American

Cinematographer Manual
Tenth Edition

Copyright© 2013 by The ASC Press

Hollywood, California, USA

All Rights Reserved

ISBN 978-1-4675-6830-2

Cover design by Martha Winterhalter

Book design by Deeann j. Hoff
Production by Mark McDougal
Foreword

Y ou hold in your hands the result of five years of thought, debate, and
inspiration. When Stephen Burum, ASC, asked me to be the editor of this
10th edition of the venerable American Cinematographer Manual, the industry
was in the birth throes of transition; digital intermediates were the exception and
not the rule, we still used the term video rather than digital, and 4K as a viable
production and post format was far beyond our reach. All these changes and
many more came in rapid succession as we labored to bring this book to press.
No sooner had we completed an article when it had to be updated due to
sweeping advances in technology.
I am at heart a low-tech person. I like things simple. I questioned whether I
was even the right person to be taking this book on. But in a strange way, it
made sense. If I could design the manual in a manner that made sense to me,
then the information it contained would be accesible to a wide spectrum of
professional and prosumer image makers. Cinematographers today need to be
closet scientists in order to decipher the tools they have at their disposal, but all
those technologies need not be daunting; they can be fun to explore and exciting
to utilize. Now more than ever, the dreams of a whole new generation can be
made into real moving images. This edition contains some of the most
comprehensive information on digital that you will find anywhere, but it doesn’t
leave behind the essential building blocks of film technology, which is at its
highest level of development. Where we are now is really having the best of both
worlds.
When you embark on a journey to a new world, it’s best to take along a crew
who know the territory. The contributors to this edition have proven to be the
most helpful and dedicated group of scientists, artists and craftspeople one could
possibly hope to assemble. Thanks go to Jim Branch, Curtis Clark, ASC;
Richard Crudo, ASC; Dan Curry; Linwood G. Dunn, ASC; Richard Edlund,
ASC; Jonathan Erland; Jon Fauer, ASC; Ray Feeney; Tom Fraser; Taz
Goldstein; Colin Green and the Previsualization Society; Frieder Hochheim;
Michael Hofstein; Bill Hogan; John Hora, ASC; Rob Hummel; Steve Irwin;
Kent H. Jorgensen; Frank Kay; Glenn Kennel; Jon Kranhouse; Lou Levinson;
Andy Maltz and the AMPAS Science and Technology Council; Vincent Matta;
Tak Miyagishima; David Morin; M. David Mullen, ASC; Dennis Muren, ASC;
Iain A. Neil; Marty Ollstein; Josh Pines; Steven Poster, ASC; Sarah Priestnall;
David Reisner; Pete Romano, ASC; Andy Romanoff; Dr. Rod Ryan; Nic Sadler
and Chemical Wedding; Bill Taylor, ASC; Ira Tiffen and Evans Wetmore.
Special thanks go to Iain Stasukevich for his assistance in research, Lowell
Peterson, ASC, Jamie Anderson, ASC and King Greenspon for their
proofreading skills, and Deeann Hoff and Mark McDougal for handling the
layout of the book.
Extra special thanks go to Brett Grauman, general manager of the ASC, Patty
Armacost, events coordinator, Delphine Figueras, my assistant when I was
handling being ASC president while trying to finish this book, Saul Molina and
Alex Lopez for their expertise in marketing and events management, Owen
Roizman, ASC, who is the heart, soul and inspiration for the organization,
George Spiro Dibie, ASC, my mentor and friend, Martha Winterhalter, whose
knowledge of what we do and how to convey it to the world knows no bounds,
and Gina Goi, my wife, for her love and support during my many twilight
editing sessions.
Enjoy the Manual. Go make movies.

Michael Goi, ASC

Editor
Table of Contents

Foreword
Origins of the American Society of Cinematographers
Responsibilities of the Cinematographer
Summary of Formats
Tak Miyagishima
Basic Digtal Concepts
Marty Ollstein
A Primer for Evaluating Digital Motion Picture Cameras
Rob Hummel
Digtal Cinematography on a Budget
M. David Mullen, ASC
Putting the Image on Film
Rob Hummel
Comparisons of 35mm 1.85, Anamorphic and Super 35 Film Formats
Rob Hummel
Anamorphic Cinematography
John Hora, ASC
Exposure Meters
Jim Branch
Lenses
Iain A. Neil
Camera Filters
Ira Tiffen
Camera-Stabilizing Systems
Previsualization
Colin Green
3-D Stereoscopic Cinematography
Rob Hummel
Day-for-Night, Infrared and Ultraviolet Cinematography
Dr. Rod Ryan
Aerial Cinematography
Jon Kranhouse
Underwater Cinematography
Pete Romano, ASC
Arctic and Tropical Cinematography
Filming Television and Computer Displays
Bill Hogan and Steve Irwin
Digital Postproduction for Feature Films
Glenn Kennel and Sarah Priestnall
ASC Color Decision List
David Reisner and Josh Pines
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
Academy Color Encoding System
Curtis Clark, ASC and Andy Maltz
The Cinematographer and the Laboratory
Rob Hummel
Emulsion Testing
Steven Poster, ASC
Finding Your Own Printer Light
Richard Crudo, ASC
Adjusting Printer Lights to Match Sample Clips
Bill Taylor, ASC
Cinemagic of the Optical Printer
Linwood G. Dunn, ASC
Motion-Control Cinematography
Richard Edlund, ASC
Greenscreen and Bluescreen Photography
Bill Taylor, ASC and Petro Vlahos
Photographing Miniatures
Dennis Muren, ASC
In-Camera Compositing of Miniatures with Full-Scale
Live-Action Actors
Dan Curry
Light Sources, Luminaires and Lighting Filters
LED Lighting For Motion Picture Production
Frieder Hochheim
An Introduction to Digital Terminology
Marty Ollstein and Levie Isaacks, ASC
Safety On The Set
Kent H. Jorgensen and Vincent Matta
Preparation of Motion Picture Film Camera Equipment
Marty Ollstein, Michael Hofstein & Tom Fraser
Preparation of Digital Camera Equipment
Marty Ollstein
Camera-Support Systems
Andy Romanoff, Frank Kay and Kent H. Jorgensen
Camera Section
Jon Fauer, ASC and M. David Mullen, ASC
35mm
16mm
Super 8mm
65mm
VistaVision 35mm
Imax
Digital Cameras
Onboard recorders
Table Reference
Cine Lens List
Formulas
Evans Wetmore
Lenses
Extreme Close-Up
Filters
Mired Shift Values
Light Source
Color Balancing
Handheld Apps for Production
Taz Goldstein
SunPATH
Film Stocks
Incident Light
EI Reduction
T-Stop Compensation
Shutter Compensation
Shutter Speeds
Footage Tables
16mm/35mm–Frame Totalizers
Panning Speeds
Time/Speed Effects
Projection/Process
Quick Picture Monitor Set-Up
Lou Levinson
Lighting Fixture Intensity
Further Reference
Index


Origins of theAmerican Society of Cinematographers

F or over 93 years, the ASC has remained true to its ideals: loyalty, progress,
artistry. Reverence for the past and a commitment to the future have made a
potent and lasting combination in a world of shifting values and uncertain
motives.
The American Society of Cinematographers received its charter from the State
of California in January 1919 and is the oldest continuously operating motion
picture society in the world. Its declaredpurpose still resonates today: “to
advance the art of cinematography through artistry and technological progress,
to exchange ideas and to cement a closer relationship among cinematographers.”
The origins of the ASC lie in two clubs founded by cinematographers in 1913.
The Cinema Camera Club was started in New York City by three cameramen
from the Thomas A. Edison Studio: Phil Rosen, Frank Kugler and Lewis W.
Physioc. They decided to form a fraternity to establish professional standards,
encourage the manufacture of better equipment and seek recognition as creative
artists. Meanwhile, the similarly conceived Static Club was formed in Los
Angeles. When Rosen came to the West Coast five years later, he and Charles
Rosher combined the clubs. The ASC now has more than 340 active and
associate members.
The first ASC screen credit was given to charter member Joseph August when
he photographed a William S. Hart picture in 1919.
American Society of Cinematographers’ clubhouse.

The year after its charter, ASC began publishing American Cinematographer
magazine, which ever since has served as the club’s foremost means of
advancing the art.
The ASC has been very active in recent years in expressing concern about
choices for Advanced Television (ATV), ranging from the choice of aspect ratio
to pushing for the abandonment of interlace displays. At the invitation of the
House and Senate in Washington, D.C., members of the ASC have been asked to
inform and advise legislators on these issues.
Currently our technology committee has created a standard test (StEM) for
digital cinema. They are advising the industry on standards in both production
and postproduction for digital capture, manipulation and presentation.
The ASC is not a labor union or guild, but is an educational, cultural and
professional organization. Membership is possible by invitation and is extended
only to directors of photography with distinguished credits in the industry.
—George E. Turner
Responsibilities Of The Cinematographer

DESIGNING THE LOOK

F ilmmaking is a uniquely collaborative form of artistic expression with many

people playing interlocking roles. Cinematographers require artistic
sensibilities, exceptional organizational skills, the ability to master complex
technologies that are constantly evolving, and a special talent for collaborating
and communicating effectively.
The cinematographer’s initial and most important responsibility is telling the
story and the design of a “look” or visual style that faithfully reflects the
intentions the director, or the producer/show runner if the project happens to be
an episodic television series. It is mandatory for the cinematographer to
accomplish that primary goal within the limitations of the budget and schedule.
Other collaborators who are generally involved in this creative process with the
cinematographer and director include the production designer, art director, and
occasionally the visual effects supervisor and/or producer. The cinematographer
must also provide guidance in all technical aspects of production. They offer
advice regarding the choice of the most appropriate film or digital video format
for creating the “look” within the restraints of the budget. There are many
options today, ranging from anamorphic 35mm film to digital video. The
cinematographer is responsible for explaining those options and the creative and
financial trade-offs with precise clarity.
If the project is a feature film, the cinematographer can discuss the pros and
cons of traditional timing at an optical lab versus a digital intermediate (D.I.)
facility. If it is a film made for television, the cinematographer can address
upfront and long-term issues linked to finishing in high-definition or standard
definition formats. There are no textbook answers because technology is
constantly evolving and every situation is different. It is essential for the
cinematographer to have a thorough grasp of all technical options, including
choice of film and digital cameras, lenses, cranes, dollies and other platforms for
moving cameras, new emulsions, and such special techniques as aerial and
underwater photography, blue and green screen and other visual effects, as well
as the capabilities of equipment rental houses, labs and postproduction facilities.
PREPRODUCTION PLANNING
The cinematographer is frequently invited to watch rehearsals and offer
suggestions for “blocking” scenes to provide artful coverage in the most efficient
way. All aspects of production are planned at this stage, including how many
cameras are needed, how to move them and whether older or newer prime or
zoom lenses are best suited for each task. Cinematographers also frequently
provide input to directors while they are developing storyboards and shot lists.
They go on location scouts and make recommendations to the production
designer and art director for dressing and painting sets based on the vision for
the “look” of the film and requirements for lighting and camera movement. The
cinematographer also confers with the director and assistant director about the
best times and places to stage exterior scenes to take maximum advantage of
available light. They must also plan for such variables as the weather and tides if
they are going to shoot on the beach or at sea. The cinematographer consults
with the production designer regarding plans for dressing stages and the space
they need for rigging lights and moving cameras. This includes the use of wild
walls, removable sections of ceilings, placement, sizes and angles of windows,
practical lights, and the colors and textures of props and walls.
The cinematographer also organizes camera, electrical and grip crews, whose
talents and skills are the right match for the tasks at hand. They work with the
gaffer to plan placement and rigging lighting fixtures, including deciding
whether a dimmer control console is needed. The cinematographer also confers
with the key grip on issues related to camera movement, including what gear is
needed. He or she also consults with the production manager regarding
arrangements for rental of camera, lighting and grip equipment, and such
specialized tools as insert cars, on the days it will be needed.
During preproduction, the cinematographer must establish rapport with the
make-up, hair and costume designers, which frequently includes shooting tests
with the actors. Using information gained by this testing, the cinematographer
can then present a visual interpretation of the actor’s character, helping to define
and amplify the performance. They might also test new camera films, lenses and
specialized photochemical or digital intermediate processes (DI) to determine
the most efficient way to put the final touches on the visual design. In addition,
the cinematographer establishes communications with the timer at the film lab or
digital postproduction facility, which will provide dailies. They also make
arrangements and check out facilities for viewing dailies, meet stand-ins for
actors, and establish rapport and an open line of communications with the AD.
PRINCIPAL PHOTOGRAPHY
The cinematographer is responsible for executing the vision for the “look” of
the film, while helping to keep production on budget and on schedule. On many
feature films, the day begins with the cinematographer viewing dailies during
early morning hours at the lab to verify that there are no technical problems and
nuances in the “look” are working. They frequently watch rehearsals of the first
scene with the director, and suggest whether modifications in lighting or
coverage are needed. The cinematographer stays in touch with the production
manager and AD regarding any changes in the anticipated schedule caused by
unforeseen circumstances. In addition, the cinematographer approves the set up
of lighting by the gaffer. Many directors want lighting and camera coverage to
be “flexible” enough to give the actors the freedom to perform spontaneously.
Shots are often rehearsed with stand-ins. The cinematographer confers with
the director regarding adjustments in plans for lighting and coverage and
facilitates those changes with the grip, gaffer and lighting crews. They also work
with the standby painter for any last minute touch-ups needed on sets, assist the
AD in staging background action, and give the sound department the freedom to
put their booms where they are needed to record great audio of the dialogue. If
the director desires, a final walk-through or rehearsal is done with the actors.
When cameras are rolling, the cinematographer assures that there are no
technical glitches. They also provide an extra pair of eyes for the director on the
set. The cinematographer might suggest retaking a shot because something
didn’t quite look or feel right, while assuring the director they will find a way to
make up the time.
If a DI finish is planned, the cinematographer might be recording request that
digital still images of the scenes be taken, which he or she later manipulates with
a personal computer to give the dailies timer and colorist a visual reference for
the “look.”
The cinematographer, director and other key collaborators watch dailies
together to judge how effectively the “look” is working. At the end of each day,
the cinematographer discusses the first set up for the next morning with the AD
and possibly the director. He or she also informs the script supervisor if there are
special camera or lighting notes, makes sure that the camera, lighting and grip
crews have all the information needed to rig their gear, provides any special
notes and instructions required by the film lab and dailies timer, and works with
the production manager regarding the need to return or acquire equipment.
POSTPRODUCTION
The cinematographer’s role extends deep into postproduction with the goal of
assuring that the “look” that he or she rendered is what audiences see on cinema
and television screens. If possible, the cinematographer handles any additional
photography required by changes in the script. They are also called on to
supervise the seamless blending of visual effects shots with live-action footage.
The cinematographer is responsible for timing the film for continuity and for
adding nuances to the “look” in either a DI or optical lab environment. They also
approve the final answer print in collaboration with the director and producer. In
addition, the cinematographer verifies that what they approved is reflected in the
release print. The final task for the cinematographer involves timing, and, if
necessary, reformatting films for release in DVD, HD and other television
formats. All of these final steps are meant to assure that audiences experience
films on motion picture and display screens the way they are intended to be seen
by the creators of the images.
Summary of Formats

compiled by Tak Miyagishima

ASC Associate Member

APERTURE SPECIFICATIONS
35mm Camera – Spherical Lens
Academy Camera Aperture .866″ X .630″ 22mm X 16mm

35mm Theatrical Release – Spherical

1.37:1 .825″ X .602″ 20.96mm X 15.29mm
1.66:1 .825″ X .497″ 20.96mm X 12.62mm
1.85:1 .825″ X .446″ 20.96mm X 11.33mm

35mm Television Aperture and Safe Areas

Camera Aperture .866″ X .630″ 22mm X 16mm
TV Station Projector Aperture .816″ X .612″ 20.73mm X 15.54mm
TV Transmitted Area .792″ X .594″ 20.12mm X 15.09mm
TV Safe Action Area .713″ X .535″ 18.11mm X 13.59mm
Corner Radii = .143″/3.63mm
TV Safe Title Area .630″ X .475″ 16mm X 12.06mm
Corner Radii = .125″/3.17mm

35mm Full Aperture – Spherical Lens (For Partial Frame Extraction)

Prints (Super 35)
Camera Aperture (Film Center) .980″ X .735″ 24.89mm X 18.67mm
Finder Markings
35mm Anamorphic 2.4:1 AR .945″ X .394″ 24mm X 10mm
70mm 2.2:1 AR .945″ X .430″ 24mm X 10.92mm
35mm FLAT 1.85:1 AR .945″ X .511″ 24mm x 12.97mm

