EEC126

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTATION I

A Measuring Instrument is a device which measure or compare unknown quantity
with standard quantity. Practically, electrical measurement is a comparison
between the actual measured value and standard value. This value is also
called True value. After comparing, there may be some deviation called ‘Error.
Electrical instruments uses the mechanical movement of electromagnetic meter to
measure voltage, power, current etc. Electrical technicians require electrical
measurement equipment to check the electrical activity and to detect the presence
of voltage or current.
An instrument can be mechanical, electrical or electronic. A basic instrument
consists of a detector, a transfer device, an indicator and recorder or a storage
device. ‘.
Types of Electrical and Electronic Measurement Instruments includes:

Moving iron instruments, Moving Coil instruments, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Cathode

ray Oscilloscope (C.R.O.), Megger, Wheatstone bridge, Wattmeter, Digital
Voltmeter, Frequency Counters, Clip ammeter e.t.c

Moving iron instruments

This instrument is one of the most primitive forms of measuring and relay
instrument. Moving iron type instruments are of mainly two types.
(i) Attraction type instrument.
(ii) Repulsion type instrument.
Attraction type instrument
Whenever a piece of iron is placed nearer to a magnet it would be attracted by the
magnet. The force of this attraction depends upon the strength of the said magnetic
field. If the magnet is an electromagnet then the magnetic field strength can easily
be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing current through its coil.
Accordingly the attraction force acting on the piece of iron would also be increased
and decreased. Attraction type moving iron instrument was developed based on
this simple phenomenon.
The basic construction of attraction type moving iron instrument is illustrated
above. A thin disc of soft iron is eccentrically pivoted in front of a coil. This iron
tends to move inward that is from weaker magnetic field to stronger magnetic field
when current flowing through the coil. In attraction moving instrument gravity
control was used previously but now gravity control method is replaced by spring
control in relatively modern instrument. By adjusting balance weight, null
deflection of the pointer is achieved. The required damping force is provided in
this instrument by air friction. The figure shows a typical type of damping system
provided in the instrument, where damping is achieved by a moving piston in a air
syringe.
The brief description of different components of a moving-iron instrument is
given below:

 Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod.
 Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and
also to magnetize the iron pieces.
 Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).
 Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting of
an air chamber and a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
 Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a
graduated scale.

Repulsion type instrument

Whenever two pieces of iron are kept side by side and a magnet is brought nearer
to them the iron pieces will repulse each other. This repulsion force is due to the
same magnetic poles induced in the same sides of the iron pieces due external
magnetic field.
This repulsion force increases if field strength of the magnet is increased. If the
magnet is an electromagnet, then magnetic field strength can easily be controlled
by controlling input current to the magnet. Hence if the current increases the
repulsion force between the pieces of iron is increased and if the current decreases
the repulsion force between them is decreased. Repulsion type moving iron
instrument was constructed based on this principle.

One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free to rotate, carrying
with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the coil
that consists of only few turns if the instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if
the instrument is a voltmeter.

Current in the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and repulsion
between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional rotation

The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the

coil, making the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity. Rotation is opposed
by a hairspring that produces the restoring torque. Only the fixed coil carries load
current, and it is constructed so as to withstand high transient current.
Moving iron instruments have scales that are nonlinear and somewhat crowded in
the lower range of calibration.
Moving Coil Instruments

The basic moving coil instrument working principle is that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is exerted on the
conductor i.e when a field resultant magnetic field (produced by the movable
current carrying coil) tries to come in line with the main field (produced by the
permanent magnet), a deflecting torque is developed. By the production of
deflecting torque, the pointer deflects over the scale.
Moving Coil Instrument Working.

When the moving coil instrument is connected in the circuit, the operating current
flows through the coil which is mounted on the spindle. Since the coil is placed in
the strong field of permanent magnets, a force is exerted on the current carrying
conductors of the coil which produces deflecting torque. Thus the pointer attached
to the spindle in deflected over the calibrated scale.
 
If the current in the coil is reversed, the direction of deflecting torque will be
reversed because of the field produced by the permanent magnets remains the
same. This will give a wrong direction of rotation thus the instrument cannot be
used on AC, permanent magnet moving coil instruments can be used for the
measurement of DC only.

