эгоистичному мышлению, которое
разрушило европейский дом после I и II мировых войн,
вызвав роковые последствия для будущего.

Литература
Выдрина А.В., Стойнова Н.М. 2014. 46-й ежегодный
конгресс Европейского лингвистического общества //
Вопросы языкознания. 3: 140–145.
Летучий А.Б. 2016. 48-я ежегодная конференция
Европейского лингвистического общества // Вопросы
языкознания 3: 148–151.
Соссюр Ф. де. 1990. Заметки по общей лингвистике / пер. с
фр. Б. П. Нарумова. М.: Прогресс, 44 с.

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Wandruszka M. 1990. Die europaische Sprachengemeinschaft.
Deutsch –Franzosisch – Englisch – Italienisch – Spanischim
Vergleich / M. Wandruszka. – Tubingen, 185 pp.

References
Vidrina A.V., Stojnova N.M. 2014. 46th Annual Congress of the
European Linguistic Society. In Issues of Linguistics 3: 140–145.
Letuchij A.B. 2016. 48th Annual Congress of the European
Linguistic Society. In Issues of Linguistics 3: 148–151.
Saussure F. de. 1990. Notes on General Linguistics. Мoscow:
Progress, 44 pp.
Wandruszka M. 1990. Die europaische Sprachengemeinschaft.
Deutsch –Franzosisch – Englisch – Italienisch – Spanischim
Vergleich / M. Wandruszka. – Tubingen, 185 pp.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-637-655

FORMATION OF MULTILINGUAL LINGUISTIC

PERSONALITY WITHIN THE CONTEMPORARY
PROCESS OF HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

Sholpan K. Zharkynbekova

L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University

Astana, Kazakhstan
[email protected]

Abstract.
The issues of formation of a new type of professional linguistic
personality within multilingual mental and education discourse of
Kazakhstan’s three languages education system are the subjects
of this research.
Education system of the Republic of Kazakhstan is in the process
of significant transformations. With the adoption of the State
program of education development of the Republic of Kazakhstan

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the sphere of education has turned into a new level of
development and functioning in which complex polylinguistic
education approach is of great importance. One of the key aspects
of such reforms is the multilingual policy of education; according
to this policy every citizen of Kazakhstan should know at least
three languages: Kazakh, Russian and English.
The problem of professional education of multilingual specialist
needs to be examined in detailed and complex way; first of all
due to social needs of society where multilingual specialists in
different spheres of professional activities are of great demand in
constantly changing labour market. Secondly, the problem of
theoretical and practical approbation of educational methodical
approach in the terms of education modernization is currently
essential. In the third pace is the problem of finding out the
relevant criteria of professional linguistic competence for further
interdisciplinary approach development, and criteria of
knowledge quality evaluation. Fourthly, the lack of unified
concept of multilingual education for non-linguistic specialists
that could unify the results of contemporary research in the field
of linguistic, psychological, sociolinguistic, didactic bases of
multilingualism, higher education pedagogy and foreign language
methodical training in higher education system.
As the modern university practice shows, in today’s educational
programs the requirements of potential employers for language
competence of graduates are increasingly taken into account.
According to many experts, in modern conditions it is the labour
market that determines the requirements of education level and
criteria of professional language competence for graduates. The
existing of at least three languages (Kazakh, Russian and English)
in the context of contemporary educational system in Kazakhstan
let us speak about the state language policy focused on the idea of
multilingual citizenship of the Republic of Kazakhstan as one of
the factors of social and economic modernization. That is why
today the issues related to the development of intercultural
oriented technology with the study of the multilingual

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phenomenon, the definition of competencies of the language
personality, the creation of pedagogical conditions for the use of
modern educational technologies and the organization of
personality-oriented strategies aimed at the formation of a
multilingual personality are highly relevant.
Taking into account the mentioned tasks and the initial statements
the following research methods were used, including: analysis of
linguistic and methodological literature, modelling and synthesis
of empirical material, generalization of pedagogical experience,
observation, questioning and interviewing.
The methodological basis of the study consists of psychological,
linguodidactic studies that reveal the importance of
multilingualism, multiculturalism, trilingualism, the formation of
a secondary linguistic personality, a professional linguistic
personality, and the multilingual competence of students. In the
works by foreign and Kazakhstan’s linguists, pedagogues and
methodologists on the problem of the study, professional-oriented
learning and the competence-activity approach are considered as
a theoretical and methodological basis for optimizing the process
of learning languages in higher education system.
Contemporary changes in the style of professional thinking, the
presence of a student-oriented approach, the use of project
technologies, the humanization of educational content and other
processes determine the leading ideas and trends in the
development of modern higher education. The goal of higher
education is not just narrow profile training, but a general
cultural, socially and personally significant continuous
development of a specialist, the formation of his/her professional
culture. Consequently, in modern social and human sciences, it is
important to pay more attention to linguistics, linguodidactics
along with the issue of professional linguistic personality,
consciousness, world language picture, acting as a conductor of
professional knowledge in the formation of the communicative
competence of a specialist. The need to specify the professional
language competence of students of higher educational

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institutions, the development of learning technologies in the
process of forming professional-communicative competence is
focused on, and recommendations are given on the development
and implementation these methods in the educational process.
Due to the results of surveys (questionnaires) of employees and
participant observation method, the main motives and goals of
studying Kazakh, Russian and English by future business
specialists were found out; the opinion of employers regarding
the demand for graduates with knowledge of three languages and
the existing level of language knowledge among specialists were
revealed.
The focus of Kazakhstan's linguistic and methodical sciences is a
comprehensive study of the mechanisms (ways, methods, means,
resources) of forming a multilingual and multicultural
professional-oriented personality, combining important
components of qualification: professional-oriented, intercultural,
communicative and linguistic (taking into account three
languages: Kazakh, Russian and English) competences.
Keywords: professional linguistic personality, education
reforms, multilingualism, competence approach

ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ МУЛЬТИЛИНГВАЛЬНОЙ
ЯЗЫКОВОЙ ЛИЧНОСТИ В УСЛОВИЯХ
СОВРЕМЕННОЙ ВУЗОВСКОЙ ПОДГОТОВКИ

Шолпан К. Жаркынбекова

Евразийский национальный университет им. Л.Н. Гумилева

Астана, Казахстан
e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация.
В статье рассматриваются проблемы формирования
профессиональной языковой личности нового типа в

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полилингвоментальном пространстве учебного дискурса
Казахстана в условиях трехъязычия.
Казахстанское образовательное пространство переживает
сегодня период значительных трансформаций. С принятием
Государственных программы развития образования в
Республике Казахстан сфера образования перешла на новый
виток развития и функционирования, в котором важное
место отведено комплексному развитию полиязычного
образования. Так, одним из ключевых аспектов,
происходящих в Казахстане преобразований, является
внедрение политики полиязычия, согласно которой каждый
казахстанец должен владеть, как минимум, тремя языками:
казахским, русским, английским.
Необходимость глубокого и детального изучения проблемы
подготовки профессиональных мультиязычных специалистов
обусловлена, во-первых, социальными потребностями
общества, которые ориентированы на полиязычных
специалистов для различных сфер профессиональной
деятельности постоянно изменяющегося рынка труда. Во-
вторых, актуальной является проблема теоретического
обоснования и практического апробирования методик,
применимых в условиях модернизации образовательной
системы. В-третьих, выявление критериев
сформированности профессиональных языковых
компетенций для определения междисциплинарных
подходов к обучению и критериев оценки качества знаний.
В-четвертых, это связано с отсутствием единой концепции
обучения многоязычию на неязыковых специальностях,
которая бы реализовала результаты современных
исследований в области лингвистических, психологических,
социолингвистических, дидактических основ многоязычия,
вузовской педагогики и методики обучения языкам в высшей
школе.
Как показывает современная вузовская практика, сегодня
при составлении образовательных программ все больше

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учитываются требования потенциальных работодателей к
языковым компетенциям выпускников. По мнению многих
специалистов, в современных условиях именно рынок труда
диктует требования и определяет запросы к уровню
обученности, особенностям профессиональной языковой
компетентности выпускников вузов. А функционирование
как минимум трех (казахского, русского и английского)
языков в контексте современного казахстанского
образовательного пространства позволяет говорить о
целенаправленной государственной языковой политике,
продвигающей идею полиязычия граждан Республики
Казахстан как одного из важнейших условий социальной и
экономической модернизации страны. Именно поэтому
сегодня весьма актуальными являются вопросы, связанные с
разработкой межкультурно ориентированной технологии с
исследованием феномена мультилингва, определением
компетенций языковой личности, созданием педагогических
условий для использования современных педагогических
технологий и организацией личностно-ориентированных
стратегий, направленных на формирование
мультилингвальной личности.
Для решения поставленных задач и проверки исходных
положений использовался комплекс методов исследования,
среди которых: анализ лингвистической и методологической
литературы, моделирование и синтез эмпирического
материала, обобщение педагогического опыта, наблюдение,
анкетирование и интервьюирование.
Методологическую основу исследования составляют
психологические, лингводидактические исследования,
раскрывающие значение мультилингвизма,
мультикультурализма, трилингвизма, формирования
вторичной языковой личности, профессиональной языковой
личности и многоязычной компетенции студентов. В трудах
зарубежных и казахстанских ученых-лингвистов, педагогов и
методистов по изучаемой проблеме профессионально-

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ориентированное обучение и компетентностно-
деятельностный подход рассматриваются как теоретико-
методологическая основа для оптимизации процесса
обучения языкам в высшей школе.
Изменения в стиле профессионального мышления, наличие
личностно-ориентированного подхода, внедрение проектных
технологий, гуманизация образовательного контента и другие
процессы определяют ведущие идеи и тенденции развития
современного высшего образования. Его целью является не
узкопрофильная подготовка, а общекультурное, социально и
личностно значимое непрерывное развитие специалиста,
формирование его профессиональной культуры.
Следовательно, в современных социальных и гуманитарных
науках все большее значение придается лингвистике,
лингводидактике, а актуальным является вопрос
профессиональной языковой личности, языкового сознания
специалиста, его языковой картины, выступающей в качестве
проводника профессиональных знаний в формировании
коммуникативной компетенции специалиста. Акцентируется
внимание на необходимости конкретизации
профессиональных языковых компетенций обучающихся
вузов, разработке технологий обучения в процессе
формирования профессионально-коммуникативной
компетентности, даются рекомендации по их разработке и
внедрению в образовательный процесс. Путем опросов
(анкетирования) сотрудников и методом включенного
наблюдения выявлены основные мотивы и цели изучения
казахского, русского и английского языков бизнес-
специалистами, мнение работодателей в отношении спроса
на специалистов со знанием трех языков и на имеющийся у
специалистов уровень владения языками.
В фокусе казахстанской лингвистической и методической
наук находится комплексное изучение механизмов (путей,
методов, средств, ресурсов) формирования
мультилингвальной и поликультурной профессионально-

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ориентированной личности, сочетающей в себе важные
составляющие компетенции: профессионально-
ориентированную межкультурно-коммуникативную и
лингвориторическую (с учетом трех языков: казахского,
русского и английского).
Ключевые слова: профессиональная языковая личность,
образовательные реформы, мультилингвизм,
компетентностный подход.

Введение
В настоящее время наблюдается смещение
исследовательского интереса к разработке описательно-
регуляторных моделей личности к деятельности
специалиста, на основе которых были сформулированы
требования к содержанию его профессиональной
подготовки. Е.И. Голованова определяет профессиональную
личность как «совокупность интеллектуальных, социально-
культурных и морально-волевых качеств человека,
сформированных в особой профессионально-культурной
среде и отраженных в свойствах его сознания, поведения и
деятельности. За любыми действиями, поступками той или
иной личности, ее отношением к другим людям стоит
комплекс присущих личности (а значит, и соответствующей
профессиональной субкультуре) идей, ценностей, взглядов,
потребностей, интересов и моральных убеждений»
(Golovanova E.I., 2010: 263). Автор отмечает, что
«профессиональная языковая личность раскрывается в
особенностях производимых ею языковых и речевых единиц
и целостных текстов, в своеобразии принадлежащего
личности профессионального дискурса, подчиненного целям
и задачам профессиональной деятельности» (Ibid: 263).
Интерес же к профессиональной языковой
мультилингвальной личности диктуется современной
социальной ситуацией расширения международных,
межэтнических, межличностных, межъязыковых контактов и

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необходимостью разработки теории и практики
межкультурной коммуникации, создания системы
лингвистических представлений об уровнях и компонентах
компетенции профессиональной языковой личности. Так¸
динамическое социально-экономическое развитие
Казахстана, его вхождение в мировое сообщество в
значительной мере определяет современные потребности
казахстанского общества в использовании речи,
ориентированной на полноценную коммуникацию в
современном поликультурном пространстве.
Несмотря на наличие большого количества исследований,
посвященных проблемам формирования профессиональной
мультилингвальной личности (см.: Бакловская О.К., Волчков
Э.Г., Ворожбитова А.А. Голованова Е.И., Гредюшко О.П.,
Гриценко Е.С., Лалетина А.О. 2012; Маханькова Н.В.,
Фаткулина Р.Ф.; Милютинская Н.Ю. и мн. др.) (Baklovskaya
O.K., 2015; Golovanova E.I., 2010; Vorozhbitova A.A., 2017,
and many others), многие вопросы многоязычной
коммуникации в аспекте исследования дискурсивных
практик и речевого поведения молодежи в реализации
профессионально-ориентированных коммуникативных
качеств личности обучающихся вузов недостаточно изучены
и дидактически решены. К примеру, проведенный нами
анализ психолого-педагогической и методической
литературы, нормативных документов, практики
преподавания казахского, русского и английского языков в
Республике Казахстан, опрос и интервьюирование
работодателей выявили ряд противоречий между
современными потребностями в продуктивном речевом
взаимодействии в условиях многоязычной коммуникации и
недостаточным уровнем сформированности
коммуникативной языковой и речевой компетенции
обучающихся.
Неоднородность современного рынка труда, его постоянное
изменение и развитие обусловлены колебанием спроса и

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предложения по отдельным профессиям в связи с
изменениями в социально-экономических обновлениях
страны. Так, постоянные изменения на фоне масштабных
трансформаций жизни общества, в том числе под влиянием
технологического прогресса и геополитической ситуации,
определяют и новые требования к отбору специалистов на
казахстанском рынке труда.
Перед системой образования стоит задача адаптирования к
этим сложным реальным условиям и обеспечения
качественного образования, учитывающего потребности
обучающихся наряду с поддержанием их
сбалансированности с социальными, культурными и
политическими требованиями. Поэтому проблема
формирования коммуникативных качеств личности,
необходимых для осуществления профессиональной
деятельности, становится особенно актуальной.

