International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment (2013) 2, 131–142

Gulf Organisation for Research and Development

International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment

ScienceDirect
www.sciencedirect.com

Original Article/Research

Mechanical performance and durability of treated palm fiber

reinforced mortars
Nesibe Gozde Ozerkan a, Bappy Ahsan a, Said Mansour b, Srinath R. Iyengar c,⇑
a
Center for Advanced Materials, Qatar University, Qatar
b
Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Qatar
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University at Qatar, Qatar

Received 10 November 2013; accepted 18 April 2014

Abstract

The performance of cement mortar reinforced with varying percentages of treated bundled date palm fibers is investigated to appraise
their feasibility for structural and non-structural applications. The study first entailed the evaluation of two different alkali pre-treat-
ments at varying concentrations by subjecting treated and untreated bundled fibers to tensile testing. The suitable pre-treatment was then
adopted while casting cement mortar mixes. The physical properties of fresh mortar was studied through setting times and, for mortar
mixes cured up to 28 days, through parameters such as drying shrinkage and water absorption. The unconfined compressive strengths,
split tensile strengths as well as the flexural strengths of the cured mortar mixes at two different ages were undertaken to assess their
mechanical properties; while the durability was gauged based on their sulfate resistance for up to a period of four months.
Observed stress–strain behavior under tension led to the choice of 0.173% Ca(OH)2 as the preferred pre-treatment for the bundled
fibers used in the mortar mixes. This was further supported by the microstructural examination on the hardened mortars which, revealed
that the integrity of treated fibers remained intact within the cement matrix without hindering the hydration processes. Results also indi-
cated that inclusion of fibers improves the flexural strengths as well as the sulfate resistance of the mortar mixes. However, the cylinder
and cube compressive strengths decreased with the increase in treated fiber inclusion.
Although, the work reported in this paper was carried out on cement mortars, conclusions are expected to be relevant to fiber
reinforced concrete employing treated natural fibers.
Ó 2014 The Gulf Organisation for Research and Development. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Keywords: Fiber reinforced mortar; Durability; Date palm fibers; Mortars (materials); Mechanical performance

1. Introduction
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +974 44230497; fax: +974 44230011.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N.G. Ozerkan), ahsan@ Concrete and mortars made with Portland cement are
qu.edu.qa (B. Ahsan), [email protected] (S. Mansour), srinath. known to be easy to form and relatively strong in compres-
[email protected] (S.R. Iyengar). sion but weak in tension, tend to be brittle and have poor
Peer review under responsibility of The Gulf Organization for Research impact strength and toughness. The weakness in tension
and Development. could be overcome by the use of conventional rod
reinforcement and to some extent by the inclusion of a
sufficient volume of certain fibers (Mehta and Monterio,
Production and hosting by Elsevier 1997; Neville and Brooks, 1990; Price, 1951).

2212-6090 Ó 2014 The Gulf Organisation for Research and Development. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2014.04.002
132 N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142