35mm Panavision 2-Perf

Camera Aperture (Film Center) .980″ X .365″ 24.89mm x 9.27mm
Ground Glass 2.4:1 AR .825″ X .345″ 20.96mm x 8.76mm

35mm Panavision 3-Perf

Camera Aperture (Film Center) .980″ X .546″ 24.89mm x 13.87mm
1.78:1 .910″ X .511″ 23.10mm x 12.98mm

35mm Panavision 4-Perf

1.85:1 AR Spherical (FLAT) PROJ AP .825″ X .446″ 20.96mm X 11.33mm
2.4:1 AR Anamorphic Squeeze PROJ AP .825″ X .690″ 20.96mm X 17.53mm
5 perf 70mm 2.2:1 AR PROJ AP 1.912″ X .870″ 48.56mm X 22.10mm

Panavision 35 and Anamorphic Squeezed Negative

Camera Aperture .866″ X .732″ 22mm X 18.59mm
35mm Squeezed Print
Finder Marking (2.2:1 70mm) & Proj AP .825″ X .690″ 20.96mm X 17.53mm
16mm Squeezed Print .342″ X .286″ 8.69mm X 7.26mm
Max Proj. AP
16mm Un-Squeezed Print (1.85:1) .380″ X .205″ 9.65mm X 5.20mm
Proj. AP matte
70mm Unsqueezed Print Proj. AP 1.912″ X .870″ 48.56mm X 22.10mm

16mm Film Apertures 1.33:1 (4:3) Television Safe Area

Camera Aperture .404″ X .295″ 10.26mm X 7.49mm
TV Station Proj AP .380″ X .286″ 9.65mm X 7.26mm
TV Transmitted Area .368″ X .276″ 9.35mm X 7.01mm
TV Safe Action Area .331″ X .248″ 8.41mm X 6.30mm
Corner Radii R = .066″/1.68mm
Safe Title Area .293″ X .221″ 7.44mm X 5.61mm
Finder Markings for Enlarging to 35mm
Camera Aperture .404″ X .295″ 10.26mm X 7.49mm
Projector Aperture (1.37:1) .380″ X .286″ 9.65mm X 7.26mm
Projector Aperture (1.85:1) .380″ X .206″ 9.65mm X 5.23mm
(Enlarging ratio 1:2.105)

Super 16mm (16mm Type W) for Enlarging to 35mm

Camera Aperture .486″ X .292″ 12.35mm X 7.42mm
Projector Aperture (1.66) .464″ X .279″ 11.80mm X 7.10mm
Projector Aperture (1.85) .464″ X .251″ 11.80mm X 6.38mm

65mm 5-Perf TODD-AO/PANAVISION 65mm Spherical Imaged Negative

Camera Aperture 2.072″ X .906″ 52.63mm X 23.01mm
35mm ’Scope Extraction 1.912″ X .800 48.56mm X 20.31mm
35mm Projector Aperture .825″ X .690″ 20.96mm X 17.53mm
(with 2:1 squeeze)
70mm Projection Aperture 2.2:1 1.912″ X .870″ 48.56mm X 22.10mm
65mm 8-Perf
Camera Aperture 1.35:1AR 2.072″ X .1.485″ 52.63mm X 37.72mm

65mm - 15-Perf IMAX/OMNIMAX

2.772″ X 70.41mm X
Camera Aperture
2.072″ 52.63mm
Projector Aperture (computed from cut- 29.77mm X
1.172″ X 2.04″
off) 51.81mm
16mm Un-Squeezed Print (1.85:1) .380″ X .206″ 9.65mm X 5.20mm
48.56mm X
70mm Unsqueezed Print Proj. AP 1.912″ X .870″
22.10mm

VISTAVISION 8-Perf Horz. Pull Across

Camera Aperture 1.485″ X .981″ 37.72mm X 24.92mm
35mm VistaVision
Super 8mm
Camera Aperture (1.33:1) 0.224″ x 0.166″ 5.69mm″ X 4.22mm″
Projection Aperture (1.33:1) 0.209″ x 0.158″ 5.31mm X 4.01mm
Basic Digital Concepts

by Marty Ollstein

A working understanding of digital theory is the foundation for successful

use of all digital technology, from cameras to post-production hardware
and software systems. Although the principles of photography still apply, the
cinematographer today should understand the relationship of digital to analog
image acquisition.
1) ANALOG AND DIGITAL
The natural world is considered to be analog.1 Human vision perceives
continuously changing gradients of light from black to white, and color that
spans the spectrum uninterrupted between infrared and ultraviolet. We model
light and sound as waves whose shape varies by their amplitude and frequency
in a continuously variable signal. An analog signal is understood to be composed
of an infinite number of points. The scale used to measure light and color is
infinitely divisible into smaller units. Film is an analog medium—it can record a
continuous spectrum of color.
A digital representation of the world is finite. It uses numbers to approximate
analog physical phenomena. A digital signal is defined by a finite value in
accordance with a predetermined scale. It may be hard to imagine using numbers
to define and reproduce the subtle and random sights and sounds of our
experience. But the more numbers we use, the closer we can come to
reproducing the analog original.
In digital cinematography, light and color are represented by numbers
organized in binary code. Each digit of binary code, a bit (b), defines only two
values: 0 or 1. A single bit, then, can define a scale of only two levels. But two
bits together can define four levels—two levels in each of the original two levels
(2 x 2). Three bits define 8 levels, and four bits do 16. Eight bits are called a
‘byte’ (B). An 8-bit code defines a scale of 256 levels. The number of levels
defined by a binary code can be expressed as 2n, where n = number of bits. The
more bits used, the more levels defined, and the more precision available to
define values.
Film records an image by varying the density of silver or dye of the film
emulsion in a continuous gradient from clear to opaque, black to white.
Digital imaging builds an image with numbers in a binary format. The detail
displayed is limited to a scale with a discrete number of values, determined by
the number of bits being used.
2) PIXELS AND CHIPS
Short for ‘PICture ELement’, a PIXEL is the building block of the digital
image. It represents one sample of picture information. Pixels are grouped into
fixed arrays of straight rows and columns. The pixels remain in the same
position, frame to frame. All pixels in an array are the same size—usually
square, but in some cases rectangular.
Instead of film behind the lens, digital cameras have chips that contain an
array of light-sensitive sensors or photoreceptors that receive image data. The
sensors convert light into voltage, an electrical charge proportional to the light
striking it. The analog voltage is sampled, or measured at specified intervals, and
converted to numbers on a scale—a digital code value. This process is called
analog-to-digital conversion or A/D conversion. The resulting digital-code
values determine the brightness of each pixel viewed on a display. The color of
the pixel is defined by one of two general methods, determined by the chip
design in the camera.
The two different sensor-array designs used in production cameras today
include the three-chip design and the single-chip design. When HD video
production first developed and became an industry standard, most professional
cameras used a three-chip design. Some of the most common HD cameras in use
were the SONY F900 and the Panasonic VariCam. These three-chip cameras
contain a set of three 2⁄3″-size chips, one each for measuring red, green and blue
light. In most cases, a prism divides the light captured by the lens into separate
red, green and blue rays, directing each ray to a dedicated chip. (See Figure 1.)
The photoreceptors on these chips are grayscale devices that only measure light
intensity. The color of a pixel is later determined by integrating the respective
red, green and blue light values from the three chips.
Figure 1. Three-chip prism system

The three-chip prism “block” system is precise and efficient. However, it

takes up significant space in the camera. To keep production cameras small
enough to be portable, the smaller 2⁄3″ chip size was used. Since the 2⁄3″ target is
significantly smaller than a 35mm film frame, different HD lenses were
manufactured to optimize the optical path. Another requirement of this system is
that the three separate chips in the block must be precisely registered to align
their images with precision.
Figure 2. Single-chip system configurations

More recently, to enable the use of a larger chip (matching or exceeding the
35mm frame size) that would provide a reduced depth of field and allow the use
of the large inventory of motion-picture lenses (optimized for the 35mm frame),
camera manufacturers have moved to a single-chip format.
Single-chip cameras, such as the ARRI Alexa and RED Epic, contain a single
large chip. No prism block is needed to separate the color rays from the
spectrum. Image color is created by placing tiny red, green and blue filters over
each sensor on the chip in a particular “mosaic” pattern, then using software
matched to that pattern to calculate color values for each pixel. Each camera uses
their own proprietary chip design, mosaic filter pattern, selection of filter color,
and dedicated software—all of which have a significant effect on the
characteristics of the image recorded.
The most widely used mosaic filter pattern for single-chip cameras is the
Bayer pattern. (See Figure 2.) The ARRI Alexa and RED Epic both use the
Bayer pattern for their chip. This pattern uses a series of square 2x2 matrices of
filtered photo-receptor sites—two green, one red and one blue. Also called
RGBG, it is 50% green, 25% red and 25% blue. This allocation mimics the
physiology of the human eye which is more sensitive to green light. These
groups of four filtered sensors are repeated throughout the chip. Dedicated
proprietary software interprets the signal (the de-Bayering process) from each
sensor site, taking into account the particular spectral transmission of its’ color
filter along with the values of the adjacent sites in the matrix, and assigns a color
and brightness value to each pixel of the recorded image. The image data can be
recorded before this digital conversion (de-mosaic or de-Bayer process) is
performed. This ‘pre-conversion’ format is called raw, and yields more data and
a higher quality image. (See Figure 6.)
The choice of the tiny color filters on the sensors—whether narrow spectrum
or wide band—has a significant effect on the dynamic range and color saturation
of the image captured. A wider-band filter leaves the sensor more sensitive to
light, yielding a wider dynamic range and higher native ISO. But the color
recorded by that wide-band filtered sensor is less true and less saturated.
The Panavision Genesis camera uses an RGB stripe mosaic pattern. This
design uses a 2x3 matrix of filtered sensors (two each of red, green and blue) to
measure the data that determines the value of each pixel. In this case, the data is
“oversampled”—six sensors contribute data to define each single pixel in the
recorded image.
The SONY F65 uses a new mosaic pattern that provides red, green, and blue
data for every pixel of a recorded 4K image. The higher resolution 8K sensor
array is rotated at a 45-degree angle so as to place the filtered sensors in position
to measure all three color values for each pixel in a recorded image, producing a
‘true’ 4K RGB output image.
3) RESOLUTION
As the smallest element of a digital image, the pixel represents the limit of
detail that can be displayed. An image composed of a small number of pixels can
only show a rough approximation of a scene, with little detail. The more pixels
used to display an image, the finer the detail that can be revealed. Resolution is
the measure of the finest detail visible in a displayed image, and is defined
numerically by the number of pixels recorded in the image raster—NOT by the
number of sensors in the camera chip. This distinction has created some
confusion and controversy in the resolution claims of some camera
manufacturers.
Camera resolution is commonly defined by the number of lines of pixels (scan
lines) it records. The standard HD camera records 1080 lines, although some
cameras that record 720 lines are also considered HD. An increase in the pixel
line count will produce a proportional increase in resolution and representation
of fine detail. Image resolution is expressed by two numbers: columns (or pixels
per line) x lines. The HD standard image is defined as being 1920x1080 pixels.
A doubling of pixel lines and pixels per line (as the change from 2K to 4K),
increases the total pixel count by a factor of 4, requiring four times the memory
to store the image data. However, the MTF (modulation transfer function, an
optical measure of line-pair resolution) only doubles.
Some of the most common image-resolution standards include:
• Standard definition analog NTSC = 640x480 (1.33:1)
• HD = 1920x1080 (or 1280x720) (1.78:1)
• 2K = 2048 pixels per line (line count varies with aspect ratio)
• 4K = 4096 pixels per line
Pixel count is not the only element in the imaging chain that affects picture
resolution. Lens quality, precise registration of the chips in a three-chip camera,
and image scaling and resizing conversions also affect image resolution.
4) EXPOSURE
Film has a greater dynamic range, or range of usable f-stops, than most digital
formats. And due to the response of film dyes and silver to exposure extremes,
which causes a gradual “rounding off” of values at either end of the tonal scale
(highlights and shadows), there is a perceived extension of the dynamic range.
Shadows merge smoothly into darkness, and highlights fade gradually (or
“bloom”) into white.
Digital images, however, “clip” at either end of the tonal scale—the shadows
drop off abruptly into solid black, and highlights cut off into flat, white areas
with no definition. Clipping occurs when the exposure moves beyond the
specific threshold which is determined by the sensitivity and capability of the
camera or recording device.
A cinematographer can avoid clipping a digital image by monitoring and
controlling the light levels recorded in a scene. There are several useful digital
tools available for monitoring exposure in a scene. A waveform monitor displays
the exposure levels across a scene, read by the camera from left to right on a
scale of 0–100 IRE (Institute of Radio Engineers). Generally, 0 IRE defines total
black and 100 IRE defines total white, indicating the maximum amount of
voltage that the system can handle. If the levels flatten out at either end of the
scale (0 or 100), the image will clip, and no detail will be recorded in those
areas. NTSC defines 7.5 IRE as black (called the “pedestal” in post, and “setup”
on the set). The waveform monitor displays the pedestal and peak white levels,
and indicates when clipping occurs.
Another tool is the Histogram, which graphically displays the distribution of
light values in a scene, from black to white. Basically a bar chart, a histogram
indicates the proportion of image area (y axis) occupied by each level of
brightness from 0 IRE to 100 IRE (x axis). With a clear indicator of clipping at
either end of the scale (often a red line), it is useful for determining whether the
scene fits within the camera’s dynamic range.
Some cameras record light levels up to 110 IRE. These brighter values can be
used throughout the post-production process, then brought back down to a
“legal” level to avoid being hard-clipped at 100 IRE when broadcast on
television.
A handy exposure tool for digital production allows the user to quickly bring
light levels in a scene within the safe range to avoid clipping. Developed by
David Stump, ASC, the device consists of a hollow sphere (diameter about 1.5
feet) painted glossy white, with a hole in one side (diameter about 2 inches) that
reveals a dark interior painted matte black. To use on the set, place the device in
the brightest area of the scene, usually the position of the main subject. Adjust
the lighting and camera exposure so that the specular (shiny) white highlight on
the white ball registers under 100 or 110 IRE, and the black hole registers 0 IRE.
Some digital cameras have software tools that help protect the shadow and
highlight detail or, if clipping is unavoidable, soften or round off the edge of the
clipping. In the toe or shadow region, the technique involves the manipulation of
the black pedestal (the level at which the image turns black) and black stretch.
Black stretch flattens the curve of the Toe, lowering the contrast and putting
more levels (and subtlety) into the lower part of the tone scale. The resulting
effect of black stretch is to reveal more shadow detail. Going the opposite
direction, “crushing the blacks” raises the slope of the Toe curve and compresses
the tonal values in the shadows. Raising the black Pedestal turns more of the
shadow area to pure black. In the highlight region, the “soft clip” or “knee”
function compresses the values near 100 IRE, rounding off the exposure curve,
allowing more highlight detail to be recorded, and giving a more pleasing shape
to the edges of a clip in the very bright areas in the frame.
5) GAMMA AND LOG/LIN
Film dyes have a logarithmic response to exposure. The traditional
sensitometric curve, used to describe the behavior of film stocks, plots density as
the y coordinate and log exposure as the x coordinate. The resulting S curve,
with a shallow slope in both the toe and shoulder regions, provides more shadow
and highlight detail. Logarithmic code values are an important characteristic of
what is considered film color space and the “film look.” A logarithmic
representation of light values is also typically used when scanning film material
for digital intermediate or visual-effects work. And certain current digital-
production cameras, such as the Arri Alexa and Sony F65, both provide log
curves as a choice for image acquisition.
CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors have a nonlinear response to any input—the
intensity of the image displayed is not directly proportional to the video signal
input. This response is called gamma, contrast or a “power function” and is
generally considered to be 2.6 for HD monitors.
Digital video cameras capture a scene as analog voltage and then digitize it
with an A/D converter to create linear digital-code values. To view these
unprocessed linear code values would require a linear display whose response
was directly proportional to its input signal. But the CRT is not a linear display;
its gamma or power function curve gives a nonlinear response to input signals.
Linear digital code values do not display properly on a CRT monitor. The tones
appear desaturated with very low contrast. To generate a video signal that will
display properly on a CRT, video cameras apply a gamma correction equal to the
reciprocal of the CRT power function.
To differentiate video color space from the logarithmic film color space, video
is often referred to as “linear.” This is inaccurate, however, due to the nonlinear
gamma correction applied to the video signal. Video color space should more
accurately be called a “power function” system.
As use of the CRT has decreased, new display devices have been developed
that accept a wide range of input signals. No longer constrained by the limits of
the CRT, digital cameras have been built to record image data without applying
the gamma correction of video. Different input curves have been used in the
cameras, often with some version of the log characteristic curve of film, such as
ARRI’s Log C or SONY’s S-log. Image data recorded in these formats retains
more information and can produce a higher quality image. Instead of applying
the video gamma correction, these cameras convert the linear code values
measured by the sensor into logarithmic code values which approximate a film
gamma, resulting in a wider dynamic range and greater shadow detail.
6) VIDEO VS. DATA, RAW VS. DE-BAYERED
Video vs. Data
As described above, video cameras were designed to produce an image that
displays correctly on a CRT monitor. To properly display on a CRT, a video
signal uses a gamma correction that is the inverse (reciprocal) of the CRT
gamma. The video format was also designed to limit the dynamic range of the
light values it records in order to fit into the narrower brightness range that can
be displayed by a CRT monitor. This conversion of light values into a video
signal by the camera, which involves applying the gamma correction and
limiting the dynamic range, reduces image quality and restricts its capacity to
portray shadow and highlight detail. Another characteristic of video is that it
records images in fields and frames, but stores them as clips—streaming clips
that encode all frames of a shot (head to tail) into a single file.
The highest quality video-recording format used in production today is
HDCam-SR. Originally developed for recording on videotape cassettes, the
HDCam-SR format can now also be recorded on dedicated hard drives or solid-
state media. Other video recording formats in use include DVCPro-HD and
HDCam.
More recently, digital data recording has been developed that records images
in a frame-based format in which each frame is saved as a discrete data image
file. This format allows direct access to any frame without the need to scroll
through a video clip file to locate a frame. The camera and recording system
selected determine the particular recording format used. Some file-based formats
in use include .dpx, .jpg, .tiff and OpenEXR.