Методология и методы
В работе используется целый ряд социолингвистических
методов, таких как: метод наблюдения, используемый нами в
процессе отбора фактов, установления специфических
признаков исследуемого объекта, описания различных
языковых ситуаций и тенденций развития межкультурной
коммуникации; метод социального эксперимента, где
опросы, беседы, изучение и обобщение в конкретно
социально-ситуативном контексте обладают большим
потенциалом прослеживать процессы функционирования и
использования языков; фронтальное и индивидуальное
анкетирование; статистическая обработка данных (в том
числе и электронных) с помощью программы SPSS.
Методологическую основу исследования составляют
психологические, лингводидактические исследования,
раскрывающие значение мультилингвизма,
мультикультурализма, трилингвизма, формирования
вторичной языковой личности, профессиональной языковой

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личности и многоязычной компетенции студентов. В трудах
зарубежных и казахстанских ученых-лингвистов, педагогов и
методистов по изучаемой проблеме профессионально-
ориентированное обучение и компетентностно-
деятельностный подход рассматриваются как теоретико-
методологическая основа для оптимизации процесса
обучения языкам в высшей школе.
Результаты
Как известно, выбор языка/языков в профессиональной
коммуникации предопределен их особой значимостью и
востребованностью в данном социуме. Устойчивая
тенденция формирования полиязычного образования,
способствующая как профессиональной самореализации, так
и гражданской интеграции личности, обусловливает для
высшей школы Казахстана необходимость обеспечения
подготовки кадров с полиязычным образованием. Согласно
Государственной программе развития образования на 2011-
2020 годы, с 2011 года будет осуществляться подготовка
англоязычных педагогических кадров для среднего,
технического и профессионального, высшего образования по
международной стипендиальной программе «Болашак» (State
program of education development of the Republic of Kazakhstan
in 2011-2010 years. [Electronic source]. 2011). Начат переход
казахстанских вузов на полиязычие на пилотной основе.
C 1 сентября 2012 года в 32 вузах Республики Казахстан
открыты специальные отделения с контингентом
обучающихся более 5,5 тыс. человек. Одним из
последовательных шагов в решении проблем языковой
подготовки будущих казахстанских специалистов являются
серьезные изменения содержательного характера в учебных
программах.
Формирование профессиональной языковой личности
студента в образовательной среде вуза на полилингвальной
основе предполагает приобретение определенных
компетенций: грамотной устной и письменной речи на трех

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языках (казахском, русском и английском), умение адекватно
переводить тексты по своей специальности, умение
участвовать в межкультурном диалоге, критическое
понимание вновь получемой информации, умение устно
высказаться в социокультурной среде профессионального
дискурса, следуя стандартам речи (логическая структура,
обоснование, поддержание языковых и речевых правил
коммуникативной этики).
Однако, как показали результаты проведенных за последние
несколько лет социолингвистических исследований, большая
часть обучающихся высших учебных заведений слабо
подготовлены к эффективной иноязычной коммуникации.
81 % студентов ходе интервью и бесед подтвердили, что
испытывают трудности в общении и публичных
выступлениях как на иностранном, так и на родном языке,
что свидетельствует об общепедагогическом контексте
данной проблемы (Rozina I.N., 2013: 548).
Поэтому одной из первооочередных задач, стоящих перед
высшим образованием, является определение компетенций
языковой личности, создание условий для использования
современных образовательных технологий и организацией
личностноориентированных стратегий, направленных на
формирование мультилингвальной личности.
Современные исследователи акцентируют внимание на
необходимости формирования у студентов-мультилингвов в
ходе их языковой подготовки межкультурной
коммуникативной компетенции, предполагающей овладение:
лингвокультуроведческой компетенцией, отражающей
языковую / речевую грамотность студента, а также его
культуроведческую осведомленность; когнитивной
компетенцией, предполагающей владение способами
сопоставительного анализа культуроведческих явлений;
учебной стратегической компетенцией – особое языковое
поведение студента-мультилингва при изучении нескольких
языков, его активная позиция в изучении языков и культур,

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поиска собственных методов и стратегии, а также
поведенческой компетенцией, предполагающей способность
/ готовность студента использовать языки как средство
общения и участвовать в межкультурной коммуникации
(Baklovskaya O.K., 2014: 127).
Группой казахстанских ученых в рамках выполняемого
научного проекта («Формирование профессиональной
мультилингвальной личности нового типа в условиях
полиязычного образования РК» на 2018-2020 гг.) было
проведено анкетирование работодателей и молодых
специалистов различных организаций и компаний
Республики Казахстан (в основном в сфере информационных
и компьютерных технологий, транспортных, строительных
услуг по г. Астана).
Анкетирование проводилось с целью выявления наиболее
распространенных сферы использования казахского,
русского и английского языков в профессиональной
коммуникации Казахстана; основных мотивов и целей
изучения английского языка бизнес-специалистами;
конкретных случаев применения казахского, русского и
английского языков в организациях. Опросы также
направлены на выявление отношения работодателя к уровню
владения языками работников. Результаты проводимого
исследования могут помочь выяснить объем языковой
подготовки и определить, для каких целей такие знания
востребованы на рынке труда.
Абсолютное большинство респондентов-молодых
специалистов (анкетирование проводилось среди
специалистов, работающих в компаниях и на производстве
не более 5 лет после окончания вуза) (92 %) признают
значимость казахского, русского и английского языков в их
профессиональной деятельности. Количество сотрудников,
свободно владеющих всеми тремя языками, составило 37 %.
Руководители предприятий отметили, что они
заинтересованы в таких сотрудниках, но на практике они

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сталкиваются с проблемой дефицита кадров. Процент
специалистов, владеющих казахским, русским и английским
языками на бытовом уровне, составил 61 %. По мнению
самих респондентов, этого недостаточно для качественного
решения профессиональных задач.
Значительная часть сотрудников (45 %) используют
языковые навыки в профессиональной деятельности
практически ежедневно, они переключаются с одного языка
на другой при чтении документации, изучении технических
новинок, деловой переписке. 28 % респондентов отметили,
что умеют решать вопросы по разработке и внедрению
программного обеспечения, которые требуют дискуссий и
переписки в рамках реализуемых проектов. 39 %
сотрудников умеют осуществлять письменную
коммуникацию с заказчиками на профессиональном
казахском, русском и английском языках. 64 % респондентов
указали, что владеют терминологией, но имеют сложности с
составлением писем и устной речью.
В ходе интервью выяснилось, что работодатели разделяют
навыки устной и письменной речи, считая их различными по
степени важности. Письменная речь при этом
воспринимается как более легкая, чем устная, и сводится
преимущественно к умению вести электронную переписку с
партнерами. В устной коммуникации первоочередными
являются навыки ведения предметной дискуссии с
использованием технологий удаленного доступа, таких, как
Skype, FaceTime, What’s up, Telegram. Респонденты-
работодатели указывают на бедность лексического запаса
молодых специалистов, включая профессиональную
терминологию, неумение составлять тексты, грамматические
и стилистические ошибки в письменной и устной речи, в
речи, недостаточную логичность и аргументированность
речи. Руководители департаментов, HR-отделов отмечают,
что при собеседовании у многих наблюдается наличие
барьера в устной профессиональной коммуникации. И

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объясняют это слабостью и неэффективностью языковой
подготовки в вузе. В целом, более половины из
участвовавших в опросе работодателей (76 %) выразили
свою неудовлетворенность уровнем владения иностранным
языком (в данном случае английским) выпускников вузов.
В действительности, внедрение полиязычного обучения –
процесс сложный, требующий решения многих вопросов.
Несмотря на предпринимаемые меры по реализации
полиязычного обучения и первые положительные результаты
пилотных моделей, многие вопросы, связанные с
повсеместным системным внедрением полиязычного
образования в стране, пока еще не нашли своего решения.
Практика показала, с какими трудностями сталкиваются
сегодня как преподаватели вузов, учителя школ, так и сами
обучающиеся и их родители.
В первую очередь, специалисты отмечают проблему с
кадровыми ресурсами. Налицо недостаточная языковая
подготовка преподавателей неязыковых дисциплин. Разный
уровень знания иностранного языка студентами говорит о
слабой подготовке в общеобразовательных школах (в первую
очередь, в сельских). Это, как следствие, порождает
проблемы при усвоении специальных дисциплин на
английском языке, что приводит к трудностям
психологического и лингводидактического характера.
В общем списке отмечаемых проблем слабая нормативно-
правовая система организуемых при вузах страны
полиязычных центров, слабая материально- техническая база
вузов, не способная обеспечить полноценную учебно-
методическую деятельность центров; произвольное
использование учебными заведениями зарубежных
обучающих программ и учебных материалов без адаптации к
казахстанской действительности, что подтверждает
отсутствие единой методологической платформы для
непрерывного и преемственно-вариативного иноязычного
образования и унифицированного нормативного его

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обеспечения. (Sadyibekova S.I., 2013: 159). Возникла острая
необходимость в подготовке казахстанских учебников на
английском языке по профилирующим дисциплинам и их
нормативное и программно-методическое сопровождение.
Это неполный перечень вопросов, которые необходимо
решать в ближайшее время.
И все же сегодня с уверенностью можно говорить о том, что
в Казахстане формируется новый тип языковой личности –
полилингва, свободно владеющего тремя (и более) языками
(в основном казахским, русским и английским). Этому
способствовали реформы, связанные с внедрением в
образовательную систему трехъязычия. Казахстанская
модель полиязычного образования призвана учитывать, как
исторически сложившиеся факторы, так и те стратегические
цели, которые страна ставит перед собой. Предполагается,
что внедрение полилингвальной модели в систему
казахстанского образования будет способствовать
формированию языковой личности нового типа – личности,
владеющей несколькими языками, способной решать задачи
в поликультурном обществе, открытой для культуры своего
народа, народов совместного проживания и мировой
культуры, личности, готовой к саморазвитию,
самообразованию.
Заключение
Специфика сложившейся в Республике Казахстан языковой
ситуации и проводимой языковой политики обусловили ряд
важных задач, решение которых имеет большую научно-
теоретическую и практическую значимость в национальном
масштабе. В рамках осуществляемых в этом направлении
исследований необходима прежде всего единая концепция
обучения многоязычию на неязыковых специальностях,
которая бы реализовала результаты современных
исследований в области лингвистических, психологических,
социолингвистических, дидактических основ многоязычия,
вузовской педагогики и методики обучения языкам в высшей

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школе. В число первостепенных задач входит: проведение
комплексного анализа условий формирования единого
языкового пространства в высшей школе в рамках
интеграции образовательных систем; определение основных
принципов системного применения компетентностного
подхода; определение единых методологических принципов,
способствующих эффективной речемыслительной
деятельности студента, основываясь на сходствах и
различиях, коммуникативных особенностях единиц
казахского, русского и английского языков, что приведет к
формированию трехъязычной коммуникативной
компетенции и др.

Литература
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технология обучения студентов-мультилингвов //
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университет», c. 3-13.
Ворожбитова А.А. 2017. Непрерывное лингвориторическое
образование в многонациональном поликультурном регионе:
языковая политика и би(поли)лингвальная языковая
личность // Полиязычное образование в системе высшей
школы: проблемы подготовки билингвального и
полилингвального специалиста и пути решения: материалы
международной научно-практической конференции. Астана,
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Голованова Е.И. 2010. Профессиональная языковая
личность: специфика профессиональных процессов в сфере
теории и практики // Non multum, sed multa: Немного о
многом. У когнитивных истоков современной терминологии:
сборник научных трудов в честь В.Ф. Новодрановой. М.:
Авторская академия, c. 261–270.

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в вузых Казахстана: проблемы, перспективы // Образование
через всю жизнь: непрерывное образование в интересах
устойчивого развития: Материалы 11-й междунар. конф.,
Минск, 27–28 сентября 2013 г. / Минский ин-т управления;
сост. В.В. Гедранович; под науч. ред. В.В. Гедранович и Н.В.
Суша. Минск, 11(III): 157–160.
Acknowledgment
The publication has been prepared with the grant financial
support of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic
of Kazakhstan titled «Formation of a new type of professional
multilingual personality in terms of polylinguistic education
system of the Republic of Kazakhstan» (2018-2020).

References
Baklovskaya O.K. 2015. Intercultural oriented technology
training system for multilingual students. In Multilingualism in
educational space. Collection of articles. Ed. by: Malykh L.M.,
Shutova N.M., Medvedeva D.I. Izhevsk: Publishing house
“University of Udmurtia”, 7: 3-13.
Vorozhbitova A.A. 2017. Continuous linguistic education in
multinational multicultural region: language police and
bi(multi)lingual personality. In Multilingual education in higher
education system: problems of bi(multi)lingual specialist training

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and solutions: Proceedings of international scientific and
practical conference. Astana, pp. 12-22.
Golovanova E.I. 2010. Professional lingual personality: theory
and practice of professional processes specification. In Non
multum, sed multa: a little about a lot. At the cognitive sources of
modern terminology: collection of scientific papers in honour of
V.F.Novodranova. Moscow: Author’s Academy, pp. 261-270.
State program of education development of the Republic of
Kazakhstan in 2011-2010 years. URL:
www.edu.gov.kz/ru/zakonodatelstvo/gosudarstvennaja_program
ma_razvitija_obrazovanijagosudarstvennaja_programma_razvitij
a_obrazovanija_respubliki_kazakhstan_na_2011_2020_gody/
[Accessed February 10 2019].
Rozina I.N. 2013. Interviewing results of research project
“English for Specific Purposes”. In Educational technologies and
society. Kazan: Kazan National Research Technological
University Publishing House, 2(16): 547-561.
Sadyibekova S.I. 2013. Realization of multilingual education in
higher education institutions of Kazakhstan: problems,
perspectives. In Lifelong learning: continuous education in the
process of sustainable development: Proceedings of the 11th
Intern. Conf., Minsk, 27-28 September 2013. Minsk: Minsk
Institute of Management, 11(III): 157-160.

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LINGUISTIC DIPLOMACY

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-656-665

THE IMAGE OF RUSSIA IN THE NEW DICTIONARY

OF CULTURAL LITERACY: WHAT EVERY AMERICAN
NEEDS TO KNOW

Elena A. Barsukova

Department of Area Studies, Faculty of Foreign Languages and Area Studies

Lomonosov Moscow State University
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Almost any dictionary, except for terminological ones, is a source
of cultural information. Lexicographical editions have
traditionally captured the attention of researchers interested in the
presentation of the culture-specific component in a dictionary,
and, more specifically the cultural image of Russia (Marinina
E. V. 2017; Polubichenko L. V. 2010).
The present paper focuses on the third edition of The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to
Know, edited by E. D. Hirsch and published in 2002. The
macrostructure of the Dictionary comprises about 7000 entries,
including proper names, idioms, terms, etc. that are familiar to
most literate Americans: the information that is called cultural
literacy. According to the Introduction to the Dictionary, “to a
large extent this common knowledge or collective memory […]
forms the basis for communities, and if it is shared by enough
people, it is a distinguishing characteristic of a national culture
(Hirsch E. D. 2002: vii)”.
The choice of the Dictionary as an object of the study is justified
by two reasons. First, it was compiled on the basis of frequency

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principle founded on a wide range of national periodicals, which
means that only those items that are widely known by a broad
majority of literate Americans appear in the Dictionary. This
descriptive approach in the compilation of the Dictionary makes
it possible to analyse the most frequently used Russia-related
concepts and proper names. Second, the very title of the
lexicographic edition reflects its prescriptive character, therefore
the dictionary contributes to the formation of a certain image of
Russia, which is of primary importance for the present study.
The objective of the present research is to study the choice and
presentation of the Russia-related concepts in The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Special attention is paid to
shared cultural associations registered in the Dictionary. The
methods involved in the study are comparative analysis,
quantitative analysis, as well as semantic analysis of the concepts
under consideration. All items including the labels Russia,
Russian, Russo- and Soviet Union, Soviet and Soviets (as Russia
is widely acknowledged to be the successor of the Soviet Union)
were considered. The selected items were divided into three
categories: the entries that represent Russia-related notions per se;
those where Russia is mentioned in the definition; and those in
which Russia is mentioned in cultural associations and cross-
references.
Russia-related concepts are present in 15 out of 23 subject
sections of the Dictionary. Overall 169 entries in the 15 sections
were identified as related to Russia (which amounts to 2.5 % of
the total number of the entries), with only 63 entries wholly
devoted to Russia-related notions or proper names. In other
instances, Russia is mentioned in definitions or cultural
associations for clarifying the meaning of other concepts. World
History Since 1550 is the most widely represented section in
terms of entries wholly devoted to Russian proper names and
realia (25 items). World Geography section is the most
represented one with respect to the overall number of references

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to Russia (59 entries). Only 12 entries in this section however are
devoted to Russian toponyms and concepts.
The analysis has demonstrated that the concepts and proper
names related to Russia are scarce in the studied material, thus
the image of the country projected by the Dictionary is overall
fragmented. The dominating perception of Russia as a rival and
antagonist of the USA coexists with a very positive appraisal of
its artistic and literary achievements, which creates a
contradictory image of the country.
Keywords: Lexicography, cultural literacy, Russia, image

Introduction
Almost any dictionary, except for terminological ones, is a source
of cultural information. Lexicographical editions have
traditionally captured the attention of researchers interested in the
presentation of the culture-specific component in a dictionary,
and, more specifically the cultural image of Russia (Marinina
E. V. 2017; Polubichenko L. V. 2010).
The present paper focuses on the third edition of The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to
Know, edited by E. D. Hirsch and published in 2002. The
macrostructure of the Dictionary comprises about 7000 entries,
including proper names, idioms, terms, etc. that are familiar to
most literate Americans: the information that is called cultural
literacy. According to the Introduction to the Dictionary, “to a
large extent this common knowledge or collective memory […]
forms the basis for communities, and if it is shared by enough
people, it is a distinguishing characteristic of a national culture
[3; vii]”.
The choice of the Dictionary as an object of the study is justified
by two reasons. First, it was compiled on the basis of frequency
principle founded on a wide range of national periodicals, which
means that only those items that are widely known by a broad
majority of literate Americans appear in the Dictionary. This
descriptive approach in the compilation of the Dictionary makes

658

658
it possible to analyse the most frequently used Russia-related
concepts and proper names. Second, the very title of the
lexicographic edition reflects its prescriptive character, therefore
the dictionary contributes to the formation of a certain image of
Russia, which is of primary importance for the present study.
Objectives/Purpose of the study
The objective of the present research is to study the choice and
presentation of the Russia-related concepts in The New
Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Special attention is paid to
shared cultural associations registered in the Dictionary.
Methodology
The methods involved in the study are comparative analysis,
quantitative analysis, as well as semantic analysis of the concepts
under consideration. All items including the labels Russia,
Russian, Russo- and Soviet Union, Soviet and Soviets (as Russia
is widely acknowledged to be the successor of the Soviet Union)
were considered. The selected items were divided into three
categories: the entries that represent the Russia-related notions
per se; those where Russia is mentioned in the definition; and
those in which Russia is mentioned in cultural associations and
cross-references.
Result/Findings
Russia-related concepts are present in 15 out of 23 subject
sections of the Dictionary. The concepts associated with Russia
are naturally absent from the following sections: the Bible,
Mythology and Folklore, Proverbs, Conventions of Written
English, World History to 1550, American History to 1865,
American Geography, Life Sciences. Overall 169 entries in the 15
sections were identified as related to Russia (which amounts to
2.5 % of the total number of the entries), with only 63 entries
wholly devoted to Russia (Soviet)-related notions or proper
names. In other instances, Russia or associated notions are
mentioned in definitions or cultural associations for clarifying the
meaning of other concepts.

