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SVETLANA ALPERS

IsArt History?

It comes as no surprise to a student of art and its history these days to open a
book on Italian painting and find an extensive discussion of barrel-gauging, or to
turn to a study of Courbet and find many pages devoted to a detailed account of
radicalism among French peasants in 1849 and 1850. The books by Michael
Baxandall and T. J. Clark to which I am referring are not eccentric texts but
the most inventive and studies of art written in recent
among interesting years.1
Distinctive though their emphases are, these writers share a commitment to
consider the work of art as a "piece of history." Baxandall argues that we should
consider Piero della Francesca's pictorial engagement with solid geometric
forms in terms of the accepted fifteenth-century training in commercial mathe?
matics. Similarly, Clark argues that an attention to the situation of French rural
us to understand but also inseparably in
society enables the presence (in style,
content) of Courbet's great works of 1849-1850. I have chosen these two books
as among the most a great number of such
rigorously argued of what is indeed
studies. It is a fashion by now, and almost established as one of the
acceptable
tools of the art historical trade. The new art was announced in the title
history
of a series of book-length studies of individual works initiated in the 1960s?Art
in Context. The traditional mode of art history is represented by Pevsner's
multivolumed History ofArt, which began appearing in the 1950s and considers
the history of art period by period, and country by country.2
What is worth remarking about the new look in the study of art is not its
on art and society?for that has a long and somewhat checkered
emphasis
history?but rather the terms in which it is proposed. While previously it was
the history of art, conceived in terms of the development and achievement
of period styles, which was studied in the historical context (resulting in books
like Der Barock als Kunst der Gegenreformation3), today it is individual works or
groups of works, individual phenomena located at a particular time and place.
Thus to amplify what I have just said: it is the work of art itself, not a history or
sequence of works, which is seen as a piece of history.
A corollary to this
change within the discipline is the phenomenon of
historians turning to art not for confirmation of the notion of period style (one
thinks for example of the use made of art in Friedrich's The Age of the Baroque4),
but rather for the fact of individual works. It is a historian, Peter Gay, not an art
historian, who most recently employed the phrase "piece of history" to describe
1

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SVETLANA ALPERS
2

the works discussedin his book on Manet, Gropius, and Mondrian.5 The
intellectual atmosphere is one in which historians frequently
turn to works of
art, and joint projects between historians and art historians flourish. Velazquez
is being studied by such a team, as is the patronage of Julius II in Rome. (The
nature of patronage is fast becoming a separate topic of study in the field of art
history.) The sense of a common enterprise demonstrated in such projects is
based on the assumption that the work of art, like any other event, is a piece of
history.
The new social history of art as it is carried on by art historians concentrates
on the circumstances of the making of an individual work. Who commissioned
it, and where was it to be placed? What function (a central term here) did it
serve and for what audience was it intended? Seen in this way documents

establishing the commission and the later history or provenance of a work of art
no to its to its very nature as an object.
longer testify pedigree but indeed
methods of the cost of much per each full
Specific calculating paintings?so
length figure in the case of seventeenth-century Italian commission, for ex?
determine, it is the way a work looks. If, because of such
ample?could argued,
a were to seven
considerations, patron willing pay for only full-length figures in
a of the Massacre of the Innocents, then Guido Reni, the artist in
picture
would have had to come up with his innovative reduced version of this
question,
traditionally many-figured scene. A particular compositional organization could
be due to the position of the work, the actual site for which itwas intended, and
the angle from which it was to be viewed. Titian's removal of the Virgin from
her traditional central position to the right side of the worshipers in his Pesaro
Madonna?once considered a invention?is now ex?
protobaroque stylistic

plained by the fact that the worshipers approached the work from the aisle to
the left of the altarpiece. A revisionist interpretation of Michelangelo's Medici
Chapel argues that it is less neoplatonic beliefs or stylistic concerns as such than
the funerary function of the chapel and the specific liturgy for the dead
composed for this place which were determining factors in the artist's in?
ventions.6 Almost unawares, such studies have come to a of the
d?mystification
notion of artistic invention. What was previously puzzled over as amystery has
now come to be understood as the task of a work to a particular task, to a
fitting
particular set of describable historical conditions. If awork of art is inevitably to
be understood in terms of its particular historical circumstances, it is arguable
that great art will result from a conscious working out of this recognition. Great
art is, in short, in this essential way political in nature. However, those studies
of Reni, Titian, and Michelangelo to which I have referred do not admit to this
view. One of the things which I want to pursue later is the gap as I see it
between the implications of this new social history and its acknowledged sense
of itself and of art. In the name of clarity, rationality, and historical objectivity
the new art history embraces a potentially radical view of art without accepting its
implications.
to the d?mystification of artistic creation is Baxandall's bold
Analogous
to the of of how we see. His study of
attempt demystify problem looking,
art addresses itself to how works of art were seen at a
quattrocento particular
time by identifying habits of vision, modes of cognitive perception he calls
to the perception of paintings.
them, as the social practices most relevant