In concrete, fibers can be introduced as primary or of various standards on cement-bonded particle boards
secondary reinforcement. Fibers work as primary rein- and have high levels of performance even in moist condi-
forcement in thin-sheet products in which conventional tions. Coconut fibers can also be used as reinforcement
reinforcing bars cannot be used and includes no coarse and to substitute sand in the development of composite
aggregate and a matrix with markedly higher cement con- reinforced coconut fiber. Moreover, increasing the content
tent than normal concrete. The fibers are used as primary of coconut fiber increased the modulus of rupture and
reinforcement to increase both the strength and toughness compressive strength of the composites up to a certain opti-
of the composite. Fibers are also included in the matrix as mum composition. The composites manufactured with
the secondary reinforcement to control cracking induced short coconut fibers and ordinary Portland cement matrix
by humidity or temperature variations or to provide presented a significant reduction in toughness (Abdullah
post-failure integrity in the event of accidental overload et al., 2011; Filho et al., 2000). On the other hand, bamboo
or spalling (Filho et al., 1999; Bentur and Mindness, 2007). fiber is a satisfactory fiber for incorporation into the cement
Reinforcing cement matrices with various fibers have matrix, and does not vary greatly in flexural strength and
been reported to resist rapid propagation of micro cracking fracture toughness values (Coutts, 1995). It is also proved
under applied stress as well as the ability to withstand loads that the composites reinforced with sisal fibers are reliable
even after initial cracking, thereby improving toughness materials to be used in practice for the production of struc-
(Yurtseven, 2004). Furthermore, increase in the flexural tural elements to be used in rural and civil construction, and
strength of the fiber-cement composite up to 30% had been improvement in flexural strength and splitting tensile
observed; however, fiber inclusion reduces the workability strength was reported (Filho et al., 1999; Al Rawi and Al
of the fresh concrete and mortars (ACI Committee 544, Khafagy, 2009). Several other studies have been carried
2002). out on evaluating the behavior of cement composites with
Several fiber types in a variety of sizes, both manmade natural fibers from bamboo (Ghawami, 2005), sisal (Filho
and natural, have been incorporated into cement based et al., 2009), coir (Aggarwal, 1992), vegetable origin
matrices which composed of paste, mortar or concrete. (Agopyan et al., 2005; Toledo Filho et al., 2005), etc.
The choice of the most commercially significant types of Although natural fibers have some advantages like low
fibers varies from synthetic organic materials such as poly- density, less abrasiveness, and lower cost when compared
propylene or carbon, synthetic inorganics such as steel or to inorganic reinforcing fibers, they also have some disad-
glass, natural organics such as cellulose or sisal to natural vantages such as mechanical and thermal degradation
inorganic asbestos. Although, most of the developments during processing, poor wettability and high moisture
involve the use of ordinary Portland cement; the use of absorption. Moreover, it is known that the natural fibers
high alumina cement, cement with additives such as fly include high content of hydroxyl groups (OH) which causes
ash, slag, silica fume, etc. to improve the durability of the the hydrophilic behavior. The hydrophilic behavior of fiber
composite or to minimize chemical interactions between produces poor adhesion between fiber and matrix when the
the fibers and matrix have also been reported (Bentur natural fiber is faced to develop composite material. This
and Mindness, 2007). problem is mainly improved by several chemical treatment
Natural fibers; either unprocessed or processed, have methods suggested by researchers. These methods range
been used to reinforce cement based products in various from being saline treatment, alkali treatment and treatment
applications around the world. These include materials involving graft copolymerization of monomers. In order to
obtained from different parts of plants. For example, fibers modify and clean the surface of natural fiber, alkali treat-
of jute, ramie, flax, kenaf and hemp are obtained from the ment is one of the most common methods employed. Alkali
stem whereas sisal, banana and pineapple are obtained treatment has been reported to decrease the surface tension
from the leaf and cotton and kapok from the seed. Natural and to improve the interfacial adhesion between the fiber
fibers are composites with a cellular structure including dif- and matrix. Furthermore, in the literature, several possible
ferent proportions of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin explanations can be found discussing the positive effects of
which constitute different layers (Filho et al., 1999; John alkali treatment on the properties and structure of natural
et al., 2005). fibers (Tan, 1997; Bledzki and Gassan, 1999; Rong et al.,
Natural fibers have a high tensile strength and a low 2001; Aziz and Ansell, 2004; Weyenberg et al., 2006;
modulus of elasticity; however, they have a high variation Bachtiar et al., 2008; Kriker et al., 2008; Bachtiar et al.,
on their properties which could lead to unpredictable 2012; Nordin et al., 2013).
fiber-cement composite properties (Swamy, 1990; Li et al., Date palm trees are native to the middle-east region;
2006). There are several studies on the evaluation of the their fibers can be easily and abundantly found in countries
use of different types of natural fibers in concrete and mor- like the State of Qatar. The idea of reinforcing concrete
tar applications. Aggarwal (1995) suggested that in coun- with date palm fibers was studied by Kriker et al. (2005).
tries where bagasse is substantially available, it can be They had looked into the durability and mechanical
used for the production of cement-bonded building materi- properties of date palm surface fibers in hot-dry climate.
als, since the results obtained from the study showed that They concluded that Male date palm surface fibers
the developed composites meet most of the requirements (MDPSFs) had the most tensile strength compared to other
N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142 133