The simple view of construction of moving coil instrument is shown in the figure
above. It consists of a powerful permanent shoe magnet. A light rectangular coil of
many turns of fine wire is wound on a light aluminum former. An iron core is
inserted inside the coil to reduce reluctance for the magnetic lines of force. The
coil is mounted on the spindle and acts as the moving element.
phosphor bronze spiral hairsprings are attached to the spindle. The springs provide
the controlling torque as well as act as incoming and outgoing leads for the current.
Eddy current damping is provided by the aluminum former.
Ammeter
An ammeter is an instrument which is used to measure the electric current in
amperes in a branch of an electric circuit. In order to measure the current it must
flow through the ammeter, so the ammeter must be placed in series with the
measured branch and it must have very low resistance so that the alteration of the
current can be avoided which is measured. Instruments which is used to measure
smaller currents are micro-ammeter. The ammeter is connected in series to the
device which is to be measured because objects in series have the same current.

Types of Ammeter
Moving iron ammeter
A moving iron, ammeter can measure the AC and DC, it has an iron piece instead
of the spring and pointer system of the galvanometer. The iron will act by the
magnetic field created in the coil.

Zero center Ammeter

Zero center ammeters are used where the voltage needs to be monitored in two
directions and they are used along with a battery. In this the charging of battery
deflects the needle in one direction and discharging of the battery deflects the
battery in the other.

Galvanometer
Galvanometer was the first type of ammeter, it is used to detect and measure
electric current. It is an analog electromechanical transducer which makes a rotary
deflection in response to the electric current flowing through the coil. A
galvanometer can read direct current flow, the magnetic field created as current
flows through a coil acts on a spring, which will move the needle indicator.

Shunt
A shunt can be used in ammeters to measure large currents, shunt acts as a resistor
the known quantity of resistance is used to obtain an accurate reading. Digital
ammeters use analog to digital converter to measure the current across the shunt.
Clamp meter
Clamp meters are used to measure the current flowing through a conductor, AC
clamp meters have a current transformer in it. With the help of the current
transformer the reading will be taken. There are two types of clamp meters AC
clamp meter which is used to measure the AC and the DC clamp meter which is
used to measure the DC.

Voltmeter
The voltmeter can be considered as a kind of galvanometer, which can be used to
measure the voltage potential of an electrical circuit or the potential difference
between two points. A voltmeter can also be considered as an ammeter they also
measure the current, voltage is only measured when the current is transmitted in a
circuit through resistance. Voltmeters are capable to measure the current, voltage
and resistance. Voltmeters are also termed as high resistance ammeters they can
also measure DC and AC. A voltmeter can measure the change in voltage by two
points in an electrical circuit and they are connected in parallel with the portion of
the circuit on which the measurement is made. Voltmeters must have high
resistance so that it won’t have any effect on the current or voltage associated with
the circuit.

Types of voltmeter
Digital voltmeter
Digital voltmeters can measure the AC and DC voltages and it displays the result
in converted digital form with decimal point and polarity. It can provide accurate
details about the current draw and current continuity and this will help the users to
troubleshoot erratic loads.

What are the advantages of digital voltmeter?

 Outputs are accurate without any error
 Readings are taken quickly
 Versatile and accurate
 Less power consumption
 Portable instrument
Electrostatic voltmeter
These voltmeters are instruments that can accurately measure the voltage without
any charge transfer. Whereas conventional voltmeter needs charge transfer to the
voltmeter and it will lead to loading and adjustment of the source voltage. The
main advantage of an electrostatic voltmeter is that it can do the surface potential
measurement on any type of material without any physical contact.

Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an instrument that is used to measure the resistance and they can
measure the value of resistance accurately. According to their measurement and
construction, these instruments are classified into the series type and shunt type
ohmmeter. It can be used to check the continuity of the electrical circuits and
components. Series type ohmmeters are used to measure the high resistance values
while the shunt type is used to measure low resistance values.

Potentiometer
Potentiometers are instruments that can be used to measure the unknown voltage.
The known voltage will be supplied from a standard cell or any other known
voltage reference source. Potentiometer measurement has high accuracy because
the measurement is done by the comparison method and the obtained result is not
by the deflection of the pointer. Potentiometers can be used to compare the E.M.F
of the two cells, it can be used to determine the E.M.F of a cell, it can be used to
determine the internal resistance of a cell and to calibrate the voltmeter and
ammeter.
Wattmeter
Watt-meters are used to measure power, these instruments are similar in design and
construction of an ammeter. It can be used to measure the average electric power in
watts. Wattmeter has two coils they are current and pressure coil. Wattmeter can be
used to measure the gain in amplifiers, bandwidth in filters.

