MINDORO STATE UNIVERSITY - BONGABONG CAMPUS

Labasan, Bongabong, Oriental Mindoro

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
FOR SOCSCI113-SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY

SECOND SEMESTER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1

Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society 1-7

CHAPTER 2

Science, Technology and Nation-Building 8-11

CHAPTER 3

Science Education in the Philippines 12-13

CHAPTER 4

Indigenous Science and Technology in the Philippines 14-15

CHAPTER 5

Human Flourishing 16-18

CHAPTER 6

Technology as a Way of Revealing 19-21

CHAPTER 7

Good Life 22-23

CHAPTER 8

When Technology and Humanity Cross 24-26

CHAPTER 9

Information Age 27-33

CHAPTER 10

Biodiversity and Healthy Society 34-36

CHAPTER 11

Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health and Politics 37-41

CHAPTER 12

The Nano World 42-44

CHAPTER 13

The Aspects of Gene Therapy 45-46

CHAPTER 14 Climate Change 47-50

Chapter 1
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY
Scientific Revolution
Scientific is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when
and where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven
with the society. So how can science be defined?
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations
and obeservations about the natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study of
the natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation and
experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body
of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world.
This is what we refer to as school science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge
and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around
them. It is a means to improve life and to survive in life. it is interwoven with people’s
lives.
Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of
mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about
the nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern science as a result of these
development is determined by biological, psychological, and social factors. It views crime as a
social phenomenon and attaches much importance to the criminal or the actor. Positivist
criminology iis reformative and preventive and individualizes punishment. Since criminal is a
sick man, he is considered not responsible for his acts; hence he should not be punished but
cured.
Cesare Lombroso – considered the “father of the positivist school of criminology”, maintained
that criminals were born with a predisposition to crime and needed exceptionally favorable
conditions in life to avoid criminal behavior.
Enrico Ferri and Rafaelle Garofalo – the other exponents of this school of thought.

Treatment Methods of Handling Criminals

In handling criminal’s, there are emerged two general methods which are variations or
extensions of either the classical and neoclassical or the positivist school (Sutherland and Cressy
317 327).

1. Punitive aspect – The punitive reaction of society towards criminals has been
implemented in four principal methods: removal from the group by death, exile, or
imprisonment; physical torture; social degradation; and financial loss. It is pursuant to
this retributive social reaction to criminals that death penalty, physical torture, social
degradation, banishment and transportation, imprisonment, financial penalties,
restrictions, and reparation are availed of against the criminal.

2. Curative/Treatment or Rehabilitative Aspect – the treatment reaction, which has

increased in popularity, individualizes treatment of offenders, and the treatment process
includes expert diagnosis of individual problems and needs, experts prescription of
therapy, and expert therapy such as clinical medicine diagnosis, prescription and therapy.
Two methods under this aspect:
a. The Clinical Approach – In the early part of the past century, the system of
individualized treatment for criminals was based almost exlusively on the
principle that criminality is strictly an individual disorder which can,
therefore, be treated in a clinic, just as syphilis can be treated in a clinic.
Because the original arguments for individualization were based on an
analogy with clinical medicine, the theory used in diagnosing and treating
cases of criminality was also closely analogous to theories used in clinical
medicine.
b. Group Relations Method – This methods considers criminality as a social in
nature, and therefore, can be modified in individual cases only if the criminal
relations with social groups are modified.

Punishment
Punishment is the penalty imposed on an offender for a crime or wrongdoing. The types
and duration of punishment that may be anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or
inviting people to test his ideas,

Copernicus
Copernicus ideas were an example of what is presently called as a thought experiment.
He was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in 1946 by a German author,
Johannes Mueller. This book contains Mueller’s observations of the heavens and some
commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy. Copernicus’s idea and model of the
universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his
ideas to show to his few friends in a manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary).
There was no prof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the Church if
he published his ideas formally.
The publication of Copernicus book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the
scientific revolution. In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved
around a single center at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun to be the
centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun
each year. The Moon however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus model of the
Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence.
In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion:
1. The orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the Sun;
and
2. The orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth’s orbit, thus, farther, from
the Sun.
From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit
once around the Sun. The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year,
through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in
order of increasing distance from the Sun. One of the great problems in the Copernicus model,
however, was the position of the stars. The stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals
in a distance sphere.
Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model make sense now,
during those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be
taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the Copernican model and was ignored by
Rome for the rest of 16th century.
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He published his book On The
Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be one of the most important works in
scientific literature. Darwin collected many significant materials in order to present his theory
with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how species evolve over time and
presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species. Like many other scholars, Darwin
accumulated many pertinent materials and data that he could ever possibly need to substantiate
his theory.
Darwin’s observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved beyond the
realms of plants and animals into the realms of human. His book The Descent of Man was so
impressive yet very controversial. He introduced the idea of all organic life, including human
beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a religious
or biblical design that places human beings in a priviledged position of having been created by
God. Darwin’s theory of evolution scientifically questioned this view.
Darwin’s accomplishments were so diverse that is useful to distinguish two fields to
which he made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than
these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and
unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those days. His unorthodox way of
pursuing science gave more value tp evidence-based science. Darwin provided a different
framework for doing scientific activities. It is a science marked by observation and experiment.

Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. He made a significant
contribution in the scientific world through the development of an important observational
method to gather reliable data to study human’s inner life popularly known as the method of
psychoanalysis. For Freud, this is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness.
It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his works that led to some sort of academic
controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had great impact on the scientific way of
understanding human nature.
Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of
psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological conditions that
were not understood by medicine at that time. His method was unorthodox – focusing on human
sexuality and the evil nature of man. This posed immensed challenges to scholars and ordinary
citizens of his time. To some, they found his idea not easy especially in his explanations of
human sexuality.
Freud’s contribution to knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene,
including art, literature, philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a
psychologist or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas and
theories are still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human mind and
behavior in a more scientifically accepted way.

Cradles of Early Science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central Ameerica from Southern Mexico up to
the border of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture
and knowledege prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.
Maya Civilization
The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately
2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their
advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples for astronomical observation. For
example, the pyramid at Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun during the
spring and fall equinoxes.
Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for thei time,
as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting
and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar
systems. These calendars were very useful for thei life especially in planning their activities and
in observing their religious rituals and cultural celebrations.
The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building
elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They build hydraulics system with
sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.
Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in
the field of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery
paints made from a mineral called mica. They are also believed to be one of the first people to
produce rubber products 3, 000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in
mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilization to use writing system
known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and created 2 number
system based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they independently developed the concept of zeero
and positional value, even beefore the Romans did.
Inca Civilization
The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific
ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and
tools that they developed to help them in everyday life:
1. road paved with stones;
2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of
land;
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting
season;
5. the first suspension bridge;
6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.
Aztec Civilization
Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to
science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the
following:
1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are
mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early
form of universal or inclusive education.
2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan
culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as
part of their tribute to their gods.
3. Antipasmodic medication. They used a type of antipasmodic medication that could
prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land
was dicvided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is
a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of
science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the
Middle East civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions
to the development of knowledge during their time.
India
India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge
mountains in its northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and
technologies useful in their everyday lives. They are known for manufacturing iron and in
metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regard in
whole of Roman Empire.
India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional
medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of
alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them to
develop medicines to cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts, like the Susruta Samhita,
describes different surgical and other medicinal procedures famous in Ancient India.
Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the
configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with
12 equal parts of 30 days each. Sama (2008) noted that their interest in astronomy was also
evident in the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written in the 12 century. According
to Sama (2008), this ancient text covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true
longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar
eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon’s crescent; conjunctions of the
planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the paths of the Sun
and Moon.
Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted that the earliest
traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared in the Indus Valley
Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982) tried to standardize
measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjodaro ruler.
Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out that Indian astronomer and mathematician
Aryabhata (476 –550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of trigonometric functions,
tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, another Indian,
Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of attraction, and lucidly explained the use
of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system
now used universally throughtout the world (Clifford, 2008; Bose, 1998). Another Indian named
Madhava Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of mathematical analysis (Joseph,
1941).

China
China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributios in many areas of life
like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others.
Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced many of its neigbor countries like Korea, Japan,
Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries tha belong to old Silk
Road.
The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences
and discovery of the Chines people. They discovered various medical properties and uses of
different plants and animals to cure human illness. An example is the practice of acupuncture.
In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among the famous
discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder,
and printing tools that became known in the West only by the end of the Middle Ages (Davies,
1995). They also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among
others. They developed a designed of different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983),
invented the first seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al.,
1971).
In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on supernovas, lunar
and solar eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better
the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world (Mayall, 1939). They observed the heavenly
bodies to understand weather changes and seasons that may affect their daily activities. They
used lunar calendars, too. The Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more
prepared in times of natural calamities.
China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries and
inventions is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with mathematics, logic,
philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from
developing into modern science. According to Needham (1986), it may have been the religious
and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas
of laws of nature.

Middle East Countries

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of
Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden
Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century. The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts
from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to India were contributory to the
intellectualization of the Muslim and provided their scholars knowledge to create innovations
and develop new ideas. But contrary to the Greeks, Muslim scientists placed greater value on
science experiments rather than plain-thought experiments. This led to the development of the
scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant improvements by using experiments
to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation.
A Muslim scientist named Ibg al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics especially for
his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.
In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to
the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from cl-jcbr, the beginning of the
title of one of his publications. What is now known as the Arabic Numeral System originally
came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number
system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.

Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation of
modern chemistry (Durant, 1980). In particular, some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be
the “Father of Chemistry” (Derewenda, 2007; Warren, 2005).

In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and
was the first physician to conduct a clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008). His two most notable works
in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medicinal
texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17 th century. Among his many
contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the
introduction of clinical pharmacology (Craig & Walter, 2000).

There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the field of
science, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social sciences. The
decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11 th to 13th century due to the conquest of the
Mongols wherby libraries, observatories, and other learning institutions were destroyed.

Development of Science in Africa

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of
the planet long before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and mathematics show
that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge
producers, too.
The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant
advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example, the development
of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership of farmlands of the
Egyptians of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. The rules of geometry were developed
and used to build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel architecture of Egypt. These early
science activities in Egypt were developed to improved the quality of life of the Egyptians
especially in building their early homes and cities. The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids
and the early dams built to divert water from the Nile River are some proofs of their advanced
civilization.

Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner
of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important
components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of studying science.

Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents show that
Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of a three.

Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. North Africa
and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them to
benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age. They invented metal
tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their magnificent architectures.

Mathematics was also known to be the prominent in the life of early people in the African
continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which
may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation or a six-
month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact. Dated from
35,000 BCE. Ancient Egyptians are good in the four fundamental mathematical operations and
other mathematical skills. They have knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry.
The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period was also benefiting from mathematical
learning, which is considered advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry, and
trigonometry.

