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CHAPTER 9 MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY

9.1 Manufacture of sulphuric acid

(A) Uses of sulphuric acid

~ major use : in the production of chemical fertilisers

Figure 1 : Uses of sulphuric acid

(B) Manufacture of sulphuric acid in industry

~ through Contact process

~ raw materials use in this process are sulphur, oxygen and water

Figure 2 : Manufacture of sulphuric acid

~ there are three stages in this process

(i) stage 1: Combustion of sulphur  sulphur dioxide gas

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Chemical equation : S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)

(ii) stage 2: Oxidation of sulphur dioxide gas  sulphur trioxide gas

Conditions :
* Temperature : 450oC – 550oC
* Pressure : 1 atmosphere
* Catalyst : Vanadium (V) oxide

Chemical equation : 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)

(iii) stage 3: Absorption of sulphuric acid  liquid concentrated sulphuric

acid

~ sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form oleum,

H2S2O7

Chemical equation : SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l)  H2S2O7 (l)

~ which is then diluted with water to produce liquid concentrated

sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Chemical equation : H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l)  2H2SO4 (aq)

~ sulphur trioxide is not directly dissolved in water to form sulphuric acid

because the heat evolved in the reaction will vaporize the

liquid sulphuric acid to a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist,

it is corrosive, pollutes the air and difficult to condense.

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Example 1
An important use of sulphuric acid is in the production of fertilizers.

Name the fertilizers produced and write the equations involved when sulphuric
acid reacts with : (i) ammonia (ii) potassium hydroxide

Solution

Example 2
Barium sulphate, BaSO4 , is a white pigment in paint. Write an equation for
the formation of barium sulphate from the reaction between sulphuric acid and
barium hydroxide.
Solution

(C) Environmental pollution by sulphur dioxide

1 Sulphur dioxide can cause environmental pollution. It is produced from

(a) the burning of sulphur in the Contact process / factories

(b) the extraction of metals from their sulphide ores

(c) the burning of fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, coal)

(d) volcanic eruptions

2 Sulphur dioxide is a poisonous and acidic gas. Inhaling  coughing,

chest pain, shortness of breath, bronchitis and lung diseases.

3 When sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater, it forms sulphurous acid

and sulphuric acid, H2SO4  acid rain

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Chemical equation : SO2 (g) + H2O (l)  H2SO3 (aq)

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) +2 H2O (l)  2H2SO4 (aq)

4 Acid rain produced may lead to :

(i) corrosion of the buildings and statues made of limestone

Chemical equation :

CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq)  CaSO4 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

(ii) corrosion of the metallic structures

Chemical equation : Fe(s) + H2SO4 (aq)  FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

(iii) ( decreases , increases ) the pH of the soil  become acidic and

leaches out the minerals and nutrients in the land. Plants die of
malnutrition and diseases  destroying the trees in forests.

(iv) ( reduces , increases ) the acidity of water in lakes and rivers.

Aquatic organisms cannot survive in acidic water  causing the
death of aquatic organisms.

5 Emission of sulphur dioxide gas during the contact process can be

removed by reacting the gas with

(a) ammonia or ammonium hydroxide  ammonium sulphate (used as

fertiliser)

(b) calcium hydroxide or calcium carbonate  calcium sulphate

(used in the manufacture of plaster and cement)

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Test 1

1 The following equation shows the oxidation of sulphur dioxide gas in the
Contact process.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)
Which of the following substances is used to speed up the reaction ?
A iron B zinc C nickel (II) oxide D vanadium (V) oxide

2 Which of the following pairs is correct about the Contact process ?

Temperature, oC Pressure, atm

A 450 - 550 1
B 450 - 550 200
C 100 - 200 1
D 100 - 200 200

3 Why is sulphur trioxide gas not dissolved in water to produce sulphuric

acid in industry ?
A No reaction occurs
B Explosion will occur
C To prevent the formation of acid rain
D Sulphuric acid produced is difficult to condense

4 Which of the following substances can be used to reduce the emission of

sulphur dioxide into the air ?
I Iron II Water III Ammonium hydroxide IV Calcium carbonate

A I, III B I, II C II, IV D III, IV

9.2 Manufacture of ammonia and its salts

(A) Uses of ammonia

(i) ammonia is a valuable source of nitrogen  essential for the

growth of plants

(ii) major use of ammonia  in the production of nitrogenous

fertilizers , i.e ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4 , ammonium nitrate,

NH4NO3 , ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4 and urea, CO(NH2)2 .