There are two types of wattmeters in general use namely

(i) Electrodynamic wattmeter

(ii)Induction-type wattmeter
Multi-meter
Multi-meters can be used to make various electrical measurements, they can be
used to measure AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is
known as multi-meter because it can do the functions of various meters such as
voltmeter, ammeter, and ohm-meter. Multi-meters can also be used to check the
continuity. Multi-meters are of two types they are analog and digital multi-meter
analog multi-meter has an analog scale and they are less accurate, while the digital
multi-meter and the reading are in digital and they are more accurate.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is an instrument generally used in a laboratory

to display, measure and analyze various waveforms of electrical circuits. A cathode
ray oscilloscope is a very fast X-Y plotter that can display an input signal versus
time or another signal.
The main part of cathode ray oscilloscope is cathode ray tube which is also known
as the heart of cathode ray oscilloscope.

Basically, the cathode ray tube consists of five main parts:

1. Electron gun
2. Deflection plate system
3. Fluorescent screen
4. Glass envelope
5. Base
Electron Gun:
It is the source of accelerated, energized and focused beam of electrons. It consists
of six parts namely heater, a cathode, a grid, a pre-accelerating anode, a focusing
anode and an accelerating anode. In order to obtain the high emission of electrons,
the layer of barium oxide (which is deposited on the end of cathode) is indirectly
heated at moderate temperature. The electrons after this passes through a small
hole called control grid which is made up of nickel. As the name suggests the
control grid with its negative bias, controls the number of electrons or indirectly
we can say the intensity of emitted electrons from cathode. After passing through
the control grid these electrons are accelerated with the help of pre-accelerating
and accelerating anodes. The pre-accelerating and accelerating anodes are
connected to a common positive potential of 1500 volts.
Now after this the function of the focusing anode is to focus the beam of the
electrons so produced. The focusing anode is connected to adjustable voltage 500
volts. Now there are two methods of focusing the electron beam and are written
below:

1. Electrostatic focusing.
2. Electromagnetic focusing.
Electrostatic Focusing
We know that the force on an electron is given by – qE, where q is the charge on
electron (q = 1.6 × 10-19 C), E is the electric field intensity and negative sign shows
that the direction of force is in opposite direction to that of electric field.

Megger
The Megger is the instrument uses for measuring the resistance of the insulation. It
works on the principle of comparison, i.e., the resistance of
the insulation is compared with the known value of resistance. If the resistance of
the insulation is high, the pointer of the moving coil deflects towards the infinity,
and if it is low, then the pointer indicates zero resistance. The accuracy of the
Megger is high as compared to other instruments.

Construction of Megger
The construction of the Megger is shown in the figure below. The Megger has one
current coil and the two voltage coils V1 and V2. The voltage coil V1 is passed over
the magnet connected to the generator. When the pointer of the PMMC
instrument deflects towards infinity, it means that the voltage coil remains in the
weak magnetic field and thus experienced the very little torque.
The torque experienced by the coil increases when it moves insides the strong
magnetic field. The coil experiences the maximum torque under the pole faces and
the pointer set at the zero end of the resistance scale.

For improving the torque, the voltage coil V2 is used. The coil V2 is so allocated
that when the pointer deflects from infinity to zero coil moves into a stronger
magnetic field.

In Megger, the combined action of both the voltage coils V1 and V2 are considered.
The coil comprises a spring of variable stiffness. It is stiff near the zero end of the
coil and becomes very weak near the infinity end of the spring.

The spring compresses the low resistance portion and opens the high resistance of
the spring, which is the great advantage of the Megger because it is used for
measuring the insulation of the resistance which is usually very high.
The instrument has voltage selector switch which is used for selecting the voltage
range of the instrument. The voltage range is controlled by selecting the varying
resistance R connected in series with the current coil. The voltage is generated by
connecting the hand driven generator.