Chapter 2
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND NATION-BUILDING
Brief History Background of Science and Technology
The history of science and technology in the Philippines started way back before the
country gained its independence from the American colonizers. Before the coming of the
Spanish colonizers, the early inhabitants of the archipelago had their own culture and traditions.
They had their own belief system and indigenous knowledge system that keeps them organized
and sustained their lives and communities for many years.
Science in Pre-Spanish Philippines
Is embedded the way of life of people
Scientific knowledge is observed in the way they plant their crops that provide them
food, in taking care of animals to help them in their daily tasks, and for production.
Science is observed in the way they interpret the movements of heavenly bodies to
predict seasons and climates, and in organizing days into months and years.
They used science in preparing the soil for agricultural purposes and like any other
ancient cultures, they discovered the medicinal uses of plants.
Technology is used by people in:
Building houses, irrigations, and in developing tools that they can used in everyday life.
They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking, and fishing
For fighting their enemies during war or tribal conflicts and for transportationon, both on
land and on waterways.
They also developed technologies in creating musical instruments.
The different archeological artifacts discovered in different parts of the country also
proved that the Metal Age is also had a significant influence on the lives of early Filipinos. The
sophisticated designs of gold and silver jewelry, ceramics, and metals tools proved that their
technological ideas helped in the development of different tools. Also trading with China,
Indonesia, Japan, and other nearby countries have influenced their lives by providing different
opportunities for cultural and technological exchange.
When the Spaniards colonized the country
they brought with them their own culture and practices.
They estabished schools for boys and girls and introduced the concept of subject and
disciplines.
It was the beginning of formal science and technology in the country, known now as
school of science and technology.
Life during the Spanish era slowly became modernized, adapting some Western
technology and their ways of life. the Filipinos developed ways to replicate the technology
brought by the Spaniards using indigenous materials. Medicine and advance science were
introduced in formal colleges and universities established by the Catholic orders.
The Galleon Trade has brought additional technology and development in the
Philippines. Although it is only beneficial for the Spaniards, these trades allowed other ideas,
crops, tools, cultural practices, technology, and Western practices to reach the country. Some
Filipino students who were able to study in Europe also contributed to the advancement of
medicine, engineering, arts, music, and literature in the country.
Science in American Colonization
Have more influenced in the development of science and technology in the Philippines
compared to the Spaniard.
They established the public education system, improved the engineering works and the
health conditions of the people.
They also established a modern research university, the University of the Philippines, and
created more public hospitals than the former colonial master.
The mineral resources of the country were also explored and exploited.
Transportation and communication systems were improved, though not accessible
throughout the country.
The Americans did everything to “Americanize” the Philippines. They reorganized the
learning of science and introduced it in public and private schools. In Basic Education – science
education focuses on nature studies and science and sanitation, until it became a subject formally
known as “Science”. The teaching of sciencee in higher education has also greatly improved and
modernized. Researches were done to control malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis and other
tropical diseases.
Protestant Church – the protestant church missions in different places in the country also brought
hospital and schools to far-flung areas. Little by little, these efforts built a stronger foundation for
science and technology in the country.
However, World War II has destabilized the development of the country in many ways.
Institutions and public facilities were turned into ashes, houses were burned, and many lives
were destroyed. The country had a difficult time time to rebuild itself from the ruins of the war.
Since the establishment of the new republic, the whole nation has been focusing on using its
limited resources in improving its science and technological capablity.
It has explored the use of:

ODA or Overseas Development Allocations – it is from different countries to help the country
improve its scientific productivity and technological capability. Human resource development is
at the heart of these efforts focusing on producing more engineers, scientists, technology experts,
doctors, and other professionals in the country.

The development of science and technology in the Philippines, based on its brief history,
is shaped by several factors and influences. Like in the history of science in other countries, it is
always shaped by human and social activities both internal (Survival, Culture, Economic
Activities) and external (Foreign Colonizers, Trade with Foreign Countries, and International
Economic Demands).
Science and Technology may have significant impact on the lives of the people and in the
develop ment of the Philippine society. However, improving the quality of science education still
remains as a big challenge in the country. School science from basic education to graduate
education is imroving slowly , and there are only few students enrolling in science and
technology courses.

Government Policies on Science and Technology

The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs, projects, and
policies to boost the area of science and technology. The goal is to prepare the whole country and
its people to meet the demands of a technologically driven world and capacitate the people to
live in a world driven by science.
Padilla-Concepcion (2015) reported that in 2015, in response to the ASEAN 2015
Agenda, the government, particularly the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), has
sought the expertise of the National Research Council of the Philippines (NCRP) to consult
various sectors in the society to study how the Philippines can prepare itself in meeting the
ASEAN 2015 goals. As a result of the consultation, the NCRP is expected to recommend
policies and programs that will improve the competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN
region.
The NCRP clustered these policies into four, namely;
1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, Internation Policies and Governance
 Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the curriculum
 Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue
 Development school infrastructure and proving the ICT broadband
 Local food security

2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and
Mathematics.
 Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities
 Outright grants for peer monitoring
 Review of RA 9184
 Harnessing science and technology as an independent mover of development
3. Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences
 Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with ASEAN-harmonized
standards by full implementation of the Food and Drug-Administration
 Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of pharmaceutical services
and care
 Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence-based research as pool of
information
 Allocating two percent of the GDP to research
 Legislating a law supporting human genome projects

4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry

 Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation of existing laws
 Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
 Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people’s conservation
 Formulation of common food and safety standards.
There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine government through
the DOST. Some of the projects are the following:
Providing funds for basic research and patents related to science and technology. The
government funds basic and applied researches. Funding of these research and projects
are also from the Overseas Development Aid (ODA) from different countries.
Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies of students in the field of
science and technology. Saloma (2015) pointed out that the country needs to produce
more doctoral graduates in the field of science and technology, and produce more
research in these fields, including engineering.
Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System for training
young Filipinos in the field of science and technology.
Creating science and technology parks to encourage academe and industry partnerships.
Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come home and work
in the Philippines or conduct research and projects in collaboration with Philippine-based
scientists.
Developing science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage academe
and industry partnerships.
The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering Complex
within the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman. These aimed to develop more
science and technology and engineering manpower resources needed by the country.
They also aimed to produce more researches in these fields.
The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAASE, 2008) identified
several capacity-building programs such as:
 Establishment of national centers of excellence
 Manpower and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and Science
Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD graduates in science and engineering
 Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries that will lead the country
in different research and development areas.
 Establishment of science and technology business centers to assist, advise, and incubate
technopreneurship ventures
 Strengthen science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science High
School System
In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were created to
develop the scientific literacy of the country.
 Special sciences classes were organized
 Special science elementary were established in different regions.
 Science and mathematics in basic education were continously improved.
 The K to 12 education program included Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) as one of its major tracks in the senior high school program to
encourage more students to enroll in science-related fields in college.
Lately, the Commission on Higher Education launched its Philippine-California
Advanced Research Institutes (PICAR) Project to allow several higher education institutions in
the Philippines and some US-based laboratories, research institutes, and universities to work on
research and projects related to science, agriculture, engineering, health, and technology.
The Philippine Congress has also created various laws related to science and technology.
These laws serve as a legal framework for science and technology in the country. These laws
vary according to different themes such as: conservation, health-related, technology-building and
supporting basic research, among others.
Some laws are line in with international treaties such as:
United Nations (UN)
United Nations Educational Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other international agencies
Famous Filipinos in the Field of Science, Lee Chua (2000)
1. Ramon Cabanos Barba – for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine
mangoes
2. Josefino Casas Comiso – for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by
using satellite images
3. Jose Bejar Cruz, Jr. – known internationally in the field of electrical engineering; was
elected as officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
4. Lourdes Jansuy Cruz – notable for her research on sea snail venom
5. Fabian Millar Dayrit – for his research on herbal medicine
6. Rafael Dineros Guerrero III – for his research on tilapia culture
7. Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. – for inventing the meconium drug testing
8. Lilian Formalejo Patena – for doing research on plant biotechnology
9. Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz – for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist
10. Gregory Ligot Tangonan – for his research in the field of communications technology
Other oustanding Filipino scientists who are recognized here and abroad for their outstanding
contributions in science:
 Caesar A. Saloma – an internationally renowned physicist
 Edgardo Gomez – famous scientist in marine science
 Wiliam Padolina – chemistry and president of National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST) –Philippines
 Angel Alcala – marine science
Scientist in the Philippines who were not identified in the list:
 The University of the Philippines-Los Banos – is a science paradise for agriculture,
forestry, plant and animal science, and veterinary science
 The University of the Philippines-Visayas – is also a national center for marine science,
fisheries, and other related sciences
 The University of the Philippines-Manila – is a center of excellence and has produced
many researchers, doctors, health professionals, and scientists in thee area of medical
and public health
 The University of the Philippines-Diliman – also has established a national science and
engineering complex to develop more research and produce more scientists and engineers
in the country
Chapter 3
SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
Concept of Science Education
Science education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science. Teaching
science involves developing ways on how to effectively teach science. This means exploring
pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific concepts and processes
effectively. Learning science, on the other hand, includes both pedagogy and the most
interestinga aspect, which is helping students understand and love science.

John Dewey (2001) – stressed the importance of utilizing the natural environment to
teach students. Accordingly, nature must indeed furnish its physical stimuli to provide
wealth of meaning through social activities and thinking.
Marx (1994) – opines that science is going to be one of the most important school
subjects in the future.
Knight (1986) – science education provides skills and knowledge that are necessary for a
person to live
Tilghman (2005) – develop a citizentry that will meet the goals of science in the society

Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education

In basic education – Science education helps students learn important concepts and facts
that are related to everyday life (Carale & Campo, 2003; Meador, 2005; Worth &
Grollman, 2003) including important skills such as process skills, critical thinking skills,
and life skills that are needed in coping up with daily life activities (Chaille & Britain,
2002)
Science education – also develops positive attitude such as: the love for knowledge,
passion for innovative things, curiosity to study about nature, and creativity (Lind, 1997)
In tertiary education – science education deals with developing students understanding
and appreciation of science ideas and scientific works.

Science Schools in the Philippines

Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS)
 This is a government program for gifted students in the Philippines
 It is a service institute of the DOST whiose mandate is to offer free scholarship
basis for secondary course with special emphasis on subjects pertaining to the
sciences with the end-view of preparing itss student for a free science career
(Republic Act No. 3661).
 PSHSS students have proven to be a beacon of excellence, courage, and hope for
the country.
Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project
 The SSES Project is in pursuance to DepEd Order No. 73 s. 2008 and DepEd
Order No. 51 s. 2010.
 This project started in June 2007 with 57 identified schools that participated or
were as science elementary shools in the country.
 Aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological
knowledge, skills, and values. Its mission is to
o Provide a learning environment to science-inclined children through a
special curriculum that recognizes the multiple intelligences of the
learners;
o Promote the development of lifelong learning skills; and
o Foster the holistic development of the learners.
 The subject Science and Health is taught in Grade 1 with a longer time compared
to other subjects: 70 minutes for Grades I to III and 80 minutes for Grades IV to
V
Quezon City Regional Science High School
 Established on September 17, 1967.
 The school was a product of a dream to establish a special science school for
talented students in science and mathematics.
 The schools envisions to serve as a venue in providing maximum opportunities
for science-gifted students to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity.

Manila Science High School

 Established on October 1, 1963
 It is the first science high school in the Philippines
 The MSAT has five parts:
1. Aptitude in science
2. Apptitude test in mathematics
3. Problem-solving test in science
4. Problem-solving test in mathematics
5. Proficiency in English

Central Visayan Institue Foundation

 It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the
Dynamic Learning Program (DLP).
 The school takes place in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP)
established in 1192.

Chapter 4
INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

Indigenous Knowledge System

Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life experience of young children as they
grow up. They live and grow in a society where the members of the community prominently
practice indigenous knowledge.
Some examples of Indigenous Knowledge that are taught and practiced by the indigenous people
are:
 Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing animal’s
behavior and celestial bodies;
 Using herbal medicine;
 Preserving foods;
 Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural properties;
 Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
 Using indigenous technology in daily lives;
 Building local irrigation systems;
 Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties;
 Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits; and
 Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard.

