PAMPANGA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

MAGALANG, PAMPANGA

LECTURE MANUAL

ON

AQUA 105 – AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING

BY:

MR. DANTE M. MENDOZA

Instructor I – MS AQUA
S.Y. 2015-2016
UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING

Unit Objectives

This unit aims to:

1. Define aquaculture engineering and explore the areas covered by the discipline;

2. Discuss the status of aquaculture engineering in the country and in neighboring countries;

3. Identify the latest developments in the field of aquaculture engineering;

4. Explain the potentials of aquaculture in the region of Southeast Asia and how the discipline
of engineering can be integrated;

5. Identify issues and problems that affect aquaculture production and determine engineering
concepts that could mitigate or eliminate these problems;
Introduction

In a recent comprehensive review of world aquaculture, it was reported that carp and tilapia
production represents about 46% of the total world aquacultural production on a weight basis, salmon and
trout 4%, shrimp and prawn 2.2%, oysters and mussels 37%, and catfish 2.2%. It was also reported that
freshwater production accounts for 80% to 90% of the world’s finfish production, 95% of which in ponds.
Cage vulture represents only 3% to 4% of freshwater finfish production, but about 40% of marine and
brackishwater finfish production.

1.1. Definition

Aquaculture Engineering is defined as the application of sound engineering principles (chemical,

civil, mechanical, and electrical) to create a suitable condition or environment for optimum growth of
aquatic species being produced. It also applies knowledge of economics, chemistry, and fisheries –
biology, health management, post-harvest and processing, and marketing.

A discipline dealing with the application of the fused biological and civil engineering principles
in the planning and execution of fishery works in order to create the best environment for the cultured
species (E. Vera Cruz).

Fishpond Engineering is the science of planning, designing and constructing ponds including
water control structures. Fishpond Engineering takes into consideration most especially the physical
structures and economy of construction based on the proper engineering procedure and application
(FAO).

1.2. Status of Aquaculture Engineering

Aquaculture engineering in the Philippines started when poor or inadequate engineering was
recognized as one of the primary reasons for the country’s low fish production. It has since developed
rapidly and recognized as the sector that could address the production shortfall from capture fisheries. In
fact in 2004, aquaculture accounted for about 42% of the country’s total fisheries production.

Some 413,484 hectares of coastal fishponds are located mainly in the Philippines. Indonesia,
Thailand, Vietman, Malaysia, Taiwan (China). Hong Kong and Singapore. They are used for raising
finfish, mainly milkfish such as in Indonesia, Philippines and Taiwan or penaid shrimps such as in
Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia. At present, polyculture of milkfish and penacid shrimps and stocking
of sea-bass are fast developing (dela Cruz, )

According to Dela cruz, the development of this industry at the beginning can be attributed
primarily on private sector initiative. Based on very crude facilities and simple rural experience, the
production has been generally low, at present about 670 kg/ha/year on the average in the whole region,
although ranges from as low as 300 kg/ha to as high as 2 000 kg/ha (e.g., Taiwan) occur. The value of
production from this industry is evaluated at over US$350 million per year, which can be a big boost to
the economy of the region. Prices has been relatively low for milkfish (average US$1/kg) but rather high
for penaeid shrimps (US$3-8 kg) and also good for seabass (US$3-5/kg).
1.3 Potentials

 The potentials for the further development of this industry in the region of Southeast Asia is high.
 There are still large acreage of mangrove swamps and tidal mudflats that can be suitable sites for
development into fishponds, estimated at about 5½ million hectares in the Southeast Asian
countries.
 Some 10 to 30 percent of the existing swamps can be developed, such a ratio being deemed
feasible and affords proper ecological considerations, the area that can be developed in the region
can be about 0.5 to 1.6 million hectares.
 Average production can be increased to double the yield with better engineering and the use of
improved technology of management in the existing areas.

1.4 Major engineering problems

Poor or inadequate engineering of aquaculture units is one of the major causes of low production
and/or failure.

Such engineering deficiencies can be classified into three categories, viz. (i) problems brought
about by climatic and hydrological factors: (ii) problems due to environmental factors; and (iii)
engineering specific problems.

1.3.1 Problems due to climate and hydrology

The type of rainfall, occurrence of typhoons, and prevailing tidal charcteristics in the fishpond
location can influence the nature of construction of fishponds in such area. Where rains are strong and
severe and where typhoons are frequent, the fishpond structures need to be bigger and more firm.
Likewise, areas with high tidal ranges (average daily range of 3 m or more) will require bigger dikes and
sturdy water control structures, whereas areas where the tidal fluctuation is small (one meter or less daily
range), the dikes can be smaller and water gates need not be massive. Areas prone to earthquakes and
tidal waves should likewise make some extra provision for these occurrences.

1.3.2 Environmental influences

The engineering of coastal fishponds can be affected by various environmental influences. These
include such factors as the nature of the soil, vegetation, elevation of site, topographic characteristics,
availability of freshwater supply and occurrence of pollution. If the site has porous type soil (sandy or
peaty), bigger dikes need to be provided. In some cases, better clayey soil for diking may have to be
brought from outside. Well vegetated areas especially with big-size trees will require bigger construction
effort. Elevation of the site based on the tidal datum will determine whether excavation or filling will be
required, while those with uneven topography will need more work in levelling the area.

It is better to have some source of freshwater supply for coastal fishponds so that the
brackishwater salinity which is usually more suitable for growing food organisms as well as the cultured
species can be maintained. If however this is not available, the fishpond should be so engineered so that
the periodic occurrence of freshwater such as from rains can be taken advantage of.
Freshwater supply from the tidal river or stream is usually the cheapest source of freshwater as
this can be taken in by gravity. However, this may not be available so that other sources have to be
determined and tapped. The seasonal rains can be another source, although this can be seasonal and not
very reliable. Underground water is another source of this, if available. Sometimes the pond bottom is low
enough in relation to the water table so that underground water can seep in naturally to the ponds. Piped
water through wells of varying depths is good, if this is available. All the above sources of freshwater will
need engineering structures so that the required water can be put into use. Pumps, either to draw in or
drain out excess water, may be found necessary and helpful.

Occurrence of pollution is a difficult problem in coastal fishpond areas and should be avoided if
this was noted before the farm is established. However, if this condition should happen after the fishpond
has been constructed; additional structures may need to be installed to minimize the effects of this adverse
factor.

1.3.3 Engineering specific problems

These are the site specific problems that are encountered during actual construction or after the
construction of the fishpond. For instance, after the fishpond has been constructed, there is a need to shift
the kind of management from the traditional extensive method to the modular progression method or to
the stock manipulation method: this will require a renovation of the layout of the fishpond system. Again,
if the fishpond is to shift from milkfish monoculture to milkfish shrimp polyculture or to shrimp
monoculture, some definite pond modifications have to be made for such a shift.

During the construction, it sometimes occur that there is excess soil that needs to be disposed of
properly, or there may be lack of soil that can be adequate for the needed diking or filling work. These
have to be solved through engineering means.

Many engineering problems occur with regard to the water control structures. These have to be
properly designed and well-constructed and located in appropriate places in relation to the entire fishpond
system. These structures are usually expensive to put up and once made they are very difficult to change.
It is noted however, that some progress have been attained in better designs and in the method of
constructing these water control structures. More lasting materials like fiberglass, ferrocement, etc.,
especially if these can be prefabricated may lessen the inherent costs encountered with these fishpond
structures.

Correcting water leakages and seepages in finished fishponds often present many problems. Even
if these have to be dealt with on a case to case basis, there is need for aquaculture engineers to develop
and improve the technology involving these very frequent problems in coastal fishponds.

Source: C.R. Dela Cruz. Fishpond engineering: a technical manual for small-and medium-scale
coastal fish farms in southeast Asia. SEAFDEC. Fisheres Statistical Bulletin for the
South China Sea Area. 1978 (1980).
UNIT II

AQUACULTURE FACILITIES OR SYSTEMS

Unit Objectives

This unit aims to:

1. Present the different facilities or systems that are used for

aquaculture purposes: hatchery production, grow-out production,
and ornamental culture purposes;

2. Differentiate and describe one culture facility/system from the

others;

3. Discuss the place or condition of the place to where one

facility/system is best fitted or suited for use.
Aquacultural Systems

An aquacultural production system can be described simply as production of marketable aquatic

organisms under controlled or semicontrolled conditions. Aquacultural systems are classified in a variety
of ways depending upon the viewer’s perspective and interest.

1. Land-Based Systems: Ponds, Tanks, Raceways, Recirculating Systems

 Pond
– It is an enclosed body of water with or without inlets and outlets known as gates.
– It is a shallow body of standing water (lentic environment) and is usually smaller than lake.
– It is a shallow lake.
– It is a man-made or naturally formed structure although the former classification is more
existing.

 Two Primary Types of Pond (both for saltwater, brackishwater and freshwater areas)
1. Embankment ponds – are formed by building-up a dam or dike to impound water
2. Excavated ponds – are formed by excavating soil from areas to form depressions or holes
and filling them with water to form ponds
– Cost of development in embankment ponds is lower than in the excavated ponds.

 Types of Pond (for freshwater areas only)

1. Barrage ponds – are those usually filled by rainfalls or spring water. These require
overflow pipes and overflow channels.
2. Diversion ponds – are made by diverting (bringing) water from another source, like a
steam or a river. A channel or canal is dug to carry the water from the water source to the
pond.

 Tanks
– Concrete Tanks – Wooden Tanks
– Fiberglass Tanks – Canvass Tanks
– Plastic Tanks – Glass Tanks

 Raceways
– Raceways, also called flow-thru systems, are culture systems in which water flows
continuously, making a single pass through the unit.
– They are constructed from concrete or cement blocks, or fabricated from wood, fiberglass,
metal and plastic materials; or they can be earthen raceways.
– If the land is sloping, a series of raceways can be constructed, linked to each other end to end,
one unit flowing into the other, and separated by filters. Oxygen is added to the water by the
splashing action as water exits one cell and drops into the other.
– In fish culture, traditional raceways are enclosed channel systems with relatively high rates of
moving or flowing water. This high rate of water movement gives raceway systems distinct
advantages over the other culture systems.

Advantages of raceways include: Disadvantages include:

- Higher stocking densities - Reliance on electricity or fuel for water flow

- Improved water quality - Risk of fish mortality due to disease or water
quality problems
- Reduced manpower - High level of technology required
- Ease of feeding, grading and harvesting
- Precise disease treatments
- Collection of fish wastes
- Less off-flavour

 Recirculating Systems
– In a recirculating system, the same water is reused, after appropriate physical, biological or
chemical purification.
– Fisheries researchers have used recirculating systems for holding and growing fish for more
than three decades. Attempts to advance these systems to commercial scale food fish
production have increased dramatically in the last decade.

Advantages of raceways include:

- Does not require large quantities of land and water.
- A high degree of environmental control
- Can be carried out close to market areas

Disadvantages include:
- Needs a lot of complicated machinery, which can be difficult to maintain
- Biologically complex
- Increased risk of poor water quality
- Greater risk of stress and diseases
- Common incidence of off-flavor are common
- High levels of technical expertise required
- High cost

2. Water-Based Systems: Fishpen and Fishcage

 Fishpen
– It is a man-made structure constructed from wooden or metal poles as posts; frames and
braces; and from nettings, plastic materials or woven bamboo slats (banata) as sidings or
enclosures.
– The bottom of the structure of which is formed by the bed or floor of the water body (sea bed,
lake bed, river bed).
– It tends to be larger in size than cage, ranging from 0.1 ha (1000 m2) to several hectares.
– It is built in a rectangular, square or circular shape.
– It is installed in not more (>) than 8 meters depth.

 Fishcage
– It is a man-made structure constructed from materials like that of a fishpen and is enclosed at
the sides, at the bottom and maybe on the top.
– It is smaller in size than pen and typically has a surface area between 1 m2 – 1000 m2.
– It is constructed in rectangular, square or circular shape.

 Four Types of Cage

1. Floating cage – is a cage whose mesh bag is supported by a buoyant collar frame.
– It is set in not less than 3 meters depth.
2. Fixed cage – is a cage whose mesh bag is supported by posts driven into the substrate
(bottom soil).
– It is set in shallow areas not more than 8 meters depth.
3. Submersible cage – is a cage that could be a fixed or a floating cage. It could be set above
or  1 m below the water surface. This cage is used primarily in places prone to storms.
4. Submerged cage – is a cage set below the water surface or at the floor of the water body.
UNIT II

SELECTION AND EVALUATION OF FISHPOND/FISHPEN/CAGE SITE

Unit Objectives

This unit aims to:

6. Discuss the different major and minor factors to be considered in site selection for fishpond,
fishpen/fishcage purposes;

7. Characterize the water, soils, topography and other factors considered best for fishpond
purposes;

8. Identify kinds and types of soils in the mangrove areas and the upland areas alike;

9. Identify the trees and other plant life in the mangrove areas which indicate the physical and
chemical properties of soil good and not beneficial for fishpond purposes;

10. Analyze the water condition of the surveyed site;

11. Explain the causes of tidal fluctuation or rise and fall of water as one factor considered in
site selection;

12. Discuss the tidal characteristics and the ground elevation;

13. Illustrate and demonstrate the method of determining the zero datum [or known as the mean
low water (MLW) or mean lower low water (MLLW)] – the water level at which the pond
floor to be constructed is based upon.
A. Factors To Consider in Selecting Fishpond Site

1. Water supply 4. Topography

2. Tidal characteristics 5. Vegetation
and ground elevation 6. Climatic condition
3. Soil 7. Other factors

1. Water Supply

– It is the first and most important factor to consider.

– It should be clean (free from pollutants) and available throughout the year.
– For brackishwater aquaculture, the seawater and the freshwater should be available the whole
year round.
– Water in the river supplied into the pond through gravitational force is economical but may
not be good for use.
– Underground water supplied by the use of giant pump is clean but may not be economical yet
may pose danger of intrusion of seawater into the freshwater aquifer affecting the domestic
users of freshwaters.
– It should be well oxygenated.
– It should contain adequate nutrients essential for growth of algae and other desirable aquatic
plants.
– Water temperature and salinity should suit the requirement of fish under cultivation.

2. Tidal Characteristics and Ground Elevations ( see Appendix A).

– The suitability of a site for brackishwater pond depends upon the tidal characteristics of the
area and its ground elevation.
– In some areas, there are only one high and one low tide that come in 24-hour period.
– In other areas, high tide and low tide come twice in a day.
– Areas whose ground elevation is reached only by the highest spring tide is not suitable for
brackishwater fishpond.
– Low lying areas whose floor elevation is under water during or on level with the lowest low
tide is, likewise, not suitable.
– Ideal elevation is when the site can be filled with tidal water to the desired depth within  5
days during the critical spring tides which occur in February, March and April and is when
the site can be drained almost any day.
– 20 cm above the datum plane (zero datum or mean lower low water, MLLW) is considered a
good ground elevation for brackishwater pond.
– Or a depth of at least 50 - 60 cm that can be maintained above the floor of the site is also
good for brackishwater pond.

