Alto I Computer System, Xerox (PARC) 1973

The Xerox Alto was an early personal computer created by Xerox PARC’s Palo Alto
Research Center and released in March of 1973. Though it was not a commercial product,
roughly two thousand units were sold and used at Xerox and at universities during the time after
its release. It was also a crucial influencer of commercial personal computers following it, such
as the Apple Macintosh, due to its development of the mouse-driven graphical user interface
(GUI). However, partially because of its expensive price tag, it was never ultimately put on sale
commercially. In costs alone, the first one cost $12,000 to produce, and price estimates for the
completed product are up to $40,000.
The Alto differed from personal computers created after it because it was nor based on a
microprocessor. It had a speed of 0.3MIPS, memory size of 64-256K, and a semiconductor (Si-
gate NMOS) memory type. Its memory width was 16-bit.
The graphical user interface and mouse of the Alto were both key developments in the
history of personal computing. The Alto had a graphics-based display and mouse, which allowed
users to select and move around windows and icons on the display. This new type of graphical
display was unlike anything that had been seen up to that time. It also led the way for elements of
word processing that we still use to this day, such WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get)
printing and the cut-and-paste editing standard. In addition, users were now able to interact with
the computer via a graphical display instead of text commands, which were more difficult to use
and easier to mess up. Though the monitor seems limited by today’s standards – 600 by 800
pixel and monochrome – it provided users with a rich array of fonts and layouts for the time.

Sources: Computer History Museum, Mountain View, CA; “Xerox Alto,” Wikipedia.
Altair 8800, MITS 1975

The MITS Altair 8800 was a “homebrew” computer that allowed other aspiring
programmers to put together the computer using a microcomputer kit. In the mid-1970s, it was
the leading homebrew computer, especially accessible because it cost under $500. It appeared on
the cover of a copy of Popular Electronics in 1975 for computer and electronic hobbyists, after
which its popularity (and sales) grew. Though MITS expected sales to be in the hundreds, they
were surprisingly in the thousands by the end of the first month. It is the first machine that led to
the start of the growing interest in microcomputers. MITS sold both kits for hobbyists to put
together and fully assembled computers for individuals and businesses.
What the Altair was especially known for was being the computer that inspired Bill Gates
and Paul Allen to write a BASIC interpreter program for it. This language, ultimately known as
Altair BASIC, was Microsoft’s first product, back when Microsoft was just a small team
working out of makeshift offices the founders also occasionally slept in. When Gates and Allen
first offered to sell the program to MITS, they had not yet designed their BASIC program; only
when they received a letter of interest from MITS did they begin working on it.
The computer itself was break-even for MITS, but by selling additional boards on top of
the set, they were able to make a profit. The kit itself came with a 1024 memory board with 256
bytes. In order to use the BASIC language designed by Gates and Allen, the Altair also required
at least one4096 memory board as well as an interface board.
Sources:
Computer History Museum, Mountain View, CA; “Altair 8800,” Wikipedia.
Apple-1, Apple 1976

The Apple-1 was the first “product” of Apple, known then as Apple Computer Company,
which Steve Wozniak presented to the Homebrew Computer Club in the Silicon Valley in 1976.
It consisted of a single-board computer with 4K of RAM. The appeal of the Apple-1 was that it
came as a fully assembled board, instead of requiring people to assemble their own via a kit.
However, it could not function as a standalone system, and users needed to provide their own
power supply, keyboard, storage system, and display. Typically a cheap television set could be
used for the display monitor. Using a cassette-based BASIC programming language allowed
users to interact more easily with the computer itself, once the additional pieces were appended
to the system. It had a speed of 1 MHz and used a semiconductor memory type. Its memory
width was 8-bit.
Though Wozniak was the one who designed and built the Apple-1 itself, Steve Jobs
ultimately convinced him to market and sell it as a product to computer enthusiasts. Wozniak
began working on the design for the Apple-1 after attending the first meeting of the Homebrew
Club in 1975. His initial costs were $1000 for the design and $20 per computer in parts. Though
he expected to sell them at only $40 each to make up his costs, Jobs was able to sell 50 units to a
computer store called the Byte Shop at $500 each, an order which they took 10 days to fulfill.
The final price, $666.66, was because of Wozniak’s like for repeating digits and because it
represented a markup of one-third on the wholesale price, $500.

Sources: Computer History Museum, Mountain View, CA; “Apple I,” Wikipedia.
IBM PC, IBM 1981

The IBM Personal Computer is the original model of IBM’s PC hardware platform and
released in 1981. Because it combined hardware and software from other companies as well and
IBM published the details of its design, “clones” of the PC also appeared. The PC had a speed of
4.77 MHz, memory size of 16K, and memory width of 16-bit. It used a semiconductor memory
type and cost $1565.
The PC was IBM’s first personal computer to come to market; though other PCs had
been around longer, some as long as almost 10 years, it was IBM’s model that opened the market
and paved the way for the PC to be commonly used in businesses and to become a household
good down the line. This was due to IBM’s well-established customer base and brand
recognition, especially among businesses. After the launch of the PC, many businesses bought
the PC to be used in the workplace, which led to the development of software for its platform.
These programs included spreadsheet and word processing software, created in response to the
needs of corporate clients, and the software helped establish further sales for IBM.
It took one year for the PC to be developed at IBM. There were many similarities found
between Apple and IBM’s products, partially because many members of the team also owned
Apple IIs. These similarities included designing the computer with an open architecture and
allowing users to build expansion slot peripherals.
Sources: Computer History Museum, Mountain View, CA; “IBM Personal Computer,
Wikipedia.

Macintosh, Apple 1984

The Macintosh was designed in response to the failure of Apple’s first GUI-based
personal computer, the Lisa. It was a small personal computer with a graphical desktop like the
Alto’s. Its name was inspired by Apple engineer Jef Raskin, who named it after his favorite type
of apple, McIntosh, but respelled for legal reasons. It became a popular machine with graphic
designers, artists, and educators especially, due to this improved graphical interface. The Mac
had a speed of 8MHz, memory size of 128K, and memory width of 16-bit. It used a
semiconductor memory type and cost $2495.
Though Jobs’ attention initially was focused on the Lisa, the development of the Mac
ultimately became his central focus due to the improvements in design and speed made by the
team. It combined the computing power of the Lisa with the low production cost of the Apple II.
Not only did it incorporate Lisa’s use of the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, but it also had a
faster speed and was able to support a 384 by 256 pixel display. The design of the Macintosh
was influenced by a visit that Jobs made to Xerox PARC, where he observed their user interfaces
and technology such as the mouse. Ultimately when the Mac was released, it used a variety of
marketing techniques, including event marketing, and was launched with a now-famous ad that
ran during the 1984 Superbowl and contrasted the Mac with the ruling behemoth of IBM.
Though it was popular, it was dismissed by many developers because it required redesigning
existing applications due to the design of its system around the GUI.
Sources: Computer History Museum, Mountain View, CA; “Macintosh, Wikipedia.