Critique of Hume On The Human Soul
Critique of Hume On The Human Soul
1
The nucleus of Hume’s immanentist gnoseology is that what we know are our perceptions, not external, extra-
mental reality. What the human mind knows is not something existing outside consciousness, but merely facts of
consciousness. We do not know the real things of the external world but only our subjective perceptions. Hume
writes in A Treatise of Human Nature: “Now since nothing is ever present to the mind but perceptions, and since all
ideas are derived from something antecedently present to the mind, it follows that it is impossible for us so much as
to conceive or form an idea of anything specifically different from ideas and impressions. Let us fix our attention out
of ourselves as much as possible; let us chase our imagination to the heavens, or to the utmost limits of the universe;
we never really advance a step beyond ourselves, nor can we conceive any kind of existence, but those perceptions
which have appeared in that narrow compass. This is the universe of the imagination, nor have we any idea but what
is there produced.”(D. HUME, A Treatise of Human Nature, I, 2, 6). Hume’s immanentism, explains Battista
Mondin, was an application of the principle of immanence interpreted empiristically, which would be more radical
than Locke’s empiricism: “Il principio fondamentale della filosofia di Hume è il principio di immanenza interpretato
empiristicamente. Secondo tale principio l’unica fonte di conoscenza è l’esperienza e l’oggetto dell’esperienza non è
la cosa esterna ma la rappresentazione. In base a questo principio Hume afferma che le rappresentazioni o le
impressioni costituiscono il dato ultimo della conoscenza umana, il limite contro cui l’uomo deve urtare e fermarsi.
Se e cosa possa esserci al di là delle impressioni non è possibile dire.
“Anche Bacon e Locke erano partiti da questo principio ma non avevano avuto il coraggio di applica lo fino in
fondo, frenati dalle conseguenze disastrose cui esso conduce. Dopo avere ammesso che l’unico oggetto della
conoscenza umana è l’idea, Locke aveva riconosciuto di là dell’idea, la realtà dell’Io, del mondo e di Dio.
“Hume invece si tiene strettamente fedele al principio secondo cui il dato ultimo della nostra conoscenza è
l’impressione e, applicando questo principio coerentemente fino in fondo, senza paura delle conclusioni cui esso
porta, risolve tutta la realtà nel mondo delle idee attuali (cioè nelle impressioni sensibili e nelle loro copie) e nulla
ammette al di là di esse. Dichiarando che l’esperienza non è che una serie di impressioni e di idee, un fluire di
apparenze nel quale si risolve la realtà del soggetto che sente e pensa, e dell’oggetto sentito e pensato, Hume
trasforma l’empirismo in fenomenomenalismo. Nessun’altra cosa può conoscere il pensiero se non se stesso nelle
sue attuali e fuggevoli determinazioni costituite dalle sue percezioni presenti, ossia le impressioni, o dalle immagini
sbiadite di quelle, ossia le idee.
“I predecessori di Hume avevano evitato il fenomenismo attribuendo ai concetti di esistenza, sostanza e causa un
valore oggettivo. Hume mostra che ciò è inammissibile in una dottrina della conoscenza come quella degli empiristi,
la quale sostiene che il suo oggetto ultimo sono le impressioni e le idee.”(B. MONDIN, Storia dell’antropologia
filosofica, vol. 1, ESD, Bologna, 2001, p. 536).
2
D. HUME, A Treatise of Human Nature, I, 4, 2.
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“But let the imagination borrow all it wants from such ‘experiences’ of causal
connection: We have already examined au fond the pretenses of ‘cause and effect.’ What we are
seeing here is nothing more than a particular example of the critically unacceptable general
tendency of the mind to forge a unity for itself. Hume does admit that we experience a certain
feeling that all our perceptions belong to us, and in the Appendix to the Treatise he even goes so
far as to admit that he cannot reconcile this phenomenon with the fact that ‘all our distinct
perceptions are distinct existences.’ As usual, our philosopher is ready to acknowledge that he is
directing this attack against a philosophical tradition and not against the real existence of the
thing he is showing difficult to ‘prove’ theoretically. In the present instance what he is really
after is the Cartesian substantial soul and all its religious implications, as developed by Berkeley
and all ‘metaphysical’ immortalists. He rails at ‘the curious reasonings concerning the material
or immaterial substances, in which they suppose our perceptions to inhere,’ and he confesses that
it is ‘to put a stop to these endless cavils’ that he asks ‘what they mean by substance and
inhesion.’3 It is in this context that he attacks the problem of personal identity.
“After this no time need be wasted on the questions of the immortality or immateriality of
the soul. All such problems have been undercut by throwing doubt on whether the soul is a
substance at all; whether indeed there is any ground for the common feeling that the mind is a
unity.”4
Hume “granted validity to phenomena alone, which he gathered together into collections
or ‘bundles.’ For him, as a consequence, the soul is only a ‘bundle of perceptions,’ in constant
flux and movement – it is from Hume consequently, that we trace the origin for all ‘psychologies
without a soul.’ In addition, Hume regarded the causal bond uniting these ‘bundles of
perceptions as nothing more than a subjective, psychological law required to make experience
possible. In fact, it is this law which constitutes experience.”5
For Hume, we do not have any idea of the “self” or “human person”6 as distinct from our
perceptions. He denies that we have any clear and intelligible idea of the self derived from an
3
D. HUME, op. cit., I, 4, 5.
4
É. GILSON and T. LANGAN, Modern Philosophy: Descartes to Kant, Random House, New York, 1964, pp. 266-
267.
5
J. HIRSCHBERGER, The History of Philosophy, vol. 2, Bruce, Milwaukee, 1959, p. 235.
6
In contrast to Hume’s anti-metaphysical, pan-phenomenalist views on the human person, we have metaphysical
realism/methodical realism/moderate realism, which affirm, instead, that the human person, composed of body and
immaterial, spiritual, incorruptible, and immortal soul, is a rational supposit, an individual substance of a rational
nature (naturæ rationalis individua substantia), an individual subsistent of a rational nature, a rational subsistent
(subsistens rationale). The human soul is the substantial form of the body. “In corporeal substances, the form does
not have the act of being in itself, but only insofar as it gives actuality to matter. The complete essence, composed of
matter and form, is what has the act of being (esse), not the isolated constituent principles. Thus, the horse exists,
and not its form or its matter separately. The case of man’s substantial form is different. Being spiritual, the human
soul has esse as something of its own. Whereas in bodily beings esse only belongs to the composite, to which it
comes through the form, in man esse belongs to the soul, which lets matter share in it.”(T. ALVIRA, L. CLAVELL,
T. MELENDO, Metaphysics, Sinag-Tala, Manila, 1991, p. 94). “Nelle sostanze corporee la forma non la l’essere in
se stessa, ma soltanto in quanto attualizza la materia. Soltanto il composto, l’essenza completa, ha l’essere, mentre
non l’hanno i componenti pressi isolatamente: esiste il cavallo, ma non esistono la sua forma e la sua materia
separate. Il caso della forma sostanziale dell’uomo è diverso. In quanto spirituale, l’anima umana ha l’essere come
qualcosa di proprio. Mentre negli enti corporei l’essere è soltanto del composto, al quale è dato attraverso la forma,
nell’uomo l’essere è dell’anima, che lo partecipa alla materia.”(T. ALVIRA, L. CLAVELL, T. MELENDO,
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impression. “The self or person is not any one impression, but that to which our several
impressions and ideas are supposed to have a reference. If any impression gives rise to the idea
of self, that impression must continue invariably the same, through the whole course of our lives;
since self is supposed to exist after that manner. But there is no impression constant and
invariable…and consequently there is no such idea.”7 Since, for Hume, all our perceptions are
distinguishable from each other and separable from one another, we are unable to capture a
“human person,” or “self” apart from or underlying these perceptions. He writes in I, 4, 6 of the
Treatise: “For my part, when I enter most intimately into what I call myself, I always stumble on
some particular perception or other, of heat or cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or
pleasure. I never catch myself at any time without a perception, and never can observe anything
but the perception…If anyone upon serious and unprejudiced reflection thinks he has a different
notion of himself, I must confess I can reason no longer with him. All I can allow him is that he
may be in the right as well as I, and that we are essentially different in this particular. He may
perhaps perceive something simple and continued, which he calls himself, though I am certain
that there is no such principle in me.’8 For Hume, the mind “is a kind of theatre where several
perceptions successively make their appearance; pass, re-pass, glide away and mingle in an
infinite variety of postures and situations. There is properly no simplicity in it at one time, nor
identity in different; whatever natural propension we have to imagine that simplicity and identity.
The comparison of the theatre must not mislead us. They are the successive perceptions only that
constitute the mind…”9
If the human soul, reduced to human mind, is merely, Hume says, “a bundle of
perceptions,” what then causes us to have the propensity to attribute identity and simplicity to the
human mind? Enter the imagination, and especially the role of memory (which is the chief
source of the “fiction” of the permanent self or human person). Copleston explains that
“according to Hume, we tend to confuse the two ideas of identity and of a succession of related
objects. For example, an animal body is an aggregate, and its component parts are constantly
changing: in the strict sense it does not remain self-identical. But the changes are normally
gradual and cannot be perceived from moment to moment. Further, the parts are related to one
another, enjoying a mutual dependence on and connection with one another. The mind thus tends
to neglect, as it were, the interruptions and to ascribe persistent self-identity to the aggregate.
Now, in the case of the human mind there is a succession of related perceptions. Memory, by
raising up images of past perceptions, produces a relation of resemblance among our perceptions:
and the imagination is thus carried more easily along the chain, so that the chain appears to be a
continued and persistent object. Further, our perceptions are mutually related by means of the
causal relation. ‘Our impressions give rise to their correspondent ideas: and these ideas in their
turn produce other impressions. One thought chases another and draws after it a third, by which
Metafisica, Le Monnier, Florence, 1987, pp. 82-83). “En las sustancias copóreas la forma no tiene el ser en sí
misma, sino sólo en cuanto actualiza la materia. Quien posee el ser es el compuesto de ambos, la esencia completa, y
no los componentes aislados: existe el caballo, no su forma o su materia separadas. El caso de la forma sustancial
del hombre es distinto. Por ser espiritual, el alma humana tiene el ser como algo proprio. Mientras en los entes
corpóreos el ser es sólo del compuesto, al que llega a través de la forma, en el hombre el ser es del alma, que lo da a
participar a la materia.”(T. ALVIRA, L. CLAVELL, T. MELENDO, Metafísica, EUNSA, Pamplona, 2001, p. 98)
7
D. HUME, op. cit., I, 4, 6, L. A. Selby-Bigge edition, Oxford, 1951, pp. 251-252.
8
D. HUME, op. cit., p. 252.
9
Ibid., p. 253.
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it is expelled in its turn.’10 Here again memory is of primary importance. For it is only by
memory that we are able to be aware of the causal relations between our perceptions. Hence
memory is to be accounted the chief source of the idea of personal identity. Once given memory,
our perceptions are linked by association in the imagination, and we attribute identity to what is
in fact an interrupted succession of related perceptions. Indeed, unless corrected by philosophy,
we may ‘feign’ a uniting principle, a permanent self distinct from our perceptions. If we rule out
this ‘fiction,’ all questions about personal identity ‘are to be regarded rather as grammatical than
as philosophical difficulties.’11”12
James Daniel Collins describes and critiques Hume’s anti-metaphysical realist views on
the human person founded upon his immanentist, sensist and pan-phenomenalist gnoseology,
writing: “Hume agrees with his British predecessors that a theory of self must be constructed in
conformity with one’s theory of mind, but he takes a more radically phenomenalistic view of
mind than they do. Mind may be defined as ‘nothing but a heap or collection of different
perceptions, united together by certain relations, and supposed, though falsely, to be endowed
with a perfect simplicity and identity…[It is] that connected mass of perceptions, which
constitute a thinking being.’13 The substantiality of the mind is conspicuous by its absence from
this definition. If by substance is meant something which may exist by itself, then (at least, as far
as the free play of imagination is concerned) every distinct perception, being capable of
separation and separate existence, is a genuine substance. But if substance is said to be entirely
different from a perception, then we can have no idea of its nature and cannot raise questions
about the immateriality and substantiality of the soul. Contrary to Locke’s and Berkeley’s
contention, Hume states that perceptions are grasped as distinct objects, and hence never convey
to the mind any evidence about their need for such inherence. Hence causal inference is not
justified in arguing from a requirement that is lacking in empirical meaning. In this clash of
opinion among the empiricists, Hume is relying once more upon a strictly phenomenalistic
approach to perceptions and upon his logical doctrine about distinct perceptions. Perceptions are
distinct not only from each other but also from any subject and, indeed, from any reference to a
subject of inherence. This reification of perceptions is the extreme consequence of the analytic
method and the notion of a percept-object.
“From the same standpoint, we are barred from attributing simplicity and identity to the
mind. The idea of identity would have to rest upon some impression that remains invariant
throughout a lifetime; the idea of simplicity would suppose that some impression reveals an
indivisible center of union for the moments of experience. Neither of these conditions can be
satisfied in terms of the Humean theory of knowledge. When I enter intimately into what I call
myself, Hume says, I always stumble upon some particular perception. I never catch myself
without some perception, and neither do I come upon myself as anything but a bundle or
collection of different perceptions, each succeeding the other with inconceivable rapidity. In face
of this situation, only one set of conclusions is possible for the Humean logic, based on the
loosening of ideas. Since each perception is a distinct existent, no substance is needed; since the
10
Ibid., p. 261.
11
Ibid., p. 262.
12
F. COPLESTON, A History of Philosophy, Book II, vol. 5, Image Doubleday, New York, 1985, pp. 303-304.
13
D. HUME, A Treatise of Human Nature, I, 4, 1.
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perceptions are all different and successive, there is no identity or invariant sameness of being;
since the perceptions comprising the self are many, the self is not a simple thing.
“As usual, Hume employs this failure on the part of abstract reason as a recommendation
that we seek a binding principle on the side of the ‘natural’ forces, operating through
imagination. Thought is under some kind of constraint to pass from one given perception to the
next, and thus to generate the self through this continuous transition. The personal self arises
when, in reflecting upon a past series of perceptions, we feel that one perception naturally
introduces the next. Personal identity is a powerful fiction, aroused by the circumstance that
imagination is able to pass smoothly from one perceptual object to the next, and hence comes to
regard the series as invariable and uninterrupted. The similarity in the mind’s act of
apprehending the different perceptions instigates imagination to affirm a continuous identity of
the self, on the side of the objects perceived. The easy transition is made under the associative
force of resemblance and the natural relation of cause-and-effect. Thus the self is ‘a system of
different perceptions or different existences, which are linked together by the relation of cause
and effect, and mutually produce, destroy, influence, and modify each other.’14 Memory is the
source of personal identity, insofar as it summons up images resembling past perceptions and
grasps the causal succession of our perceptions, in the direction of the past. Passion and concern
extend the same frame of causal reference forward as well as backward, strengthening the easy
passage of thought and the reflective feeling that the perceptions belong to an identical, personal
self.