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IS ART HISTORY? 3

Making what is a kind of social application of Gombrich's perceptual notion of

the "beholder's share," Baxandall argues that eyes trained to gauge the volume
of containers, to read the body language of sermons, or to respond in certain
to color or its absence were catered to in these terms their artists.
ways just by
To quote him, "It is the highest common
factor of skill in his public that the
painter consistently catered for."7 The delight in the complexity of volumetric
forms in a Piero or Uccello, or the careful distinction made among various
gestures in paintings of the Annunciation, is to be understood in this context.
The appeal being made is to common experience, ordinary schooling one might
say. Compare Baxandall's instance of barrel-gauging in discussing Piero della
Francesca to the claimed artistic relevance of higher, more philosophical
mathematics, invoked by Rudolf Wittkower in his landmark discoveries about
Palladio, in Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism .8 Instead of the
mathematics of the humanist we have that of the merchant. Piero himself is here
not seen in conjunction with the Golden Section (frequently cited in analyses of
the composition of his Flagellation), but with high, school mathematics for
which, as Baxandall out, the artist himself wrote a text.
points
a concern to deal with major works, the. view of art put
Despite continuing
forth in these studies is basically a leveling one. And in fact if we look at the
broad spectrum of phenomena that are being studied today a leveling tendency
is very much in evidence. Wolfflin, in a famous and oft-repeated passage, once
argued the stylistic equivalence between Gothic shoes and Gothic architecture.9
It was in the smallest shapes, he said, that the purest manifestation of a style can
be felt. It is thus in the grand order of styles that shoes are the equal of
cathedrals. While W?lfflin treated shoes on a par with art, today shoes and
cathedrals, but more to our barns and cathedrals, and frescoes are
point carpets
all treated as products of society. The studies of so-called vernacular archi?
tecture (like barns) no seem eccentric in an atmosphere in which
longer
architecture can be defined not in terms of monuments but as any changes at all
that man makes in his environment. Apartment houses and tenements take their
place beside town houses and public buildings in this enterprise. In a curious
meeting of the old and the newest, Oleg Grabar's article, "An Art of the
Object" (occasioned by the Metropolitan Museum's opening of its Islamic
installation) brought oriental carpets and designs into the pages of ARTFO
RUM.10 This publication testifies to the modern blurring of the line between art
and craft, seen also in the of and the media
acceptance pottery weaving among
of art and institutionally in the interest in the historical artifacts being exhibited
by newly invigorated historical museums all over the country. But it also
testifies to the extension of serious study to the "decorative" (the term is no
longer pejorative) traditions of non-Western art. We should be reminded of
Riegl's arguments of seventy-five years ago which used the traditional motifs in
textiles as a model for the history of style.11 However, as we saw in the
with no to a
comparison Wolfflin, there is today appeal higher and more
extensive historical reality such as style. It is rather their common functions as
social products that bind these various artifacts together.
There is further a healthy decentralization in the view of art, what art is,
where and by whom it has been and is produced. More kinds of objects, but also
more kinds of makers are
being admitted into the circle of artists. Women,

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4 SVETLANA ALPERS

traditionally makers in the household, are a From studies of

significant group.
art in China and India to Europe there is a similar scholarly attention to the
status and working conditions of artist-craftsmen and their influence on the
nature and reception and where were
of works.12 Whenartists born into
families?
When and where were as craftsmen or
professional they treated
honored as members of wealthy households? Consider the double or triple
professions of many Dutch artists in the seventeenth century: Steen was a
brewer as well as a was both art dealer and
painter; Vermeer probably
now seems a case an
innkeeper. This less of underdeveloped country, by
comparison with Italy, than an example of a different social and thus artistic
situation. The net in which we catch art and artists is spread widely and much
more is for our consideration. The question, "What is art?" and the old
caught
answer that defined it as aesthetic rather than utilitarian never
having appeal
seemed further from mind.
anyone's
Oneway in which to understand the directions being taken today in the
study of art is to see them as alternatives to a dominant mode of the first
offering
of modern art historians. The most influential
great generations figures among
these, Wolfflin for example, and Panofsky, largely concentrated their attention
and developed their modes of analysis with reference to the art of the Italian
Renaissance. Both because of Panofsky's influence inside and outside the field,
and because of the explicit way in which his writings lay out his assumptions, I
have chosen to let him serve as the of a
example general phenomenon.

