PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS RAISED BY SINGLE-PARENTS

THAT AFFECTS THEIR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Prepared by:

MAED 301
Baldo, Elaine A.
Busa, Maria Hannah C.
Cabrera, Villa A.
Delos Reyes, Henry A.
Dumdum, Leah S.
Gonzales, Alicia P.
Gumayagay, Roman Alexis V.
Gumila, Jayson
Ibañez, Pearly P.
Maranan, Catherine Jane
Mejia, Ginalyn C.
Miras, Leni N.
Pelota, Christian H.
Petalio. Adriano lll
Solangon, Violy L.
Trono, Jomar F.

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INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Some parents may be alone due to the death of a spouse, while some have children out of wedlock and other
may be the outcome of divorce. Some people may adopt a child without a partner. In all societies, throughout the world,
parenting is a complex activity that includes much specific behavior that works individually and together to influenced
child’s outcomes (Darling, 1993). The home is the first social institution the child is exposed to in life, as he grows older,
he extends the social contacts to other people within the neighborhood and beyond. The parents play a very important
and crucial role in the education of their child. During this process, the child, his home and the school constitute a part
which stands as a triangle. Whatever the child learns at home as he find him/herself in, motivates him/her towards his
education and this in return contributes to the child’s success or failure in the school and whether the child turn out to
be a well behaved child or not (Fraser, 2003). There are lots of factors which can cause one to become a single parent.
According to Hammer (2001) a death in the family is one factor. Losing a parent is one of the most traumatic events that
can happen to a child. A child under 5 years may not understand that it is permanent but older children do understand
and this may affect the child and parent in many ways. Also, unplanned pregnancy could cause it; such mother would
not find it easy to cater for such a child. Money would be tight and there will not be enough time to cater for the child in
the process of looking for survival. Furthermore, it is increasingly common for a single person to adopt a child on his/her
own and as Brooks (2001) rightly observed adoption can bring special challenges for someone who does not have
someone to lend a hand during crisis.
Single parenthood is a phenomenon that has always been in existence and is as old as mankind. According to
Dowd Nancy in (1997), a single parent is a parent, not living with spouse or partner, who has most of the day-to-day
responsibilities in raising the child or children. The socialization of children is very important for the continuity of any
culture. The family is said to be the most important agent of socialization, especially for children. Children in most
communities are raised in a highly structured and disciplined manner, parents helped to instill and inculcate strong basic
moral, spiritual, social, physical and cognitive principles in their children (Santrock, 2002). African system of raising
children in extended family pattern has changed a great deal, with the advent of industrialization and globalization.
Family lives have been disrupted with the rapid social change that comes with the globalization (Olaleye, Y.L et al, 2010).
Many of the old customs and traditions which were taught and practiced for several years are becoming obsolete today.
The modern culture has changed and out grown values and benefits that were thought to be the core believes and
values of our society.
In the Philippines, according to Section 3 (a) of R.A. 8972, a "solo parent" is a person who has been left with the
child's responsibility or care under any of the following categories:

 A woman who gives birth as a result of rape and other crimes against chastity even without a final conviction of
the offender, provided that mother keeps and raises the child.
 Parent left solo or alone with the responsibility of parenthood due to the following circumstances such as due to
death of spouse, Spouse is detained or is serving sentence for a criminal conviction for at least one (1) year,
Physical and/or mental incapacity of spouse as certified by a public medical practitioner, Legal separation or de
facto separation from spouse for at least one (1) year, as long as he/she is entrusted with the custody of the
children and declaration of nullity or annulment of marriage as decreed by a court or by a church as long as
he/she is entrusted with the custody of the children.

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 Unmarried mother/father who has preferred to keep and rear her/his child/children instead of having others
care for them or give them up to a welfare institution.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Education is assumed to be the great equalizer in our society. There are inspirational stories of women and men
who, after a tough childhood complete their education become successful members of society and are held as role
models.
The study will investigate single-parenting and its effects on children’s academic performance.
There are many students within our schools system that come from single-parent family. Due to many issues
that stem from the single-parent families, some students are unable to reach their full potential.
As the single-parent families become the norm in society, it is necessary to find a way to address this issue so as
to provide students and parents with solution to help them their highest ability.
1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of?
1.1 Age,
1.2 Sex,
1.3 Grade Level,
1.4 Number of siblings, and
1.5 Income of parents.
2. What is the academic performance of the respondents?
2.1 Attendance, and
2.2 General Weighted Average (GWA)