(iii) the liquid form  used as cooling agent (refrigerant) in refrigerators

(iv) as a raw material for the manufacture of nitric acid in the Ostwald
process

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(v) to be converted into nitric acid  making explosive

(vi) as an alkali to prevent the coagulation of latex  stored latex in

liquid form

(vii) to produce ammonium chloride  as electrolyte in dry cell

(viii) as a cleaning agent to remove grease

(ix) used in the manufacture of synthetic fibre such as nylon

Figure 3 : Uses of ammonia

(B) Properties of ammonia

~ Physical properties : have pungent smell, soluble in water,

colourless gas, less dense than air, alkaline gas

~ chemical properties :

(i) react with hydrogen chloride gas to form white fumes of ammonium
chloride

Chemical equation : NH3 (g) + HCl (g)  NH4Cl (g)

(ii) react with dilute acid in neutralisation  salt

Chemical equation : 2NH3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)  (NH4)2SO4 (aq)

Chemical equation : NH3 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)  NH4NO3 (aq)

(iii) hydroxide ions from the aqueous solution of ammonia react with
metals ions to form precipitate of metal hydroxides

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Chemical equation : NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)  Mg(OH)2 (s)

(iv) Burns in oxygen, but not in the air

Chemical equation : 4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) ⇌ 4NO (g) + 6H2O (l)

(C) Manufacture of ammonia in industry

~ through Haber process

~ raw materials : hydrogen and nitrogen gas
~ nitrogen gas  the fractional distillation of liquid air
~ Hydrogen gas  natural gas

(a) Methane ( in natural gas ) reacts with steam in the presence of nickel as
catalyst at 700oC

Chemical equation : CH4 (g) + H2O (g)  CO (g) + 3H2 (g)

(b) carbon monoxide in the mixture is then oxidized to carbon dioxide

using steam and iron as catalyst.

Chemical equation : CO (g) + H2O (g)  CO2 (g) + H2 (g)

Figure 4 : Manufacture of ammonia

~ the ratio of 1 mole of nitrogen gas to 3 mole of hydrogen gas is passed

through a reactor

~ the mixture is compressed to a high pressure of 200 atmospheres at

450 - 550 oC and catalyst by iron to speed up the reaction.

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Chemical equation : N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)

~ ammonium fertilizers contain ammonium ions, NH4+  converted into
nitrate ions

~ the effectiveness of ammonium fertilizers  determined by the percentage

of nitrogen by weight  higher percentage of nitrogen  more effective

Percentage of nitrogen by weight

= ______mass of nitrogen__________ x 100%
Relative molecular mass of fertiliser

Example 1
Calculate the percentage of nitrogen by weight in ammonium sulphate,
(NH4)2SO4 . [Relative atomic mass : N,14; H,1; S,32,O;16]

Solution

Manufacture of nitric acid, HNO3 (Ostwald process)

~ three stages in this process :

(i) stage 1: Oxidation of ammonia  nitrogen monoxide and water

Conditions : Temperature : 850oC

Pressure : 2-5 atmosphere
Catalyst : platinum, Pt

Chemical equation : 4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) ⇌ 4NO (g) + 6H2O (l)

(ii) stage 2 : Nitrogen monoxide reacts with excess oxygen to form nitrogen
dioxide
Chemical equation : 2NO (g) + O2 (g)  2NO2 (g)