Indigenous Science
 (Gribbin, 2001; Mkapa, 2004; Sibisi, 2004) – indigenous science is part of the indigenous
knowledge system practiced by different groups of people and early civilizations
 Pawilen (2005) – it includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, and
representations that guide human societies in their enumerable interactions with the
natural milieu: agricultural, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena, and
strategies for coping with changing environments
 Ogawa (1995) – claimed that it is collectively lived in and experienced by the people of a
given culture.
 Cajete (2004) – indigenous science includes everything from metaphysics to philosophy
and various practical technologies practiced by indigenous peoples both past and present.
 Iaccarino (2003) – science is a part of culture, and how science is done largely depends
on the cultural practices of the people.
Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to
scientific attitudes as identified by Johnston (2000), namely:
1. Motivating attitudes
2. Cooperating attitudes
3. Practical attitudes
4. Reflective attitudes
These cultural beliefs therefore can be good foundation for developing positive values
toward learning and doing science and in bringing science in personal level.
Pawilen (2005) explained that indigenous science knowledge has developed diverse
structures and contents through the interplay between the society and the environment.
According to Kuhn (1962), developmental stages of most sciences are characterized by continual
competition between a number of distinct views of nature, each partially derived from,, and all
roughly compatible with the dictates of scientific observation and method. Sibisi (2004) also
pointed out that indigenous science provides the basics of astronomy, pharmacology, food
technology, or metallurgy, which were derived from traditional knowledge and practices.
Pawilen (2006) developed a simple framework for understanding indigenous science.
Accordingly, indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge that uses science process
skills and guided by values and culture.
Figure 1. The Concept of Indigenous Science

USEUS
INDIGENOUS SCIENCE

uses guided by composed of

Science Process Skills Community Traditional Knowledge

Culture and Values

1. Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing, classifying,
measuring, problem solving, inferring, communicating, and predicting

2. Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as the following:
 The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator
 The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as people.
 All living and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent with each
other.
 Human being are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources. They
have a responsibility to preserve it.
 Nature is a friend to human beings –it needs respect and proper care.

3. Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced and valued by people

and communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine, indigenous farming methods,
and folk astronomy.

Chapter 5
HUMAN FLOURISHING

Introduction
Eudamonia, literally “good spirited”, is a term coined by Aristotle (385-323 BC) to
dsccribe the pinnacle of happiness that is attainable by humans. This has often been translated
into “human flourishing” in literature arguably likening humans to flowers achieving their full
bloom. As discussed in the Nichomahean Ethics, Aristotle’s human flourishing arises as a result
of different components such as pronesis, friendship, wealth and power. In the ancient Greek
society, they believed that acquiring these qualities will surely bring the seekers happiness,
which in effect allows them to partake in the greater notion of what we call the Good.
As time change, elements that comprise human flourishing changed, which are subject to
dynamic social history as written by humans. People found means to live more comfortably,
explore more places, develop more products, and make more money, and then repeating the
process in full circle. Our concept of human flourishing today proves to be different from what
Aristotle originally perceived then – humans of today are expected to become a “man of the
world”. He is supposed to situate himself in a global neighborhood, working side by side
among institutions and the government to be able to reach a common goal. Competition as a
means of survival has become passe, coordination is the new trend.
Discepancy between Eastern and Western Conception regarding society and human flourishing.
Eastern Conception
Community centric
Individuals should sacrifice himself for the sake of the society
Chinese Confucian System
Japanese Bushido
Encourage studies of literature, sciences and art for a greater cause
Western Conception
More focused on the individual
Human Flourishing as an end
Aristotelian view
Aims for Eudamonia as the ultimate good.
Nevertheless, such stereotypes cannot be said to be true given the current stance of
globalization. Flourishing borders allowed people full access to cultures that as a result, very few
are able to maintain their original philosophies.

Science, Technology and Human Flourishing

 Every discovery, innovation, and sucess contributes to our pool of human knowledge.
 Human’s perpetual need to locate himself in the world by finding proofs to trace
evolution.
 Elicits our idea of self importance.
 Human flourishing is deeply intertwined with goal setting relevant to science and
technology.
 Technology is a human activity we excel in as a result of achieving science. (Heidegger)
 Good is inherently related to truth

Science as Method and Results

 Science stems from objectivity brought upon by a rigid method
 Claim to reason and empiricism

Steps in Scientific Method:

1. Observe and determine if there are unexplained occurences unfolding.
2. Determine the problem and identify factors involved.
3. Through past knowledge of similar instance, formulate hypothesis that could explain the
said phenomenon. Ideally, the goal is to reject the null hypothesis and accept the
alternative hypothesis for the study “to count as significant” (can also be separated into
additional steps such as “to generate prediction” or “to infer from past experiments”).
4. Conduct experiment by setting up dependent and independent variables, and trying to see
how independent ones affect dependent ones.
5. Gather and analyze results throughout and upon culmination of the experiment. Examine
if the data gathered are significant enough to conclude results.
6. Formulate conclusions and provide recommendations in case others would want to
broaden the study.

At least in the students’ formative years, the above routine is basic methodology when
introducing them to experimentation and empiricism –two distinct features that give science edge
over other schools of thought. Throughtout the course of history, however, there exists heavy
objections on the scientific procedure; the line separating science and the so-called
pseudoscience becomes more muddled.

Verification Theory
 A discipline is science if it can be confirmed or interpreted in the event of an alternative
hypothesis being accepted.
 Premium on empiricism
 Takes into account those results which are measurable and experiments which are
repeatable
 This was espoused by a movement in the early twentieth century called the Venna Circle,
a group of scholars who believed that:
 Only those which can be observed should be regarded as meaningful, and
 Reject those which cannot be directly accessed as meaningless.

Falsificication Theory

 As long as an ideology is not proven to be false and can best explain a phenomenon over
alternative theories, we should acceept the said ideology.
 Allowed emergence of theories otherwise rejected by the verification theory.
 Encourages research in order to determine which among the theories can stand the test of
falsification.
 Karl Popper is the known proponent of this view.

Science as a Social Endeavor

 The application of science to figuring out how the world works/exists/originated etc.
 To solve varous problems, satisfy various needs and sustainable development of society
with the help of scientific knowledge.
 Has a prominent place in any curriculum that has ‘science literacy’ as one of its aims.
 Development of ‘Scientific literacy’ is considered to be the major aim of studying science
as a social endeavor.

Science and Results

 Science is not the only discipline which is able to produce results –religion, luck, and
human randomness are some of its contemporaries in the field.
 Science is not entirely foolproof that it is correct 100% of the time.
 Science does not monopolize the claim for definite results.

Science as Education

 If one is really in pursuits of humann flourishing, it would make sense for them to pursue
it holistically.
 Simply mastering science and technology would be inadequate if we are to, say, socialize
with people or ruminate on our inner self.
 Aristotle’s eudaimonic person is required to be knowledgeable about science, among
other things of equal importance.
 Supposed to possess intellectual virtues that will enable to determine truth from falsehood
or good reasoning from poor reasoning.
 A true eudaimon recognizes that flourishing requires one to excel in various dimensions,
such as linguistic, kinetic, artistic, and socio-civic. He understand that he should not
focus on one aspect alone.

How Much is to Much

Economist believe that growth is the primary indicator of development, as both go hand
in hand, and has put from their resources in trying to achieve such. Technology has been a
primary instrument in enabling them to pursue said goal, utilizing resources, machineries, and
labor. What is missing in this equation is that growth presents an illusory notion of sustainability
–the world’s resources can only provide so much, it cannot be expected to stretch out for
everybody’s consumption over a long period of time. Moreover, growth is not infinite –there is
no preordained ceiling once the ball starts rolling.

Joseph Hickel

Developed countries should not push forth more growth but instead adopt “de-
development” policies or else, everybody loses. The rapid pace of technological growth
allows no room for nature to recuperate, resulting in exploitation and irreversible
damages to nature.

Right now, we are experiencing repercussions of said exploits in the hands of man-made
climate change, which would snowball and affect majority of flora and fauna, driving half of the
latter extinct in less than a hundred year from now. If this continues in its currently alarming rate,
we might bring about our own extinction.

Chapter 6

TECHNOLOGY AS A WAY OF REVEALING

Introduction
Comparing the lives of the people before and now will make anyone realized the changes
that happened in society not just in terms of culture, language, or rights but more importantly,
changes in people’s way of life due to the existence of science and technology.
The term “generation gap” is attributed mainly to the changes brought by technology. Although
the original idea is for technology to help everyone, it cannot be denied that until today, not everyone is
comfortable in using the different kinds of technologies. Mostly those belong to the older generation think
that these technologies are too complicated to operate. They have been used to the simple living in the
past and these available technological devices, though very appealing, are a difficult puzzle to the.

Human Condition Before Common Era

 Our early ancestor’s primal need to survive paved way for the invention of several
developments. Gifted with brains more advanced than other creatures, humans are able to
utilize abundant materials for their own ease and comfort.
 As it is difficult to pinpoint the particular period where technology is said to have started,
one can say that at the very least, the motivation to make things easier has been around
since Human are.
 Homo erectus have been using fire to cook, through chipping one flint over the other to
produce a spark, all the while without realizing the laws of friction and heat.
 Tools from stone and flints maked the era of the Stone Age, during the advent of our
very own Homo sapiens, and human began to sharpen stones as one would a knife; an
exmple of this is the simple machine called wedge.
 This particular period proved to be difficult for our ancestors, but in a remarkable distinct
way. There is little to no written accounts except for several cave drawings and unearthed
artifacts from various parts of the world that narrate how their culture came to be. It then
proves that there is little capacity for our ancestors to contemplate and perceive things
outside themselves in a more reflective manner.
 There are several excavations in different parts of Europe of miniature statues prevalent
during Paleolithic period, the so-called “Venus” figure. It depicts a rudimentary carving
of a voluptuous woman out of ivory or stone. The reason behind this is still unknown to
archaeologists and anthropologists alike; they can only infer that the humans of
yesterday have a certain fixation on the female anatomy. What did this fascination
translate to? Lack of conclusive evidence hinders us from proceeding any number.
 Soon enough, people discovered minerals and began forging metalwork. They realized
that these substances are more durable, malleable, and have more luster than the previous
material.
 There are some indicators that humans in the past share the same concerns and interests,
suggesting that these inclinations persist through multitudes of generation over several
millennia. Fur clothing and animal skin are primarily used for comfort against harsh
winds – our ancestors are able to draw the connection between their being naked and
vulnerable due to some lack of fur or protective covering which would otherwise allow
them to withstand extreme weather conditions.
 They begin to cover themselves up out of necessity, and gradually, added several more to
their garment. Some of those found at excavation sites are reminiscent of early
accessories, suggesting that our ancestors have been deeply engaged in the concept of
beauty. Perhaps, they had taken a liking to a certain shiny stone, or a perfectly shaped
bone, and wanted to wear it as trophy.

Human Condition in the Common Era

 For a long time, humans were content with their relationship with nature.
 Earliest case of man-made extinction occured over 12, 000 years ago.

The Holocene extinction

- It is the extinction of several species due to human activity

- also called sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction
- occured as early as between 100, 000 to 200, 000 years up to the present

 9000 years ago human began agriculture.

 Formation of communities caused human to expand more territory and more people to feed
waging wars with other tribes seemed to be the early solution.
 5, 000 years ago they found out that peaceful negotiation was also possible and less bloody
method because of this trade emerged
 People had a new objective that is to gather as much products as possible and becoming
wealthy as one of their goals as humans and ultimately as civiilization.
 They began to hunt, farm, and produce things with prospect of profit.
 Humanity became more complex. The primary goal was not just to survive but to live a
goodlife.
 Technology has been instrumental in all of these.
 Good life envisioned before is pale in comparison today
 They perceived death as, at the very least, unpleasant and concocted potions to ward evil off
from their kinsmen, often appealing to their gods for blessings.
 Medicine was born, although it takes time before it part ways with potion
 They bcome fixated with gold, this ultimately paved way for the emergence of chemistry in
its primitive
 Wars were always being waged
 The leaders is chosen based on who portrayed exceptional strength among their group.
 Physical strength was valued at most, although there appeared to be as many intellectually
gifted figures just the same. These innovators were primarily the ones behind discoveries and
triumphs of these civilization.

Position-wise, the humans of today are much better off compared to humans several
centuries ago. Advancements in medicine, technology, health, and education ushered in
humanity in humanity’s best yet, and show no sign of stopping. Below are some of the notable
comparisons then and now:

1. Mortality Rate
2. Average Lifespan
3. Literacy Rate
4. Gross Domestic Product

The Essence of Technology

 We are more developed than we were before.