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659
Representation of Russia in the sections on Literature,
Philosophy, Religion, and Fine Arts
In the section World Literature, Philosophy, and Religion
9 entries are devoted to Russian proper names: Anna Karenina;
The Brothers Karamazov; Chekhov, Anton; Crime and
Punishment; Dostoevski, Fedor; Pasternak, Boris; Solzhenitsyn,
Aleksandr; Tolstoy, Leo; War and Peace. The definitions devoted
to Leo Tolstoy and his works include the superlative forms of the
adjective great (Tolstoy, Leo - a nineteenth-century Russian
author, thought to be among the greatest novelists […]; War and
Peace – […] Many consider it the greatest novel ever written).
The section Fine Arts defines 8 Russian proper names: Bolshoi
Theatre; Kandinsky, Wassily; Nijinsky, Vaslav; Peter and the
Wolf; The Nutcracker; Stravinsky, Igor; Swan Lake; Tchaikovsky,
Peter Ilyich. In 3 out of 8 definitions the Russian artists and their
works are described with the superlative (Nijinski, Vaslav – A
Russian ballet dancer, widely considered to have been one of the
best male dancers of the twentieth century; Stravinsky, Igor – A
Russian composer, widely considered one of the greatest of the
twentieth century […]; Swan Lake – […] Swan Lake is one of the
most famous ballets).
Representation of Russia in the History Sections
World History Since 1550 is the most widely represented section
in terms of entries wholly devoted to Russian proper names and
realia (25 items). Pre-revolutionary Russia is represented with 8
entries, with 4 of them being names of rulers (Ivan the Terrible,
Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, Romanovs), one entry
devoted to Rasputin, Grigori, two entries defining Russo-
Japanese War and Crimean War, and an entry on the Russian
loanword czar. Interestingly, Rasputin is defined as a monk (A
Russian monk of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries). It seems likely that the word monk is used to render
the Russian «старец», which is a more conventional word to
describe Grigori Rasputin.

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There is no entry devoted to the last emperor of the Russian
Empire, even though Nicholas II is mentioned three times in the
Dictionary (in the entries Queen Victoria; Rasputin, Grigori and
hemophilia), all the references concern the illness of the heir to
the throne.
Seventeen (17) entries are devoted to the realia and political
leaders of post-revolutionary, Soviet and post-Soviet Russia. The
following political and social leaders are represented in the
Dictionary: Brezhnev, Leonid; Gorbachev, Mikhail; Khrushev,
Nikita; Lenin; Sakharov, Andrei; Stalin, Joseph; Trotsky, Leon;
Yeltsin, Boris. The Dictionary also includes the realia Bolsheviks,
toponym Soviet Union, and three concepts related to Stalin: de-
Stalinization, Stalinism, Stalin’s Purge Trials. Two entries are
devoted to the Revolution of 1917 (October Revolution and
Russian Revolution).
As for the entries where Russia and the Soviet Union are only
mentioned, these are devoted to WWI and WWII: Allies;
Churchill, Winston; Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact; invasion
of Poland; Battle of Stalingrad; World War I; World War II;
Yalta Agreement. The Soviet Union is also referred to in the
entries on polarization of the world and Cold War: Cuban Missile
Crisis; East Germany; Iron Curtain; Warsaw Pact; West
Germany; Collapse of Communism. Cuban Missile Crisis gets an
entry in two sections of the Dictionary – World History and
American History.
The section American History Since 1865 naturally does not
include any entries wholly devoted to Russia or the Soviet Union.
Nevertheless, 15 entries mention Russia, the Soviet Union or the
Russian Federation in their definitions or cultural associations. In
10 entries the USSR is mentioned in the context of Cold War as a
rival of the US, even aggressor or source of spies (e.g., invasion
of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union, invader (entry Carter, James
Earl); Soviet military missiles, Soviet influence (entry Cuban
missile crisis); the cold war with the Soviet Union (entry
Eisenhower, Dwight D.); a secret agent for the Soviet Union

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661
(entry Hiss, Alger); spies for the Soviet Union (entry Rosenberg
case). Russia is mentioned twice: in the entry Seward, William in
the context of Alaska purchase and in the entry Roosevelt,
Theodore with respect to his contribution to bringing the
opponents in the Russo-Japanese War to an agreement. The
Russian Federation is mentioned in the entry September 11
Attacks as a nation battling terrorism.
Representation of Russia in the Politics Sections
The section World Politics includes 221 entries, with 18 entries
mentioning Russia or the USSR and 7 entries wholly devoted to
Russian concepts. The Dictionary is far from neutral treatment of
political terms, as it often provides them with cultural
associations and background information. For instance, Russia
and France are mentioned in the entry on absolute monarchy
(Absolute monarchy persisted in France until 1789 and in Russia
until 1917). The definition of the term Marxism-Leninism
includes the proper names Lenin and the Soviet Union (The
doctrines of Marxism as applied by Lenin, a founder of the Soviet
Union […]). The terms demagogue and dictatorship are defined
through cross-references (See Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin) and
cultural associations (✥Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin were
dictators).
The Soviet Union is mentioned in a number of entries that reflect
polarization of the world: cold war, nonaligned nations, Berlin
wall, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Soviet Bloc,
Third World. There are also reference to the USSR in the articles
devoted to arms race and disarmament: Nuclear Test Treaty Ban,
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, ABM Treaty.
As for the entries wholly devoted to Russia and the Soviet Union,
in this section they are represented by loanwords from the
Russian language (e.g., glasnost, gulag, KGB, Trotskyism,
Kremlin).
American Politics section does not contain any entries on Russian
concepts. However the reference to the USSR may be considered

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662
implied in two entries of the dictionary: policy of containment
and domino theory.
Representation of Russia in the World Geography Section
World Geography section is the most represented one in terms of
the overall number of Russia-related entries (59 items). Only 12
entries however are devoted to Russian toponyms and concepts
(Chechnya, Leningrad, Moscow, Russia, Saint-Petersburg,
Siberia, steppes, Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR),
Urals, USSR, Volga River, Volgograd).
The image of Russia as an aggressive superpower is traced in the
47 entries where Russia and the Soviet Union are mentioned in
the definitions and cultural associations for other toponyms (e.g.,
Afghanistan, Berlin, Cuba, Ethiopia, Middle East). The
immediate context of the concepts Russia and the USSR includes
such lexical items as invade, oppress, annex (e.g., cultural
associations for Armenia: ✥ Throughout their 2,500-year history,
the Armenian people have been repeatedly invaded and oppressed
by more powerful neighboring empires, which have included
Greeks, Persians, Byzantines, Huns, Arabs, Mongols, Ottoman
Turks, and Russians. […]✥ In 1920, the Soviet Union annexed
Armenia …). A number of entries present Russia in a neutral
light in the cultural associations ( e.g., Britain - ✥ Allied with the
United States and the Soviet Union, the British … played an
important role in defeating Germany). The vastness of Russia is
reflected in the section through the comparison of the size of
other countries to Russia (In area, Canada is the second largest
nation in the world, behind Russia (Canada). A number of entries
refer to Russia as a neighbouring nation (Azerbaijan, Finland,
Poland, Ukraine). Interestingly, the definitions to Japan,
Mongolia, North Korea claim that these countries border not the
Russian Federation, but Russian Siberia (e.g., Mongolia Country
in north-central Asia, bordered by Russian Siberia to the north
[…]).
Representation of Russia in Miscellaneous Sections

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663
The references to Russia in the other sections are scarce. In
Anthropology, Psychology, and Sociology section in the article
on Pavlov’s dog the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov is mentioned.
In Business and Economics section there is a reference to the
USSR in the entries collective farm and planned economy, Russia
is mentioned as a member of Group of Eight. In Physical sciences
and Mathematics section there is an entry Mendeleev, Dmitri,
with a cross-reference to the very entry in periodic table of
elements. Earth Sciences includes tundra, while Medicine and
Health incorporates an entry on hemophilia with the reference to
the heir to the throne of Russia. Technology section registers two
terms sputniks and cosmonaut. The Dictionary provides a detailed
definition of two American space programs (Mercury program
and Apollo program), while the space mission Vostok-1 is left
unmentioned.
Conclusion
The analysis has demonstrated that the concepts and proper
names related to Russia are scarce in the studied material (2.5%
of the entries), thus the image of the country projected by the
Dictionary is overall fragmented. The dominating perception of
Russia as a rival and antagonist of the USA coexists with a very
positive appraisal of artistic and literary achievements, which
creates a contradictory image of the country.

References
Marinina E. V. 2017. Russkie pretsedentnie imena kak element
angliyskoi lingvokulturi (na materiale slovarya Longman
Dictionary of English Language and Culture). Vestnik
Moskovskogo Universiteta. Ser. 19. Lingvistika I mezhkulturnaya
communikatsia 4: 41-52.
Polubichenko L. V. 2010. Obraz Rossii v Oksfordskom slovare
citat. Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Ser. 19. Lingvistika I
mezhkulturnaya communikatsia 1: 46-64.

664

664
Hirsh E. D. Jr., Kett J. F., Trefil J. 2002. The New Dictionary of
Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. Boston,
647 р.

DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-665-674

SPEECH BEHAVIOR OF POLITICIANS

(ON THE SPEECHES IN THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT
DEVOTED TO BREXIT)

Irina A. Zyubina1, Anna I. Dzyubenko2

Southern Federal University

Rostov-on-Don, Russia
1
e-mail: [email protected]
2
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract.
The article is devoted to the pragmalinguistic analysis of the UK
parliamentarians’ speech behavior. The objectives of this work
are to diagnose and identify some of the individual personal
qualities of the UK politicians with the help of conducting a
research based on the methods of Implicit Pragmalinguistics.
There is a detailed examination of the stereotypical speech
behavior of the statesmen groups which depends on their
membership in a political party. In the course of the study, the
method of objective pragmalinguistic analysis and modified
content analysis were used. In order for the results of a
pragmalinguistic study to be as objective as possible, it is
necessary to identify texts that are most similar in terms of
internal content and general structure. Thus, compared text-
speeches contain the highest number of similar, common features.
This allows one to observe sharper significant differences
between them during calculation and interpretation of the results.
Considering the above requirements, there were selected the texts
for analysis that have common features. The following positions

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were taking into account: the speakers belonging to the same
Parliament House (House of Commons); homogeneity of the
speech theme (“The Government’s Plan for Brexit” dated
December 7, 2016); the nationality of the authors (all speakers
are English-speaking parliamentarians); the gender of the
speakers (all government officials are men); the same age
category of the parliamentarians; approximately equal education
level of the parliamentarians. So, the speakers differ only in their
membership in the party. As a result, speeches by seven
representatives of the Labor Party and six representatives of the
Conservative Party are studied. The research is conducted in
accordance with the implicit speech strategy "Participation / non-
participation of communicants in a speech event". All speeches of
parliamentarians are devoted to the topic "Brexit", that is the exit
of Great Britain from the European Union. 1743 small syntactic
groups were analyzed. The result of the study was the revealed
features of the majority of parliamentarians. In the course of the
analysis, not only the individual speech behavior of 13 politicians
was studied, but conclusions were also drawn about the
stereotypical speech behavior of representatives of the two
leading parties in Britain: Conservative and Labor. There is not
only a quantitative predominance of the representatives of the
ruling Conservative party in the British Parliament, but, if it can
be said so, qualitative. Conservatives subconsciously seek to
seize leadership, influencing the audience by the power of their
authority. Their indicators of the personal plan considerably
surpass the level of the social plan. The labourists are
distinguished by a cooperative type of behavior. It can be
concluded that, in general, parliamentarians are those people who
are characterized by authoritarianism and upholding their point of
view. In general, the politicians of the UK are initiative, self-
confident. They tend to concentrate on a meaningful, objective
aspect of the issue at hand, they are cooperative, have the skills to
find an individual approach to people. This research is of
particular importance for those who study in detail the problems

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of establishing the authorship of the text, the problems of political
linguistic research, as well as the problems of psychological and
pragmalinguistic diagnostics of an individual in the sphere of
politics.
Keywords: Pragmalinguistics, individual speech behavior,
stereotyped speech behavior, UK Parliament, Brexit

Introduction
The modern world is characterized by a number of political,
social and economic changes, continuous improvement of
legislation, growing interest in the formation of a legal state and
an increase in the level of civic activism in society. However,
even under such conditions, the very texts of the politicians have
been little studied. Consideration of their text-speeches is not
only of practical importance, but also of theoretical one.
This problem is relevant in the framework of the growing interest
in the problem of the international level of recent time - the
question of the UK leaving the EU. Having studied the speeches
of representatives of the Parliament of Great Britain, one can
more reasonably and realistically assess the current state of
affairs.
The theoretical foundations of the study were works on Implicit
Pragmalinguistics (Matveeva G.G., Zyubina I.A., 2017, 2018;
Zheltukhina M.R. et al., 2018; Zheltukhina M., Zyubina I., 2018;
Zyubina I. et al., 2016, 2017). It is the pragmalinguistic analysis
that helps in diagnosing the speakers’ personality and, in
particular, their speech behavior, which, in turn, makes a
significant contribution to the development of linguistic science
at the present stage of society development. The relevance of ths
work is manifested in the study of groups of politicians as
representatives of a certain class of people carrying out
characteristic professional activities. The importance of such a
study, carried out within the framework of Pragmalinguistics, lies
in the study of their features from the point of view of the related
sciences: psychology, sociology and linguistics.