types of date palm fibers. As the volume of fiber is The mortar mixes used in this study have been detailed
increased in the concrete, more post-crack flexural strength in Table 1.The volume fraction is defined as the volume of
and toughness coefficient were observed but at the same fibers divided by the volume of the composite (fibers and
time a reduction in first crack and compressive strength concrete), and typically ranges from 0.1 to 3.0%. In this
was noted. Another research was launched by the same study, the aim was to vary the volume fractions of the
group to study the durability of male date palm surface bundled fibers in the mix beyond 2.0%. However, while
fibers immersed in alkaline solutions which resulted in con- attempting to do so, during sample preparation, excessive
cluding that the durability of MDPSF reinforced concrete separation of the mortar components was observed which
is poor (Rao and Rao, 2007). Also it was reported that pose difficulty in mix workability as well as in preparing
the male date palm surface fiber had an average tensile and obtaining monolithic compacted samples. Hence, it
strength and weak elastic modulus and the increase in per- was decided to limit the maximum fiber inclusion to 2.0%.
centage and length of the fiber in concrete has a beneficial
effect on the ductile behavior (Kriker et al., 2005). 2.2. Experimental methods
Hence, there is a need for further investigating proper-
ties of date palm fibers and understanding their contribu- 2.2.1. Fiber pretreatment
tion to the performance of cement–fiber composites. The bundled fibers were treated by immersing individu-
ally either in 2.0% of NaOH solution (based on recommen-
2. Materials and methodology dations from study performed by AlMaadeed et al., 2013)
or 0.173% Ca(OH)2 (as per room temperature solubility
The objective of this paper is to evaluate the perfor- range). Additionally, for direct comparison, 0.173% of
mance of cement mortar reinforced with varying NaOH solution was also considered. The fibers were
percentages of treated bundled date palm fibers so as to immersed in the solution for an hour and then placed in
appraise their feasibility for structural and non-structural an oven at 60 °C for 3 h to dry. 10 cm length of treated
applications. fibers was then cut to prepare them for the tensile test.

2.1. Materials 2.2.2. Fiber properties

Tensile test was performed using a Lloyd 1KN tensile
2.1.1. Fiber sampling and extraction tester to examine the elongation and maximum tensile load
Date palms are classified as male and female tree. While that can be applied to bundle palm leaf fibers (treated and
the female trees produce flowers, the male trees produce untreated) of 10 cm length whose thickness ranged between
pollen. In this study, the female date palm leaves were used. 0.7 mm and 4 mm. The procedure specified in ASTM-
According to the previous recent research (AlMaadeed D3822 (ASTM, 2007) was followed. A minimum of at least
et al., 2013), it is discovered that female leaves have better 10 replicates of treated and untreated fibers were tested.
tensile properties. The date palm leaves were obtained from The tensile tester was equipped with a linear variable differ-
the female trees which are planted at the women campus of ential transformer (LVDT) to measure the corresponding
Qatar University. The female trees bear the date fruits. The deformation/strains and Young’s stiffness modulus (E).
bundled fibers (thickness 0.7–4 mm) were peeled out by
means of scissors from date palm leaves and cutting them 2.2.3. Mortar and sample preparation
in lengths of 10 cm. Sand, cement, water and treated palm fiber bundles were
mixed to prepare the fresh mortar in a concrete mixer for
2.1.2. Fiber pretreatment four mixes with varying percentages (i.e. 0.0%, 0.5%,
The treatment of date palm fibers was performed by 1.0% and 2.0 wt.%) of treated date palm fiber bundles.
NaOH and Ca(OH)2 solution immersion. The NaOH pel- The mortar was placed in molds to prepare four kinds of
lets used to prepare the solution were manufactured by samples namely cylindrical, cubical, prism and shrinkage/
the BDH Laboratory Supplies, U.K. and were of general sulfate bar whose dimensions are provided in Table 2.
purpose reagent category. Extra pure Ca(OH)2 was used After 24 h, the samples were demolded, marked, dimen-
to prepare the second solution and was supplied by sions taken and immersed in large drums filled with tap
Riedel-de Haën, Germany. water at room temperature to cure.