Panofsky's method
of iconographie analysis originated in a series of primarily
theoretical papers. His iconographie method, loosely construed, has been
adopted by students of the pictorial (and verbal) arts of all ages. But Panofsky's
was bound up with Renaissance and with the
interpretive strategy phenomena
of Renaissance art. In his (which remain untranslated)
study early papers

Panofsky argued against trying to decipher meanings using the notion of style,
which was then defined psychologically by Wolfflin as "forms of
beholding"
{Sehformen) or by Riegl as the Kunstwollen (variously trans?
sociopsychological
lated "will to form," "artistic volition," or more literally "that which wills
art").13 Arguing instead for the way in which pictorial images are bound to
ideas, Panofsky defined their essential meaning in terms of Sinn, later rendered
as "intrinsic in his Adopting Cassirer's notion of
meaning" English publications.
the achievement of was that it drew
symbolic forms, great Panofsky's approach
attention to the links between pictures and ideas, between art and thought. But
whether he is defining the Renaissance as the r?int?gration of classical motif
with classical theme, or pointing to the symbolic force of the use of perspective
construction in Renaissance painting, Panofsky in effect posits and confirms a
notion of man and of art.14 Man here is a figure located historically in
particular
time (acknowledging his historical relationship to antiquity) and in space
to posit his picture as a window onto
(employing the device of linear perspective
a second, substitute world). Man is at the center, viewing the world beyond of
which his art is the imagined imitation. The very notion of the viewer's relation?
are verbally construed and which lie beneath the surface
ship to meanings which
of his meaningful images, is bound up with Renaissance notions of art and the
a
primacy of language. While validating and expounding certain view of man,
and the kind of art he produced, Panofsky was clear at least at first, that this was

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IS ART HISTORY? 5

from what came before (Middle Ages) and what came after (the
distinguished
modern
age).

But no mediaeval man could see the civilization of as a

antiquity phenomenon
in itself, to the past and detached from the
complete yet belonging historically
world?as a cultural cosmos to be and, if to be
contemporary investigated possible,
instead of a world of wonders or a mine of informa?
reintegrated, being living
tion. . . . as it was for the Middle to elaborate the modern
Just impossible Ages
system of which is based on the realization of a fixed distance between
perspective,
the eye and the object and thus enables the artist to build up comprehensive and
consistent of visible as was it for them to evolve the
images things; just impossible
modern idea of which is based on the realization of an intellectual distance
history,
between the present and the past, and thus enables the scholar to build up
comprehensive and consistent concepts of
bygone periods.15

It is when method was by him and by the field in

Panofsky's expanded,
to other arts and then treated as a normative standard for art and its
general,

study that problems developed. Compelling though his study of early Nether?
landish painting is, it more and more seems to me that it compels partly by
art follow the art of the south.16 Northern artists, far longer
making northern
and more persistently than those in the south, trusted to the flatness of the
working surface. Although it is true that the illuminated pages of books became
more and more picturelike in the Italian Renaissance sense, the flatness of the
surface of northern art in general was not killed off by perspective as Panofsky
suggests. Neither the flat surface nor the repetition involved in printing
techniques disturbed northern European artists, who, unlike the Italians, did
not accept the authority of the individual work, created by an individual artist
for a located viewer. As an image of the world, northern art is often more like a
mirror than like a window. This is true of Van Eyck as it is of Vermeer. The
common denominator between both aspects (flatness of working surface and
mirror) is the absence of the maker or viewer, clearly posited in space and
located in time, that is central to the creation of Italian art. Northern art, it

might be argued, moved from the eye of God (Van Eyck's mirror in the
to the optical lens like a reflecting eye (the world cast onto the
Arnolfini Wedding)
surface of the canvas as in Vermeer). But all the time a human center, in

Panofsky's Italian Renaissance sense, is strangely absent. Finally Panofsky's

definition of disguised symbolism?his inventive way of analyzing the com?
bination of new pictorial realism and old medieval symbolism in the art of the
north?in effect follows Italian fashions by subordinating surface imitation to
meaning. He does not allow for the fact that the appearance of the first seems so
often to outrun the verbal presence of the second, even in Van Eyck.
If we turn to Panofsky's masterful study of D?rer, it is characteristic that he
sees D?rer as a kind of of the alien northern darkness toward
captive struggling
the southern light.17 This of course is how D?rer often saw himself and it is
thus in keeping with much of his art. But it is less clear that there is a a
right and
a and a darkness here. In view of the
wrong, light (the south) (the north)
accomplishments of D?rer's art one might says that he was far better at a
northern task, than at a southern one,
characteristically print-making, painting.
Or to pursue the contrast further, that his landscapes (northern) are far superior
to his nudes (southern).

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6 SVETLANA ALPERS

As heirs to this southern emphasis, students of the northern tradition have

until recently been inordinately interested in those artists and works which are
bound in some way to the south of Europe. Motifs and meanings have been
tracked down with great energy. Despite the evidence
of the pictures them?
selves, an entire moralistic school of interpretation of Dutch seventeenth
century realism has developed on the that hidden meaning, not the
assumption
surface, is the key to pictorial significance. Despite their pictorial balance and
Vermeer's women, for are seen as emblems of sin.
presence, example, Although
moralizing emblem books were popular in the Netherlands and some paintings
can be
followed suit, the impetus for this kind of interpretation explained at
least in part as an attempt to lend the right kind of significance to an otherwise?
by Italian standards?insignificant art. This attitude iswidespread. Lord Clark
introduces his book on Rembrandt and the Italian Renaissance19, by asking how such
an artist could rise from the of Dutch art. And he goes on to
mediocrity
expound Rembrandt's greatness in terms of Italian models. He thus speaks from
a Italian notion of greatness and leaves precious little
specifically incidentally
room for the more obviously native achievements of a Saenredam, a Ruisdael,
or a Vermeer.

