Mathematics in the
Modern World
Course Material in Reasoning
Kristoffer Karan Hugo
Course Instructor
2 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA
Reasoning 2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Here’s what I will teach you in this course material:
LESSON OUTLINE
Understand and use inductive reasoning.
Inductive
Understand and use deductive reasoning.
Reasoning
Unit Outline
Deductive
Reasoning
REQUIRED MATERIAL AND RESOURCES
For this lesson, you would need the following resources:
Textbook:
Video:
Website:
PRE-TEST
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 3
LAGUNA
Directions: Answer the following:
Identify a pattern in each list of numbers. Then use this pattern to find the next number.
1. 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ______
Ans. __________________________________________
2. 37, 32, 27, 22, 17, ______
Ans. __________________________________________
3. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ______
Ans. __________________________________________
1 1 1 1 1
4. , , , , , _____
2 6 10 14 18
Ans. __________________________________________
5. 64, -16, 4, -1, _____
Ans. __________________________________________
4 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA
PRE-
ACTIVITY
Directions: Answer the following:
Identify a pattern in each sequence of figures. Then use the pattern to find the next figure in
the sequence.
1.
Ans. __________________________________________
2.
Ans. __________________________________________
3.
Ans. __________________________________________
4.
Ans. __________________________________________
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 5
LAGUNA
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
One of the new frontiers of mathematics shows that there is
an underlying order in things that appear to be random, such as
the hiss and crackle of background noises as you tune a radio.
CONTENT Irregularities in the heartbeat, some of them severe enough to
cause a heart attack, or irregularities in our sleeping patterns,
AND such as insomnia, are some examples of chaotic behavior.
Chaos in the mathematical sense does not mean a complete lack
DISCUSSION of form or arrangement. In mathematics, chaos is used to
describe something that appears to be random but is not actually
random. The patterns of chaos appear in images like the one
shown, called the Mandelbrot set. Magnified portions of this
image yield repetition of the original structure, as well as new
and unexpected patterns. The Mandelbrot set transforms the
hidden structure of chaotic events into a source of wonder and
Key Point inspiration.
Inductive reasoning is the A lot of people associate mathematics with tedious
process of arriving at a general computation, meaningless algebraic procedures, and
conclusion based on intimidating sets of equations. But we should see the truth that
observations of specific mathematics is the most powerful means we have of exploring
examples. Deductive our world and describing how it works. The word mathematics
reasoning is the process of
comes from the Greek word mathematikos, which means
“inclined to learn.” To be mathematical literally means to be
proving a specific conclusion
inquisitive, open-minded, and interested in a lifetime of
from one or more general
pursuing knowledge!
statements.
6 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive Reasoning. Inductive reasoning is the process of
arriving at a general conclusion based on observations of specific
examples.
Inductive Reasoning
Mathematics is concerned with the study of patterns. In everyday life, we
often rely on patterns and routines to draw conclusions. As an example:
The last six times I went to the beach, the traffic was light on
Wednesdays and heavy on Sundays. My conclusion is that weekdays have
lighter traffic than weekends.
This kind of reasoning process is referred to as inductive reasoning, or
induction.
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the process of arriving at a general conclusion
based on observations of specific examples.
Inductive reasoning is a powerful method of drawing conclusions, but we
can never be absolutely certain that these conclusions are true. Because of
this, the conclusions are called conjectures, hypotheses, or educated guesses.
A strong inductive argument does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion,
but rather provides strong support for the conclusion. If there is at least one
case for which the conjecture does not hold, then the conjecture is false. Such
a case is called a counterexample.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 7
LAGUNA
EXAMPLE 1 Finding a Counterexample
The ten symbols that we use to write numbers, namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9, are called digits. In each example shown below, the sum of two
two-digit numbers is a three-digit number.
47 + 73 = 120
56 + 46 = 102
Is the sum of two two-digit numbers always a three-digit number? Find a
counterexample to show that the statement
The sum of two two-digit numbers is a three-digit number is false.
Solution. There are many counterexamples, but we need to find only one.
Here is an example that makes the statement false:
56 + 43 = 99
This example is a counterexample that shows the statement
The sum of two two-digit numbers is a three-digit number is false.
Shown here are two examples of inductive reasoning:
Strong Inductive Argument In a random sample of 380,000 freshmen at
722 four-year colleges, 25% said they frequently came to class without
completing readings or assignments (Source: National Survey of Student
Engagement). We can conclude that there is a 95% probability that between
24.84% and 25.15% of all college freshmen frequently come to class
unprepared.