2.1.3. Mortar preparation 2.2.4. Physical properties of the fresh and hardened mortars
Sand (or fine aggregate) procured from the Qatar Sand The setting time of the fresh mortar was recorded using
Treatment Plant, having 2.73 specific gravity, unit weight a Vicat’s apparatus in accordance to ASTM C807 (ASTM,
(i.e. the weight per unit volume of a material) of 1.65 kg/l 2008). The ASTM C1403 (ASTM, 2012b) method was fol-
and water absorption of 2.15% and ordinary Portland lowed to measure the water absorption of the hardened
Cement Type I supplied by Al Khalij Cement Company mortar after 7 and 28 day curing time. The sorptivity test
which conforms to BS EN 197-1 (BSI, 2000), were used method was based on the ASTM C1585 (ASTM, 2013a)
in this study. and was used to determine the rate of absorption of water
134 N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142

Table 1 2.2.7. Microstructure analyses

Details of the mortar mix designs. The microstructure and crystallinity (viz. scanning elec-
Mix No. w/ca Fiber inclusion Sand Cement tron microscopy and X-ray diffraction) of the various types
(wt.%) content (kg/m3) content (kg/m3) of cured mortars reinforced with treated date palm fibber
1 (control) 0.485 0.0 1197 400 bundles were studied. FEI Quanta 400 Scanning electron
2 0.515 0.5 1173 400 microscope was used to study the microstructure of fibers
3 0.540 1.0 1157 400
4 0.550 2.0 1127 400
and that of the hardened fiber reinforced mortars. SEM
a
of samples was employed by firstly being dried and then
w/c denotes water-to-cement-ratio.
mounted on an aluminum stub using a strong conductive
double-sided adhesive tape.
X-ray diffraction was used to identify the crystalline
Table 2 phases and the corresponding orientation of various com-
Dimensions of mortar samples.
pounds in the 28 day cured fiber reinforced mortars. Riga-
Sample type Dimensions (mm) ku Ultima IV 2-Theta-2-Theta type X-ray Diffractometer
Cube 50 50 50 fitted with a copper anode diffraction X-ray tube operating
Cylinder 100 200 (diameter length) at 40 kV and 40 mA was used in this study. The Peak
Shrinkage/Sulfate Bar 280 25 25
Prism 160 40 40
Search and Qualitative Analysis software provided by Rig-
aku using JCPDS-ICDD library (PDF-2 Release 2007) was
employed to identify the peaks of the raw XRD data.

by hydraulic cement concrete by measuring the mass 3. Results and discussions

increase of a disk specimen at 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 60, 180,
240, 300 and 360 min time intervals when one surface of 3.1. Fiber properties and choice of pretreatment
the specimen was submerged in 3–5 mm of water. The
water absorption and the sorptivity tests were performed Tensile strength (TS) was chosen as one of the parame-
in triplicates. The change in length of the mortar bar sam- ters to assess the performance of the treated and untreated
ples was measured to identify the drying shrinkage accord- fibers taking into account the maximum stress observed
ing to ASTM C 596 (ASTM, 2009). Length comparator along with Young’s modulus (E); which is a measure of
readings of the mortar samples were recorded on the 4, the tensile stiffness of the fibers under service loads and is
11, 18, and 25 days of sample curing. Shrinkage results experimentally determined from the slope of a stress–strain
were based on observations made on six replicate speci- curve.
mens per mix. In order to obtain meaningful comparison of the various
fibers, both the strength and stiffness parameters were
2.2.5. Mechanical testing considered together. Therefore, a straightforward scatter
Mechanical testing of hardened mortar samples after 7 plot in Fig. 1 indicates the relation between the TS and
and 28 days of curing tests was performed in triplicate. E. Results fell between the curves: 40.00*TS < E (MPa) <
Cylindrical and cubical samples were subjected to compres- 78.13*TS. Moreover, it is seen from the figure that the
sive loading based on ASTM C 39 and C 109 (ASTM, majority of the points fall close to a single center line, rep-
2012, 2012a), respectively; wherein the maximum load resented by E 56*TS. Also, it can be observed that the
and stress at failure were recorded. The flexural strength data for 0.173% Ca(OH)2 treated fibers display closer cor-
of the prism samples was determined according to ASTM relation with less variation compared to the aforesaid
C293 (ASTM, 2010) by the three point bending test. The trend.
load at failure was noted and accordingly, the flexure It can be inferred that the tensile strengths and stiffness
strength of the sample was then calculated. The tensile properties of the fibers are generally better for those treated
splitting test of the cylindrical samples was performed as with Ca(OH)2 than those treated with NaOH. Further-
per ASTM C496/C496M (ASTM, 2011) by applying com- more, Fig. 2 presents the stress–strain profiles for untreated
pressive force along the length of the specimen until failure. and treated bundled fibers using 0.173% Ca(OH)2, 0.173%
NaOH and 2.0% NaOH. It is evident that treated fibers
2.2.6. Durability studies experienced an overall loss in stress resistance when com-
The sulfate resistance of the mortar bars was determined pared to the untreated fibers.
according to ASTM C 1012 (ASTM, 2013a,b). The mortar It is also observed that the stress–strain curves for
bars were cured in lime water as per Section 9.2 of the 0.173% Ca(OH)2 treated fibers displayed lesser variation
aforesaid standard and then immersed in sodium sulfate and more consistency in comparison with the untreated
solution. The length changes were measured using length fibers and NaOH samples treated at different concentra-
comparators in the durations as provided in Section 9.4 tions. Furthermore, changing NaOH concentration from
of the standard. Six replicate specimens per mix were sub- 2.0% to 0.173%; do make slight favorable difference in
jected to durability testing for a period of up to 4 months. the tensile behavior of the bundled fibers.
N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142 135