Although he is suspicious of subjectivity, Panofsky's view of art and its

is on the side of certain values, certain notions of man, art, and
history clearly

history for which he claims objective validity. Thus although his methods for
were historically as appropriate ways of
studying art and its history located
with Renaissance art, he came to treat them as normative and so
dealing they
came to be seen by the discipline itself. In the course of his well-known "The
of Art as a Humanistic makes the statement that
History Discipline," Panofsky
man is "fundamentally an historian" and that "to grasp reality we have to detach
ourselves from the He as a Renaissance viewer, located in
present."19 speaks
time and space, detached from what he observes as he is from the process of
The very title of this essay, which to our
observing. long has been given
students as a standard definition of and defense of the study of art history, can
now be seen as in Renaissance about man and art. What
grounded assumptions
happens, one wonders, if the art one wants to study is itself not based on such
humanistic principles? Is it not art? Can it not be studied by art historians?
These lead us back to the concerns occupying students of art
questions
today. My argument is that much of what was considered
previously margin?
al?in terms of kinds of objects, whole civilizations, but also in terms of the
one would ask about them?is our attention. In
questions presently holding
effect, then, questions about our assumptions are raised by what is being done
in the study of art as a piece of history. I say "in effect," however, because they
are hardly as except by Marxist critics.20 To them,
being voiced questions
nothing that I have said will
seem new, and much of what I have said will seem
mild or too superficial in ideological terms. To ask why such questions are not

being addressed is to speak not only to the inertia inherent in any academic
but also to strike to the heart of the discipline's sense of itself as a
discipline,
as scholars, art historians all too often see themselves as being in
discipline. For
are the makers
pursuit of knowledge without recognizing how they themselves
of that knowledge.
It is often in recognizing the assumptions underlying one's research, one's

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IS ART HISTORY? 7

habits of mind in a sense, that new problems are clarified and new issues are
made clear. If we our current intellectual stance as a to the
recognize challenge
of the Renaissance, we should go on to reconsider some
previous hegemony
things that we have made basic to the study of art. Three issues, basic operating
our art come to mind: (1)
procedures actually, built right into study of Western
the notion of the role or the authority of the individual maker; (2) the notion of
the uniqueness of the individual work; and (3) the notion of the centrality of the
institution of painting.
It is common procedure to begin any study by
attributing and dating the
works to be considered and separating them out from any possible imitations.
On what basis (other than market value) must we consider the authority of an
individual maker as the central feature of every work? Entire modes of art which
we are now to include in our studies do not depend on such
beginning
identification. The assertion of the identity of the maker is properly studied
the of a much of anonymous
against background larger production objects
which were made apart from such a recognition of self. Perhaps there was a
conscious at self-effacement, an to blend into an admired
attempt attempt style
or mode of image-making. In studying a tradition such as Chinese painting,
where imitation of an admired style is the rule and attribution a
chancy and
at best, would it not be useful to ask how
demanding procedure appropriate the
task of attribution is? How is the individual maker related as an individual to
such a powerful and absorbing tradition? How should we deal with the
collaborative effort of workshop products, such as medieval illuminated manu?
scripts or Renaissance frescoed rooms? Should our aim always be first to sort
out, to identify the hands? What is the status or nature of collaborative efforts at
different times, in different societies? What were the conditions of working
together?
to the works themselves, our about the absolute
Turning assumption
uniqueness of the original work is a counterpart to this notion of individual
creators. There are first of all types of objects?prints, but also tapestries or
are to
photographs?which designed be replicated. Not only does our current
method of print connoisseurship lead us, against this very fact, to continue to
sort out when and in which order each individual
pull of a print was made, but
further the very notion of the value of repetition is hardly faced at all. If as
William Ivins has argued in his feisty but powerful Prints and Visual Communica?
tion , one function of a pictorial image is the communication of information (as in
a map, or the illustrations to a of both of which were worked on
study botany,
by Dutch artists in the seventeenth century) then the possibility of repetition is
a not a vice.21 That Rembrandt this often
prime virtue, fought possibility,
creating essentially unrepeatable is a different but not on
etchings, necessarily
this account (though itmay be on others) a artistic achievement. There
superior
are entire schools of art, such as the Dutch, or artistic such as
enterprises,
Monet's series of haystacks or poplars, which might be better understood in the
a more
light of general appreciation of repetition. The strength of the hold
which the original (in the sense of the or first in a sequence of
originating
inventions) has on us ismade clear even in such an independent study as George
Kubler's The Shape of Time. Kubier begins by that "the idea of art can
proposing
be to embrace the whole of man-made He
expanded range things."22 proceeds