Definition of Tidal Terms

Tide – refers to the regular rising and falling of the seawater level in response to the gravitational
attraction of the moon and the sun.
Tidal current – is the movement of seawater towards the shore and towards the sea. It is also
defined as the periodic horizontal flow of water resulting from the rise and fall of the tides.
Tidal range – refers to the difference between the mean higher high water (HHW) and the mean
lower low water (LLW) in a mixed tide. In diurnal and semi-diurnal tides, it is the difference between
the highest water and the lowest water.
Tide period – is the time interval between two successive high waters.
Spring tides – are tidal waters of greater amplitudes which means that the high waters are much
higher and the low waters are much lower than usual. These occur when the sun, the moon, and the
earth are in a straight line. They are associated with new moons and full moons, and therefore they
occur twice a month.
Neap tides – are tidal waters of smaller amplitudes. The high waters during neap tides are lower
than those observed in spring tides and the low water are higher than those observed in spring tides.
These are produced when the moon and the sun form the extremes of a right triangle. These occur
during the first and the last quarter phases of the moon.
Flood tide – refers to the incoming or rising tide.
Ebb tide - refers to the drawing back of tidal water from the shore or to the outgoing or falling
tide.
Diurnal tide – is a type of tide having only one high and one low water per tidal day (Appendix
B).
Semi-diurnal tide – is a type of tide where high and low water occur twice a day or is a tide
which has a cycle of about one-half a tidal day (Appendix B).
Mixed tides – is a type of tide characterized by having a large inequalities of either the high or
the low water heights with two high waters and two low waters per tidal day (Appendix B).
Diurnal equality – refers to the differences in height of the two high water or of the two low
water of each day.
MHHW – is the acronym for mean higher high water. In a mixed tide, there are two high tides
occurring in a 24-hour period. One high tide is the lower high water and the other is the higher high
water, the latter of which is used as the basis for determining the tidal range.
MLLW – is the acronym for the mean lower low water. In a mixed tide, there are also two low
tides within a whole day: the lower low water and the higher low water, the former of which is also a
factor in tidal range determination. As to pond construction, MLLW is usually the zero datum or
datum plane, or a reference point from which the ground elevation of the pond site is determined.
MLLW is the average of all lower low waters.

3. Soils
– Soil is an important factor in pond productivity due to its ability to adsorb and release the
essential nutrients required by plants.
– It serves as the chief and most economical source of materials for building dikes.

 Two Categories of Soil

1. Inorganic soils – which include clay, silt and sand among others, and those soils with
moderate organic matter contents.
2. Organic soils – which include those soils with high organic matter contents; which have high
shrinkage; and whose colors range from brown to black.

* Two Classifications of Organic Soil

1. Muck soil – consists of thoroughly decomposed organic materials with considerable
amounts of finer mineral soil finely divided with some fibrous remains.
2. Peat soil – consists of a dense accumulation of partially decayed fibrous materials.

 Soil Texture. This refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in the soil (Appendix B
& C).

 General Classification of Soil

1. Sand – a coarse soil whose size ranges 0.05 - 2 mm in  and which feels gritty when rubbed
between the fingers.
2. Silt – a moderately fine soil whose size ranges 0.002 - 0.04 mm in  and which feels smooth
and powdery and not sticky when moist.
3. Clay – a fine soil whose size is < 0.002 mm in  and which feels smooth, sticky and plastic
when moist; it forms very hard clod when dry.

* Soil predominantly composed of hard particles having  of > 2 mm is gravelly or stony.

 The Three Main Types of Soil (Appendix C)

Common Name Texture Basic soil textural class name

Sandy soils Coarse Sandy, sandy loam
Moderately coarse Fine, sandy loam
Loamy soils Medium Very fine sandy loam
Moderately fine Loam, silty loam, silt
Clayey soils Fine Clay, silty clay, sandy clay, clay loam, silty clay
loam, sandy clay loam

* Loam – has an equal proportions of sand, silt and clay. It is mellow with somewhat a gritty feel,
yet fairly smooth and slightly plastic.

 The following textural class of soils are preferred for fishpond purposes due to their superiority
in water-holding capacity and nutrient contents and as diking materials, to wit:
1. clay 5. silty clay loam
2. silty clay 6. sandy clay loam
3. sandy clay 7. loam
4. clay loam

* Of the 7 textural classes, clay loam and sandy clay loam are the best because of their clay
components which are excellent water holder and diking materials and of their loam components
which contain high organic matter necessary for growth algae.

4. Topography
This refers to the surface feature or lay of the land, or the changes in the surface whether flat,
undulating (wavy), hilly, sloping or rolling.
– The best topography for fishpond is flat or slightly sloping toward the outlet.
– More significant in brackishwater than freshwater pond farm
– A slope of 2% is ideal.

Four zones in the coastal edge which are probable sites for fishpond (Fig.1)

– Zone A: marginal land; unproductive due to salt water; reached only by extreme high
tide; constructed into fishpond by deep excavation
– Zone B: generally elevated; can still be reached by tides; high dikes are not necessary;
deep excavation is required
– Zone C: elevation is low, within the ideal range of pond bottom elev.; less excavation;
extreme acidity occurs because of the presence of vegetation; ideal zone
– Zone D: elev. is low, slightly higher than the lowest low tide; exposed to constant wave
action; requires higher dikes & wave protection structures; no acidity problem
5. Vegetation
This refers to plant life -- big sturdy trees, woody trees, shrubs and bushes, sedges, weeds, and
herbs.
 Types of vegetation which indicate the physical and chemical properties of soil:
– Avicennia (api-api) and pagatpat trees – abound in elevated areas and indicate less acidic
and productive soil and highest suitability for fishpond.
– Rhizophora (bakawan) trees – mostly found in low areas and indicate high organic
content and acid sulfate soil and less suitability for fishpond.
– Nypha fructicans (Nipa palm) – abound in sandy soils and indicate low salinity, peaty
and acid sulfate soils which have lasting low pH effect on newly constructed pond, and
low suitability for fishpond.
– Ferns and certain shrubs – abound in low areas.
– Grasses – abound in sandy soils.

6. Climatic Condition
– Wind and rainfall are the climatic factors affecting site selection and fishpond design.
– Data on rainfall and wind direction are guides in planning the design and layout of pond
system.
– Records of water levels caused by rainfall help in deciding whether to include drainage canal
and its dimensions.
– Records of rainfall are also useful in computing for the height of perimeter dikes.
– Prevailing wind guides fishpond builders in orienting dikes. Partition dikes (secondary dikes)
of a pond system should run parallel with the prevailing wind to lessen exposure of their side
lengths to wave action, thus protecting them getting eroded.

 Prevailing Winds in the Philippines

1. Southwest monsoon (Habagat) – prevailing wind that comes from southwest blowing towards
northeast direction and occurs during the rainy season (June to October).
2. Northeast monsoon (Amihan) – prevailing wind that originates from northeast blowing
towards southwest direction and occurs during the dry season (November to February)
3. Trade wind (Salatan) – the wind that blows from an easterly direction toward the equator and
occurs usually from March to May.

 Four Climatic Zones or Weather Types in the Philippines

Type I – Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet from May to October
(Regions 1 and 3, West Region 4, West Mindoro, West Palawan, West Panay Island and West
Negros)

Type II – No dry season with a very pronounced rainfall from November to January. This covers
the regions along the eastern coast which are neither sheltered from the “Amihan” and the
“Salatan” nor from cyclone (East Region 4, Bicol Region, Samar, Leyte, North Cebu, Bohol and
East Mindanao)

Type III – Seasons are not very pronounced; relatively dry from November to April and wet
from May to October. This belongs to areas partly sheltered from “Amihan and Salatan” and open
to “Habagat” and cyclonic storms (Abra, Mountain Province, Masbate, East Panay Island, East
Negros, Misamis Oriental, Cagayan de Oro).

Type IV – Rainfall is more or less distributed throughout the year. This belongs to Region 2, East
Mindoro, Central and Southern Mindanao, Basilan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi.
Types I and III, where the dry season lasts for 4-6 months followed by the rainy season, are more
favorable than Types II and IV, where the rainfall is distributed throughout the year. In the latter
types of weather, it is difficult to grow lab-lab; lumut which gives lower yield becomes the
dominant fishfood.

 Other factors to be considered in the selection of a good fishpond site:

a. proximity to market e. availability on construction materials

b. proximity to fry source f. availability of fertilizers, supplementary food, etc.
c. availability of credit g. availability of ice and cold storage facilities
d. availability of skilled local labor h. peace and order condition in the locality

B. Factors to Consider in Selecting Sites for Fishpens or Fish Cages

1. Water quality
 Dissolved oxygen – the site must have a stable DO level of  4 ppm all throughout.
 Turbidity soil/Transparency of water – the site must be free from prolonged brownish
color and deep green and blue-green color.
 Pollution – the site must be free from pollutants and should not be a passageway of
pollutants.
 Salinity & temperature – these should not fluctuate or vary abruptly by more than or
equal to 5 ppt and 5 0 C in the site all throughout.
2. Bottom soil – this should be sandy clay or clay loam soils. Too much silt and decomposing
organic matter must be avoided.
3. Natural hazards/calamities – the site must be sheltered against strong winds and high waves.
4. Water or tidal current – this should range from 10-60 cm/sec or 6-36 m/minute. Current
speed more than this range is avoided to prevent fishes from spending too much energy
swimming.
5. Water depth – should not be more than 8 meters and less than 1 meter (for fishpens and fixed
cages) and not less than 3 meters for floating cages.
Figure 1. Zonations in coastal areas
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C

VIEW OF SAMPLE AFTER

DESCRIPTION OF TEXTURE
ROLLING

No roll, sand, loamy sand

Beginning of a roll, sandy loam

The roll is continuous, but breaks when

ring is formed, loam and silt loam

The roll is continuous, but the ring cracks;

clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam

The roll is continuous; the ring is also

complete; silty clay; clay and sandy clay
Appendix D
UNIT III

ENGINEERING AND SITE SURVEY

Unit Objective

This unit aims to:

1. Name and define the specific uses of the different surveying equipment/instruments and
methods;

2. Discuss and demonstrate how to determine one’s pace factor as one direct method of
measuring an unknown distance;

3. Present the different formulas and explain how these formulas are computed and used;

4. Discuss and demonstrate how to use and operate the different surveying equipment,
instruments, devices and methods;

5. Master how to determine the azimuth, back azimuth, bearing, back bearing of the lines, or
the horizontal angles as well as the different directions of the land surface using the
engineer’s transit or just the small marine magnetic compass (2-nch diameter);

6. Discuss the different ways of leveling;

7. Show how to make a land surface survey with the use of the engineer’s transit or a small
marine magnetic compass and a plastic hose; and develop the skill of plotting a map of a
surveyed site;

8. Show how to determine the ground elevations using the engineer’s transit or a simple
device, like the plastic hose filled with water as a leveling device, and how to plot the
elevations taken in the site survey.
A. Engineering Survey Equipment

1. Tape (steel, synthetic) – the most common measuring device (Figure 2).
2. Engineer’s transit – an instrument with magnetic compass, level, and telescope fastened to a
tripod. It has accessory devices, like stadia rod and range pole (Figures 3 and 4).
* It is used for the following purposes:
– measuring horizontal angles (bearings or azimuth of the lines) and vertical angles
– measuring vertical and horizontal distances
– determining ground elevations
– leveling operations
– for prolonging lines
3. Magnetic compass – an instrument usually in circular shape graduated from 0° to 360° and
provided with magnetic needle that always points the magnetic north. It is also provided with
another needle from which the azimuth of a line is read. This is made of metal, fiberglass, or
plastic covered on top with transparent glass (Figure 5).
– This is used for determining the azimuth or bearing of a line as well as the different
directions of the land surface.
4. Level – an instrument used for measuring the vertical distance in leveling operation and for
determining the ground elevation in the absence of an engineer’s transit (Figures 6).

Figure 2. Different types of tape

Figure 3. Engineer’s transit Figure 3. Stadia Rod

Figure 5. Compass and tripod

Figure 6. Abney Hand Level

B. Measurement of Distances

 Two methods of measuring distances

1. Direct method – a method which involves the use of taping/chaining or pacing.

– Pacing is a practical way of measuring a distance but not as accurate as

taping/chaining.
– Pacing can only be adopted after an individual’s pace factor had been determined.

 Pace factor (PF) is defined as the ratio of the tape distance (premeasured) and the number of
paces made in several trials along such a tape distance.

PF m/p = Tape Distance (m)

Ave. No. of Paces

How to Determine the Percentage Error of the Pace Factor?

Formula:

A. If pace distance in meters, i.e. counted paces multiplied by Pace Factor, is more than
the Tape Distance (also in meters). In this situation, the obtained error is to be
subtracted from the pace distance to get the nearest estimate of the actual or tape
distance.

% error = Pace Distance (i.e. counted paces x pace factor) – Tape Distance X 100
Pace Distance

For example: = 55m – 50m X 100

73.33 – counted paces 55m
x 0.75 m – pace factor = 9.10%
54.99 or 55m – pace distance = 55 x 9.1/100 = 5
Therefore, 55 – 5 = 50m
50m – tape distance

B. If pace distance in meters is less than the Tape Distance (also in meters). In this
situation, the obtained error is to be added to the pace distance to get the nearest
estimate of the actual or tape distance.

% error = Tape Distance – Pace Distance (i.e. counted paces x pace factor) X 100
Tape Distance

For example: = 50m – 49m X 100

65.33 – counted paces 50m
X 0.75 m – pace factor = 2%
48.99 or 49m – pace distance = 49 x 2/100 = 0.98m
Therefore, 49 + 0.98 = 49.98 or 50m
50m – tape distance

– An unknown distance can be estimated by multiplying the number of paces or strides

counted along such a distance by the PF. e.g. 120 paces x 0.85 m/p = 102 m (estimate).
2. Indirect method – a method which involves the use of the engineer’s transit and the stadia
rod. This method is known as the stadia method.

– Stadia method which uses the transit and the leveling rod is a quick way of measuring
distance.