“For once, however, this counterprocess of binding together what empirical analysis has
loosened, fails to achieve the kind of unity to which our experience bears testimony. Hume
observes that he cannot find a satisfactory explanation of the feeling of belongingness, on the
basis of which imagination declares that all our perceptions belong to the same personal self: ‘In
short there are two principles, which I cannot render consistent; nor is it in my power to renounce
either of them, viz., that all our distinct perceptions are distinct existences, and that the mind
never perceives any real connection among distinct existences. Did our perceptions either inhere
in something simple and individual, or did the mind perceive some real connection among them,
there would be no difficulty in the case. For my part, I must plead the privilege of a skeptic, and
confess, that this difficulty is too hard for my understanding.’15 This is a disarmingly frank
passage. Hume concedes that an adequate synthesis of empirical findings about the personal self
requires a knowledge of substance and objective causal connections, in respect to man. But his
own first principle about distinct perceptions, leading as it does to a divorce of abstract reason
from experience, prevents him from admitting the reality of substance in man. His second
principle about real connections leads to his skeptical theory of relations and rules out any
objectively given causal principle, operative in mental life. Nevertheless, he cannot avoid using
substantial and causal terms, when he describes the self as a bundle and as a self-perpetuating
series of perceptions. Although he warns against the imagery, he finds it convenient to compare
the mind both to a theater, upon whose (substantial) stage various appearances are presented, and
to a republic that perpetuates itself (causally) through the successive generations of its members.
14
D. HUME, op. cit., I, 4, 6.
15
D. HUME, op. cit., Appendix.
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“The perceptions belonging to ‘our’ mind are not an indiscriminate heap but constitute an
ordered system. On the side of the cognitive acts themselves, these perceptions are already
ordered by reference to ‘ourselves’ and ‘our’ imagination, even before Hume can apply his
theory of how imagination produces the personal unity of the self. In order to give a plausible
account of the association of perceptual objects, he covertly presupposes some personal center of
reference or intimate belongingness for the perceiving operations. His empirical explanation of
the self implies the effective presence of certain substantial and causal factors, but his theory of
knowledge prevents him from ever reconciling their reality with his own first principles.
“Hume’s passing remarks on immortality and freedom are consistent with his general
view of knowledge and causality. No demonstration of immortality is possible, both because
there is no clear idea of an immaterial, simple substance and because such demonstration would
suppose that the causal principle can extend to a state that is, by definition, beyond present
human experience. Hume admits that reason places man above the brutes but not that it
guarantees his survival beyond this life. It is likely that man, like other animals, will lose
consciousness and succumb to the universal frailty and dissolution of things. Neither immortality
nor freedom has a bearing upon moral conduct, even if they could be established.”16
16
J. COLLINS, A History of Modern European Philosophy, Bruce, Milwaukee, 1954, pp. 436-439.
17
D. HUME, A Treatise of Human Nature, I, 4, 5, p. 234.
18
Ibid., p. 239.
19
Ibid., p. 235.
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“Hume’s remarks about the table evidently presupposes that what I know, when I know
the table, is a perception. There may be things other than perceptions; but, if so, we cannot know
what they are. We are confined to the world of perceptions. This presupposition is present also, I
think, in his argument to show that the theory of the soul as an immaterial substance is
indistinguishable in the long run from what he calls, perhaps ironically, the ‘hideous hypothesis’
of Spinoza. There is, first, the universe of objects or bodies. All these, according to Spinoza, are
modifications of one substance or subject. There is, secondly, the universe of thought, the
universe of my impressions and ideas. These, we are told by the ‘theologians,’ are modifications
of a simple, unextended substance, the soul. But we cannot distinguish between perceptions and
objects, and we can find no relation, whether of connection or repugnance, which affects the one
and does not affect the other. If, therefore, we object against Spinoza that his substance must be
identical with its modifications and, further, that it must be identical with incompatible
modifications, exactly the same line of objection can be urged against the hypothesis of the
theologians. The immaterial soul must be identical, for instance, with tables and chairs. And if
we have an idea of the soul, this idea will itself be a perception and a modification. We shall thus
end up with Spinoza’s theory of one substance. In fine, any argument to show the absurdity of
saying that all so-called natural objects are modifications of one substance will also serve to
show the absurdity of saying that all impressions and ideas, that is, all perceptions, are
modifications of an immaterial substance, the soul. And all arguments to establish that
perceptions are modifications of the soul will also tend to establish the hypothesis of Spinoza.
For we cannot distinguish between perceptions and objects and make statements about the one
which will not apply to the other.
“But if there is no substance, whether extended or unextended, which can be called the
‘soul,’ what of personal identity? Hume is obviously compelled to deny that we have any idea of
the self as distinct from our perceptions…
20
Ibid., p. 250.
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it. And this, it seems to me, is only what we would expect, if we bear in mind his account of the
self.”21
Hume’s Essay on the Immortality of the Human Soul: Of the Immortality of the Soul
by David Hume (1755), Proof-Copy of the Unpublished 1755 Version of the Essay at the
National Library of Scotland, with 20 Corrections in Hume’s Own Handwriting:
“By the mere light of reason it seems difficult to prove the Immortality of the Soul. The
arguments for it are commonly derived either from metaphysical topics, or moral or physical.
But in reality, it is the gospel, and the gospel alone, that has brought life and immortality to light.
“I. Metaphysical topics are founded on the supposition that the soul is immaterial, and
that it is impossible for thought to belong to a material substance.
“But just metaphysics teach us, that the notion of substance is wholly confused and
imperfect, and that we have no other idea of any substance than as an aggregate of particular
qualities, inhering in an unknown something. Matter, therefore, and spirit are at bottom equally
unknown; and we cannot determine what qualities may inhere in the one or in the other.
“They likewise teach us, that nothing can be decided a priori concerning any cause or
effect; and that experience being the only source of our judgments of this nature, we cannot
know from any other principle, whether matter, by its structure or arrangement, may not be the
cause of thought. Abstract reasonings cannot decide any question of fact or existence.
“But admitting a spiritual substance to be dispersed throughout the universe, like the
etherial fire of the Stoics, and to be the only inherent subject of thought; we have reason to
conclude from analogy, that nature uses it after the same manner she does the other substance,
matter. She employs it as a kind of paste or clay; modifies it into a variety of forms and
existences; dissolves after a time each modification; and from it’s substance erects a new form.
As the same material substance may successively compose the body of all animals, the same
spiritual substance may compose their minds: Their consciousness, or that system of thought,
which they formed during life, may be continually dissolved by death; and nothing interest them
in the new modification. The most positive asserters of the mortality of the soul, never denied the
immortality of its substance. And that an immaterial substance, as well as a material, may lose its
memory or consciousness appears, in part, from experience, if the soul be immaterial.
“Reasoning from the common course of nature, and without supposing any new
interposition of the supreme cause, which ought always to be excluded from philosophy; what is
incorruptible must also be ingenerable. The soul, therefore, if immortal, existed before our birth:
And if the former state of existence no wise concerned us, neither will the latter.
“Animals undoubtedly feel, think, love, hate, will, and even reason, tho’ in a more
imperfect manner than man. Are their souls also immaterial and immortal?
21
F. COPLESTON, op. cit., pp. 300-302, 304.
8
“II. Let us now consider the moral arguments, chiefly those arguments derived from the
justice of God, which is supposed to be farther interested in the farther punishment of the
vicious, and reward of the virtuous.
“But these arguments are grounded on the supposition, that God has attributes beyond
what he has exerted in this universe, with which alone we are acquainted. Whence do we infer
the existence of these attributes?
“It is very safe for us to affirm, that, whatever we know the deity to have actually done, is
best; but it is very dangerous to affirm, that he must always do what to us seems best. In how
many instances would this reasoning fail us with regard to the present world?
“But if any purpose of nature be clear, we may affirm, that the whole scope and intention
of man’s creation, so far as we can judge by natural reason, is limited to the present life. With
how weak a concern, from the original, inherent structure of the mind and passions, does he ever
look farther? What comparison, either for steddiness or efficacy, between so floating an idea, and
the most doubtful persuasion of any matter of fact, that occurs in common life.
“There arise, indeed, in some minds, some unaccountable terrors with regard to futurity:
But these would quickly vanish, were they not artificially fostered by precept and education. And
those, who foster them; what is their motive? Only to gain a livelihood, and to acquire power and
riches in this world. Their very zeal and industry, therefore, are an argument against them.
“What cruelty, what iniquity, what injustice in nature, to confine thus all our concern, as
well as all our knowledge, to the present life, if there be another scene still awaiting us, of
infinitely greater consequence? Ought this barbarous deceit to be ascribed to a beneficent and
wise being?
“Observe with what exact proportion the task to be performed and the performing powers
are adjusted throughout all nature. If the reason of man gives him a great superiority above other
animals, his necessities are proportionably multiplied upon him. His whole time, his whole
capacity, activity, courage, passion, find sufficient employment, in fencing against the miseries
of his present condition. And frequently, nay almost always, are too slender for the business
assigned them.
“A pair of shoes, perhaps, was never yet wrought to the highest degree of perfection,
which that commodity is capable of attaining. Yet is it necessary, at least very useful, that there
should be some politicians and moralists, even some geometers, historians, poets, and
philosophers among mankind.
“The powers of men are no more superior to their wants, considered merely in this life,
than those of foxes and hares are, compared to their wants and to their period of existence. The
inference from parity of reason is therefore obvious.
“On the theory of the soul’s mortality, the inferiority of women’s capacity is easily
accounted for: Their domestic life requires no higher faculties either of mind or body. This
9
circumstance vanishes and becomes absolutely insignificant, on the religious theory: The one sex
has an equal task to perform with the other: Their powers of reason and resolution ought also to
have been equal, and both of them infinitely greater than at present.
“As every effect implies a cause, and that another, till we reach the first cause of all,
which is the Deity; every thing, that happens, is ordained by him; and nothing can be the object
of his punishment or vengeance.
“By what rule are punishments and rewards distributed? What is the divine standard of
merit and demerit? Shall we suppose, that human sentiments have place in the deity? However
bold that hypothesis, we have no conception of any other sentiments.
“Punishment, without any proper end or purpose, is inconsistent with our ideas of
goodness and justice; and no end can be served by it after the whole scene is closed.
“Punishment, according to our conceptions, should bear some proportion to the offence.
Why then eternal punishment for the temporary offences of so frail a creature as man? Can any
one approve of Alexander’s rage, who intended to exterminate a whole nation, because they had
seized his favourite horse, Bucephalus?22
“Heaven and hell suppose two distinct species of men, the good and the bad. But the
greatest part of mankind float between vice and virtue.
“Were one to go round the world with an intention of giving a good supper to the
righteous and a sound drubbing to the wicked, he would frequently be embarrassed in his choice,
and would find, that the merits and demerits of most men and women scarcely amount to the
value of either.
“To suppose measures of approbation and blame, different from the human, confounds
every thing. Whence do we learn, that there is such a thing as moral distinctions but from our
own sentiments?
“What man, who has not met with personal provocation (or what good natur’d man who
has) could inflict on crimes, from the sense of blame alone, even the common, legal, frivolous
punishments? And does any thing steel the breast of judges and juries against the sentiments of
humanity but reflections on necessity and public interest?
“By the Roman law, those who had been guilty of parricide and confessed their crime,
were put into a sack, along with an ape, a dog, and a serpent; and thrown into the river: Death
alone was the punishment of those, who denied their guilt, however fully proved. A criminal was
tryed before Augustus, and condemned after full conviction: But the humane emperor, when he
22
Quint. Curtius, lib. vi. cap. 5.
10
put the last interrogatory, gave it such a turn as to lead the wretch into a denial of his guilt. You
surely, said the prince, did not kill your father.23 This lenity suits our natural ideas of right, even
towards the greatest of all criminals, and even tho’ it prevents so inconsiderable a sufferance.
Nay, even the most bigotted priest would naturally, without reflection, approve of it; provided
the crime was not heresy or infidelity. For as these crimes hurt himself in his temporal interests
and advantages; perhaps he may not be altogether so indulgent to them.
“The chief source of moral ideas is the reflection on the interests of human society. Ought
these interests, so short, so frivolous, to be guarded by punishments, eternal and infinite? The
damnation of one man is an infinitely greater evil in the universe, than the subversion of a
thousand million of kingdoms.
“Nature has rendered human infancy peculiarly frail and mortal; as it were on purpose to
refute the notion of a probationary state. The half of mankind dye before they are rational
creatures.
“III. The physical arguments from the analogy of nature are strong for the mortality of the
soul; and these are really the only philosophical arguments, which ought to be admitted with
regard to this question, or indeed any question of fact.
“Where any two objects are so closely connected, that all alterations, which we have ever
seen in the one, are attended with proportionable alterations in the other; we ought to conclude,
by all rules of analogy, that, when there are still greater alterations produced in the former, and it
is totally dissolved, there follows a total dissolution of the latter.
“Sleep, a very small effect on the body, is attended with a temporary extinction; at least, a
great confusion in the soul.
“The weakness of the body and that of the mind in infancy are exactly proportioned; their
vigor in manhood; their sympathetic disorder in sickness; their common gradual decay in old
age. The step farther seems unavoidable; their common dissolution in death.
“The last symptoms, which the mind discovers, are disorder, weakness, insensibility,
stupidity, the forerunners of its annihilation. The farther progress of the same causes, encreasing
the same effects, totally extinguish it.
“Judging by the usual analogy of nature, no form can continue, when transferred to a
condition of life very different from the original one, in which it was placed. Trees perish in the
water; fishes in the air; animals in the earth. Even so small a difference as that of climate is often
fatal. What reason then to imagine, that an immense alteration, such as is made on the soul by the
dissolution of its body and all its organs of thought and sensation, can be effected without the
dissolution of the whole?
“Every thing is in common between soul and body. The organs of the one are all of them
the organs of the other. The existence therefore of the one must be dependent on that of the other.
23
Sueton. August. cap. 3.
11
“The souls of animals are allowed to be mortal; and these bear so near a resemblance to
the souls of men, that the analogy from one to the other forms a very strong argument. Their
bodies are not more resembling; yet no one rejects the arguments drawn from comparative
anatomy. The Metempsychosis is therefore the only system of this kind, that philosophy can so
much as hearken to.
“Nothing in this world is perpetual. Every being, however seemingly firm, is in continual
flux and change: The world itself gives symptoms of frailty and dissolution: How contrary to
analogy, therefore, to imagine, that one single form, seemingly the frailest of any, and from the
slightest causes, subject, to the greatest disorders, is immortal and indissoluble? What a daring
theory is that! How lightly, not to say, how rashly entertained!
“How to dispose of the infinite number of posthumous existences ought also to embarrass
the religious theory. Every planet, in every solar system, we are at liberty to imagine peopled
with intelligent, mortal beings: At least, we can fix on no other supposition. For these, then, a
new universe must, every generation, be created, beyond the bounds of the present universe; or
one must have been created at first so prodigiously wide as to admit of this continual influx of
beings. Ought such bold suppositions to be received by any philosophy; and that merely on
pretence of a bare possibility?
“When it is asked, whether Agamemnon, Thersites, Hannibal, Nero, and every stupid
clown, that ever existed in Italy, Scythia, Bactria, or Guinea, are now alive; can any man think,
that a scrutiny of nature will furnish arguments strong enough to answer so strange a question in
the affirmative? The want of arguments, without revelation, sufficiently establishes the negative.
“Were our horror of annihilation an original passion, not the effect of our general love of
happiness, it would rather prove the mortality of the soul. For as nature does nothing in vain, she
would never give us a horror against an impossible event. She may give us a horror against an
unavoidable event, provided our endeavours, as in the present case, may often remove it to some
distance. Death is in the end unavoidable; yet the human species could not be preserved, had not
nature inspired us with an aversion towards it.