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Objectives/Purpose of the study
The objectives of this work are to diagnose and identify some of
the individual personal qualities of the UK politicians with the
help of conducting a research based on the methods of Implicit
Pragmalinguistics. There is a detailed examination of the
stereotypical speech behavior of the statesmen groups which
depends on their membership in a political party.
The material of the study of speech behavior of political
representatives is the text-speeches at the meeting of the
Parliament of Great Britain on the topic «The Government's Plan
for Brexit» (The Government's Plan for Brexit, 2017). The speech
of each speaker is divided into small syntactic groups (hereinafter
MSG), that is, minimum units of analysis used in Implicit
Pragmalinguistics. A total of 1743 units of analysis were studied.
Methodology and sub headings
In the course of the study, the method of objective
pragmalinguistic analysis and modified content analysis were
used.
In order for the results of a pragmalinguistic study to be as
objective as possible, it is necessary to identify texts that are most
similar in terms of internal content and general structure. Thus,
compared text-speeches should contain the highest number of
similar, common features. This allows one to observe sharper
significant differences between them during calculation and
interpretation of the results.
Considering the above requirements, there were selected the texts
for analysis that have common features. The following positions
were taking into account:
1) the speakers belonging to the same Parliament House (House
of Commons);
2) homogeneity of the speech theme (“The Government’s Plan
for Brexit” dated December 7, 2016);
3) the nationality of the authors (all speakers are English-
speaking parliamentarians);
4) the gender of the speakers (all government officials are men);

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5) the same age category of the parliamentarians;
6) approximately equal education level of the parliamentarians.
The speakers differ only in their membership in the party. As a
result, speeches by seven representatives of the Labor Party and
six representatives of the Conservative Party were selected.
Fragments of speech portraits of the UK politicians speaking in
the Parliament, obtained during the analysis of their speeches on
the implicit speech strategy “Participation / nonparticipation of
communicants in a speech event”, are considered. In accordance
with the data obtained, Tables 1-3 are compiled. Now there will
be highlighted individual personal qualities of the UK politicians
in accordance with the listed strategies.
Table 1
Speech behavior of House of Commons Representatives according
to Implicit speech strategy “Participation / Nonparticipation
of Communicants in Speech Event” (Labor Party)
Plane of strategy
addresser personal social objective
participation participation participation
Keir Starmer 22 % 27 % 51 %
Hilary Benn 28 % 25 % 47 %
Pat McFadden 41 % 12 % 47 %
Ben Bradshaw 22 % 4% 74 %
George Howarth 20 % 13 % 67 %
Ivan Lewis 18 % 0% 82 %
Andy Burnham 25 % 37 % 38 %
the average speech-
25 % 17 % 58 %
genre index

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Table 2
Speech behavior of House of Commons Representatives according
to Implicit speech strategy “Participation / Nonparticipation
of Communicants in Speech Event” (Conservative Party)
plane of strategy
personal social objective
addresser
participation participation participation

Mr Clarke 17 % 24 % 59 %
Mr lain Duncan Smith 38 % 8% 54 %
Mr Davis Davis 52 % 22 % 26 %
Michael Gove 20 % 18 % 62 %
Peter Lilley 27 % 8% 65 %
Dominic Grieve 55 % 10 % 35 %
the average speech-
36 % 15 % 49 %
genre index

Table 3
Speech behavior of House of Commons Representatives according
to Implicit speech strategy “Participation / Nonparticipation
of Communicants in Speech Event””
(Labor and Conservative Parties)

plane of strategy
party personal social objective
participation participation participation
лейбористская 25 % 17 % 58 %
консервативная 36 % 15 % 49 %
the average
speech-genre 30,5 % 16 % 53,5 %
index

Results/Findings
According to the results obtained during the study of the speeches
of thirteen speakers, the average personal index is 30.5 % (Table

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3). This indicator is the level of standard, reference speech
behavior of politicians in speeches in the Parliament on Brexit
issues. With regard to indicators that diagnose individual qualities
of politicians, indicators are considered to be higher or lower than
the average speech-genre index.
After the analysis, one can select the speakers, who mostly use
personal plane markers. Among them: Dominic Grieve (55 %),
Mr Davis Davis (52 %), Peter Bone (44 %) and Pat McFadden
(41 %). More frequent use of these indicators in comparison with
other politicians characterizes them as leaders. They have the
following qualities: initiative, active life position,
resourcefulness. In addition, they are characterized by
authoritarianism and a certain amount of egocentrism. We can
also note that a high personal plane characterizes these speakers
as individuals with increased self-esteem, which can also reveal
them as natures that are peculiar to narcissism.
As for the speakers, whose indicators are below the average
personal level (30.5 %), they are: Ivan Lewis (18 %), Mr Clarke
(17 %), George Howarth (20 %) and Michael Gove (20 %). One
speaker has an indicator of a personal plane which is close to the
average speech-genre index - Hilary Benn (28 %). These
indicators can characterize the authors of speeches as modest
people, who do not tend to show authoritarianism and raise their
needs in the first place.
During the study, it is impossible not to notice the difference in
the speech behavior of representatives of the two leading parties
in the UK. Thus, the average personal plane for Conservatives is
36 %, for Laborists – 25 %, and the social plane is almost the
same (15 % and 17%, respectively). Thus, one can see not only
the quantitative predominance of representatives of the ruling
party in the Parliament, but also, if it is possible, so to say,
qualitative. They subconsciously seek to seize the leadership,
influencing the audience by the power of their authority.
Indicators of personal plane significantly exceed the level of
social plane. It can be concluded that, in general, the British

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parliamentarians are those people who are characterized by
authoritarianism and upholding their point of view.
Next it is a social plane. When comparing the parliamentarians of
both parties, we conclude that they use markers of this plane with
equal frequency. It suggests that their personal qualities include
such characteristics as openness and active involvement of an
interlocutor in their dialogue. The average social participation is
16 %, figures above this indicator are inherent to the following
speakers: Andy Burnham (37 %), Keir Starmer (27 %) and Hilary
Benn (25 %). It should be noted that each of these representatives
of the Parliament is a representative of the Labor Party. The high
frequency of the presence of this plane’s markers can be
interpreted as a cooperative type of behavior. In this case, the
listener is easier to be convinced of the chosen position, since the
mechanism of psychological involvement is developed.
As for the indicators of the subject plane, in the studied speeches
it prevails, the average speech-genre index of the specified plane
is 53.5 %. As already mentioned, the data above and below this
figure are considered diagnostic. Markers of this plane are more
often found in the texts of the following speakers: Ivan Lewis
(82 %), Ben Bradshaw (74 %) and George Howarth (67 %).
Taking into account how high the indicators of the substantive
plane are, we note that politicians who use them strive to draw
attention to the objectivity of the case under consideration,
focusing on the main, substantive. As individuals they are logical
and organized.
In the speeches of Mr Davis Davis (26 %), Dominic Grieve
(35 %) and Andy Burnham (38 %) the markers of this plane are
less common than the ones of the other politicians. This factor
indicates that for these statesmen it is not so much the substantive
aspect of the process that is important, but also their emotional
manifestation during the speech.
As for the rest of the politicians, their indicators are close to the
average speech-genre index of the objective plane, which
indicates the initial inclination of a politician to focus mainly on

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the objective side of the problem under discussion (UK exit from
the EU). It is thanks to this strategy of speech behavior that
citizens show confidence in the words of parliamentarians and the
facts that they mention.
After analyzing the speeches of the speakers, it can be concluded
that the relatively high rates of use of objective plane’s markers
indicate that representatives of both Houses of the UK Parliament
tend to focus on the objectivity of the issues under consideration,
on the main thing. Their speeches are logical, organized and
characterized by clarity and consistency.
Discussion
The result of the study was identified characteristics of the
majority of the parliamentarians. British politicians are initiative
and confident. They tend to focus on the substantive, objective
aspect of the issue under consideration, they are cooperative and
have the skills of finding an individual approach to people.
The frequent use of markers that diagnose the above individual
personality traits is the result of many years of experience as
politicians in fulfilling their professional duties.
Of particular importance is the study for those who study in detail
the problems of establishing authorship of a text, the problems of
political linguistic research, as well as the problems of
psychological and pragmalinguistic personality diagnosis in
politics.

References
Matveeva G.G., Zyubina I.A. 2017. Speech Behavior of Original
and Translated Texts’ Authors: Pragmalinguistic Aspect. In
Science Journal of VolSU. Linguistics. 16(3): 103-111.
Matveeva G.G., Zyubina I.A. 2018. Written text: approaches to
identifying Implicit Pragmatics. In Science Journal of VolSU.
Linguistics. 17(2): 26-32.
The Government's Plan for Brexit. 2016. URL:
https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2016-12-
07/debates/CA09D9B2-9634-41C8-8979-

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8B9CD82DBB8F/TheGovernmentSPlanForBrexit [Accessed
09.09.2017].
Zheltukhina M.R., Busygina M.V., Merkulova M.G., Zyubina
I.A., Buzinova L.M. 2018. Linguopragmatic aspect of modern
communication: main political media speech strategies and
tactics in the USA and the UK. In XLinguae, 11(2): 639-654.
DOI: 10.18355/XL.2018.11.02.51.
Zheltukhina M., Zyubina I. 2018. Individual speech behavior of
Russian-speaking prosecutors in the 19-20th centuries: A case
study in implicit pragmatics. In Lege artis. Language yesterday,
today, tomorrow. The journal of University of SS Cyril and
Methodius in Trnava. Warsaw: De Gruyter Poland, III (2): 251-
306. DOI:10.2478/lart-2018-0020 ISSN 2453-8035
Zyubina I., Dzyubenko A., Matveeva G., Ostrovskaya K.,
Ratokhina A. 2016. New approach to diagnosis of personality
traits in Psychology. In SGEM2016 Conference Proceedings,
Book 1 Vol. 1: 245-250. DOI:
10.5593/SGEMSOCIAL2016/B11/S01.032.
Zyubina I., Dzyubenko A., Matveeva G., Ratokhina A., Ostrikova
G. 2017. What is Fedor N. Plevako? (On Speech Behavior in
Implicit Pragmalinguistics). In SGEM2017 Conference
Proceedings, Book 3, Vol 2: 1089-1094. DOI:
10.5593/sgemsocial2017/32/S14.141.
Zyubina I.A., Matveeva G.G., Zheltukhina M.R., Slyshkin G.G.,
Shevchenko A.V. 2017. Forensic Prosecutor’s Speech as a
Speech Genre. In XLinguael, 10(3): 312-323. DOI:
10.18355/XL.2017.10.03.25.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-675-685

POLITICAL DISCOURSE AS A MEANS

OF DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE

Anna A. Lugareva

South Federal University

Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
We reviewed the theoretical aspects of the study of discourse in
the English language. We also studied the very concept of this
term and adhere to the following definition: “discourse is a text
that consists of communicative units of a language - sentences
and their associations into larger unity, which are in continuous
semantic connection, which allows to perceive it as an integral
entity”. In modern linguistics discourse can be ranked into 3 main
classes which correspond to all sorts of national traditions and
innovations of specific authors. The first class is directly
linguistic use of the term. The second class of understanding the
term "discourse" in recent years has gone beyond the scope of
science and has become widespread in French scholarly
journalism. The third class of the use of the term “discourse” is a
separate perfect form of communication, embodied in the
maximum possible removal from social reality, the
communicative routine of authority and traditions, and aimed at a
critical discussion and justification of the views and actions of the
participants in communication.
Discourse theory is one of the newest areas of linguistic theory
but there are more questions than answers. The main
problematics of this part of the theory of language is considered
the theory of reference, that is references to persons and objects
in the discourse. Turning to the history of discourse, we found

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that from the beginning of the 60s of the last century, the word
“discourse” gradually began to acquire a philosophical meaning,
and the semantics of this word began to change over time.
However, the set of basic meanings remains without significant
changes which in turn had a huge impact on the emergence of
other meanings and gradually led to an increase in the scope of
the concept of this word. It is important to clearly understand the
features of the functioning (use) of the concept of discourse in
various fields and areas of humanitarian knowledge, only so we
can rationally consider the magnitude of the meaning of this
phenomenon, referring primarily to the data in the dictionaries,
which can define the general structure of the meanings of this
word. The main parameters of discourse, such as worldview,
channel of empathy (rational, intuitive, emotional), motives and
goals, etc., are considered. Political discourse necessarily
becomes official, both in terms of content and in terms of style,
often copied by the media, which, in turn, cover the work of the
above-mentioned services and institutions. It is important to note
that the discourse described can be calculated as biased, racist or
stereotyped, depending on the political party and political
context. In itself, the definition of political discourse may seem
ambiguous and contradictory, but if you try to give a literal
meaning, it can be formulated as follows: political discourse is
what policy says. political discourse as a special class of genres,
limited to the social sphere, in particular, namely politics. The
speeches of politicians, government discussions, party programs,
parliamentary elections are those genres belonging to the sphere
of politics. E.I. Sheigal revealed two major concepts in political
discourse: the concepts of “Power” and “Politician”. She
identifies seven fundamental parameters of political discourse. Y.
Erfurt in his work “Political Communication, Political Discourse
and Political Text” asserts that political communication as an
activity has a predominantly social direction and has many
characteristics. When analyzing the texts of political discourse, it
is important to take into account not only linguistic factors

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(lexical and grammatical features of the text, the phonetic
structure of the text), but also extralinguistic factors (assessment
of the participants of the event, background explaining the events,
circumstances accompanying the events described in the text).
Often, researchers of political discourse focus on the
characteristic expressive elements used in this type of discourse.
Many of them contain in their semantics irony, anger, sarcasm,
and the most unusual, insult. Political discourse is somewhat
similar to religious. Note also the peculiarity of the language of
political speech as a language of promises. B. Norman notes that
political discourse is characterized by significant language
features (features) like cliches, evaluative vocabulary and so on.
Therefore, political discourse - the discourse of manipulations
and promises.
Keywords: discourse, communication, political discourse

Introduction
In the modern world information accessibility is no longer a
problem, and news reports about events in the world reach any
point on the planet. Since the news is divided into headings, it can
be noted that the “politics” heading causes the greatest interest
among the audience. Due to the widespread availability of news
sources our generation has an incredible opportunity to learn
about the latest developments in this field. Linguists, philologists
and psychologists have devoted a huge amount of work to
studying the speeches of politicians and top officials of states. In
our work, we aim to identify the features of political discourse as
a means of developing intercultural competence.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of our study is to identify the lexical and syntactic
and cultural characteristics of political discourse, as well as to
determine the specifics of their use.
Methodology
Research methods are determined by the specifics of the subject
of the research and objectives. The diversity of methods used is

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due primarily to the complexity of the object under consideration.
The main general scientific method of research is the theoretical
deductive method. Methods of contextual and functional analysis,
a comparative method, a method of semantic and pragmatic
interpretation, social contextual methods are also applied in this
research.
The definition of discourse
Many Russian and foreign linguists, such as: Mikhail Grachev,
Tatyana Grinberg, Olga Mikhaleva, Svetlana Plotnikova, Elena
Sheygal, Tyon van Dyk, etc. dealt with the problem of political
discourse.
The relevance of our work lies in the fact that political discourse
is becoming increasingly popular due to current events in the
political sphere. And recently, the interest of linguists to the
peculiarities of the speeches of politicians is constantly growing.
Almost every statement is subjected to a thorough study,
expressive means containing a particular message are also
analysed. That is why it is exceedingly vital to acquaint foreign
language learners with political discourse as it can form correct
intercultural competence.
In modern linguistics, many works are devoted to the study of
discourse, different authors interpret this phenomenon in different
ways.
In relation to language structuring, a large text that forms external
text intrusions into culture is viewed as a discourse.
It is impossible to give a concrete and generally accepted
definition of “discourse”, which includes all cases of its use. This
concept changes traditional and well-established ideas about
speech, text, dialogue, style and language in the prior. It is quite
clearly possible to distinguish three main classes of the use of the
term “discourse”, which correspond to various national traditions
and innovations of specific authors.
It is impossible to give a concrete and generally accepted
definition of “discourse”, which includes all cases of its use. This
concept changes traditional and well-established ideas about