Formula: Distance BC = (Upper rod reading – Lower rod reading) x 100

Ex: Distance BC = (3.25 m – 0.5 m ) x 100
= 275 m

½ of Stadia Interval Upper Stadia Hair

Horizontal Cross Hair

Lower Stadia Hair

Stadia Interval

a) Insert-Intersection of stadia hairs and level rod as seen in the telescope

Level rod Upper

Insert reading

Middle
from hair
reading
Lower reading
Instrument
from hair

Distance BC
B C
b)

Figures 7a & b. Illustration of stadia method

C. Measurement of Angles and Directions

 Methods of expressing angles

1. Bearing – it is an angle measured from either north or south whichever is nearest
toward the east or the west. The angle is read clockwise or counterclockwise from
north or south whichever is the 0o angle. The angle is preceded by N or S and
succeeded by E or W. A bearing can never be greater than 90°. Examples of
bearings are: N 45° E, N 45° W, S 30° E, S 30° W (Figure 8).
2. Azimuth – it is the angle measured clockwise from a reference point or direction
usually North which starts with zero degree. Examples of azimuth are: 45°, 90°,
180°, and 270° (Figure 9).
3. Deflection – this refers to the angle between a deflected line and the prolongation of
the preceding line. It is a right deflection angle if it is measured to the right
(clockwise) and left deflection angle if it lies to the left (counterclockwise) of the
extension of the preceding line (Figure 10).
4. Interior angle – this refers to the angle inside a closed figure, a polygon, between
adjacent lines. The sum of the interior angles in a closed polygon is equal to
(N – 2)(180°), where N is the number of sides (See figure 11).
Example:
IAT = (N – 2)(180°)  = (5sides – 2)(180°)  = (3)(180°)  = 540°

N N

N 45 W N 45 E

315 55

W E W
E
135

S 30 W S 30 E

S S
Figure 8. Bearing of lines Figure 9. Azimuth of lines

B 45 D

A 60
C

Figure 10. Deflection angles

For individual interior angle covering two adjacent lines, it is computed from the field data on
directions such as bearings or azimuths (Figure 11).
Examples:
1. For interior angle A, the bearing of line AB of N 800 E and bearing of line EA of N 110 E will be
needed in the computation, including the cross-directional lines North to South and East to West.
Hence,

Interior angle A (or AIA) = (900 – 800) + 900 + 110 = 1110

2. For interior angle B, the bearings of lines AB and BC, N 800 E and S 850 E respectively, will be
needed in the computation. Therefore,

BIA = (900 – 100) + 850 = 1650 or = 1800 – 100 – 50 = 1650

N
N B N
N 80 E 10 5
S 85 E C
A
11 n1 n2

n5 Interior angles n3

N 11 E N n4 N

E D

Figure 11. Interior angles

D. Identification of Directions

There are 32 points or directions in the earth’s surface which are determined in a compass. Each
point measures 11.25 degrees (11 and 15’).
The 32 points of compass, arranged clockwise from north, are as follows:

N E S W
NxE ExS SxW WxN
NNE ESE SSW WNW
NE x N ES x E SW x S WN x N
NE SE SW NW
EN x N SE x S WS x S NW x N
ENE SSE WSW NNW
ExN SxE WxS NxW

These 32 points of compass are categorized into:

 Principal points – N, S, E, W.
 Half cardinal points (secondary) – NE, NW, SE, SW.
 Intermediate points (tertiary) – NNE, ENE, NNW, WNW, SSE, ESE, SSW, WSW.
 By points – N x E, NE x N, and other directions with x.
X – is read as “by.” Example, N x E  N by E
E. Measurement of Areas

Land areas can be determined with the use of the following methods:

1. Use of different formulas of the following geometric figures:

a. Square A = S2

where, A = area (in square units); S = length of the sides expressed in linear units

b. Rectangle or Parallelogram or

A = LW where, L = length; W = width

c. Triangle
h h h

equilateral isosceles right

A = ½bh where, b = base of the triangle; h = height of the triangle

d. Trapezoid

A = (b + c) h where, b = base of the trapezoid; c = crown; h = height

2

e. Circle A = r2 where,  = 3.1416; r = radius

2. Triangulation method (indirect method by scaling or mapping)

2.1. Heroe’s formula

A =  s (s – a) (s – b) (s – c)

where a, b, & c are sides of the triangle

s = ½ (a + b + c)
C b A
a
c
B
Sine formula

A = ½ (a) (b) (Sine C)

where C = the angle included between sides a & b

B How to solve for side c or the hypotenuse? Use the formula

c a below: ______
A c or H = √ a2 + b2
b C

3. Trapezoidal rule (or area by offset from straight line)

3.1. A = b (h0/2 + h1 + h2 + h3 + … + hn/2)

where b = length of the common interval between the offsets

h0, h1, h2, h3, …, hn
or:
3.2. A = (h0 + hn + 2Sh) x d
2

where h0, hn = height of end offsets

Sh = sum of offsets (except end offset)
d = distance between offsets
Example:
d = 30 m 30 m 30 m 30 m
A B
hn = 10 m

h0 = 35 m h1 = 25 m h2 = 30 m h3 = 40 m C

Solution:
For 3.1. A = 30 (35 m/2 + 25 + 30 + 40 + 10 m/2)
= 30 (17.5 + 25 + 30 + 40 + 5)
= 30 (117.5)
= 3525 m2
For 3.2. A = (35 + 10 + 2(95) ) x 30
2
= (35 + 10 +190) x 30
2
= 235 x 30
2
= (117.5) (30)
= 3525 m2

F. Measurement of Perimeter and Circumference

a. Square
Ps = 4S, where 4 is the number of sides; S = length of each side.
Ex: (4) (10) = 40 m
b. Rectangle and Parallelogram
P = 2L + 2W, where P = perimeter; L = length; W = width
Ex: 2 (20) + 2 (10) = 60 m

c. Circumference
Co = r2 = A   Ex: r2 = 9  3.1416 = 2.865
r =  r2 r =  2.865 = 1.693
D = 2r or (r)(2) D = 2 (1.693) = 3.386
C0 = D C0 = (3.1416)(3.386) = 10.64 m

where, r2 = radius squared ; r = radius ; D = diameter ; Co = circumference of a circle

G. Laying Out of Perpendicular and Parallel Lines

This is usually encountered in the actual layout of pond dike.

 Two methods of laying out perpendicular lines

1. The 3-4-5 method. These are actually numbers which form a right triangle, the 3 of which
is the shorter side, the 4 is the measurement of side perpendicular to the shorter side and the 5
is the hypotenuse side.
For example, it is desired to layout the center line of dike YZ perpendicular to dike WX
at Z.
Y
center line of
proposed dike

40 m 50 m

W X
Z 30 m

Figure 12. The 3-4-5 method in laying out perpendicular lines

2. Intersection method
This method applies on relatively clear ground where the described arc can be
marked or seen.
Y

Point of intersection

50 m 50 m

W X
30 m Z 30 m

Figure 13. The intersection method

 Laying Out Parallel Lines

Perimeter dike WX is to be laid out parallel with YZ at a distance of 120 m. Between

WX and YZ erect perpendicular lines ST and UV that is equidistant with each other or that line
SU should be of equal length with line TV (Figure 14).

160 m

S 15 15 U
W X
20 20

120 m

Y Z
T V

Figure 14. Laying out parallel lines

H. Topographic Survey

 Definition of Terms
a. Mean sea level
It is the average height of the surface of the sea from all stages of the tide over a
19-year period, usually determined from hourly height readings.
b. Datum plane
It is any level surface to which elevations are referred. In very extensive surveys,
the mean sea level is taken as the datum. However, for an average fish-farm survey an
arbitrary datum is taken by establishing a benchmark.
c. Benchmark (BM). It is an established and permanently located station or point on the
ground, the elevation of which is known. Benchmark elevation may be known or
assumed. This should be established on permanent object near a construction project.
d. Elevation (El)
It refers to the vertical distance of a ground point from the reference datum.
e. Station (Sta)
It is any point where a rod reading is taken and is generally along the line being
run.
f. Back sight (BS)
It is a rod reading taken in a point of known elevation. It is also known as plus
sight since it is always added.
g. Foresight (FS)
It is a rod reading taken in a point of unknown elevation. It is also known as
minus sight since it is always subtracted.
h. Turning point (TP)
It is an intermediate station or reference point whenever the instrument is moved
from one setup to another. It is the station that is sighted twice.
i. Height of the instrument (HI)
It is the relative elevation of the line of sight of the instrument.
j. Ground profile
It is a graphical representation of the ground surface showing the change in
elevation along the horizontal distance.

 Leveling

* Two Methods of Leveling

1. Differential leveling
It is the operation that determines the difference in elevation of two points, say A
& B, which are a distance apart.

 Two cases of differential leveling:

a. Leveling with two points A & B visible from the instrument (Case 1) (Fig. 15)

Level line of sight

BS = 1.4 m FS = 0.8 m

HI H2

H1
ElB
B

ElA = 5 m

Figure 15. Case of two points visible from the instrument

To determine the elevation of point B with Case 1, the elevation of point A must
be known or assumed, say 5 meters. With this elevation at A, the elevation at B could
be determined by the following formula:

HI = ElA + BS
= 5 m + 1.4 m
= 6.4 m
Then, ElB = HI – FS
= 6.4 m – 0.8 m
= 5.6 m

2. Leveling with objective points within A (or BM1) and B (or BM2) not visible in a single
instrument-sighting set-up (Case 2) (Fig. 16)
BS FS
1.55 m 1.1 m
BS FS
BS FS 1.35 m 1.4 m
1.42 m 0.9 m
BS FS
1.5 m 1.0 m ELB = ?
BS FS
1.4 m 0.8 m

TP4
TP3
TP2 BM2
TP1

BM1

ELA = 5 m

Figure 16. Leveling procedure in the case of invisibility of

objective points in single instrument

To determine the difference in elevation between BM1 and BM2 (figure16) a

series of differential leveling is done. The instrument is moved and set midway of turning
points (TP) and the backsight (BS) and foresight (FS) readings are then taken. Results of
the computation of elevation in case 2 are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Data on series of differential leveling as determined by Engineer’s transit

Sta BS (m) HI (m) FS (m) Elevation (m)
BM1 (A) 1.40 6.40 - 5.00
TP1 1.50 7.10 0.8 5.60
TP2 1.42 7.52 1.0 6.10
TP3 1.35 7.97 0.9 6.62
TP4 1.55 8.72 0.8 7.17
BM2 (B) - - 1.1 7.62

In determining the elevations in a series of differential leveling using a

transparent plastic hose or tubing, an alternative formula can be adopted as follows:

El = (BS + PE) – FH

Where, El = Elevstion
BH = Back height
PE = Preceding elevation
FH = Front height
BH FH
1.55 m 1.1 m
BH FH
BH FH 1.35 m 1.4 m
1.42 m 0.9 m
BH FH
1.5 m 1.0 m ELB = ?
BH FH
1.4 m 0.8 m

S5
S4
S3 BM2
S2

BM1

ELA = 5 m

Figure 17. Leveling with the use of plastic hose

Results of the compilation of elevations in case 2 using plastic hose are presented
in Table 2.

Table 2. Data on series of differential leveling as determined by plastic hose

Sta BS (m) HI (m) FS (m) Elevation (m)
BM1 (A) 1.40 6.40 - 5.00
2 1.50 7.10 0.8 5.60
3 1.42 7.52 1.0 6.10
4 1.35 7.97 0.9 6.62
5 1.55 8.72 0.8 7.17
BM2 (B) - - 1.1 7.62

2. Profile leveling

It is the operation that determines the difference in elevation of points

along a prescribed line measured at intervals. It is a leveling process in ahich several
intermediate sights (foresights) are taken in each instrument set-up. Turning points and
back sights are also established in this method of leveling. Usually, the instrument is
set-up off the centerline so that sights would be of uniform distances (fig. 18).

Computation for the HI is the same as in the differential leveling. Since

in one instrument set-up, there are several foresights made, then the elevation of
stations shall be computed by subtracting each of such foresights from only one
measurement of HI (Table 3).
BM= 15 m
BS= 1.0 m

FS = 1.5 m
0+00 HI
FS = 1.76 m
0+25 FS= 1.5 m
FS = 1.8 m TP
HI
BS= 1.75 m
FS = 2 m
0+50

0+75 FS = 2.2 m
FS = 2.1 m
FS = 2.25 m FS = 2.8 m
Centerline of water supply canal
1+00 FS = 2.5 m FS = 3 m
1+25
1+50
1+75
2+00
2+25
Figure 18. Profile leveling procedure

Table 3. Data on profile leveling as determined by Engineer’s transit

Sta BS (m) HI (m) FS (m) Elevation (m)
BM 1.0 16.0 - 15.00
0+00 - -do- 1.50 14.00
0+25 - -do- 1.76 14.24
0+50 - -do- 1.80 14.20
0+75 - -do- 2.00 14.00
1+00 - -do- 2.20 13.80
TP 1.75 16.25 1.50 14.50
1+25 2.10 14.15
1+50 2.25 14.00
1+75 2.50 13.75
2+00 2.80 13.45
2+25 3.00 13.25
 Transit Stadia Method of Topographic Survey

The following describes the procedure of determining ground elevations using

the engineer’s transit level with a horizontal circle and stadia rod. A transit may be
substituted for the level if care is exercised in leveling the telescope. It is assumed that
a benchmark (BM) with known elevation has been established.

Establish your position from a point of known location on the map. In figure 19,
point A is “tied” to a point of know location on the map, such as corner monument “B”
of the area. This is done by sighting the instrument on A at B and noting down the
azimuth and the distance of line AB. The distance of A from B is determined by the
stadia rod.

D E

A BM

Figure 19

1. Land Surveying

 Survey of area using a compass or a transit

When making a land survey enclosing an area, it is customary to begin at some

convenient corner which can be easily identified and described to take bearings and
distances in order around the site. The instrument (transit or magnetic compass) is then
positioned and the instrument man sights it to a point of known location (benchmark or
reference point) such as the corner monument or other fixed land marks such as trees.
The instrument man takes down the bearing of line toward the benchmark (BM) to
locate his position on the map. From the point of the instrument, the instrument man
may opt to sight all of the stations or points covering the object site without moving it
from station to station and take their bearings and distances. Or to move the instrument
from one station to the other until all stations are sighted for their bearings and
distances.
C D E S3 S4
TP TP

B F

S1
A G S2
S5
TP TP TP

Instrument Position (IP) IP

BM
BM

Figure 20 a and b

Table 4. Land surveying where the instrument is positioned steadily on one point
Station Azimuth Back Bearing Back Distance Total Area
Azimuth bearing
IP-BM 130° S 60° E
IP-A 270° 90° W
IP-B 318° N 42° W
IP-C 334° N 26° W
IP-D 0/360° 0° N
IP-E 26° N 26° E
IP-F 43° N 43° E
IP-G 90° 90° E

Table 4. Land surveying where the instrument is moved from station to station
Station Azimuth Back Bearing Back Distance Total Area
Azimuth bearing
S1-BM 135° S 45° E
S1-S2 282° N 78° W
S2-S3 11° N 11° E
S3-S4 90° 90° E
S4-S5 192° S 12° W
S5-S1 265° S 85° W
UNIT IV

POND/PEN/CAGE/RACEWAY LAYOUT DESIGNS, POND WATER STRUCTURES, AND

OTHER POND SUPPORT STRUCTURES

Unit Objective

This unit aims to:

1. Discuss and differentiate the different pond/pen/cage/raceway layouts and designs,

classifications of pond water control structures, and kinds of pond support structures.

2. Give and explain the advantage of one type of design over the others.

3. Give the specific functions of the various pond units and pond structures.

4. Impart the technique of determining the percentage area of the different units in a pond
system, the size of dikes using various height to slope ratios, and the volume of dikes.