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8 SVETLANA ALPERS

to search for an order in which to put all these things and insists on
establishing
distinctions what he calls "prime objects" and "replicas." In
between
arguing,
for example, that "with European objects we often come closer to the hot
moment of invention than in non-European ones where our is so
knowledge
often based only upon replicas of uniform or debased he seems to me
quality,"
to reveal a cultural bias (but of course also an appropriate cultural
European
responsiveness) which we are just starting to reflect on as we expand the bounds
of art and its history.23
As a final example of new directions inwhich to turn, consider the notion of
as an institution?I mean the sense in which in our study of Western
painting
art a new subject, like landscape, is considered to have
truly arrived only when
it is rendered in the most permanent and expensive media, paint. One notes the
ease with which students of Western painting commonly speak of sources in a
minor medium such as prints, as if they were there just to serve painting. It is as
if the transition from one medium to another was not in itself
problematic and
of assessment. Gombrich, for has demonstrated most elo?
worthy example,

quently that it is not a new

look at the actual landscape on the part of painters in
the north of Europe, but rather a theory making landscape a suitable subject for
art contributed by southern writers that led to the establishment of the new
of "Here then," he writes, "was a frame into which
genre landscape painting.
the admired products of northern skill and patience could be fitted."24 And he
goes on to discuss their classification in terms of heroic and pastoral types. Yet
as Gombrich himself admits a few pages earlier, citing the example of D?rer,
northern skill and patience had already flowered. For D?rer was indeed "one of
the world's greatest landscape painters" though in his topographical watercolors
done for his own pleasure, not in paintings for purchase.25 Is the topographic
watercolor not art? And when we look at the northern
great landscape paint?

ers?Bruegel, and then Van Goyen and Ruisdael?is it true that topography
could not be the motif or function for paintings (as contrasted with a water
color)? Is the birth of in the north so at variance with the
landscape painting
function of the lesser media? What if the entire tradition of northern art is
indeed rather like painted prints? Is the human measure?what Gombrich
means by the institution of landscape as a type of painting?essential before
can be considered in the realm of art? We have here indeed
pictorial renderings
the recipe for the makings of Renaissance art, but surely not for all picturing.
Far from being limited to a revisionist we are
study of art, the questions
on here, the very mode of thinking that leads me to pose them, is
touching
shared by many thinkers today. The status or nature of the individual creator is,
for example, a central concern in all of the works of Michel Foucault.26 His
account of what he terms the archeology of knowledge emphasizes, like
Braudel's study of the Mediterranean, what Braudel calls "that other submerged
history, almost silent and always discreet, virtually unsuspected either by its
observers or its This view of the human situation, the slow
participants."27
of transformation enacted between us and our environ?
process continuing
ments) is also confirmed in much contemporary art. We might take as a prime
the it his
example the writing and the earth-works of late Robert Smithson?be
evocation of Olmsted's Central Park as an of slow
"ongoing development"
with an environment for man, or his
geological changes interacting Spiral Jetty
made out of, and subsumed once again into, the Great Salt Lake.28

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IS ART HISTORY? 9

To ask these questions is then to acknowledge a common enterprise with

historians, critics, artists, and writers of our time, and one would think, to
gain

strength and insight from such a common intellectual cause. From this vantage
we can now return to our earlier remarks on and to his
point Panofsky

generation in a slightly different light. For inmarked contrast to

of art historians
the generation of Panofsky art historians
today, far from acknowledging that
live and work at a certain time and place, in the company of others (all of
they
which would be considered subjective factors) deny this in favor of a notion of
historical research. Baxandall, amost
objective sophisticated spokesman, argues
that "quattrocento intentions happened in quattrocento terms, not in ours."29 It
is characteristic of art history that we teach our graduate students the methods,
the "how to do it" of the discipline (how to date, attribute, track down a
commission, analyze style and iconography) rather than the nature of our
thinking. In terms of the intellectual history of the discipline our students are
woefully uneducated. How many have been asked to read Panofsky's early
untranslated writings, or or Wolfflin? this is that prejudice
Riegl, Supporting
for the original object and against the desk-bound scholar. To think, to write is
itself somehow to forsake the works. At issue is not the method one uses but
rather the notion of aft and its history, the notion of man and the form that his
knowledge of the world takes. For all of Panofsky's claims to employing an
objective method (his three levels of meaning, for example) he accepted the
responsibility for his own thought and his commitment to certain values. In
Renaissance art he was aware of made certain choices; he was
studying having
aware of the that he excluded by making them. He celebrated the
phenomena
a humanistic art and
accomplishment of despaired at the loss of it. A certain
latitude was possible within this set of mind. Panofsky celebrates what he saw
as a kind of cultural wholeness testified to in the symbolic content of Renais?
sance more in his sensibility, studied that
images. Aby Warburg, psychological
precarious balance among competing human impulses that is achieved a
by
society in the ordering of its rituals (the Navajos served him as an example) or
by an individual in his patronage of art. In the midst of the current rush of
alternatives to an earlier mode of studying art, it is only the radical critics of the
field who engage those issues of society and history, those questions of moral
values that were, earlier scholars, as an essential of their
by accepted part
To what view of human and societal values, and to what under?
scholarship.
standing of the sequence of objects that we call history do we tend in our
current mode of equating all works as separate but
equal pieces of history?
One of the few people to see and address this as an issue has been E. H.
Gombrich. Best known for his studies of representation and artistic illusion and
the perceptual processes at work in receiving and
forming images of the world,
Gombrich has devoted himself on a number of recent occasions to the
problem
of maintaining the values of tradition.30 His
long-standing critique of the notion
of Zeitgeist is extended here in an argument directed
against the social historiciza
tion of the study and perception of art and the relativistic view of all values that
results. On the one hand Gombrich is firm in his belief that a disciplined study
of what he calls "the psychological and technical resources of the visual media"
is necessary. But he also to the value of with a
speaks personal response, which,
characteristic confidence in right-mindedness, he feels will inevitably support
traditional canons of taste, support in short the value of tradition itself.31