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speech, text, dialogue, style and language in the prior. It is quite
clearly possible to distinguish three main classes of the use of the
term “discourse”, which correspond to various national traditions
and innovations of specific authors.
The first class is directly linguistic use of the term. The linguistic
applications of the term “discourse” themselves are very diverse,
but in general they follow the direction of refinement and
development of traditional concepts of speech, text and dialogue.
This class is most often investigated by Western linguists,
philologists and researchers.
The second class of understanding the term “discourse” in recent
years has gone beyond the scope of science and has become
widespread in French scholarly journalism. In this understanding,
discourse is a stylistic specificity and the ideology behind it.
The third class of the use of the term “discourse” is a separate
perfect form of communication, embodied in the maximum
possible removal from social reality, the communicative routine
of authority and traditions, and aimed at a critical discussion and
substantiation of the views and actions of the participants in
communication.
It is important to clearly understand the features of the
functioning (use) of the concept of discourse in certain areas and
areas of humanitarian knowledge, only so we can rationally
consider the magnitude of the meaning of this phenomenon,
referring primarily to the data of the dictionaries, which can
determine the general structure of the meanings of this word.
First of all, you should pay attention to the fact that vocabulary
definitions offer only its key meanings (Romanov A.A., 2016).
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary provides such a
definition of the term “discourse; the text is connected (Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English., 2005: 434).
The Dutch discourse researcher Teun van Dijk gives the
following definition - “Discourse in a broad sense (as a
cumulative communicative event), is a communicative event that
occurs between the speaker, the listener (the observer, etc.) in the

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process of communicative action in a certain temporal, spatial
and other context ". This communicative action can be of diverse
forms (written, verbal), moreover, it can have verbal and non-
verbal components. The most common examples are the
following situations - daily conversation with a friend, a dialogue
between the seller and the buyer, reading newspapers and
magazines.
Discourse should also be described in a narrower sense (like text
or conversation). Only the verbal component of the
communicative action stands out and is referred to as the “text”
or “conversation”. In this sense, the term “discourse” means a
completed or ongoing “product” of a communicative action, its
speech or written result, which is interpreted by the recipients of
communication. This means that discourse in its most general
form is a verbal or written verbal product of communicative
actions (Dijk T., 1999).
Adhering to the point of view of A.V. Polonsky, by discourse we
will understand the typologically divisible corpus of stable
communicative-speech practices objectifying the totality of
sociocultural and psychological parameters of interaction in the
informational-semantic exchange of subjects. It is necessary to
highlight the fundamental criteria:
1) the range of their social connections;
2) the nature of social roles;
3) worldview (nature of knowledge and experience, value
system);
4) the nature of the reflective organization and emotional-
volitional regulation;
5) empathy channel (rational, intuitive, emotional)
6) motives and goals;
7) the type of rationality;
8) typology of demand for meaning;
9) cognitive strategies, that is, strategies for the production of
meaning (according to the schemes of formal logic, unjustified
logical “cliff”, common sense, intuition, faith)

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10) communicative and pragmatic strategies;
11) semantic focus;
12) principles of semantic collocation;
13) the admissibility of semantic conversion;
14) ritual and etiquette forms, etc. " (Polonsky A.V., 2014).
Thus, each researcher has his own interpretation of the notion of
discourse, but they all agree that the discourse is verbal
communication.
The definition of political discourse
In the modern world, politics is the most interesting news rubric.
Millions of news flows daily to various media areas. Our society
is a recipient of news from journalistic publications,
telecommunications, and an increasingly popular audience
media - social networks. In connection with the ongoing series of
events taking place in the political arena at the moment, we, one
way or another, are witnessing everything that is happening in the
world.
Today, many linguists prefer the study of political language and
political communication. Gradually, from the end of the 50s of
the last century, interest in the study of these issues increased in
the Federal Republic of Germany, primarily because of the study
of the language of national socialism (Klemperer V., 1947: 178).
And the more deeply these questions were studied in Germany,
the more often linguists paid attention to this new field of
research.
Political observers and politicians themselves, with special access
to public discourse, are also able to control it. They are
recognized as the so-called "influential symbolic elite." Very
often, some key politicians, even before the media receive
information, have a pre-formulated description of the current
situation. It is not surprising that the basic state institutions such
as the police, the immigration service and other important state
institutions (also the bureaucratic structures that serve them)
receive all the latest information in advance. Therefore, political
discourse necessarily becomes official both in terms of content

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and in terms of style, often copied by the media, which, in turn,
cover the work of the above-mentioned services and institutions.
It is important to note that the discourse described can be
calculated as biased, racist or stereotyped, depending on the
political party and political context.
Very often, political discourse became the subject of linguistic
research, both in Russia and abroad. A significant contribution to
the development of the theory of abbreviation was made by the
work of E.I. Sheigal, S.N. Plotnikova, M.N. Grachev, O.L.
Mikhaleva, T.E. Greenberg.
The definition of political discourse itself may seem ambiguous
and contradictory, but if you try to give a literal meaning, it can
be formulated as follows: political discourse is what policy says
(Parshin P.B., 1999).
Teun van Dijk adheres to a narrow definition of political
discourse. He described political discourse as a special class of
genres, limited to the social sphere, in particular politics (Dijk T.,
1999). The speeches of politicians, government discussions, party
programs, parliamentary elections are those genres belonging to
the sphere of politics.
A fundamental contribution to the study of political discourse
was introduced by E. I. Sheigal. She revealed two major concepts
in political discourse: the concepts of “Power” and “Politician”.
In Russian linguistic culture, there is the idea of separating the
content minimum of the concept of “power”. It consists of the
following components: "authority", "influence", "domination",
"ability", "right" and "control". In the metaphoric concept of
"power" two paradoxical images are combined: a mechanism and
a living being. In the evaluation characteristics of the government
focuses on the negative moral and ethical assessment of this
phenomenon. The concept of “politician” may differ by an
optional expressive assessment, often with comic connotation.
E.I. Sheigal identifies seven fundamental parameters of political
discourse:
1) the advantage of the mass recipient;

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2) esotericism as a result of the use of manipulative techniques,
the most important of which are hints, euphemization, deliberate
evasiveness and references to rumors;
3) the dominant role of the emotional factor and a significant
proportion of phatic communication;
4) semantic ambiguity associated with the phantomism of a
number of denotations and fideist;
5) the predetermination of political communication by the mass
media factor;
6) the need for politicians to “work for the public”, attracting it
with their image, most often theatricality;
7) the dynamic language of politics, due to the topicality of the
reflected realities and the instability of the political situation
(Sheigal E.I., 2000: 251).
German researcher Y. Erfurt in his work “Political
Communication, Political Discourse and Political Text” states
that political communication as an activity has a predominantly
social direction and is characterized by the following features:
1) involves interaction with other speech and non-speech actions;
2) changes its forms under the influence of technical
development, as well as the processes of changing political
subjects;
3) has, as a rule, a collective addressee and an individual
addressee; in any case, the final addressee of communication is
always a certain team;
4) is formed under the influence of interpersonal rules of norms;
5) generates texts that, in the linguistic and communicative sense,
differ in their functions and correspond with a certain type of
political action;
6) it is intentional and aimed at the formation of a specific content
of consciousness;
7) in thematic and interactional sense subject to historical
changes (Erfurt Y., 2008: 35).
When analyzing the texts of political discourse, it is important to
consider not only linguistic factors (lexical and grammatical

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features of the text, the phonetic structure of the text), but also
extra-linguistic factors (assessment of the participants of the
event, background explaining the events, circumstances
accompanying the events described in the text).
Results
Finally, we can state that B. Norman’s characteristics summarize
all the above notes about political discourse and therefore we can
distinguish it’s 3 main features:
1) The cliches and stamps used in political discourse are aimed at
awakening the existing stereotypes in the mind of the listener,
compressing information, and making it more understandable.
2) Evaluation (axiological) vocabulary occupies an important
place in political discourse. She emphasizes the impact on the
consciousness of the recipient. A political language is a sphere of
application of expressions with conflict semantics, the entire
expressive vocabulary and metaphorics of which evolved from
the image of armed struggle. Most often in political discourse can
be metaphorical expressions.
3) To create more complex, multidisciplinary definitions of terms
and give a chance to fill them with new semantic shades. As a
consequence, it is possible to accurately determine the semantic
content of a political term (Norman B.Yu., 1997: 57).
Discussion
Summing up, political discourse is defined differently in the
works of researchers. But they agree that the political discourse is
ideal for manipulation, can affect the public and personifies
power.

References
Polonsky, A. V. 2014. Media - Discourse - Concept: Experience
in Problem Comprehension. URL:
http://discourseanalysis.org/ada6/st43.shtml [Accessed February
2 2019].
Parshin, P.B. 1999. The concept of ideopolitical discourse and
methodological foundations of political linguistics. URL:

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www.elections.ru/biblio/lit/parshin.htm [Accessed February 16
2019].
Erfurt, Y. 2008. Political Communication, Political Discourse and
Political Text. In: Discourse: functional-pragmatic and cognitive
aspects: the team. monograph / resp. ed. E.N. Aznacheeva.,
Chelyabinsk: Chelyabinsk State University Publishing, pp.153-
154.
Klemperer, V. 1947. Notizbuch eines Philologen. Berlin: Aufbau-
Verlag, pp.178-180.
Norman, B. Yu. 1994. Lexical phantoms from the point of view
of linguistics and cultural studies. In Language and Culture.
Third Intern. conf., Kiev, pp. 53–60.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.,
2005. Oxford University Press., pp. 434.
Romanov, A. A. On the relationship between the concepts of
discourse vs text in the humanitarian paradigm: review,
evaluation and reflection. Tver State Agricultural Academy.
URL: www.tverlingua.ru/archive/001/01_6-001.htm [Accessed
February 17 2019].
Sheigal, E. I. 2000. Semiotics of political discourse. Volgograd:
Peremena., pp. 232-245.
Teun van Dijk. 1999. Discourse Definition. M., Higher School.
URL: www.psyberlink.flogiston.ru/internet/bits/vandijk2.htm
[Accessed February 17 2019].

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-686-705

TONE TEXT ANALYSIS BASED ON THE POLITICAL

SPEECHES OF TWO AMERICAN PRESIDENTS
DONALD TRAMP AND JOHN FITZGERALD KENNEDY

Elena O. Popova¹, Yana A. Volkova²

Institute of Foreign Languages

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)
Moscow, Russia
¹e-mail: london_greenwich @yahoo.com
²e_mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The Internet space has become a special area of study and not
only for ordinary users, but for professional linguists, who are
scrupulously engaged in the so-called profiling of texts or
speeches. The most important thing in the linguoexpert’s research
is a sentiment analysis of the text. The purpose of this study is to
demonstrate the specifics of such analysis.
The object of the present study is the text and its tonality.
Subject - text sentiment analysis.
The purpose of this study is to determine the specifics of such
analysis.
The research method is a manual analysis of the tone of two
speeches by American politicians Donald Trump and John
Fitzgerald Kennedy.
The relevance of the work is in the need for this analysis in
different areas. This is especially important for certain special
services that are engaged in the identification of extremists and
terrorists, the analysis of their correspondence in social networks
and in very popular messengers today.
The object of the present study is the text and its tonality.
Sentiment analysis is a common application of natural language
processing (NLP) methods, the purpose of which is to extract

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emotional content from the text. That is, sentiment analysis can
be seen as a description of mood assessments. The tonality of the
whole text can be defined as a function (in the simplest case, the
sum) of the lexical tonalities of its constituent units (sentences)
and the rules of their combination. The purpose of the analysis
may be the author, that is, the person whom the opinion belongs
to.
Opinions are traditionally divided into direct opinions and
comparisons.
A direct opinion contains the author's statement about one object.
The formal definition of direct opinion is as follows, "Direct
opinion is a tuple of five elements (e, f, op, h, t), where:
* (entity, feature) - the e-key object (the entity about which the
author speaks) or its properties f (attributes, parts of the object) ;
* orientation or polarity-tonal assessment (emotional position of
the author regarding the mentioned topic);
* holder - the subject of the key (the author, that is, who owns
this opinion);
* the time at which the opinion was left.
Examples of tonal scores include positive, negative, and neutral.
"Neutral" means that the text does not contain emotional
coloring. There may also be other tonal estimates.
The first stage of the sentiment analysis is a manual stylistic
analysis, which can be carried out, for example, using the
speeches of famous personalities. In the study, the inaugural
speech of Donald Trump (20.01.2017, Washington) and
J.F. Kennedy’s speech "I am a Berliner!" ("Ich bin ein Berliner!")
(26.06.1963, West Berlin) are analysed.
It was revealed that in D. Trump’s inaugural speech syntactic
means of expression are predominantly used. They include
different types of repetitions and syntactic parallelism, and give
rhythm, emotionality and coherence, and verbalize the concept of
patriotism and other traditional American values. The frequent
repetition of the pronoun "we" focuses the audience's attention on

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who the threat is directed at, which creates a special emotional
effect
The speech of John Kennedy is a fine example of the publicistic
style, namely oratory. The text is intended to influence the
audience, to form public opinion. We can find its leading
features: direct appeal to the audience, the use of colloquial
words and a large number of expressive means that stimulate and
retain the interest of the public. Kennedy uses foreignisms (Ich
bin ein Berliner) through his entire speech. Thus he identifies
himself with the Germans, appealing to the audience and winning
their sympathy.
So, the main purpose of sentiment analysis is to find opinions in
the text and identify their properties. What properties will be
studied depends on a task.
As a result, the general goals and objectives of the text sentiment
analysis are analyzed. The manual analysis of tonality is carried
out based on the example of two American politicians speeches,
the main emotional dominants of Trump's and Kennedy's
speeches are revealed. Next, it is planned to conduct a computer
analysis of the tonality and compare the results with the results
obtained manually.
Keywords: tonality, analysis, sentiment analysis

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АНАЛИЗ ТОНАЛЬНОСТИ ТЕКСТА, ОСНОВАННЫЙ
НА РЕЧАХ ДВУХ АМЕРИКАНСКИХ
ПРЕЗИДЕНТОВ ДОНАЛЬДА ТРАМПА
И ДЖОНА ФИЦДЖЕРАЛЬДА КЕННЕДИ

Елена О. Попова¹, Яна А. Волкова²

Институт иностранных языков

Российский университет дружбы народов
Москва, Россия
¹e-mail: [email protected]
²e-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация
Интернет-пространство стало особой зоной изучения, но уже
не только для простых пользователей, а для целых групп
профессиональных экспертов-лингвистов, которые
скрупулезно занимаются так называемым профайлингом
текстов или речей, если это видеоматериал (речи зачастую
пишутся заранее, хотя не всегда). Они являются
специалистами в сфере лингвоэкспертологии.
Самое главное в исследованиях лингвоэкспертов – анализ
тональности текста.
Объектом исследования является текст и его тональность.
Субъект – анализ тональности текста.
Цель данного исследования – определить специфику такого
анализа.
Метод исследования – ручной анализ тональности двух
речей американских политиков Дональда Трампа и Джона
Фицджеральда Кеннеди.
Актуальность работы заключается в нужности данного
анализа в разных сферах деятельности. Особую значимость
это представляет для определенных спецслужб, которые
занимаются идентификацией экстремистов и террористов,

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анализом их переписки в соцсетях и в очень популярных
сегодня мессенджерах.
Анализ тональности текста или сентимент-анализ (sentiment
analysis) – это распространенное приложение методов
обработки естественного языка (natural language processing,
NLP), целью которой является извлечение из текста
эмоционального содержания. То есть анализ тональности
можно рассматривать, как описание оценок настроения.
Если говорить энциклопедическим языком, то тональность
(текста) — это эмоциональное отношение автора
высказывания к некоторому объекту (объекту реального
мира, событию, процессу или их свойствам/атрибутам),
выраженное в тексте. Эмоциональная составляющая,
внедренная на уровне лексемы или коммуникативного
фрагмента, называется лексической тональностью (или
лексическим сентиментом). Тональность всего текста в
целом можно определить как функцию (в простейшем случае
сумму) лексических тональностей составляющих его единиц
(предложений) и правил их сочетания.
К примеру, целью анализа может быть автор, то есть лицо,
которому принадлежит мнение.
Мнения делятся на два типа:
 непосредственное мнение;
 сравнение.
Непосредственное мнение содержит высказывание автора об
одном объекте. Формальное определение непосредственного
мнения выглядит так: "непосредственным мнением
называется кортеж из пяти элементов (e, f, op, h, t), где:
 (entity, feature) - объект тональности e (сущность, насчет
которой высказывается автор) или его свойства f (атрибуты,
части объекта);
 orientation или polarity - тональная оценка (эмоциональная
позиция автора относительно упомянутой темы);
 holder - субъект тональности (автор, то есть кому
принадлежит это мнение);