“All doctrines are to be suspected, which are favoured by our passions. And the hopes
and fears which give rise to this doctrine, are very obvious.
“It is an infinite advantage in every controversy, to defend the negative. If the question be
out of the common experienced course of nature, this circumstance is almost, if not altogether,
decisive. By what arguments or analogies can we prove any state of existence, which no one ever
saw, and which no wise resembles any that ever was seen? Who will repose such trust in any
pretended philosophy, as to admit upon its testimony the reality of so marvellous a scene? Some
24
Lib. vii. cap. 55.
12
new species of logic is requisite for that purpose; and some new faculties of the mind, which may
enable us to comprehend that logic.
“Nothing could set in a fuller light the infinite obligations, which mankind have to divine
revelation; since we find, that no other medium could ascertain this great and important truth.”
Answer to Hume on the Human Soul: Benignus Gerrity on the Immateriality and
Subsistence of the Human Soul: “St. Thomas’ Argument. From the fact that the soul of man can
know all material things, St. Thomas argues that it is itself immaterial and subsistent. By calling
the soul subsistent, he means that it exists in itself as a substance (though a specifically
incomplete one), and not merely by inhering in the body as an accidental form, or as a substantial
form which is dependent upon and inseparable from its matter. By calling it incorporeal and
subsistent, he means that it is a spiritual substance. His argument may be summarized as follows:
only what subsists in itself can operate by itself; but the soul does operate by itself when it
understands corporeal substances; therefore the soul is subsistent. The crux of the argument is
the assertion that the soul could not understand all corporeal substances unless, in its act of
understanding, it were itself free from corporeality and free from dependence on any corporeal
instrument. The Angelic Doctor supports this assertion by claiming that if there were any matter
in the soul or in an instrument used by the soul in understanding, this matter, having a
determinate nature of its own, would prevent the soul from understanding the natures of other
corporeal things; it would affect the intellect’s efforts to understand diverse natures as colored
glasses affect the eye’s efforts to see diverse colors. Here is the argument in full: ‘It must
necessarily be allowed that the principle of intellectual operation, which we call the soul of man,
is a principle both incorporeal and subsistent. For it is clear that by means of the intellect man
can know all corporeal things. Now whatever knows certain things cannot have any of them in
its own nature, because that which is in itself naturally would impede the knowledge of anything
else. Thus we observe that a sick man’s tongue, being unbalanced by a feverish and bitter humor,
is insensible to anything sweet, and everything seems bitter to it. Therefore, if the intellectual
principle contained within itself the nature of any body, it would be unable to know all bodies.
Now every body has its own determinate nature. Therefore it is impossible for the intellectual
principle to be a body. It is also impossible for it to understand by means of a bodily organ, since
the determinate nature of that organ would likewise impede knowledge of all bodies; as when a
certain determinate color is not only in the pupil of the eye, but also in a glass vase, the liquid in
the vase seems to be of that same color.
“Therefore the intellectual principle…has essentially an operation in which the body does
not share. Now only that which subsists in itself can have an operation in itself. For nothing can
operate but what is actual, and so a thing operates according as it is…We must conclude,
therefore, that the human soul…is something incorporeal and subsistent.”25
“It is true, as one opponent of St. Thomas pointed out, that the intellectual soul does use
the body in its operations; for it is the senses, which are powers residing in corporeal organs, that
supply the intellect with the phantasms or images from which it abstracts the natures of corporeal
things. But this fact does not damage the above argument. For the phantasm is not used by the
intellect as an organ of knowledge, but as an object; and therefore it is as true in regard to the
25
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 2, c.
13
phantasms as in regard to corporeal things, that the intellect could not know them all unless it
were itself free from any of the corporeal natures it knows in them. The fact that understanding is
in some manner dependent on the body does not mean that the soul is not subsistent; for it we
could argue that way, we would have to say that animals are not subsistent since their sensations
depend upon sensible, external bodies.26
“Animals, of course, are subsistent, but their souls are not. The knowledge enjoyed by
animals does not go beyond sensation and the attendant sensory operations, and all these
operations are accompanied by movements in the bodily sense organs. Their souls have no
operation in which the body does not play a part; all their operations belong to the composite of
body and soul. Therefore, since their souls have no per se operation, we conclude that their souls
are not subsistent; for the operation of anything follows its mode of being.27 We argue from the
operations to the mode of being; but of course the order of nature is the reverse of this. Animals
do not have subsistent souls, and therefore can perform no operations which transcend the
conditions of materiality; therefore they have no universal conceptions, they cannot understand
or reason. It is because man can perform these operations, which are essentially different from all
sensory operations, that we know that he has a substantial soul. We shall, therefore, expand St.
Thomas’ simple argument by an examination of the intellectual operations which form its basis.
“Sensism. The opponents of the spirituality of the human soul, when confronted with the
evidence of the immaterial character of intellectual thought, generally meet the argument by
denying the evidence; they maintain that there is no intellect distinct from sensation and
imagination, that all acts of the mind are sensory in character, that ideas are merely sensory signs
(for example, images or words) of the objects meant, that thinking is a function of the brain.
These beliefs are the tenets of sensism or empiricism.
“Universal Ideas, or Concepts, Are Not Products of Our Sensory Powers. Sensists deny
that we have any universal, abstract ideas; what we call such, they say, are in truth simply the
sensory images or phantasms of our imagination. The briefest comparison of ideas and images
shows the falsity of this contention. The elements that make up an image or phantasm are the
qualities of material objects as perceived by the external senses – qualities such as shape, color,
temperature, size, weight, tone, loudness, movement, rest. Furthermore, these qualities are
represented in the image with the concreteness which they have in external objects. Thus, an
imagined color is not simply the abstract notion of color, but it is a concrete surface of red or
blue, etc., appearing somewhere near or far in space, having a certain degree of vividness or
paleness, and so forth. It is particular; that is to say, it is the representation of a singular patch of
color, not the essence of color. It represents only a patch of color that it looks like, not every
color; if you are imagining a patch of red, your image does not represent a patch of green, and no
image can represent both. These, therefore, are three salient features of images: materiality,
concreteness, and particularity.
“Concepts, that is to say, universal ideas, are essentially different from both percepts and
images. They have universal signification or reference, whereas an image has particular
reference. The concept ‘building,’ for example, refers to any one of the millions of structures put
26
Ibid., ad 3.
27
Ibid., I, q. 75, a. 3, c.
14
up by men; it refers equally and accurately to the college library, St. Patrick’s Cathedral, the
Empire State Building, and Farmer Brown’s chicken house. Obviously no image of a building
can refer to any two of these. The image is particular; the idea universal. Concepts and images do
not have the same sort of content, that is, they do not represent the same type of thing. Concepts
represent the essence, nature, or ‘whatness’ of a thing; images represent the determinate, sensible
qualities of a thing. The idea is abstract, the image concrete. The ‘three sides’ of the conceptual
triangle have no determinate length, color, etc. The idea is simply a complex of abstractions. The
imagined triangle is pictured as having determinate lines, angles, etc., that is to say, lines of
particular and definite length, color, position, and angular incidence to one another.
“Concepts and Generalized Images. In their efforts to avoid admitting that men do have
universal ideas, sensists have tried to show that such supposed ideas are really something else.
Many have said that they are generalized images, that is to say, images with all the distinctive
marks blurred over – something comparable to a composite photograph of a number of men, say,
the Supreme Court justices. According to this view, the so-called concept of man is really a
mental picture which is general and indeterminate enough to cover any man. It is difficult to
believe that anyone can seriously hold this theory. A vague, blurred, all-purpose image is not a
more universal image; it is merely a poorer image. The generalized image of a man is not the
image of all men, but the image of an indefinite man who does not and cannot exist. Such an
image does not fit any man accurately. A clear image fits one particular man accurately in
respect to some of his external appearances; and the concept man fits every man accurately in
respect to the nature underlying the appearances. Generalized images do play an important part
in our mental activity; but that part is in subordination to ideas, not in substitution for them.
“Universal Ideas Are Not Words. Other sensists have said that ideas are but the words
used to stand for certain things. Thus, I really have no idea ‘man,’ but I do have a word, man,
which I use to designate all men. It is very hard to find any intelligible meaning in this theory.
We apply words, that is to say, names, to objects. It is very difficult to believe that I call a certain
perceived object an apple because when I compare it mentally with the word apple it
corresponds. Do I compare it with the spoken, heard, or written word? Do I compare it with
apple, while a Frenchman compares it with pomme? Do I taste the word in order to compare it
with the object; or do I pronounce the object in order to compare it with the word? It is clearly
impossible to compare an object and a word in regard to anything except their meaning. And
their meaning is in each case an idea. We got the idea from the thing, and we gave it to the word
by using the word as a symbol of the thing and of the idea of the thing. Words cannot replace
ideas, because in order to name an object you have to think both it and the word. Words mean
objects because they signify the ideas which the objects exemplify. Words are not thoughts, but
signs of thoughts. In a broader sense, language is a sign of thought; our primary reason for
believing that animals do not think is the fact that they do not speak. They do not use universal
symbols for things because they do not think the things to begin with; signs are inseparable from
meaning.
“Some of those who say that universal ideas are merely words mean that ideas are images
of words. The images of words, unlike other images, represent classes of things instead of
particular things. Men think with images, and in order to think many things at once, they give to
things of which they have similar images the same name, and then imagine the name instead of
15
some particular thing. In this way, without any universal ideas, they are able to signify a whole
class of objects. Those who advance this explanation of thought miss the point entirely. Whether
we use an image, a word, or whatever the sensists imagine the non-sensists mean by a universal
idea, to signifiy a universal class of things, we must, obviously, think the universal class in order
to use anything to signify it. No image or word can signify to a mind what that mind cannot
think. Nothing can signify triangles universally to any mind that cannot think triangles
universally. Thinking things universally and abstractly is what we mean by having universal
ideas. If men did not think things universally, there could be no discussions about what means
they use to signify classes. They would not know classes and they would not use signs.
“The Argument. The one fact that man does think in universals is sufficient proof of the
immateriality of his intellect. Every material thing operates always and necessarily under
conditions which are inseparable from matter: conditions of space, time, and concrete
singularity. No acorn can engender a universal, eternally unchanging oak tree; nor can any sense
image represent one. Material agents, the patients they act upon, and the effects which they
produce are always spatio-temporal and singular; they are here and now and this, or there and
then and that. Never are they ‘anywhere and anywhen and anyway’; never can they be non-
spatial, non-temporal, abstract, and universal every time he thinks intellectually, every time he
asserts a certain predicate of a subject, every time he applies a name to an object. Therefore, we
must conclude, intellectual thought is the act of a power which is not material and is not
operating in essential dependence upon any material instrument.28
“From this conclusion there follows of necessity a further one: man’s soul is a spiritual
substance. One of its operations, intellectual thought, is intrinsically independent of matter. But
operation follows being; an agent can act only according to the mode in which it exists. Since it
operates in essential independence of matter, man’s soul must exist in essential independence of
matter. That is to say that it is a spiritual substance.29
“The same argument can be made from any judgment. To judge that anything is or is not
anything else, the same, single knowing agent must know the two things at once and distinctly
and see in the two taken together a third thing which is neither of them, namely, their identity or
28
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 5, c.; Summa Contra Gentiles, II, 66, 67; De Spirit. Creat., II, c; Q. D. De Anima, I;
In II De Anima, 12, No. 377; In III De Anima, 7, Nos. 687-688.
29
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 2.
16
non-identity. This simple relation of identity or non-identity cannot be an affection of a material
organ. The act of judging, therefore, is the act of a simple agent that grasps its objects in an
immaterial, non-spatial manner, and pronounces an immaterial relationship between them.
Therefore, the soul that judges is immaterial.
“A reasoning process is far from being a mere series of propositions. Consider the
difference between the following two sets of propositions:
“A: No being with free will is wholly material ; Men have free will ; Therefore, men are
not wholly material.
“B: Columbus discovered America ; Shakespeare wrote Hamlet ; Napoleon was defeated
at Waterloo.
“In set A the intellect sees a relationship between the first two propositions which
compels it to pronounce the third. The first two together imply the third. The perception of this
logical relation cannot be equated with any material process in a material organ. The relationship
cannot be sensed nor imagined, yet it is certainly real. All coherent thinking depends upon the
reality of such logical relations or implications. Since in reasoning it is concerned with these
immaterial relationships, the intellect in reasoning is operating immaterially.
“The Intellect’s Knowledge of Itself. The human intellect not only knows external objects
and relations, but it knows the acts by which its grasps these objects and relations and knows
itself as exerting these acts. In a word, we not only think things, but we know our own thinking
as our own, and know ourselves thinking. In order to know itself, the intellect must be subject
and object in the one same act. No material thing can be agent and patient in the one act. At best
one part of a material thing can act upon another part of the same thing. But self-knowledge, that
is, reflex consciousness of self, demands the total identity of knower and known. If one part of
the intellect knew another part, and that were all, there would be no self-knowledge. Hence, the
intellect must be immaterial…30
“Thought Uses the Brain. Aristotle and St. Thomas both distinguished intellect very
sharply from sense, but both insisted that all our knowledge comes originally from our senses.
The intellect is, to begin with, a tabula rasa, a mere potency for knowledge. In order to know, it
must be put in touch with external reality through the senses and their organs. From the data
given it by the senses it forms its ideas and its judgments. It alone can think, judge and reason;
but of itself it has not anything to think, judge, and reason about. The material on which it
exercises its operations it must obtain through the senses. As a consequence of the soul’s status
as form of the organism, all the operations of sense are prior to and presupposed by the operation
of thought. The external senses collect data from the corporeal world, the internal senses
correlate these data, perceive particular objects, and form and preserve sensory images of the
perceived objects. It is from these images that the intellect derives its ideas by thinking, that is,
conceiving the essential and universal elements embodied in them. The conception of the
universal, and the subsequent acts of judging and reasoning are purely intellectual acts, but the
intellect is nevertheless extrinsically dependent upon the whole sensory complex since it is from
30
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 87, a. 3.
17
it that it obtains the materials upon which it works. This makes it extrinsically dependent upon
the brain, for each of the external senses operates through an organ which has its nerve termini in
the brain, and the brain itself, most probably, is the organ of internal sense. Wherefore, the
human intellect is dependent upon the brain to get its primary data. In the second place, human
thought is applied in exercise to the natural world in which man lives. This world of nature is a
world of corporeal particulars. Therefore, in the return of intellectual thought upon nature,
thought must be re-materialized and re-particularized. Consequently, in every concrete
application of his conception, judgment, and reasoning, man must again have recourse to his
senses and his brain. He must, as St. Thomas repeats frequently, turn back to the phantasm (i.e.,
to the sensory image in the imagination ) in order to know the singular. For these reasons human
thought, whether in getting knowledge of the external world or in applying this knowledge, is
extrinsically dependent upon the senses, the brain, and, in fact, the whole organism.31
“We say that the intellect is extrinsically and not intrinsically dependent upon the brain
(and the organism) because, while the intellect needs and uses the brain to get the materials for
thought and to return thought upon the world, the act of thought itself, in all its three stages,
conception, judgment, and reasoning, is effected solely by the intellect itself.32”33
Answer to Hume on the Human Soul: Maritain on the Existence, Spirituality and
Immortality of the Human Soul. Jacques Maritain explains the existence, spirituality and
immortality of the human soul in the fifth chapter of his The Range of Reason as follows: “The
Existence of the Human Soul. It is of this immortality, and of the way in which the Scholastics
established its rational certainty, that I should now like to speak. We must of course realize that
we have a soul before we can discuss whether it is immortal. How does St. Thomas Aquinas
proceed in this matter?