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10 SVETLANA ALPERS

Gombrich's concern with the perceptual processes of vision can be easily

to artistic notions of modernism, even as his
accommodated analytic rigor can
be accommodated to current structuralist modes of In contrast to
analyses.
modernist art and thought, however, he insists that our visual perception, like
our is validated external For Gombrich the "behold?
judgment, by phenomena.
er's share," that happy phrase by which he evokes the part we play in perceiving
any representative illusion (or by extension one might say make a judgment),
on a notion of constant in the world, constant values
depends constancy, objects

posited outside ourselves. This is, as Gombrich has often argued, simply
a
matter of common sense.

But it is common this to refer to a able to on

sense?taking community agree
certain realities and certain values?that is today being challenged by experi?
ence and by research. Many do not share Gombrich's confidence in tradition.
Those who do, do not share Gombrich's urgent sense that it needs reiteration.
most is being produced out a sense of this
Some of the interesting work
situation. The studies by Leo Steinberg, Michael Fried, and T. J. Clark that I
particularly inmind are perhaps more accurately called writings.
have For they
are all acts of writing as much as they are reports of research accomplished.32
These three scholars differ from one another greatly in subject, attitude, and
manner of address. But they share a meditative stance which testifies in each
case, I think, to work which is not only reflective in nature but which might also
one
properly be called reflexive. Each clearly establishes where he stands. It is
useful to recall that several years ago in these pages, Leo Steinberg argued
eloquently against what he called the rule of objectivity and the shrinking self.33
For Steinberg the self is a psychological presence, for Michael Fried it is rather a
a more of fictions or
beholder, in philosophical sense, pictorial images, whereas
for T. J. Clark the self is a member of a particular society and class.34 To the
sensible question of whether it is appropriate to deal with Michelangelo, say, or
Greuze or Courbet in terms of viewers so conceived, the answer these scholars
seem to some mixture of evidence from the lifetime of the artist and from
give is
continuing human necessity. Surely Baxandall's disembodied desire?one
shared art historians see art in quattrocento
by many today?to quattrocento
terms is as much an intellectual structuring of our time as the others. This too is
we make.
knowledge
Of these three writers, T. J. Clark comes closest to providing a response to
the present of our field as I have described it here. To repeat
problematic
said earlier, if art is most powerfully understood in its particular
something
historical circumstances, then it is arguable that great art would result from
conscious working out of this recognition. It is this claim that Clark makes for
the art of Courbet in the years 1849-1850. Clark's Image of the People leads us
care in France during these
with through the social and political upheavals
years. He traces Courbet's roots in the fractured and radicalized world of rural
Besan?on, his experimentation with popular imagery and popular forms taken
from the example of simple popular engravings until Courbet finally comes to a
pictorial definition of his audience. In Clark's analysis, the Burial at Omans
subverts the expectations of the normal public for high art by filling a work of
monumental proportions and presumptions with the disorderly actualities of

village society. In contrast to the traditional treatment of Courbet as a realist,

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IS ART HISTORY? 11

his art is here not only seen as a piece of history but is shown to have been made
as such. One of the virtues of this study is that it understands its assumptions.
Clark argues for the ideological determinants of art and he attempts to locate
these in the complex surface, the figures, but also the very colors and brush
strokes of a work. Let us extract some sentences from Clark's description of the
Burial at Omans.