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 момент времени time, когда было оставлено мнение.
Примеры тональных оценок:
 позитивная;
 негативная;
 нейтральная.
Под «нейтральной» подразумевается, что текст не содержит
эмоциональной окраски. Также могут существовать и другие
тональные оценки.
Первая ступень анализа тональности текста - это ручной
стилистический анализ, который можно осуществить,
например, используя речи известных личностей. Такими
объектами могут быть инаугурационная речь действующего
президента США Дональда Трампа (20.01.2017, Вашингтон)
и легендарный текст «Я – берлинец!» ( "Ich bin ein Berliner!")
35-го президента Америки Джона Кеннеди (26.06.1963,
Западный Берлин)
Например, в инаугурационной речи Дональда Трампа
используются преимущественно синтаксические средства
выразительности, такие как различные виды повторов и
синтаксический параллелизм, придающие речи ритм,
эмоциональность и связанность, и приобретающие
наибольшую силу воздействия при вербализации понятия
патриотизма и других традиционных американских
ценностей.
«Мы защищали границы других государств и отказывались
защищать свои границы. Мы тратили триллионы долларов за
рубежом, мы делали богатыми другие странами, а сами
теряли свое благосостояние. Никто не думал о миллионах
рабочих, оставшихся без работы, но сейчас мы смотрим
только вперёд, только в будущее. Отныне у нас будет новый
принцип управления страной: Америка - первая!
Америка - впереди!»
В приведенном примере синтаксический параллелизм
подчеркивает серьезность перечисляемых проблем и создает
особый эмоциональный эффект. Повторение местоимения

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«мы» акцентирует внимание слушателей на том, на кого
направлена угроза.
Текст Джона Кеннеди относится к публицистическому
стилю, а именно ораторскому. Текст призван воздействовать
на аудиторию, формировать общественное мнение. Мы
можем найти его ведущие черты: прямое обращение к
аудитории, использование разговорных слов и большого
количества выразительных средств, которые вызывают и
сохраняют интерес публики.
Кеннеди использует foreignism “берлинец” через всю его
речь. Этим он отождествляет себя с немцами, апеллируя к
зрителям и завоевывая их симпатии.
«Две тысячи лет крылатой фразой было: "Я – гражданин
Рима." Сегодня в свободном мире это должно звучать так: "Я
- берлинец"». Кеннеди использует параллелизм, чтобы
поставить немцев на тот же высокий уровень, что и римлян.
Итак, основной целью анализа тональности является
нахождение мнений в тексте и выявление их свойств. Какие
именно свойства будут исследоваться, зависит уже от
поставленной задачи.
В результате проанализированы общие цели и задачи анализа
тональности текста. На примере двух речей американских
политиков проведен ручной анализ тональности, выявлены
основные эмоциональные доминанты речей Трампа и
Кеннеди. Далее планируется провести компьютерный анализ
тональности и сравнить полученные результаты с
результатами, полученными вручную.
Ключевые слова: тональность, анализ, сентимент-анализ.

Вступление
Интернет-пространство стало особой зоной изучения, но уже
не только для простых пользователей, а для целых групп
профессиональных экспертов-лингвистов, которые
скрупулезно занимаются так называемым профайлингом
текстов или речей, если это видеоматериал (речи зачастую

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пишутся заранее, хотя не всегда). Они являются
специалистами в сфере лингвоэкспертологии.
Самое главное в исследованиях лингвоэкспертов – анализ
тональности текста.
Объектом исследования является текст и его тональность.
Субъект – анализ тональности текста.
Цель данного исследования – определить специфику такого
анализа.
Метод исследования – ручной анализ тональности двух
речей американских политиков Дональда Трампа и Джона
Фицджеральда Кеннеди.
Актуальность работы заключается в нужности данного
анализа в разных сферах деятельности. Особую значимость
это представляет для определенных спецслужб, которые
занимаются идентификацией экстремистов и террористов,
анализом их переписки в соцсетях и в очень популярных
сегодня мессенджерах.
Результаты исследования
Анализ тональности текста или сентимент-анализ (sentiment
analysis) – это распространенное приложение методов
обработки естественного языка (natural language processing,
NLP), целью которой является извлечение из текста
эмоционального содержания. То есть анализ тональности
можно рассматривать, как описание оценок настроения.
Если говорить энциклопедическим языком, то тональность
(текста) - это эмоциональное отношение автора
высказывания к некоторому объекту (объекту реального
мира, событию, процессу или их свойствам/атрибутам),
выраженное в тексте. Эмоциональная составляющая,
внедренная на уровне лексемы или коммуникативного
фрагмента, называется лексической тональностью (или
лексическим сентиментом). Тональность всего текста в
целом можно определить как функцию (в простейшем случае
сумму) лексических тональностей составляющих его единиц
(предложений) и правил их сочетания.

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693
К примеру, целью анализа может быть автор, то есть лицо,
которому принадлежит мнение.
Мнения делятся на два типа:
 непосредственное мнение;
 сравнение.
Непосредственное мнение содержит высказывание автора об
одном объекте. Формальное определение непосредственного
мнения выглядит так: "непосредственным мнением
называется кортеж из пяти элементов (e, f, op, h, t), где:
 (entity, feature) - объект тональности e (сущность, насчет
которой высказывается автор) или его свойства f (атрибуты,
части объекта);
 orientation или polarity - тональная оценка (эмоциональная
позиция автора относительно упомянутой темы);
 holder — субъект тональности (автор, то есть кому
принадлежит это мнение);
 момент времени time, когда было оставлено мнение.
Примеры тональных оценок:
 позитивная;
 негативная;
 нейтральная.
Под нейтральной подразумевается, что текст не содержит
эмоциональной окраски. Также могут существовать и другие
тональные оценки.
Первая ступень анализа тональности текста - это ручной
стилистический анализ, который можно осуществить,
например, используя речи известных личностей. Такими
объектами могут быть инаугурационная речь действующего
президента США Дональда Трампа (20.01.2017, Вашингтон)
и легендарный текст «Я – берлинец!» ("Ich bin ein Berliner!")
35-го президента Америки Джона Кеннеди (26.06.1963,
Западный Берлин).
Соглашаясь с М.Я. Блохом и Е.Л. Фрейдиной (Bloch M. J.,
and Freidin, E. L., 2011), мы рассматриваем публичную речь
как риторическую деятельность, в ходе которой оратор и

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аудитория вступают в сложное взаимодействие,
обусловленное требованиями этоса (индивидуальные
характеристики, идеологические установки оратора и
слушателей). Публичная речь имеет характеристики
убеждающей коммуникации, реализующей убеждение в трёх
риторических категориях – этосе, пафосе, логосе.
Структурная организация публичной речи определяется
риторическими, семантическими, психологокогнитивными
факторами. Публичная речь характеризуется
содержательным единством и смысловой завершённостью,
которые формируются за счёт развёртывания основной темы
в последовательный ряд взаимосвязанных элементов
(Aleshina E. Y., 2012: 90).
Риторические стратегии, стилистические приёмы, обороты,
используемые оратором в политическом выступлении,
наряду с индивидуальным стилем оратора, могут
рассматриваться как средства персонализации.
Инаугурационная речь Дональда Трампа получила высокую
оценку со стороны аналитиков относительно
эмоционального воздействия на аудиторию. В средствах
массовой информации ее определили как «превосходный
пример поистине вдохновляющей речи» (Pesht G., 2017). При
просмотре видеозаписи речи заметны проявления сильной
эмоциональной реакции со стороны аудитории. Исходя из
этого, в рамках настоящей статьи представляется весьма
интересным выявить и используемые в речи Трампа
стилистические приемы и их влияние на восприятие
слушателей. Для достижения этой цели был использован
метод сплошной выборки стилистических приемов из текста
рассматриваемой речи, было проведено количественное и
качественное сравнение использования выявленных
приемов, а также их сопоставление со смысловым
содержанием речи. Кроме того, при проведении анализа
учитывалась реакция аудитории, выражавшаяся в форме

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аплодисментов и одобрительных возгласов в определенные
моменты речи.
Прагматика рассматриваемой группы стилистических
средств включает следующие характеристики:
1) манипуляция общественным мнением, 2) создание
положительного образа американского лидера, т.е.
детерминация положительной оценки новой политической
программы, 3) гедонистическая подача информации,
4) креатирование доверительной атмосферы общения с
аудиторией, 5) выражение экспрессии, 6) акцентирование
внимания реципиента на отдельных моментах излагаемой
программы, 7) создание образности, которая делает текст
выступления ярким и запоминающимся, 8) повышение
эффективности информационного воздействия.
В предыдущих исследованиях, посвященных изучению
языкового портрета Дональда Трампа, уже отмечалось, что в
его речах активно вербализуются традиционные
американские ценности, такие как свобода, любовь к родине
и идея сильного национального государства (Morozova N.N.,
2016). В своей инаугурационной речи Трамп также делает
акцент на этих понятиях, помимо этого концентрируя
внимание на первостепенности внутренних проблем
Америки, объединении нации в единое целое, активном
участии народа в управлении страной и защищенности
государства. Именно вербализация ключевых ценностей
вызывает особенно сильную эмоциональную реакцию со
стороны слушателей. Репрезентация ключевых моментов
происходит на трех языковых уровнях: лексическом,
синтаксическом и фонетическом. Так как фонетическая
репрезентация заключается единственно в изменении
интонации и громкости голоса, было принято решение не
рассматривать этот уровень подробно.
Например, в инаугурационной речи Дональда Трампа
используются преимущественно синтаксические средства
выразительности, такие как различные виды повторов и

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синтаксический параллелизм, придающие речи ритм,
эмоциональность и связанность, и приобретающие
наибольшую силу воздействия при вербализации понятия
патриотизма.
Трамп не отделяет себя от общества, формируя чувство
единения и значимости каждого. Следует отметить, что
местоимение «мы» встречается в речи 46 раз, «Мы защищали
границы других государств и отказывались защищать свои
границы. Мы тратили триллионы долларов за рубежом…», в
то время как местоимение «я» используется только в трех
случаях. В приведенном примере синтаксический
параллелизм подчеркивает серьезность перечисляемых
проблем и создает особый эмоциональный эффект.
Подобный анафорический повтор в сочетании с
употреблением параллельных конструкций встречается
неоднократно. Также анафорический повтор словосочетания
“we will” делает акцент на вовлеченности всех граждан
Америки в процесс будущих преобразований.
В первом представленном случае перифраза наблюдается
использование глаголов в значении номинации,
имплицирующих контекстуальные смыслы «политики,
которые только болтают и не предпринимают никаких
действий». Намеренное нарушение грамматических норм,
самоотстранение Д. Трампа от подобных политических
лидеров за счет причисления себя к числу народа («We will
no longer accept…») прагматически направлены на
креатирование доверительной тональности разговора с
аудиторией и выражение экспрессивной отрицательной
оценки деятельности официальных лиц. Во втором
контексте, где отмечается наличие данного стилистического
приема, наблюдается формирование мощного эмоционально-
заряженного концептуального образа единства нации,
призванного донести до реципиента информацию о
равенстве и братстве, что является средством манипуляции и
формирования общественного мнения.

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При помощи стилистических приемов Трамп ярко и
эмоционально описывает последствия недостаточного
внимания к внутренним проблемам страны, вызывая у
слушателей негативные чувства к прежнему политическому
курсу. Эти же стилистические приемы, но уже с
положительной коннотацией, Трамп использует для
описания будущего страны под его руководством, формируя
эмоциональный контраст в отношении к прошлому и
настоящему.
Таким образом, прагматически используемые средства
данной группы нацелены на: 1) определение оценочного
восприятия излагаемой информации, 2) формирование
общественного мнения, 3) гедонистическое изложение
мыслей оратора.
Это прагматика группы стилистических приемов описания
явлений и предметов, в которую И.Р. Гальперин относит
перифразы, эвфемизмы и сравнения.
Строго следуя классификации И.Р. Гальперина, отметим
отсутствие в тексте инаугурационной речи Д. Трампа
стилистического использования фразеологии, а именно
аллюзий и цитат. В тексте также отсутствует смешение слов
различной стилистической окраски, что в целом характерно
для политического дискурса действующего американского
президента, целью чего является подчеркнутое желание быть
понятым всеми слоями населения страны, в частности
маргиналами, на которых делается большая ставка в
политической пропаганде Д. Трампа.
Текст Джона Кеннеди относится к публицистическому
стилю, а именно ораторскому. Текст призван воздействовать
на аудиторию, формировать общественное мнение. Мы
можем найти его ведущие черты: прямое обращение к
аудитории, использование разговорных слов и большого
количества выразительных средств, которые вызывают и
сохраняют интерес публики.

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Что касается используемого языка, то он написан, так как
тщательно организован, выбор слова очень обдуман и есть
использование сложных предложений-единиц.
Говоря о доминирующем эмоциональном тоне, он повышен,
так как текст вдохновляет аудиторию, указывает на важность
свободы, предложения очень красноречивы и выразительны.
Вступительная часть его политического выступления
выполняет несколько риторических задач. Во-первых, в ней
реализуется контактоустанавливающая функция, задаётся
определённая тональность общения как отражение тех
отношений, которые оратор хочет установить со
слушателями, проявляются качества оратора, на основании
которых формируется доверие к нему со стороны
слушателей; во-вторых, во вступлении зачастую
представляется предмет речи, комментируется её структура.
Кеннеди использует foreignism “берлинец” через всю его
речь. Этим он отождествляет себя с немцами, апеллируя к
зрителям и завоевывая их симпатии.
Энергичный Д.Ф. Кеннеди чётко и аргументированно строит
своё выступление, ориентируясь на классические образцы
риторики и ассоциируя себя с римскими ораторами,
признававшими необходимость ясности, чёткости
построения, образности речи (Aleshina E. Y., 2012: 95). «Две
тысячи лет крылатой фразой было: "Я – гражданин Рима."
Сегодня, в свободном мире, это должно звучать так:
"Я - Берлинец"» (cited from: Kennedy J.F., 1963a). Кеннеди
использует параллелизм, чтобы поставить немцев на тот же
высокий уровень, что и римлян.
Стилистический приём метафоры в предложении «All free
men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin»
подчёркивает причастность людей всего мира к разделению
Европы, к проблеме свободы. Высказывание на немецком
языке “Ich bin ein Berliner”, построенное по аналогии с
римским “civis Romanus sum”, придаёт заключительным
диктемам данной речи импрессивность и эмотивность

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Кеннеди подчеркивает, что мира не будет, пока в Восточном
Берлине нарушается право на свободу, автор использует для
этого хиазм («…то, что верно для этого города, верно для
Германии…»). Кеннеди настаивает на своем, повторяя слова
"мир, свобода, добро, правда, право". Использование
анафоры в («…Итак, позвольте мне спросить вас, как мне
закрыть, поднять глаза вне опасности сегодня, в надежде на
завтра, за пределы свободы только города Берлина, или ваша
страна Германия, для продвижения свободы во всем мире, за
стеной, в день мира и справедливости, за себя и себя для
всего человечества…») делает мечты президента все более
идеалистичными. Он использует кульминацию («...это, как
сказал ваш мэр, преступление не только против истории, но и
против человечества, разделяя семьи…») (cited from:
Kennedy J.F., 1963b), показывая, что строительство стены -
это не просто ужасное событие в истории, но это зло,
которое разделяет тех, кто должен быть объединен. Когда
один человек порабощен, все не свободны – эта антитеза
настаивает на том, что люди не могут быть свободными,
пока кто-то не свободен, что все мы едины и
взаимозависимы. Используя оксюморон (трезвое
удовлетворение), президент стремится спровоцировать
мысли аудитории. Все свободные люди, где бы они ни жили,
являются гражданами Берлина (метафора)– здесь автор
показывает гордость быть берлинцем – то есть быть членом
свободного мира.
Американский президент Д.Ф. Кеннеди подчёркивает
чувство гордости, которое он испытывает, посещая Западный
Берлин по приглашению мэра города и канцлера,
представляет сопровождающего. Президент косвенно
обозначает предмет выступления, подчёркивая курс
Западного Берлина по направлению к свободе и развитию,
признанным западным ценностям.
Некоторые фрагменты речи Д.Ф. Кеннеди можно
рассматривать как диктему, которая актуализируется в