Working of Megger
The testing voltage is usually 500, 1000 or 2500 V which is generated by the hand
driven generator. The generator has centrifugal clutch due to which the generator
supplied the constant for the insulation test. The constant voltage is used for testing
the insulation having low resistance.

The Megger has three coils two pressure coils and one current coil. The pressure
coil rotates the moving coil in the anticlockwise direction, whereas the current coil
rotates it in the clockwise direction.

When the unknown resistance is connected in the circuit, the pointer of the moving
coil becomes stable. The pressure coil and the current coil balance the pointer and
set it in the middle of the scale.

The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the voltage applied to the
external circuit. When the testing circuit is applied across the Megger, and if there
is no shorting throughout the insulation then the pointer deflects towards the
infinity.  Which shows that the resistance has high insulation.  For low resistance,
the pointer moves towards zero.

Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone Bridge is the name given to a combination of four resistances

connected to give a null center value

The Wheatstone Bridge was originally developed by Charles Wheatstone to

measure unknown resistance values and as a means of calibrating measuring
instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of a long resistive slide wire.
Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to measure a
resistance. The Wheatstone Bridge can still be used to measure very low values of
resistances down in the milli-Ohms range.
The Wheatstone bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit can be used in a number of
applications and today, with modern operational amplifiers we can use
the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit to interface various transducers and sensors to these
amplifier circuits.
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple series-parallel
arrangements of resistances connected between a voltage supply terminal and
ground producing zero voltage difference between the two parallel branches when
balanced. A Wheatstone bridge circuit has two input terminals and two output
terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a diamond-like arrangement as
shown. This is typical of how the Wheatstone bridge is drawn.

When balanced, the Wheatstone bridge can be analysed simply as two series
strings in parallel. In our tutorial about Resistors in Series, we saw that each
resistor within the series chain produces an IR drop, or voltage drop across itself as
a consequence of the current flowing through it as defined by Ohms Law. Consider
the series circuit below.
As the two resistors are in series, the same current ( i ) flows through both of them.
Therefore the current flowing through these two resistors in series is given
as: V/RT.
I = V ÷ R = 12V ÷ (10Ω + 20Ω) = 0.4A
The voltage at point C, which is also the voltage drop across the lower
resistor, R2 is calculated as:
VR2 = I × R2 = 0.4A × 20Ω = 8 volts
Then we can see that the source voltage VS is divided among the two series
resistors in direct proportion to their resistances as VR1 = 4V and VR2 = 8V. This is
the principle of voltage division, producing what is commonly called a potential
divider circuit or voltage divider network.
Now if we add another series resistor circuit using the same resistor values in
parallel with the first we would have the following circuit.

As the second series circuit has the same resistive values of the first, the voltage at
point D, which is also the voltage drop across resistor, R4 will be the same at 8
volts, with respect to zero (battery negative), as the voltage is common and the two
resistive networks are the same.
But something else equally as important is that the voltage difference between
point C and point D will be zero volts as both points are at the same value of 8
volts as: C = D = 8 volts, then the voltage difference is: 0 volts
When this happens, both sides of the parallel bridge network are said to
be balanced because the voltage at point C is the same value as the voltage at
point D with their difference being zero.
Now let’s consider what would happen if we reversed the position of the two
resistors, R3 and R4 in the second parallel branch with respect to R1 and R2.
With resistors, R3 and R4 reversed, the same current flows through the series
combination and the voltage at point D, which is also the voltage drop across
resistor, R4 will be:
VR4 = 0.4A × 10Ω = 4 volts
Now with VR4 having 4 volts dropped across it, the voltage difference between
points C and D will be 4 volts as: C = 8 volts and D = 4 volts. Then the difference
this time is: 8 – 4 = 4 volts
The result of swapping the two resistors is that both sides or “arms” of the parallel
network are different as they produce different voltage drops. When this happens,
the parallel network is said to be unbalanced as the voltage at point C is at a
different value to the voltage at point D.
Then we can see that the resistance ratio of these two parallel
arms, ACB and ADB, results in a voltage difference between 0 volts (balanced)
and the maximum supply voltage (unbalanced), and this is the basic principal of
the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit.
So we can see that a Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used to compare an
unknown resistance RX with others of a known value, for example, R1 and R2, have
fixed values, and R3 could be variable. If we connected a voltmeter, ammeter or
classically a galvanometer between points C and D, and then varied
resistor, R3 until the meters read zero, would result in the two arms being balanced
and the value of RX, (substituting R4) known as shown.
.
Where resistors, R1 and R2 are known or preset values

Wheatstone Bridge Example No1

The following unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge is constructed. Calculate the output
voltage across points C and D and the value of resistor R4 required to balance the
bridge circuit.