 Modern humans are reliant on technology in their search for the good life. We see ways
amd means from nature to utilize and achieve growth – a goal that we believe would
bring forth betterment.
 In retrospect, this view of technology proves to be goal-oriented. It assumes that it is
instrumental in achieving a goal in mind, that is is a purposeful, deliberate craft humans
steer in order to reach some greater good.
 Martin Heidegger redefine technology away from its purpose. He argued that its essence,
or purpose, and being are different from each other. He was able to expound on this point
upon identifying that technology can either be perceived as first, a means to achieve
man’s end and second, that which constitute human activity.
 Humans lose track of things that matter, redudicing their suroundings to their economic
vaue.

Backtracking the Human Condition

 Technology’s initial promises proved to be true, regardless of its ramifications. All in all
the human condition improved, only if by improving we measure the level of comfort,
various scientific breakthroughs, improved lifestyles of those who had the luxury to
afford to do so.
 Different Machineries aid in prolonging lives
 Honing efficiency in industrial workplaces
 Exploring Universe
 Battling for their daily survival-diseases
 Tribe wars
 Lack of habitable territories
 Competition on resources
 Science
 Religion

It seems that the human condition, although more sophisticated, is nothing but a rehashed
version of its former self. Nothinf much has changed since then, and it appears that nothing will
change in the times to come if we fail to shift our view elsewhere. While it is true that
technology offerred us one compelling notion of the truthh and the good, we should be staunched
in our resolve if we want to know the real one. For starters we might begin with considering our
concepts, which corresponds to the Good, such as Aristotle’ conception of human flourishing.
His notion entertains the idea of holistic enrichment of a person situated in his society. A notable
distinction on Aristotle’s idea is his subscription on evaluative concepts called virtues and their
role in achieving the good life. technological advancements are seemingly occuring in a rapid
pace that our morality cannot quite keep up; no such consideration was given in this approach in
achieving the good life.

Chapter 7

GOOD LIFE

Introduction

• In Ancient Greece, long before the word “science” has been coined, the need to
understand the world and reality was bound with the needd to understand the self and the
good life.
• For Plato, the task of understanding the things in the world runs parallel with the job of
truly getting into what will make our soul flourish. In an attempt to understand reality and
the external world, man must seek to understand himself, too.
• It was Aristotle who gave a definitive distinction between the theoritical and practical
sciences. Among the theoritical disciplines, Aristotle included logic, biology, physics and
metaphysics, among others.
• Among the practical ones, Aristotle counted ethics and politics. Whereas “truth is the aim
of the theoritical sciences, the “good” is the end goal of the practical ones.

Aristotle and How We all Aspire for a Good Life

• It is interesting to note that Aristotle is the first philosopher who approached the problem
of reality from a “scientific” lens as we know now, is also the first thinker who dabbled
into the complex problematization of the end goal of life; happiness.
• Compared to his teacher and predecessor, Plato, Aristotle embarked on a different
approach in figuring out reality. In contrast to Plato who thought that things in this world
are not real and are only copies of the real in the world of forms, Aristotle puts everything
back to the ground in claiming that this world is all there is to it and that this world is the
only reality we can all access.
• For Plato, change is so perplexing that it can only make sense if there are two realities;
the world of forms and the world of matter. Plato recognized change as a process and as
phenomenon that happens in the world, that in fact, it is constant. He was conceived that
reality is full of these seemingly contrasting manifestations of change and performance.
• Aristotle for his part, disagreed with his teacher’s position and forwarded the idea that
there is no reality over and above what the senses can perceive. As such, it is only by
observation of the external world that one can truly understand what reality is all about.
• Change is a process that is inherent in things.
• Aristotle extends this analysis from the external world into the province of the human
person and declares that even human beings are potentialities who aspire for their
actuality.
• Every human being moves according to some end. Every action that emanates from a
human person is a function of the purpose (telos) that the person has.
• Aristotle claims that happiness is the end goal of everything that we do.

Happiness as the Goal of a Good Life

• In the eighteenth century, John Stuart Mill declared the Greatest Happiness Principle by
saying that an action is right as far as it maximizes the attainment of happiness for the
greatest number of people.
• Mill said that the individual happiness of each individual should be prioritized and
collectively dictates the kind of action that should be endorsed
• The ethical is, of course, meant to lead us to the good and happy life. Through the ages,
man has constantly struggled with the external world in order to reach human flourishing.
• History has given birth to different schools of thought, all of which aim for the good and
happy life.

Materialism

The first materialists were the atomists in Ancient Greece. Democritus and Leucippus led
a school whose primary beliefs is that the world is made up of and is controlled by the tiny
indivisible units in the world called atomos or seeds. For Democritus and his disciples, the world
including human beings is made up of matter. There is no need to post immaterial entities as
sources of purpose. Atomos simply comes together randomly to form the things in the world. As
such, only material entities matter. In terms of human flourishing, matter is what makes us attain
happiness. We see this at work with most people who are clinging on to material wealth as the
primary source of the meaning of their existence.

Hedonism

The hedonists, for their part, see the end goal of life in acquiring pleasure. Pleasure has
always been the priority of hedonists. For them, life is about obtaining and indulging in pleasure
because life is limited. The mantra of this school of thought is the famous, “Eat, drink, and be
merry for tomorrow we die.” Led by Epicurus, this school of thought also does not buy any
notion of afterlife just like the materialists.

Stoicism

Another school of thought led by Epicurus, the stoics espoused the idea that to generate
happiness, one must learn to distance oneself and be apathetic. The original term, apatheria,
precisely means to be indifferent. For the stoics, happiness can only be attained by a careful
practice of apathy. We should, in this worldview, adopt the fact that some things are not within
our control. The sooner we realize this the happier we can become.

Theism
Most people find the meaning of their lives using God as a fulcrum of their existence.
The Philippines, as a predominantly Catholic country, is witness to how people base their life
goals on beliefs that hinged on some form of supernatural reality called heaven. The ultimate
basis of happiness for theists is the communion with God. The world where we are in is only jsut
temporary reality where we have to mancuver around while waiting for the ultimate return to the
hands of God.

Humanism

Humanism as another school of thought espouses the freedom of man to carve his own
destiny and to legislate his own laws, free from the shackles of a God that monitors and controls.
For humanists, man is literally the captain of his own ship. Inspired in the enlightenment in
seventeenth century, humanists see themselves not merely as stewards of the creation but as
individuals who are in control of themselves and the world outside them. This is the spirits of
most scientists who thought that the world is place and space for freely unearthing the world in
seeking for ways on how to improve the lives of its inhabitants.

As a result of the motivation of humanist current, scientists eventually turned to

technology in order to ease the difficulty of life. scientists of today meanwhile are ready to
confront more sophisticated attempts at altering the world for the benefit of humanity. Some
people now are willing to tamper with time and space in the name of technology. Social media,
as an example, has been so far very effective of employing technology in purging time and
space. Not very long ago, communication between two people from two continents in the planet
will involve months of waiting for a mail to arrive. Seeing each other real time while talking was
virtually impossible. Now, communication between two people whereever they are, is not just
possible but easy. The Internet and smart phones made real-time communication possible not just
between two people, but even with multiple people simultaneously.

Technology allowed us to tinker with our sexuality. Biologically male individuals can
now undergo medical operation if they go wish for sexual reassignment. Breast implants are now
available and can be done with relative convenience if anyone whishes to have one. Hormones
may also be injected in order to alter the sexual chemicals in the body.

Whether or not we agree with these technological advancements, these are all undertaken
in the hopes of attaining the good life. The balance, however, between the good life, ethics, and
technology has to be attained.

Chapter 8

WHEN TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY CROSS

Technology

“Techne” and “logos”

A discourse on art (Buchanan, 2010)
Concepts like machines and tools were also attached to the word “technology”.
In one way or another, each person in the society is directly or indirectly affected by
technology whether he wills it or not.
Most people survive their everyday lives with great reliance to the different technological
advancements already available to the masses.
Technology is already an inevitable part of the society.

Necessity or want?

 Convenience
 Pleasure
 Happiness
 Communication
- Anything too much is bad
- Various ethical dilemmas involving use of technological devices
- Misuse or invention to produce bad results

Television sets, Mobile Phones, Computers and Humanity

Television

• According to Kantar Media, in the Ph, 92 percent of urban homes and 70 percent of rural
homes own at least one television set.
• Household with tv set reached 15.135M (Noda, 2012)
• Ultimate medium for advertisement placements
• Almost all use this particular type of device
• Television plays a great role in the lives of the people

Paul Gottlieb Nipkow

• Late 1980s
• Successful in his attempt to send images through wires with the aid of a rotating metal
disk (Nipkow disc)
• “Electric telescope” – 18 lines of resolution

Allan Archibad Campbell-Swinton and Boris Rosing

• New system of television by using the cathrode ray tube in addition to the mechanical
scanner system.

Mobile Phones

• Filipinos love to use their mobile phones anywhere, anytime.

• More than half of the Filipino population own atleast one mobile phone regardless of
type.
• In 2010, Synovate declared 67 percent product ownership in the country.
• Mobile phones are considered a must-have among young Filipinos (ABS-CBN News,
2010.
• 1 out of 3 Filipinos cannot live without a mobile phone – Ipsos Media Atlas Philippines
Nationwide Urban 2011-2012 survey
• The first call ever made on a cell phone, was from an engineer named Martin Cooper
calling a rival engineer to brag about his accomplishment.

Mobile phone used by Cooper was:

- Weighed of 1.1 kg
- Measured 228.6 x 127 x 44.4 mm
- This kind of device was capable of a 30-minute talk
- It took 10 hours to charge
- It was known as the Motorola DynaTAC 8000x in 1983

Computers and Laptops

• Not possible for all Filipino families to own at least one computer or laptop.
• Most profits gained by computer and laptop manufacturers come from offices,
businesses, or schools
• Growing number of Internet users in the Ph, problems regarding the Internet providers
• Charles Babbage
• Released in June 1981 by the Osborne Computer Corporation, the Osborne 1 is
considered to the first true portable, full-featured computer

Facts about Filipinos and their use of gadgets and the Internet

• Mobile phone subcription is at 119 million

• Filipinos spend approximately 3.2 hours on mobile and 5.2 hours on desktop daily.
• Currently, the Philippines has one of the highest digital populations in the world.
• There are now 47 million active Facebook accounts in the Philippines.
• The Philippines is the fastest-growing application market in Southeast Asia

Roles played by these Technological Advancement

 Television sets – television is mainly used as a platform for advertisements and

information dissemination. It is also served as a recreational activity and good stress
reliver to most families, specifically to Filipino families. Television is a good platform
for different propagandas and advocacies.
 Mobile Phones – primarily used for communication and offer services like texting and
calling.
 Personal computers and laptops – most of the function found in these technological
devices are now also available in mobile phones, they still offer their own unique features
that make them attractive.

Ethical Dilemma Faced by These Technological Advancements

1. Most parents would argue that these devices make their children lazy and unhealthy.
2. People are freely exposed to different things on televisions, mobile phones, laptops or
computers.

 Ethics of responsibility
 What ought to be allowed

Robotics and Humanity

Robot

• An actuated mechanism programmable in two or more axes with a degree of autonomy,

moving within its environment, to perform intended tasks.
• Autonomy – ability to perform intended tasks based on current state and sensing without
human intervention

Service Robot

• A robot that performs useful tasks for humans or equipment excluding industrial
application.
• A robot may be classified according to its intended application as an industrial robot or a
service robot.

Personal Service Robot

• Service robot for personal use

• Used for a noncommercial task, usually by laypersons
• Examples: domestic servant robot, automated wheelchair, personal mobility assist robot,
pet exercising robot
Professional service robot

• Service robot for personal use

• Used for a commercial task, usually operated by a properly trained operator
• Examples: cleaning robot for public places, delivery robot, firefighting robot,
rehabilitation robot, surgery robot

George Devol

• An American inventor known for developing Unimate, the first material handling robot
employed in industrial production work.