5. Develop the skill of making a drawn to scale layout plan of a fishpond, fishpen or
fishcage.
A. Pond

1. Brackishwater Pond System (BPS)

 Various Units or Types of Compartments of BPS and Their Uses

a. Fry acclimatization pond unit – also called fry box.

– It is the smallest compartment and usually measures about 4 – 8 m2.
– It is built with small and low dikes within the nursery pond (NP) for holding fry for 1 – 4 days
before releasing to the NP.

b. Nursery pond (NP) - Similyahan

– The second smallest unit with the size ranging from 1 – 6% of the total production area.
– NP size ranges 500 – 10,000 m2 per compartment.
– It is used for rearing the fry for at least 30 days before transferring to TP.

c. Transition pond (TP) – Bansutan – also called holding or stunting pond

– The pond unit constructed adjacent to the NP.
– The second largest pond unit comprising about 6 – 9% of the total production area.
– TP size ranges 1,000 – 20,000 m2 per compartment.
– It is a source of stocks for the grow-out or rearing pond for the whole year round of subsequent
crops.

d. Rearing pond (RP) – Palakihan – also called grow-out pond or production pond
– The largest pond unit in the pond system occupying about 80% of the total production area.
– RP size ranges 1 – 10 hectares per compartment.
– The pond unit that is for rearing fish fingerling or post fingerling to marketable or large-sized
fish.

e. Catching pond (CP)

– The pond unit constructed adjacent to the gate inside a grow-out pond and maybe inside a
transition pond and a nursery pond.
– The CP size ranges 1 – 1.5% of every RP compartment and 2% of NP’s and TP’s surface areas.
– It serves as a confinement area for the fish during harvest.

f. Food growing pond (FGP)

– This pond unit is optional and may be built if deemed necessary.
– A pond compartment from RP set aside for growing live food organisms, e.g. lablab, at high
density to augment the food grown in other RPs. Hence, it is called a kitchen pond.

Depending upon the purpose and the availability of area, the BPS could just be an NP alone; an RP
with TP; an RP alone; or an RP with NP and TP.

 Brackishwater Types of Pond Layouts

1. Conventional type (Fig 21) – an old or traditional type of layout with small percentage area of NP
and where straight-run culture method is adopted.

2. Radiating type (Fig 22) – is also the same with the conventional type but has shorter supply canal
which suggests economy in dike construction than the former type.
3. Modular or Progressive type (Fig 23) – an improved layout type which is provided with 3 RPs
called production process stages (PPS) with size ratios that are progressing, e.g. 1:2:4 or 1:3:9
which means 1x:2x:4x in areas to where grow-out culture of fish passes before harvest. A type
which allows 6 – 8 crops per year.

4. Multiple stock or harvest type (Fig 24) – a type which has no TP but instead fish holding canal
(FHC) for fingerlings to be reared in the RPs for the whole year round. A type where stocking 2 –
4 different size groups at different times and selective harvests of larger at different times are
practiced. A straight-run method is also adopted in this type.

Figure 21. Conventional pond design

Figure 22. Radiating pond design

Figure 23. Modular pond design

Figure 24. Multi-stock pond design

Table 5. Comparison of various types of brackishwater pond layouts in terms of production and
percentage sizes of pond units.

Types of Layout Percentage size of pond unit a/

(Production: kg/year) Nursery Pond Transition Pond Rearing Pond
Conventional 1% of total production 9% of TPA 80% of TPA
(1000 – 2000) area (TPA)
Radiating 1% of TPA 9% of TPA 80% of TPA
(1000 – 2000)
80% of TPA
This pond unit has
Modular/Progressive 4% of TPA 6% of TPA 3 production
(1800 – 3000) process stages
(PPS). Each stage
follows a ratio of
1:2:4 or 1:3:9
Multiple stock/harvest 6% No TP. Instead fish 84% but 9-10% of
(1000 – 2000) holding canal for this is allocated for
fingerlings is fish holding canal
allocated for each (FHC).
RP.
a/
- For each type of layout, some 10% of the total area is used for canals, catching ponds and
dikes.

2. Freshwater Pond System (FPS)

 Various Units of FPS and Their Uses

a. Breeding pond (BP) or hatchery pond (HP) – is the pond unit for mating of spawners or for
production of fish larvae.
b. Nursery pond (NP) – is the pond unit for rearing the larvae up to fingerling to juvenile stage.
c. Transition pond (TP) – is the pond unit for holding fingerlings or that serves as the depository
bank or as the source of post fingerlings from grow-out production.
d. Rearing pond – is the pond unit for growing-out fish fingerlings to marketable-sized or large-
sized fish.

Depending on the purpose and the availability of area, freshwater pond system could just be a BP
with NP or both units in just one compartment. It could just also be a combination of TP and RP
which have separate compartments or just an RP without TP.

 Freshwater Types of Pond Layouts

1. Barrage pond type – a pond type usually filled by rainfall or by a spring water. A series of ponds in
this type require drainage pipes and overflow ditch.
2. Diversion pond type – a pond type which has a diversion canal to serve as a passageway of water
from the main water body, e.g. creek, brook and the like.

* Two types of layouts of a diversion pond

a. rosary type – a type in which series of ponds are built one after another in a string. In this type of
layout, all ponds drain into each other -- upper pond drains to the lower pond.
b. parallel type – a type in which ponds are built parallel to each other and each pond of which has an
inlet and an outlet.

* Advantages and disadvantages

a. Barrage ponds vs. Diversion ponds
– Diversion ponds are less likely to overflow and the water source is often more dependable
throughout year than with barrage ponds.
– Barrage ponds require less construction and are likely to be cheaper.
b. Rosary types vs. Parallel types of diversion ponds
– A parallel diversion ponds are better in terms of water management since each pond compartment
can be operated or worked out independently without involving the other ponds.
– On the other hand, rosary types are cheaper and easier to build.

 Pond Water Control Structures

 Dikes and Gates

1. Dikes

* Types of dikes
a. Primary, main or perimeter dike (Fig 25)
– It is the dike that encloses and protects the entire pond system.
– It is the tallest and widest among the types of dikes with the most gradual slope.
– It is the dike that should be provided with a freeboard of 0.3 - 1 meter after shrinkage and
settlement.
– The dike that is usually provided with puddle trench measuring 30 cm in width and 50 cm in
height dug up along the central path of such a dike.
o Freeboard – is the additional height of a structure, e.g. main dike, above high water level to
prevent overflow.
b. Partition dikes

* Two classification of partition dikes

b.1. Secondary dikes (Fig 26) – which are smaller than the main dike with gradual slope and which
enclose the NPs, TPs and RPs.
b.2. Tertiary dikes (Fig 27) – the smallest and lowest in height dikes which enclose the catching
ponds and fry acclimation pond.

* Parts of dikes

The following table (Table 6) presents the parts of the 3 types of dikes and their size
specifications:

S I Z E (meter)
Parts
Main Dike Secondary Dike Tertiary Dike
 Crown or top width 2 – 4 b/ 1–2 <1
 Base or bottom width 4 – 10 3–7 1.3 – 2
 Height _____ c/ _____ e/
 Height to slope ratio 1:1 to 1:2 d/ 1:1 ≤1:1
 Berm a/ 0.5 - 0.6 0.5 <0.5
a/
- Berm is a narrow path or footwalk reserved between the base of dike and the excavated pond.
It also serves in fortifying the dike and in holding or trapping eroded soil from the dike top
and wall.
b/
- Perimeter dike subjected to wave action should have a minimum crown of approximately
equal to the height of the maximum wave.
c/
- Height of main dike should be 0.3 – 1 m higher than the highest water level in the site.
d/
- A slope of 1:1 for clay soil is appropriate for 3 meter height of main dike and 1:2 height to
slope ratio for > 4 m height, if the dike is subjected against big wave action.
e/
- Height of secondary dike is as high as or a little lower than the main dike.

– A dike is built based on the height to slope ratio, i.e. a certain vertical measurement (height) has
a corresponding horizontal distance (slope) ratio. For example, 1:1 height to slope ratio means
that for every meter increase in height of dike, there is a corresponding horizontal measurement
of 1 m. In calculating the slope, the vertical line, which serves as the height and from which the
slope is measured outward, should be projected at the edge of the crown and be extended
straight down to the base or bottom width.

 Formula for determining the following:

a. Unknown base: B = [ 2 (H)(S) ] + C

b. Unknown crown: C = B – [ 2 (H)(S) ]
c. Unknown slope: B – C = 2 (H)(S)
S = B – C
2H

d. Unknown height: B – C = 2 (H)(S)

H = B – C
2S

e. Area of dike: Ad = (B + C) H
2
where B = base; C = crown; H = height; S = slope; 2 = constant number;
Ad = area of dike.

 Other methods in determining the height of the dike:

(HAT-GS) + Mf + F
Hm = ---------------------------------
1 - %S/100

Where, Hm, ht. of main dike (m), HAT, highest astronomical tide(m), GS, ground surface (m), Mf,
maximum flood level (m), F, allowance for freeboard (m), %S, allowance for shrinkage

(HST - GS) + Mr + F
Hs = -------------------------------
1 - %S/100
Where, Hs, height of 2° dike (m), HST, highest spring tide (m), Mr, max. rainfall within 24 h (m)
(Dwl - GS) + Mr + F
Ht = ----------------------------------
1 - %S/100

Where, Hs, height of 3° dike (m), Dwl, desired water level (m), Mr, max. rainfall within 24 h (m)

2. Gates

* Types of gates: primary or main gate/s, secondary gates, and tertiary gates

a. Primary or main gate/s (Fig 28 a-f)

– Is/are the pond gate/s constructed on the perimeter dike/s.
– Is/are the largest and tallest gate/s as waterway depending the size of the entire pond system.
– It links the pond system to the source of water.
– It regulates the exchange of water between the pond system and the tidal stream.
– It is usually situated at the central side of a main dike facing the source of water.

 Requirements in the design of main gate

a) It should be as high as the main dike.
b) Its floor elevation should be lower than the lowest pond bottom elevation and as low as or slightly
lower than extreme low tide.
c) It may have 1 – 4 openings as waterway depending upon the size of the entire pond system to be
flooded.
– A single opening with 1 meter wide is enough to flood a 10 – 15 ha bangus pond system with
50–75 cm water depth in 2–3 successive high tides. A 2–3 openings with 1 – 1.2 m each
opening is needed for the same hectarage for shrimp farming requiring  1 m water depth, and
3 – 4 openings with 1–1.2 m each opening for > 15 ha of pond.
d) Each opening must have 4 pairs of grooves: 2 pairs for slabs or flashboards to fit at the central gate
portion and 2 pairs for screens – one at each end of the gate.
e) Its 4 wings should be constructed 450 outward.
f) The gate foundation must be rigid and stable. Its floor and apron should rest or sit on a
combination of wooden piles (tulus) and layers of boulders and gravel or just wooden piles alone.
g) It must be provided with cut-off walls.
h) It must be provided with adequate reinforcement steel bars which are spaced  40 cm center to
center. Vertical bars of 12–13 mm in  and horizontal bars of 10 mm in  should be used.

b. Secondary gates (36a-b)

– Are those gates situated on the partition dikes.
– Regulate water level in the NP, TP and RP units.
– Are smaller than main gate with 1 – 2 openings per gate with a width of 0.8 – 1 m per opening.
– Are made of either concrete hollow blocks, reinforced concrete mix, or wood.

c. Tertiary gates
– Are those gates installed in the catching ponds.
– Are the smallest gates with opening width of 0.5 – 0.8 m
* Classification of gates: sluice gate and monk gate
a. Sluice gates (Fig 28a-f) – are those pond gates constructed open on top (not concealed) across
the dikes with 2 pairs of grooves provided at the central portion of the sidewalls for fitting the
slabs and another 2 pairs for each of the gate ends for the screens.
– Are easy to mention and allow rapid water discharge rates.
– Do not allow passage of vehicular transport across them.
b. Monk gates (Fig. 29a-b) – are those gates whose central bodies are concealed in the dikes, i.e.
the top of the main body parts of the gate is covered with soils which allows motor vehicles to
pass over.

* Components/Parts of water control gate (main gate)

a. Floor – the floor serves as the foundation of the structure and this must be lower than the pond
bottom elevation. The floor of the main gate must not be exposed during extreme low tides.
b. Apron – the apron generally rest on the foundation piles which are made of seasoned bamboo
driven at 0.3 m intervals into the soft soil with the butt end up. This serves as the protection to
scouring and future seepage of water at the gate’s sides.
c. Cut-off walls – these are provided at both ends of the gate floor to prevent seepage and
undercutting of water over the gate’s foundation. They extend down into the soil at a minimum
depth of 0.6 m.
d. Side or breast walls – side walls define the sluice way in addition to their being retaining wall
for the dike fill. Grooves or double cleats for flashboards and screens are built on these walls.
The top of these walls are as high as the top of the dike.
e. Wing walls – these provide the transition from the sluice way into the main canal in addition to
retaining the earth at both sides of the gate. The best angle of inclination towards the outside is
45.
f. Bridge or catwalk – this is a reinforced concrete slab or thick wooden planks that span the side
walls.
g. Flashboards – slabs or flashboards are generally wooden planks, 2.5 – 5 cm thick and 30 cm
wide inserted into grooves or double cleats. They are used to control the amount of water
flowing through the gate.
h. Screen – these are usually made of wood bamboo strips or of fine polyethylene meshes attached
to a wooden rectangular frame that fit into the grooves. These are used as to prevent the exit of
the cultured fish and the entry of predators into the ponds.
i. Pillars – In wooden gates, these are vertical supports where wooden walls are nailed.
j. Braces – In wooden gates, these wooden frames hold or fasten two or more pillars together or
in place. They keep the steady opening of the gate.