He has more than life-size in a great frieze over

painted forty-five figures eight
the in a row which curves back round
yards long, arranging figures long slightly
the grave itself; and in the conventions of art, he has
places, following popular
one on as if on
piled the figures top of the other they stood steeply sloping ground.
And towards the of the picture he has let the mass of mourners into a
right congeal
solid wall of black pigment, which the face of the and the
against mayor's daughter
handkerchief which covers his sister Zo?'s face register as tenuous, almost tragic
He has used colour and in a way which
interruptions. deliberately dramatically,
has little to do with the careful materialism of the Stonebreakers, to
symbolize
matter; almost, as our move to threaten the faces put the solid
eyes right, upon
. . . this point, when we start to ask about the
ground. Beyond picture's meaning,
the real difficulties to put it is the Burial's affective atmo?
begin. What, briefly,
What are the mourners' attitudes and emotions, and what is Courbet's
sphere?
attitude to the event . We
. have to answer such questions in the face of
portrayed?.
an which avoids emotions that I mean the
image deliberately organization: by
orchestration of forms to mimic and underline the emotional connotations of the
... Is the Burial a sacrament or a social occasion? ... It was
subject. merely
precisely its lack of open, declared significancewhich offended most of all; itwas the
the Burial seemed to hide its attitudes, seemed to contain within itself too
way
many and secular, comic and tragic, sentimental and gro?
contraries?religious
tesque. It was this inclusiveness, this exact and cruel that made the
deadpan,
Burial the focus of such different It was an that took on the
meanings. image
colours of its context; and it was to do so.35
perhaps designed

But despite all this there are things that are left out. Clark does not intend a
traditional assessment of the oeuvre of a master. The exclusions that he makes?

other works, but also other of those he chooses to discuss?are

many aspects
can understand why
made consciously. One they do not appear here. Clark can
tell us of the social function of the Burial at Omans, but what about Courbet's
extraordinary self-portraits? Surely a discovery of self went along with Cour?
bet's discovery of the state of his society when he returned to his
village
birthplace to paint in 1849-1850. And what if the issues are not self and society?
How are we to understand that he painted landscapes and still-lifes as he did?
The importance of Clark's work, like Steinberg's and Fried's, is not to
demonstrate the strengths or the limits of a particular approach. It is rather that
these writings set a standard, offer a level of
thinking, of looking, of pictorial
that we in art need. In the preeminent prob?
analysis history sorely distinguishing
lems in our field today, the criticisms that I offered about how they are
being dealt
with are less criticisms of the particular assumptions made, than criticism of
assumptions not perceived, not acknowledged. The pressing need in other words
is to recognize just what it is that we are about.
It is curious to note that each of these three very different scholars has been
at pains to an account of the nature and attentiveness of past viewers of the
give
works that they are studying. Steinberg characteristically sets his studies in this
very frame, summarizing for us how a work?Michelangelo's Last Judgment, for

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12 SVETLANA ALPERS

seen
been
example?has through the ages. Fried in studying the critiques of the
eighteenth-century French salons and Clark in studying the reactions to the
exhibitions of Courbet's works of 1849-1850 have made the reactions to the
basic material of their research and analysis. More important than the dis
tinctiveness of their approaches (Steinberg might be called a
psychoanalytic,
Fried a formalist, and Clark aMarxist critic) is the common claim made by these
scholars, against the evidence of most art historical writing today, that not only
research about, but looking at a work, takes time. They all show that it took time
to look in the past and they offer us ways inwhich it can
today.
In the greater expanse of art history this fact has frequently been lost
sight
of, though indeed in reading Riegl, W?lfflin, Focillon, or Lawrence
Gowing,
for example, we find writers who did not. But it is a particularly pressing issue
today in the atmosphere and with the kind of intellectual engagements outlined
in the opening part of this essay. With such a profusion of objects and cultures,
with old hierarchies crumbling, how does one justify such an occupation as
It is a
looking? daunting question.

References
Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Florence: A Primer in the Social

History of Style(Lor\don, 1972) and T. J. Clark, Image of thePeople: Gustave Courbet and the 1848 Revolu?
to this essay. First,
tion (London, 1973). Two remarks should be appended by way of introduction
although the examples of both present and past work in art history will come largely from those areas I
know best, the Renaissance and after, I think that the points I shall make are not limited to these areas.
not mean to
Second, in choosing to emphasize the directions being taken by innovative work I do deny
that much excellent of amore traditional kind continues to be done.
scholarship
2John Fleming and Hugh Honour (eds.), Art in Context; Nikolaus Pevsner, The Pelican History
ofArt (London, 1953- ).
3Werner Weisbach, Der Barock als Kunst der Gegenreformation (Berlin, 1921).
4Carl J. Friedrich, The Age of the Baroque (New York, 1952).
5Peter Gay, Art and Act: On Causes inHistory?Manet, Gropius, Mondrian (New York, 1976), p. 3.
61 am referring here to the following studies: Francis Haskell, Patrons and Painters (London,
1963), p. 10 n. (Reni); David Rosand, "Titian in the Frari," Art Bulletin, 53 (1970): 206 (Titian);
as yet
L. D. Ettlinger's unpublished study of Michelangelo's Medici Chapel.
7Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Florence, p.40.
8Rudolf Wittkower, Architectural Principles in theAge ofHumanism (London, 1949).
zu einer in Kleine
9Heinrich Wolfflin, Prolegomena Psychologie der Architektur (1886), reprinted
see p. 44.
Schriften (Basel, 1946),
10Oleg Grabar, "An Art of the Object," ARTFORUM (March 1976): 36-43.
nAlois Riegl, Stilfragen (Berlin, 1893).
at recent study
12To give but two examples in the work of colleagues Berkeley: James Cahill's
"Life Patterns and Stylistic Directions in Ming Painting," and Joanne Williams,
(unpublished),
"Caste and the Role of the Painter inMughal India" (also unpublished).
13Erwin Panofsky, "Der Begriff des Kunstwollens," Zeitschrift f?r Aesthetik und Algemeine
14(1920); 321-339.
Kunstwissenschaft,
to the
14See Erwin Panofsky, "Iconography and Iconology: An Introduction Study of Renais?
sance Art," Meaning in the Visual Arts (Garden City, 1955), pp. 26-54.
15Erwin Panofsky, in Studies in Iconography: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the
"Introductory,"
Renaissance (New York, 1962), pp. 27-28. First published in 1939.
Its Origins and Character
16Erwin Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting, (Cambridge, Mass.,
1955).
17Erwin Panofsky, The Life and Art ofAlhrecht D?rer (Princeton, 1955). First published in 1943.
18Kenneth Clark, Rembrandt and the Italian Renaissance (New York, 1966).
19Erwin Panofsky, "The History of Art as aHumanistic as the Introduction
Discipline," printed
to in the Visual Arts (Garden 1955); see pp. 5 and 24 for the quotations cited.
Meaning City,
20There are of course some exceptions. Early
on James Ackerman voiced concerns about the
art history in "Western Art History," in Art and Archaeology
direction being taken by (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., 1963), where he pointed to the noninterventionist stance of American art historians. He