Roles played by Robotics

• Ease the workload of mankind

• Make life more efficient and less stressful
• Perform complicated activities
• Pleasure, entertainment in parks or exhibits
• Toys, child-friendly
• Used in movies

Isaac Asimov – was an American writer and professor of biochemistry at Boston University

Isaac Asimov “Three Laws of Robotics”

1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through in action, allow a human being to
come to harm.
2. A robot must obey orders given it by human beings except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with
the First or Second Law.

Ethical Dilemma/s faced by Robotics

1. Safety

 Who should be held accountable if someone’s safety is compromised by a robot?

 Who should be blamed, the robot, the agent using the robot, or the maker/inventor of
the robot?
2. Emotional component
 It is not completely impossible for robots to develop emotions.

 What if robots become sentient?

 Should they be granted robot rights?

Chapter 9

INFORMATION AGE

Introduction

The Information Age is defined as a “period starting in the last quarter of the 20th century
when information became effortlessly accessible through publications and through the
management of information by computers and computer networks” (Vocabulary.com, n.d). The
means of conveying symbolic information (e.g.,writing, math , other codes) among humans has
evolved with increasing speed. The information Age is also called the Digital Age and the New
Media Age because it was associated with the development of computers.
According to James R. Messenger who proposed the Theory of Information Age in 1982,
“the Information Age is a true new age based upon the interconnection of computers via
telecommunications, with these information systems operating on both a real-time and as needed
basis. Furthermore, the primary factors driving this new age forward are convenience and user-
friendliness which, in turn, will create user dependence”.

History

The table below traces the history and emergence of the Information Age (United States
American History, n.d.).

Table 1. Timeline of the Information Age

YEAR EVENT

3000 BC Sumerian writing system used pictographs to represents words

2900 BC Beginning of Egyptian hieroglyhic writing

1300 BC Tortoise shell and oracle bone writing were used

500 BC Papyrus roll was used

220 BC Chinese small seal writing was developed.

100 AD Book (parchment codex)

105 AD Woodblock printing and paper was invented by the Chinese

1455 Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press using movable metal type

1755 Samuel Johnson’s dictionary standardized English spelling

1802 • The Library of Congress was established

• Invention of the carbon arc lamp

1824 Research on persistence of vision published

1830s • First viable design for a digital computer

• Augusta Lady Byon writes the world’s first computer program

1837 Invention of the telegraph in Great Britain and the United States

1861 Motion pictures were projected onto a screen

1876 Dewey Decimal System was introduced

1877 Eadwcard Muybridge demonstrated high-speed photography

1899 First magnetic recordings were released

1902 Motion picture special effects were used

1906 Lee DeForest invented the electronic amplifying tube (triode)

1923 Television camera tube was invented by Zvorkyn

1926 First practical sound movie

1939 Regularly scheduled television broadcasting began in the US

1940s Beginnings of information science as a discipline

1945 Vannevar Bush foresaw the invention of hypertext

1946 ENIAC computer was developed

1948 Birth of field-of-information theory proposed by Claude E. Shannon

1957 Planar transistor was developed by Jean Hoerni

1958 First integrated circuit

1960s Library of Congress developed LC MARC (machine-readable code)

1969 UNIX operating system was developed, which could handle multitasking

1971 Intel introduced the first microprocessor chip

1972 Optical laserdisc was developed by Philips and MCA

1974 MCA and Philips agreed on a standard videodisc encoding format

1975 Altair Microcomputer Kit was released: first personal computer for the
public

1977 RadioShack intoduced the first complete personal computer

1984 Apple Macintosh computer was introduced

Mid 1980s Artificial Intelligence was separated from information science

1987 Hypercard was developed by Kill Atkinson recipe box methapor

1991 Four hundred fifty complete works of literature on one CD-ROM was
released

January 1997 RSA (encryption and network security software) Internet security code
cracked for a 48-bit number
Robert Harris article “Truth of the Information Age” (n.d.) detailed some facts on the
Information Age.

1. Information must compete. There is no need for information to stand out and be
recognized in the increasing clutter.
2. Newer is equated with truer. We forgot the truth that any fact or value can endure.
3. Selection is a viewpoint. Choose multiple sources for your information if you want to
receive a more balanced view of reality.
4. The media sells what the culture buys. In other word, information is driven by cultural
priorities.
5. The early word gets the perm. The first media channel to expose an issue often defines
the context, terms, and attitudes surrounding it.
6. You are what you eat and so is your brain. Do not draw conclusions unless all ideas and
information are presented to you.
7. Anything in great demand will be counterfeited. The demand for incredible knowledge,
scandals, and secrets is ever-present; hence, many events are fabricated by tabloids,
publicists, or other agents of information fraud.
8. Ideas are seen as controversial. It is almost certainly impossible to make any assertion
that will not find some supporters and some detractors.
9. Undead information walks ever on. Rumors, lies, disinformation, and gossips never truly
die down. They persist and continue to circulate.
10. Media presence creates the story. People behave much differently from the way they
would if being filmed when the media are present, especially film news or television
media.
11. The medium selects the message. Television is mainly pictorial, partially aural, and
slightly textual, so visual stories are emphasized: fires, chases, and disasters.
12. The whole truth is a pursuit. The information that reaches us is usually selected, verbally
charged, filtered, slanted, and sometimes, fabricated. What is neglected is often even
more important than what is included.

Computer

Computers are among the most important contribution of advances in the Information
Age to society.
It is an electronic device that stores and processes data (information).
It runs on a program that contains the exact, step-by-step directions to solve a problem
(Ushistory.org, 2017).

Types of Computer

1. Personal Computer (PC)

2. Desktop Computer
3. Laptops
4. Personal Digital Assistants (PDA)
5. Server
6. Mainframes
7. Wearable Computers

The World Wide Web

Several historians trace the origin of the internet to Claude E. Shannon, an American
Mathematician who was considered as the “Father of Information Theory”.
The internet is a worldwide system of interconnected networks that facilitate data
transmission among innumerable computers.
It was developed during the 1970s by the Department of Defense.
In the early days, the Internet was used mainly by scientists to communicate with other
scientists.
The internet remained under government control until 1984 (Rouse, 2014).
Speed was one of the early problem faced by Internet.
Phone lines could only transit information at a limited rate
Companies like Intel developed faster microprocessors so personal computers could
process the incoming signals at a more rapid rate (Ushistory.org, 2017)

Sergey Brin and Larry Page

Built a search engine that listed results to reflect page popularity when they determined
that the most popular result would frequently be the most usable.
Google is now the world’s most popular search engine, accepting more than 200 million
queries daily.

New forms of communication were also introduced:

Electronic male, or email – it was a suitable way to send a message to fellow workers,
business partners, or friends. Messages could be sent and received at the convenience of
the individual.
A letter that took several days to arrive could be read in minutes.

Companies whose businesses are built on digitized information have become more
powerful in a relatively short period of time. The curent Information Age has spawned its own
breed of wealthy influential brokers, from Microsoft’s Bill Gates to Apple’s Steve Jobs to
Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg.

Critics charged that the Internet created a technological divide that increased the gap
between the members of the higher class and lower class of society. Those who could not afford
a computer or a monthly access fee were denied this possiblities. Many decried the impersonal
nature of electronic communication compared to a telephonee or a handwritten letter.

On one hand, the unregulated and loose nature of the Internet allowed pornography to be
broadcast to millions of homes. Protecting children from these influences or even from meeting
violent predators would prove to be difficult. Nowadays, crimes in various forms are rampant
because of the use of social media. Cyberbullying is an issue that poses alarm worldwide.
Consequently, we need to be aware of the possible harm and damage due to abuse of these
advances in the Information Age.

Applications of Computers in Science and Research

One of the significant applications of computers for science and research is evident in the field of
bioinformatics.

Bioinformatics – is the application of information technology to store, organize, and analyze

vast amount of biological data which is available in the form of sequences and structures of
proteins –the building blocks of organisms and nucleic acids –the information carrier (Madan,
n.d.).

 Early interest in bioinformatics was established because of a need to create data bases of
biological sequences.
 The human brain cannot store all the genetic sequences of organisms and this huge
amount of data can only be stored, analyzed, and be used efficiently with the use of
computers.
 Computers and software tools are widely used for generating the databases and to
identify the function of proteins, model the structure of proteins, determine the coding
(useful) regions of nucleic acid sequences, find suitable drug compounds from a large
pool, and optimize the drug development process by predicting possible targets.

Some of the software tools which are handy in the analysis:

• BLAST ( used for comparing sequences);

• Annonator (an interactive genome analysis tool); and
• GeneFinder (tool to identify coding regions and splice sites) (Madan, n.d.).

 The sequence information generated by the human genome research, initiated in 1988 has
now been stored as a primary information source for future applications in medicine.
 The available data is so huge that if compiled in books, the data would run into 200
volumes of 1000 pages each and reading alone (ignoring understanding factor) would
require 26 years working around the clock.
 For a population of about five billion human beings with two individuals differing in
three million bases, the genomic sequence difference database would have about 15, 000,
000 billion entries.
 The present challenge to handle such huge volume of data is to improve database design,
develop software for database access, and manipulation and device data-entry procedures
to compensate for the varied computer procedures and systems used in different
laboratories.

Pharmaceutical industry’s point of view – bioinformatics is the key to rational drug discovery.

- It reduces the number of trials in the screening of drug compounds and in identifying
potential drug targets for a particular disease using high-power computing workstations
and software like Insight.
- This profound application of bioinformatics in genome sequence has led to a new area in
pharmacology –Pharmacogenomics, where potential targets for drug development are
hypothesized from the genome sequences.

In plant biotechnology – bioinformatics is found to be useful in the areas of identifying diseases

resistance genes and designing plants with high nutrition value (Madan, n.d.).

How to Check the Reliability of Web Sources

The internet contains a vast collection of highly valuable information but it may aslo
contain unreliable, biased information that mislead people. The following guidelines can help us
check the reliability of web sources that we gather. It is noteworthy to consider and apply the
following guidelines to avoid misinformation. (Lee College Library, n.d.)

1. Who is the author of the article/site?

 How to find out?
Look for an “About” or “More About the Author” link at the top, bottom, or
sidebar of the webpage. Some pages will have a corporate author rather than a
single person as an author. If no information about the author (s) of the page is
provided, be suspicious.
 Does the author provide his or her credentials?
 What type of expertise does he or she have on the subject he or she is
writing about? Does he or she indicate what his or her education is?
 What type of experience does he or she have?
 Should you trust his or her knowledge of the subject?

Try reaching on the Internet for information about the author.

 What kind of websites are associated with the author’s name? Is he or she
affiliated with any educational institution.
 Do commercial sites come up? Do the websites associated with the author give
you any clues to particular biases the author might have?

2. Who published the site?

 How to find out?

 Look at the domain name of the website that will tell you who is hosting
the site. For instance, the Lee College Library website is
http://www.lee.edu/library. The domain name is “lee.edu”. this tells you
that the library website is hosted by Lee College.

 Searrch the domain name at http://www.whois.sc/registered domain

names. What is the organization’s main purpose? Check the organization’s
main website, if it has one. Is it educational? Commercial? Is it a reputable
organization?

 Do not ignore the suffix on the domain name (the three-letter part that
comes after “.”). The suffix is usually (but not always) descriptive of what
type of entity hosts the website. Keep in mind that it is possible for sites to
obtain suffixes that are misleading. Here are examples:
.edu = educational
.com = commercial
.mil = millitary
.gov = govenment
3. What is the main purpose of the site? Why did the author write it and why did the
publisher post it?
 To sell a product?
 As a personal hobby?
 As public service?
 To further scholarhip on a topic?
 To provide general information on a topic?
 To persuade you of a particular point of view?

4. Who is the intended audience?

 Scholars or the general public?
 Which age group is it written for?
 Is it aimed at people from a particular geographic area?
 Is it aimed at members of a particular profession or with specific training?

5. What is the quality of information provided on the website?

 Timeliness: When was the website first published? Is it regularly updated? Check
for dates at the bottomof each page on the site
 Does the author cite sources? Just as in print sources web sources that cite their
sources are considered more reliable.
 What type of other sites does the website link to? Are they reputable sites?
 What types of sites link to the website you are evaluating? Is the website being
cited by others?