(NOTE IKAW NA PO BAHALA MAGDAGDAG. . HEHEHE Sir JAYSON)

HYPOTHESIS
We firmly believe that the Philippine family structure of a student influences his or her academic excellence,
thus our hypotheses are as follows:
 "Students living in a single-parenting family will achieve a
greater amount of academic excellence than that of their peers living in a two parent family household." At the
conclusion of our literature research, we noticed that the majority of the researchers who tested and analyzed the
perception and academic excellence all drew a relatively similar conclusion: students living in a single-parenting.  
Although previous research makes our hypothesis seem invalid and unprecedented, we can offer logical reasoning for
our direction of thought.
If you refer back to Darwin and the basic principle of evolution, Darwinian Theory tells us how a certain amount
of diversity in life forms can develop once we have various types of complex living organisms already in existence. If a
small population of birds happens to migrate to an island, for example, a combination of inbreeding, mutation, and
natural selection may cause this population to develop different characteristics from those possessed by the ancestral
population on the mainland.  Students living in single-parenting, it represent the new type of life form, students living in
a two parent family household.  Although inbreeding is irrelevant, Darwinism led us to believe that as student living in a
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single parent household become the overwhelming majority, the education, teachers, parents, and support systems
have all mutated to cater to those students. 
We believe that students living in a single-parenting, have characteristics that differ from those living in a two
parent household.  As the year continues, we feel it is important to retest the progress of the single-parenting.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS

When are you considered a Single-Parent?
According to the Solo Parents Welfare Act of 2000 (Republic Act No. 8972), you are considered a single mom if:

 You became pregnant as a result of rape or other crimes against chastity, provided that you keep and raise the
child
 You are parenting solo under these circumstances:
 The death of a spouse
 Your spouse is detained or serving a sentence for a criminal conviction for at least one year
 Your spouse is deemed physically or mentally incapable of sharing the parenting responsibility, as certified by a
public mental practitioner
 Legal separation or de facto separation for at least one year, as long as you are entrusted with custody of the
children
 Declaration of nullity or annulment of marriage as decreed by a court or church, as long as you are entrusted
with custody of the children
 Abandonment from your spouse for at least one year
 You are an unmarried mother rearing your child
 You are any other person who is the sole provider of parental care to a child or children
 You a family member who has assumed the responsibility of head of the family as the result of death,
disappearance, abandonment, or prolonged absence of a child’s parents

As a single mom in the Philippines, you are entitled to certain benefits, as stated in the Solo Parents Welfare Act of
2000 (RA 8972). If you are a single mom whose income falls below the poverty threshold set by the National Economic
and Development Authority (NEDA), you may request for an assessment from a Department of Social Welfare and
Development (DSWD) worker in your area to determine your eligibility for assistance.
You may then inquire regarding availment of the following services from the corresponding agencies:

 Health Services (DOH)

 Educational Services (CHED, TESDA)
 Housing (NHA)
 Parental Leave (Employer, DOLE, CSC)

A single mom whose income is above the poverty threshold shall be entitled to limited benefits, such as:

 Flexible work schedule – The right to vary your arrival and departure time at work, provided that this does not
affect company and individual productivity, and does not affect the core work hours defined by your employer.
 No work discrimination – Employers are prohibited from discriminating against single moms with respect to
terms and conditions of employment in relation to her status.

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 Parental leave – A seven-day leave granted to solo parents, which may be availed of continuously or on a
staggered basis, given the following circumstances:
 To attend to personal milestones of children such as birthdays, graduation, and similar events
 To perform parental obligations such as enrollment, attendance of school programs, PTA meetings, etc.
 Attend to the medical, social, spiritual and recreational needs of children

Other relevant circumstances where the physical presence of a parent is required to avail of the benefits stated in
the Solo Parents Welfare Act, you should apply for a Solo Parent ID. For this, you need to present the following
documents at the City/Municipal Social Welfare and Development (C/MSWD) office:

 Barangay certificate as proof of residency in your barangay for the last six months
 Documents that prove you are a solo parent, such as the birth certificates of your children, death certificate of
your spouse, declaration of nullity of marriage, medical certificate if your spouse is incapacitated
 A certificate issued by your Barangay Captain indicating the circumstances of one’s being a solo parent, in the
case of de facto separation
 Your income Tax Return (ITR) or certification from the barangay/municipal treasurer to establish your income
level
 A social worker will then process your application and evaluate your solo parent situation. Your ID should be
issued within 30 days from your application date. This is valid for one year, and is renewable.