(iii) stage 3 : Nitrogen dioxide reacts with oxygen and water to form nitric
acid

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Chemical equation : 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)  4HNO3 (aq)

Overall reaction : NH3 (g) + 2O2 (g)  HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

Test 2

.19%1 Ammonia is used to manufacture

I paints II fertilizers III detergents IV explosive substances
A I,II B I,III C II,III D II,IV

2 Which of the following is correct about the properties of ammonia gas ?

A Denser than air
B Turns blue litmus paper red
C Reacts with nitric acid to form white fumes
D Dissolves in sulphuric acid to form a neutral product

3 Some metal ions react with hydroxide ions to form metal hydroxide
precipitates.

Mn+ (aq) + nOH- (aq)  M(OH)n (s)

Which of the following metal ions will form a white precipitate that is
soluble in excess ammonia solution ?
A Al3+ B Ca2+ C Pb2+ D Zn2+

4 The following shows the conditions used in process Z.

200 atm, 450 - 550 oC and iron as catalyst

What is process Z ?
A Haber process C Ostwald process
B Contact process D Saponification process

5 Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in ammonium phosphate fertilizer.

[Relative atomic mass : H, 1; N, 14; O, 16; P, 31]
A 12.40% B 18.66% C 21.21% D 28

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9.3 Alloys

(A) Arrangement of atoms in pure metals

~ pure metals have high densities, high melting and boiling

points, good conductors of heat and electricity, shiny,

malleable and ductile.

~ they have ( same , different ) type of atoms and are ( same , different )
size

~ In the solid state, atoms are closely packed in an orderly manner 

gives ductile (can be pulled into wire) and malleable (can be hammered
into different shapes without cracking) properties.

Figure 5 : Ductility of metals

Figure 6 : malleability of metals

(B) Alloys

~ alloy  a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed

composition in which the major component is a ( metal , non-metal )
~ pure metals are weak, soft and easily corroded  improved  make them

into alloy

~ process of mixing atoms of impurities with atoms of pure metal by melting

 alloying
~ Aim of alloying :

(a) to improve the appearance of a pure metal

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(b) to improve the strength and hardness of a pure metal

(c) to increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal

(i) Arrangement of atoms in alloys

~ alloy  contain mixtures of metals or mixture of metals and non-metals

~ foreign atoms added  can be larger or smaller than the atoms of pure
metal

Figure 7 : Arrangement of atoms in alloys

~ the presence of foreign atoms of different sizes disturb the orderly

arrangement of metal atoms  reduces the layers of atoms from
sliding over one another  alloy is stronger and harder than its pure
metal

(ii) Composition, properties and uses of alloys

~ Refer (Reference 1)

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Test 3

1 The diagram below shows the arrangement of atoms in a pure metal.

This arrangement gives the metal its

A conductivity B ductility C electropositivity D malleability
2 Which of the following is used to construct bridges, buildings and railway
tracks ?
A Brass B Steel C Magnalium D Stainless steel

3 The diagram below shows the arrangement of atoms in alloy R.

What is alloy R ?
A Duralumin B Pewter C Steel D Stainless steel

4 Why is magnalium suitable to make balances ?

A It is light and hard C It is chemically inert
B It has a shiny surface D It can withstand heat

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9.4 Synthetic Polymers and their uses

(i) Polymers

~ Polymers  long-chain molecules made up of many identical

repeating units => monomers  joint together by covalent bonds

~ Process of joining together the monomers  polymerisation

~ Polymers are divided into natural polymers and synthetic polymers

(ii) Natural polymers

~ found in living things. Reference 2 shows the examples of natural polymers

and their monomers.