RAW vs. De-Bayered

As described in section (2), Pixels and Chips, Single-chip cameras with
mosaic patterns use software to immediately convert the light levels measured
by their filtered sensors into RGB values. This conversion process (called de-
Bayering, referring to the Bayer mosaic pattern) allows real-time viewing of the
image. However, some quality is sacrificed by performing the de-Bayer process
in real time.
A “raw” recording file format was developed to encode all the light-level data
directly from the filtered sensors, before the de-Bayer process occurs. A raw
recording of an image can result in a significantly higher quality image. A raw
file will require de-Bayer conversion for viewing and most manipulation, but
most professional systems used today provide that capability. Some DI (digital
intermediate) color-correction systems allow raw files to be used seamlessly in
their workflow. Others require a de-Bayer conversion to some RGB data format
before proceeding. Cameras that record raw data use their own proprietary raw
file format, such as Redcode Raw and ArriRaw.
7) VIDEO SCANNING— INTERLACE OR PROGRESSIVE
The video image is composed of a certain number of lines of pixels. A light or
energy beam scans the lines to “write out” each frame. Since the beginning of
television broadcasting, interlaced scanning was the standard. In this process,
two vertical sweeps are made for each frame—one scans all the odd lines (1, 3,
5, etc.), the next scans the even (2, 4, 6, etc.). Each sweep produces a “field.”
The NTSC 30 fps television standard records 60 interlaced fields per second.
Progressive scanning is simpler—all lines are scanned sequentially in one
vertical sweep. There are no fields, only complete frames, just as in motion-
picture film photography. Computer screens use progressive scanning.
When broadcast standards were first being established, the bandwidth of the
equipment was relatively small. That is, the throughput of the pipeline used to
transmit image data, measured by the amount of data it could transmit over a
given period of time, was very limited. The existing equipment was not capable
of sending an entire (progressive) frame 30 times per second. It could, however,
send 60 half-frames (the fields of interlaced frames) per second, since this
requires transmitting only half the frame data at any given moment.
One benefit of interlaced scanning is that the higher frame rate (60 fields,
instead of 30 frames) makes the portrayal of movement clearer and more
accurate. At 24 progressive frames per second, or even 30, the shutter speed is
slow (1⁄48 or 1⁄60 second), and generates motion blur with any action. Camera
movement can appear juddery over certain backgrounds. Interlaced fields,
exposed at twice the shutter speed and frame rate, reduce these problems and
give a sharper, more precise portrayal of movement. Subjectively, an interlaced
image appears to have greater detail—an immediacy associated with television
viewing.
Image flicker is also reduced with interlaced scanning. CRT monitors have a
short persistence—the scanned image fades quickly, leaving a black screen. At
24 or 30 fps, there would be more black-screen time, causing noticeable flicker
on the monitor. Interlaced scanning at 60 fields per second, refreshing the image
twice as fast, greatly reduces flicker. Progressive computer monitors avoid the
flicker problem by using a much higher frame rate.
The downside of interlaced scanning is a loss of resolution and steadiness
when shooting movement. With subject or camera movement, the image changes
from one field to the next. But those two consecutive fields perceptually merge
to create each complete frame, even though the moving subject has changed
position. Therefore, any movement will appear blurred and detail will be
substantially reduced in areas of the frame that contain movement. This factor
also creates difficulty for any image processing that involves spatial
manipulation of the image, such as resizing or reframing.
A film release of interlaced material requires the creation of progressive
frames from pairs of fields, so as to convert the interlaced video fields back to
progressive film frames. There are various methods of doing this video-field-to-
film-frame conversion. Some involve the interpolation of pixel values between
the different fields. This merging of field pairs into frames reduces resolution
wherever there is movement. For this reason, the progressive format is
preferable for recording back to film.
Some cameras offer the option of recording in either a progressive or
interlaced format. A key factor in deciding which format to use should be a
consideration of the primary distribution goal of the project—be it theatrical
screen, broadcast or DVD/Blu-ray.
8) COMPRESSION
One of the biggest challenges to creating high quality digital images is the
handling of the large amounts of data they require. Compression is the means
used to reduce the data content of an image source. The objective of
compression is to reduce image file size with the least possible sacrifice in
quality and detail.
A common method used by compression schemes or codecs is to analyze an
image, identify redundant pixels in the picture, and remove them. For instance, a
stationary solid blue sky is “redundant” and can be easily compressed.
Conversely, subjects in motion change position every frame, are not redundant
and are difficult to compress.
There are two categories of compression codecs—intraframe and interframe.
The intraframe codec processes each frame individually, only removing
redundant information from within that particular frame. The interframe codec
uses a series of frames, or group of pictures (GOP), to compress the image data.
Interframe compression compares consecutive frames within each GOP to
remove redundancy from frame to frame and arrive at “difference” information.
Although it’s more efficient and can achieve a higher compression ratio,
interframe compression can create challenges in editing and postprocessing due
to the multiframe dependency.
Compression is quantified as a ratio, comparing the amount of data in the
original noncompressed signal to that in the compressed version. The lower the
compression ratio, the higher the quality of the resulting image. A format that
uses a 2:1 compression ratio preserves more image information than one that
uses a 4:1 compression ratio. Some cameras and recording systems offer several
compression ratios, providing a choice between higher quality with larger image
files and lower quality with smaller files.
Some compression codecs allow the original image to be fully reconstituted
when decompressed. Such a codec uses “lossless” compression. However, a
danger exists with certain codecs that claim to be “visually lossless.” The claim
may hold true for direct display of an original image that needs no manipulation
in postproduction, but if it later requires significant color grading or visual
effects, disturbing artifacts may appear that significantly reduce the quality of
the image. Other codecs discard image information that cannot be subsequently
retrieved. This is considered “lossey” compression.
9) COLOR SPACE
A color space is a framework that defines a range of colors within a color
model. Most color-space systems use a three-dimensional model to describe the
relationship among the colors. Each color space has a set of specific primary
colors—usually three (a particular red, green and blue)—which shapes its color
model.
The color space can be device-dependent or device-independent. A device-
dependent system is limited to representing colors from a particular device or
process, such as film. The RGB film color space describes the range of colors
created by the color dyes used in film. A device-independent color space defines
colors universally and, through a conversion process using a “profile” can be
used to define colors in any medium on any device.
The color gamut is the range of colors a system can record or display. When a
color cannot be correctly produced on a particular device, it is considered “out of
gamut” for that device. Film has a different color gamut, for instance, than a
CRT monitor. Some colors recorded on film do not properly display on a
monitor. Likewise, some extremely saturated, high-intensity colors that can be
displayed on a CRT monitor cannot be reproduced on film.
Different media and devices can have widely diverging color characteristics
and gamuts. Yet the hybrid film/digital production workflow passes an image
from one medium to another, and from device to device—shooting film,
scanning it to digital files, viewing it on various monitors and projectors, then
recording it back to film. Accurate format conversions are required at each stage
to preserve image quality and color-space information. A device-independent
color space is effective for accurately transferring and converting color
information from one system, format or device to another. The challenge is to
avoid losing data as the image is processed step-by-step through the workflow.
The CIE (Commision Internationale de L’Eclairage) XYZ color space has
long been the industry’s standard device-independent reference. Although this
color space uses a three-dimensional model to represent colors, one can use it to
plot the visible color spectrum on its flat chromaticity diagram. This diagram is
actually a 2-D “slice” taken from the 3-D model of the color space. It has a
horseshoe shape and leans left on the x-y axis. (See Figure 3.) All colors visible
to human perception can be plotted on this graph. The colors of the spectrum lie
along the horseshoe curve, left to right, blue to red. The specific red, green and
blue primaries are specified as points on the graph. The neutral white point is
nominally located where the three primaries are equal in contribution, but to
accommodate different color temperatures, their respective white points are
plotted along a curve across the center area of the model. Specific colors are
identified in the 2-D space by a set of two numbers, called chromaticity
coordinates (x, y), which specify their position on the diagram.
One method to compare media and devices is to plot their respective color
gamuts as triangular shapes within the chromaticity diagram. The full horseshoe-
shaped space represents the full range of human vision. A triangle within this
colored shape approximates the gamut of digital cinema. A smaller triangle
inside the digital-cinema triangle represents the more limited gamut of HD video
color space (Rec. 709).
Color spaces have been developed to define color for many particular
purposes, including film, video and digital-cinema display. The standard HD
video color space (ITU-R BT.709 or Rec. 709) uses YCrCb space, which
separates luminance (Y) and chrominance (Cr and Cb—red and blue color
values). This separation allows for choices in color sub-sampling—for instance,
the 4:2:2 sampling ratio measures color half as often as it does luminance,
thereby saving memory space and time. (See section 12.) Film is represented by
the RGB color space, in which the red, green and blue channels are sampled
equally. Both the YCrCb and RGB color spaces are device-dependent.
Figure 3. Chromaticity diagram.

The color space designated as the standard for Digital Cinema distribution is
X′Y′Z′, a gamma encoded version of the CIE XYZ space on which the
chromaticity diagram is based. A device-independent space, X′Y′Z′ has a larger
color gamut than other color spaces, going beyond the limits of human
perception. All physically realizable gamuts fit into this space.
10) ACES
The digital workflow of a production today involves the passing of an image,
with a particular Look attached, from facility to facility and system to system,
requiring conversions and transfers to different formats and media. The risk of
failing to achieve the intended result is significant—image quality (including
resolution, exposure and color data) can be lost along the way. Look
management and color management, discussed below, help reduce these risks,
but a larger framework for the entire workflow has been missing.
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences’ Science and Technology
Council developed ACES—the Academy Color Encoding System. ACES
provides a framework for converting image data into a universal format. The
ACES format can be manipulated and output to any medium or device. The
system specifies the correct path from any camera or medium to ACES by using
a dedicated IDT (input device transform). Camera manufacturers such as Sony
and Arri have already generated an IDT for their camera systems. Display device
manufacturers of projectors and monitors provide an ODT (output device
transform) for their devices. Different ODTs are also needed for each distribution
medium, including digital cinema projection, Blu-ray, and HD broadcast. A final
color grading “trim pass” is still recommended for each master so as to insure
fidelity to the intended look.
The most striking gain for the cinematographer is the ability for ACES to
encode the full range of image information captured by any camera. Using a 16-
bit floating-point OpenEXR format, ACES has the potential of encoding the full
gamut of human vision, beyond what any camera can record today. It
accommodates a dynamic range of 25 stops, far past the capability of any device.
Highlights that were clipped and shadows that have been crushed using other
formats and workflows now can re-emerge with surprising clarity. ACES
empowers the cinematographer to use the full capability and range of the tools at
his or her disposal.
11) BIT DEPTH
Bit depth determines the number of levels available to describe the brightness
of a color. In a 1-bit system, there is only 0 and 1, black and white. An 8-bit
system has 256 steps, or numbers from 0–255 (255 shades of gray). Until
recently, 8-bit was standard for video and all monitors. Most monitors still have
only 8-bit drivers, but several HD video camera systems support 10-bit and 12-
bit signals through their image-processing pipelines.
A 10-bit system has 1024 steps, allowing more steps to portray subtle tones. A
linear representation of light values, however, would assign a disproportionate
number of steps to the highlight values—the top half of the full range (512–
1024) would define only one f-stop, while leaving 0–512 to define all the rest. A
logarithmic representation of code numbers, however, spreads equal
representation of brightness values across the full dynamic range of the medium.
In 10-bit log space, 90 code values are allocated for each f-stop. This allows for
more precision to define shadow detail. For this reason, 10-bit log is the standard
for recording digital images back to film. Some color publishing applications use
a 16-bit system for even more control and detail. The cost of the additional bits
is memory and disk space, bandwidth and processing time.
The consequence of too few bits can be artifacts, or flaws in the image
introduced by image processing. Artifacts include banding, where a smooth
gradient is interrupted by artificial lines, and quantization, where a region of an
image is distorted. If image data were recorded or scanned in 10-bit color, down-
converted to an 8-bit format for postprocessing, then up-converted back to 10-bit
for recording back to film, image information (and usually quality) will have
been lost and cannot be retrieved. Whenever possible, it is preferable to maintain
the highest quality of image data and not discard information through conversion
to a more limited format. Loss of image information can also result from
reduction in color space and gamut, color sampling, and resolution.
12) COLOR SAMPLING
Color sampling describes the precision of the measurement of light and color
by the camera system. It is represented by three numbers, separated by colons,
and refers to the relative frequency of measurement, or sampling. The notation
4:4:4 represents the maximum possible precision, in which all values are
measured at equal intervals.
In a video color space, where luminance and chrominance are differentiated,
the first number represents how often the luma (brightness) signal is sampled
(measured) on each line of sensors. The second number indicates how often the
color values (red-minus-luma and blue-minus-luma signals) are sampled for the
first line. The third tells how often the color values are sampled for the second
line. The two lines are differentiated to accommodate interlaced systems. (See
Figure 4.)
4:4:4 captures the most information, sampling color at the same frequency as
luminance. 4:2:2 is the current standard on HD production cameras. The color
information is sampled at half the frequency of the luminance information. The
color precision is lower, but is adequate in most production situations. (Human
vision is similarly more sensitive to brightness changes than it is to color
variation.) Problems can arise, however, in postprocessing, such as in the
compositing of greenscreen scenes, where color precision is important. It is
recommended that any visual-effects shots that require image processing be
recorded in a 4:4:4 format.

Figure 4. Color sampling ratios

13) LOOK MANAGEMENT AND COLOR MANAGEMENT
The “look” is the visual style of the project. As author of the image, the
cinematographer is responsible for the look. While supporting the director’s
vision of the script and integrating the contributions of the other creative
members of the team, he or she should develop, execute and maintain the look
throughout the Workflow of the project. This process is look management.
Understanding the fundamentals of digital technology and the production
tools available empower the cinematographer to maintain the look and protect
the creative intent of the filmmakers. Look-management software provides
visualization tools that allow users to manipulate images to create a particular
look. That Look can then be saved in a format that can be reliably and
consistently shared with other team members. The software used ranges from
photography apps, such as Adobe Photoshop, all the way to powerful systems
created for motion-picture finishing, such as FilmLight’s on-set app, Truelight.
Other look-management systems in use include Technicolor’s DP Lights,
Assimilate’s Scratch, Adobe’s Speedgrade, Fujifilm’s CCBox and Blackmagic
Design’s DaVinci Resolve.

Integrated throughout the Workflow

Look management starts from the very beginning of a project, and is active
throughout the workflow, from previsualization of the look in prep through to
the final grading of the distribution master. To start, test and scouting images can
be gathered, discussed and processed with software to create a set of “hero”
images or shots that encapsulate the look of the project. These images are saved
along with their color-adjustment settings, and are used throughout the
production workflow to communicate and maintain the look.
The hero images and look settings can be used on set during production, using
look-management software, to support the crew as the set is dressed and lit to
fulfill the look. Look management can then guide the dailies timer or Colorist as
they embed the Look in the dailies they create. Visual-effects artists depend on
look management to enable them to process shots that fit seamlessly back into
the edited project. Additionally, look management communicates the
cinematographer’s intended look to the DI colorist for the final grading sessions.