* Other pond support structures

a. Water supply canals (WSC) – these canals serve the purpose of supplying and draining water to
and from the pond. The main water supply canal starts from the main gate and usually
transverse the central portion of the fish farms. The floor of this is sloping towards the gate
floor. A 10–15 ha pond is provided with WSC having a width of at least 3 meters.

a. Main Water Supply Canal (MWSC)

 Starts at the main gate usually traverse the central portion of the fish farm
 Sloping towards the floor of the main gate
 Generally, canal bed has the slope of 1/1,500 or one meter vertical difference for a
horizontal distance of 1,500m
 1m opening MG have a canal bed of at least 3.0m wide, that can supply a 10-15ha
with dike slope of 1:1

b. Secondary water supply canal

 Starts from MC to inner portion
 Smaller than MC
 Canal bed of width of 2.0m

c. Tertiary canal
 Supply water to NP & TP
 Usually considered part of NP or TP system
 Modified as CP
 Canal bed width of 1.0 -1.5m

Capacity of Supply canal

Area

 Trapezoidal cross-section

(2zd + b + b)
A = -----------------------------d
2

A = zd2 + bd

 Rectangular cross-section

A = b(d)

Velocity and hydraulic radius

 Velocity

1.486
V = --------------- R2/3S1/2 in fps
N

R2/3S1/2
V = ---------------- in mps
N

Where, V, velocity (ft/s, m/s); S, longi. slope of canal bottom (ft/ft, m/m); n, coeff. of roughness;
R, hydraulic radius (ft, m)

 Hydraulic radius

R = A/P Where, A, area (ft2, m2); P, wetted perimeter (ft, m); R, hydraulic radius (ft, m)
 Wetted Perimeter

Trapezoidal cross-section

P = b + 2√(zd)2 + d2
= b + 2d√1 + z2

zd2 + bd
R = --------------------
b + 2d√1 + z2

Rectangular cross-section

P = b +2d
bd
R = ---------------
b + 2d

Cross-sectional notations and formulae

Table taken from Emmanuel Vera Cruz Lecture

b. Drainage canals (DC) – these are support structures usually constructed in the outer ides of the
pond parallel or perpendicular to the WSC. These are recommended in intensive culture,
especially of shrimps, to effect flow-through system and better water management.
c. Diversion canal - Protect the farm from being flooded with run-off water from watershed
d. Flumes – Flumes are open channels or elevated canals constructed on top of the dike for
purpose of supplying well-oxygenated water into various pond compartments. These can be
made of concrete hollow blocks, prefabricated concrete slabs, or marine plywood (Fig. 38a - b).
These are recommended in semi-intensive and intensive prawn farming.
e. Pumps – Pumps are machines used in pumping water into and out of the ponds. These are very
necessary during the dry season when the water level is low and the salinity of brackishwater
ponds becomes too high (above the optimum).
f. Aerators – these are devices used to supply oxygen or agitate or break up the water surface to
effect the fast transfer of oxygen from air to water during which time the oxygen in the pond is
at critical level, e.g. <3-4 mg/I (ppm), and to remove the excess oxygen in the pond as well as
the toxic gases such as the ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

There are four basic types of aerators, namely:

1) Gravity aerators – Example, Waterfalls (fig 32). These are the most effective natural
gravity aerators.
 The water is pumped to a higher elevation & allowed to fall back to the area through
gravity
 The expense of pumping must then be included in the operation cost

2) Surface aerators – Example, fountains (Fig. 33) These are electric-fed devices used to break
up the water surface to attain large oxygen transfer rates.
 Device that break up or agitate the water surface such that larger oxygen transfer
rates are achieved.
 A pump spraying water into the air (e.g., fountain) is a simple surface aerator

3) Diffuser aerators – Example, Blowers. These are also electric-fed devices that inject air or
oxygen into a body of water in the form of bubbles (Fig. 34).
 Inject air or oxygen into a body of water in the form of bubbles & oxygen in
transferred from the bubbles to the water by diffusion across the liquid film.
 Since bubbles rise in a water column, there is relative motion between water &
bubbles.
 This causes water circulation & a renewing of the surface area in contact with the
bubbles, which increased oxygen transfer.
 Bubble diameter strongly influences aeration characteristics; decreasing bubble size
being most desirable.
 Smaller bubbles produce greater transfer surface area per unit gas diffused, hence
greater transfer.
 Smaller bubbles have lower rise velocities than larger ones, which increases the
bubble retention time for a given gas flow & liquid depth.

4) Turbine aerators – These are devices consist of a propeller submerged in the fluid to be
aerated. It circulates the liquid as the propeller rotates causing greater aeration to take place
to the surface.(fig 35)
 Consist of a propeller or series of propellers attached to the same vertical shaft &
diffuser located below one of the propellers usually the deepest one.
 Simple turbine aerators consist of a propeller submerged in the fluid to be aerated.
 As the propeller rotates, it circulates the liquid, causing greater aeration to occur at
the surface.

5) Paddle Wheel aerators - Most common type used in large ponds. (Fig. 36)
 The efficiency is up to 90%.
 Large-diameter paddlewheels transfer more oxygen than smaller diameter aerators,
& flat paddles are less effective than other designs.
 Electric paddlewheel aerators are usually mounted on floats & anchored to the
pond bank
 Available in different power ratings (180, 250, 370, 550 and 750- watt) & have
dimensions of approx. 1.5 x 1.6 x 0.6 m (LxWxH)

6) Vertical Pump aerators - Consist of submersible, electric motor with an impeller attached to
its shaft
 Most manufactured for aquaculture have relatively small motors (usually less than 1
hp) and do not produce a large area of oxygenated water
 This limits their use to ponds of less than 0.5 ha, where they can be quite effective.
and water is sprayed into the air through an opening in the center of the float

* When to Aerate?

 The need to aerate varies seasonally as water temperature affects the rates of respiration &
photosynthesis
 Many farmers also maintain a few tractor-powered aerators for emergency situations
 Aerators should be started before DO falls below 3 mg/L. Oxygen levels are lowest just before
sunrise each morning.
 Some ponds may need no aeration, while others require continuous aeration throughout the day.

* Aerator Placement

 Placed where they will enhance pond circulation patterns. Placing paddlewheel aerators off the
bank near the middle of the long axis of the pond to direct currents across the short axis in large,
rectangular ponds
 The worst placement is in a corner, with currents directed diagonally across the pond. When
several aerators are placed in a pond, they can be located where the current of each aerator
enhances the flow produced by the others aerators.
 Putting all the aerators in one end of the pond reduces the cost of the electrical supply & makes
routine maintenance easier.
 Portable aerators, such as tractor PTO-driven paddlewheels, should either be placed in the same
location each time they are used so that fish become accustomed to the location or placed where
oxygen- stressed fish have congregated.
 If a portable aerator is used to supplement an existing aerator or to replace a malfunctioning
permanent aerator, it should be placed near the other aerator so that fish are not forced to swim a
long distance to find the new aerator.

* Aeration Methods

 Emergency -- aerators are operated temporarily when oxygen falls to or below 3 mg/l, during a
crisis. Tractor powered paddle wheels or irrigation pumps are typically used. Aeration is
continued until oxygen levels have stabilized at 5 mg/L or higher.
 Supplemental -- aerators are operated whenever conditions leading to oxygen depletion have
developed, or nightly during the last 2-3 months of the season. Aerators are turned-on between 10
PM - midnight and left running until 10 AM the next morning or until oxygen levels have
stabilized at 5 mg/L or higher. Supplemental aeration is recommended for intensive production
densities above 2 tons/ha.
 Continuous -- aeration equipment is operated continuously (24 hrs daily). Some producers
manage highly intensive fish farms (>5 tons/ha) & run electric aerators continuously from
July to the end of Sept or until water temperatures have dropped to 18-20oC & are falling.
The economics of that practice should be carefully evaluated.
Figure 25. Main dike

Figure 26. Secondary

dike

Figure 27. Tertiary dike

(After BFAR-UNDP/FAO, 1981)
Figure 28a. Concrete gate

Figure 28b. Wooden gate

Figure 28c. perspective view of a single-opening gate

Figure 28d.sample specification of double opening gate

Figure 28e. single opening gate (After Lijauco, 1977)
Figure 28f. double-opening gate After Lijauco, 1977)
Figure 29a. wooden culvert or monk gate

Figure 29b. concrete culvert or pipe (monk gate)

Figure 30. Foundation support and piling scheme
Figure 31. Different types of canals
Figure 32. gravity aerators

Figure 33. surface aerator (fountain)

Figure 34. Diffuser

Figure 35. Turbine aertor Figure 36. Paddle wheel

B. Different Fishpen Designs

1. Square 3. Circular
2. Rectangular

400 m

16 has.
1600 m banatan required
100 m/ha If the shape of an area
remains the same, you can
enclose 4 times the area
with only 2 times the
amount of fence or banatan.

200 m 400 m
4 has.
800 m banatan
200 m/ha

100 m
1 ha.
400 m banatan 200 m
400 m/ha
50m 100 m
¼ ha.
50 m 200 m banatan
800 m/ha.

Figure 37. Square Design of Fish Pen

200 m
1 ha. – 500 m banatan 25 m
100 m 100 m 200 m
¼ ha.
50 m 1 1 ha. 850 m banatan 25 m
250 m
400 m

Figure 38. Rectangular Design of Fish Pen

If the area enclosed remains constant, the further the shape

departs from circular, the greater the amount of banatan required.
A square is the most efficient 4-sided figure.
1 Ha. FISHPEN

½ Ha. FISHPEN

¼ Ha. FISHPEN

Figure 39. Design of Circular Fishpen

C. Cage Components or Parts and Designs

 Floating cage components

1. Cage bag 3. Collar and supports
2. Frames 4. Mooring systems

* Cage bag – is a part of the cage that holds the fish

Two Classifications of materials used for cage bag.

1. Flexible netting materials composed of the following:

a. natural fibers, e.g. cotton nets
b. synthetic fibers (man-made or artificial), e.g. nylon, polyethylene net (PE)
– Nylon and polyethylene nets are the most common kind being used because they are
strong and light, cheap, and can be treated with anti-fouling chemicals.
2. Rigid and semi-rigid materials (or in short rigid meshes), e.g. extruded plastics, galvanized
steel, and plastic-coated steel.
– Cages made of rigid mesh materials are called rigid cages.
* Frame/Framework – is used to suspend the net cages or cage bags in the water and to provide
sufficient weight to maintain stability of the net cages against tidal waves, currents, or
monsoon winds.
– Frame could be bamboo, lumber, metal or synthetic material.

* Collars and Supports (these are floatation materials), e.g. rectangular styrofoam, foam-filled
drums, foam-filled tubing, air-filled drums, full length bamboos.

* Mooring systems:
a. Anchor lines – are ropes made of nylon, polyethylene or polypropylene. This measures
1.8 – 2 cm in diameter.
b. Anchor weights/sinkers are materials used to hold the cage/s in place. These are may be
iron anchor, concrete blocks, bags of sand or pebbles, iron rod, or wooden peg.

 Different Cage Designs

1. square 3. circular
2. rectangle 4. octagonal

3m

9 m2
9 m2 3m
3.4 m

Figure 40 Figure 41

9 m2 2m

4.5 m

Figure 42
9 m2

Figure 43

– Small-sized circular cages and pens and to the extent of tanks are for fish that swim
incessantly around, while small square and rectangular units are for slow-moving fish or
those fish which do not move around incessantly.

D. Different Raceway Designs

water
discharge
inflow CULTURE UNIT
aeration
water

inflow
pretreatment
discharge
CULTURE UNIT
aeration
water
discharge
inflow
pretreatment pretreatment

CULTURE UNIT

Figure 44. Single-pass raceway systems (top to bottom):

no treatment, with treatment and aeration, and with
pre- and posttreatment.
raceway 1

raceway 1

raceway 1

raceway 1

Figure 45. Parallel raceway units.

raceway 1 raceway 1 raceway 1

raceway 1
raceway 1
raceway 1
raceway 1

Figure 46. Raceway units in series: on flat

ground (top) and on sloping ground (bottom).
Figure 47. Perspective view and parts of a floating cage

Figure 48. Cluster module of fish cages

Figure 49. Perspective of a fishpen showing nursery pen within the grow-out enclosure.
SCALING

Scale is the ratio of the distance on the map or drawing and the distance on the ground.

OR, scale is the distance or measurement in the map or drawing relative to the ground.

Scale = Map/Drawing Distance (m)

Ground Distance (m)

Example of scale is 1:1000 m

In the scale, the value of 1 represents the ratio of map (in meter) to the 1000 m distance of ground.

Problem. To determine the ratio of drawing/map with the following ground measurements of 125 m long
and 80 m wide is to do the ratio and proportion formula, thus:

1 m (map)__ = X (map)____
1000 m (ground) 125 m (ground)
1000 m X = (1 m) (125 m)
X = 125 m2
1000 m
X = 0.125 m or 12.5 cm

or do the division and multiplication process, thus

a) = 1 m__ x 125 m
1000 m
= 0.001 x 125m = 0.125 m or 12.5 cm

or b) = 1 x 125 = 125_ = 0.125 m or 12.5 cm

1000 1000

Map – is a graphical representation of the ground drawn to scale.

 Marginal Information of the Map

1. Sheet Name or Title – means the name of the map. This should be placed on top of the map.
2. Sheet Number. This should be placed on the upper right-hand corner of the map.
3. Scale. This should be placed center down of the map.
4. Legend. This should be placed on the lower right-hand corner of the map.
5. Edition Note. Should be placed on the lower left-hand corner of the map.

 Guides in Scaling

1. To determine the measurement of every line in the drawing, every dimension or linear
measurement in the ground surface or field should be divided by the given scale.
Ex. Given scale is 1:1000 m
field measurement are:
70 m

90 m 100 m

85 m

2. If scale is changed to a bigger value, the drawing or figure of the same dimensions of a lot
becomes smaller.
Ex. 1:1000 m is changed to 1:2000 m
Solutions: 70 m_ = 0.035 m or 3.5 cm
2000 m
3. If scale is changed to a smaller value from the original (very first) scale, the drawing or figure of
the original dimensions of a lot becomes larger.
Ex. 1:1000 m is changed to 1: 100 m
Solutions: 70 m_ = 0.7 m or 70 cm
100 m

4. If you want to check the correctness of the work, multiply the line measurement in the drawing
(in cm) by the given scale (also in cm) divide by 100 cm/m to determine the linear measurement
in the ground surface.
Ex. Scale: 1:1000
Solution: 7 cm in the drawing
x 1000 scale
7000 cm or 70 m in the ground

70 cm x 1000 = 70 m
100 cm/m
Prime Meridian

35
30

25

20

15

10

0
Equator
5

10

15

20

25

30

35
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Philippines is between Latitude 10 - 15 N and between Longitude 15 - 20 E

Vertical Line is for longitude but its values are horizontalwise.

Horizontal Line is for latitude but its values are verticalwise.

Longitude – is parallel with prime meridian 1/

Latitude – is parallel with equator 2/
1/
- prime meridian is the zero (0) – based of longitude
2/
- equator is the zero base of latitude.
UNIT V

POND CONSTRUCTION

Unit Objectives

This unit aims to:

1. Introduce the tools and equipment used in pond construction.

2. Discuss the sequential order of activities to be done in constructing a pond.

3. Develop the ability of preparing a program of work and schedule of activities.

4. Discuss the steps and procedures of constructing a pond system including the pond water
control structures and other pond support structures.

5. Show how to calculate the quantities of cement, sand and gravel required in concrete mix
in accordance with the specifications of concrete proportion.

6. Develop the ability of preparing a prospectus and a detailed development plan of either
brackishwater or freshwater pond.

7. Master how to determine the water discharge capacities of different types of water outlets
and inlets.
A. Tools and Equipment

1. Tools and light equipment

a. bolo, ax, chain saw – for cutting trees.
b. carpentry tools – for use in the construction of laborers’ hut, farm house, pond gates, and others.
c. digging blades – for excavating blocks of soil.
d. shovels – for excavating blocks of soil and for mixing concreting materials manually.
e. wheel barrow – for hauling soils and some light supplies and materials.
f. bamboo raft or non-motorized banca – for hauling excavated soils into the dumping area.