Weak Inductive Argument Neither my dad nor my boyfriend has ever
cried in front of me. Therefore, men have difficulty expressing their feelings.
Inductive reasoning is extremely important to mathematicians. Discovery
in mathematics often begins with an examination of individual cases to reveal
patterns about numbers.
EXAMPLE 2 Using Inductive Reasoning
Identify a pattern in each list of numbers. Then use this pattern to find the
next number.
a. 3, 12, 21, 30, 39, ______ b. 3, 12, 48, 192, 768, ______
c. 3, 4, 6, 9, 13, 18, ______ d. 3, 6, 18, 36, 108, 216, ______
Solution. a. Because 3, 12, 21, 30, 39, ______ is increasing relatively
slowly, let’s use addition as the basis for our individual observations.
3, 12, 21, 30, 39, _____
8 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA
Generalizing from these observations, we conclude that each number
after the first is obtained by adding 9 to the previous number. Using this
pattern, the next number is 39 + 9, or 48.
b. Because 3, 12, 48, 192, 768, ______ is increasing relatively rapidly,
let’s use multiplication as the basis for our individual observations.
3, 12, 48, 192, 768, _____
Generalizing from these observations, we conclude that each number
after the first is obtained by multiplying the previous number by 4. Using this
pattern, the next number is 768 × 4, or 3072.
c. Because 3, 4, 6, 9, 13, 18, ______ is increasing relatively slowly, let’s
use addition as the basis for our individual observations.
3, 4, 6, 9, 13, 18, _____
Generalizing from these observations, we conclude that each number
after the first is obtained by adding a counting number to the previous
number. The additions begin with 1 and continue through each successive
counting number. Using this pattern, the next number is 18 + 6, or 24.
d. Because 3, 6, 18, 36, 108, 216, ______ is increasing relatively rapidly,
let’s use multiplication as the basis for our individual observations.
3, 6, 18, 36, 108, 216, _____
Generalizing from these observations, we conclude that each number
after the first is obtained by multiplying the previous number by 2 or by 3.
The multiplications begin with 2 and then alternate, multiplying by 2, then 3,
then 2, then 3, and so on. Using this pattern, the next number is 216 × 3, or
648.
Mathematics is more than just recognizing number patterns. It is also
about the patterns that arise in the world around us. For example, by
describing patterns formed by various kinds of knots, mathematicians are
helping scientists investigate the knotty shapes and patterns of viruses. One
of the weapons used against viruses is based on recognizing visual patterns in
the possible ways that knots can be tied. Our next example is about
recognizing visual patterns.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 9
LAGUNA
EXAMPLE 3 Finding the Next Figure in a Visual Sequence
Describe two patterns in this sequence of figures. Use the patterns to
draw the next figure in the sequence.
Solution. The more obvious pattern is that the figures alternate between
circles and squares. We conclude that the next figure will be a circle. We can
identify the second pattern in the four regions containing no dots, one dot,
two dots, and three dots. The dots are placed in order (no dots, one dot, two
dots, three dots) in a clockwise direction. However, the entire pattern of the
dots rotates counterclockwise as we follow the figures from left to right. This
means that the next figure should be a circle with a single dot in the right-
hand region, two dots in the bottom region, three dots in the left-hand region,
and no dots in the top region.
The missing figure in the visual sequence, a circle with a single dot in the
right-hand region, two dots in the bottom region, three dots in the left-hand
region, and no dots in the top region, is drawn in the Figure.
Deductive Reasoning
10 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA
We use inductive reasoning in our daily lives. Many of the conjectures
that come from this kind of thinking seem to be highly likely, although we
can never be absolutely certain that they are true. Another method of
reasoning, called deductive reasoning, or deduction, can be used to prove that
some conjectures are true.
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the process of proving a specific conclusion from one
or more general statements. A conclusion that is proved to be true by
deductive reasoning is called a theorem.
CRITICAL THINKING
Ask a few friends to follow this procedure:
Write down a whole number from 2 to 10.
Multiply the number by 9. Add the digits.
Subtract 3. Assign a letter to this result using A
= 1, B = 2, C = 3, and so on. Write down the
name of a state that begins with this letter. Select
the name of an insect that begins with the last
letter of the state. Name a fruit or vegetable that
begins with the last letter of the insect.
After following this procedure, surprise your
friend by asking, “Are you thinking of an ant in
Florida eating a tomato?” (Try using inductive
reasoning to determine how you came up with
this “astounding” question. Are other less
probable “astounding” questions possible using
inductive reasoning?).