A Universal Interoperable Format

To reliably communicate and reproduce the Look throughout the Workflow,
the instructions should be encoded into a format that can be understood
universally and easily read by all the different applications, display devices and
facilities that are used on the production. The laboratory printer timing-light
number was the standard in existence before digital technology. Until recently,
no such universal digital format existed to encode a look, leaving plenty of room
for miscommunication and misunderstanding.
The ASC Technology Committee’s Digital Intermediate Subcommittee took a
significant step toward solving this problem with the ASC CDL (color decision
list). Designed to advance the industry toward the goal of interoperability, the
ASC CDL encodes basic color-correction instructions that can be read by many
different software systems, facilitating communication and collaboration among
the many artists and facilities working on a production. The ASC CDL uses 10
parameters to encode the Look of an image: slope, offset, and power for each of
the three color channels (red, green, blue) plus a single value for saturation.
Slope, offset and power cover a similar range of adjustment to the familiar
telecine parameters gain, lift and gamma, but have a cleaner and purer logic and
math. The telecine functions also tend to vary in definition from system to
system. The ASC CDL format is now integrated into most professional look
management and DI grading systems, and has become a reliable way to share
and exchange Look information.
Working together with the Academy’s Science and Technology Committee,
the ASC Technology Committee has also developed a universal format for the
look-up table (LUT), another digital tool often used to encode Looks and
communicate visual choices.
Several camera systems have dedicated “LUT boxes” that generate and apply
looks that were created either in-camera or imported from external media. A
cinematographer can save encoded looks from one project and bring them to use
on another.
The same industry committees have also been developing a standard for
encoding and sharing of all metadata. Metadata encompasses all the nonimage
data associated with a particular frame. It can be recorded within the frame’s
digital file header or, alternatively, in an external database. Metadata guides the
processing of an image that is necessary to preserve the look as intended. This
can include frame number, resolution, frame rate, motion-control data, as well as
any look-management data, such as the ASC CDL values. As the production
image is passed through the numerous postproduction steps in the digital
workflow, it is important to preserve all metadata associated with an image and
pass it on intact to the next stage.
This discussion of the look and look management describes a
“nondestructive” process of creating a look and recording its parameters in
metadata to a format such as the ASC CDL. The original photographed image is
not altered until the final DI session, thereby preserving maximum image quality
(resolution and color data) and full potential for post manipulation.
Another working style instead applies the Look modifications to the image on
the spot during production, either using a LUT, a camera menu scene file, or an
analog device, such as a glass filter. This style “bakes” the Look into the image,
in effect marrying the look to the image. This workflow is often used by
productions seeking to avoid extensive postproduction work. The disadvantage
of baking-in a look, however, is significant. Depending on the modifications
used to create the look, image quality may be reduced, whether in dynamic
range, color record or resolution. The potential for later image manipulation in
the DI may have been compromised, making it difficult or impossible to undo or
alter the look already imposed upon the image.

Color Management, Calibration and Viewing Environment

An important requirement for successful look management is rigorous control
and consistency of the display of the digital image. This involves color
management, monitor or projector calibration, and control of the viewing
environment.
With film, an image can be reproduced with reliable consistency—once
correct printer lights are set for a given negative, the look of the resulting image
is reasonably predictable. Digital images, however, require proper color
management to assure their proper display. Particularly for the purpose of
communicating a precise look, it is important that the image viewed display
correct color, contrast and brightness.
When the cinematographer creates a look with camera and software, he or she
views it on a particular monitor or projector. But when it is sent to the other
members of the creative team, such as the director and production designer, it is
likely to be viewed on different systems. How can the cinematographer ensure
that the others see the same look—complete with the right colors, contrast and
exposure?
First, the system (both hardware and software) that reads the image file must
be able to understand the format in which the image is encoded, and be able to
interpret all the metadata in the file. Next, the monitor or projector used to view
the image must be properly calibrated to a shared standard (such as SMPTE
bars) according to the device manufacturer’s instructions. Finally, the image
should be viewed in a controlled environment, considering both brightness level
and the surrounding color. The same image viewed on a monitor in a sunny,
warm room will look very different when viewed in a dim, blue environment.
With good color management, an image portraying a look can be successfully
shared electronically, in an instant, around the world. Without color
management, the exercise is pointless.
14) DIGITAL INTERMEDIATE
Although the term “digital intermediate” was originally defined as the entire
digital postproduction process that comes between principal photography and the
final distribution master, today the DI commonly refers to the color-grading
session in which all visual elements of the production are brought together for
the purpose of making the final adjustments, enhancements, effects and
manipulations. (See Figure 5.)
Given the potential for reshaping the look of the picture in the DI session, the
cinematographer needs to participate actively in the process, either in person or
by remotely communicating his or her vision through images and software. The
DP can use look-management software to generate a detailed set of instructions
for the colorist. Taking representative frames from each shot in the EDL (edit
decision list), he or she can adjust the color, contrast and density of each frame
to create a scene-by-scene guide to the intended look for the picture. This
process depends on precisely calibrated display devices and accurate digital
format transforms. Format and color space must be coordinated so that the
samples provided by the cinematographer use the same “palette” (determined by
a color space’s gamut and dynamic range) that is used by the colorist. Using
ACES, this consistency is assured.
The best quality and highest resolution image material should always be used
in the DI session. Since the editorial process is usually performed with a lower-
resolution image, the EDL is used to conform the hi-res original to the low-res
edit, generating a complete high-resolution copy of the project for use in the DI
session. The final grading can be performed using any digital color-correction
system, but several powerful systems have been developed to expand the
creative potential of the DI session, including FilmLight’s Baselight, Autodesk’s
Lustre, and Blackmagic Design’s DaVinci Resolve.
Following are principal activities that can be performed by these systems in
the DI session:
1) Primary color correction: Independently adjusting the lift, gain, and gamma
of the RGB color channels .
2) Secondary color correction: Isolating specific colors in the spectrum,
modifying their hue, saturation and brightness.
Figure 5. Digital intermediate color grading.

3) Region-of-interest correction: Using “windows” or articulated mattes to

isolate specific areas of the frame (which may follow or track moving
subjects) to make further primary and secondary corrections.
4) Spatial corrections;
a) Repositioning the frame, zooming and panning.
b) Applying digital filters to blur, flare or sharpen.
c) Reducing (or amplifying) grain or noise.
5) Stylized looks:
a) Emulating lab processes, as bleach bypass or ENR.
b) Overall color-gamut manipulation.
15) MASTERING
Once the final grade is completed in the DI session, a digital source master
(DSM) is rendered, creating new altered digital image files that encompass all
the corrections and enhancements made during the DI. This master is the source
for the versions or sub-masters that will be made for distribution in each format.
Sub-masters are made for distribution in 35mm, digital cinema, HD and SD
broadcast, Blu-ray, DVD, and for online streaming and downloading. Creation of
the sub-master in each medium requires a format conversion—and may then
require supplemental color grading (a “trim pass”), so as to come as close as
possible to matching the source master created in the DI session. Each medium,
however, has different characteristics, including resolution, dynamic range and
color gamut, and cannot exactly match the original DSM. To ensure that the look
is preserved in each distribution format, the cinematographer should stay in the
loop as the sub-master for each medium is created and, if possible, attend the
grading sessions or trim-passes for each. The objective is to preserve the look—
the original creative intent of the filmmakers.

Film
Creating a 35mm film master involves conversion of the source master to a
digital format shaped to take best advantage of the capability of film.
Traditionally, the Cineon 10-bit log format has been used in film recorders, but
by using ACES, a higher quality output format could be used. The converted
digital files are uploaded into a film recorder—either laser or CRT-based—which
records the digital files onto 35mm film, exposing a new film master.

Digital Cinema
For the digital-cinema release, the DCI (Digital Cinema Initiatives—a joint
effort of the major studios) and the SMPTE have established a set of universal
format specifications for distribution—the DCDM and DCP. The specifications
define the elements (“assets”) used for digital-cinema display, and a structure by
which the assets should be used for successful exhibition. The assets include the
picture (Digital Source Master), soundtrack, subtitles, metadata and security
keys.
The DCDM (digital cinema distribution master) incorporates all specified
assets in an uncompressed format. The DCDM encodes the image in the device-
independent CIE X′Y′Z′ color space as TIFF files, with 12 bits per color channel.
This color space accommodates the entire human visual color spectrum and
gamut. It has two resolution formats: 2K (2048x1080) and 4K (4096x2160).
Source images of other sizes and aspect ratios can be stored within the 2K or 4K
image containers. The DCDM also accepts 3-D formats.
The DCP (digital cinema package) is a compressed, encrypted version of the
DCDM. Using JPEG 2000 compression, the DCP is used for the efficient and
safe transport of the motion-picture content. Upon arrival at the theater (or other
exhibition venue), the DCP is unpackaged, decrypted and decompressed for
projection.
16) ARCHIVING
Finally, all essential digital data should be properly archived for future
generations. Secure storage should be arranged for the digital source master code
(or ACES master data), and transferred periodically to fresh media to avoid any
degradation or corruption of data. Digital data is vulnerable on all currently
available media, whether it be magnetic tape, disk, hard drive or a solid-state
medium. The frequency of transfer is dictated by the conservatively estimated
life span of the medium being used. The only proven, long-term archive solution
is film—black-and-white C/M/Y separations. Properly stored, black-and-white
film negative can last at least 100 years.
CONCLUSION
With a working understanding of digital technology, the cinematographer can
confidently choose the best methods and devices suited to any project in
production. As new challenges arise and new technology becomes available, he
or she can better know what issues to consider in making the technical and
creative decisions that shape a career.

A working cinematographer, director and software designer, Marty Ollstein is

a contributing member of the ASC Technology Committee, a Fellow of SMPTE,
and member of the WGA.
He received his MFA in Film Production from UCLA, and developed Crystal
Image, the first cinematography filtration software, used on Cineon and Flame
visual-effects systems.
1. There is some debate as to this simple distinction. If light were modeled as discrete particles (photons)
instead of analog electromagnetic waves, it could be considered digital. And although film grains are
randomly distributed, they are separate, quantifiable (not infinite) particles, which might be described using
some digital format. But for this discussion, we will consider the natural world as analog.
A Primer for Evaluating Digital Motion Picture
Cameras

by Rob Hummel
editor of the 8th edition of the American Cinematographer Manual
DIGITAL MOTION PICTURE CAMERAS

S uffice it to say that any aspect ratio is achievable with the current digital
motion picture cameras available. Their capture format is generally that of
HDTV (1920x1080) or what is commonly called 2K.1 The aspect ratio of all but
one or two of these cameras is the HDTV aspect ratio of 1.78:1 (16 x 9 in video
parlance). This 1.78:1 aspect ratio is a result of the different camera
manufacturers leveraging what they have built for HDTV broadcasting cameras.
It’s unique to find a digital camera that doesn’t owe part of its design to
television cameras.
When composing for 1.85, digital cameras generally use almost the entire 1.78
imaging area. When composing for the 2.40:1 aspect ratio, most digital cameras
will capture a letterboxed 2.40 slice out of the center of the imaging sensor,
which, in 1920 x 1080 cameras, results in the pixel height of the image being
limited to only 800 lines (Star Wars Episode 3, Sin City, Superman Returns).
There is one digital camera that employs Anamorphic lenses to squeeze the
2.40 aspect ratio to fit within its sensor’s 1.97 aspect ratio, utilizing the entire
imaging area.
Yet another camera does creative things with the clocking of CCD pixels so
that the entire imaging area is still utilized when shooting a 2.40 image, with a
subtle compromise in overall resolution.
In the future, it is likely that more and more cameras will have imaging
sensors with 4K pixel resolution.
In a 1920 x 1080 Digital Camera, only the center 800 lines are used for a
“Scope” or 2.40:1 aspect ratio.
Figure 1. In a 1920 x 1080 Digital Camera, only the center
800 lines are used for a “Scope” or 2.40:1 aspect ratio.
RESOLUTION VS. MEGAPIXELS
When it comes to determining which digital camera to choose, don’t allow
claims of “megapixels” to influence your understanding of what a camera is
capable of. It is a term that is used loosely to indicate the resolution of a digital
camera that doesn’t follow any set guidelines. There are many factors that would
have to be taken into account if you were going to evaluate the merits of a digital
imaging device based on specifications alone.
The most straightforward way to understand a digital motion picture camera’s
capabilities is to shoot your own rigorous tests and evaluate them. In the same
manner when a new film stock has been introduced, the best way to truly
understand that emulsion’s capabilities is to test it, rather than rely on the claims
of the manufacturer.
Also, it will be less confusing if you focus your evaluations on the final image
delivered by a given digital camera. Claims about a camera’s imaging sensor can
be influenced by marketing. If we concentrate on the final processed image that
is delivered for projection, color correction, and final presentation, we will be
evaluating a camera’s true caliber.
SCANNER VS. CAMERAS
To clarify, at the risk of confusing, 2K and 4K film scanners generally capture
more information than their camera counterparts; a 2K film scanner will usually
have a CCD array of 2048 x 1556, while a 4K scanner will capture a 4096 x
3112 image. The lesson here is that one’s definition of the dimensions of 2K or
4K can vary; the terms 2K and 4K are only guidelines, your mileage may vary.
It is important to understand these variables in characteristics, and the need to
be very specific when describing the physical characteristics of film cameras,
digital cameras, scanners and telecines. In the world of film cameras (and film
scanners), 2K refers to an image which is 2048 pixels horizontally (perf to perf)
and 1556 pixels vertically. This image captures the area of either the SMPTE 59
Style C full aperture frame (.981″ x .735″) or the SMPTE 59 Style B sound
aperture frame (.866″ x .735″).
A 4K scan captures the same areas of the film frame as a 2K scan, but the
image captured is 4096 x 3112. With both 2K and 4K scanners, each individual
pixel contains a single unique sample of Red, Green and Blue.
In the digital camera world, 2K often refers to an image that is 1920 pixels
horizontally and 1080 pixels vertically. Again, each individual pixel contains a
single unique sample of Red, Green and Blue. This sampling of a unique Red,
Green and Blue value for each pixel in the image is what is called a “true RGB”
image, or in video parlance, a 4:4:4 image. While these cameras have an image
frame size that corresponds to HDTV standard, they provide a 4:4:4 image from
the sensor, which is not to HDTV standard; which is a good thing, as 4:4:4 will
yield a superior picture.
FILL FACTOR
There is one area of a digital camera’s specifications that is most helpful in
determining its sensitivity and dynamic range. This is the statistic that conveys
how much area of an imaging sensor is actually sensitive to, and captures light
vs. how much of a sensor is blind, relegated to the circuitry for transferring
image information. This is called the “fill factor.” It is also a statistic that is not
readily published by all camera manufacturers.
This is an area where not all digital cameras are created equal. The amount of
area a digital imaging sensor is actually sensitive to light (the “fill factor”) has a
direct correlation to image resolution and exposure latitude. With the currently
available professional Digital Motion Picture Cameras, you will find a range of
high profile cameras where less than 35% of the sensor’s total area is sensitive to
light, to cameras where more than 85% of the sensor is light sensitive.
As film cinematographers, we are used to working with a medium where it
was presumed that the entire area of a 35mm film frame is sensitive to light; in
digital parlance, that would be a fill factor of 100%. When a digital camera has a
fill factor of 40%, that means it is throwing away 60% of the image information
that is focused on the chip. Your instincts are correct if you think throwing away
60% of image information is a bad idea. With this statistic, you can quickly
compare camera capabilities, or at least understand their potential.
The higher the fill factor of a given sensor (closer to 100%), the lower the
noise floor will be (the digital equivalent of film grain) and the better the
dynamic range will be.
DIGITAL SENSORS AND AMOUNT OF LIGHT THEY
CAPTURE
Since the imaging sites on a solid state sensor are arrayed in a regular grid,
think of the 40% sensitive area as being “holes” in a steel plate. Thus, the image
gathered is basically similar to shooting with a film camera through a fine steel
mesh. You don’t actually see the individual steel gridlines of the mesh, but it
tends to have an affect on image clarity under most conditions.
In terms of sensor types with progressively more area sensitive to light, there
are basically two categories: photodiodes (less area) and photogates (more area).
Depending on the pixel size, cameras utilizing a single-chip photodiode interline
transfer array (either CCD or CMOS) would be on the low end with less than 40
to 35% of its total area sensitive to light, up to a theoretical maximum of 50%
for multichip (RGB) photodiode sensors. Next would be single-chip photogate
based sensors that can, again, depending on pixel size, have anywhere from 70 to
over 85% of its area sensitive to light.
In light sensitivity, as in exposure index, photodiode sensors will have a
higher sensitivity than photogate sensors, albeit with an associated trade off in
latitude and resolution.
In addition, solid state sensors tend to have various image processing circuits
to make up for things such as lack of blue sensitivity, etc., so it is important to
examine individual color channels under various lighting conditions, as well as
the final RGB image. Shortcomings in automatic gain controls, etc. may not
appear until digital postproduction processes (VFX, DI, etc.) begin to operate on
individual color channels.
MORE ON MEGAPIXELS
Much confusion could be avoided if we would define the term “pixel” to
mean the smallest unit area which yields a full color image value (e.g., RGB,
YUV, etc., or a full grayscale value in the case of black and white). That is, a
“pixel” is the smallest stand-alone unit of picture area that does not require any
information from another imaging unit. A “photosite” or “well” is defined to be
the smallest area that receives light and creates a measure of light at that point.
All current Digital Motion Picture cameras require information from multiple
“photosites” to create one RGB image value. In some cases three photosites for
one RGB value, in others, six photosites to create one RGB image value, a then
Bayer pattern devices that combine numerous photosites to create one RGB
value.