“He observes first that man has an activity, the activity of the intellect, which is in itself
immaterial. The activity of the intellect is immaterial because the proportionate or ‘connatural’
object of the human intellect is not, like the object of the senses, a particular and limited category
of things, or rather a particular and limited category of the qualitative properties of things. The
proportionate or ‘connatural’ object of the intellect is the nature of the sense-perceivable things
considered in an all-embracing manner, whatever the sense concerned may be. It is not only – as
for sight – color or the colored thing (which absorbs and reflects such or such rays of light) nor –
as for hearing – sound or the sound-source; it is the whole universe and texture of sense-
perceivable reality which can be known by the intellect, because the intellect does not stop at
qualities, but pierces beyond, and proceeds to look at essence (that which a thing is). This very
fact is a proof of the spirituality, or complete immateriality of our intellect; for every activity in
which matter plays an intrinsic part is limited to a given category of material objects, as is the
case for the senses, which perceive only those properties which are able to act upon their
physical organs.
31
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 85, a. 1; q. 86, a. 1.
32
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 2, ad 3.
33
BENIGNUS GERRITY, Nature, Knowledge, and God, Bruce, Milwaukee, 1947, pp. 191-200.
18
very thing that I know, a thing other than myself, insofar as it is other than myself. And how can
I be, or become, other than myself, if it is not in a supra-subjective or immaterial manner? Sense-
knowledge is a very poor kind of knowledge; insofar as it is knowledge, it is immaterial, but it is
an immaterial activity intrinsically conditioned by, and dependent upon, the material functioning
of the sense-organs. Sense-knowledge is the immaterial achievement, the immaterial actuation
and product of a living bodily organ; and its very object is also something half material, half
immaterial, I mean a physical quality intentionally or immaterially present in the medium by
which it acts on the sense-organ (something comparable to the manner in which a painter’s idea
is immaterially present in his paint-brush).
“Thus, the objects known by the human intellect, taken not as things existing in
themselves, but precisely as objects determining the intellect and united with it, are purely
immaterial.
“Furthermore, just as the condition of the object is immaterial, so is the condition of the
act which bears upon it, and is determined or specified by it. The object of the human intellect is,
as such, purely immaterial; the act of the human intellect is also purely immaterial.
“And, moreover, if the act of the intellectual power is purely immaterial, that power itself
is also purely immaterial. In man, this thinking animal, the intellect is a purely spiritual power.
Doubtless it depends upon the body, upon the conditions of the brain. Its activity can be
disturbed or hindered by a physical disorder, by an outburst of anger, by a drink or a narcotic.
But this dependence is an extrinsic one. It exists because our intelligence cannot act without the
joint activity of the memory and the imagination, of the internal senses and external senses, all of
which are organic powers residing in some material organ, in some special part of the body. As
for the intellect itself, it is not intrinsically dependent upon the body since its activity is
immaterial; the human intellect does not reside in any special part of the body. It is not contained
by the body, but rather contains it. It uses the brain, since the organs of the internal senses are in
the brain; yet the brain is not an organ of the intelligence; there is no part of the organism whose
act is intellectual operation. The intellect has no organ.
19
“Finally, since intellectual power is spiritual, or purely immaterial in itself, its first
substantial root, the subsisting principle from which this power proceeds and which acts through
its instrumentality, is also spiritual.
“So much for the spirituality of the intellect. Now, thought or the operation of the
intellect is an act and emanation of man as a unity; and when I think, it is not only my intellect
which thinks: it is I, my own self. And my own self is a bodily self; it involves matter; it is not a
spiritual or purely immaterial subject. The body is an essential part of man. The intellect is not
the whole man.
“The substantial root of the intellect, which must be as immaterial as the intellect, is only
a part, albeit an essential part, of man’s substance.
“But man is not an aggregate, a juxtaposition of two substances; man is a natural whole, a
single being, a single substance.
“Consequently, we must conclude that the essence or substance of man is single, but that
this single substance itself is a compound, the components of which are the body…or rather
matter, of which the body is made, and the spiritual principle, one of the powers of which is the
intellect. Matter – in the Aristotelian sense of prime matter, or of that root potentiality which is
the common stuff of all corporeal substance – matter, substantially united with the spiritual
principle of the intellect, is ontologically molded, shaped from within and in the innermost
depths of being, by this spiritual principle as by a substantial and vital impulse, in order to
constitute that body of ours…
“That is the Scholastic notion of the human soul. The human soul, which is the root
principle of the intellectual power, is the first principle of life of the human body, and the
substantial form, the entelechy, of that body. And the human soul is not only a substantial form
or entelechy, as are the souls of plants and animals according to the biological philosophy of
Aristotle; the human soul is also a spirit, a spiritual substance able to exist apart from matter,
since the human soul is the root principle of a spiritual power, the act of which is intrinsically
independent of matter. The human soul is both a soul and a spirit, and it is its very substantiality,
subsistence and existence, which are communicated to the whole human substance, in order to
make human substance be what it is, and to make it subsist and exist. Each element of the human
body is human, exists as such, by virtue of the immaterial existence of the human soul. Our
body, our hands, our eyes exist by virtue of the existence of our soul.
“The immaterial soul is the first substantial root not only of the intellect, but of all that
which, in us, is spiritual activity; and it is also the first substantial root of all our other living
activities. It would be inconceivable that a non-spiritual soul, that kind of soul which is not a
spirit and cannot exist without informing matter – namely, the souls of plants and animals in
Aristotelian biology – should possess a power or faculty superior to its own degree in being, that
is, immaterial, or act through a supra-material instrumentality independent of any corporeal
organ and physical structure. But when it is a question of a spirit which is a soul, or of a spiritual
soul, as the human soul is, then it is perfectly conceivable that such a soul should have, aside
from immaterial or spiritual faculties, other powers and activities which are organic and material,
20
and which, relating to the union between soul and body, pertain to a level of being inferior to that
of the spirit.
“The Spirituality of the Human Soul. Thus, the very way in which the Scholastics arrived
at the existence of the human soul also established its spirituality. Just as the intellect is spiritual,
that is to say intrinsically independent of matter in its operation and in its nature, so also, and for
the same reason, the human soul, the substantial root of the intellect, is spiritual, that is,
intrinsically independent of matter in its nature and in its existence; it does not live by the body,
the body lives by it. The human soul is a spiritual substance which, by its substantial union with
matter, gives existence and countenance to the body.
“The Immortality of the Human Soul. The third point follows immediately from the
second. The immortality of the human soul is an immediate corollary of its spirituality. A soul
which is spiritual in itself, intrinsically independent of matter in its nature and existence, cannot
cease existing. A spirit – that is, a ‘form’ which needs nothing other than itself (save the influx of
the Prime Cause) to exercise existence – once existing cannot cease existing. A spiritual soul
cannot be corrupted, since it possesses no matter; it cannot be disintegrated, since it has no
substantial parts; it cannot lose its individual unity, since it is self-subsisting, nor its internal
energy, since it contains within itself all the sources of its energies. The human soul cannot die.
Once it exists, it cannot disappear; it will necessarily exist forever, endure without end.
“Thus, philosophic reason, put to work by a great metaphysician like Thomas Aquinas, is
able to prove the immortality of the soul in a demonstrative manner. Of course, this
demonstration implies a vast and articulate network of metaphysical insights, notions and
principles (relating to essence and nature, substance, act and potency, matter and form, operation,
etc.) the validity of which is necessarily presupposed. We can appreciate fully the strength of the
Scholastic demonstration only if we realize the significance and full validity of the metaphysical
notions involved. If modern times feel at a loss in the face of metaphysical knowledge, I fancy
that it is not metaphysical knowledge which is to blame, but rather modern times and the
weakening of reason they have experienced.”34
34
J. MARITAIN, The Range of Reason, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1952, pp. 54-60.
21
Answer to Hume on the Human Soul: Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange, O.P. on the
Spirituality and Immortality of the Human Soul: “Spirituality and Immortality of the Human
Soul.35 The soul of man is not only simple or unextended, as is the soul of plant and animal, but
it is also spiritual, that is, intrinsically independent of matter, and therefore subsistent, so that it
continues to exist after its separation from the body. These statements are proved by the soul’s
intellective activity, because activity follows being, and the mode of activity reveals the mode of
being. How do we show that intellective activity is independent of matter? By the universality of
the object, which the intellect abstracts from the particular and limited sense world. Among the
truths thus discovered are universal and necessary principles, independent of all particular facts,
independent of all space and time.36
“This necessity and universality, we now note, is manifest on three levels of abstraction.37
On the first level, that of the natural sciences, the intellect, abstracting from individual matter,
studies, not this mineral, plant, or animal perceived by the senses, but the inner universal nature
of mineral, plant, or animal.38 On the second level, that of the mathematical sciences, the
intellect, abstracting from all sense matter, from all sense qualities, considers the nature of
triangle, circle, sphere, or number, in order to deduce their necessary and universal
characteristics. Here it appears clearly that man’s idea of the circle, for example, is not a mere
image, a sort of medium between great and small circles, but a grasp of some nature intrinsic in
each and every circle, great or small. Again, though the imagination cannot represent clearly to
itself a polygon with a thousand sides, the intellect grasps the idea with ease. Thus the idea
differs absolutely from the image, because it expresses, not the sense qualities of the thing
known, but its inner nature or essence, the source of all its characteristics, not as imagined, but as
conceived.
“Lastly, on the third level of abstraction, the intellect, abstracting entirely from matter,
considers the intelligible being inaccessible to the senses. This being, this inner reality, is not a
special sense quality, like sound, nor a common sensory quality like extension, but something
grasped by the intellect alone, as the raison d’être of reality and all its characteristics. Intellect
alone grasps the meaning of the little word ‘is,’ which is the soul of every judgment made by the
mind, which is presupposed by every other idea, and which is the goal of all legitimate
reasoning. Being then, that which is, since it does not involve any sense element, can exist
beyond all matter, in spirits, and in the first cause of spirits and bodies.
“On this third level of abstraction, then, the intellect recognizes the characteristics of
being as such: unity and truth and goodness. From the very nature of being, of inner reality,
derive the principles, absolutely necessary and universal, of contradiction, causality, and finality,
principles which reach out immeasurably beyond the particular and contingent images pictured
by the imagination, reach even to the existence of a first cause of all finite things, of a supreme
intelligence, regulating the universe. By its own act, lastly, the intellect recognizes its own
kinship with the immaterial world.
35
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75.
36
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 5.
37
See the saint’s commentaries on Aristotle, Met., I, lect. 10; III, lect. 7; VI, lect. 1; VIII, lect. 1; XII, lect. 2.
38
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 2.
22
“To summarize. Our mode of intelligent activity proves the immateriality of our soul, and
immateriality founds incorruptibility,39 since a form which is immaterial is uncomposed and
subsistent, hence incorruptible…
“How does the human soul come into existence? Since it is immaterial, it cannot come
from the potency of matter, i.e., it cannot arise by generation, hence it must arise by God’s
creative power. That which acts independently of matter, says the saint,40 must have this same
independence, not only in its existence, but also in its manner of receiving existence…”41
“This is the moment when the consideration of intellectual knowledge, its cause and its
nature, becomes of paramount importance. To all external appearances, there is no reason that
the human soul should not be considered a common material form – that is, a form whose
existence endures as long as does the composite of matter and form of which it is a constitutive
element. Man has a body, and his soul is the form of his body; why should his destiny be
different from that of the other living beings whose structure is the same?
“This would be true if the human soul did not perform at least one operation besides
informing and animating the matter of its body. It knows; it exercises intellectual knowledge. As
such, it is truly an ‘intellectual substance.’ Now, to have intellectual knowledge is to be able to
become, and to be, other beings in an immaterial way. We we see a stone, the sight of it does not
turn us into a stony substance. If sense perception produced such an effect, we would not know
the stone, we would be it; we would be literally ‘petrified.’ This is still more true of intellectual
knowledge. For our intellect to know is to become the known thing by assimilating only its form,
not its matter, and this assimilation is made possible by the operation called intellectual
abstraction. Obviously, to know material objects in an immaterial way is an operation in which
corporeal matter has no share. This is the fundamental fact upon which the whole development
of metaphysical wisdom ultimately rests – namely, that there is intellectual knowledge and that
the very possibility of such knowledge presupposes the existence of an order of immaterial
subjects, knowing powers, and operations. Intelligibility and knowledge are inseparable from
immateriality.
39
Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 6.
40
Id quod operatur independenter a materia, pariter est et fit seu potius producitur independenter a materia. Summa
Theologiae, I, q. 118, a. 2.
41
R. GARRIGOU-LAGRANGE, Reality: A Synthesis of Thomistic Thought, B. Herder, St. Louis, 1950, pp. 179-
181.
23
“How this can be done is another problem. We are here concerned only with the fact that
this takes place. Now the argument of Thomas Aquinas is that only an immaterial substance can
perform immaterial operations and produce the kind of immaterial objects we call ‘concepts.’
The intelletual soul of man, then, must be an intellectual substance, a self-subsisting immaterial
reality endowed with its own essence and its own act of being. Such is not the case with material
forms – that is, those forms whose only function is to actuate a certain matter. The form of a
material substance is the act of a certain quantity of matter which it turns into a body; it is
nothing more; for this reason, the act of being of such a form belongs to the whole substance,
although it comes to matter from the form. In the case of man, on the contrary, to be (esse) is,
first and foremost, the act of the intellectual soul, and it is through the actuality of this
intellectual substance that it becomes the act of the body. This is what Thomas Aquinas intends
to express in saying that the human soul is a forma absoluta non dependens a materia – that is, a
pure form, not mixed with matter, which owes this privilege to its natural immateriality, itself an
effect of its resemblance and proximity to God in the universal hierarchy of beings. For this
reason, the human soul has an act of being of its own, which is not true of the other forms of
corporeal beings: habet esse per se quod non habent aliae formae corporales. Now to say this is
exactly the same as to say that, because the human soul is a substance in its own right, there is in
it a composition of what the human soul is and of its own act of being…42
“The immortality of the human soul. Few questions have raised more problems in the
minds of the commentators of Saint Thomas Aquinas because, having neglected one of the
essential data of the problem, they have placed themselves in a position in which it becomes
impossible for them to understand its solution. Having eliminated the notion of being, which is
the cornerstone of the doctrine, they cannot help getting lost in most of its parts.
“In the writings of Thomas Aquinas himself there is really no distinct problem of the
immortality of the human soul. Assuredly, there always comes a moment when the question has
to be expressly asked, but when it comes, the problem has already received its answer. This is
visible in the Summa Contra Gentiles, Book II. After first demonstrating that, among the
intellectual substances, there is something in act and something in potency (chapter 53), and then
that to be composed of act and potency is not necessarily the same as to be composed of matter
and form (chapter 54), Thomas proceeds straightway to prove that ‘intellectual substances’ are
incorruptible (chapter 55). For if ‘intellectual substances’ are incorruptible, since the human soul
is an intellectual substance, it is incorruptible. Only an illusion of perspective can make us
imagine that there is any difference between the case of the separate intellectual substances, or
angels, and that of the nonseparate intellectual substances, human souls.