(iii) Synthetic polymers

~ man-made polymers, used to make plastics, fibres, resins and synthetic

rubbers

~ the monomers usually obtained from petroleum, coal and natural gas
~ Two types of polymerization : addition and condensation polymerisation

(a) Addition polymerisation

~ unsaturated monomers that contain carbon-carbon double bonds are
joined together through addition polymerisation
~ In the addition reaction, one molecule adds to another, forming single
covalent bonds

~ Reference 3 shows the examples of synthetic polymers, their monomers

and the uses in daily life

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~ Steps of drawing the structural formula of a polymer with a given

monomer :
(i)

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(ii)

~ Steps of drawing the structural formula of a monomer with a given

polymer :
(i)

(ii)

(b) Condensation polymerisation

~ Monomers without carbon-carbon double bonds are joined together

through condensation polymerisation

~ fibers such as polyamides (nylon) and polyesters (terylene)  produced

through condensation polymerisation

~ small molecules such as water molecule or ammonia molecule are

eliminated

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~ Steps of drawing the structural formula of nylon and terylene :

(iv) Synthetic polymers in daily life

~ Reference 4
~ There are some drawbacks in using synthetic polymers :
(a) non-biodegradable
(b) raw materials from petroleum  depleting the supply of non-renewable
source
(c) burning of synthetic polymers releases pollutants and toxic gases such
as carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride gas, sulphur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen can cause green house effect and acid rain
(d) improper disposal destroys the beauty of nature, causes flash floods and
endangers the wildlife

~ To reduce the consumption of limited petroleum reserves and

environmental pollution, we should
(a) reduce, reuse and recycle the non-biodegradable synthetic polymers
(b) use the biodegradable plastics such as polylactide acid (PLA) plastic and
poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) plastic
(c) educate users to the right disposal methods

Test 4

1 Process of joining monomers together to form a long-chain molecule is

called
A addition B hydrogenation C polymerization D substitution

2 The following shows the structural formula of a monomer.

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What is the name of the polymer produced ?

A Cellulose B Protein C Carbohydrate D Natural rubber

3 Which of the following can undergo addition polymerization ?

4 The diagram below shows the structural formula of polymer Q.

Which of the following is the name of polymer Q ?

A Ethane B Ethene C Chloroethane D Chloroethene

5 Which of the following pairs is correct ?

Polymer Use
A Polyethene Plastic bag
B Perspex Soft drink container
C Terylene Lubricant
D Polypropene Illuminated sign

9.5 The Uses of Glass and Ceramics

(i) Glass

~ major component : silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2

~ heat the sand to 1 700oC  molten liquid  cooled quickly  solidify 

glass

~ main characteristics of glass :

(a) hard but brittle (b) chemically inert (c) withstand compression
(d) transparent and impermeable (non-porous)
(e) good heat and electrical insulators

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Types, composition, properties and use of glass

~ There are four types of glass:

(a) soda-lime glass (soft glass) - the most common and least expensive glass
(b) lead crystal glass (soft glass)- high refractive index
(c) borosilicate glass (hard glass) – resistant to chemical
(d) fused glass (hardest glass) - the simplest and most expensive glass

~ The production methods, compositions, properties and uses of various

types of glass (Reference 5)

~ special glasses such as photochromic glass, conducting glass and bullet-

resistant glass :

(a) silver chloride in photochromic glass  darkens the glass when exposed
to sunlight and protects the eyes from ultraviolet radiation

(b) indium tin oxide (ITO) in conducting glass  able to conduct electricity 
to make transparent conductive coatings for liquid crystal display (LCD),
flat panel display and plasma display.

(c) bullet-resistant glass  using strong but transparent material such as

polycarbonate thermoplastic sandwiched between layer of regular glass.
The plastic provides impact resistance while the glass flattens the bullet 
prevent penetration.