Figure 2a. A Bayer pattern Photogate sensor, where each

photo site is transformed to yield one full color pixel value.
Figure 2b. A Photodiode “macrocell” design, where it takes
six photosites to yield one full color pixel value.

These definitions inevitably lead us to define the term “resolution” as the

number of pixels that yield a single full color or grayscale image value (RGB,
YUV, etc.).
The images above are just two of many examples of photo sensors used by
digital cameras. One illustrates a Bayer pattern array of photosites using a
photogate sensor, and the other an interline transfer array of photosites
employing a photodiode lenslet design.
SOUND COMPLICATED?
Perhaps, but all you need to understand is that product claims can, and will, be
misleading. We’ve lost our way a bit when thinking that counting pixels alone is
a way of quantifying a digital camera’s capability. A return to photographing
resolution charts, and actually examining what these cameras are capable of will
serve you much better in understanding how a given camera will help you tell
your story.
In short, do not be seduced by technical specification mumbo jumbo. Look at
images photographed by the camera in question, and evaluate from a proper
distance of screen heights from the image.

© 2007 Robert C. Hummel III • Special thanks to Stephen H. Burum, ASC,

Daniel Rosen, Garrett Smith, Evans Wetmore, and Anne Kemp Hummel in
helping bring greater clarity to this discussion.
1. When film resolutions are discussed, and the terms 2K or 4K are used, these refer to the number of lines
that can be resolved by the film. In the case of 2K, that would mean 2048 lines or 1024 line pairs as
photographed from a resolution chart. In the case of 4K, that would mean 4096 lines or 2048 line pairs
(4096 lines) as photographed from a resolution chart. In digital imagery the term is applied a bit more
loosely. While 2K and 4K still mean 2048 and 4096, respectively, with digital scanning and photography it
refers to a number of photo sites on the scanner or camera chip. Numbers of pixels does not necessarily
translate into actual image resolution.
Digital Cinematography on a Budget

by M. David Mullen, ASC

B efore the year 2000, video technology had only been used sporadically for
theatrical releases, mainly documentaries. For narrative fiction, milestones
include Rob Nilsson’s independent feature Signal 7 (1985), shot on 3⁄4″ video,
and Julia and Julia (1987), shot on 1125-line analog high-definition video.
However, using video technology for independent features—primarily as a
lower-cost alternative to film—didn’t catch on until a number of elements fell
into place: the introduction of digital video camcorders, desktop computer
nonlinear editing systems, and the increase in companies offering video-to-film
transfer work, all of which began to appear by the mid 1990s.
The major turning point came with the worldwide box office success of two
features shot on consumer camcorders, the Dogma’95 movie Festen (The
Celebration) (1998) and The Blair Witch Project (1999), proving that cinema
audiences were willing to watch movies shot in video if the subject matter was
compelling enough and the visual quality seemed to suit the content. However,
with 35mm film being the gold standard for narrative feature production, many
independent filmmakers have pushed manufacturers to develop affordable
technology that would bring an electronic image closer to the look of 35mm
photography.
24 fps progressive-scan (24P) digital video appeared in 2000 with the
introduction of the Sony HDW-F900 HDCAM pro camcorder; then in late 2002,
Panasonic released the AG-DVX100, a Mini-DV “prosumer” camcorder with a
24P mode that cost less than $5000. Not long after that, lower-cost high-
definition video cameras appeared, starting with the JVC GR-HD1 HDV
camcorder in late 2003. The next significant trend was the movement away from
traditional tape-based recording, allowing greater options in frame rates and
recording formats within the same camera. The first prosumer camera with this
design approach was the Panasonic AG-HVX200, released in late 2005; it came
with a standard Mini-DV VTR but could also record footage to P2 flash memory
cards.
By 2009, there were HD video cameras being sold on the market for less than
$1000, and now even phones and still cameras are capable of shooting HD
video. Today many movie theaters are being converted to digital projection; this
trend—combined with emerging online distribution schemes—has diminished
the need for a digital feature to be transferred to 35mm film (though there
remains good archival reasons for doing this).
The term “prosumer” vaguely covers a range of lower-cost video products
with a mix of consumer and professional features, often in a small-sized camera
body. Prosumer cameras, by definition, are not only used by consumers but by
professionals as well, either for cost reasons, or because their portability and low
profile are better suited to a particular type of production. In fact, some of the
cameras discussed in this article are actually made and sold by the professional
division of the manufacturer and thus are not technically prosumer products.
Therefore, rather than separate cameras into debatable categories of
“professional/prosumer/consumer,” I will make the cut-off point for discussion
any camera sold for under $15,000 and under that is capable of professional-
quality video, preferably with a 24P or 25P option.
In this article, “SD” refers to standard definition video and “HD” refers to
high definition video. “24P” refers to 24 fps progressive-scan video. “DSLR”
refers to single-lens reflex still cameras with a digital sensor. “NLE” refers to
nonlinear editing.
ASPECT RATIO ISSUES
Theatrical films are usually projected in 4-perf 35mm prints at 24 fps, either in
the matted widescreen format (using a projector mask to crop the image,
commonly to 1.85:1) or in the anamorphic widescreen format (the printed image
is approximately 1.20:1 with a 2X horizontal squeeze, stretched to nearly 2.40:1
with an anamorphic projector lens). Current standards for digital cinema
presentations follow the same conventions for aspect ratios.
In broadcast video, however, the standard aspect ratios are 4 x 3 (1.33:1) or 16
x 9 (1.78:1). Since most video cameras shoot in one or both formats, with 16 x 9
now becoming dominant, there are framing considerations for anything intended
for theatrical release where the 1.85 and 2.40 ratios prevail.
In digital terms, the NTSC picture area is 720 x 480 (or 486) pixels; PAL is
720 x 576 pixels. An HDTV picture is either 1280 x 720 pixels or 1920 x 1080
pixels.
If you do some simple math, you’ll realize that 720 x 480 equals a 1.50:1
aspect ratio, and 720 x 576 equals 1.25:1—neither is 1.33:1 (4 x 3). To confuse
things further, the 16x9 option in NTSC and PAL share the same pixel
dimensions as 4 x 3. The simple explanation is that the pixels in many recording
formats are not perfectly square. You can see this right away when you capture a
frame of SD video and display it on a computer monitor as a still image.
On a 16 x 9 monitor, a 16 x 9 SD recording displays correctly. But when
played on a 4 x 3 monitor, it fills the screen but looks stretched vertically
because of its nonsquare pixels, unless converted into a 4 x 3 signal with a 1.78
letterbox (a DVD player, for example, can be set-up to automatically do this but
many tape decks cannot). This is why 16 x 9 SD is often called “anamorphic,”
not to be confused with the photographic process of the same name. HD, having
a native 16 x 9 aspect ratio, does not use this anamorphic technique unless
downconverted to 16 x 9 SD.
4 x 3 has given way over time to 16 x 9 as HD has become more
commonplace in shooting, post, and distribution. Since HD cameras have 16 x 9
sensors, and the costs of these cameras have fallen to the same levels of SD
cameras, there is little reason to deal with 4 x 3 SD camera issues anymore, even
for SD distribution.
In terms of composing 16 x 9 for eventual 35mm 1.85 print projection, most
prosumer cameras do not offer 1.85 framelines for the viewfinder. However, 16
x 9 is so similar to the 1.85 ratio that simply composing shots with slightly more
headroom will be enough compensation for a later 1.85 crop. Many viewfinders
can be set up to display a slightly smaller “safe area” inside the full frame that
could serve as a rough guide for how much to protect the image. Also, one could
point the camera at a 1.85 framing chart and tape-off any production monitors to
match those framelines.
A recording of this framing chart would be useful in post as well.
If a film transfer is planned, it would be better to leave the final color-
corrected master in 16 x 9 full-frame rather than letterbox it to 1.85. The entire
16 x 9 image would then be transferred to film within the 35mm sound aperture
area (aka “Academy”) with a 1.78 hard matte. The black borders of the hard
matte would be just outside the projected 1.85 area. If you had transferred a 1.85
letterboxed image to film, then the 1.85 projector mask would have to be
precisely lined up with the hard matte in the print or else the audience would see
some of the matte on screen. A 1.78 hard matte allows some mild vertical
misalignment during 1.85 projection, but not enough to allow the image to be
clearly misframed by the projectionist. Also, since full-frame 16 x 9 and 1.85 are
similar, keep the entire 16 x 9 frame clear of any film equipment (like mics and
dolly tracks) when shooting. Odds are high that you will need to deliver a 16 x 9
full-frame version for HDTV broadcast, so protecting the entire frame will
eliminate the need for expensive reframing and retouching in post.
Some filmmakers wish to shoot 16 x 9 video for transfer to 35mm 2.40
anamorphic. The most common solution is to simply compose the image for
cropping to 2.40; for transfer to film, either a 2.40 letterboxed version or the 16 x
9 full-frame master can be used. You would instruct the transfer facility to crop
the recording to 2.40 and transfer to the 35mm anamorphic (“scope”) format.
The cropping and stretching are usually done by the film recorder. If you submit
a 16 x 9 full-frame recording, it is a good idea to add a framing leader showing
the 2.40 picture area within 16 x 9.
Figure 1. 1.85:1 format inside a 1.78:1 frame.

While it is easiest to just center the 2.40 composition vertically within 16 x 9,

when the project is invariably broadcast in full-frame 16 x 9 on some HDTV
channel, there will be an excess of headroom in the unmatted version. This may
require some reframing in post when objectionable—but then it will be
necessary to zoom into the picture slightly so you can raise the frame, at the loss
of side information. A better solution would be to frame the 2.40 image higher
up in the 16 x 9 frame, almost to what is called “common top” so that the
headroom is similar between the full-frame and letterboxed version.
Unfortunately, it’s hard in many cameras to reposition 2.40 viewfinder
framelines. Also, for the final 2.40 letterboxed master, you will have to vertically
recenter the 2.40 image within 16 x 9.
Figure 2. 2.40:1 format centered inside a 1.78:1 frame.

A less common approach to achieve 2.40 is to use a 1.33X anamorphic lens

attachment on a 16 x 9 prosumer camera. Normally these optical devices are
used to squeeze a 16 x 9 image onto a 4 x 3 sensor, but they would also squeeze
a 2.40 image onto a 16 x 9 sensor, more or less. Since a 16 x 9 recording with a
1.33X squeeze is nonstandard, you’ll have to work carefully with the company
doing the film recording to make sure they properly convert the 1.33X squeeze
to a standard 2X squeeze. You’d also have to make an unsqueezed 2.40
letterboxed image for video distribution.
Figure 3. 1.85:1 format positioned near “common top” inside
a 1.78:1 frame.

Another possibility is to use a 35mm groundglass adaptor that took PL-mount

35mm cine lenses; Vantage Film makes a 1.33X version of their Hawk
anamorphic lenses that would have the correct squeeze ratio for a 16x9 sensor
camera. And if you were using a B4-mount 2⁄3″ video camera, Canon makes a
rear-mounted lens attachment that adds a 1.33X squeeze.
Some cameras, particularly the large single-sensor ones, have cine lens
mounts thus 35mm anamorphic lenses can be used directly. Keep in mind that
the majority of anamorphic lenses made for cinema use have a 2X squeeze and
were designed to fit a 2.40:1 image onto a 1.20:1 area of 4-perf 35mm film.
Since most HD cameras have a 16 x 9 (1.78:1) sensor, once unsqueezed, the 2X
anamorphic lens would create a 3.56:1 image and thus require as much cropping
of the sides to make it 2.40:1 as would be involved in cropping a normal 16 x 9
HD image top and bottom to create the same aspect ratio.
After testing some of these options, you may end up preferring to just crop a
normal spherical image to 2.40:1. The simplest solutions are often the best,
especially in independent feature production.
FRAME RATE ISSUES
The 59.94 Hz rate used for television transmissions in 60 Hz North American
countries started with the introduction of the color encoding for analog NTSC in
the mid 1950s. For better or worse, it has remained today in digital ATSC
broadcast rates for North America. In PAL countries, the rate is 50 Hz both for
television and for household power.
In interlaced-scan video, each field contains every other line of video
necessary to make up a whole frame; the second field contains the alternate
lines. In a camera with an interlace-scan sensor, each field is captured
sequentially and therefore a moving object appears in a slightly different position
on each field. Thus when two temporally sequential fields are combined into a
single frame, as for a film-out or for display on a progressive-scan monitor, the
edges of the moving object have a “toothcomb” artifact and there is some loss of
vertical resolution.
In a progressive-scan video camera, complete frames are captured by the
sensor, whether or not this information is then stored that way or split into fields.
In 60 Hz countries, the interlaced-scan rate can be described as both 59.94
fields per second or 29.97 frames per second. It is can be expressed as “59.94i”
(though often rounded to “60i”—which I will be doing often in this chapter). In
50 Hz countries, the interlaced-scan rate is 50 fields per second or 25 frames per
second. It is expressed as “50i.” If your camera could capture in progressive-
scan, the frame rate would be expressed with a “P” after it, as in “24P” for 24 fps
progressive-scan.
Broadcast HDTV for 60 Hz countries is either 720/60P or 1080/60i. In 50 Hz
countries, it is 720/50P or 1080/50i. This means that, to some extent, the
problems of NTSC and PAL are being carried over into HDTV, at least as far as
the filmmaker attempting to use HD technology to create projects for transfer to
24 fps film. For example, if using an interlace-scan prosumer HD camera, it may
be better to choose a 50i model over a 60i version since it is simpler to convert
50 fields into 25 frames than it is to convert 60 fields into 24 frames. 50i footage
de-interlaced to 25P can be transferred 1:1 to frames of 35mm film for projection
at 25 or 24 fps. However, with a 24P or 25P option becoming more prevalent in
HD cameras, there is little reason to deal with conversions from interlace-scan
photography anymore.
Since 60i is still used by broadcast video and many display devices, consumer
cameras often convert 24P capture into a 60i recording using a “pulldown”
scheme. This is particularly common for cameras that use an internal VTR for
recording. Since some users want to simply edit and display the 24P material in
60i, while others wish to edit the original progressive-scan frames, many 24P
cameras offer two 60i recording modes: one using the standard 3:2 or 2:3
pulldown, and the other using an “advanced” pulldown. This is actually a more
visible 2:3:3:2 cadence designed to make it easier to be removed at the editing
stage.

Figure 4. Two versions of pulldowns from 24 fps to 60 fps.

In terms of motion artifacts during playback, the normal 3:2 pulldown cadence
is designed to be as smooth as possible when viewing 24 fps material on 60i
display devices; the scheme is more effectively “buried” but therefore also
harder to extract in post. The advanced pulldown cadence is not as smooth but
allows for a cleaner extraction of the original 24P frames. As you can see in the
charts above, the original “C” frame is split between two different video frames
when using normal pulldown; this means that in order to recover this frame,
those video frames have to be decompressed and then recovered 24P frame
recompressed back into the original codec. This can mean that the “C” frame
will have suffered some possible degradation compared to the A, B, and D
frames. As you can see in the chart for the advanced pulldown scheme, every
third video frame is simply discarded in order to recover 24P in editing, and this
discarded frame was the only one where each field came from a different
original frame.
Due to its name, a number of people mistakenly believe that the advanced
pulldown is “better”—either more film-like or better-looking. It’s not. Its only
purpose, in fact, is to be removed in post. If your edited 24P project needs to be
converted back to 60i for broadcast applications, you’d then add a standard
pulldown scheme to a separate 60i master.
While some interlaced-scan cameras offer a simulated 24 fps effect, this is
really only intended to create film-like motion for 60i projects, not for transfer to
24 fps film. However, there are many consumer HD cameras now with
progressive-scan sensors capable of true 24P capture, even if some of them
record 24P to 60i with a pulldown. A number of these cameras are multi-format,
with different frame rate options, particularly the ones using solid-state recording
instead of videotape.
It is recommended that any pulldown be removed so that one can edit with the
original progressive frames. This allows greater flexibility and quality in post for
finishing the project to multiple deliverable formats. A progressive-scan master
is optimal for a transfer to film as well distribution on DVD, Blu-ray, and the
Internet. Otherwise, once you start editing a 24P-to-60i recording, you will be
breaking up the pulldown cadence, making it harder to remove later.
Since many of these cameras record 24P in different ways, it would be prudent
to find out what current editing software handles the particular camera and
recording method you will be employing. Updates to current programs are
constantly being released to accommodate these variations of 24P.
RECORDING FORMATS
This list is not all-inclusive because some formats and recorders fall outside
the budget range that this article covers.