Fig. 1. Tensile Strength (TS) versus Young’s Modulus (E) relation for fibers with and without various treatments.

Fig. 2. Stress–strain profiles for (a) untreated bundled fibers, (b) treated with 0.173% Ca(OH)2, (c) treated with 0.173% NaOH, and (d) treated with 2.0%
NaOH.

Hence, it was decided to pursue only 0.173% Ca(OH)2 Also, since cement hydration releases calcium hydroxide it
treatment for further investigations with mortar mixes, is unlikely that fibers already subjected to the aforesaid pre-
because the fibers displayed more or less uniform behavior. treatment will undergo further structural degradation.
136 N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142

Table 3
Setting time test results of mortar samples.
Mix No. Fiber Inclusion Average setting
(wt.%) times (h)
Initial Final
1(Control) 0.0 3:00 4:00
2 0.5 3:15 3:55
3 1.0 4:25 5:00
4 2.0 2:20 2:45

3.2. Physical properties of the fresh and hardened mortars

Fig. 4. Effect of palm fiber ratio on water absorption capacity of mortar
The physical properties of fresh and hardened mortars samples.
were evaluated by performing the setting time, drying
shrinkage, water absorption and sorptivity tests.
Table 3 shows the average setting times of the various
mortar mixes tested. The overall trend seems to suggest
that the setting times are prolonged with the increase in
the fiber content. Although, with 2.0% of fiber inclusion,
the setting time decreased; which could be due to water
being absorbed by the excess fibers per se thereby making
the mix set quickly.
Fig. 3 represents the results of drying shrinkage test for
each mortar mix prepared in the study. It can be seen that
all mixes containing varying palm fiber ratios show differ-
ent shrinkage behavior. The rate of increase in shrinkage
for all mortar, except the mixture including 2.0% palm Fig. 5. Effect of palm fiber ratio on sorptivity of mortar samples.
fiber, was high up to 18 days which is a result of curing pro-
cess, and after 18 days it can be noticed that palm fibers has the highest water absorption capacity and water
have effect in reducing shrinkage. Moreover, it can be absorption rate whereas the lowest water absorption capac-
observed from the figure that the mortars reinforced with ity and water absorption rate are given by the reference
2.0% palm fiber (i.e. mix 4), which is the maximum ratio sample. For the mortar mixes reinforced with 1.0% and
tested in this study, has the least shrinkage. This finding 2.0% palm fiber (i.e. mixes 3 and 4 respectively), it can be
is in agreement with findings of Singh et al. (2010) which observed that the water absorption rate and capacity
showed that a higher volume fraction, 4% of oil palm trunk decreased with increasing weight percent of palm fiber.
fiber reduces shrinkage for different core diameters. Although, these results differ from some published studies
Water absorption and sorptivity test results for mortar (Aggarwal, 1995; Abdullah et al., 2011; Abdullah et al.,
mixes are presented in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. The level 2013), they are consistent with those of other studies
of accuracy is shown in the figures by the error bars and (Ghavami, 1995; Filho et al., 2003; Bilba and Arsene,
was generally similar for all mixes with average and maxi- 2008; Savastano et al., 2001; Juárez et al., 2007; Parveen
mum values of 5.86% and 9.23% respectively. These figures et al., 2012) and suggest that alkali treatment applied on
indicate, that the mortar reinforced with 0.5% palm fiber natural fibers reduces the water absorption capacity by
removing hemicellulose and lignin or by imparting
hydrophobicity.