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несколько рубрик информации: фактуальная, эмотивная,
импрессивная. Фактуальная информация отражает
диктемную ситуацию в рамках фактов и их отношений;
эмотивная информация связана с выражением чувств;
импрессивная информация реализует коннотацию целевого
воздействия на слушающего (Bloch M. Y., 2000a: 63-64).
Согласно классификации Т.Н. Семёновой, диктемы
подразделяются на два прагматических типа: фактуальные и
оценочные, поскольку данные типы диктем строятся на
основе принципиально различных способов передачи
индивидуального знания (cited from: Budaev E. V., Chudinov
A. P., 2008: 167). Информация, содержащаяся в фактуальной
диктеме, отражает следующие рубрики: фактуальная
информация общего типа, фактуально-специальная
информация, социально-стилевая информация. Фактуальной
диктеме противопоставлена оценочная диктема. Для
оценочной диктемы остаются релевантными остальные
рубрики диктемной информации: рубрика эмотивной
информации, рубрика импрессивной информации, рубрика
эстетической информации. Диктему смешанного типа можно
назвать фактуально-оценочной (Aleshina E. Y., 2012: 91).
Основная идея, которую нес автор, заключается в том, что
при существовании коммунистической системы не будет
никакой свободы. Мы не можем сказать, что мы свободны,
зная, что нарушаются права других людей (cited from:
Kennedy J.F., 1961).
Подводя итоги, выразительные средства и стилистические
приемы помогли автору выразить свое мнение о ситуации в
Берлине, сделали его речь привлекательной и выразительной.
С помощью разного рода повторов ему удалось подчеркнуть
свои слова.
Эта речь поистине вдохновляет и успешно убеждает народ в
том, что демократия действительно необходима для того,
чтобы жить в условиях свободы (cited from: Reagan R., 1983).
Кеннеди умело использует стилистические приемы, он

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вызывает у зрителей симпатию. Он кажется великим
оратором.
Проанализированные две речи представляют научный
интерес к политическому тексту как объекту
лингвистического и междисциплинарного анализа. В
условиях конфликтных ситуаций ХХ1 в. возрастает роль
языка как средства воздействия на массовое сознание с
целью формирования определённых идеологических
установок (cited from: Reagan R., 1987). В десятилетия
«холодной войны» язык стал главным «оружием», средством
«массового поражения» противника для всех участников
противостояния (cited from: Churchill W., 1946). Сейчас при
отсутствии активных военных действий главный конфликт
разворачивается в коммуникации. На основе анализа
тональности текста можно идентифицировать задачи такой
коммуникации, чтобы понять, на что настроена личность в
подаче своей речи (Aleshina E. Y., 2012: 88).
Заключение
Итак, основной целью анализа тональности является
нахождение мнений в тексте и выявление их свойств. Какие
именно свойства будут исследоваться, зависит уже от
поставленной задачи.
В результате исследования проанализированы общие цели и
задачи анализа тональности текста. На примере двух речей
американских политиков проведен ручной анализ
тональности, выявлены основные эмоциональные доминанты
речей Трампа и Кеннеди. Далее планируется провести
компьютерный анализ тональности и сравнить полученные
результаты с результатами, полученными вручную.

Литература
Алёшина Е.Ю. 2012. Английская публичная политическая
речь конфликтной ситуации // Романо-германское
языкознание: Вестник МГОУ, Лингвистика 6: 88-96.

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Блох М.Я. 2000а. Диктема в уровневой структуре языка //
Вопросы языкознания 4: 56- 67.
Блох М.Я. 2000b. Теоретические основы грамматики. М.:
Высшая школа, 160 c.
Блох М.Я., Фрейдина Е.Л. 2011. Публичная речь и её
просодический строй: монография. М.: Прометей, 236 с.
Будаев Э.В., Чудинов А.П. 2008. Зарубежная политическая
лингвистика: учебное пособие. М.: Флинта: Наука, 352 с.
Морозова Н.Н. 2016. Речевой портрет Дональда Трампа в
предвыборной кампании 2016 года // Вестник Московского
государственного областного университета (электронный
журнал). № 4. URL: http://evestnik-mgou.ru/ru/Articles/Doc/762
[Дата обращения 15.10.2016].
Пешт Г. 2017. Анализ инаугурационной речи Дональда
Трампа. URL: http://eurorussians.com/president-trumps-
inauguration-speech/ [Дата обращения 25.01.2017].
Семёнова Т.Н. 2001. Семантика индивидуализации и её
отражение в тексте: дис… докт. филол. наук. М., 354 с.
Churchill W. 1946. The Sinews of Peace (delivered at
Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri on March 5, 1946) //
The History Guide. URL: http://www.
historyguide.org/europe/churchill.html [Дата обращения
08.09.2012].
Kennedy J.F. 1961. Inaugural Address (delivered 20 January
1961) // John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
URL: http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/
BqXIEM9F4024ntFl7SVAjA.aspx [Дата обращения
09.09.2012].
Kennedy J.F. 1963a. Commencement address at American
University (delivered 10 June 1963, Washington D.C.) //
American Rhetoric. URL: http:// www.americanrhetoric.com/
speeches/jfkamericanuniversityaddress.html [Дата обращения
09.09.2012].
Kennedy J.F. 1963b. “Ich bin ein Berliner” Speech (delivered 26
June 1963, West Berlin). // American Rhetoric. URL:

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http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ jfkberliner.html
[Дата обращения 09.09.2012].
Reagan R. 1983. Remarks at the Annual Convention of the
National Association of the Evangelicals (delivered 8 March
1983, Orlando, Florida) // American Rhetoric. URL:
http://www.americanrhetoric.сom/speeches/
ronaldreaganevilempire.htm [Дата обращения 09.09.2012].
Reagan R. 1987. Remarks at the Brandenburg Gate (delivered 12
June 1987, West Berlin) // American Rhetoric. URL: http: //
www.americanrhetoric. com/ speeches /
ronaldreaganbrandenburggate.htm [Дата обращения
09.09.2012].
References
Aleshina E. Y. 2010. English public political speech of conflict
situation. In Bulletin of Moscow State Regional University 6: 88-
96.
Bloch M. Y. 2000a. Questions of linguistics. Dictum in level the
structure of language. 4th edition. Moscow: High school, 56 –
67pp.
Blokh M. Y. 2000b. Theoretical grammar. Moscow: High school,
160 pp.
Bloch M. J., and Freidin, E. L. 2011. Public speech and its
prosodic structure. Moscow: Prometheus, 236 pp.
Budaev E. V., Chudinov A. P. 2008. Foreign political linguistics.
teaching aid. Moscow: Flinta, 352 pp.
Churchill W. 1946. The Sinews of Peace (delivered at
Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri on March 5, 1946) //
The History Guide. URL: http://www.
historyguide.org/europe/churchill.html [Accessed August 12
2012].
Kennedy J.F. 1961. Inaugural Address (delivered 20 January
1961) // John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
URL: http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/
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2012].

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Kennedy J.F. 1963a. Commencement address at American
University (delivered 10 June 1963, Washington D.C.) //
American Rhetoric. URL: http:// www.americanrhetoric.com/
speeches/jfkamericanuniversityaddress.html [Accessed
September 12 2012].
Kennedy J.F. 1963b. “Ich bin ein Berliner” Speech (delivered 26
June 1963, West Berlin). // American Rhetoric. URL:
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ jfkberliner.html
[Accessed September 12 2012].
Morozova N.N. 2016. Donald Trump's speech portrait in the 2016
election campaign // Bulletin of the Moscow State Regional
University №4. URL: http://evestnik-
mgou.ru/ru/Articles/Doc/762. [Accessed Oktober 15 2016].
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Trump. URL: http://eurorussians.com/president-trumps-
inauguration-speech/.[Accessed January 25 2017].
Reagan R. 1983. Remarks at the Annual Convention of the
National Association of the Evangelicals (delivered 8 March
1983, Orlando, Florida) // American Rhetoric. URL:
http://www.americanrhetoric.сom/speeches/
ronaldreaganevilempire.htm [Accessed September 12 2012].
Reagan R. 1987. Remarks at the Brandenburg Gate (delivered 12
June 1987, West Berlin) // American Rhetoric. URL: http: //
www.americanrhetoric. com/ speeches /
ronaldreaganbrandenburggate.htm [Accessed September 12
2012].
Semenova T. N. 2001. Semantics of individualization and its
reflection in the text. Moscow: High school, 354 pp.

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DOI: 10.22363/09321-2019-706-717

ENGLISH AS A MEANS OF POLITENESS

(RE)CONSTRUCTION IN CONTEMPORARY RUSSIA

Natalia A. Belyakova

Linguistics University of Nizhny Novgorod

Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The epoch of late modernity is characterized by accelerating
increase of translingual practices across the globe. Regarded by
scholars as a Lingua Franca, Business Lingua Franca, an
international language and the global language, English most
frequently comes into contact with other languages, penetrating
and influencing communicative spaces of other countries. Such a
penetration is characterized not only by a wide spread of
anglicisms, present in various niches of communication, but also
by covertly expressed English-mediated rules of speaking, which
affect grammar, syntax, as well as communicative and politeness
norms of the Russian language.
Being an exceptionally flexible sphere, sensitive to paradigmatic
socio-economic and ideological shifts in society, speaking
etiquette is particularly perceptive of extraneous influences. The
aim of the study is to analyze the way globally spread English,
which comes most frequently into contact with other languages
and cultures, influences speaking etiquette norms of non-English
speaking cultures, as well as local people’s perception of
politeness.
To identify what motivates people to resort to English resources
in apology providing situations and what role English plays in
modifying politeness norms in Russian communication the
methods of ethnographic interviews and a survey were

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implemented. The interviews were conducted with two
differently-aged (about 50 and 25) Russian speakers on their
attitude and motivations to use the anglicism hi in Russian
communicative space. In the survey 370 Russian young people
(aged 16 – 31) provided their opinion on reasons and peculiarities
of the usage of the anglicism sorry in non-English
communication.
The study distinctly shows the presence of both explicit and
implicit mechanisms of politeness construction by means of the
English language resources in Russian-based communication.
Overtly expressed anglicism sorry, which originally functioned as
a metacommunicative apology in computer mediated discourse
when appeared in Russian communicative space, now enjoys a
significantly wider sphere of application and has come to convey
a strictly specific for this particular resource meaning. More than
half (201 out of 370) of the respondents acknowledged resorting
to sorry rather than Russian прости(те), извини(те) when
apologizing for minor or insignificant offense. And another 10%
of the participants reported sorry to better convey conventional
apology for the offense caused by a third party.
Sorry, thus, offers a different, half-hearted “underapology”, the
notion of which is alien to the Russian language. Having entered
Russian communicative space, the English-sourced apology
resource, has been appropriated to express a new, tenuous, type
of apology which did not constitute politeness norms in Russian
communication a decade ago.
Implicit instance of English-induced norms of politeness can be
traced in communicative acts of greeting and apology, which,
unlike in English, generally presuppose clear-cut distinction
between formal or informal direct address. Due to increased
English-mediated translingual contacts some Russian people
become exposed and over time used to equality being valued
more than status, and consequently, face a linguistic dilemma
when entering new to them communities of practice and not
knowing exactly what politeness background of the Hearer to

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expect. Speakers opt for resorting to politically neutral linguistic
resources. They can be either the Russian language resources
(very limited in number), such as greetings добрый день,
доброго времени суток (good afternoon, good day) neutral in
terms of honorific form, or the resources of the language which
caused the linguistic fix in the first place, for example the
English-sourced hi or sorry, the latter being reported by 16 % of
the respondents to be chosen over Russian equivalents as it did
not produce a problem of choice between formal and informal
address.
So, neutral in terms of politeness language resources are
becoming noticeably widespread under the influence of
globalization. Cautious linguistic behavior of Russian-speaking
people testifies to their awareness of a wide spread of English-
induced politeness norms across different communities of
practice. Such an awareness, in its turn, signals gradual inclusion
of English-based politeness forms into shared memory of a wider
community, which is a subject of further investigation and
evaluation.
Key words: politeness, English, globalization

Introduction
Unprecedented technological advancement of the last quarter of
the XX and the beginning of the XXI centuries has enabled
skyrocketing increase of mobility across both physical and virtual
spaces. In the epoch of late modernity (Rampton, 2008) people
regularly intersect not only with neighboring, but also with
previously distant from them cultures, accelerating increase of
translingual practices (Canagarajah, 2013) across the globe.
Regarded by scholars as a Lingua Franca (Jenkins 2009,
Seidlhofer, 2009), an international language (Modiano, 1999;
Gorlach, 1990), as well as the most desired foreign language to
acquire competence in (Graddol, 1999, Crystal 2004), English is
the language which most frequently comes into contact with other

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languages, penetrating and influencing communicative spaces of
other countries.
Abundant use of anglicisms, widespread code switching and code
mixing in Russian-based communication are no longer perceived
as striking or peculiar. The overt functioning of truncated English
resources (Blommaert, 2010) is not the only form of presence of
English in Russian communication. English infiltration into
Russian–based communication may also occur implicitly
(Gritsenko and Nenasheva, 2017), affecting grammar, syntax,
communicative and politeness norms of the Russian language.
In the era of globalization, characterized by blurred boarder lines
between cultures, norms of politeness may travel across spaces
together with language resources. Since English is the language
which comes most frequently into contact with many other
languages and cultures across the globe, it is likely to influence
speaking etiquette norms of non-English speaking cultures, as
well as local people’s perception of politeness, which is a flexible
and open to change category.
Purpose of the study
The research intends to gain a more comprehensive perspective
on the role English plays in non-English communicative spaces.
My aim is provide a close examination of implicit forms of
affiliation to English, as well as explicit presence of English
resources in non-English communication, paying special attention
to instances of exporting norms of appropriateness or politeness
to the outer circle (Kachru, 1997) countries. I will address current
English-induced changes in Russian speaking etiquette, which is
“an exceptionally flexible sphere, sensitive to paradigmatic socio-
economic and ideological shifts in society” (Shkapenko, 2018:
29). I will also analyze young people’s awareness and attitude to
changes of traditional for Russian communication politeness
norms.
Methodology and study material
Methodologically the research is based on (1) the notion of
situated politeness (Davies, et.al., 2011), according to which

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politeness is not something inherently present in the linguistic
form, but is fundamentally dependent on the context and is a
subject to the individual’s interpretation; and the singled out by
E. Gritsenko classification of functions (semantic and semiotic)
(Gritsenko, 2014) global English performs in non-English
communicative spaces.
The study material includes two interviews with differently-aged
(about 50 and 25) Russian speakers on their attitude and
motivations to use the anglicism hi in Russian communicative
space and a survey of 370 young people (aged 16 – 31) on the
peculiarities of the usage of the anglicism sorry as well as its
Russian-processed variant соррян (sorryan). The interviews and
the survey findings will clarify what motivates people to resort to
English resources in Russian-based communication, what
difference in meaning Russian people find between Russian and
English etiquette constructions, and what role English plays in
modifying politeness norms in Russian communication.
Findings
The undertaken research reveals the presence of both explicit and
implicit mechanisms of politeness construction by means of the
English language resources.
English sorry as an explicit means of politeness construction
in Russian-based communication
The study suggests that Russian Youth rather frequently
encounter the English – coated apology sorry in Russian-based
communication. More than 50 % of the respondents (202 out of
370) often see or hear the English word sorry when
communicating in Russian; 32.2 % sometimes come across this
aglicism; 11.4 % and less than 2 % of the interviewees seldom
and never see or hear the English-sourced sorry respectively.
Appeared in Russian communicative space in computer-mediated
types of interaction (Shkapenko, 2018), functioning primarily as a
metacommunicative apology the anglicism sorry has now
considerably extended its sphere of application and is widely
used in everyday communication (according to 318 out of 370