2. Heavy equipment – for mechanical construction

a. dozer crawlers or scrapers – for excavating and leveling of pond surfaces.
b. backhoe or hydraulic excavator – for excavating soil.
c. pay loader – for loading truck carriers with excavated and/or scraped soils.
d. pay hauler or dump truck – for hauling soils from the excavation site to the dumping site.
e. concrete mixer – for use in mixing concreting materials.

B. Pre-Construction Activities

1. Programming of activities and staffing the project

- The purpose of programming is to have a clear flow:
a) on how the project will be implemented,
b) when to start and end a particular activity, and
c) on how the labor force will be managed to work efficiently.
2. Preparation of project cost estimate (Table 7)
3. Preparation of program of work and schedule of activities (Tables 8 & 9).

Table 7. Example of estimated project cost.

Activities Quantity Unit Cost (P) Total Cost (P)
Earthwork
a) scraping/clearing 4 ha 12,000.00 48,000.00
b) core trenching 2,115 m 8.00 16,920.00
c) excavation of drainage canal 1,040 m3 40.00 41,600.00
d) construction of dikes and excavation of pond 17,000 m3 45.00 765,000.00
bottom
Construction and installation of gates 4 units 30,000.00 120,000.00
Excavation and concreting of water supply canal 400 m 1,200.00 480,000.00
Construction and installation of outlets from supply 12 units 3,000.00 36,000.00
canal to ponds
Farmhouse construction 1 unit 100,000.00 100,000.00
Purchase of fishpond equipment 200,000.00
Contingencies (10% of cost) 181,952.00
Total cost 1,988,472.00
Table 8. Example of proposed program of work.
Physical Machinery and Support facilities
Activities Duration
target labor requirement equipment
Construction of temporary shelter 1 unit 4 man days 2 weeks Carpentry tools
Earthwork
a) scraping/clearing 4 ha 1 dozer 1.5 weeks
b) core trenching 2,115 m 1 backhoe 1 week
c) construction of dikes and
4 ha 2 dozers 6.5 weeks
excavation of pond bottom
Shovel, masonry,
Construction and installation of gates 4 units 10 man days 2 weeks
carpentry
Excavation and concreting of water
400 m 10 man days 2 weeks -do-
supply canal
Construction and installation of gates
12 units 6 man days 1 week
from supply canal to ponds
Farmhouse construction 1 unit 4 man days 2 weeks

Table 9. Example of simple activity schedule for 10 ha prawn farm.

Activities January February March

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
(week) (week) (week)
Area survey X
Preparation of feasibility study X X X
Procurement of supplies and equipment X
Mobilization X
Construction of temporary shelter X
Earthwork X X X X X X X X X
Construction and installation of gates X X
Excavation and concreting of water supply canal X X X
Construction and installation of gates from supply
X
canal to ponds
Farmhouse construction X X
Others X X

Construction Proper

 Activities during pond construction proper

1. Site clearing
- Sequence of clearing is to start in places where the main dike and main gate are to be located or
constructed.
- Full scale clearing continues as the construction of main dike and main gate proceeds.

* Clearing the site of vegetation can be accomplished by any or a combination of the following
methods:
a. Underbrushing – cutting of vegetation including nipa trees and shrubs of less than 10 cm in
diameter with the use of bolo.
b. Falling – cutting down big trees left after underbrushing by manual or mechanical means or
both. A chainsaw is effective in falling trees and in cutting logs.
c. Uprooting of stumps – removal of tree stumps and root system by manual labor or by the use
of small machines, like winch and pulley block run by an engine.
- Stumps are short trunks left after cutting big trees.

* The next activities to be accomplished after full scale clearing in the following order are:
1. top soil stripping
2. staking of center lines and templates of dikes
3. preparation of dike foundation (puddle trench)
4. excavation of drainage canals
5. construction of dikes
6. forming and compaction of dikes
7. excavation of pits in preparation for the construction of gates
8. leveling of pond bottom
9. construction of gates and refilling of pits
10. construction of flumes (optional)
11. construction of dikes protection (optional)

2. Details of Dike Construction

 For main or perimeter dike
– A puddle trench of 0.3 – 0.5 m wide and 0.5 – 1.0 m deep will be dug up along the center
path of the dike and then backfilled with new impermeable soil, like clayey soil.
– In building the dike, the blocks of soil should be piled layer by layer, giving each layer the
time to be hardened before another layer is piled on.
– Blocks of soil excavated far from the piling site will be transported by any or a combination
of the following: rafts or flatboats (Fig. 50), line system (Fig 51), and/or sliding system (Fig.
52)
* In the line system, workers form a single line and position at 1 – 2 m apart and then relay the
excavated block of soil to each man until it reaches the piler man.
* In the sliding system, the worker throws the block of soil on the board letting it to slide down
to the base of dike for piling. This system is applied when the source of blocks is close to the
piling site.
 For secondary and tertiary dikes
– Construction of secondary and tertiary dikes follows the same procedure as in the main dike.
However, they may not be provided with puddle trench.

* Formulas for determining height and volume of dike:

a. Height of dike:
H = (Hw – G) + Fb
1–S

where, H = height of desired dike (m)ss

Hw = highest water level in the area (m)
G = elevation above mean sea level
Fb = height of free board (m)
S = percent allowance for soil shrinkage (%)
Allowance for soil shrinkage:

Heavy soils (low organic matter) = 10%

Medium soils (medium organic matter) = 15%
Light soils (high organic matter) = 20%

Example. Determine the optimum height of a perimeter dike of medium soil which is 1.5 m
above mean sea level. Previous record showed that the highest flood experienced in the area was
3 m.

Solution: Hw = 3 m
G = 1.5 m above mean sea level
S = 15%
Fb = 0.30 m

H = (3 – 1.5) + 0.3
1 – 0.15
= 1.5 + 0.3
0.85
= 1.8
0.85
= 2.12 m

b. Volume of dike:
Vd = C + B x H x L
2

where, Vd = volume of the dike (m3)

C = crown or top width (m)
B = base or bottom width (m)
H = dike height (m)
L = dike length (m)

With the use of the above equation, the volume or amount of soil to be used in diking
material can be determined.

Example. Estimate the volume of soil required to build a perimeter dike that will enclose a pond
having a width of 80 m and a length of 125 m of the said dike has a Crown = 2.5
m,
Height = 2.12 m, Base = X, and a height to slope ratio of 1:1.

Solution:

The first step to be done is to solve for the unknown base.

B = [ 2 (H) (slope) ] + C
= [ 2 (2.12) (1) ] + 2.5
= 4.24 + 2.5
= 6.74 m
Second step is to solve for the total length of the perimeter or main dike.
P = (Length x 2) + (Width x 2)
= (125 m x 2) + (80 m x 2)
= 250 m +160 m
= 410 m
The third step is to finally solve for the volume of dike.
Vd = 2.5 + 6.74 x 2 x 410
2
= 9.0 x 820
2
= 4.62 x 820
= 3788.40 m3

3. Details of Gate Construction

 Concrete main construction

Four basic considerations are to be taken into account in constructing concrete main gate for
brackishwater pond. These are as follows:
a) adequate foundation,
b) adequate reinforcement against sidewise pressure,
c) proper mixture (cement: sand: gravel) and curing, and
d) prevention of undercutting of water.

To take the above considerations, the following steps are to be undertaken:

a. Measure the area of the proposed gate. Give a space allowance of about 1-2 m from all sides of
the gates for easy movement of workers as the markers are placed;
b. Enclose the markers with temporary dike at low tide. Bail out the water in the enclosure or pit;
c. Excavate the enclose portion to a negative 0.6 m elevation (or – 0.6 m below zero datum);
d. Drive in 3-m long bamboo stakes (puno) or wooden posts into the ground over the entire area at
one meter intervals and shorter stakes of 1-2 m long at 25-30 cm intervals in between longer
stakes. Wooden slabs 2” thick, 6” wide and 2 m long may be driven into the ground close to each
other directly below the gate’s aprons and center fronting the river or sea. This will be driven
downward leaving about 20 cm above the bottom of the excavated portion (fig. 35d. in Section
IV);
e. Insert boulders about 20 cm thick between the stakes to form a floor. Spread gravel to level and
cover the boulders, then compact the fill materials (fig. 35d);
f. Construct the form for the flooring. Place the reinforcement round steel bars 12 mm in diameter
() at a spacing of not exceeding 40 cm center to center and tie them one by one with No.16
wire;
g. Install the vertical steel bars (12 mm ) and horizontal steel bars (10 mm ) for sidewalls, wings
and collars. Also place the reinforcement bars for bridges and then tie them one by one;
h. Set forms for the walls, wings, collars and bridges. Reinforce the forms with lumber to withstand
the pressure of the concrete mixture. Fix the reinforcement at the center of the forms;
i. Prepare a 1:2:4 concrete mix (Class A) and pour each into the form continuously within 30
minutes and until completed. Pouring of the mixture should be done after the water in the site
have been pumped or bailed out. While pouring the mixture, somebody should compact the
concrete with the use of a long pole to prevent a hollow or void and to insure a smooth finish
when the forms are removed. Prevent salt water from coming in contact with the concrete
mixture while it is still wet;
j. Allow concrete to harden for about 2-4 days, then remove the forms. Apply finishing touches,
especially at any portion of the gate not properly compacted. Use mortar 1:3 (cement:sand)
concrete mix for plastering;
k. To cure the concrete, sprinkle freshwater on it everyday for two weeks; and
l. Remove the temporary dike after 30 days. Condition the gate by letting tidal water in and out of
the pond.

* Flooring of the main gate should be at least 30 cm lower than that of the inside water supply canal
(WSC) and the flooring of the latter should be at least 15 cm below those of the secondary gates.
 Secondary and tertiary gates construction
Considerations in the planning and designing of secondary and tertiary gates are the same
as that of the main gate, except that their respective elevations are dependent upon the elevation
of the canal floor where they are being constructed. The usual elevation of the flooring of these
gates should be at least 15 cm below the flooring of the pond compartments..
These gates can also be constructed in the form of reinforced concrete hollow blocks
made from a mortar 1:7 (cement:sand) concrete mix, fabricated ferrocement, or wood. If the gate
is made of wood, it should be treated with coal tar or a substitute chemical for durability.
Unlike in concrete gate, the wooden gate is first assembled, nailing all the parts in their
respective places (fig. 36a Section IV), and then it is finally installed in the excavated pit.

* Formulas used to determine the amount of concrete mix to construct gate.

There are two formulas that can be used in making concrete mix as follows:
1) Formula involving a factor of 42, and
2) Formula based on a Table of Concrete Proportion

Example of No. 1 formula:

Given: 1. Specification of mixture: 1:2:4

2. Total volume or vacuum to be filled with concrete materials: 3 m3

Steps:
1. Sum up the values of the specification of mixture, as 1 + 2 + 4 = 7.
2. Divide the sum of 7 in step 1 from factor 42, as 42  7 = 6.
3. Convert the given volume of 3 m3 to cubic feet then subsequently to cubic yard,
thus, a) 35.28 ft3/m3 x 3 m3 = 105.864 ft3
b) 105.64 ft3  27 ft3/yd3 = 3.92 yd3
4. Multiply the cubic yard in step 3 by 6 obtained in step 2 to calculate the number of
bags of cement, thus 3.92 x 6 = 23.52 bags.
Add a wastage allowance of 10%, thus 23.52 x 0.10 = 2.35 bags. Therefore,
23.52 + 2.35 = 25.87 or 26 bags of cement are to be used for the 3 m3 hollow space.
5. Multiply 26 in step 4 by 2 to calculate the part or amount of sand, thus
26 x 2 = 52 bags or 1.5 m3

Note: 1.5 m3 is obtained by:

52 bags x 0.027 m3 = 1.4 m3 + 10% wastage allowance
1 bag
1.4 x 0.10 = 0.14
1.4 + 0.14 = 1.54 or 1.5 m3
Where does 0.027 m3 derived from? It is derived from the measuring box 0.3
m x 0.3 m x 0.3 m that can accommodate 1 bag of cement containing 40 kg.
6. Multiply 26 in step 4 by 4 to calculate the part or amount of gravel, thus
26 x 4 = 104 bags or 3 m3

104 bags x 0.027 m3 = 2.808 + 10% wastage allowance

1 bag
= 2.808 + 0.028
= 3.09 or 3 m3

Summary of estimates for the 3 m3 space to be filled up with concrete mixture:

cement = 26 bags
sand = 1.5 m3
gravel = 3.0 m3

Examples for No. 2 formula:

Given: Table of concrete proportion specifications and their corresponding quantities of cement (in
bags) and volume of sand and gravel (in m3) per cubic meter of concrete mix - - the standard amount
set by certain authorities, like Estilo (1988) and Fajardo (1988).

Specification:
Cement (in bags)
Sand (in m3) Gravel (in m3)
Class Concrete Mix (40 kg/bag)
Estilo/Fajardo Estilo/Fajardo
Estilo/Fajardo
A’A 1:1.5:3 9.47/12 0.51/0.5 0.76/1.0
A 1:2:4 7.85/9.0 0.42/0.5 0.84/1.0
B 1:2.5:5 6.49/7.5 0.44/0.5 0.87/1.0
C 1:3:6 5.49/6.0 0.44/0.5 0.89/1.0
D 1:3.5:7 4.81/5.5 0.45/0.5 0.91/1.0
Mortar 1:2 17.37/19 0.93/0.5 –
Mortar 1:3 12.98/14.5 1.05/0.5 –
Mortar 1:7 6.86/7.5 1.3/0.5

Class A. This is used for beams, slabs, columns, bridges of gate and other structural parts subject to
bending stress.
Class B. This is used for walls or parts not reinforced to resist bending stress.
Class C. This is used for footing for as long as they are not located underwater in which case Class B
should be used.

In the case of the construction of concrete main gate it is best to use 1:2:4 mixture for all its part
for durability reason.

You will note that the formula using a factor of 42 (Formula 1) is very similar with Estilo’s
formula, i.e. they give the same answer in quantity of cement if the former formula does not consider
the wastage allowance. For example, the hollow space to be filled with concrete mix is one cubic
meter:
= 1 m3 x 35.288 ft3/m3 = 35.288 ft3
= 35.288  27 = 1.307
= 1.307 x 6 (from 42  7) = 7.84 or 7.85 bags of cement
And the formula with factor 42 is also very similar with the Fajardo’s formula if wastage allowance
of 10% is considered. For example,
= 7.84 bags x 0.10 = 0.784
= 7.84 + 0.784 = 8.6 or 9 bags of cement

* Formulas used to determine water discharge capacities of gates and other pond structures.