For the first series arm, ACB

For the second series arm, ADB

The voltage across points C-D is given as:

The value of resistor, R4 required to balance the bridge is given as:

We have seen above that the Wheatstone Bridge has two input terminals (A-B) and
two output terminals (C-D). When the bridge is balanced, the voltage across the
output terminals is 0 volts. When the bridge is unbalanced, however, the output
voltage may be either positive or negative depending upon the direction of
unbalance.
Wheatstone Bridge Light Detector
Balanced bridge circuits find many useful electronics applications such as being
used to measure changes in light intensity, pressure or strain. The types of resistive
sensors that can be used within a wheatstone bridge circuit include: photoresistive
sensors (LDR’s), positional sensors (potentiometers), piezoresistive sensors (strain
gauges) and temperature sensors (thermistor’s), etc.
There are many wheatstone bridge applications for sensing a whole range of
mechanical and electrical quantities, but one very simple wheatstone bridge
application is in the measurement of light by using a photoresistive device. One of
the resistors within the bridge network is replaced by a light dependent resistor, or
LDR.
An LDR, also known as a cadmium-sulphide (Cds) photocell, is a passive resistive
sensor which converts changes in visible light levels into a change in resistance
and hence a voltage. Light dependent resistors can be used for monitoring and
measuring the level of light intensity, or whether a light source is ON or OFF.
A typical Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) cell such as the ORP12 light dependent
resistor typically has a resistance of about one Megaohm (MΩ) in dark or dim
light, about 900Ω at a light intensity of 100 Lux (typical of a well lit room), down
to about 30Ω in bright sunlight. Then as the light intensity increases the resistance
reduces. By connecting a light dependant resistor to the Wheatstone bridge circuit
above, we can monitor and measure any changes in the light levels as shown.

Wheatstone Bridge Light Detector

The LDR photocell is connected into the Wheatstone Bridge circuit as shown to
produce a light sensitive switch that activates when the light level being sensed
goes above or below the pre-set value determined by VR1. In this
example VR1 either a 22k or 47kΩ potentiometer.
The op-amp is connected as a voltage comparator with the reference
voltage VD applied to the non-inverting pin. In this example, as both R3 and R4 are
of the same 10kΩ value, the reference voltage set at point D will therefore be equal
to half of Vcc. That is Vcc/2.
The potentiometer, VR1 sets the trip point voltage VC, applied to the inverting input
and is set to the required nominal light level. The relay turns “ON” when the
voltage at point C is less than the voltage at point D.
Adjusting VR1 sets the voltage at point C to balance the bridge circuit at the
required light level or intensity. The LDR can be any cadmium sulphide device
that has a high impedance at low light levels and a low impedance at high light
levels.
Note that the circuit can be used to act as a “light-activated” switching circuit or a
“dark-activated” switching circuit simply by transposing the LDR and R3 positions
within the design.
The Wheatstone Bridge has many uses in electronic circuits other than comparing
an unknown resistance with a known resistance. When used with Operational
Amplifiers, the Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used to measure and amplify
small changes in resistance, RX due, for example, to changes in light intensity as
we have seen above.
But the bridge circuit is also suitable for measuring the resistance change of other
changing quantities, so by replacing the above photo-resistive LDR light sensor for
a thermistor, pressure sensor, strain gauge, and other such transducers, as well as
swapping the positions of the LDR and VR1, we can use them in a variety of other
Wheatstone bridge applications.
Also more than one resistive sensor can be used within the four arms (or branches)
of the bridge formed by the resistors R1 to R4 to produce “full-bridge”, “half-
bridge” or “quarter-bridge circuit arrangements providing thermal compensation or
automatic balancing of the Wheatstone bridge.
Maxwell’s Bridge

The bridge used for the measurement of self-inductance of a circuit is known as the

Maxwell bridge. It is the advanced form of the Wheatstone bridge. The Maxwell
bridge works on the principle of the comparison, i.e., the value
of unknown inductance is determined by comparing it with the known value or
standard value.