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(ii) Ceramics

~ made from clay such as kaolin, a hydrated aluminosilicate,

Al2O3 .2SiO2 .2H2O  contain aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide with
small quantity of sand and feldspar

~ The main characteristics of ceramic :

(a) extremely hard but brittle
(b) chemically inert
(c) opaque and porous
(d) withstand compression
(e) good heat and electrical insulators

~ properties and uses of ceramics (Reference 6)

~ Special ceramics such as boron nitride  excellent electrical resistance

 to make microwave tubes and low friction seals

~ silicon nitride ceramic  good shock resistance  to make skateboard

bearings and ignition source for domestic gas appliances

~ carbon nitride  to build parts of car engines such as valves

~ perovskites, YBa2Cu3O7  ceramic superconductor  conduct electricity

Test 5

1 Glass Z has high density and high refractive index. Glass Z can be
A fused glass B soda-lime glass
B lead crystal glass D borosilicate glass

2 Which of the following are the properties of glass ?

I transparent
II porous
III hard and brittle
IV good heat and electrical conductors
A I, II B I, III C II, III D II, IV
3 Which of the following is the use of ceramic ?
A To make conducting wire C Manufacture of spark plug
B To make heat conductor D Manufacture of house gate

4 Which of the following are categorized as ceramic ?

I Tile II Cement III Perspex IV Nylon
A I, II B I, III C II, III D II, IV

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9.6 The Uses of Composite Materials

~ mixture of two or more different substances such as metals, non-metals,

alloys, glasses, ceramics and polymers

~ the resulting material has properties that are much more superior to those
of the original components

(A) reinforced concrete

~ concrete  consists of a mixture of stones, chips and sand bound

together by cement

~ concrete is strong but brittle and weak in tension. Steel has good tensile
strength

~ when concrete is reinforced with steel bars, steel wires or rods  very
tough material with more tensile strength  reinforced concrete 
cheap and can be moulded into any shape, stronger and able to withstand
tensile forces  used in high-rise buildings, bridges, oil platforms and
highway

~ diagram below show the formation of reinforced concrete.

(B) Superconductor

~ capable to conduct electricity without any electrical resistance when it is

cooled to an extremely low temperature  mercury but very expensive
to maintain

~ Perovskites  has zero resistance at 95 K

~ superconductors  bullet trains (maglev train), magnetic resonance

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imaging (MRI), computer chips, generators and transformers

(C) Fibre optic

~ consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surrounded by a

glass cladding

~ has high transmission capacity and chemical stability , but low

susceptibility to interference and material costs

~ used in video cameras and local area networks for computers, instruments
for examining internal parts of the body or manufactured structural
products and to transmit data, voice and image in a digital format

(D) Fibre glass

~ has high tensile strength, low density, easily coloured, moulded and
shaped, made into thin layers

~ used in water storage tanks, badminton rackets, small boats and helmets.

(E) Photochromic glass

~ silver chloride and copper (I) chloride crystals are embedded in glass

~ when photochromic glass is exposed to light, the chloride ions are oxidized
to produce chlorine atom , Cl-  Cl + e

~ the electrons are transferred to silver ions  reduced to silver atom,

Ag+ + e  Ag

silver atoms cluster together and block the transmittance of light  glass turns
dark

~ when the glass is removed from light, chlorine atoms are reduced by
copper (I) ions to form chloride ions and copper (II) ions

Cl + Cu+  Cl- + Cu2+

~ the copper (II) ions are further reduced by silver atoms to form silver ions

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and copper (I) ions

Cu2+ + Ag  Cu+ + Ag+

The glass become transparent again when silver atoms are converted back to
silver ions

~ used in optical lenses, car windshields, lenses in cameras, optical switches

and light intensity meters

Test 6

1 Composite material is a mixture of

I glass II metal III alloy IV wood
A I, II B I, III C I, II, III D II, III, IV

2 Which of the following is not a composite material ?

A Duralumin C Reinforced concrete
B Photochromic glass D Bullet-resistant glass

3 Which of the following darkens the photochromic glass when exposed to

sunlight ?
A copper (I) ion C silver atom
B chloride ion D copper atom
4 Composite M is used to make helmets because it is hard, strong, has low
density and high tensile strength. What is composite M ?
A Fibre glass B Fibre optic C Boron nitride D Silicon nitride

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