DV
This term describes both a recording codec (compression/decompression
algorithm) and a tape format. Most lower-end SD cameras uses the DV25 codec,
a 5:1 DCT intraframe compression at a fixed bitrate of 25 Mbit/sec. Chroma
subsampling is 4:1:1 (NTSC) or 4:2:0 (PAL). The recorded video signal is 60i
(NTSC) or 50i (PAL). Mini-DV and DVCAM cassettes are commonly used; the
picture quality is the same for both tape formats. DVCAM uses a slightly wider
track pitch and faster speed to reduce drop-outs and increase physical robustness.
DVCPRO uses 4:1:1 worldwide but otherwise is still 25 Mbit/sec. DVCPRO50
is 50 Mbit/sec with 4:2:2 subsampling and roughly 3.3:1 compression.

HDV
This is an MPEG-2 recording format that uses both intraframe and interframe
compression to reduce HD down to 25 Mbit/sec for 1080i, 19 Mbit/sec for 720P.
Having the same bitrate, more or less, as DV, it can therefore use Mini-DV tapes
for recording and the IEEE 1394 (FireWire) interface. The aspect ratio is 16x9;
pixel dimensions are 1280 x 720 (720P) or 1440 x 1080 (1080i). The 720P
format supports 60P/30P or 50P/25P recording with a 24P option; the 1080i
format supports 60i or 50i recording with a 30P, 25P, and 24P option. Chroma
subsampling is 4:2:0.
“Pro-HD” is JVC’s name for their professional line of MPEG-2/HDV
cameras.

DVCPRO HD
This is an HD codec and tape format developed by Panasonic. It uses DCT
intraframe compression; the bitrate is 100 Mbit/sec when recording to tape.
Chroma subsampling is 4:2:2. Aspect ratio is 16 x 9; the pixel dimensions of the
recorded image are 960 x 720 (720P), 1280 x 1080 (1080/60i), or 1440 x 1080
(1080/50i).

AVCHD
This stands for Advanced Video Coding High Definition. This is an 8-bit
4:2:0 HD format that uses an MPEG-4 codec known as AVC/H.264. In prosumer
HD cameras, it is recorded to nontape media such as memory cards, hard drives,
and 8cm DVDs. It supports the same frame rates as HDV and DV. The bitrate is
between 12 to 24 Mbit/sec. It uses long-GOP (group of pictures) interframe
compression. The Panasonic name for their AVCHD pro camera line is
“AVCCAM”. Sony uses the name “NXCAM” for their line. AVCHD 2.0 allows
bitrates to 28 Mbit/sec for 1080/60P and for 3-D applications.

AVC-Intra
Developed by Panasonic, this variation of MPEG-4/H.264 HD offers
intraframe compression rather than interframe, at 10-bits using at higher bitrates,
either 50 Mb/s (4:2:0) or 100 Mb/s (4:2:2).

XDCAM
Uses different codecs and compression methods (MPEG-2, MPEG-4, DV25).
See above for DV recording specifications. The HD version of XDCAM uses
MPEG-2 compression at bitrates of 18, 25, or 35 Mbit/sec. Recorded pixel
resolution is 1440 x 1080. Chroma sub-sampling is 4:2:0. The Sony XDCAM
EX “HQ” mode allows full-raster 1280 x 720 or 1920 x 1080 4:2:0 recordings at
35 Mbit/sec. “HD 422” mode allows 8-bit 4:2:2 at 50 Mbit/sec.

Canon XF
Similar to XDCAM HD, allows 8-bit 4:2:2 recording using MPEG-2
compression at 50 Mbit/sec, as well as 4:2:0 at 35 or 25 Mbit/sec.

Redcode
This is the name of the wavelet compression (JPEG2000 variant) scheme used
by Red cameras to record RAW sensor data. Different bitrates are offered.

DTE (Direct To Edit)

Some cameras and recorders have the option to store data in the types of file
formats used in nonlinear editing systems so that the footage can be edited
immediately without transcoding. Examples include Apple ProRes and Avid
DNxHD.
BEYOND VIDEOTAPE
Over the past few years, there has been a shift away from using videotape
recorders inside camcorders. These are some alternative recording devices and
mediums:

Optical Disk
SD and HD can be recorded using Sony’s professional XDCAM optical disk
system (similar to Blu-ray), but there are only some lower-end consumer DV
cameras with built-in optical disk recorders, using the miniDVD format.

Solid-State Flash Memory Cards and Drives

Camera data can be recorded to different types of flash memory cards such as
SD/SDHC (Secure Digital/High Capacity), CF (Compact Flash), ExpressCard,
Panasonic’s P2, and Sony’s Memory Stick (though Sony has been moving away
from that technology).
Panasonic’s P2 cards are basically a RAID of SD memory cards in a PC
(PCMCIA) card body. Multiple P2 cards can be used in slots in the cameras to
increase recording times. Currently 16, 32, and 64 GB cards are available but
capacity keeps increasing over time. One 16 GB card can record 40 minutes of
24P/720 material in DVCPRO HD.
The Sony XDCAM EX cameras record to SxS cards, a high-speed
ExpressCard SSD (solid-state drive) using PCIe interface specification. Current
SxS cards are 16, 32 and 64 GB. A 16 GB card captures 50 minutes of 1080/24P
at 35 Mbit/sec.
The Blackmagic Cinema Camera has an integrated recorder using 2.5″ SSDs.
The Red Scarlet has a side-mounted recorder using 1.8″ SSDs.

External Recorders
There are portable recorders that can store larger amounts of video or data
than the camera can internally; some of these external devices are small enough
to be mounted directly to the camera. Some use an HDD (hard disk drive) or a
SSD (solid-state drive); others use memory cards for storage. Some examples:

Focus Enhancements makes a series of portable DTE recorders under the

product name FireStore. Some units, like the FS100, record DV and
Panasonic’s DVCPRO50 and DVCPRO-HD; others record DV and HDV.
Some are designed for specific camera models. The FS-200 records DV/HDV
to CF cards. The units store footage as QuickTime or MXF files.

Sony makes a solid-state device (HVR-MRC1K) for attachment to their tape-

based cameras that can record HDV/DVCAM/DV to CF cards. Their PXU-
MS240 mobile HHD storage unit is designed for use with the XDCAM EX
cameras to transfer data from SxS memory cards for nearly continuous back-
up or off-load of video clips in the field.

Panasonic has a portable P2 recorder/player (AG-HPG20) that records 10-bit

4:2:2 AVC-Intra as well as DVPRO-HD, DVCPRO50, DVCPRO, and DV.
They also make a handheld AVCCAM recorder/player (AG-HMR10).

AJA’s Ki Pro recorder can convert any camera’s HD-SDI/HDMI/SD output to

10-bit Apple ProRes 422 QuickTime files; the footage is then stored on either
a removable HDD or (optional) SSD storage module, or on ExpressCards. The
smaller Ki Pro Mini records to CF cards.

Convergent Designs’ Flash XDR and NanoFlash devices can be mounted on a

camera; they use multiple CF card slots to store footage as Quicktime or MXF
files, compressed using MPEG-2 codec. Their Gemini 444 recorder can record
uncompressed 10-bit 4:2:2/4:4:4 through single/dual-link HD-SDI to 1.8″
SSDs. The Gemini Raw recorder can record Canon Raw, ARRIRAW, and
CinemaDNG as well as 1080P.

The Atomos Ninja and Samurai recorders capture HDMI (Ninja) or HD-SDI
(Samurai) output to Apple ProRes on 2.5″ HDD/SSDs.

Fast Forward Video (FFV) offers the Sidekick HD camera-top recorder,

recording Apple ProRes to 2.5″ SSDs from HD-SDI or HDMI.

Sound Device’s PIX 220 and 240 recorders capture HDMI (220) and/or HD-
SDI (240) to Apple ProRes or DNxHD to CF cards or 2.5″ SSDs.

Blackmagic Design’s HyperDeck Shuttle records uncompressed HD-SDI

output into 2.5″ SSDs.

A laptop computer can also be used during shooting to process signals for
recording to an internal or external hard drive.
AVOIDING THE RECORDING CODEC
Some cameras can output a video signal before it gets processed and
compressed by the codec used in the internal recorder. For example, an HDV
camera often has an HDMI-out in order to send a picture to a consumer HDTV
monitor; this is usually an 8-bit 4:2:2 HD signal that could be recorded using a
computer (probably with a RAID array), an HDCAM-SR deck, or a data
recorder. You probably will need to use an HDMI-to-HD-SDI converter in order
to connect with these devices, though some devices accept HDMI directly. Some
prosumer cameras already have an HD-SDI output. Single-link HD-SDI is
limited to 1.5 Gbit/sec; an uncompressed 8-bit 4:2:2 1920 x 1080 59.94i signal is
around 1 Gbit/sec. What comes out of these HDMI or HD-SDI connections is
quite variable in quality, depending on the camera itself.
Though recording large amounts of uncompressed data at HD resolution for a
feature-length project (sometimes 20 to 60 hours of footage) is somewhat
inconvenient for many independent filmmakers, there may be reasons to do that
for limited amounts of footage—for example, when doing chroma key vfx
composites, or when mixing the footage with higher-quality formats. Again,
testing is recommended to see if the results are significantly better, enough to
warrant the difficulty or extra cost in using this approach. Over the years, it has
become easier to manage larger and larger amounts of camera data, which means
that filmmakers will be able to record hours of uncompressed HD without much
effort.
DEPTH OF FIELD AND SENSOR SIZE
Small prosumer video cameras often have 1⁄3″ sensors or even smaller (though
a recent trend has been towards larger sensors.) This means that, in order to
achieve the same field of view, the focal length used is much shorter than in
35mm cinematography—with a resulting increase in depth of field.
A 1⁄3″ sensor is 4.8mm wide; a Super-35 film frame is 24mm wide. That’s a
5X difference or conversion factor. Therefore you would need to use a 10mm
lens on a 1⁄3″ sensor camera to approximate the field of view of a 50mm lens on
a 35mm movie camera. Practically-speaking, this means that 1⁄3″ photography
has about five more stops of depth of field compared to 35mm cine photography,
once you match f-stop, distance, and field of view. The traditional solution to
reduce this major increase in depth of field has been to use the widest aperture of
the lens and then try to work in close-focus or at the telephoto end of the zoom
in order to throw the background into soft focus. However, in smaller shooting
spaces where wider-angle lenses need to be employed, this solution does not
reduce depth of field appreciably.
There are some 35mm lens adaptors on the market that project the lens image
onto a 35mm-sized groundglass screen, which is then rephotographed by the
prosumer camera, thus retaining the field of view and depth of field of these
lenses when used in 35mm photography. Since the groundglass screen has a
surface pattern and texture, the more advanced adaptors either vibrate or rotate
the groundglass while shooting, or use an extremely fine-grained material for the
groundglass. The simplest devices simply leave the texture of the groundglass
screen over the image. Since the image coming off of the 35mm lens is upside
down, some adaptors will also flip the image; otherwise, either the camera itself
has to be flipped upside down, or just the viewing monitors (leaving flipping the
recorded image until later in post). A few cameras have an image flip feature.
The first of these adaptors to hit the market was the P+S Technik Mini35,
followed by many variations like the Letus35, MOVIEtube, Redrock M2,
Cinemek Guerilla35, Agus35, Brevis35, etc.
In terms of larger sensors that come closer to 35mm in size, the Sony EX1 and
EX3 cameras use 1⁄2″ sensors (6.97mm wide). Most professional HD camcorders
used for ENG/EFP work have 2⁄3″ sensors (9.58mm wide). There is only an
effective 2.5-stop increase in depth of field with 2⁄3″ photography over 35mm
cine photography, which is easier to compensate for by shooting at wider lens
apertures—at least compared to 1⁄3″ photography. The Blackmagic Cinema
Camera uses a sensor that is almost 16mm wide. The Panasonic AG-FS100 uses
a Micro 4/3 sensor, which is about 80% as large as a 35mm motion picture frame
(the sensor is about 18mm wide versus 24mm wide). Finally, there are now
affordable models with 35mm-sized sensors in them—for example, the Canon
C300 and Sony FS700U, NEX-FS100, NEX-VG10, and PMW-F3 all use a
35mm-sized sensor.
There are also digital still cameras with 35mm-sized sensors that shoot HD
video. Some even have a “full-frame” (FF) 35mm sensor, 36mm x 24mm, which
is the same size as the 8-perf 35mm VistaVision frame. With FF35 cameras,
there is an effective 1.5-stop loss in depth of field over 35mm cine photography
once you match field of view, distance, and shooting stop.
Today, the shallower-focus look of 35mm photography is no longer restricted
to expensive professional cameras; however, keep in mind that with less depth of
field comes greater difficulty in follow-focusing during a scene—and good focus
is critical if the goal is projection on a large theatrical screen, or even on large
consumer HDTVs.
SHOOTING HD VIDEO ON A DIGITAL STILL CAMERA
Digital still cameras have had limited video capabilities for years now, but
recently, many have been able to shoot progressive-scan HD, either 720P or
1080P. This type of photography has been labeled “V-DSLR”, “HD-DSLR”,
“HDSLR” or “DSLR Video” in various online forums and publications (though
some of the still cameras being used are not actually DSLR’s but are mirrorless.)
Their small size, low cost, and high sensitivity have opened up new possibilities
in cinematography.

Some issues to consider:

Sensor sizes. Many cameras have an APS-C sensor, which varies from 22mm
to 24mm in width, roughly the same size as the 3-perf 35mm cine frame.
Because of this, sometimes this sensor size is referred to as “Super-35” (S35).
The Canon EOS 7D and the Canon Rebels fall into this category, as well as
the Nikon D90, D5000, and D300s. The Canon EOS 5D Mark III, Nikon D4
and D800 have a FF35 sensor (full-frame 35mm) comparable in size to the 8-
perf 35mm VistaVision frame (36mm wide). Less common is the APS-H
sensor used by the Canon EOS 1D Mark IV, which is between the APS-C and
FF35 sizes, around 29mm in width. There is also the Micro 4/3 sensor used by
cameras such as the Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH2, which is around 18mm in
width, somewhere between Super-35 and Super-16 in size. Finally, more and
more compact (a.k.a. “point-and-shoot”) digital still cameras, most with small
sensors, can now shoot HD, though usually 720/30P.
Depth of field. The larger FF35 sensor, such as in the Canon 5D Mark III or
Nikon D800, requires longer focal-length lenses be used to match the same
field of view of shorter focal-length lenses on a 35mm cine camera, a 1.5X
conversion factor. This will lead to a shallower-focus look unless compensated
for by stopping down the lens. In practical terms, it’s roughly a 1.5-stop
difference in effective depth of field. The lower noise floor of the larger
sensors help in this regard, giving you the flexibility of rating the camera at a
higher ISO in order to shoot at a deeper stop. The APS-C sensor (such as in
the Canon 7D) allows the same depth of field characteristics as 35mm cine
cameras.
Lens selection. Due to the flange depth of most PL-mount cine lenses, the
mirror shutter in a DSLR can make it difficult to mount these lenses without
risk of hitting the mirror. An increasingly popular aftermarket solution has
been to remove the mirror shutter and add a PL-mount; still photography
remains possible but would be limited to using the LiveView function. There
are also some cine lenses made with a flange depth that does not interfere with
the mirror function. Another option is to use a camera without a mirror
shutter, such as the Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH2. Adaptors are made that
allow a PL-mount lens to use the still camera’s mount; however, these still
camera mounts are not as robust as the PL-mount. Due to small variations in
flange-to-sensor distances between still camera bodies, a cine lens shimmed to
the correct depth for one still camera may be slightly off on another body, so
test your set of lenses if you plan on sharing them between multiple bodies.
Lens coverage. PL-mount cine lenses are normally designed to cover a Super-
35 area, though many medium-to-long focal-length lenses will cover the larger
FF35 area. Therefore the problem becomes finding the shorter PL-mount
lenses that will cover FF35 for your wide-angle shots. However, if your frame
of reference is Super-35 photography and you are trying to decide what short
focal-length lenses you need, remember that a 50mm lens on a FF35 camera
has approximately the same horizontal view as a 35mm lens on a Super-35
camera. There are also some PL-mount lenses on the market designed to cover
FF35, such as the Zeiss Compact Primes. At the moment, however, it is more
common to use still camera lenses on a FF35 camera shooting HD.
Focusing still camera lenses. On most DSLR’s, the Auto-Focus function does
not work continuously in HD mode, unlike with many consumer video zooms
(there are some exceptions like the Panasonic DMC-GH2 and Nikon D800.)
While focusing the lens by hand is possible, many opt to add a bracket under
the camera for holding standard 15mm rods, allowing a follow-focus unit to
be attached, as well as a mattebox and various motors as needed. The still
camera lens itself will need a toothed focus ring, either through conversion or
attachment. The short barrel rotation of still camera lenses from minimum
focus to infinity is one of the biggest challenges for focus-pullers, hence the
interest in adapting cine optics to these cameras.
Recording. Many of these cameras record 8-bit 4:2:0 1080P using AVC/H.264;
others record 8-bit 4:2:0 720P using Motion-JPEG. Many of these cameras
have a per-shot recording time limit of 5 to 12 minutes. Recently the recording
time has been increased to just under 30 minutes in some models.
Storage. Footage is recorded internally to CF and/or SD/SDHC cards. You will
need to use an SD card with a higher class speed rating for recording HD
video.
Frame rates for slow-motion. While most of these cameras can shoot at
24/25/30 fps (or 23.98 and 29.97), 720P is often the highest resolution
possible for 50/60 fps. However, 1080/60P is beginning to appear on the latest
models.
Monitoring. Most of these cameras have a mini-HDMI connection that can be
fed to an external monitor; however, this usually disables the camera’s LCD,
requiring that the operator use an attached monitor which then is daisy-
chained to other monitors. When not connected to an external monitor, some
operators use a focusing loupe attached over the camera’s back-panel LCD as
a form of eyepiece. The Canon 7D always sends a 59.94 Hz interlaced signal
through the HDMI port, whereas the monitor output of the Canon 5D Mark II
drops to 480P while the camera is recording (the Mark III sends out a 720P
signal however). The Nikon D90, on the other hand, allows you to select
different formats for the HDMI-out; however playback is always 720P. While
the D90 is recording, the resolution of the HDMI-out is reduced.
Bypassing the internal recorder. There has been some interest in trying to
record the HDMI-out from these cameras as a way of bypassing the highly
compressed recording format; however, due to on-screen information (such as
the red dot that appears in the top corner of the HDMI-out image during
recording, or the white rectangle indicating the area used for Auto-Focus, or
any letterboxing or pillarboxing), the usable picture information is somewhat
limited even when the signal is 1080i. Also, 24P capture would have a
pulldown added for a 1080/60i HDMI-out, and it may not be the type of
pulldown designed for clean extraction in post back to 24P. The Nikon D800
does allow clean, uncompressed 8-bit 4:2:2 HD to be sent out by HDMI to an
external recorder.
Audio. These cameras lack XLR mic inputs and many only use AGC
(Automatic Gain Control) for setting the audio levels, though some newer
models are adding manual control. Of course, one could record the sound on a
separate unit and sync it with picture in post—some people are using small
portable recorders like the Zoom H4N and Tascam DR-100 alongside their
DSLR. In the meanwhile, the biggest challenge for those wishing to record
sound on a camera without manual audio controls has been to defeat the AGC.
There are various devices on the market that do this by sending a tone to one
of the two stereo channels, keeping the noise floor consistent during moments
of quiet. For example, the Beachtek DXA-SLR and the JuicedLink DT454
have an AGC disabler, as well as XLR mic inputs, pre-amps and phantom
power. Over time, more of these cameras will allow manual audio control but
you may still need attached devices to allow XLR mic inputs and provide
phantom power.
Picture quality. These cameras do not offer a full-sensor RAW recording
capability as of yet, because of limitations in processing power and data
recording capacity needed to handle such large files (these cameras are
primarily designed for still photography after all.) The Canon 5D Mark III, for
example, has a 22MP sensor; a single frame of 1080P video, on the other
hand, is only 2MP. To get around this problem, most of these cameras employ
coarse downsampling techniques to reduce the amount of sensor data to be
processed into HD video. This can reduce effective resolution and create
aliasing and chroma moiré artifacts. Also, the reset rate of the rolling shutter
creates a distortion called “skewing” during fast motion.
Postproduction. H.264 and the other similar compression schemes, plus the
color and luminance limitations of an 8-bit 4:2:0 recording, can have an
impact on flexibility in color-correction. Also, the contrast of the DSLR video
image was really designed for immediate viewing on a monitor, making it
somewhat high for material to be color-corrected. The common solution has
been to set the contrast level as low as possible through the camera’s menu;
some people are also loading custom gamma curves.

Future improvements in camera processing should reduce many of the

artifacts, and more and more post solutions are being developed to maximize the
quality of the footage. For now, however, the best solution is to shoot the best
image you can in-camera, working within the more limited dynamic range of the
recording and avoiding situations where aliasing and skewing can become a
distraction. Also keep in mind that some of these still cameras do not have
exposure aids common to video cameras such as zebras or histograms while
rolling, nor focusing aids such expanded view or peaking.
A final note: some of the after-market alterations we are talking about, such as
removing the mirror shutter and adding a PL-mount, plus buying a set of PL-
mount lenses, not to mention all the desired accessories (mattebox, lens support,
follow-focus unit, focusing loupe, handheld rig, remote focusing device, onboard
HD monitor, etc.) may drive an initial investment of a few thousand dollars
beyond the budgetary limit of $15,000 that this article is focused on.
BEYOND DSLR VIDEO
The popularity of using still cameras to shoot HD video has led manufacturers
to start making video cameras with the larger sensors. One challenge for
manufacturers is to create ENG-style electronic zoom lenses that cover the larger
sensor while maintaining affordability for the consumer (not to mention,
avoiding making physically larger lenses). Of course, adding standard video
camera features and lenses generally means that the cost of ownership is going
to be higher than with still cameras that have an HD mode; however, there may
be a need for fewer accessories as a result of buying a product specifically made
to shoot video.
A SELECTION OF CAMERAS
The breakdown is based around average retail prices for the body only. Please
note that some of these cameras will need more accessories than others to
become production-friendly, and some do not come with lenses at their base
price. All of these factors can add dramatically to the cost of ownership. Keep in
mind that it is possible to find deals on many of these cameras. Also, this is only
a selection of what is available; new products are constantly being released, and
existing products are constantly being updated with new features.
A few cameras allow a significantly better image, with attendant higher data
rates, to be recorded using external recorders. However, some of these recorders
are more expensive than the cameras mentioned.

High-end (in the $8,000-$15,000 range, or slightly higher)

Canon C300. Single 35mm (S35) CMOS sensor. Records 8-bit 4:2:2 1080P
using Canon XF codec at 50 Mbps to CF cards; Canon Log gamma option.

Canon EOS 1D C. Still camera (DSLR) with FF35 18MP CMOS sensor.
Capable of outputting 8-bit 4:2:2 Motion JPEG 4K video to a CF card at 24
fps (4K uses an APS-H crop of the sensor). Also records 8-bit 4:2:0 1080P
video at either 24P or 60P using full-frame of the sensor, with option to use a
S35 crop. Uncompressed 8-bit 4:2:2 signal output via the HDMI-out.

Canon XF305. 1⁄3″ 3-CMOS, 2.1MP full-res 1080P sensors. Records 8-bit
4:2:2 MPEG-2 (50 Mb/sec) to CF cards. Comes with Canon 4.1–738mm
zoom.

Ikonoskop A-Cam dII. 16mm CCD 1080P sensor. Sends uncompressed RAW
in CinemaDNG format to integrated SSD recorder.

Panasonic AG-HPX370. 1⁄3″ 3-CMOS, 2.1MP full-res 1080P sensors. Records

10-bit 4:2:2 AVC-Intra (1080i, 1080P, 720P), plus 8-bit DVCPRO-HD,
DVCPRO50, DVCPRO, and DV. 12–60 fps. P2 card recording (two slots).
Comes with Fujinon 4.5-76.5mm zoom.

Red Scarlet. 35mm (S35) CMOS sensor, 4K. Modular design; components
sold individually. Records 4K RAW using Redcode compression to SSDs.
Sony NEX-FS700U. 35mm (S35) CMOS sensor, 4K. Records 1080P using
AVCHD to SD card/MemoryStick or via the FMU (flash memory unit) port,
or it can output 8-bit 4:2:2 (with embedded timecode) via HDMI 1.4 or
3G/HD-SDI to an external recorder. High frame rates in short bursts (8 to 16
seconds) up to 240 fps at full resolution or 960 fps at reduced resolution.
Future option allowing 4K output to external recorder.

Sony XDCAM PMW-EX3. 1⁄2″ 3-CMOS, full-res 1080P sensors. Records 8-bit
4:2:0 MPEG-2 (XDCAM, up to 35 Mbit/sec) & DVCAM, to SxS
ExpressCards (two slots). 1–60 fps (720P); 1–30 fps (1080P). Time-lapse
capability. Uses 1⁄2″ EX Mount.

Sony XDCAM PMW-F3. 35mm (S35) CMOS sensor. Records XDCAM HD

to SxS cards. Optional 10-bit 4:4:4 S-Log out to external recorder.

Mid-range (in the $3000-8,000 range)

Blackmagic Cinema Camera. Single CMOS sensor that is 15.1mm x 8.08mm.
Records uncompressed 12-bit 2.5K RAW data (CinemaDNG) or compressed
1080P HD (ProRes or DNxHD) to 2.5 SSD’s. EF & ZE lens mount.

Canon EOS 5D Mark III. Still camera (DSLR) with a single FF35 22MP
CMOS sensor. Records to CF or SD cards.

Canon XF105. Single 1⁄3″ CMOS sensor. Records 8-bit 4:2:2 MPEG2 (50
Mbit/sec) to CF cards.

JVC GY-HM750U. 1⁄3″ 3-CCD sensors. Records 8-bit 4:2:0 MPEG2 (1080P,
1080i, 720P), up to 35 Mbit/sec, to SDHC cards (two slots). Optional SxS
card adaptor. 1–30 fps (1080P/i) or 1–60 fps (720P). Comes with detachable
Canon f/1.6 4.4–61.6mm zoom.

JVC GY-HM250U. 1⁄3″ 3-CCD sensors. Records 8-bit 4:2:0 MPEG2 (720P,
480P/i), up to 35 Mbit/sec, to HDV tape. Optional SxS card adaptor. 1–30 fps
(1080P/i) or 1–60 fps (720P). Comes with detachable Canon f/1.6 4.4–
61.6mm zoom.

JVC GY-HM100U. 1⁄4″ 3-CCD sensors. Records 8-bit 4:2:0 MPEG2 (1080P,
1080i, 720P), up to 35 Mbit/sec, to SDHC cards (two slots). 1–30 fps
(1080P/i) or 1–60 fps (720P). Fixed Fujinon f/1.8 3.7–37mm zoom.

Nikon D800. Still camera (DSLR) with FF35 36MP CMOS sensor. Records to
CF or SD cards. Has clean 8-bit 4:2:2 HDMI-out for recording to external
device.

Panasonic AG-AC160. 1⁄3″ 3-CMOS sensors. Records 1080P, 1080i, 720P

using SD cards to MPEG-4 AVC/H.264. Switchable between 50Hz and 60Hz
at variable frame rates.

Panasonic AG-AF100. Single Micro 4/3 CMOS sensor. Shoots 12–60 fps;
records 1080P, 1080i, and 720P using SD cards to MPEG-4 AVC/H.264. Has
HD-SDI out. Micro 4/3 lens mount.

Panasonic AG-HMC150P. 1⁄3″ 3-CCD sensors. Records 1080P, 1080i, 720P

using SD cards to MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 (up to 24 Mbit/sec). Fixed f/1.6 3.9–
51mm zoom.

Panasonic AG-HPX250PJ. 1⁄3″ 3-CMOS sensors. Allows 10-bit 4:2:2 HD

recording using AVC-Intra 100 format to P2 cards. Also records in AVC Intra
50, DVPRO HD, as well as standard def DV formats.

Sony HDR-AX2000. 1⁄3″ 3-CMOS 720P sensor, records 1080/24P to 60i using
Sony Memory Stick or SD cards. MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 (up to 24 Mbit/sec).
Fixed f/1.6 4.1–82mm zoom.

Sony NEX-FS100U. Single APS-C 35mm CMOS sensor. Shoots 1–60 fps at
1080P. Records using Sony Memory Stick or SD cards to MPEG-4
AVC/H.264. Uses Sony E-mount lenses.

Sony NXCAM HXR-NX5U. 1⁄3″ 3-CMOS. Records 8-bit 4:2:0 ACVHD to

Sony Memory Stick PRO Duo (two slots) or SDHC cards. Optional attachable
128GB flash memory unit (HXR-FMU128). Fixed Sony 4.1–82mm zoom.

Sony XDCAM PMW-EX1R. 1⁄2″ 3-CMOS, full-res 1080P sensors. Records 8-

bit 4:2:0 MPEG-2 (XDCAM, up to 35 Mbit/sec) & DVCAM, to SxS
ExpressCards (two slots). 1–60 fps (720P); 1–30 fps (1080P). Time-lapse
capability. Fixed Fujinon f/1.9 5.8–81.2mm zoom.
Low-end (under $3000)
Canon EOS 7D. Still camera (DSLR) with single 35mm (APS-C) 18MP
CMOS sensor. Records 1080P/720P/480P using 8-bit 4:2:0 H.264 to CF cards.

Canon Vixia HF S21. Single 1⁄2.6″ CMOS (3264 x 1840 pixels) sensor.
Records AVCHD to SD cards (two slots) or internal 64GB flash drive.
24P/30P/60i. Fixed f/1.8 6.4–64mm zoom.

Canon XA10. Single 1⁄3″ CMOS sensor. Records to internal 64GB flash drive
in 8-bit 4:2:0 MPEG-4-AVC H.264 (up to 17 Mbits/sec) Fixed f/1.8 4.25–
42.5mm zoom.

Panasonic AVCCAM AG-HMC40. 1⁄4″ 3-CMOS. Records 8-bit 4:2:0 AVCHD

to SD/SDHC cards (two slots ).

Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH2. Still camera (mirrorless) with single Micro 4/3
16MP CMOS sensor. Records AVCHD to SD/SDHC cards.

Sony NEX-VG10. Single APS-C 35mm sensor. Using Sony Memory Stick or
SD cards, records 30P to 1080/60i using MPEG-4-AVC H.264 (up to 24
Mbits/sec). No 24P. Sony E-mount lenses.

The author would like to thank Adam Wilt, Randy Wedick, Charles Crawford,
and Phil Rhodes for their technical advice.