“The principle from which Thomas Aquinas deduced the incorruptibility of the
intellectual substances in general is their immateriality. Of its own nature, corporeal matter is
divisible, because it has quantity and is extended in space, having partes extra partes. The
decomposition or disintegration of the human body is therefore possible; in fact, it always takes
place sooner or later, and this event is called death. In the case of a being composed of soul and
body, such as man is, the disintegration of the body entails that of the being. Man dies when his
body dies, but the death of man is not that of his soul. As an intellectual substance, the human
soul is the proper receiver of an act of being. Having its own act of being, it itself is a being
42
In I Sent., d. 8, q. 5, a. 2 (ed. P. Madonnet, pp. 229-230).
24
properly so called (habens esse). This act of being belongs immediately to the soul – that is, not
through any intermediary, but primo et per se. Now that which belongs to something by itself,
and as the proper perfection of its nature, belongs to it necessarily, always and as a property
inseparable from it. This conclusion follows necessarily and it cannot be deduced in simpler
words than those of Thomas Aquinas himself: ‘It has been shown above that every intellectual
substance is incorruptible; now the soul of man is an intellectual substance, as has been shown;
hence the human soul is incorruptible.’43
“The reason the proofs of the immortality of the soul seem difficult to understand is that
all are tied up with the mysterious element hidden in the notion of esse. Some object that if the
soul is composed of essence and of an act of being, as indeed is the case, then it is not simple and
there is no reason why this composite should not be exposed to disintegration in the same way as
the composite of body and soul. But this objection overlooks the fact that what is at stake is the
immortality of the soul itself. In the case of man, soul and body enter the constitution of his
essence, so much so that, as is often said, man is neither his soul nor his body but the unity of
both. This is the reason that when the human body ceases to be actuated by its soul it
disintegrates and man himself likewise ceases to be. But the act of being does not enter the
composition of the essence of the soul as if its function were to make it to be a soul; its effect is
not to make it to be a soul, it is to cause the essence of the soul to be a being. Hence a soul is a
composite inasmuch as it is a substance, because, unless it had its own esse, it would not be a
being; but within this substance, the essence itself is simple, because, being immaterial and
having no parts, it cannot disintegrate. An ever-recurring illusion causes us to imagine that, in
being, essence is compounded with another essence, which is that of the act of being (esse); but
that which causes a thing to be does not cause it to be that which it is. It does not complicate its
essence, and if that which the act of being causes to be happens to be simple, then, of itself, the
being at stake is safe against the very possibility of decomposition.
“By far the worse obstacle to an understanding of the doctrine, however, remains the
impossibility of imagining the act of being. And, because it is not imaginable, many infer that it
is not intelligible. One does not need to go out of the school of Saint Thomas himself to find
philosophers and theologians who are convinced that the doctrine of the Master becomes vastly
improved if we eliminate from it this cumbersome and somewhat queer notion.
“Historical experience shows that such is not the case, and the problem of the immortality
of the soul provides an excellent proving ground in this respect. For instance…John Duns
Scotus. He never wasted any time refuting the Thomistic notion of esse. Scotus simply had no
use for it. In fact, he could not find in it any meaning. To him, entity (essentia) was reality itself.
If no cause has made it actually to exist, then it was only a possible; but after it had been made to
43
Summa Contra Gentiles, II, c. 79, #2.
25
exist by some efficient cause, no act of being could add anything more to it. In Scotus’ own
words: ‘That an entity could be posited outside its cause without, by the same token, having the
being whereby it is an entity: this, to me is a contradiction.’44 In short, a thing cannot be made to
be twice, even by adding to it a so-called act of being.
“There would be no point in arguing the case. This is a problem in the interpretation of
the first principle. A Thomist feels inclined to think that Scotus is blind, but a Scotist wonders if
Thomas is not seeing double. Many differences between the two theologians follow from this
first one, but the only one we are now concerned with is its impact on the problem of the
immortality of the human soul.
“Since there is no act of being in the doctrine of Duns Scotus, what is going to happen to
the immortality of the soul? Simply this: it will cease to be demonstrable and will become a
matter of faith. As Christians, Scotus says, we believe that there will be for us a future life; we
therefore implicitly believe that the soul is immortal; we believe it, but we cannot prove it. And,
indeed, we say that the human soul is the form of its body, so that the substance ‘man’ is the
unity of matter and form. When this unity disintegrates on the death of the body, its elements
also disintegrate. This is visible in the case of the body. Before death, it was the body of a man;
after death, there is no man left of whom this piece of matter can be said to be the body. On the
other hand, if the nature of the soul is to be the form of a body, it cannot continue to be after it
has no body to inform. Hence if the form of the body survives its body, the fact is hardly less
miraculous than the subsistence of the eucharistic accidents after bread and wine have ceased to
exist.
“Duns Scotus himself does not go that far. He does not consider the survival of the soul
as a natural impossibility. On the contrary, he thinks that there are probable arguments in its
favor, which are even more probable than those in favor of the contrary conclusion; let us say
that the immortality of the soul is a high probability, but it is not a certitude. In the last analysis,
the immortality of the human soul is absolutely certain on the strength of religious faith alone. In
the doctrine of Duns Scotus, this first conclusion entails a second one: we cannot know that the
human soul is a substance in its own right, directly created in itself and for itself by God. And,
indeed, since the soul is not a complete substance endowed with an act of being of its own and
able to subsist apart from the complete substance, ‘man,’ it does not require to be created in
itself. Man, not the human soul, is the substance; man, not the soul, provides a distinct object for
the creative power of God.
“The decisive part played in this problem by the notion of esse, or act of being, is not a
historical construction; it is a fact. In the Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 6, Thomas proves that,
since the soul has an act of being of its own, it cannot be corrupted in consequence of the
corruption of another substance, be it even man. ‘That which has esse through itself cannot be
either generated or corrupted except through itself.’ For the same reason, such a soul cannot
come to be by way of generation (because no creature can cause actual existence), it can only be
created by God. Conversely, such a soul cannot cease to be by way of natural corruption. In
order to lose its act of being, it must be annihilated by God, for only He Who gave the soul
existence can take existence away from it. Naturally, as a Christian theologian, Duns Scotus
44
É. GILSON, Jean Duns Scot. Introduction à ses positions fondamentales, p. 468.
26
subscribed to all these conclusions no less firmly than Thomas. According to him, too, the soul
was a distinct substance, immediately created by God and able to subsist apart from its body.
Only, since he could not admit that the soul had an act of being of its own, the immortality of the
soul remained for him an object, not of knowledge, but of faith: sed haec propositio credita est et
non per rationem naturalem nota.45”46
Answer to Hume on the Human Soul: Régis Jolivet on the Spirituality of the Human Soul.
“L’indagine oggettiva dei fenomeni psichici porta ad affermare che l’uomo possiede un’anima
che è una sostanza semplice e spirituale. Via via che dimostreremo questo asserto e lo
difenderemo contro le obiezioni del materialismo, vedremo che il nostro compito si riduce a
trarre le conclusioni già implicite nei risultati positivi dei nostri precedenti studi di Cosmologia e
Psicologia.
“§ 1. – La semplicità dell’anima.
“L’anima non è soltanto una di numero ed una nel numero e una nel tempo, cioè identica
a se stessa, ma è anche una nella essenza, ossia semplice e indivisibile, all’opposto delle cose
materiali che sono composte e divisibili. Ciò viene dimostrato dall’analisi delle operazioni
dell’anima.
“a) La percezione. Noi abbiamo delle cose materiali una percezione indivisa; ciò si può
spiegare solo con la semplicità dell’anima. Se infatti l’anima fosse composta di parti, ciascuna di
queste parti percepirebbe o tutto l’oggetto o soltanto una sua parte. Nel primo caso, avremmo
quindi tante percezioni totali quante sono le parti da cui è composta l’anima; nel secondo, tante
percezioni parziali quante sarebbero le parti dell’anima, mai però una percezione una e indivisa
dell’oggetto.
“b) La riflessione. L’anima può ritornare e in qualche modo «ripiegarsi» su se stessa per
conoscersi nei propri atti (352). Infatti ciò che è composto di parti non può conoscere se stesso
come tutto, perché le parti del composto restano necessariamente le une estrinseche alle altre.
Supporre che una parte arrivi a conoscere solo se stessa, vuol dire ammettere che le altre parti le
restano sempre estranee. Solo una sostanza semplice è in grado di ripiegarsi e di ritornare su se
stessa, ossia di comportarsi riflessivamente.
45
É. GILSON, Jean Duns Scot, p. 487.
46
É. GILSON, Elements of Christian Philosophy, Mentor-Omega, New York, 1963, pp. 226-227, 230-234.
27
“2. Obiezione. - W. Wundt ha obiettato che questi argomenti fanno confusione fra l’unità
e la semplicità e nondivisibilità quantitativa Infatti, egli dice, «donde si attinge la convinzione
che l’anima debba essere un ente semplice?.. Un ente uno non è la stessa cosa che un ente
semplice. L’organismo corporeo è uno e tuttavia si compone di una pluralità di organi. Anche
nella coscienza noi incontriamo, tanto successivamente che simultaneamente, una molteplicità
che attesta una pluralità della sua base fondamentale» (Grundzuge der Physiologischen
Psychologie, 6a ed., 3 voll, Lipsia, 1908-11, II; tr. fr., p. 508).
“Sartre ha quindi descritto in modo giusto i fatti, servendosi della analisi fenomenologica
che concorda in ciò con altre analisi di antica data. Il suo errore tuttavia sta nel concettualizzare
nelle nozioni equivoche di «rien» e di «néant» alcune osservazioni che sono perfettamente
fondate. Perché se è principio indiscutibile che la coscienza non è né una cosa né un contenente
vuoto, in cui possano venire a prender posto gli stati di coscienza, questo principio non diviene
più intelligibile se si fa della coscienza un niente ontologico, e meno ancora un niente
«nientificante», ossia che agisce (perché negare o affermare vuol dire ancora agire). Affermare
che in ciò consiste la grande e inesplicabile «avventura dell’essere» è solo un modo di confessare
l’assurdità di questa ipotesi. Invece le proprietà della coscienza e la condizione radicale della sua
intenzionalità essenziale si possono spiegare definendo la coscienza come una forma immateriale
(e, nell’uomo, spirituale). La spiritualità è allo stesso tempo sia questo «nulla» (o niente di
materia) che fonda la trasparenza della coscienza e la coscienza medesima, sia questa maniera di
essere che fa di un ente un soggetto capace di «nientificare», ossia di essere per sé, in
opposizione all’in sé che esso diviene in quanto conoscente. Tuttavia per consentire questo punto
28
di vista bisognerebbe indubbiamente rinunziare a porre univocamente tutto l’essere nella
categoria di «cosa».
“§ 2. – La spiritualità dell’anima.
“A. Argomenti.
“Si dice spirituale quell’ente che non dipende dalla materia né nella sua esistenza, né
nelle sue operazioni. Noi affermiamo, è vero, che l’anima umana è spirituale, ma bisogna
intender bene in quale senso lo diciamo. È indiscutibile che le operazioni sensitive dell’anima si
avvalgono del concorso diretto del corpo e che le operazioni superiori, quelle della intelligenza e
della volontà, non possono venire esercitate che con la mediazione di certe condizioni organiche.
Ma l’anima, per la sua stessa natura, rimane indipendente dal corpo, nel senso che essa esercita
senza organo le sue funzioni superiori di intelligenza e di volontà e nel senso che può esistere
senza il corpo. Premesso ciò, quali sono le prove della spiritualità dell’anima?
“1. Prova per mezzo dell’intelligenza. – Ogni essere agisce a seconda di quello che è,
ossia produce atti conformi alla sua natura. È quindi possibile dedurre la natura di un essere dai
suoi atti. Ora le operazioni dell’intelligenza non dipendono, in se stesse e intrinsecamente, dal
corpo. Infatti queste operazioni concernono oggetti immateriali e universali e mirano ad
enunciare relazioni necessarie, universali e atemporali. Ciò esclude che tali funzioni si compiano
tramite un organo corporeo, perché questo può esercitare solo un’attività particolare, concreta,
estesa, come si è visto nella conoscenza sensibile. L’intelligenza non è dunque una potenza
organica, ma una potenza o facoltà spirituale, e l’anima, da cui procede, non può essere in se
stessa che un essere spirituale, ossia intrinsecamente indipendente dal corpo.
“2. Prova per mezzo della volontà. – Gli atti della volontà libera manifestano parimenti la
spiritualità dell’anima.
“a) L’aspirazione al bene infinito. La volontà non può esercitarsi che sotto la
determinazione del bene universale (sub specie boni) (526): ciò vuol dire che possiede la
medesima immaterialità dell’intelligenza. Questa tendenza, necessaria e incoercibile, al bene
universale fa sì che l’appetito razionale non sia mai saziato dai beni particolari, finiti e mutevoli
che può raggiungere, ma tenda sempre oltre, verso un bene stabile, perfetto e incorruttibile, e per
conseguenza spirituale, che solo è in grado di soddisfare le sue profonde aspirazioni. Ora tutto
ciò esige in un modo evidente che la volontà debba essere una potenza non organica ma
veramente spirituale, perché nessuna potenza orienta la propria attività verso ciò che la
sorpassa essenzialmente e le è per conseguenza inaccessibile e inconoscibile; nessun essere
desidera ciò che supera essenzialmente la sua natura: né la pietra desidera la sensibilità, né
l’animale desidera di pensare. Dobbiamo quindi concludere che l’anima, da cui procede la
volontà, è un essere spirituale.
“b) La libertà. La libertà del volere ci porta alla medesima conclusione, perché libertà
significa indipendenza in rapporto al sensibile. L’attività libera, fondata sulla ragione per cui
l’uomo è innanzi tutto svincolato dalla schiavitù del sensibile, ossia dallo spazio e dal tempo, non
29
si può in alcun modo esercitare per mezzo di un organo corporeo. Essa è contrassegno di un ente
in grado di esistere e di agire indipendentemente dal corpo, cioè di un ente di natura spirituale.
“È necessario cogliere bene che cosa significhino gli argomenti precedentemente esposti,
ma bisogna anche non attribuire ad essi più del loro valore autentico.
“1. L’anima non è uno spirito puro. – Difatti, essa è spirituale solo in modo imperfetto,
perché, come abbiamo già visto, certe sue funzioni (vegetative e sensitive) dipendono
intrinsecamente dagli organi del corpo, mentre le sue funzioni superiori (intelletto e volontà) ne
dipendono in un modo estrinseco (63-67). Quindi l’anima deve essere considerata una sostanza
incompleta, destinata ad essere unita ad un corpo onde formare con esso una sola unica sostanza
composta che, per questa ragione, si chiama «composto umano».
“2. L’anima come sostanza. – La nozione di sostanza, abbiamo già detto, non corrisponde
affatto a quella di «cosa», la quale, sotto il fluire dei fenomeni, resta inerte. L’anima umana si
adatta a questo rozzo modo di pensare ancor meno che le realtà materiali. Il concetto di sostanza
indica infatti una realtà non sensibile, immanente a tutti i fenomeni che ne procedono, la
manifestano e che serve ad essi in qualche modo da intimo legame. Questa unità sintetica viene
attuata in virtù della forma sostanziale che è il principio primo dell’esistenza sostanziale (II, 78,
87).