Types of Maxwell’s Bridge

Two methods are used for determining the self-inductance of the circuit. They are

1. Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

2. Maxwell’s inductance Capacitance Bridge
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

In such type of bridges, the value of unknown resistance is determined by

comparing it with the known value of the standard self-inductance. The connection
diagram for the balance Maxwell bridge is shown in the figure below.
Let, L1 – unknown inductance of resistance R 1.
L2 – Variable inductance of fixed resistance r1.
R2 – variable resistance connected in series with inductor L 2.
R3, R4 – known non-inductance resistance

At balance, 
The value of the R3 and the R4 resistance varies from 10 to 1000 ohms with the help of the
resistance box. Sometimes for balancing the bridge, the additional resistance is also inserted into
the circuit.

Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge

In this type of bridges, the unknown resistance is measured with the help of the
standard variable capacitance.

De Sauty Bridge

De Sauty Bridge measures an unknown capacitance in term of a standard

capacitance i.e. comparing two capacitances. Two ratio arm of this bridge consist
pure resistor and two consist capacitor where one is of unknown value and another
is standard capacitor.

Let,

C1 = Capacitor whose capacitance is to be measured

C2 = a standard capacitor
Balance is obtained by varying either R1 or R2. For balance, point B and D are at
the same potential.
I1R1 = I2R2 and (–j/ωC1).I1 = (-j/ωC2).I2

Dividing one equation by the other, we get

R1/R2 = C1/C2;   C1 = C2R1/R2

The bridge has maximum sensitivity when C1=C2. The simplicity of this method is
offset by the impossibility of obtaining a perfect balance if both the capacitors are
not free from the dielectric loss. A perfect balance can only be obtained if air
capacitors are used.

Errors in measurement
The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the
true value of a quantity and its value as obtained by measurement. This causes the
repeated measurement of the same quantity to give different indications, and thus,
precision is an important characteristic in electronic instruments.
Following are the three main types of static errors:
 Gross/ Human Errors 
 Systematic Errors
 Random Errors 
I. Gross/ Human Errors – These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in
reading or in using instruments or errors in recording observations.

 Errors may occur also due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and

computational mistakes.
 One of the basic gross errors that occurs frequently is the improper use of an
instrument.
 These errors cannot be treated mathematically.

II. Systematic Errors – These errors are due to shortcomings of the instrument,
such as defective or worn parts, ageing, or effects of the environment on the
instrument.
 The errors are sometimes referred to as bias, and they influence all
measurements of a quantity alike.
 In other words, a constant uniform deviation of the operation of an
instrument is known as a systematic error.
 There are basically three types of systematic errors, namely –
A. Instrumental – They are inherent in measuring instruments, because of
their mechanical structure (e.g.: irregular spring tensions or stretching of a
spring). They can be avoided by appropriate instrument selection and
calibration.
B. Environmental – They are due to conditions external to the measuring
device, including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such as
the effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or of
magnetic or electrostatic fields. They can be avoided by air conditioning,
etc..
C. Observational – They are introduced by the observer. The most common
error is the parallax error (when the pointer fluctuates between different
readings, and the reading is taken arbitrarily) introduced in reading a meter
scale, and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter
scale.
 These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers. For example,
an observer may always introduce an error by consistently holding his head
too far to the left while reading a needle and scale reading.
A. In general, these are also subdivided into two – static and dynamic.
B. Static errors are caused by limitations of the measuring device or the
physical laws governing its behaviour, while dynamic errors are caused by
the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in a
measured variable.
III. Random Errors – These are the errors that remain after gross and systematic
errors have substantially been reduced or at least accounted for.
 They are generally an accumulation of a large number of small effects and
may be of real concern only in measurements requiring high degree of
accuracy.
 They are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary process of
making measurements.
 Such errors are normally small, and follow the laws of probability. Thus,
they can be treated mathematically.
 For example, suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is
read at 15 m minute intervals. Although the instrument operates under ideal
environmental conditions and is accurately calibrated before measurement, it
still gives readings that vary slightly over the period of observation. This
variation cannot be corrected by any method of calibration or any other
known method of control.