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 11
LAGUNA
Deductive reasoning permits us to draw a specific conclusion from one or
more general statements. Two examples of deductive reasoning are shown.
Observe that in both everyday situations, the general statement from which
the conclusion is drawn is implied rather than directly stated.
The next example illustrates the difference between inductive and
deductive reasoning. The first part of the example is concerned with
reasoning that moves from specific examples to a general statement,
12 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA
illustrating inductive reasoning. The second part of the example starts from
the general case rather than specific examples and illustrates deductive
reasoning. To begin the general case, we use a letter to represent any one
selection of various numbers. A letter used to represent any number in a
collection of numbers is called a variable. Variables and other mathematical
symbols allow us to work with the general case in a very concise manner.
IDEAS FOR DISCUSSION
DISCUSS
In case you have forgotten some basic terms
of arithmetic, the following list should be
helpful.
Sum: the result of addition
Difference: the result of subtraction
Product: the result of multiplication
Quotient: the result of division
EXAMPLE 4 Using Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Consider the following procedure:
Select a number. Multiply the number by 6. Add 8 to the product. Divide
this sum by 2. Subtract 4 from the quotient.
a. Repeat this procedure for at least four different numbers. Write a
conjecture that relates the result of this process to the original number
selected.
b. Use the variable n to represent the original number and use deductive
reasoning to prove the conjecture in part (a).
Solution. a. First, let us pick our starting numbers. We will use 4, 7, 11,
and 100, but we could pick any four numbers. Next we will apply the
procedure given in this example to 4, 7, 11, and 100, four individual cases, in
the Table.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 13
LAGUNA
Because we are asked to write a conjecture that relates the result of this
process to the original number selected, let us focus on the result of each
case.
Do you see a pattern? Our conjecture is that the result of the process is
three times the original number selected. We have used inductive reasoning
b. Now we begin with the general case rather than specific examples. We
use the variable n to represent any number.
Select a number. n
Multiply the number by 6. 6 n
Add 8 to the product. 6 n+ 8
6 n+8 6 n 8
Divide this sum by 2. = + =3 n+4
2 2 2
Subtract 4 from the quotient. 3 n+ 4−4=3 n
Using the variable n to represent any number, the result is 3n, or three
times the number n. This proves that the result of the procedure is three times
the original number selected for any number. We have used deductive
reasoning. Observe how algebraic notation allows us to work with the
general case quite efficiently through the use of a variable.
14 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY
Directions: Answer the following:
1. Find a counterexample to show that the statement
The product of two two-digit numbers is a three-digit number is false.
Ans. __________________________________________
Identify a pattern in each list of numbers. Then use this pattern to find the next number.
2. 3, 9, 15, 21, 27, ______
Ans. __________________________________________
3. 2, 10, 50, 250, ______
Ans. __________________________________________
4. 3, 6, 18, 72, 144, 432, 1728, ______
Ans. __________________________________________
5. 1, 9, 17, 3, 11, 19, 5, 13, 21, ______
Ans. __________________________________________
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU 15
LAGUNA
POSTTEST
Directions: Answer the following:
Identify a pattern in each list of numbers. Then use this pattern to find the next number.
1. 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, ______
Ans. __________________________________________
2. 2, 3, 5, 9, 17, 33, 65, 129, ______
Ans. __________________________________________
Describe two patterns in this sequence of figures. Use the patterns to draw the next figure in
the sequence.
3.
Ans. __________________________________________
Consider the following procedure:
Select a number. Multiply the number by 4. Add 6 to the product. Divide this sum by 2.
Subtract 3 from the quotient.
4. Repeat this procedure for at least four different numbers. Write a conjecture that
relates the result of this process to the original number selected.
16 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD • NU LAGUNA
ONLINE ACTIVITIES
What is thinking? What is critical thinking? What is reasoning? Are there
other types of reasoning? What is the truth? How do we arrive at the truth? Is
there a best way to arrive at the truth? Are there other ways to arrive at the
truth?
ONLINE RESOURCES
VIDEO:
BOOK:
ARTICLE:
VIDEO:
REFERENCES
Auffman, R., Lockwood, J., Nation, R., Clegg, D. (2013) Mathematical Excursions (3rd ed).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Blitzer, R. (2019) Thinking Mathematically (7th ed). Pearson Education, Inc
Angel, A., Abbott, C., Runde, D. (2017) A Survey of Mathematics with Applications (10th ed).
Pearson Education, Inc.