3.3. Mechanical testing

The mechanical test results including compressive

strength, flexural strength and split tensile strength of
mortars are presented in Figs. 6 and 7. For compression
test, two types of samples were tested viz. 5 5 5 cm
cubic samples and 10 20 cm cylindrical samples.
As seen in these figures, the compressive strength is
slightly increased in value with low fiber content as
compared with the control mix. High compaction between
Fig. 3. Effect of palm fiber ratio on drying shrinkage. the fibers and the cement matrix was likely achieved
N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142 137

Fig. 6. The effect of palm fiber ratio on the compressive strength for cube
mortar samples (the level of accuracy ranged between 3.53% and 15.22%). Fig. 9. The effect of palm fiber ratio on split tensile strength of mortar
samples after 7 and 28 days (the level of accuracy varied between 3.28%
and 17.86%).

Fig. 7. The effect of palm fiber ratio on the compressive strength of

cylinder mortar samples (the level of accuracy ranged between 3.53% and
15.22%).

leading to good homogeneity in mix with 0.5% fiber inclu-

sion, and this finding corroborates with the findings of
Ismail (2005) who showed that the compressive strength Fig. 10. Length change due to sulfate attack vs. immersion period.
and bulk density slightly improved with low fiber content
The average splitting tensile strength at 7 and 28 days is
in the range of 0.3–1.5%. However, if the fiber content
shown in Fig. 9. Trend similar to compressive strength
exceeds the value of 0.5%, the compressive strength of mor-
results was observed in this case. These results are consis-
tar samples decreases which also seems to be consistent
tent with those reported by other researchers which found
with other studies (Shimizu and Jorillo Jr., 1992;
that splitting tensile and flexural strength increases up to
Sorovshian and Khan, 1992; Islam et al., 2011; Awwad
1% of natural fiber volume (Ahmad and Ibrahim, 2010;
et al., 2011).
Dawood and Ramli, 2011; Ahmad and Nurazuwa, 2008).
Fig. 8 represents the results of flexural strength test
performed on 4 4 16 cm prism mortar samples. The
3.4. Durability studies
estimated error ranged between 1.80% and 11.72%. The
results corroborate the findings of compressive strength
Fig. 10 presents the results of resistance against sulfate
test results, i.e. flexural strength increases with lower fiber
attack of conventional control mortar and palm fiber rein-
content, 0.5% and 1% as compared with the control mix,
forced mortar samples in different ratios. The results are
and decreases with higher fiber content.
based on the average values obtained from six test speci-
mens per mix. The highest length change at 120 days of
immersion is observed in the control mix as well as mortar
reinforced with low percentage of palm fiber (i.e. 0.5%);
while, mixes with 1.0% and 2.0% appear to be more resil-
ient to length changes. Hence, it can be inferred that higher
inclusion of palm fibers within mortars offers better long
term durability performance and advantage in resisting sul-
fate attack.