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Literature Review
This chapter will review research from the past 15 years describing the emotional, social, and academic effects
on children raised by single parents. This literature review will begin with a discussion of the psychological well-being of
children raised by a single parent, followed by a discussion of the academic achievement of children from single parent
homes. The chapter will conclude with a review of the literature regarding the effects of being raised by a parent of the
same gender.

Psychological well-being
Parental Contact
There is a wealth of research evidence concluding that the effects on children’s psychological well-being are
enormous when parents’ divorce. Clarke-Stewart and Hayward (1996) cited studies documenting the deleterious effects
of divorce on children’s self-esteem, achievement in school, and psychological adjustment. Clarke-Stewart and Hayward
(1996) offered several hypotheses as to which aspects of divorce had the greatest impact on children’s sense of well-
being. Notably, the amount of time children spent with the non-custodial parent and the emotional environment
provided by the custodial parent were hypothesized as being contributory factors. Additional research suggested that
children who lived with their fathers had a greater sense of well-being than did children who lived with their mothers
(Biller & Kimpton, 1997; Clarke-Stewart & Hayward, 1996; Farrell, 2001; Hilton & Devall, 1998).
Clarke-Stewart and Hayward (1996) noted that past studies investigating non-custodial parental contact
produced inconsistent results. Some studies showed that time 5 spent with the non-resident parent was very important
to children's well-being, while other studies showed no relation at all. Another body of research suggested that contact
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with the non-resident parent was actually detrimental to the children's well-being and caused more problems
(McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994).
In their research, Clarke-Stewart and Hayward (1996) studied 187 children; 115 in single mother homes and 72
in single father homes. Each family was interviewed once for 1 1/2 hours. The custodial parent and the child were
interviewed separately. Standardized tests and parental reports were used to measure the child's psychological well-
being and perceived adjustment to the divorce. Results of the interviews showed that time spent with the non-custodial
parent was important to the children. Their psychological well-being was affected by two aspects of contact with the
non-custodial parent: spending holidays together and participating in a variety of everyday activities together. Rather
than spending time going out to eat or taking big vacations together, children preferred doing everyday tasks with the
non-resident parent, such as doing homework, watching TV, or just talking. The researchers noted that out of all the
variables considered, contact with the non-resident parent was the only predictor of psychological well-being for girls in
the study. Additionally, children who had close contact with the non-resident parent tended to have better relationships
overall with both parents, and this contributed to a strong sense of well-being. Clarke-Stewart and Hayward (1996)
noted that it was important for both parents to remain “full service” parents if their children were to experience
psychological growth and strength. In most cases, children reportedly loved both of their parents and strongly wanted
contact with both.

Unfortunately, non-custodial parents, mothers and father alike, tend to become more permissive following a
divorce (Dornbush, et al., cited in Carlson, 1997; Hilton & Desrochers, 2002; McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994.) Non-
custodial mothers especially are prone to permissiveness, while non-custodial fathers tend to become either overly

indulgent, taking on a "recreational, companionate role" or disengaging from their children entirely (Carlson,
1997, p. 625).