Examples of Useful and Reliable Web Sources

1. AFA e-Newsletter (Alzheimer’s Foundation of America newsletter)

2. American Memory – the Library of Congress historical digital collection.
3. Bartleby.com Great Books Online – a collection of free e-books including fictions,
nonfictions, references, and verses.
4. Chronicling America – serach and view pages from American newspapers from 1880-
1922
5. Cyberbullying – a free collection of e-books from ebrary plus additional reports and
documents to help better understand, prevent and take action against this growing
concern.
6. Drug information websites:
 National Library of Medicine’s MedlinePlus
 Drugs.com
 PDRhealth
7. Global Gateway: World Culture & Resources (from the Library of Congress)
8. Google Books
9. Googlescholar.com
10. History sites with primary documents:
 AMDOCS: Documents for the study of American history
 Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy (Yale Law School)
 Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Colonial Latin America
 Teacher Oz’s Kingdom of History
11. Illinois Digital Archives – the Illinois State Library working with libraries, museums, and
historical societies in Illinois provides this collection of materials related to Illinois
history.
12. Internet Archive – a digital library of Internet sites and other cultural artifacts in digital
form.
13. IInternet Archive for CARLI digitized resources
14. Internet Public Library
15. ipl2 – a merger of Librarians’ Internet Index and Internet Public Library. Special interest
may include the “Literary Criticisms” page which can be found after clicking on the
“Special Collections” link.
16. Librarians’ Internet Index
17. Making of America – a digital library of primary sources in American social history.
18. Maps – from the University of Texas at Austin collection. Includes historical and
thematic maps.
19. NationMaster – a massive central data source and a handy way to graphically compare
nations. It is a vast compilation of data from such sources as the CIA World Factbook,
UN, and OECD.
20. Nursing sites:
 AHRQ (www.ahrq.gov)
 National Guidelines Clearinghouse (www.guideline.gov)
 PubMed (www.nlm.nih.gov)
21. Project Gutenberg – the first and largest single collection of free electronic books with
currently over 20, 000 e-books available.
22. Shmoop – literature, US history, and poetry information written primarily by PhD and
masters students from top universities like Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard, and Yale.
23. StatoMaster – a unique statistical database which allows you to research and compare a
multitude of different data on US states using various primary sources such as the US
Census Bureau, the FBI, and the National Center for Educational Statistics. It uses
visualization technology like pie charts, maps, graphs, and scatter plots to provide data.
24. Virtual Reference – selected web resources compiled by the Library of Congress.

One can also visit the university library and seek help from librarians as they are
knowledgeable and the library has a rich collection of online library resources that are very
useful for academic and research purposes.
Chapter 10

BIODIVERSITY AND HEALTHY SOCIEY

Biodiversity and Ecosystem

 Is defined as the vast variety of life forms in the entire earth. It encompasses all kinds of
life forms from the single-celled organisms to the largest multi-celled organisms.
 Its definition is in the structural and functional perspective and not as individual.

Biodiversity is the source of the essential goods and ecological services that constitute the
source of life for all and it has direct consumptive value in food, agriculture, medicine, and in
industry. (Villagio Globale, 2009)

 Understanding biodiversity within the concept of ecosystem needs a through study on the
relationship of the biotic, the living organisms and the biotic, the nonliving organisms.
 Interdisciplinary approach is needed to study the ecosystem.
 Biodiversity plays a major role in this natural dynamic.
 Therefore, we, as human inhabitants of the ecosystem, must preserve and conserve the
biodiversity of all creatures.
 In simple terms, it is true that people will always depend on biodiversity on the
wholeness of our being and in our everyday lives.
 Somehow, there are ways and processes in the ecosystem that are not apparent nor
appreciated by us, human beings.
 Think about the need to drink clean and fresh water, the need to eat healthy vegetables
and food, or the need of man to transport which makes him rely on fuel.
 All of these are human needs that are answered and provided by our
 Thus, if we fail to keep the process of taking care of the ecosystem, it is us who are
actually putting our lives at risk.
 Significant decline in biodiversity has direct human impact when ecosystem in its
insufficiency can no longer provide the physical as well as social need of human beings.
 Indirectly, changes in the ecosystem affect livelihood, income, and on occasion, may
even cause political conflict (WHO, n.d.).

Changes in Biodiversity

 Alteration in any system could bring varied effects.

 A change in biodiversity could have erratic effects not only in wildlife or marine life but
also in human beings.
 We can clearly infer that when our ecosystem is not well taken care of, biodiversity
encounters changes that may impact human health on such different levels.

Threats to Biodiversity

Major threats identified by United Nations’ Environment Programme (WHO, n.d.)

1. Habitat loss and destruction. Major contibuting factor is the inhabitation of human beings
and the use of land for ecconomic gains.
2. Alterations in ecosystem composition. Alterations and sudden changes, either within
species groups or within the environment, could begin to change entire ecosytems.
Alterations in ecosystems are in critical factor contributing to species and habitat loss.
3. Over-exploitation. Over-hunting, overfishing, or over-collecting of species can quickly
lead to its decline. Changing consumption patterns of humans is often cited as the key
reason for this unsustainable exploitation of natural resources.
4. Pollution and contamination. Biological systems respond slowly to changes in their
surrounding environment. Pollution and contamination cause irreversible damage to
species and varieties.
5. Global climate change. Both climate variability and climate change cause biodiversity
loss. Species and populations may be lost permanently if they are not provided with
enough time to adapt to changing climatic conditions.

Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

 Even with the improvement of technology and science at present, we still have a lot to
learn about biodiversity, more so about the consequences of biodiversity loss. However,
the basic concept about biodiversity loss was from Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel
Wallace.
 The particular species making up an ecosystem determine its productivity, affect nutrient
cycles and soil contents, and influence environmental conditions such as water, cycles,
weather patterns, climate and other non-biotic aspects.
 The loss of biodiversity has many consequences that we understand and many that we do
not.
 As stated by Tilman, “The Earth will retain its most striking feature, its biodiversity, only
if humans have the prescience to do so. This will occur, it seems, only if we realize the
extent to which we use biodiversity (Rainforest Conservation Fund, 2017)”.

Nutritional Impact of Biodiversity

 According to the World Health Organization, biodiversity is a vital element of a human

being’s nutrition because of its influence to food production.
 Biodiversity is a major factor that contributes to sustainable food production for human
beings.
 A society or a population must have access to a sufficient variety of nutritious food as it
is a determinant of their health as human beings.
 Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels; the ecosystem, with food production
as an ecosystem service.
 Nutritional composition between foods and among varities/cultivars/breeds of the same
food can differ dramatically, affecting micronutrient availability in the diet.
 Intensified and enhanced food production through irrigation, use of fertilizer, plant
protection (pesticides), or the introduction of crop varities and cropping patterns affect
biodiversity and thus impact global nutritional status and human health.

Health, Biology, and Biodiversity

 Almost all living organisms are dependent to their environment to live and reproduce.
Basic needs of living organisms such as air, water, food, and habitat are provided by its
environment.
 The evolution of human beings was due to the improved access to these basic needs.
Advances in agriculture, sanitation, water treatment, and hygiene have a far greater
impact on human health than medical.
 Environmental hazards increase the risk of cancer, heart disease, asthma, and many other
illnesses. These hazards can be physical, such as pollution, toxic chemicals, and food
contaminants, or they can be social, such as dangerous work, poor housing conditions,
urban sprawl, and poverty.
 Unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation and hygiene can lead to infectious diseases,
such as diarrhea, cholera.
 The interrelation between human health and biological diversity considerable and
complex. With the current biodiversity loss at unprecedented rates, the delicate balance
between human health and biological diversity risk.

Environment-Related Illnesses

 Some human illnesses that are found to be related with its environment include
Parkinson’s disease, heart disease, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
asthma, diabetes, obesity, occupational injuries, dysentery, arthritis, malaria, and
depression.
 According to the experts, climate change could aso have a serious impact on human
health and could deteriorate farming systems and reduce nutrients in some foods.

 Relationships between human health and the environment raise many ethical, social, and
legal dilemmas by forcing people to choose among competing values. Many of the issues
at the intersection of health and the environment have to do with managing benefits and
risks.
 For example pesticides play an important role in increasing crop yields, but they can also
pose hazards to human health and the environment. Alternatives to pesticide uses could
significantly reduce agricultural productivity, leading to food shortages and increase food
prices which would, in turn increase starvation in some parts of the world.
 When drafting and implementing environmental health regulations, it is important to
consider vulnerable subpopulations.
 A vulnerable subpopulation is a group with an increased susceptibility to the adverse
effects of an environmental risk factor, due to their age, genetics, health status, or some
other condition.
 If an environmental regulation is designed to protect average members of the population,
it may failed to adequately protect vulnerable subpopulations. However, almost everyone
in the population has an above-average susceptibility to at least one environmental risk
factor.
 Various public health strategies pit the rights of individuals against the good society, such
as mandatory treatment, vaccination, or diagnostic testing; isolation and quarantine; and
decrease surveillance.
 Human right issues also come up with research on environmental health that evolves
human subjects.
 For research to be ethical, human subjects must give consent, and great care must be
taken to ensure that they understand that they can opt out of the research project.
 Since late 1990’s some pesticide companies have tested their products on human subjects
to gather data to submit to the government for regulatory purposes.
 Some commentaators charge that these experiments are unethical because they place
people at unacceptably high risk without a clear benefit to society.
 Others have argued that the experiments, if properly designed and implemented, could
produce important benefits to society by providing useful knowledge about the effects of
pesticides that can lead to strong regulations.

Chapter 11

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: SCIENCE, HEALTH, AND POLITICS

Genetically Modified Organism

 Genetically modified organism (GMO) is the term used for an organism created through
genetic engineering.
 The World Health Organization (WHO,2014) defines GMO as an “organism, either plant,
animal, or microorganism in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way
that does not occur naturally by mading or natural recombination”.
 The development of GMOs was perceived to help in the advancement of technology for
the benefit of humans in different industries like agriculture and medicine.

GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries

The Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health (CEEH), 2013) identified the
following roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries:

1. Pest resistance – genetically modified plants to resist certain pests.

Example: Bt. Corn – the DNA (genome) of the Bt Corn has been modified with the gene
of Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil bacterium that produces proteins which is toxic to corn
borers (worms).

2. Virus resistance – genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses.

Example: GM papaya or rainbow papaya. The papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) is known to
be detrimental to papaya plants. The protein of PRSV was introduced to the papaya plant
through plant tissue which turned out to be resistant to the virus itself. The effect was like
the vaccines humans have against measles or influenza virus.

3. Herbicide tolerance – genetically modified plants to tolerate herbicide.

Example: Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds, was introduced
to soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then can spray the
herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybeans.

4. Fortification – genetically modified plants fortified with certain minerals.

Example: Golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was introduced through
biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified with vitamin A.

5. Cosmetic preservation – genetically modified plants resist natural discoloration.

Example: Artic Apple. The apple variety was genetically modified to suppress the
browning of apple due to superficial damage.

6. Increase growth rate – a genetically modified organism that has higher yield in growth
than normal species.

Example: AquAdvantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pour, an eel-like fish was
introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow faster than its normal
rate.

GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms

Geneticall modified organisms (GMOs) in non-food crops and some microorganisms

involove the following:

1. Flower production – GMOs in flower production are seen in modified color and extended
vase life of flowers.

Examples: Blue Roses. The so-called “blue” roses, which are, in reality, lilac or purple,
contained cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, together with large amounts of flavonols. The
introduction of the flavonol 31, 51-hydroxylase gene into pelargonidin- or cyanidin-
producing rose cultivars diverts the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway toward the
production of dephinidin glucosides and the flower color to blue (Elomaa & Holton,
1994).