3.5. Microstructure examinations

Fig. 8. The effect of palm fiber ratio on flexural strength of mortar Fig. 11 depicts some of the SEM micrographs obtained
samples. from this study which sheds some light on the tensile failure
138 N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142

Fig. 11. Typical SEM micrographs for representative untreated and treated bundled fibers at 500 magnification.

behavior of the treated and untreated bundled fibers. It can former samples; a behavior that is considered favorable
be observed that as the concentration of the treatment for mortar and concrete applications. This supports our
increased (i.e. 2.0% NaOH), the fibers became more brittle choice of 0.173% Ca(OH)2 treatment for mortar studies.
and this agrees with the tensile stress–strain profiles Typical SEM micrographs from the mortar mix cured
reported in the previous sections. Also, while comparing up to 28 days have been presented in Fig. 12. The abun-
the failure morphologies of the 0.173% Ca(OH)2 vs. the dance of fiber bundles is observed to increase progressively
0.173% NaOH, the contribution of the individual bundle with their inclusion in the mixes. Moreover, the treated
fibers in resisting the tension is more conspicuous in the fibers appear to remain intact within the cement matrix.
N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142 139

Fig. 12. Scanning electron micrographs of the 28-day mortar mixes (with and without fiber inclusion) at two different magnifications.

Also, the dense morphology of the CSH gel which is the ettringite (e) and gypsum (g) were observed, their relative
product of complete hydration of cement is visible in the intensities were significantly low again supporting the
images indicating that the hydration progressed normally above argument that the treated fibers remained within
despite the inclusion of the fibers in the mixes. the cement matrix without hindering the hydration pro-
X-ray diffraction of the mortar mixes cured up to cesses. Calcite (c) peaks were observed which can be attrib-
28 days has been compared in Fig. 13. Although some uted to carbonation while the conspicuous peaks of quartz
peaks of early hydration products such as portlandite (p), (q) can be attributed to the sand (i.e. fine aggregates)
140 N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142

Fig. 13. X-ray diffractograms for mortar mixes (with and without fiber inclusion) at 28 days.

Fig. 14. X-ray diffractograms for mortar mixes (with and without fiber inclusion) subjected to sulfate attack at 120 days.

present in the mortar mixes. Hence, although the preferen- effects on the mortar mixes as well as the influence of date
tial orientation/crystallinity was slightly different, no phase palm fibers on improving the durability.
change was observed between the mixes.
In contrast, X-ray diffraction of the mortar mixes sub- 4. Conclusions
jected to sulfate attack was carried out and compared in
Fig. 14. The samples collected for this analysis were The tensile performance of Portland cement mortars
obtained from mix specimens aged up to 120 days while and concrete had been reported to be enhanced via the
being immersed in sodium sulfate solution. In addition to inclusion of certain fibers in sufficient quantities. Natural
some of the phases reported earlier, presence of ettringite fibers such as those obtained are known to exhibit high ten-
(e) and strong peaks of gypsum (g) especially at 11.6° 2H sile strength and a low modulus of elasticity despite high
were conspicuous which, are typical products formed as a variation. Date palm trees are native to the middle-east
result of sodium sulfate attack in cement mortars (Prasad region; their fibers can be easily and abundantly found in
et al., 2006). Weak peaks of portlandite (p) were also pres- countries like the State of Qatar.
ent; which could imply the possibility of conversion of cal- The results in this paper are based on laboratory
cium hydroxide into the aforesaid sulfate products. experiments with four mortar mixes reinforced with vary-
However, the overall trend seems to suggest that with ing percentages of treated natural date palm fiber up to
increased fiber inclusion in the mixes, the intensities of 2.0%. For fiber inclusions greater than 2.0%, poor work-
products of sulfate attack became low thereby implying ability as well as difficulty in preparing and obtaining
that such mixes offer better resistance to sulfate attack. monolithic compacted samples due to excessive separation
This is in agreement with the previous observations that of mortar components was encountered. Hence, it is rec-
mixes 1.0% and 2.0% fiber inclusion are more resilient to ommended that such date palm fiber inclusion in mortars
length changes. to be limited to less than 2.0% by weight.
Nevertheless, it is recommended to investigate exposure Fibers treated with 0.173% Ca(OH)2 displayed better
times much longer than 120 days as well as higher sodium tensile strengths and stiffness properties than those treated
sulfate concentrations to better understand the deteriorating with NaOH and hence, the former was chosen as preferred
N.G. Ozerkan et al. / International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment 2 (2013) 131–142 141