Emotional Environment
The emotional environment provided by the custodial parent also appears to have an effect on children’s well-
being. Hilton and Desrochers (2002) cited the “parental adjustment perspective,” which posits that the parent’s
psychological state after a divorce has a direct effect on children’s well-being (p. 31). Clarke-Stewart and Hayward (1996)
found that children had stronger relationships with both parents and a greater sense of psychological well-being when
the custodial parent had made a successful emotional adjustment to the divorce -- especially those children in mother
custody. Single mothers seemed to suffer more following a divorce, perhaps because they typically experienced a severe
loss of income since due to a lack of child support (McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994). According to McLanahan and
Sandefur (1994), the loss of a husband's income (and the psychological effect on the custodial parent) was one of the
most important factors in determining a child’s well-being. Carlson (1997) agreed, noting that in single parent families,
parenting abilities are affected by the family's financial status (p. 625). In particular, single mothers suffer higher stress
rates due to a loss of economic status, possibly leading to maternal depression -- "predict[ing] negative maternal
attitudes and ineffective parenting" (p. 625).
In another study, Hilton and Devall (1998) gathered data from 30 single-mother families, 30 single-father
families, and 30 intact families. The researchers found that besides having to adjust to a lower standard of living, single
mothers also experienced less access to occupational training and less access to the higher education needed to pull
themselves and their children out of poverty. Additionally, the researchers found that "occupational segregation, wage
differentials, and the glass ceiling" contributed to the challenges facing single mothers (p. 74). Given these obstacles,
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single mothers tended to feel more overwhelmed in their parenting role, experiencing high stress levels and depression
(Carlson, 1997; McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994). The authors posited that a combination of these factors could lead to
ineffective parenting, with the single mother unable to provide the firm, loving discipline that children need to develop a
strong sense of security and well-being.
McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) noted that divorced families move more often, especially families headed by a
single mother. Whether due to a change in jobs or the need for a smaller home that is more affordable, single mothers
often make changes in residence once the father moves out and the family income decreases. Single mothers also tend
to disengage from family and friends, not taking the time to maintain old relationships or to build new supportive ones.
McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) asserted that single mothers tend to be so depressed at their lack of status and income
following their divorces, they had no energy to maintain relationships. The authors asserted that this lack of family and
friendship connections can have a detrimental effect on children’s well-being, as they see their old, well-known world
fall away.
Single fathers, on the other hand, tend to experience much more psychological stability after a divorce than did
single mothers (Biller & Kimpton, 1997; Clarke-Stewart & Hayward, 1996; Farrell, 2001; Hilton & Devall, 1998). Research
also suggests that children who live with their fathers experience a greater sense of well-being than do children who live
with their mothers (Clarke-Stewart & Hayward, 1996; Hilton & Devall, 1998).
Ambert (cited in Schnayer & Orr, 1989) suggested that fathers were more effective single parents because our
society tends to look more favorably on single fathers. According to Ambert, single fathers did not experience a decline
in social status as did single mothers, and single fathers were more likely to receive offers of help from family and
friends. In addition to having a stronger support system, single fathers had higher incomes and were therefore less likely
to require child support.
Single fathers tend to have fewer children to take care of (Clarke-Stewart & Hayward, 1996). In addition,
children in father-led homes generally have stronger relationships with their non-custodial mothers than children in
mother-led homes have with their fathers (Clarke-Stewart & Hayward, 1996). For reasons not specifically clear, non-
custodial mothers often stay more connected to their children after a divorce than do non-custodial fathers (Carlson,
1997; Clarke-Stewart & Hayward, 1996), even though mothers tend to live farther away from their children than do
fathers (Clarke-Stewart & Hayward, 1996).
Using data from the 1990 National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) and from General Social Surveys, 1972-
1994, Downey, Ainsworth-Darnell and Dufur (1998) compared the well-being of children living in single mother and
single father homes. The 9 researchers studied the theory that since single mothers and single fathers parent in different
ways, there should be measurable differences in children's well-being from one household to another.
For instance, Downey, et al. (1998) cites several studies hypothesizing that mothers generally are more adept at
meeting children's interpersonal needs. Therefore, children raised by their mothers would have stronger skills for
building relationships. Fathers, on the other hand, have traditionally been seen as stronger disciplinarians, so children
raised in father-led homes should demonstrate fewer behavior problems.
Using the NELS data, Downey, et al. (1998) compared occupational prestige, family income, parents' education,
parents' age, and race. They found that for nearly every characteristic measured, single mothers were at a distinct
disadvantage compared to single fathers. Single fathers had higher occupational prestige, higher income ($36,984 vs.
$25,309), and more education (14.3 years vs. 13.5 years).
Evidence from the Downey, et al. (1998) study did not support the idea that a child’s well-being suffered as a
result of being raised by a single mother despite the mother's economic and educational disadvantages. Indeed, few

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differences in self-concept were found between children of mother-led and father-led homes, and a majority of the
children had no problems forming quality relationships with others. This contradicts the assumption that children are
"handicapped by the absence of a maternal role model" (p. 887). Additionally, the researchers reported that when
teachers were surveyed, children from father-led homes appeared to be less well behaved and had a harder time getting
along with others compared to children from mother-led homes. This contradicts the theory that fathers are more
successful disciplinarians than mothers. Hetherington and Stanley-Hagan (1997) noted that although children from
divorced homes did experience more psychological and behavioral problems than children from intact homes, 70% to
80% of these children emerged as "reasonably competent and well-adjusted individuals" after a time of readjustment to
the divorce (p. 198).
Much of the reviewed research painted a mixed picture as to which aspects of parenting were most important
to a child's sense of well-being after a divorce. What seemed most apparent was that while single mothers and single
fathers tended to parent in different ways, it was the amount of time that a parent personally invested in his or her child
that most influenced the child’s degree of self-worth or sense of well-being. Research seemed to indicate that the
parent who focused on providing a nurturing environment for his or her children was the parent who experienced the
most success in raising emotionally healthy children. General statistics show that overall, children living in mother-led
and father-led homes tended to be equal in terms of having a strong, highly involved parent -- 49% and 46% (Downey,
Ainsworth-Darnell, & Dufur; 1998).