2. Paper production – modified characteristics of trees for highe yield of paper production.

Example: Poplar trees. Lignin is a complex polymer in trees that is removed from wood
to make paper through kraft process, through inserting genes that code for ferulic acid in
young popular trees, the lignin structure is modified, making lignin easier to breakdown
(Veniza, 2014).

3. Pharmaceutical productions – modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products.

Example: Periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were added to the periwinkle plant to
enhance the production of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually added to drugs for cancer
treatments like Hodgkin’s lymphoma (Runguphan, 2010).

4. Bioremediation – use of modified plants that can assist in the bioremediation of polluted
sites.

Example: Shrub tobacco. Nicotiana glauca, or shrub tobacco genetically modified with
phytochelatin TaPCSII, is used for bioremediation. It shows high level accumulation of
zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and boron and produces high biomass.

5. Enzyme and drug production – use of modified microorganisms that can produce
enzymes for food processing and medicines.

Example: GGTase. Cyclomaltodextrin glycosyltransferase (GGTase), an enzyme used for

food flavor enhancer, is produced in higher quantity by bacterium. Bacillus which was
genetically modified with the gene of a thermophilic anaerobe, Thermoanaerobacter,
carrying GGTase (Pedersen & Jorgensen, 1995).

Another Example: Artemesin. Artemesinic acid is a compound used for anti-malarial

drug extracted from sweet wordwood plant. Through genetic engineering, it can be
synthetically produced by yeast and bacteria with sweet wordwood plant gene (Zimmer,
2006).

6. GMOs in the medical field – genetic engineering is playing a significant role from
dignosis to treatment of human-dreaded diseases. It helps in the production of drugs, gene
therapy, and laboratory researches.

Example: Humulin. The genetically engineered insulin used by Type 1 diabetes patients
who are insulin-dependent. In the past, insulin is extracted from the pancreases of pigs
and cows that have caused allergic reactions to some diabetes using it. In 1978,
researchers from the City of Hope National Medical Center and Genentech
Biotechnology Company were able to produce human insulin. The gene for insulin was
inserted to bacterial DNA that was able to produce almost exactly the same human
insulin. This was a breakthrough in the mass production of human insulin. In 1996,
modified human insulin was approved, called the Humalog.

Benefits of GMOs

Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs:

 Higher efficiency in farming – with the use of pesticide-resistant/herbicide-tolerance GMO

crops, there will be less used for herbicides/pesticides, and lower cost for labor and
cultivation.
 Increase in harvest – GMO crops resistant to pests and diseases means in potential growth
and harvest.
 Conrol in fertitlity – controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds) ensures higher
yields.
 Increase in food processing – altered characteristics of GMO crops help ease food
processing.
 Improvement of desirable characteristics – GMOs offer longer shelf life, enhanced color and
taste, enhanced production or reduction of enzymes, and other modified characteristics of
plants, animals, and microorganisms.
 Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement – GMO crops like maize fortified with lysine
and Golden Rice fortified with vitamin A and iron. There are now edible vaccines for viral
and diarrheal diseases.
 Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides.

There are 400 million acres of GMO farmlands all over the world. The top five countries
that operate GMO farmlands are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada. Some
of the GMO agricultural crops that have been approved for public consumption and are already
in the market include: alfalfa, corn, papaya, soya bean, sugar beets, and squash. Most of these
GMO crops were made to be resistant to pests. Some examples of common food with GMOs are
Kellogg’s Corn Flakes, Quaker Chewy Granola Bars, Ultra Slim Fast, Quaker Yellow Corn
Meal, and Alpo Dry Pet Food.

In the animal industries, there are ongoing researches like studies on Pacific salmon that
grows twice faster than the native salmon and chicken resistant to H5N1 bird flu viruses.
However, these GMO animals are all in research laboratory and not yet approved for public
consumption.

Potential Risks of GMO

Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:

1. Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are inadequate studies
on the effects of GMOs to humans and the environment.
2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long term effect is still
unknown.
3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
 More allergic reactions – GMO food may trigger more allergic reactions, more so
create new ones, as side effect of the gene alteration.
 Gene mutation – GMO food may develop abnormalities and mutation, more than the
desired product of the gene alteration.
 Antibiotic resistance – GMO food contains antibiotic-resistant genes; this may cause
disease-causing bacteria likely to be more antibiotic-resistant too, increasing the
possibility of widespread of the disease.
 Nutritional value – GMO food may have change in their nutritional value.

Potential Environmental Risks Caused by GMOs

Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks caused by GMOs.
The identified major risks are the following:

1. Risk in gene flow

2. Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed problems
3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens
Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs (Molfino & Zucco, 2008):
1. Direct environmental risks are:
• introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause disruption of the
natural communities through competition or interference;
• the possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the environment if it escapes its
intended use and may post threats or become pests;
• may cause harmful effects to ecosystem processes if GMOs interfere with the natural
biochemical cycles; and
• the persistence of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause negative impacts to
the consumer of GMO products.

2. Indirect environmental risks are:

• alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of GMOs to the
environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and weeds that became resistant to
GMO crops;
• may have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural practices; and
• may have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs interaction and release in the
natural environment.

Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs

A major concern in the use and consumption of GMOs is its effect on human beings,
primarily on human health. Some potential human health risks are identified (Akhter, 2001),
such as:

• consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since it is not naturally or organically
produced;
• consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing microorganisms in the human
digestive system;
• production of toxins may be detrimental to human health; and
• production of allergens may have adverse effects on humans.

Other potential risks that raise major concern are:

• Human Genome Project (HGP) – mapping of human genes to provide framework for
research and studies in the field of medicine. It was feared that the ability to produce
human genetic information would create biases and give much power to people holding
the information and to disadvantage of those who do not have the genetic information.
• Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms – genetically modified bacteria and
viruses may mutate to become more resistant or virulent that may cause dreadful diseases
for human beings.
• Cloning – the asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell through genetic
engineering. In February 24, 1997, the first mammal, Dolly, a sheep from Scotland, was
born through cloning. With its celebrated success came the fear of human cloning. It
emerged the ethical issue of man “playing God”.

Scientists and medical practitioners would definitely continue to search for ways to
preserve lives. Genetic engineering is perceived to be one of the key ways to this venture. Gene
therapy and gene alteration are promising ways to improved human health conditions.

From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO applications approved by the
Department of Agriculture for the release to the environment, 62 GMOs of which are approved
for feed and processing and the remaining 8 were approved for propagation (Aruelo, 2016).

In 2004, the Philippines was classified by International Service for acquisition of agri-
biotech applications as one of the fourteen biotech-mega countries which grow 50, 000 hectares
or more of GMO crops annually (James, 2004). In that same year, Senator Juan Flavier authored
a bill on the mandatory labeling of food and food products with GMOs. The Senated did not pass
the bill.

In 2006, the Organic, the Philippines became part of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
In the same year, Executive Order No. 514 was issued to address the biosafety requirements of
the Cartagena Protocol and the establishment of the National Biosafety Framework (NBF).

In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic agriculture than
GMO-related agriculture. Prior to this act, there are several provinces like Negros Occidental and
Negros Oriental which agreed to support organic agriculture. There was the establishment of the
Negros Organic Island thorugh a memorandum of agreement (MOA) between the two provinces
in 2005. With this MOA, the two provinces were able to ban the entry of GMOs and living
GMOs to their provinces through provincial ordinance. Similar to this case, Davao City passed
the Organic Agriculture Ordinance in 2010. This city ordinance helps the prevention of field
testing of GM Bt eggplant in the UP Mindanao Campus (Aruelo, 2016).

In 2012, Representative Teddy Casino, together with other congressmen, filed a bill
pushing for the mandatory labeling of GM food and food products. To date, there is no
Philippine biosafety law, only biosafety regulations formed under NBF.

A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded that the existing
regulation is weak, which can be fixed through legislation such as a republic act (Richmond,
2006).

In December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field testing of GMO
Bt eggplant and declared Administrative Order No. 8, series of 2002 of the Department of
Agriculture as null and void. This means that any actions or procedures related to GMO
importations and propagation is temporarily put to stop until a new admistrative order is issued
in accordance with the law.

In March 7, 2016, five government agencies namely, the Department of Science and
Technology, Department of Agriculture, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Department of Health, and Department of Interior and Local Government, passed a Joint
Department Circular No. 1, series of 2016 on rules and regulations for the research and
development, handling and use, transboundary movement, release in the environment, and
management of the genetically modified plant and plant products derived from the use of modern
biotechnology. This joint department circular paves the way to issuance of new permits for
planting and importing GM crops in the country.

Chapter 12

THE NANO WORLD

Nano World

the global market leader for tips fot Scanning Probe Microscopy and Atomic Force
Microscopy
sphere of influence of nanotechnology

Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM)

 a branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans
the specimen.
 Founded in 1981, with the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope, an instrument
for imaging surfaces at the atomic level.

Atomic Force Microscopy

 is a type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order
of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit.
The information gathered by “feeling” or “touching” the surface within a mechanical
probe.

Origin of Nanoscience

 in 1959 it was discussed by the renowned pgysicist Richard Feynman in his talk There’s
Plenty of Room at the Bottom, in which he described the possibility of synthesis via
direct manipulation of atoms.
 in 1960, Egyptian engineer Mohamed Atalla and Korean engineer Dawon Kahng at Bell
Labs fabricated the first MOSFET (metal-oxide-semicondcuctor field-effect transistor)
with a gate oxide thickness of 100 nm, along a gate length of 20 µm.
 in 1962, Atalla and Kahng fabricated a nanolayer- base metal–semiconductor junction
(M–S junction) transistor that used gold (Au) thin films with a thickness of 10 nm.

Origin of Nanotechnology

 the term "nano-technology" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974.

 In 1986, K. Eric Drexler used the term "nanotechnology" in his book Engines of
Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology, which proposed the idea of a nanoscale
"assembler" which would be able to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary
complexity with atomic control.
 In 1980, the emergence of nanotechnology as a field in occurred through convergence of
Drexler's theoretical and public work
 in 1986, Drexler co-founded The Foresight Institute to help increase public awareness
and understanding of nanotechnology concepts and implications.

Nanoscience and technology

- It is a branch of science that studies systems and manipulates matter on atomic,
molecular and supramolecular scales/ultra-small scale (the nanometre scale).

Nanotechnology
 study of what happens when things get very, very small – only a few atoms in size.
 refers to the science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is
about 1 to 100 nanometers.
 employs the study and application of exceptionally small things in materials science,
engineering, physics, biology and chemistry.
 Nanotechnology is a very diverse field that is having bigger and bigger impacts on the
world.
 It has applications in medicine, cars, spacecrafts, food, electronics, and materials science
just to name a few.
 refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying theme is the
control of matter on the molecular level in scales smaller than 1 micrometer, normally 1
to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices within that size range.

Nanometer
 a unit of spatial measurement that is 10-9 meter, or one billionth of a meter.
 commonly used in nanotechnology, the building of extremely small machines.

TYPES OF MICROSCOPES USED IN NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

Electron microscope

 a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination.

 In 1930, German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll built the first electron
microscope.

Atomic Force Microscope

 a type of high resolution scanning probe microscope that has a resolution that you can
measure in fractions of a nanometer.
 was pioneered in 1986 by Nobel Prize Winner Gerd Binnig along with Calvin Quate
and Christoph Gerber.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope

 an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level.

 its development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer (at
IBM Zürich), the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.

Possible Applications of Nanotechnology in the Philippines:

 Information and Communication Technologies and semiconductors
 Health and medicine
 Energy
 Food and agriculture
 Environment

Nanotech Roadmap for the Philippines

• Information and Communication Technologies and semiconductors
• Health and biomedical
• Energy
• Agriculture and food
• Environment
• Health and environmental risk
• Nano-metrology
• Education and public awareness

Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanotechnology

Advantages
• offers the potential for new and faster kinds of computers
• more efficient power sources:
• and life-saving medical treatments.

Disadvantages
• economic disruption
• possible threats to security, privacy, health and the environment.