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ISART HISTORY? 13

has not been alone among art historians since then in turning to the film (Ackerman has even made
one) by way of being more in touch with the realities of modern In this connection we
society.
should remember that Panofsky himself wrote a and, in certain respects at least
piece welcoming
definitively defining, this newest of artistic media. As always Panofsky located just where he stood
in relationship to it: "It is the movies, and only the movies that do justice to that materialistic

interpretation of the universe which, whether we like it or not, pervades contemporary civilization."
"Style and Medium in the Motion Pictures," 1, 3 (January-February, 1947), reprinted in
Critique,
Gerald Mast and Marshall Cohen (eds.), Film Theory and Criticism (New York, 1974), pp. 151-169).
21William M. Ivins, Jr., Prints and Visual Communication (Cambridge, Mass., 1968). First
published in 1953.

22George Kubier, The Shape of Time: Remarks on theHistory of Things (New Haven, 1962), p.l.
23Ibid., p. 39 ff. and p. 44.
24E. H. Gombrich, "The Renaissance Theory of Art and the Rise of Landscape in
Painting,"
Norm and Form (London, 1966), p. 114.
25Ibid., p. 108.
26See particularly Michel Foucault, "What is an Author?" Partisan Review (1975): 603-614.
27Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean, tr. Sian Reynolds (New York, 1973), vol. 1, p. ,16.
28Robert Smithson, "Frederick Law Olmsted and the Dialectical Landscape," ARTFORUM
(February, 1973): pp. 62-68.
29Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Florence, p. 151.
30For example, see E. H. Gombrich, "Art History and the Social Sciences," The Romanes Lecture
for 1973 (Oxford, 1975).
31These comments are based on Gombrich's Erasmus Prize acceptance as in
speech published
Simiolus, 8 (1975-1976): 47-48.
32Leo Steinberg has published books, articles, and reviews on many different areas of art. See his
Other Criteria: Confrontations with Twentieth Century Art (New York, 1972), or more recently
Michelangelo's Last Paintings (Oxford, 1976). Michael Fried, first known for his studies of contempo?
rary artists, has also written on French art and is now its antecedents in
nineteeth-century studying
the eighteenth century. See his "Absorption: A Master Theme in French Painting," Eighteenth
9 (1975-1976): 139-177; and "Towards a Fiction: Genre and Beholder in
Century Studies, Supreme
the Art Criticism of Diderot and His Contemporaries," New Literary 1975): 534
History (Spring,
584. Besides his study of Courbet mentioned earlier, T. J. Clark has also written a book on
Daumier, The Absolute Bourgeois (London, 1973), and has now turned to Impressionism and after.
33Leo Steinberg, "Objectivity and the Shrinking Self," Daedalus (Summer, 1969): 824-836.
34A specific woman's sense of self is also in art studies today. The ground for
being articulated
such writing was laid (was in effect cleared) by Linda Nochlin in an article first published in 1971,
"Why Have There Been No Great Woman Artists," reprinted in Thomas B. Hess and Elizabeth B.
Baker (eds.), Art and Sexual Politics (New.York, 1973). It has been part of the groundswell of
revisionist views of art history. If I have not selected out any woman writer here, it is because
single
it seems to me to be more a chorus than distinct individual voices. A major virtue of the woman's
movement in art is that the chorus joins art historians with critics and artists in an easy
relationship
not usual in these worlds. This promises much.
tight professional
35T. J. Clark, The Image of the People, pp. 82-83.

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