For monk gate (from Estilo, 1988)

Q = CA[2 g (H – h)] ½

where, Q = free discharge (m3/sec)

A = cross section area of monk gate
=  x (Diameter)2
4
C = coefficient of discharge
g = gravity constant 9.81 (m/sec2)
H = pond water level (meter)
h = drain canal water level (meter)

C = 1
Ke + f (L  D) + 1

where, C = constant coefficient

Ke = 0.5 = entrance friction coefficient
f = 0.03 = friction factor for concrete pipe
L = pipe length (m)
D = pipe diameter (m)

Example. Determine the discharge capacity of a monk gate with the information below:
D = 0.6 m; L = 12.0 m; H = 0.2 m; h = 0.1 m

Solution: Q = CA[2 g (H – h)] ½

C = 1 = 1 = 0.476
Ke + f (L  D) + 1 0.5 + 0.03 (12  0.6) + 1

A =  D2 = 3.1416 (0.6)2 = 0.283 m2

4 4

Q = 0.476 x 0.283 [2 x 9.81 (1.2 – 0.1)] ½

= 0.134708 [19.62 (1.1)] ½
= 0.134708 [21.582] ½
= 0.134708 x 4.6456
= 0.626 m3/sec

Determine the velocity in pipe (Vp):

Vp = Q = 0.626 m3/sec = 2.212 m/sec

A 0.283 m2
For sluice gate (from Kurgvankij and Chua, 1986):

Q = CA [2 g (H – h)] ½

where, Q = free discharge (m3/sec)

A = cross section area of sluice gate
= base x height
C = coefficient of discharge = 0.61
g = gravity constant = 9.81 m/sec2
H = pond water level (meter)
h = drain canal water level (meter)

Example. Determine the discharge capacity of open sluice gate measuring 1 m wide and 1.5 m
high if pond water depth is 1 m. Assume that the drain canal is empty.

Solution: Q = CA [2 g (H – h)] ½
= 0.61 (1 x 1.5) [2 x 9.81 (1 – 0)] ½
= 0.915 [19.61 x 1] ½
= 0.915 x 4.429
= 4.05 m3/sec

Velocity in the sluice gate:

Vsg = Q = 4.05 m3/sec = 2.7 m/sec

A 1.5 m2

A. For flume or elevated canal with free fall PVC pipe outlet

Q = u x A (2 x H) ½ (in m3/sec)

where, Q = discharge of the outlet (m3/sec)

u = discharge coefficient = 0.7
A = internal cross section of pipe (m2)
g = gravity constant = 9.81 (m/se2)
H = head of water surface in flume over center of the pipe (m)

Example. Determine the discharge of a free fall outlet for a pipe 15 cm in diameter if its length
is 4 m and the water depth in the flume is 40 cm.

Solution: Q = u x A (2g x H) ½

A = D2 = 3.1416 (0.15 m)2 = 0.0177 m2

4 4

H = Dw – (Dp  2) = 0.4 m – (0.15 m  2) = 0.325 m

Dw = depth of water in the flume
Dp = diameter of pipe

Q = 0.7 x 0.0177 (2 x 9.81 x 0.325) ½

= 0.01239 (6.3765) ½
= 0.01239 (3.18825)
= 0.04 m3/sec

Velocity of outlet pipe of flume:

0.04 m3/sec = 2.26 m/sec

0.0177 m2

B. For open flume outlet

Q = C x B x H 3/2 (in liter/sec)

where, Q = design discharge of open flume outlet (l/sec)

C = discharge coefficient
B = width of flume throat of flume gate (cm) fronting the pond
H = height of water in the flume

Values of discharge coefficient (C) for open flume outlet (Kovari, 1984).

B (cm) C
6 – 10 0.0160
10 – 15 0.0164
> 15 0.0166

Example. Determine the discharge capacity of an outlet showing a width of throat or gate width
(B) = 25 cm and a water height (H) = 25 cm.

Solution: Q = C x B x H 3/2, L/sec

= 0.0166 x 25 x (25) 3/2
= 0.415 (125)
= 51.875 liters/sec or 0.052 m3/sec
Figure 50. Transporting soil blocks using flat boat (After Denila, 1997)

Figure 51. the line system of piling excavated soil blocks (After Denila, 1997)
Figure 52. The sliding method of moving soil blocks (After Denila, 1997)

Figure 53. proper way of piling soil blocks (After Denila, 1997)
UNIT VII

CAGE CONSTRUCTION

Unit Objectives

This unit aims to:

1. Explicate the different qualifications of species for mariculture and determine the common
species of fish cultured in cages.

2. Identify and explain the advantages and disadvantages of nearshore cage culture.

3. Discuss the preparatory activities before actual sea cage operations

4. Introduce various equipment and facilities needed during the culture operation in a cage
unit.

5. Identify and explain the competitive advantages of offshore cage culture.

6. Show how to calculate or estimate materials needed to construct a given unit of a cage.

7. Develop the ability of preparing a prospectus and a detailed development plan of cage.
Fish Cage – a culture system fully enclosed by nets on all sides and bottom similar to an inverted
mosquito net or bag supported by a fixed rigid frame or by floats which rise and fall with the water level
or tide.

Types and design of cages

Cages can have different type and design depending on the conditions of the site and available
construction materials

1. Fixed cage
Fixed cage is usually used and sited in sheltered shallow water with minimal water depth
fluctuation. The cage is tied up in bamboo poles staked down into the bottom sediment. This type is
only applicable for small scale cage operation and cage size is normally small.

2. Floating cages
Floating is use in deep water where fixed cage is not applicable. Size and shape varies depending
choice of the farmer and the materials used. The net cage is tied up in floating frames either of
bamboo poles or GI pipes provided with plastic drums or styropor as floaters. The space between the
cages are normally widen assembled into catwalk to enable moving around the cage. The nets are
provided with sinkers to spread out and prevent from floating.

3. Submersible
Installed as in floating cage but provided with net cover so that it can be submerged when needed
as in time of typhoon to hide down from the strong winds.

4. Submerged
Submerged cage is used for growing deep water dwelling fishes and highly applicable in sites with
frequent turbulent conditions. Cage is positioned below the water surface or seated near the bottom.
A feeding tube is provided to deliver the feed to the fish. For cage seated near the bottom the worker
need to dive down to feed the fish.

Qualifications of species for mariculture

1. Readily acceptable by the markets
2. Broodfish capable to spawn with large numbers of eggs in captivity
3. Can grow well in sea water salinity
4. Can grow well in sea water oxygen range
5. Can grow well in prevailing water temperature range in the area
6. Can withstand and adapt to crowded culture condition
7. Suitable and mild behavior under captive environment
8. Exhibit rapid and uniform growth rate
9. Be amenable to take formulated feed
10. Have simple dietary needs and efficient converter of feeds into edible flesh
11. Not cannibalistic (if possible)
12. Disease resistant and can withstand poor water quality
13. Have high meat recovery

Some Species Cultured or Under Consideration for Culture

1. Milkfish, (Chnos chanos)
2. Seabass (Lates calcarifer)
3. Grouper (Epinephelus coiodes)
4. Pompano (Trachinotus blochii)
5. Maya-maya or Mangrove jacks (Lutjanus argentimaculatus)
6. Cobia or Seargeant fish (Rachycentron canadum)
7. Maliputo or Trevally/dart (Caranx spp)
8. Tambakol or Yellow fin tuna (Thunnus albacares)
9. Tilapia (saline-tolerant Oreochromis species)
10. Sugpo or Black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon)

Near shore fish cage culture

(Milkfish and other high value fish crops)

Advantages and disadvantages of near shore cage culture

Advantages
1. Simple to construct and requires smaller financial investment
2. Easily managed (i.e. fish stocks are easily observed, fed and harvested)
3. Transferable to sites with better environmental conditions
4. Can be stocked with fish at higher densities than ponds
5. Offer higher production per unit area or volume
6. Greater opportunity for expansion
7. Allows the use for aquaculture of existing natural water bodies or space.

Disadvantages
1. Crowded condition of fish may lead to incidence of diseases
2. Method requires high feed cost
3. It is vulnerable to adverse weather condition
4. It is vulnerable to the effects of pollution
5. It is attractive to poachers and vandals
6. Wastes have pronounced negative impact on the aquatic environment
7. Can disrupt navigation and reduce waterscape value of the site
8. Waste may stimulate primary production adversely affecting water quality of site and surrounding
environment.

Preparatory activities before actual sea cage operations

1. Site selection
2. Securing permits and licenses
3. Training of manpower for the sea cage operations
4. Installation of mooring facilities
5. Continuing environmental monitoring of sea cage operation site
6. Preparation and acquisition of required service equipment
7. The business plan
8. Product specifications and markets

Site selection
1. Minimum depth of 30 cm
2. Water current speed of 30-7- cm per second
3. No coral formations
4. Hard bottom preferred
5. With suitable BOD levels
6. Accessible to harvesting vessels
7. With land base not too far away
8. In friendly neighbor
9. Well secured area
10. No river system carrying silt
11. In site adequately protected from strong winds and typhoons
12. No big swells of more than 1.5 a few times during the year
13. Away from industrial pollution
14. Away from large populations
15. Not on navigational sea lanes
16. Away from dynamite and cyanide fishing areas

Permits and licenses

1. Permit from LGU covering the area
2. Environmental control certificate (EMB-DENR)

Installation f mooring
Orientation – cages should be oriented perpendicular to the prevailing winds

Activities in sea cage culture

1. Sourcing and purchasing of seeds
2. Transporting of seeds
3. Seeding
4. Feeding
5. Growth monitoring
6. Grading of stocks
7. Net Changing and maintenance
8. Harvesting
9. Marketing

Seeding
1. Right fish
2. Right size
3. Healthy

Feeds and feeding

1. Feeds constitute the biggest bulk of the production cost (>60%)
2. Highest quality – providing all the nutrient requirement of the fish
3. Monitor FCR
4. Water quality

Changing nets
Nets should be changed as needed to a net of bigger mesh size to allow efficient passing of water
through the cage. However make sure that mesh size is smaller than the smallest of the stock fish to
prevent escaping.

Sampling for growth and quality

1. To determine fish condition
2. FCR
3. For harvest schedule
Service Equipment and Facilities
1. A water circulator
2. A floating house
3. A feed barge
4. Computerized feeder
5. Feed monitors
6. Harvesting pumps
7. Additional boats
8. Fish stock delivery tanks
9. Water monitors
10. SCUBA diving gears
11. Telecommunication equipments
12. Guarding and security equipments
13. Emergency health kits

Technological prerequisites
1. Availability f seeds from the wild but preferably from hatchery
2. Availability of fairly efficient formulated feeds for culture, a feeding program, and feed delivery
system
3. Existence of sustainable methods to produce the fish at low costs and lower market value
4. Availability of disease monitoring, diagnostics and treatment technology
5. Acceptance by a number of markets, local and export

Offshore Mariculture
(Cage culture in exposed ocean waters)

Competitive advantages of offshore cage culture farming (offshore farming)

1. High water quality

Being located far-away from shore the cages are not exposed or affected by the pollution
produced from land-based activities or reached by polluted waters in near shore. The extensive
space surrounding the cages and deeper water depth ensures that the waste produce will be
dispersed in wider area and not accumulate or will sink deep down and would not affect the
culture fish at the surface.

2. Availability of sites
Because of the vast space available there are abundant sites that can be utilized for fish
farming. Individual farms may not need to be located in the same location.
3. Less conflicts with other water activities
Since the cages are located far-away from shore there will be fewer conflicts with other user
of or activities within the marine water. Because of less competition for space the opportunity
and space for expansion is always possible and available.

4. Minimal Environmental impacts

Because the cages are located in far-away from shore and exposed to greater water flow,
bigger waves deeper water, the waste produced from the culture will be easily dispersed not
accumulate hence less impact on the environment. The relatively less available food in the open
ocean the waste produced can be readily eaten by other marine organ inhabiting the surrounding
water.

5. Farm economic scale

Because of the larger space available and lesser regulatory restrictions on farm size, offshore
cage culture has the potential to be larger allowing for reduced costs through greater economics
of scale.

6. Distance from market

Because of the lesser conflicts with water users and activities and greater availability of sites it
may be possible to locate offshore farms closer to markets (such as major cities or locations of
large consumers). This would reduce transportation costs and making it possible for fresher
products to be delivered to markets and may in turn fetch higher price

Competitive Disadvantages of Offshore Cage Culture Farming

1. Exposure to strong winds and big waves

Because the farm is located open water space and exposed to strong winds, big waves and
deeper water it requires to design and manufacture specific facilities, equipments, materials and
tools appropriate for the said conditions. Most cage facilities, equipments, materials and tools
available are designed based on the requirements of near shore cage farming.

2. Higher support transport costs

Because of farther distance from land to the offshore farm it would higher cost to transport
workers, supplies, equipments, material and tools.

3. Deeper water depth

The farm being located in deeper water it would require to intensify the mooring systems.

4. Working conditions
Being located in open space and exposed to strong winds, big waves and varying temperature
the workers will have higher risks. In addition the working conditions require skilled and
experienced workers hence would demand higher wages.
5. Industry economics of scale
As most available equipments and tools are designed for near shore cage farming, equipments
and tools for offshore farming needs to be made to order and fetch higher price.

6. Operating experience
As most cage farming is being done near shore there is minimal knowledge and experiences in
operating offshore cage farming. This limitation may restrict the adoption of the technology

7. Regulatory experience
As in operating experience there is also limited experience in regulating and monitoring
offshore cage farming. Furthermore specific laws and policies governing offshore farming are
not yet available.

Floating cage and Stationary (fixed) Cage

A fish cage maybe constructed either floating or stationary depending on the physical
characteristics of the area where the structure is proposed to be located.

Floating cages are flexible being supported by floats, mooring lines and anchor. They rise and fall
with the water level or tide and displaced laterally to some allowable limits set by design specifications.
These type of cages are generally adopted in areas where the water depth and the bottom of the lake make
it impractical or uneconomical to use piles and scaffoldings. Also in areas where water pollution occurs,
the cages are most desirable since they can be towed out of danger. Stationary cages are supported by a
rigid framework of bamboo embedded into the bottom of the lake. These types of cages are recommended
for shallow water and in areas which are most unlikely to be affected by adverse weather conditions.

Floating Cage Components

A floating cage has three main components. The net enclosure or the bag net which contains
cultured fish and prevents the entry of predators; the floatation system which keeps the net, and the frame
which holds the net afloat; and the mooring system which maintains the cage in position.

The floatation system besides keeping the net and the frames afloat also provides service area for
people operating and maintaining the cages.

To prevent the cage from being carried away by strong wind or water current, it is usually
anchored to the bottom either by a concrete block or a specially designed anchor adaptable to the type and
terrain of the bottom.

Materials for Construction

The materials needed, specifications, and amount is based on the design of the proposed project.
Sometimes the quality and type of materials would depend on the money the financiers want to invest in a
project. However, profitability, functionality, and ease of construction should be considered. The type of
materials used determine the durability of the structure. To protect the framework materials from rapid
deterioration due to corrosion and fouling, protective coating such as coal tar and epoxy paint should be
applied to their surfaces. In ordinary materials, proper specifications such as rope and twine diameter,
mesh depth, sizes, knotted or knotless, color, etc. should be included.