Academic Achievement
As stated previously, it is widely acknowledged that single fathers tend to have higher incomes. Hetherington
and Stanley-Hagan (1997) stated that, in addition to greater financial resources, single fathers also have access to better
housing, schools, and child-care options. Given that a child's life chances can be directly related to family income, it may
be surmised that children who come from economically disadvantaged single-mother homes would experience less
success in school than children from father-led homes.
Much of the reviewed literature regarding the school achievement of children from single parent families
indicated that family income can be a predictor of children's academic success (Downey, 1994; Farrell, 2001; McLanahan
& Sandefur, 1994; Schnayer & Orr, 1989). McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) stated that economic poverty was the most
important factor when analyzing the poor academic achievement of children from single-mother homes. Downey (1994)
concurred, stating that economic distress must be considered when attempting to understand the academic difficulties
of children from mother-led homes.
There were several ways that income (or the lack of it) can affect a child's school achievement. McLanahan and
Sandefur (1994) stated that children who lived in poverty tended to live in neighborhoods with poorer schools. In
addition, less family income meant less money for after-school music lessons and dance lessons, summer sports camps,
and other activities that fostered intellectual stimulation in children. For example, Downey (1994) found that 26% of
single fathers were able to provide their children with computers for educational use, while only 16% of single mothers
were able to do the same. In addition, according to the Downey study, single fathers tended to provide more
educational objects (such as dictionaries and encyclopedias) and were able to save more money for their children's
college expenses.
McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) also found that mothers who had to work longer hours at low-paying jobs had
less time to be involved in their children's daily lives, especially related to their schooling. Having a parent take the time
to read to a child or help with homework can be an immeasurable advantage; mothers who worked long hours tended

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to be overwhelmed with their parenting responsibilities and could offer less academic support to their children
(McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994).

Children coming from an economically disadvantaged mother-led home also appeared to have less motivation
and lowered expectations for themselves compared to peers living in better circumstances. McLanahan and Sandefur
(1994), for example, stated that children who didn't expect to go to college tended to not work as hard in high school.
Those researchers also noted that children from mother-led homes who received no child support from their fathers had
little expectation of receiving financial support for college.
An earlier study by Schnayer and Orr (1989) showed that there was little difference in the academic
achievement of children coming from mother-led homes and children coming from father-led homes. Schnayer and Orr
administered the Self-Perception 15 Profile for Children (SPPC) to 62 children, ages six to 16, who lived in single-parent
families. The SPPC consisted of 36 items that contained two statements. The child indicated which statement best
described him or her, such as "some kids feel that they are good at their school work but other kids worry that they
cannot do the school work assigned to them" (p. 175). The child then marked whether the statement chosen was "sort
of true" or "really true." Included in the SPPC was a subscale for scholastic competence, along with other subscales that
measured such constructs as perceived self-worth, perceived athletic ability, and perceived popularity.
Schnayer and Orr (1989) found scores measuring the academic achievement of children from single-mother and
single-father families did not differ dramatically. The only exception to this finding was on the perceived scholastic
competence subscale. Children from single-mother homes scored significantly higher than those raised by single fathers.
Citing several earlier studies, Schnayer and Orr (1989) suggested that this difference was likely related to the number of
years a child had lived in a single-parent home. They noted that immediately after a divorce, a child's school
performance tends to decline, a finding corroborated by Hetherington and Stanley-Hagan (1997). Since most of the
single mothers in the Schnayer and Orr study were parenting alone for a longer period of time than the single fathers,
the researchers attributed the difference in scores to the length of time since the divorce, rather than to the sex of the
parent. Hetherington and Stanley-Hagan (1997) asserted that most families achieved "homeostasis" within two years of
a divorce and were able to function fairly well as long as no new crises presented themselves (p. 201).
Downey (1994) concurred with McLanahan and Sandefur (1994) in that income can have an effect on children's
success in school. However, consistent with Schnayer and Orr (1989), Downey's research also indicated that children
from father-led homes did no better in school than children from mother-led homes. In his research, Downey measured
eight educational outcomes for 409 children in single-father and 3,483 children in single-mother led homes. Grades,
science, math, reading, history, effort, obedience, and student educational expectations were used as outcome
measures. There were no measurable differences in the grade point averages between single-mother and single-father
homes. In teacher evaluations of effort and obedience, the scores also were comparable. The only area where children
from single-father homes performed better was on standardized tests, especially in math and science. Biller and
Kimpton (1997) agreed with the Downey finding, stating that boys especially showed stronger cognitive development
and problem-solving abilities when given a high degree of support and nurturance from their fathers. This was also
corroborated by Farrell (2001), who cited studies suggesting that a child's math and science aptitudes were affected by
the presence of a father in the home. Farrell (2001) maintained that both sons and daughters do better in these areas
when the father is involved.
Besides measuring the educational outcomes of children from single parent homes, Downey (1994) also
measured the amount of involvement single parents have in their children's academic life. Downey found that mothers