Nanotechnology and Environment

Benefits
• improved detection and removal of contaminants
• development of benign industrial processes and materials

Concerns
• High reactivity and toxicity
• Pervasive distribution in the environment
• No nano-specific EPA regulation

Nanotechnology and Health

Benefits
• improved medicine
• could save lives by making diagnosis and treatment far more effective.

Concerns
• ability to cross cell membranes and translocate in the body.
• No FDA approval needed for cosmetics and supplements

Nanotechnology and Economy

Benefits
• better products
• new jobs

Concerns
• redistribution of wealth
• potential costs of clean-ups anf health care
• accessibility to all income levels

On 22 November 2018, ten eminent scientists and scientific institutions received the
UNESCO Medals for contributions to the development of nanoscience and nanotechnologies
during a ceremony held at UNESCO headquarters, Paris. The medal is awarded each year by
the Director-General of UNESCO to prominent scientists, public figures and organizations that
contributed to the development of nanoscience and nanotechnologies in the spirit of UNESCO’s
priorities.

TOP TEN USES AND APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY by UNESCO

1. Energy storage, productions and conversion.
2. Agricultural productivity enhancement.
3. Water treatment and remediation.
4. Disease diagnosis and screening.
5. Drug delivery systems.
6. Food processing and storage.
7. Air pollution and remediation.
8. Construction.
9. Health monitoring
10. Vector and pest detector and control.

Chapter 13

THE ASPECTS OF GENE THERAPY

The Basic Process

There are several approaches to gene therapy. These are the following (Fliesler, 2017):

• Replacement of mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene
• Inactivation of a mutated gene that is functioning improperly
• Inroducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.

In general, a gene cannot be directly inserted into a human gene or cell. A gene is
inserted into another gene using a carrier or vector. At present, the most common type of
vectors are viruses that have been genetically changed to carry normal human DNA.
Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and transporting their genes to human cells
in a pathogenic manner (Science Daily, 2017).

Two Types of Gener Therapy

1. Somatic gene therapy – somatic gene therapy involves the manipulation of genes in cells
that will be helpful to the patient but not inherited to the next generation (Nimsergern,
1988).

2. Germ line therapy – which involves the genetic modification of germ cells or the origin
cells that will pass the change on to the next generation (Your Genome, 2017).

Stem Cell Gene Therapy

 Stem cells are mother cells that have the potential to become any type of cell in the body.
One of the main characteristics of stem cells is their ability to self-renew or multiply
while maintaining the potential to develop into other types of cells.

 Stem cells can become cells of the blood, heart, bones, skin, muscles, brain, among
others. There are different sources of stem cells but all types of stem cells have the same
capacity to develop into multiple types of cells.

Stem cells are derived from different sources. Two of which are embryonic and somatic cells.

 Embryonic stem cells – are derived from a four-or five-day-old human embryo that is in
the blastocyst phase of development. The embryos are usually extras that have been
created in IVF (in vitro fertilization) clinics where several eggs are fertilized in a test tube
then implanted into a woman (Crosta, 2013).
 Somatic cells – are cells that exist throughout the body after embryonic development and
our found inside of different types of tissue. These stem cells have been found in tissues
such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, skin, and the
liver. They remain in a non-dividing state for years until activated by disease or tissue
injury. These stem cells can divide or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a
range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerate the entire original organ.
It is generally thought that adult or somatic stem cells are limited in their ability to
differentiate based on their tissue of origin, but there is more evidence to suggest that
they can differentiate to become other cell types (Crost, 2013).

The Bioethics of Gene Therapy

There are ethical issues involved in gene therapy. Some of the inquiries cited (Genetics
Home Reference, 2017):

1. How can “good” and “bad” uses of gene therapy be distinguished?

2. Who decides which traits are normal and which constitute a disability or disorder?
3. Will the high costs of gene therapy make it available only to the wealthy?
4. Could the widespread use of gene therapy make society less accepting of people who are
different?
5. Should people be allowed to use gene therapy to enhance basic human traits such as
height, intelligence, or athletic ability.

Another controversey involves the germline therapy. As discussed, germline therapy is

genetic modification of germ cells that will pass the change on to the next generation. There are a
lot of questions on the effects of the gene alteration to the unborn child and the next generation,
since the alteration can be passed on. In the United States, the government does not fund
researches on human germline gene therapy.

Chapter 14

CLIMATE CHANGE

WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE? IT’S CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

Climate – is the average daily weather for an extended period of time at a certain location.
 Weather reflects short term conditions of the atmosphere, it can change from minute-to-
minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-day and season-to-season. Climate is the average of
weather over time and space.

 Unlike “weather,” which means temperature, rainfall, humidity of a particular time at a

local area, “climate” has spatial and temporal components.

 It consists of many kinds of weather events, their periodicities, intensities, and nature of
dynamism.

 When we talk about climate change, we actually understand more than the literal
changes of weather events over the time and space of that climate.

 E.G., changes in ocean current, melting of ice, and loss of biodiversity are included in
climate change; they are not discussed as conventional events of weather.

 By climate change, we understand detrimental effects in environment – emission of

pollutants, temperature rise, precipitation change, sea level rise, flooding, intensified
cyclones, abrupt frequency of events, ozone layer depletion, biodiversity loss, vegetation
change, and drought – almost all negative impacts.

 Climate change is a term that refers to major changes in temperature, rainfall, snow, or
wind patterns lasting for decades or longer.

 According to Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC); Climate change refers to any change in the climate over time, whether due to
natural variability or as a result of human activity

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

1) NATURAL CAUSES

a. Volcanic eruptions
b. Ocean current

2) HUMAN CAUSES

a. Human activities:
o Burning of oil
o Deforestation
o Fertilizers

 Since the industrial revolution began in 1750 human activities have contributed
substantially to climate change by adding CO2 and other heat trapping gases to the
atmosphere. These green house gases emissions have increased the greenhouse effect
causing Earth’s surface temperature to rise.

 Earth’s temperature depends on the balance between energy entering and leaving the
planet’s system.

 When incoming energy from the sun is absorbed by the Earth system, earth warms.

 When the sun’s energy is reflected back into space, earth avoids warming.

 When absorbed energy is released back into space, earth cools.

 Many factors both natural and human can cause changes in earth’s energy balance
including :
a. Variations in the sun’s energy reaching earth
b. Changes in the reflectivity of earth’s atmosphere and surface
c. Changes in the greenhouse effect, which affects the amount of heat retained by
earth’s atmosphere.

 THESE FACTORS HAVE CAUSED EARTH’S CLIMATE TO CHANGE MANY

TIMES.

 Climate Change prior to the Industrial Revolution in the 1700 can be explained by
natural causes, such as changes in the solar energy, volcanic eruptions, and natural
changes in the greenhouse gas concentrations.

 Recent climate changes, however cannot be explained by natural causes alone as most
research indicate that natural causes do not explain most observed warming especially
warming since the mid-20th century.

 Humans are increasingly influencing the climate and the earth’s temperature by burning
fossil fuels, cutting down rainforests and farming livestock.

 These human activities release large amounts of CO2 (which is the primary greenhouse
gas) in addition to those naturally occurri ng in the atmosphere, increasing the
greenhouse effect and global warming.

 Scientists have known that CO2 is one of the main greenhouse gases of importance to
Earth’s energy balance.

 Since CO2 is already in the atmosphere naturally, why are

 EMISSIONS from human activity significant?

 Human activities have significantly disturbed the natural carbon cycle by extracting
long-buried fossil fuels and burning them for energy thus releasing CO2 to the
atmosphere.

CONSEQUENCES

1. Expansion of Greenhouse Effect

• The sun’s radiation that strikes the Earth’s atmosphere in the form of light, Ultraviolet
Radiation (UV) and Infrared Radiation(IR).

• UV radiation has a shorter wavelength and a higher energy level than visible light, while
IR radiation has a longer wavelength and a weaker energy level.

• 30 percent of the radiation striking Earth's atmosphere immediately reflected back out to
space by clouds, ice, snow, sand and other reflective surfaces,

• The remaining 70 percent of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the oceans, the land
and the atmosphere. The oceans, land and atmosphere release heat in the form of IR
thermal radiation, which passes out of the atmosphere and into space.

• The exchange of incoming and outgoing radiation that warms the Earth is often referred
to as the greenhouse effect because a greenhouse works in much the same way.

• Incoming UV radiation easily passes through the glass walls of a greenhouse and is
absorbed by the plants and hard surfaces inside. Weaker IR radiation, however, has
difficulty passing through the glass walls and is trapped inside, thus warming the
greenhouse.
2. Global warming

• Gas molecules that absorb thermal infrared radiation, in sufficient quantity, can force the
climate system. These type of gas molecules are called greenhouse gases

• Examples of greenhouse gasses are Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, methane, nitrous
oxide (N2O), etc.

• The greenhouse gases act like a blanket, absorbing IR radiation and preventing it from
escaping into outer space.

• The net effect is the gradual heating of Earth's atmosphere and

surface, a process known as global warming.

3. Melting of polar ice sheets and glaciers

• Large ice formations, like glaciers and the polar ice caps, naturally melt back a bit each
summer. But in the winter, snows, made primarily from evaporated seawater, are
generally sufficient to balance out the melting.

• Higher temperatures caused by global warming have led to greater-than-average summer

melting as well as diminished snowfall due to later winters and earlier springs.

• Increased heat is also causing the massive ice sheets that cover Greenland and Antarctica
to melt at an accelerated pace.

• Scientists also believe meltwater from above and seawater from below is seeping
beneath Greenland's and West Antarctica's ice sheets, causing them to move more
quickly into the sea.

4. Increase in sea level which results in flooding and erosion of coastal and low lying
areas

• The two major causes of global sea-level rise are thermal expansion caused by warming
of the oceans (since water expands as it warms) and the loss of land-based ice, such as
glaciers and ice sheets, due to increased melting.

5. Extreme weather

• flooding, forest fires, wildfires, droughts, heat waves

6. Risk to human health

• increase in number of heat-related and cold- related deaths

7. Risk for wildlife extinction

• Loss of habitat and species

8. Imposes heavy cost on society and economy

• agriculture, forestry, fisheries, tourism, infrastructure

To conclude, the changes because of climate change, include:

• Atmosphere and sea-level pressure

• Wind fields
• Sea ice drift
• Melting ice coverings
• Change in precipitation patterns
• Changes in hydrology
• Change in ocean current
• Water mass distribution
• Carbon cycle altered
• Biological systems affected
• Arctic oscillation

HOW DOES CLIMATE CHANGE AFFECT MALAYSIA?

• Malaysia is located near the equator and is generally rather warm with rainfall
throughout the year with monsoon seasons,

POLICY STATEMENT

Ensure climate-resilient development to fulfil national aspirations for sustainability

 Malaysia is a Party to the UNFCCC and has ratified the Kyoto Protocol.

 Malaysia is already committed under the UNFCCC to, inter alia, “formulate, implement,
publish and regularly update national and, where appropriate, regional programmes
containing measures to mitigate climate change by addressing anthropogenic emissions
by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases…”.

With climate change, the weather in Malaysia is getting unbearably hot, We now get
torrential rain which is electrifying. We go from droughts to floods.
 Copenhagen Accord commitments :
The Malaysian prime Minister, Datuk Seri Najib announced on 17 December 2009 (at
copenhagen) that Malaysia would cut “40 per cent of its 2005 GDp emission intensity
levels by 2020 as its contribution to combat climate change”. This in principle
commitment has, however, been undermined by a lack of subsequent action.

 In mid 2009 Malaysia launched its Green technology strategy,

which remains the principal strategy through which Malaysia intends to meet its carbon
intensity reduction goals.

 The small Renewable Energy power (sREp) program,

in place since 2001, aims to promote the wider use of the renewable energy resources
available in Malaysia. Eligible renewable energy sources include biomass, biogas,
municipal waste, solar, mini-hydro and wind. The program allows for small power
generation plants utilising renewable energy (under 10MW) to sell their electricity to the
utility through the distribution grid system.

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