1. Structure/Framework
a. Bamboo poles – most common
b. Wooden poles
c. Anahaw (palm tree) logs
d. Creosoted pole
e. Steel/G.I. pipe
2. Enclosure and Barrier nets
a. Polyethylene nets
b. Polypropylene nets
c. Nylon nets
d. Woven bamboo splits
3. Tying and Braiding
a. Polyethylene rope and twine
b. Polypropylene rope
c. Nylon threads
d. Nylon cord (monofilament)
e. Rubber tire strips
f. Dacron (polyester)
4. Floats
a. Bamboo
b. Steel drum
c. Styrofoam
d. Plastic container
e. Aluminum cylinder
f. PVC pipes
g. Rubber tires
5. Sinkers
a. Stone sinkers
b. Concrete slabs
c. Bamboo and wooden pegs

Determination of Size, Depth and Shape

The dimension of the cage/pen is dependent mainly on the manageability of the owner as far as
operation and maintenance is concerned. The physical and biological traits of the fish must also be
considered. Large enclosures would require high investment and large number of people during harvest.
Cages used for commercial production of tilapia and bighead carp ranges from a few square meters to a
hundred square meters. In Laguna Lake, Philippines, size of pens range from less than one hectare to
more than 100 hectares.
The depth of the cage is usually determined by the natural productivity of the water. since natural
food production are relatively higher in the surface, seldom do floating cages have depth exceeding 5.0
meters. The depth or height of fish pen depends on the physical data of the site, i.e., the depth of water
and mud, data on highest water level or flood level, and the characteristics of fish to be cultured.

The shape of the enclosure is influenced by the characteristics of the cultured fish. For milkfish
and tilapia square and rectangular cages are commonly used. Circular enclosures are recommended for
bighead carp. Generally, the most economical shape of cage/pen is one that has least perimeter. Circular
shape require the least materials per unit area but relatively hard to construct.

How Mesh Size/Knot Size is Determined

Knot size is the number of knots counted for a distance of 6 inches of stretched net.

6” 6
Mesh Size = -------------------------- x 2 i.e. ------- x 2 = 2”
No. of Knots - 1 7-1

Netting System

A net is basically made up of meshes. A mesh is the smallest unit of a net. The mesh size is the
distance between the centers of the opposite knots in the same mesh when it is fully extended at the right
to the continuing direction of the twines.

A net may either be flexible or rigid depending on the netting materials used. generally, the most
suitable nets should be flexible or adaptable for easy handling, resistant to fouling growth, resistant to sun
and ultraviolet rays, locally available and less expensive. Nets are made of synthetic materials are
flexible, easier to handle and less expensive than rigid nets.

However, they deteriorate faster and are particularly prone to bio-fouling.

The mesh size to be used must be small enough to prevent the escape of the cultured fish and
entry of predators. For hatchery operators of tilapia, the most common sizes of mesh used are 0.5 mm
(hapa) for breeding, 10 mm for nursery and 20 mm for grow out cages. However, so long as they can
prevent the escape of fish, large mesh are recommended since they provide large passageway for water
circulation, easier to handle, slow rate fouling and less expensive.

Framework Design

Framework construction used in tilapia caries according to one’s specifications. However, there
are three basic framework designs which are commonly used. the single-braced, the double-braced, and
log reinforced framework. The use of a double framework is very common. The inner frame holds the
enclosing net for the fish and the outer framework holds the barricade net which would prevent flotsams
and other debris from damaging the net enclosures which contains the fish.
The framework should be appropriately designated to withstand the strong winds, currents,
waves, pile-up of water hyacinths and other floating debris. If the frameworks (for floating cage) are to be
used as service area, they should be strong enough to support the weight of the people and other materials
necessary for the operations.

Floatation System

The floats to be used in floating cages should have high buoyancy, resistant to fouling and could
withstand water pressure, forces of wind and waves. It should be constructed to support the weight of the
frameworks, the people working; and other materials necessary for the operations. For longer life and less
fouling attachments floats like Styrofoam and polystyrene may be covered with protective materials such
as rubberized canvass.

Mooring System

Mooring lines should be light and strong, flexible, highly resistant to fatigue, impact, abrasion,
stretch and twisting. As a general guidance the length of mooring lines should be three times the depth of
water. Rope made of synthetic fibers, metallic wire, ropes and chains are commonly used for mooring
lines. Metallic wire ropes have excellent strength but have the disadvantage of being too heavy and costly.
Synthetic fiber ropes are light flexible and also have excellent strength but are relatively less resistant to
abrasion and cuts. Along points in the mooring lines where higher strength and abrasion resistance are
necessary chains are often used.

Materials commonly used in the fabrication of synthetic fiber ropes are nylon (polyamide),
Dacron (polyester), polypropylene, and polyethylene. Nylon is recommended for the high strength and
high shock absorption requirements. Dacron is not suitable for shock absorption but is recommended for
conditions demanding high strength combined with low and long term stretch. Polypropylene is
appropriate where strength and long term stretch are not critical and rope floatability is desired.

Anchor

An ideal anchor must provide holding power with reasonable weight and size. The type of anchor
to use in the mooring system depends on the depth of water, nature of bottom, and current. The three
types of anchors are deadweight, embedment, and special anchors. Deadweight anchors are
recommended for mooring involving essentially vertical tension. A typical example of this type is
concrete block. Embedment anchors are designed to dig into the bottom as they are being pulled by a
horizontal force. It is recommended for sandy and muddy bottom. Special anchors are combinations of
deadweight and embedment anchors. They are designed to resist vertical and horizontal components of
tension.

Estimation of Materials Needed (10 units of 8m W x 12m L x 3m D)

Polyethelene Net (#14 Single Width) net width = 3m

a). Sidings (3m depth) Lsides = (cage width x 2) + (cage length x 2) = 8(2) + 12(2) = 40 m

b). Cage Flooring No. of net column = cage width/3 = 8m/3 = 2.66 ~ 3 columns
Total length of net = No. of net column x cage length (flooring) = 3 (12m) = 36 m

c). Cage Cover = cage flooring = 36 m

d). Total length of net needed per cage = Lsides + flooring + cover = 40 m + 36 m + 36 m = 112 m

e). Total length of net needed per module = Ltotal of net /cage x no. of cages = 112 m (10) = 1,120 m

f). No. of rolls needed (90 m per roll) = 1,120/90 = 13 rolls

UNIT VIII

PEN CONSTRUCTION

Unit Objectives

This unit aims to:

1. Enumerate the different cultivable species of aquatic organisms suitable for pen culture.

2. Discuss the advantage and disadvantages of pen culture.

3. Introduce various equipment and facilities needed during the culture operation in a cage
unit.

4. Show how to calculate or estimate materials needed to construct a given unit of a pen.

5. Develop the ability of preparing a prospectus and a detailed development plan of a pen.
Fish pen – a culture system enclosed by nets on all sides and utilizes the lake bed as the bottom
enclosure. It is usually supported by fixed rigid frameworks of bamboo poles, palm tree poles (Anahaw,
Livistoria rotundifolia), and wood poles.

Cultivable species

*Freshwater

1. Habitats with high natural productivity (lakes, oxbow lakes, reservoirs, rivers, swamps, mining
pools etc):
Species suggested (of potential in the tropics) are:- milkfish, Chinese carps, Indian carps, mullets,
Tilapia mossambica, T. nilotica, puntius gonionotus, common carp, eals, catfish etc. Clarias
gariepinus the African catfish can also be tested.
2. In habitats with low natural productivity in freshwater bodies, species which “are not able to
survive on natural productivity alone but can grow well with supplementary freding” have been
suggested, e.g. Laptobarbus, Pangasius, Clarias batrachus, Oxyeleotris and among crustaceans,
Penaeus spp. Macrobrachium etc. several other African species could also be included in tests.

*Brackishwater

This is a most variable environment and is considered as a more difficult environment when
compared with those of freshwater and marine. The species chosen should be able to grow well in
changing salinities. Despite the changes in tidal height and salinity the environment offers advantages in
enclosure culture, especially in terms of protected sites.
Species of potential value are: milkfish, sea bass, mullets, siganids, sea eel; among crustaceans,
Penaeus spp. and crabs.

*Marine

Milkfish, pompano, yellow-tail, tuna, grouper snapper, sea bass, sea bream, carangids, pomfret
and among crustaceans, spiny lobsters. In the western temperate areas salmonids (especially trouts,
Atlantic and Pacific salmons) and placed and turbot are of proven value.

Advantages and disadvantages of pen culture

Advantages
1. Intensive utilization of space
2. Safety from predators
3. Suitability for culturing varied species
4. Ease of harvest
5. The flexibility of size and economy
6. Availability of natural food and exchange of materials with the bottom

Disadvantages
1. High demand of oxygen and water flow
2. Dependence on artificial feed
3. Food losses
4. Pollution
5. Rapid spread of diseases
6. Risk of theft
7. Conflict with multiple use of natural waters

Construction of Fishpen

Construction of Framework

Prior to installation, the bamboo poles or the anahaw logs are cleared of sharp edges to
prevent damage to nets. When bamboo poles are used the diaphragm is removed to reduce
buoyancy by forcing an iron rod throughout the length of the pole to be submerged or by boring
holes at the internodes up to the length to be embedded into the mud and the length to be
submerged in water.

For the anahaw logs, a triangular anchor made of bamboo is fastened near the end of the
logs to prevent it from floating after being driven into the lake bed.

At the start of the framework construction, guide poles are placed using the corners of the
proposed plan. This serve as the starting point. Another of guide poles are staked at about 25 to
100 m part which are aligned from the corners.

A rope will then be used to align the poles to be installed between each of the guide
poles. After the area has been closed by vertical poles, horizontal members will then be reaching
by waves. These prevent added stress to the framework. Likewise, bracing will also be installed
to prevent mis-alignment. This process is repeated until the framework is completed or closed.

When using anahaw logs a boom is attached to the bamboo raft. This is used to lift and
align the logs before being driven into the lake bed. However, the distance between the logs can
be longer.

Preparation of Net enclosure Assembly

Net fabrication will be based on the physical data of the proposed site. i.e., area, depth of
water and mud, highest water level or flood levels and characteristics of species to be cultured.
The perimeter of the pen must be known before the nets are cut and assembled according to
specifications.

Net Measurement

The length of the nets needed is determined by multiplying the total perimeter of the pen
by 1.3. this is the ideal allowance for net pen and cage. It gives equal stretching to the four sides
of the mesh.
Example: perimeter pen = 400 m

Therefore, the length of perimeter net required = 400 x 1.3 = 520 m

12,400 (0.3) + 400 = 520

Procedures in reeving nets (joining nets with rope)

a. Join nets together

b. Insert 5 mm polyrope at the first row of meshes of nets
c. Stitch with 210/18 resinized nylon twine one inch apart employing a clove hotch and knot.

This procedure is repeated for succeeding layers until desired depth of net is complete.

Another set of rope (optional) can stitched 2 inches apart (head) and lower (foot)part of the
assembly nets. These ropes can be used for installation of floats and bamboo pegs or stone
sinkers, respectively.

Barrier net Assembly

Same procedure as in reeving nets is used for barrier net assembly.

The commonly used nets are 3 knots and 7 knots polypropylene knotted nets. A 9 mm
diameter polyrope can be used for lower (foot) and upper (head) part of the barrier net assembly.
The assembled nets can be adjusted according to fluctuations in water level.

Fixing Net into the Framework

The assembled nets are carried to the site and fixed to the pen framework. This is done by
tying the head rope about 1-2 m high above the water surface. Use the double foot rope to fasten
the bamboo pegs and stone sinkers. Fix the net in place by driving the pegs and sinker stones into
the lake bed with a bamboo pole. After the nets have been fixed, remove the debris and other
materials inside the net enclosure as these may damage the nets.

Guide for materials estimate

Sample problem: compute for the materials required to construct a one hectare fishpen.

Specifications:

Area: 1 hectare = 10,000 m2

Shape: square

Average depth: 3.5 m

Framework: Bamboo (single framework)

Netting: Pen net enclosure

Polyethelene net, 17 knots (knotless) of CC net

No. of mesh depth = 197

Depth = 1.5 meters

Barrier net enclosure

Polyethelene net, 7 knots (knotted)

No. of mesh depth = 27

Depth = 1.0 m

Perimeter = 100x 4 (sides) = 400 meters

Computation for framework materials

1. Bamboo pole

P 400
Vertical pole, Vp = -------------------- = --------------- = 800; 0.5 Minimum spacing for Vp
0.5 0.5

P 400
Horizontal pole, Hp = ------- =- - ---- = 100; 4.0 m ideal spacing for overlap of horizontal members and bracing
4 4

P 400
Diagonal pole, Dp = ------ = ------------- = 100
4 4

Bamboo Raft = 100

Total : 1,100 pcs

Computation of rope, net and twine for netting assembly

Perimeter = 400 m

Length of rope for farming

Lr = length of rope/section = (P/4 + 2.5) per section; 2.5 additional rope per section

400
= ------ + 2.5
4
= 102.5 m/section
Total length of rope framing for the whole perimeter = Lrt = (P + 2.5 x 4) (NRr)
(400 + 10) (7)
2,870 m or 15 rolls

Where NRr = No. of rope reeving including head rope and foot rope

Length of Nets

Length of nets, Ln = (P x 1.3) (NL)

(400 x 1.3) (4) = 2,080 m

NL = No. of Layers (net)

Length of twine

Length of twine, Lt = P (3) (NRs)

400 (3) (5)

= 6,000 m or 30 rolls polyethelene rope, 1 mm diameter

Where 3 = length of twine used per m (clove hitch closed with overhead knots)
NRs = No. of rows to be stitched
200 = standard length of rope per roll

Rope and twine for Barrier net assembly

Length of barrier net

Length of barrier net, Bni = P + 2; where 2 = additional netting = 402 m

Length of barrier rope

Length of barrier rope, Lr = [P + (2.5 x 4)] (NRr)

[400 + 10] (2)
820 m or 4.1 rolls, 5 mm polyrope

Where NRs = No. of Rope per reeve

Length twine, LT = P (3) (NRs)

400 (3) (2)
2,400 m or 12 rolls, 0.5 mm

Where NRs = No. of row (head/Foot rope)

Bamboo Stake and stone

These will be spaced at 1.0 meter alternately

P = 400 meters, therefore sinkers stone needed = 400 pcs

5 inc. dia x 1 inch. Thick

Bamboo stake needed = 400pcs., 1 m length.

Tying materials for sinker stone, TRs = P (0.6)

= 240 m or 1.2 rolls. 5 mm polyrope

Where 0.6 = length of rope for sinkers attached to foot rope

References

Elementary Surveying – by C.B. Breed and G.I. Homer

Fishpond Engineering: A technological Manual for Small-and-medium-Scale Coastal Fish Farms in

Southeast Asia – by Cata;ino R. Dela Cruz (1983)

Fishpond Engineering.Volume 2. Philippine Freshwater Aquaculture Extension Manual. BFAR.

Pond Construction, design and facilities – by Victor E. Estilo (1988). In Y.N. Chiu, L.M. Santos and R.D.
Juliano (Eds). Technical considerations for the management and operation of intensive prawn farms.

Simplified Construction Estimate (Second Edition) – by M.B. Fajardo, Jr. (1988).