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respondents), at work or university (as singles out by 44.3 % of
the survey participants), and in public places (37.6 %).
The range of meanings conveyed by sorry has also seen a
significant increase. Nowadays the angicism under consideration
is used by Russian speakers not only for apologizing for deviating
from the topic of the discussion (in its metacommunicative
function), but also in other situations. When asked about
motivations to use the English-sourced sorry and not the Russian
equivalents прости(те), изините(те), about 28% of the
interviewees admitted they used sorry as a means to demonstrate
“being in trend” or “as a tribute to fashion”. In such contexts
English functions as a semiotic resource (Gritsenko, 2014),
indexing affiliation to global Youth culture.
Slightly less than a half of the respondents were motivated by the
short form of the English sorry compared to Russian equivalents.
About 17 % pointed at the absence of the necessity to distinguish
between formal and informal forms of address when using the
English sorry (which will be discussed in more detail further).
More than a half (201 out of 370) of the interviewees
acknowledged resorting to sorry rather than Russian прости(те),
извини(те) when apologizing for minor or insignificant offense.
For about 10 % of the participants sorry better conveys
conventional apology for the offense caused by a third party. The
same idea of insincere, unserious apology for petty offense
expressed by the anglicism sorry is repeatedly underlined in
numerous comments: “Sorry is used for insignificant excuses”;
“sorry does not express the sincerity of an apology”. As it was
rightfully noted by one of the respondents, “sorry does not
substitute Russian words, it brings about a new shade of
meaning”. Sorry, unlike Russian apology clichés, is exploited in a
limited number of scenarios in Russian communicative space,
and consequently, has a comparatively narrower range of
meanings, which, however, do not coincide with Russian
прости(те), извини(те). Sorry offers a different, half-hearted
“underapology”, so to speak, the notion of which is alien to the

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Russian language. Having entered Russian communicative space,
the English-sourced apology resource, on the one hand, has been
appropriated to fill in the semantic gap, and on the other hand,
has enabled new apology forms which did not constitute
politeness norms in Russian communication a decade ago.
The analysis of the survey lets us to conclude that in the context
of apology English may perform both (a) semantic and (b)
semiotic (or indexical) functions. Russian young people code-
switch to anglicism sorry (a) to offer a conventional apology for
insignificant offense or for something they have not been the
cause of; and (b) to indicate their orientation and solidarity with
the West.
Implicitly expressed English-induced norms of politeness in
Russian communicative space
While the English politeness construct sorry is actually present in
communication and serves as a constituent part of code-switching
and code-mixing, implicitly expressed English is formally absent
in communication, yet particular associations can be easily drawn
from utterances due to calquing of various types. The Russian
простите? used as a request for repetition of what has just been
said is an instance of lexical calquing (Shkapenko, 2018) from
the English sorry?, typically resorted to in similar situations in
English-based communication.
Another variety of implicit penetration of English into Russian
communicative space is syntactic calquing (Gritsenko, 2014)
observable on the phrase level. Adjoinment, a domineering model
of elements connection within a phrase in the English language,
is traditionally uncharacteristic of Russian syntax. However, with
an objective to demonstrate orientation and openness to global
culture, N+N model is chosen for creation of companies’ names
in Russia: Абсолют страхование (Absolute insurance).
Following grammar rules of English in Russian sentences
construction is one more type of calquing, which enjoys a wide
circulation, particularly in advertising discourse and every day
communication. The norms of multiple negation in Russian

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appear to be disregarded of in favor of English one negative form
per sentence rule: Ничего будет к лучшему (Nothing will be for
the better). Grammatical calquing (Gritsenko and Nenasheva,
2017) can be also observed in situations when the grammatical
pattern of English where verbs and pronouns in the second person
have no difference in number is sometimes used in Russian
advertising and professional communication: Открой вклад –
получи подарок (open an account – get a present); Давно нам
не звонил….. твой олень (you haven’t given us a call for a long
time…. Your Deer) (taxi company advertising e-mail).
Traditionally, the second person plural form of the verb or
pronoun is used in Russian to address someone a person is not
closely acquainted with. The usage of the second person singular
form indicates resorting to an informal and friendly manner of
communication, a different, English-ignited, norm of
communication, in other words.
The above illustrated instances are the examples of what D.
Cameroon identifies as “displacement of established local ways
of interacting without displacing local languages as such”, when
speakers may use their own language, “but according to the
cultural norms of an English-speaking society” (Cameroon 2008:
28). Together with English, new discourse norms, particularly
those connected with the interpersonal functions of interaction –
formality, directness and politeness, find their way into Russian-
based communication.
Unlike English-speaking cultures, where due to low vertical
distance equality is valued more than status, Russia is considered
one of hierarchical and status-oriented societies (Leech and
Larina, 2014). Such a discrepancy, reflected in politeness norms,
results in necessity for a Russian speaker to adjust linguistic
behavior when communicating in a multilingual setting. The
process of establishing and maintaining relationships in
communication, termed as face work (Brown and Levinson,
1978), rapport management (Spencer-Oatey, 2005) or relational
work (Watts, 2003), entails signaling solidarity achieved by

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713
decreasing degree of formality: Utilizing informal direct address,
for example.
While addressing a colleague by their first name in an
international company might be a standard procedure, the same
linguistic action may cause dilemma for the speaker/ writer when
interacting in a different environment. Entering new to them
communities of practice and not knowing exactly what politeness
background of the Hearer to expect, speakers opt for resorting to
politically neutral linguistic resources, such as greetings добрый
день, доброго времени суток (good afternoon, good day)
instead of traditional Russian здравствуйте, which is marked by
plural honorific form.
Another group of resources Russian-speaking people tend to
resort to in pragmatically obscure situations is the resources of
the language which caused the linguistic fix in the first place.
Ethnographic interviews conducted with two middle-aged
Russian-speaking people who used the English hi as a means of
greeting which preceded subsequent conversation solely in
Russian led us to conclude that the greeting hi was chosen over
Russian equivalents as it eliminated the problem of choice
between formal and informal forms of greeting.
Identical motivation lies behind the usage of the anglicism сорри
(sorry) for apologizing. Answering the question of the survey
about possible reasons for exploiting anglicism sorry instead of
Russian прости(те) / извини(те) 61 out of 370 respondents
(16%) pointed out that the English sorry was used to express
apology as it did not produce a problem of choice between formal
and informal address, which is impossible to avoid when
resorting to traditional Russian прости(те) / извини(те).
Cautious linguistic behavior of Russian-speaking people testifies
to their awareness of a wide spread of English-induced politeness
norms across different communities of practice.
Discussion
The epoch of globalization brings along not only the English
language as such, but also covert, yet, still present, norms of

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speaking etiquette and politeness into local cultures. When
foreign words, loaded with semantic and indexical potential, find
their way into communicative spaces of other cultures, they
create new meaning and sometimes incite new norms of
speaking, sphere of linguistic politeness being no exception.
Anglicism sorry has come to cover a certain, distinctly specified
scope of situations of apology, therefore, has acquired a new
meaning, conveyed by this word only and previously absent in
Russian equivalents. Multiple reproduction of the given word in
given situations results in emergence of a new speaking etiquette
norm – that of tenuous apology.
Politeness norms can be also influenced in a covert way. Though
speaking Russian, communication participants are prepared to
transfer speaking etiquette norms of English-mediated
translingual communication into solely Russian-based
communicative practice. With a perception of politeness as
hearer-centered (Inagaki, 2011) (as it is the hearer who ultimately
concludes whether a speech act is polite or not), speakers have to
do evaluation of the hearer’s background communicative and
social experience, which, given the increased number of various
communities of practice, is not a simple task to accomplish.
Resorting to neutral, typically English-induced, etiquette
formulae proves people’s apprehension and cautious attitude
towards English-constructed norms of politeness circulating in
contemporary Russia.

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AUTHORS

Afinskaya Zoya N., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Agadzhanyan Ruben V., Teacher, State-funded budget

educational institution of Moscow city School No. 166, Moscow,
Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Aimoldina Aliya A., PhD in Philology, Kazakhstan Branch of

Lomonosov Moscow State University, Astana, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Aleshinskaya Evgeniya V., PhD in Philology, National Research

Nuclear University MEPhI, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Aristova Nataliya S., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

Kazan National Research Technical University named after
A.N. Tupolev, Kazan, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Barasheva Daria E., PhD in Psychology, Assistant Professor,

Sevastopol State University, Sevastopol, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Barsukova Elena A., PhD in Linguistics, Assistant Professor,

Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

418
Bavaeva Olga K., PhD in Philology, Institute of Foreign
Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Belyakova Natalia A., Junior Research Associate, Linguistics

University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Beysembaeva Gulshat Z., PhD in Philology, L.N. Gumilyov

Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Brueva Elena F., Postgraduate, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal

University, Kaliningrad, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Davronova Zulfiya B., Senior Lecturer, The Uzbekistan State

University of World Languages, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
e-mail: [email protected]

Diouani Refka, Graduate student, Higher’ Institute of Languages

of Tunis, Carthage, Tunis
e-mail: [email protected]

Djumanova Dilbar R., Dr. of Philology, Assistant Professor,

Uzbekistan State World Languages University, Tashkent,
Uzbekistan
e-mail: [email protected]

Drozdova Ekaterina A., Senior Lecturer, Institute of Foreign

Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

419
Dzyubenko Anna I., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,
Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Edlichko Anzhela I., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Emelianova Olga V., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

Saint-Petersburg State University, Saint-Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Gilal Fama G., Postgraduate, Institute of Foreign Languages,

Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University),
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Godunova Elizaveta B., Postgraduate, Institute of Foreign

Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Gogol Daria V., Postgraduate, Institute of Foreign Languages,

Moscow City University, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Guseva Alla H., PhD in Education, Assistant Professor, Russian

State University for the Humanities (RGGU), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Hafiane Quannes, PhD in Philology, Professor, Higher Institute

of Foreign Languages of Tunisia, University of Carthage, Tunis,
Tunisia
e-mail: [email protected]

420
Istrakova Maria A., Postgraduate, Institute of Foreign
Languages Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University) Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Karavanova Lyudmila Zh., Dr. of Psychology, Professor,

Institute of Foreign Languages Peoples’ Friendship University of
Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Kartushina Elena A., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

Moscow City Teacher Training University, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Kegenbekova Altyn D., Postgraduate, Al-Farabi Kazakh

National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Khanbalaeva Sabina N., Dr. of Philology, Professor, Moscow

State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO - University)
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Kitaeva Elena M., PhD in Linguistics, Assistant Professor,

Faculty of Foreign Languages, Saint-Petersburg State University,
Saint-Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Kosheleva Ekaterina M. Postgraduate, Institute of Foreign

Languages Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

421
Kulchenko Yulia V., Postgraduate, Southern Federal University,
Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Kutepova Olga S., Assistant, Department of Special Language

Training, State Moscow Technical University of Civil Aviation
(MSTU GA), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Kuznetsova (Barbazyuk) Vera Y., PhD in Philology, Assistant

Professor, Military University, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Larkina Taisia I., Graduate student, Institute of Foreign

Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Loginova Maria V., Postgraduate, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian

National University, Astana, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Lugareva Anna A., Graduate student, South Federal University,

Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Lushnikova Irina I., Senior Lecturer, Institute of Foreign

Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Mamаtov Abdimurod E., Dr. of Philology, Professor, National

University of Uzbekistan named after M. Ulugbek, Tashkent,
Uzbekistan
e-mail: [email protected]

422
Medvedeva Larisa G., PhD in Education, Assistant Professor,
Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Merkoulova Inna G., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

State Academic University of the Humanities Moscow, Russia,
University of Sorbonne, Paris, France
e-mail: [email protected]

Molchanova Maria V., Senior Lecturer, National University of

Science and Technology «MISIS», Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Nadezhdina Elena Y., PhD in Education, Assistant Professor,

Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics,
Tomsk, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Novokhatskaya Olga E., Postgraduate, Institute of Foreign

Languages, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Orlova Elena S., PhD in Education, Assistant Professor, N.I.

Lobachevsky Nizhny Novgorod State University, Nizhny
Novgorod, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Ozerova Olga V., Assistant, Saint-Petersburg State University,

Saint-Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

423
Petrova Galina A., PhD in Education, Department of Foreign
Languages, Plekhanov Russian University of Economics,
Moscow, Russia
[email protected]

Petrova Marina G., PhD in Education, Institute of Foreign

Languages, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Pirmanova Kunsulu K., Dr. of Philology, Professor, Al-Farabi

Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Pivovarova Ekaterina V., Senior Lecture, Far Eastern Federal

University, Vladivostok, Russia
[email protected]

Poloyan Anna V., Postgraduate, Southern Federal University,

Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Popova Elena O., Lecturer, Institute of Foreign Languages,

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University),
Moscow, Russia
[email protected]

Protsenko Igor Yu., PhD in Philology, Norte University,

Asunción, Paraguay, Institute of Foreign Languages, Peoples’
Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow,
Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

424
Raevskaya Marina M., Dr. of Philology, Professor, Department
of the Spanish Language, Lomonosov Moscow State University,
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Sadouri Hassanet, Graduate student, Higher Institute of

Languages of Tunis, Carthage, Tunis
e-mail: [email protected]

Samokhin Ivan S., PhD in Philology, Senior Teacher, Institute

of Foreign Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Selvitella Antonella, Postgraduate, Institute of Foreign

Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Moscow,
Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Sergeeva Marina G., Dr. of Education, Professor, Institute of

Foreign Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Slastnikova Tamara V., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

Institute of Foreign Languages, Moscow City University,
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Sokolovskaya Victoria V., Postgraduate, Military Academy,

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

425
Sorokovykh Galina V., Dr. of Education, Professor, Department
of French Language and Linguodidactics, Moscow City
Pedagogical University (GAOU VO MGPU), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Volkova Yana A., Dr. of Philology, Professor, Institute of

Foreign Languages, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia
(RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
[email protected]

Vorobyev Aleksandr E., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

Moscow State Linguistic University, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Yakovleva Elena V., Dr. of Philology, Assistant Professor

Institute of Foreign Languages, Peoples' Friendship University of
Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Zagrebelnaya Alina S., Postgraduate, Institute of Foreign

Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Moscow,
Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Zakovorotnaya Jane M., Graduate Student, Southern Federal

University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Zarembo Galina V., PhD in Psychology, Assistant Professor,

Institute of Foreign Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of
Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

426
Zhabo Natalia I., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University),
Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Zhanabekova Aiman A., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

A. Baitursynov Institute of Linguistics, Almaty, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Zhanturina Bakhyt N., Dr. of Philology, Assistant Professor,

Institute of Foreign Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of
Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Zharkynbekova Sholpan K., Dr. of Philology, Professor, L.N.

Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan
[email protected]

Zhubayeva Orynay S., Doctor of Philology, Professor,

A. Baitursynov Institute of Linguistics, Almaty, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Zhusupova Roza F., PhD in Education, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian

National University, Astana, Kazakhstan
e-mail: [email protected]

Zubkova Yulia V., Graduate student, Institute of Foreign

Languages, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN
University), Moscow, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

Zyubina Irina A., PhD in Philology, Assistant Professor,

Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia
e-mail: [email protected]

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Научное издание

АКТУАЛЬНЫЕ ПРОБЛЕМЫ
СОВРЕМЕННОЙ ЛИНГВИСТИКИ
И ГУМАНИТАРНЫХ НАУК

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