pre-treatment for the bundled fibers used in the mortar Agopyan, V., Savastano Jr., H., John, V.M., Cincotto, M.A., 2005.
mixes. This was further supported by the microstructural Developments on vegetable fiber-cement based materials in São Paulo,
Brazil: an overview. Cement Concr. Compos. 27 (5), 527–536.
examination on the hardened mortars which, revealed that Ahmad, Z., Ibrahim, A., 2010. Drying shrinkage characteristics of
the integrity of treated fibers remained intact within the concrete reinforced with oil palm trunk fiber. Int. J. Eng. Sci. Technol.
cement matrix without hindering the hydration processes. 2 (5), 1441–1450.
The setting time of the mortar pastes was observed to be Ahmad, M.H., Nurazuwa, M.N., 2008. Mix design of palm oil fiber
prolonged with the increase in the fiber content. Water concrete. In: International Conference on Civil Engineering, Kuantan,
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cated that inclusion of fibers improves the flexural 58–73.
strengths. However, the cylinder and cube compressive AlMaadeed, M.A., Kahraman, R., Khanam, N.P., Al-Maadeed, S., 2013.
strengths decreased with the increase in treated fiber Characterization of untreated and treated male and female date palm
leaves. Mater. Des. 43, 526–531.
inclusion. ASTM, 2007. D3822 – Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of
Nevertheless, the results of the durability performance Single Textile Fibers. American Society for Testing and Materials,
of the studied mixes clearly suggest that incorporation of West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
1.0–2.0% of date palm fibers improved the resistance of ASTM, 2008. C807 Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of
the mortar against sulfate attack. Also, the drying shrink- Hydraulic Cement Mortar by Modified Vicat Needle. American
Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
age performance of the mixes improved with increased ASTM, 2009. C596 Standard Test Method for Drying Shrinkage of
fiber inclusion. Mortar Containing Hydraulic Cement. American Society for Testing
Based on this study, it can be concluded that inclusion and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
of treated palm fibers in cement mortars do offer flexural ASTM, 2010. C293 Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of
strengths and durability performance improvements. How- Concrete (Using Simple Beam With Center-Point Loading). American
Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
ever, these advantages come as a trade-off in the form of ASTM, 2011. C496/C496M Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile
initial loss in workability and subsequent poor compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. American Society for
strengths. Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
Although, the work reported in this paper was carried ASTM, 2012. C109/C109M Standard Test Method for Compressive
out on cement mortars, conclusions are expected to be Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube
Specimens). American Society for Testing and Materials, West
relevant to fiber reinforced concrete employing treated Conshohocken, PA, USA.
natural fibers. Yet, for practical purposes, it is recom- ASTM, 2012a. C39/C39M Standard Test Method for Compressive
mended to conduct thorough feasibility studies on the use Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. American Society for
of such natural fibers based on the actual application as Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
well as the desired final properties of the resulting cement ASTM, 2012b. C1403 Standard Test Method for Rate of Water
Absorption of Masonry Mortars. American Society for Testing and
composites. Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
ASTM, 2013a. C1585 Standard Test Method for Measurement of Rate of
Acknowledgements Absorption of Water by Hydraulic-Cement Concretes. American
Society for Testing Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
The joint initiative and financial backing of Qatar Uni- ASTM, 2013b. C1012/C1012M Standard Test Method for Length Change
of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution. American
versity (QU), Texas A&M University at Qatar (TAMUQ) Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
and Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute Awwad, E., Mabsout, M., Hamad, B., Khatib, H., 2011. Preliminary
(QEERI) for this collaborative study is duly acknowledged. studies on the use of natural fibers in sustainable concrete. Leb. Sci. J.
In particular, the authors are grateful to Dr. Eyad Masad 12 (1), 109–117.
(TAMUQ), Dr. Mariam Ali (QU) and Dr. Fahhad Alharbi Aziz, S.H., Ansell, M.P., 2004. The effect of alkalization and fibre
alignment on the mechanical and thermal properties of kenaf and
(QEERI) for their strong support. hemp bast fibre composites: part 1 – polyester resin matrix. Compos.
Sci. Technol. 64 (9), 1219–1230.
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