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were more likely to attend PTA and other school meetings, as well as specific school events. Single mothers were also
more likely to know their children's friends and the parents of those friends. Fathers scored higher on "parent's
educational expectations," while both mothers and fathers 17 scored comparably on "help with homework" and "talk"
(e.g., talking about the child's school day).
Finally, it must be noted that the school environment itself can have a marked effect on the academic
achievement of children from single parent homes. A school that provides a stable and structured environment and
warm, nurturing teachers will see greater academic (and social) achievement by those children, especially for children
coming from permissive homes (Hetherington, cited in Carlson, 1997).

Theoretical Framework
Trends in single-parent families in Philippines have been increasing over the past decades. Many studies as
discussed in the previous chapter demonstrated a variety of impacts family structure has on children’s outcomes such as
academic achievement, behavioral problems and emotional health. This study attempts to understand the participants’
realities from their point of view on how family structure impacts children’s lives. When looking at outcome of children
of a lone mother, it is important to consider some of the factors that play a part in the family such as economic
resources parental styles of discipline and social support. A better understanding of the live experiences of single-parent
families in today’s society and the meanings single-parent and children make of their experiences conduct the study by
looking into the possible factors that have impacts on the well-being of children of single parent’s families
John Bowlby’s attachment theory means that secure attachment between a parent and child makes parenting
easier and supports parent/child intimacy, which improves the child’s sense of worth so how exactly does this relate to
single-parent families? Absence of interaction involving the children of single-parent families and the parents can result
in attachment concerns can compromise the effectiveness of parenting strategies, and result a difficult amount of stress
on custodial parents because endeavor to enact their parenting responsibilities. An in depth relationship amongst the
single-parent plus the child fosters the child’s social-emotional development and decreases behavioral concerns.
Sigmund Freud implies that the human psyche is by nature pleasure seeking. So how exactly does this relate to single-
parent families? Single-parents who are experiencing the pain of separation liable opt for behaviors that are risky, yet
provides all of them with the gratification some may need to deal with the stressors that they would encounter.
B.F. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning means that individuals will usually repeat behaviors that create
favorable results. So how does this relate to single-parent families? Many single-parents struggle with self-reliance
because their dependency on external supports is reinforced… Just for example, those who are welfare dependent can
be more contented financially that those that work.
Erick Erickson’s theory of psychosocial developmental suggests when the caregiver is available, consistent,
supportive and reliable children achieve developmental milestones which ultimately supports their trust, independence,
self-awareness and desire accomplish. How can this correlate single-parent families? Children raised in single-parent
households possess the same developmental needs as other children. Therefore, in case the single-parent is consistent,
supportive and reliable, they will should acquire attitudes of trust, independence, and self-awareness and of course the
yearning to succeed.
L.S Vygotsky’s reasoning behind cognitive development suggests that the social world defines the way children
think. He thought that children discover more when their learning is right supported at opportune instances when the
caregiver aides them studying new tasks. How does this correlate single-parent families? When children raised in single-
parent households are still alone on a regular basis of their time or left in the hands of uninvolved caregivers their

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academic skills aren’t being fully supported. The Resiliency theory suggests through the use of inborn coping
mechanisms individuals are able to overcome adversities inside their lives. So how does this correlate single-parent
families? Via the use of appropriate resources and of course the application of coping strategies single-parent families
can overcome the contests that they can encounter.
Carl Rogers’ self-actualization perspective proposes that this fundamental goal of all individuals is usually to
maximize their potential and be the best they were able to be. So how does this pertain to single-parent families? It is
not the intention or aim of single-parent families to actually be problematic and dysfunctional. Like other families the
desire of the constituents of single-parent families is to achieve family cohesion, in order to provide support for the
growth and development of each other.

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