“L’anima appare dunque come la forma sostanziale del corpo umano, ossia come il
principio semplice per cui la materia diviene qualcosa di determinato, cioè quel dato essere e
quel dato corpo vivente. Siccome però, da un lato, questo primo principio esercita funzioni che
sorpassano le possibilità della materia e del corpo, siamo obbligati a considerare l’anima come
soggetto autonomo e indipendente di queste funzioni, ossia come un ente sostanziale. D’altra
parte, nondimeno, l’anima, forma del corpo umano, non può essere considerata come
perfettamente sostanziale, ossia capace di sussistere da se stessa senza il corpo, in tutto ciò
ch’essa è e per tutto ciò che è. Infatti, le sue potenze vegetative e sensitive non possono essere
esercitate che per mezzo di organi corporei. Ecco, in senso esatto ed univoco, che significa,
applicata all’anima umana, l’espressione «sostanza incompleta».
“Le teorie materialistiche furono proposte nella antichità dagli atomisti (Democrito,
Epicuro, Lucrezio) e dagli stoici (Zenone, Crisippo). I primi considerano l’anima come composta
di atomi sottili e leggeri, di forma rotonda e liscia (II, 63). I secondi dicono che l’anima è un
alito, un composto di aria e di fuoco, che, dice Crisippo, «è unito alla nostra natura, e che,
penetrando tutto il corpo, ne forma l’unità». Tutto nell’uomo, fino alle forme più alte della vita
intellettiva, risulterebbe sia dagli atomi e dalla forma degli edifici atomici (materialismo
atomistico), sia dalla tensione del principio igneo (materialismo dinamicistico). In queste due
concezioni abbiamo le due forme in cui si è espresso il materialismo nel corso dei secoli.47
47
Cfr. LANGE, Geschichte des Materialismus.
30
“§ 1. Il materialismo meccanicistico.
“Gli argomenti proposti da questi teorici si possono ridurre ai due seguenti: le ricerche
sperimentali non permettono di scoprire nel corpo niente altro che materia organizzata49; «la
materia organizzata è dotata di un principio motorio, il quale solo la differenzia da quella che
non è organizzata e negli animali tutto dipende dalla diversità delle organizzazioni» (La Mettrie,
L’Homme-machine, p. 68), oppure, in forma più generale: «il movimento è una maniera d’essere
che deriva necessariamente dall’essenza della materia» (D’Holbach, Système de la nature, p.
22).50
“Discussione. – È facile capire che questi due argomenti sono semplicemente petizioni di
principio. Se l’anima è immateriale, è evidente che non potrà essere raggiunta per mezzo di
strumenti materiali, i quali possono scoprire e toccare solo ciò che è corporeo. D’altronde questo
argomento avrebbe un valore proporzionale per tutte le scienze. Queste hanno per oggetto realtà
qualitative non sensibili che vengono raggiunte solo indirettamente con la riduzione alla quantità
e ad effetti calcolabili (II, 58). Così procede anche la scienza dell’anima: essa deduce
legittimamente la realtà e la natura dell’anima partendo dai fatti psicologici, se non calcolabili,
almeno constatabili e verificabili, che sono offerti dall’esperienza.
“§ 2. Il materialismo dinamicistico.
“A. Argomenti.
“Nella seconda metà del secolo XIX, il materialismo prende la forma dinamicistica
dell’antico stoicismo. I principali difensori di questa concezione sono Taine, Moleschott, Vogt,
Buchner (Kraft und Stoff, [Materia ed energia], Francoforte, 1855); Haeckel (Die Weltratsel,
48
Per lo più sono stati presentati come materialisti Gassendi nel secolo XVII, e Condillac nel secolo XVIII, ma non
sono tali né l’uno né l’altro: ambedue sono convinti spiritualisti. Il problema è un altro, e consiste nel sapere se e in
qual misura lo spiritualismo sia compatibile con la teoria che attribuisce agli atomi una sensibilità (Gassendi) e con
la teoria che riduce tutta l’attività psicologica dell’uomo alla sensazione (Condillac).
49
Il medico Broussais riassumeva questo tipo di argomento dicendo che egli avrebbe acconsentito a credere
nell'anima solo quando l’avesse trovata con la punta del bisturi.
50
In forza di questo principio Cabanis scrive che «il cervello [...] compie organicamente la secrezione del pensiero».
31
[Gli enigmi del mondo], Bonn, 1899). I loro argomenti si riassumono nel parallelismo psico-
fisiologico e nell’epifenomenismo.
“Di qui derivano diverse formule che fanno riscontro a quella di Broussais: «L’anima è
un cervello che agisce e niente altro». «Senza fosforo non c’è pensiero». (Moleschott). «Il
cervello secerne il pensiero, come il fegato secerne la bile» (Taine). «Nella materia stanno tutte
le forze della natura e tutte le forze spirituali; la materia è il fondo ultimo di ogni essere».
(Buchner).
“B. Discussione.
“a) Il parallelismo come fatto. L’influsso vicendevole (interazione) fra il corpo e l’anima
o, come si dice con una formula quanto mai vaga, «fra il fisico e il morale» è evidente. Ma il
parallelismo fra la serie fisiologica e quella psicologica è soltanto un fatto generale e globale, che
non si verifica nei singoli casi. Da un lato, infatti, è impossibile stabilire due serie di fenomeni
collegati l’un l’altro con precisione e regolarità. Dall’altro, esistono fenomeni di natura
organica che non hanno corrispondenti psichici (per esempio, le eccitazioni che non arrivano
alle soglie della coscienza (83), e fenomeni psichici ai quali non si conosce nessun
corrispondente organico (idea, giudizio, volontà, fatti patologici delle psiconevrosi ecc.).
51
Come è stato già visto (14) questa opinione è stata ripresa da certi teorici del behaviorismo (filosofia del
comportamento), specialmente da Watson.
32
“c) Il parallelismo come dottrina. Da un punto di vista dottrinale, il parallelismo psico-
fisiologico consiste spesso nell’affermare che i fenomeni psichici non differiscono
essenzialmente dai fenomeni materiali e non sono che l’aspetto dinamico della materia. Però
questa affermazione è un semplice paralogismo. Infatti abbiamo visto poco sopra che i fatti di
corrispondenza fra tanto costanti e universali affermazione.
“D’altra parte, se anche fossero costanti, non lo sarebbero però fino al punto di
dimostrare immediatamente che fra il fisico e lo psichico esiste una relazione di causa ad effetto,
ossia, in questo caso, un’identità di natura e di essenza. I fatti di corrispondenza
giustificherebbero soltanto l’affermazione che vi è relazione fra le due serie, e niente più. La
natura di questa relazione rimarrebbe da determinare (II, 52).
“D’altronde la psicologia afferma che questa relazione non può essere causale. Ciò
infatti è stato dimostrato dalle indagini che abbiamo fatto sulle condizioni fisiologiche generali
della vita psichica (65-67). Inoltre, non si riesce assolutamente a intendere come un meccanismo
fisico o chimico produca il pensiero; cioè, in termini più generici, come un’entità per noi
indeterminata ne produca un’altra, altrettanto indeterminata.
“Infine, il fatto che materia e forza si incontrano sempre insieme non dà la possibilità di
provare, senza fare un circolo vizioso, che corpo e anima siano identici. Perché ciò che è in
discussione circa il parallelismo consiste proprio nel sapere se il fatto che due serie di fenomeni
esistono insieme, giustifichi l’affermazione che questi fenomeni sono della stessa natura.
33
spiegare meccanicamente. In realtà, la percezione è un adattamento, mentre la reazione di un
automa si produce solo se questo viene adattato in precedenza: in altre parole, la reazione
automatica è essenzialmente passiva, mentre la reazione percettiva è essenzialmente attiva.
“D’altra parte, l’ammettere che le funzioni motorie, eliminate distruggendo gran parte
degli emisferi cerebrali, possano essere supplite da altre zone più piccole ci allontana
definitivamente dal modello meccanico nel quale è evidentemente incomprensibile qualunque
sostituzione.
“Gli epifenomenisti rispondono tuttavia che la coscienza appare nel momento e nella
misura in cui sono attuate le sue condizioni fisiologiche (cfr. Paulhan, Les Phénomènes affectifs
et les lois de leur apparition, Parigi, 1901, p. 12). Stando così le cose, la coscienza non è più un
semplice epifenomeno, ma è collegata, in qualità di conseguente, agli stati fisiologici, e niente
permette di affermare a priori che questo conseguente sia soltanto un puro e semplice effetto.
Answer to Hume on the Human Soul: Régis Jolivet on the Immortality of the Human Soul.
“L’unione dell’anima col corpo non è indissolubile: viene infatti il giorno in cui essa si rompe.
Sappiamo ciò che diviene il corpo, ma che accade dell’anima? Moriamo interamente? Tutto ciò
che sappiamo della natura dell’anima umana, che è forma spirituale intrinsecamente
indipendente dal corpo, ci induce ad ammettere che l’anima è immortale. Prima di esporre le
prove di questa affermazione, è però necessario chiarire bene ciò che si deve intendere per
immortalità.
52
Cfr. RIBOT, Les maladies de la personnalitè, p. 15: «Quando uno stato fisiologico è divenuto stato di coscienza,
ha per ciò stesso acquistato un carattere particolare... Esso può essere richiamato, cioè si riconosce che ha occupato
una posizione precisa fra diversi altri stati di coscienza. Dunque è divenuto un nuovo fattore nella vita psichica
dell’individuo: risultato che può servire da punto di partenza a qualche nuova attività cosciente o inconscia».
53
R. JOLIVET, Trattato di filosofia, vol. 3 (Psicologia), Morcelliana, Brescia, 1958, nos. 606-616.
34
“§ 1. Concetto di immortalità.
“1. Prova metafisica. – Questa prova si basa sulla semplicità dell’anima. Una sostanza
può perire in due modi: direttamente (per se) oppure indirettamente (per accidens). Una sostanza
scompare direttamente, quando viene separata dal principio da cui trae l’essere, la vita e le sue
funzioni: così il corpo, separato dall’anima, che ne è il principio vitale, si decompone e si risolve
nei suoi elementi. Una sostanza perisce indirettamente o per accidens, quando viene privata del
soggetto senza del quale non può esercitare le sue funzioni vitali: è il caso dell’anima delle
bestie, nelle quali tutte le funzioni sono organiche e non possono per conseguenza esercitarsi
senza il corpo.
“Però l’anima umana non può perire né direttamente, perché è una sostanza semplice e
quindi incapace di decomporsi; né indirettamente, perché non ha intrinsecamente bisogno del
35
corpo e dei suoi organi per esercitare le proprie funzioni di conoscenza e di volontà. L’anima
dell’uomo è quindi, per sua stessa natura, incorruttibile ed immortale.
“Bergson, dopo di aver dimostrato che «il pensiero è in gran parte indipendente dal
cervello» (Énergie spirituelle, pp. 45-46) e che «tutto avviene come se il corpo fosse soltanto
adoperato dallo spirito» conclude che «perciò non abbiamo nessuna ragione per supporre che il
corpo e lo spirito siano legati inseparabilmente l’uno a l’altro». (Ibidem, p. 61. Cfr. Matiere et
Mémoire, pp. 150 e 195). In tal modo si stabilisce, aggiunge Bergson, soltanto la verosimiglianza
della sopravvivenza dell’anima, ed è compito di altre discipline (cioè, senza dubbio, della
religione) dire se il tempo della sopravvivenza dell’anima sia limitato o no. Tuttavia questo
risultato, anche se è forse modesto, per il fatto stesso che risulta dall'esperienza, è più prezioso
che gli argomenti della «metafisica tradizionale», «dedotti dall’essenza ipotetica del corpo e
dell'anima», che sono per lo più molto fragili. (Énergie spirituelle, p. 62). In questo modo di
ragionare vi è, crediamo, un grave equivoco. In primo luogo, l’argomento bergsoniano circa la
sopravvivenza dell’anima non è di esperienza, ma è un vero argomento metafisico, perché
consiste nel dedurre (molto giustamente, d’altronde) l’immortalità dell’anima dalla sua
spiritualità, la quale è stata definita dalla metafisica, tradizionale o no (608-610) con la stessa
efficacia dimostrata da Bergson, come l’indipendenza intrinseca dell’anima dal corpo. D’altra
parte, quando Bergson afferma in seguito che gli argomenti metafisici sono per lo più fragili, non
solo trascura il fatto che questi argomenti si basano, proprio come il suo, sull’esperienza
psicologica, ma egli fa un torto alla propria argomentazione la quale propone, in modo molto
logico, una conclusione che sorpassa l’esperienza immediata. Infatti, col suo gettare un sospetto
di principio su ogni argomentazione razionale, egli si espone a sentirsi contestare perfino la
modesta affermazione di sopravvivenza che pretende d’aver raggiunta.
“2. La prova psicologica. – Questa prova è basata sulle tendenze essenziali della nostra
natura. Sta di fatto che noi aspiriamo a conoscere la verità assoluta e a possedere il bene
supremo e la bontà perfetta, cioè a godere di oggetti che trascendono lo spazio e il tempo. Ciò è
tanto vero che noi non siamo mai sazi di verità e felicità; quanto più avanziamo nella conoscenza
del vero, nella pratica e nell’amore del bene, tanto più si accresce il nostro desiderio, il quale
sembra non possa essere soddisfatto che dalla Verità, dalla Bontà e dalla Bellezza perfette, cioè
da Dio. Quello è invero il nostro fine, come ci manifestano le nostre più profonde e tenaci
tendenze, le quali dimostrano quindi come l’anima sorpassi ogni tempo particolare e finito e sia
realmente immortale per natura.
“Contro di ciò è stato obiettato che l’aspirazione dell’immortalità è soltanto la forma del
desiderio di perpetuarsi che la specie prova, in ogni uomo. Questa obiezione sembra però in sé
contraddittoria: perché se è la specie ad aspirare a perpetuarsi (ed essa vi aspira veramente),
questo anelito e questo bisogno vengono saziati dalla procreazione. L’individuo, in quanto
36
singolo, non ha nessuna ragione di desiderare e pretendere una perpetuità che sia propria della
specie. Addirittura, l’aspirazione all’immortalità è, in tal caso, assolutamente incomprensibile (e
di fatto, essa non può esistere nell’animale). Ma appunto, se l’uomo, come persona individua,
aspira ad un’immortalità che gli conservi la propria identità e la propria coscienza personali, in
ciò sta la prova più chiara che egli non si riduce ad un semplice individuo trasmettitore della
specie, ma che ha un destino personale sopravanzante l’intera specie. D’altronde, come si
potrebbe concepire che la «natura» produca delle persone (cioè degli esseri ragionevoli,
coscienti e liberi) ed ispiri loro il desiderio profondo di perpetuarsi come persone, unicamente
allo scopo di annientarle? (Infatti sostituire l’immortalità della specie all’immortalità individuale
equivale ad eliminare l’immortalità).
“Ma la stessa pretesa di riservare l’immortalità alla specie è quanto mai significativa,
perché dimostra, nel modo più evidente che, quando si tratta dell’uomo, è assurdo il sentimento
di considerare la morte come un fenomeno definitivamente conclusivo senza che abbia qualsiasi
altro significato. La morte è quindi una specie di scandalo, anzi uno scandalo così profondo, che
sembra impossibile pensarla come termine,54 cioè introdurla nella serie degli avvenimenti della
mia vita, come il loro ultimo compimento. Esiste dunque una vera esigenza di immortalità di cui
lo scandalo della morte è solo l’aspetto negativo, come pure (perché se l’immortalità della specie
fosse in grado di soddisfare le nostre aspirazioni, dovrebbe escludere negli individui ogni
scandalo ed ogni spavento della morte) una esigenza di immortalità personale, la quale ha senso,
solo se manifesta una struttura ontologica della realtà umana.55
“3. Prova morale. – Questa prova è stata presentata in diverse forme che hanno un valore
disuguale.
“a) Le esigenze della giustizia. La giustizia esige che il bene e il male ricevano le
sanzioni che sono loro dovute, cioè la ricompensa o la punizione. Quaggiù, le sanzioni del bene e
del male sono chiaramente insufficienti: spesso anzi è il male quello che trionfa e la virtù che è
umiliata. Siccome però la giustizia vuole che ciascuno sia trattato secondo le proprie opere, ciò
può verificarsi solo a condizione che l’anima sia immortale.
“Nonostante il favore che gode, questo argomento, così presentato, si manifesta debole.
Infatti, non si vede come la giustizia possa esigere altro che una certa sopravvivenza dell’anima
onde sia ristabilito l’ordine che la vita terrena non ha potuto attuare. L’immortalità, sotto tale
aspetto, sembra costituire un’esigenza che è impossibile giustificare. D’altronde, come credere
che si possa basare un argomento solido su una base fragile qual è l’apprezzamento dei nostri
meriti e la stima della felicità che è ad essi dovuta? In ciò vi è una pretesa che sembra inspirarsi
proprio ad un materialismo camuffato, perché si può affermare che la virtù viene quaggiù derisa
e il male trionfa, soltanto riferendosi a criteri puramente materiali (ricchezze, onore, potere ecc.),
come se la felicità autentica trovasse il suo coronamento nel possesso di questi beni. Infine,
sembra che questo argomento, lungi dal dimostrare l’immortalità dell’anima, desuma invece da
essa, certa in virtù di altre ragioni, la forza di cui si avvale. Supponiamo infatti che la vita futura
ci sia garantita solo a condizione che essa abbracci ancora tutte le ingiustizie che, a nostro dire, ci
54
Cfr. la discussione di J.-P. SARTRE (L’Etre et le Néant, pp. 618-630), a proposito della teoria di Heidegger, come
pure R. JOLIVET, Le problème de la mort chez Heidegger et J.-P. Sartre, Parigi, 1950.
55
Cfr. P. LAMY, Le problème de la destinée, Parigi, pp. 40-50 e 139-141.
37
fanno ribellare nella vita presente: in tal caso non vi sarebbe forse alcun cambiamento nella
nostra profonda aspirazione a sopravvivere?
“b) Prova per mezzo delle esigenze della perfezione. Platone ha esposto nel Fedone (107-
108) la prova morale dell’immortalità dell’anima basata sulle esigenze della giustizia, ma egli
pretende piuttosto di esigere da quell’argomento una dimostrazione dell’immortalità personale,
dato che l’immortalità in genere era stata stabilita per altra via.
“Kant invece ha dimostrato che la condizione suprema del sommo bene è la virtù, ossia
«la conformità completa delle intenzioni alla legge morale». Siccome tale perfezione tuttavia non
può essere ottenuta nell’esistenza terrena, dobbiamo quindi ammettere (o postulare) per l’uomo
la possibilità di un perfezionamento senza fine che lo avvicini sempre più all’ideale della santità.
Però questo progresso indefinito è in sé possibile solo a condizione di supporre che l’essere
ragionevole continui ad esistere, in modo personale, nell’infinità di una durata che solo Dio può
abbracciare. (Critica della ragione pratica, trad. it., Bari, 1909). Sembra difficile accordare
questo argomento di Kant con la concezione kantiana della buona volontà la quale è o non è
(perché consiste in qualcosa di indivisibile e per conseguenza non può ammettere un «progresso
indefinito»). Inoltre, l’ipotesi di un progresso indefinito fin oltre la vita terrena è arbitrario.
Infine, ciò che questo argomento ha di valido sembra scaturire piuttosto dalla prova psicologica,
sottolineando quell’ideale di perfezione morale che è in noi contrassegno ed effetto di una
grandezza che trascende lo spazio e il tempo.
“c) Il valore assoluto dell’ordine morale. La prova morale può essere infine presentata
nella forma seguente. La coscienza impone il rispetto assoluto dei valori morali ed afferma
quindi che non può essere assolutamente indifferente l’essere stati buoni o l’essere stati cattivi.
Da ciò deriva che la moralità esige l’immortalità perché ogni essere-morale è necessariamente
immortale. Infatti, supponendo che gli esseri sottoposti alla legge morale vadano a finire nel
niente finale, diverrebbe indifferente essere stati buoni o cattivi; il bene e il male diverrebbero
equivalenti, o comunque non avrebbero che un valore temporaneo, relativo e accidentale, ciò che
è contrario alle esigenze morali della coscienza. Così presentata, la prova morale sfugge senza
dubbio alle obiezioni che si possono fare alle forme precedenti. Ma, come per l’argomento
psicologico, è necessario supporre stabilito in altro modo che le esigenze della coscienza morale
abbiano un valore assoluto e scaturiscano dalla struttura ontologica dell'essere-morale.
“4. Importanza degli argomenti. – L’argomento metafisico è dunque quello che appare
più decisivo onde provare l’immortalità dell’anima. La prova psicologica e quella morale vi si
aggiungono a mo’ di complemento, ma hanno in se stesse valore soltanto per gli elementi
metafisici che vi sono implicati. Infatti, sia l’una che l’altra, confermano la spiritualità dell’anima
e stabiliscono per di più che la sola immortalità personale corrisponde alle esigenze assolute di
un essere cosciente di sé come persona intelligente e libera e quindi sottoposta alla legge del
dovere; perché la persona umana non potrebbe scomparire, al momento della morte, né dopo una
sopravvivenza più o meno lunga, in un Tutto anonimo, senza essere frustrata nelle sue più
profonde aspirazioni che scaturiscono dalla sua stessa natura, e senza che l’ordine morale perda
improvvisamente ogni significato e valore.56…”57
56
Cfr. S. TOMMASO, Summa Theologiae, I.a, q. 75, a. 6: «Intellectus apprehendit esse absolute et secundum omne
tempus. Unde omne habens intellectum naturaliter desiderat esse semper. Naturale autem desiderium non potest
38
Answer to Hume on the Human Soul: The Human Soul is Incorporeal and Subsistent (St.
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 2, c.): “It must necessarily be allowed that the
principle of intellectual operation which we call the soul, is a principle both incorporeal and
subsistent. For it is clear that by means of the intellect man can have knowledge of all corporeal
things. Now whatever knows certain things cannot have any of them in its own nature; because
that which is in it naturally would impede the knowledge of anything else. Thus we observe that
a sick man’s tongue being vitiated by a feverish and bitter humor, is insensible to anything sweet,
and everything seems bitter to it. Therefore, if the intellectual principle contained the nature of a
body it would be unable to know all bodies. Now every body has its own determinate nature.
Therefore it is impossible for the intellectual principle to be a body. It is likewise impossible for
it to understand by means of a bodily organ; since the determinate nature of that organ would
impede knowledge of all bodies; as when a certain determinate color is not only in the pupil of
the eye, but also in a glass vase, the liquid in the vase seems to be of that same color.
“Therefore the intellectual principle…has an operation per se apart from the body. Now
only that which subsists can have an operation per se. For nothing can operate but what is
actual…We must conclude, therefore, that the human soul…is something incorporeal and
subsistent.”
“Respondeo dicendum quod necesse est dicere id quod est principium intellectualis
operationis, quod dicimus animam hominis, esse quoddam principium incorporeum et subsistens.
Manifestum est enim quod homo per intellectum cognoscere potest naturas omnium corporum.
Quod autem potest cognoscere aliqua, oportet ut nihil eorum habeat in sua natura, quia illud
quod inesset ei naturaliter impediret cognitionem aliorum; sicut videmus quod lingua infirmi
quae infecta est cholerico et amaro humore, non potest percipere aliquid dulce, sed omnia
videntur ei amara. Si igitur principium intellectuale haberet in se naturam alicuius corporis, non
posset omnia corpora cognoscere. Omne autem corpus habet aliquam naturam determinatam.
Impossibile est igitur quod principium intellectuale sit corpus. Et similiter impossibile est quod
intelligat per organum corporeum, quia etiam natura determinata illius organi corporei prohiberet
cognitionem omnium corporum; sicut si aliquis determinatus color sit non solum in pupilla, sed
etiam in vase vitreo, liquor infusus eiusdem coloris videtur.
“Ipsum igitur intellectuale principium…habet operationem per se, cui non communicat
corpus. Nihil autem potest per se operari, nisi quod per se subsistit. Non enim est operari nisi
entis in actu, unde eo modo aliquid operatur, quo est…Relinquitur igitur animam
humanam…esse aliquid incorporeum et subsistens.”
Answer to Hume on the Human Soul: The Human Soul is Incorruptible (St. Thomas
Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I, q. 75, a. 6, c.): “We must assert that the intellectual principle
which we call the human soul is incorruptible. For a thing may be corrupted in two ways – per
se, and accidentally. Now it is impossible for any substance to be generated or corrupted
accidentally, that is, by the generation or corruption of something else. For generation and
corruption belong to a thing, just as existence belongs to it, which is acquired by generation and
esse inane. Omnis igitur intellectualis substantia est incorruptibilis». Cfr. ancora: Summa Contra Gentiles, II, 79 -
81; Quodlibet, X, a. 6; Quaestio de anima, a. 14.
57
R. JOLIVET, op. cit., nos. 648-652.
39
lost by corruption. Therefore, whatever has existence per se cannot be generated or corrupted
except per se; while things which do not subsist, such as accidents and material forms, acquire
existence or lose it through the generation or corruption of composite things. Now it was shown
above (AA. 2, 3) that the souls of brutes are not self-subsistent, whereas the human soul is; so
that the souls of brutes are corrupted, when their bodies are corrupted; while the human soul
could not be corrupted unless it were corrupted per se. This, indeed, is impossible, not only as
regards the human soul, but also as regards anything subsistent that is a form alone. For it is clear
that what belongs to a thing by virtue of itself is inseparable from it; but existence belongs to a
form, which is an act, by virtue of itself. Wherefore matter acquires actual existence as it
acquires the form; while it is corrupted so far as the form is separated from it. But it is impossible
for a form to be separated from itself; and therefore it is impossible for a subsistent form to cease
to exist.
“Granted even that the soul is composed of matter and form, as some pretend, we should
nevertheless have to maintain that it is incorruptible. For corruption is found only where there is
contrariety; since generation and corruption are from contraries and into contraries…Now there
can be no contrariety in the intellectual soul; for it receives according to the manner of its
existence, and those things which it receives are without contrariety; for the notions even of
contraries are not themselves contrary, since contraries belong to the same knowledge. Therefore
it is impossible for the intellectual soul to be corruptible. Moreover we may take a sign of this
from the fact that everything naturally aspires to existence after its own manner. Now, in things
that have knowledge, desire ensues upon knowledge. The senses indeed do not know existence,
except under the conditions of here and now, whereas the intellect apprehends existence
absolutely, and for all time; so that everything that has an intellect naturally desires always to
exist. But a natural desire cannot be in vain. Therefore every intellectual substance is
incorruptible.”
“Respondeo dicendum quod necesse est dicere animam humanam, quam dicimus
intellectivum principium, esse incorruptibilem. Dupliciter enim aliquid corrumpitur, uno modo,
per se; alio modo, per accidens. Impossibile est autem aliquid subsistens generari aut corrumpi
per accidens, idest aliquo generato vel corrupto. Sic enim competit alicui generari et corrumpi,
sicut et esse, quod per generationem acquiritur et per corruptionem amittitur. Unde quod per se
habet esse, non potest generari vel corrumpi nisi per se, quae vero non subsistunt, ut accidentia et
formae materiales, dicuntur fieri et corrumpi per generationem et corruptionem compositorum.
Ostensum est autem supra quod animae brutorum non sunt per se subsistentes, sed sola anima
humana. Unde animae brutorum corrumpuntur, corruptis corporibus, anima autem humana non
posset corrumpi, nisi per se corrumperetur. Quod quidem omnino est impossibile non solum de
ipsa, sed de quolibet subsistente quod est forma tantum. Manifestum est enim quod id quod
secundum se convenit alicui, est inseparabile ab ipso. Esse autem per se convenit formae, quae
est actus. Unde materia secundum hoc acquirit esse in actu, quod acquirit formam, secundum hoc
autem accidit in ea corruptio, quod separatur forma ab ea. Impossibile est autem quod forma
separetur a seipsa. Unde impossibile est quod forma subsistens desinat esse.
“Dato etiam quod anima esset ex materia et forma composita, ut quidam dicunt, adhuc
oporteret ponere eam incorruptibilem. Non enim invenitur corruptio nisi ubi invenitur
contrarietas, generationes enim et corruptiones ex contrariis et in contraria sunt…In anima autem
40
intellectiva non potest esse aliqua contrarietas. Recipit enim secundum modum sui esse, ea vero
quae in ipsa recipiuntur, sunt absque contrarietate; quia etiam rationes contrariorum in intellectu
non sunt contrariae, sed est una scientia contrariorum. Impossibile est ergo quod anima
intellectiva sit corruptibilis. Potest etiam huius rei accipi signum ex hoc, quod unumquodque
naturaliter suo modo esse desiderat. Desiderium autem in rebus cognoscentibus sequitur
cognitionem. Sensus autem non cognoscit esse nisi sub hic et nunc, sed intellectus apprehendit
esse absolute, et secundum omne tempus. Unde omne habens intellectum naturaliter desiderat
esse semper. Naturale autem desiderium non potest esse inane. Omnis igitur intellectualis
substantia est incorruptibilis.”
Answer to Hume on the Human Soul: St. Thomas Aquinas on the Immortality of the
Human Soul in Quaestio disputata de anima (articulus XIV, c.): “Dicendum quod necesse est
omnino animam humanam incorruptibilem esse. Ad cuius evidentiam considerandum est, quod
id quod per se consequitur ad aliquid, non potest removeri ab eo. Sicut ab homine non removetur
quod sit animal, neque a numero quod sit par vel impar. Manifestum est autem quod esse per se
consequitur formam: unumquodque enim habet esse secundum propriam formam; unde esse a
forma nullo modo separari potest. Corrumpuntur igitur composita ex materia et forma per hoc
quod amittunt formam ad quam consequitur esse. Ipsa autem forma per se corrumpi non potest,
sed per accidens corrupto composito corrumpitur, in quantum deficit esse compositi quod est per
formam; si forma sit talis quae non sit habens esse, sed sit solum quo compositum est.
“Si ergo sit aliqua forma quae sit habens esse, necesse est illam formam incorruptibilem
esse. Non enim separatur esse ab aliquo habente esse, nisi per hoc quod separatur forma ab eo;
unde si id quod habet esse, sit ipsa forma, impossibile est quod esse separetur ab eo. Manifestum
est autem quod principium quo homo intelligit est forma habens esse in se, et non solum sicut
quo aliquid est. Intelligere enim, ut philosophus probat in III de anima, non est actus expletus per
organum corporale. Non enim posset inveniri aliquod organum corporale quod esset receptivum
omnium naturarum sensibilium; praesertim quia recipiens debet esse denudatum a natura recepti,
sicut pupilla caret colore. Omne autem organum corporale habet naturam aliquam sensibilem.
Intellectus vero quo intelligimus est cognoscitivus omnium sensibilium naturarum; unde
impossibile est quod eius operatio, quae est intelligere, exerceatur per aliquod organum
corporale. Unde apparet quod intellectus habet operationem per se, in qua non communicat
corpus. Unumquodque autem operatur secundum quod est: quae enim per se habent esse, per se
operantur. Quae vero per se non habent esse, non habent per se operationem; non enim calor per
se calefacit, sed calidum. Sic igitur patet quod principium intellectivum quo homo intelligit,
habet esse elevatum supra corpus, non dependens a corpore.
“Manifestum est etiam quod huiusmodi intellectivum principium non est aliquid ex
materia et forma compositum, quia species omnino recipiuntur in ipso immaterialiter. Quod
declaratur ex hoc quod intellectus est universalium, quae considerantur in abstractione a materia
et a materialibus conditionibus. Relinquitur ergo quod principium intellectivum quo homo
intelligit, sit forma habens esse; unde necesse est quod sit incorruptibilis. Et hoc est quod etiam
philosophus dicit quod intellectus est quoddam divinum et perpetuum. Ostensum est autem in
praecedentibus quaestionibus quod principium intellectivum quo homo intelligit, non est aliqua
substantia separata; sed est aliquid formaliter inhaerens homini, quod est anima, vel pars animae.
Unde relinquitur ex praedictis quod anima humana sit incorruptibilis.
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“Omnes enim qui posuerunt animam humanam corrumpi, interemerunt aliquid
praemissorum. Quidam enim animam ponentes esse corpus, posuerunt eam non esse formam,
sed aliquid ex materia et forma compositum. Alii vero ponentes intellectum non differre a sensu,
posuerunt per consequens quod non habet operationem nisi per organum corporale, et sic non
habet esse elevatum supra corpus; unde non est forma habens esse. Alii vero posuerunt
intellectum, quo homo intelligit, esse substantiam separatam. Quae omnia in superioribus ostensa
sunt esse falsa. Unde relinquitur animam humanam esse incorruptibilem.
“Signum autem huius ex duobus accipi potest. Primo quidem, ex parte intellectus: quia ea
etiam quae sunt in seipsis corruptibilia, secundum quod intellectu percipiuntur, incorruptibilia
sunt. Est enim intellectus apprehensivus rerum in universali, secundum quem modum non accidit
eis corruptio. Secundo, ex naturali appetitu qui in nulla re frustrari potest. Videmus enim
hominibus appetitum esse perpetuitatis. Et hoc rationabiliter: quia cum ipsum esse secundum se
sit appetibile, oportet quod ab intelligente qui apprehendit esse simpliciter, et non hic et nunc,
appetatur esse simpliciter, et secundum omne tempus. Unde videtur quod iste appetitus non sit
inanis; sed quod homo secundum animam intellectivam sit incorruptibilis.”
Régis Jolivet’s Critique of Hume’s Sensist Phenomenalism Regarding Substance and the
Human Person: “Nozioni aberranti della sostanza…Definizioni empiristiche. Tutti gli empiristi,
e Kant al loro seguito, definiscono la sostanza come una cosa permanente, immobile e
invariabile sotto il mutamento. Ora questa definizione, anzitutto, non conviene affatto alla
sostanza, che non è assolutamente immobile e invariabile sotto il flusso fenomenico: essa non è
affatto una cosa inerte sotto altre cose mobili e mutevoli. Infatti, essa è soggetta al mutamento
accidentale e non cessa di modificarsi con il movimento degli accidenti, che sono qualche cosa
d’essa stessa. D’altra parte, una simile definizione rende la sostanza inintelligibile e
perfettamente inutile e conduce al più radicale fenomenismo.”58
“§ l - Teorie fenomenistiche.
“554 - Queste teorie sonò state proposte dagli empiristi del secolo XVIII e XIX. Il loro
principio generale è che la personalità può e deve spiegarsi attraverso i soli fenomeni,
considerati come capaci, in certe condizioni, di formare una somma o collezione contrassegnata
dai caratteri che determinano il «me» personale.
“Questi argomenti sono di tre specie. Gli uni sono puramente negativi e tendono a
provare che l’ipotesi di un soggetto sostanziale è incomprensibile. I secondi impugnano il valore
sperimentale del concetto di personalità. I terzi cercano di dar ragione senza alcun soggetto dei
caratteri della personalità.
“1. Critica del concetto di sostanza - Tutti gli empiristi del XVIII secolo (Locke,
Condillac, Berkeley, Hume) considerano inintelligibile il concetto di soggetto sostanziale. Una
sostanza o un soggetto, dicono costoro, è per definizione qualcosa che si trova posto sotto i
fenomeni (sub-jacere, sub-stare), cioè un sostrato o sostegno. Però una tale realtà, se esistesse,
58
R. JOLIVET, Trattato di filosofia, vol. 4 (Metafisica II), Morcelliana, Brescia, 1960, p. 123.
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sarebbe in se stessa inconoscibile, perché l’esperienza non ci presenta mai altro che le qualità o
fenomeni, inutile, perché sarebbe immobile e inerte sotto il flusso dei fenomeni, - impensabile in
se stessa, perché dovrebbe essere considerata come una cosa priva di ogni determinazione,
infine contraddittoria, perché, pur essendo destinata a servire da sostegno ai fenomeni, anch’essa
avrebbe bisogno di sostegno (Locke, An Essay on Human Understanding, L II, c. XXIII, in
Works of J. L., 4 voll., Londra, 1777; tr. it., Bari, 1951).
“Bisogna quindi rinunziare ad ogni idea di soggetto sostanziale, il quale non ha altro
fondamento nell’esperienza che un gruppo di qualità costanti sostrato delle qualità variabili.
“La sostanza piombo, per esempio, si riduce ad un complesso di qualità: colore opaco e
biancastro, un determinato grado di pesantezza, di durezza, di duttilità e di fusibilità. Il soggetto
uomo non è che un complesso di qualità estese e di qualità dette spirituali. Il soggetto anima o
spirito non è che una collezione di fatti interni che coesistono per l’azione della memoria.
“a) Come funziona l’associazione. Tutto si può spiegare, secondo Hume, con
l’associazione. L’idea di soggetto rappresenta soltanto una generalizzazione del concetto comune
di cosa. Difatti, questa ha tre proprietà: è unità di una molteplicità coesistente; è unità di una
molteplicità successiva; è un sostrato le cui modificazioni sono rappresentate dalle qualità
sensibili. È. dunque facile dimostrare che tutte queste proprietà risultano da come funziona
l’associazione. La prima è prodotta dalla coesistenza delle qualità nella percezione: lo spirito
rappresenta a se stesso tutte insieme queste qualità e tratta questa collezione come un tutto
organico, designandola con una sola parola. A poco a poco, l’unità verbale si trasforma in unità
reale. La seconda proprietà deriva dal fatto che la cosa non sembra cambiare, od almeno non
cambia, in modo rilevante che in un tempo relativamente lungo: da ciò deriva il fatto che la cosa
ci appare identica a se stessa. Ma siccome questa identità non può essere attribuita alle qualità
palesemente cangianti, noi l’attribuiamo al raggruppamento stesso delle qualità e, al di là di
queste, ad un soggetto comune immobile delle modificazioni.
59
D. HUME, A Treatise of Human Nature, 4a parte, sez. VI: «Senza tener conto di alcuni metafisici, io oso
affermare, quanto al resto degli uomini, che essi non sono che un fascio od una collezione di diverse percezioni, le
quali si succedono con una rapidità inconcepibile e sono in un flusso e in un movimento perpetui».
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“b) Genesi della persona-soggetto. Proprio allo stesso modo noi ci formiamo l’idea di
sostanza spirituale. Come la sostanzialità delle cose esterne per noi proviene dalla rassomiglianza
che esse presentano nel tempo, così la sostanzialità del «me» nasce dalla memoria. Infatti questa
basta a spiegare il nostro sentimento di identità personale: essa ci dà, insieme alla continuità
successiva delle nostre percezioni interne, il sentimento della causalità reciproca di queste
percezioni, ossia del loro concatenamento, ed infine raggruppa queste percezioni in base alla loro
rassomiglianza. Da queste diverse relazioni conservate dalla memoria nasce il concetto della
nostra identità personale e sostanziale. Però quest’ultima non è, in definitiva, che l’identità
sostanziale del legame che esiste in una serie di cause e di effetti (Treatise of Human Nature,
Oxford, 1951, tr. it., Bari, 1948, 1. I, 1a parte, sez. VI).
“Taine e Stuart Mill, partendo dallo stesso principio di Hume, propongono spiegazioni un
po’ diverse. Secondo Taine, fra i fatti psicologici, che sono l’unica realtà concreta alcuni sono
stati forti e, in quanto tali, prendono forma di interiorità e si innalzano fino a diventare corpo e
«me»; gli stati deboli invece vengono respinti e compongono il mondo degli oggetti o «non-me».
Insomma, l’idea di personalità si riduce a quella di stati psichici interni, e gli oggetti o mondo
esterno sono effetto di una «allucinazione vera». (Taine, De l’Intelligence, t. II, libro III, c. I).
Quanto a Stuart Mill egli definisce il «me» come una «possibilità permanente di sensazioni».
«Credere che il mio spirito esiste, anche quando esso non sente se stesso, non si pensa, non ha
coscienza della propria esistenza, si riduce a credere in una possibilità permanente di questi
stati... Io non vedo niente che ci impedisca di considerare lo spirito come ciò che è soltanto la
serie delle nostre sensazioni, quali esse si presentano di fatto, aggiungendovi le possibilità
indefinite di sentire che esigono, onde esser tradotte in atto, delle condizioni che possono aver
luogo o no, ma che, in quanto possibili, esistono sempre e molte delle quali possono realizzarsi a
volontà». (An Examination of Sir W. Hamilton’s Philosophy, Londra, 1865; tr., fr., p. 228).
“B. Discussione
“1. Il soggetto non è un sostrato inerte - La critica del concetto di sostanza è basata tutta
su un equivoco. Il termine soggetto non equivale a sostrato inerte del cambiamento sul quale
verrebbero in qualche modo ad appiccicarsi le qualità, come un vestito che aderisce al corpo o
come una vernice che ricopre la superficie delle cose. Questa concezione è assurda. Infatti, il
soggetto non costituisce con le sue qualità che un unico essere completo, anche se, propriamente
parlando, non sono le qualità a cambiare, ma è il soggetto che cambia con esse e per esse. Il
soggetto cambia quindi continuamente secondo il succedersi dei fenomeni che lo investono: la
permanenza e la stabilità fanno parte soltanto della sua essenza, non della sua realtà concreta. Da
ciò si vede bene come l’obiezione di Hume, secondo il quale il soggetto sarebbe impensabile in
se stesso, non ha nessuna importanza. Il soggetto viene in sé determinato sia dalle sue proprietà
essenziali, sia dalle qualità che lo individualizzano, perché il soggetto concreto è composto da
tutte queste cose prese insieme.
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costruito cominciando dai suoi elementi, come se questi esistessero dapprima come isolati e
dispersi, e fossero in seguito riuniti in un tutto. È il tutto quello che viene per primo, e gli
elementi, in quanto tali, non sono percepiti e distinti che successivamente.
“Ciò che abbiamo detto sopra circa la formazione del «me» nel fanciullo non è in
contraddizione con questa osservazione, perché, propriamente parlando, il fanciullo non
costruisce il suo «me», ma lo scopre progressivamente, via via che si realizzano le condizioni
degli organi, dell’esperienza e della ragione. Quanto alla sintesi psicologica, essa non risulta nel
fanciullo da una disposizione di elementi preesistenti, ma da una presa di coscienza sempre più
approfondita di un ordine di diritto incluso e preformato entro la ragione. Essa dunque è, in
quanto tale, anteriore agli elementi.
“Infine, non fa meraviglia che Hume non arrivi a scoprire l’«io» nella sua esperienza:
l’«io» che egli cerca non esiste e non può esistere, perché non è un sostrato che esista separato
dagli stati di coscienza, ma è l’insieme stesso del «me» dotato dei caratteri di unità e di identità
personali.
“…D. Conclusione
60
La spiegazione di Taine è altrettanto arbitraria. Non si riesce a capire come, esistendo soltanto gli stati psicologici,
la loro differenza di intensità sia tale da poter bastare a trasformarli in mondo interno od esterno, reale od
immaginario.
61
Treatise, I. I, 4a part., Appendice: «A dirla in breve, vi sono due princìpi che io non riesco ad accordare, senza che
possa rinunziare ancor più all’uno o all’altro e cioè: il principio che le nostre percezioni distinte sono esistenze
distinte, e che la mente non percepisce mai alcun nesso reale fra esistenze distinte. Non vi sarebbe più nessuna
difficoltà se si ammettesse sia che le nostre percezioni sono inerenti a qualcosa di semplice e di individuale, sia che
la mente percepisce qualche nesso reale fra loro. Per ciò che mi riguarda, io devo confessare che questa difficoltà
sorpassa la mia comprensione...». S. Mill confessa la stessa cosa: «Se consideriamo lo spirito come una serie di stati
di coscienza, siamo obbligati a completare la proposizione chiamandola serie di stati di coscienza che conosce se
stessa come passata e futura: e siamo ridotti a dover scegliere fra il credere che lo spirito, o «io», è una cosa ben
diversa dalle serie di stati di coscienza possibili, e l’ammettere il paradosso per cui qualcosa che, per ipotesi, è solo
una serie di stati di coscienza, può conoscere se stessa come serie». (An Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's
Philosophy, Londra, 1865; tr. fr., p. 235).
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forma si presenti, è infatti incapace di spiegare questa esperienza. Una collezione di cose non è
un ente; una serie od una carovana non formano un tutto organico; una serie successiva od una
collezione simultanea non possono riconoscere se stesse né come serie, né come collezione, né
tanto meno come unità.
“a) Forma dell’intuizione. Il soggetto che noi siamo non è una costruzione dello spirito,
ma un dato dell’esperienza. L’intuizione del me-soggetto si deve estendere a tutta la nostra vita
psicologica, nel senso che noi non cessiamo di essere in qualche modo ontologicamente presenti
a noi stessi e cogliamo questa presenza ontologica negli atti che ne emanano.62
62
S. TOMMASO, De Veritate, q. 10 a. 8: «Quantum ad cognitionem habitualem, sic dico quod anima per essentiam
suam se videt, id est, ex hoc ipso quod essentia sua est praesens, est potens exire in actum cognitionis sui ipsius [...]
Ad hoc autem quod percipiat anima se esse et quid in seipsa agatur attendat, sufficit sola essentia animae, quae
menti est praesens: ex ea enim actus progrediuntur, in quibus actualiter ipsa percipitur». 1a, q. 43, a. 5, ad 2um: «Illa
quae sunt per essentiam sui in anima cognoscuntur experimentali cognitione, in quantum homo experitur per actus
principia intrinseca».
63
Cfr: S. TOMMASO, De Veritate, q. 10, a. 8, ad 8 in contr.: «Secundum hoc scientia de anima est certissima quod
unusquisque experitur se animam habere et actus animae sibi inesse, sed cognoscere quid sit anima difficillimum
est».
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detto, proprio in questa intuizione l’analisi metafisica giunge a distinguere la natura e il modo
con cui si uniscono i princìpi dai quali risulta la complessa unità della persona umana.”64
64
R. JOLIVET, Trattato di filosofia, vol. 3 (Psicologia), Morcelliana, Brescia, 1958, nos. 554-560, 564-565.
47