M. David Mullen, ASC is a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts

and Sciences. He has photographed more than thirty independent feature films
and two television series. He has received two IFP Independent Spirit Award
nominations for Best Cinematography, the first for Twin Falls Idaho (2000) and
the second for Northfork (2004).
Putting the Image on Film

by Rob Hummel, ASC Associate Member

T he section on Exposure, together with the associated tables, is intended as a

quick-reference condensation of material explained in more detail
elsewhere in the manual. The section on Special Techniques contains additional
information on many other photographic situations.
EXPOSURE
Most exposure meters incorporate some sort of calculator—some simple,
some sophisticated. An exposure meter measures light, either incident or
reflected. The calculator helps you decide how to use the light. There are six
specific variables entering the calculation:

Variables Expressed as:

Film exposure index EI, ASA/ISO
Camera Speed FPS (frames per second)
Shutter Opening Degrees
Lens Aperture T-stop/F-stop
Filter Filter factor
Light Meter reading: Footcandles, Footlamberts
T-STOPS
The “T” stop number is defined as being the true “f” stop number of a lens if
it is completely free from all reflection and absorption losses. The T
(transmission) number represents the f-stop number of an open circular hole or
of a perfect lens having 100-percent axial transmission. The T-stop can be
considered as the “effective” f-stop. It is from this concept that the means arises
for standardization of T-stop calibration. T-stops are calibrated by measuring the
light intensity electronically at the focal plane, whereas f-stops are calculated
mathematically, purely on the basis of dividing the focal length of the lens by the
diameter of the effective aperture (entrance pupil). Thus, f-stops are based on the
light that enters a lens, while T-stops are based on the intensity of the light that
emerges from the rear of the lens and forms the image.
There is no fixed ratio, however, between T-stops and f-stops that applies to
all lenses. The difference actually represents light losses within the elements of a
given lens due to reflection from the glass-air surfaces and from absorption
within the glass itself. Consequently, this factor is variable and cannot be
incorporated into an exposure meter, since the meter must function in connection
with many different lenses calibrated in both f-stops and T-stops.
The reason why lens and exposure tables are presented in f-stops when all
professional cine lenses are calibrated in T-stops, is that the f-stops are required
for all calculations involving object-image relationships, such as depth of field,
extreme close-up work with extension tubes, etc. Such tables are based on the
size of the “hole” or diameter of the bundle of light rays that the lens admits to
form the image. The diameter of the f-stop will normally be the same for all
lenses of similar focal length set at the same aperture. The T-stop, however, is an
arbitrary number that may result in the same T-stop setting varying in aperture
diameter with different lenses.
It is recommended that all professional cine lenses be calibrated in both T-
stops and f-stops, particularly for color work. T-stop calibration is especially
important with zoom lenses, the highly complex optical design of which
necessitates a far greater number of optical elements than is required in
conventional lenses. A considerable light loss is encountered due to the large
number of reflective optical surfaces and absorption losses. A zoom lens with a
geometrical rating of f/2, for example, will transmit considerably less light than a
conventional fixed-focal-length lens of similar rating with fewer elements.
Exposure tables are generally based on “effective” f-stops (which are, in fact,
T-stops). Small variations in emulsion speed, processing, exposure readings, etc.,
tend to cancel out. Cinematographers should shoot tests with their particular
lenses, meter, light and film to find the best combinations for optimum results.
Other variables such as direction and contrast of the light are factors
calculated from the experience of the cinematographer, aided by such tools as
photospheres and spot readings. Finally, manipulation of all the above, plus
special negative processing to achieve a desired “look,” is determined by the
cinematographer.
The laboratory and choice of film are closely tied to exposure. It is important
to keep exposure within limits satisfactory both to the selected film and to the
printing range of the laboratory.
The tables on pages 812, 813 and 866 through 877 will aid exposure
calculation for meters that lack settings for some of the factors, or will aid in
calculating constant exposure control when one factor varies from another.
Comparisons of 35mm, 1.85, Anamorphic, Super 35
Film Formats

by Rob Hummel Editor of the 8th edition of the American Cinematographer

Manual
INTRODUCTION

T his chapter has always addressed creative aesthetic and technical

differences depending on the choice of 35mm film format. The most salient
change from earlier versions of this chapter is the impact of digital intermediate
(DI) on final image quality.
While a DI can improve upon image quality that might degrade when created
at a film lab, it does so at greater expense. On many films, that expense is trivial
when compared to the overall cost of the film; on others, it may be a significant
portion of the budget. In 2011, John Bailey, ASC saved a low- budget film
substantially and was able to achieve everything desired from the image with a
photochemical answer print. It is becoming increasingly rare to color correct a
film in this manner, but it is still available.
Also, 2K DIs have made formats such as Super 35 and anamorphic appear
almost equal in quality. Filmmakers often assume this is because the DI process
makes the Super 35 image look so much better. While a 2K DI does improve the
image quality of a Super 35 image, the only reason the image looks competitive
with an anamorphic DI, is because a 2K DI sacrifices the image quality
contained in the anamorphic frame. With the further rollout of 4K scanning and
4K DI workflows, the superior image quality of anamorphic imaging over Super
35 is now readily apparent again. 4K scanning begins to approach capturing all
the resolution that the anamorphic image has to offer. While Super 35 benefits
from 4K scanning, the improvements are not as dramatic.
Lastly, the focus of this piece has always been about image quality. That being
said, I recognize, more than most, that we’re not in the medical imaging
business, we’re in the motion picture business. When I reference grain, or noise
in an image, I recognize that image quality may actually be what you desire in
your picture. Where this chapter may talk about one format having superior
image quality to another, you shouldn’t take offense if the lower quality image is
the preferred method for telling your story.

What’s New
A new section on how to evaluate images effectively, and discusses the
importance of screen heights, complete with illustrations. (Page 60)
For motion pictures that will enjoy an IMAX release, you will find a page
briefly illustrating how that process works. (See Figure 11)
If you are considering digital cameras instead of film, after the discussion of
film formats and aspect ratios, you will find a new section with guidelines and
information to help you understand what to look for when examining a digital
camera. This should allow you to make an informed decision about what will
most benefit your motion picture; whether comparing various digital cameras
or comparing digital to film (see page 81).

Screen Heights are Critical!

When evaluating digitally captured or film originated imagery, it is important
to examine the images at a proper distance from the screen, and on a screen of
sufficient size. The distance one views an image is measured by multiples of the
height of the image, or screen heights.
Using screen heights as a measurement of distance from the screen is all about
quantifying the magnification of the image you are viewing. The closer you are
to the screen, the greater the magnification, and the more demands are placed on
the quality of the projected image. For example, the more you magnify an image
in a printed magazine, the more you will start to discern the dots that make up
the image; the further you hold the magazine away from you, the less likely you
can see those dots. By way of example, you probably want to ensure you are
evaluating the images you photograph from the same distance your audience will
be viewing them. If you evaluate the image from too far away, you can be fooled
into thinking the image is of better quality than it is.
In the case of today’s state-of-the-art stadium seat theaters, that should be
somewhere from 1 to 11⁄2 screen heights from the screen. Most Stadium seat
theaters are no more than 3 to 31⁄2 screen heights deep (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: A typical stadium seat theater design, illustrating how

many screen heights the audience is from the image.
Figure 2: As an example of how an image can improve with
distance, hold the above image at arm’s length and it will probably
look just fine. Upon closer examination, you will notice the
difference between the right and left sides of the picture.

When you are closer than seven screen heights away from your normal
standard definition television set, you can resolve the pixels and scanning lines
that make up the image. However, further than seven screen heights away, and it
is impossible to resolve any of the picture elements that make up the image;
basically, the image will appear as sharp as your eyes can resolve.
For example, if you were looking at an IMAX image and a standard definition
TV image side by side, but you were evaluating the images from 7 screen
heights away, both images would appear to have equal resolution. Once you got
closer than 7 to 6 screen heights, the TV image would begin to exhibit its poor
image quality, while the IMAX image would look exemplary at closer than 1⁄2 a
screen height. If you have been in an IMAX theater, take notice that the back
row of the theater is rarely much more than one screen height away from the
screen; something IMAX can do because of the dramatically high resolution of
IMAX photography.
At the risk of stating the obvious; the higher resolution the image, the closer
you can get to the image before noticing pixels (in the case of digital) or grain
(in the case of film).
In the case of HDTV, you have to get closer than three screen heights before
you can start to see the pixels in the image. In current stadium seat theaters, our
audiences are sitting no further than three screen heights from the images, and,
in most cases, closer than two screen heights. For this reason, it’s important we
evaluate imagery from the same screen distance as our audience.
In the image above, your proximity to the image affects your perception of the
image quality.
Most studios still have screening rooms that place you anywhere from six to
eight screen heights from the image. Therefore, when sitting that far from the
screen, you can fool yourself into thinking the image quality is adequate, perhaps
even superb. Yet, when viewed from a distance of 11⁄2 to 2 screen heights, your
conclusions may be entirely different. Please make sure when evaluating image
quality, you place yourself within 2 screen heights of the projected image. It is
important that critical evaluation of image quality be viewed from where the
audience will see the picture.
Also, the display medium must be taken into consideration as well. Many
people evaluate high-definition (HD) or 2K images on HD displays that can
resolve only 1400 of the 1920 horizontal pixels contained in an HD image.
Those 520 missing pixels of resolution can hide artifacts that will show up
clearly on a digital cinema projector, or a 35mm film out.
FILM FORMATS
History and a Definition of Terms
Currently, in the United States (and most of the world), the most prevalent
motion picture film formats, or aspect ratios, are 1.85 and 2.40 (2.40 is still often
referred to as 2.35).1 As a point of reference, these ratios are determined by
dividing the width of the picture by the height, which is why you will also see
them written as 1.85:1 or 2.40:1. Verbally, you will hear them referred to as “one
eight five” or “two four oh.” 2.40 is also referred to as anamorphic, or “Scope,”
referring to its roots in CinemaScope.
An examination of films over the past sixty years shows that format is not
automatically dictated by dramatic content. It is a creative choice, determined by
the cinematographer and director. The full range of drama, comedy, romance,
action, or science fiction can be found in both aspect ratios. The purpose here is
to advise on the pros and cons of both aspect ratios and the photographic
alternatives available to achieve them. This should help a filmmaker make an
informed decision as to which format is best for a given project. Most
importantly, you will be presented with the “conventional wisdom” arguments
for and against the formats; this conventional wisdom will either be endorsed or
countered with reality. This knowledge, in the end, will help you realize that,
creatively, there are no technical obstacles to choosing any format. However, you
will also understand the aesthetic impact those choices will have upon your
production.
As a clarification, the term full aperture refers to the entire image area
between the 35mm perforations, including the area normally reserved for the
soundtrack. In other literature you will find full aperture used interchangeably
with camera aperture, silent aperture and full silent aperture. All four terms
define the same area of the 35mm film frame.
In general, the term Academy aperture is used when referring to the imaging
area of the negative excluding the analog soundtrack area. More properly, it
would be referred to as the “sound aperture,” the term used to indicate the area
that remained when analog soundtracks were first added to 35mm film.
However, throughout this chapter, we will follow convention, and use the term
Academy aperture when referring to the imaging area excluding the soundtrack.
Academy aperture2 is an aspect ratio of 1.37:1, centered within the sound
aperture area, arrived at jointly by the American Society of Cinematographers
and Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in the early days of sound to
restore compositions closer to the 1.33 aspect ratio of silent films, and resolve
the unpleasant composition produced by framing images within the narrow
sound aperture.
All 1.85 composed films are achieved with “normal,” spherical lenses.
However, the 2.40 aspect ratio can be achieved two ways. One method is with
the use of anamorphic3 lenses that squeeze the image to fit within the Academy
aperture (see Figure 6). The alternate method (see Super 35 in Figures 7, 8, and
9) uses normal lenses without any distortion of the image, and then is later
squeezed for theatrical film release. Both methods will be discussed here.
The 1.85 and Super 35 formats can also be captured using cameras using a 3-
perf pull-down movement. While all 35mm illustrations in this chapter use a 4
perforation frame, were you to use a 3-perf camera for 1.85 or Super 35, the
advantages and disadvantages remain the same whether 3 or 4 perf.
3-perf camera movements do not provide adequate height for anamorphic
photography.
Also, the film formats discussed here deal with general 35mm motion picture
photography. Formats such as VistaVision and 65mm are most often used for
visual effects and special event cinematography and would require an chapter of
their own to discuss. However, Figures 10 and 11 illustrate how widescreen
compositions are presented when converted to IMAX, and how films
photographed in 65mm are released in 70mm.
At the end of this chapter, we’ll cover current methods for achieving 1.85 and
2.40 aspect ratios with currently available digital cameras.
COMPOSITION
Before getting into specifics about the different formats, I want to point out
the composition differences between the two aspect ratios 2.40 and 1.85,
regardless of how they are achieved photographically.

Figure 3: The yellow rectangle within the image outlines a

2.40:1 aspect ratio.

Figure 3 is an image of the Taj Mahal with a 2.40 aspect ratio outlined in
yellow.
Figure 4: Two 1.85 compositions.

In Figure 4, two 1.85 aspect ratios are outlined by yellow rectangles. The
larger of those two rectangles represents a 1.85 composition equal in its width to
the 2.40 aspect ratio of Figure 3. The smaller 1.85 rectangle is equal in height to
the 2.40 ratio of Figure 3.
The purpose here, is to illustrate that, depending on your framing, a 1.85
image has potential of encompassing as much width as a 2.40 composition.
Although 1.85 will take in the same width with greater height in the
composition, it’s important to realize that wide sets and vistas are not restricted
to the 2.40 format.
PROS AND CONS – A CLARIFICATION
While this chapter addresses the pros and cons of these formats, it can appear
contradictory upon reading when a disadvantage is countered with an opposite
perceived advantage, and vice versa. This is because, in fact, many pros and
cons are merely mythology about a certain shooting format, and are based on
nothing other than conventional wisdom, or outdated production practices, rather
than current practical experience.
I believe you will be able to sort the facts from opinions. That being said,
nothing here is intended to dissuade you from choosing a given film format.
Where there are possible true disadvantages to a format, it is presented so you
have your eyes wide open to any potential challenges or creative compromises.
We are working in a very artistic medium where there can truly be no absolute
rights and wrongs. What one person may find an objectionable grainy image,
another filmmaker may feel enhances the story being told.
Where possible, when listing outdated opinions, I immediately counter with
the present fact, or contrary point of view. With this presentation, I want you to
be able to draw your own conclusions and inform you with all the arguments and
points of view about these formats. If you study it carefully, you will be able to
effectively articulate your desire to photograph a film in the aspect ratio you feel
will most benefit the story.
I. THE 1.85 ASPECT RATIO
Photographed in Normal Academy Aperture Photography
Until the early 1990s, 1.85 was far and away the most common aspect ratio
for motion pictures filmed in the United States since the late 1950s. This trend
shifted a bit in the 1990s with the advent of more and more films composed for
the 2.40 aspect ratio. With the proliferation of films photographed in Super 35, in
recent years, less then one third of the top 100 motion pictures are composed in
1.85. Around the world the spherical aspect ratio most commonly used swung
between 1.85 and 1.66 depending on the country; however, in many countries
that used to photograph exclusively in the 1.66 aspect ratio, 1.85 has become
more common.
Figure 5 portrays how 1.85 films get from camera to screen. In the illustration,
the red box indicates the 1.85 composition area of the frame. In actual practice,
there is no indication on the exposed negative of the area composed for. The area
above and below that area contains picture information, but is masked out when
projected or eliminated entirely in the digital intermediate.

A. ADVANTAGES OF 1.85
1. Intimate Format: Many perceive 1.85 as more appropriate for pictures that
lend themselves to a more compact visual. Since close-ups virtually fill the
entire frame, it is often considered a more “intimate” format. However, it can
be argued that many “intimate” films have been composed for the 2.40
aspect ratio.
2. Interiors: If a film is largely interiors, 1.85 is often argued as the preferred
format, since they don’t involve the wide panoramic vistas associated with
2.40. Conversely, many do not weigh interiors or exteriors in their choice of
format.
Figure 5: Standard Academy 1.85:1
3. Depth of Field: Greater depth of field (the total area in focus at a given
distance). Since 1.85 uses shorter focal length lenses as compared with
Anamorphic, greater depth of field is available.
This advantage is often negated when lenses are shot “wide open,” resulting
in a little or no gain in depth of field.
4. Composition: Considered by many to be a “taller” composition. Lending
itself to compositions with more emphasis on the vertical than horizontal.
Cathedral interiors, or city skylines for example.
5. Wide Sets: An opinion often expressed is that sets don’t need to be as wide
on a 1.85 film as one photographed in 2.40, resulting in savings in set
construction. However, there are many that would argue film format has no
bearing on the width of set construction. As the examples in Figures 3 and 4
(page 64) point out, it’s possible for 1.85 to require as wide a set as 2.40,
depending on the composition.
6. Least Complex: 1.85 is the simplest format to execute from a
mechanical/technical standpoint. The choice of photographic equipment is
virtually unlimited, as any standard 35mm camera will accommodate this
format. Plus, you have a choice of very wide and “fisheye” lenses not
available in anamorphic.
7. Expendable Cameras: If a stunt camera mount is required that risks
destroying a camera lens, spherical lenses can be used that are much more
affordable than expensive anamorphic lenses.
8. Video Transfers: While they are effectively not manufactured any more,
many production companies, are still concerned about accommodating the
1.33 (4 x 3) aspect ratio of Standard Definition television. With some effort
on the shooting company’s part, the 1.85 composition can protect for
standard definition video so that a simple one-to-one transfer can be done
without panning and scanning. While left and right image integrity remain
virtually intact this way, there is an approximate 33% increase in the vertical
height of the composition.
Although many think it routine to protect the TV area from intruding objects
(e.g., lights, microphones, etc.), it makes the cinematographer and
soundman’s job more difficult, by not being able to bring lights and
microphones down close to the area of composition. This is why many
cinematographers shooting 1.85 will request to shoot with a 1.66:1 aspect
ratio hard matte. While the same width on the film, 1.66 is slightly taller than
1.85, closely approximating the height of the 1.33 (4 x 3) TV frame. This
gives the cameraman more freedom to light his subjects without fear of a
light or microphone showing up when transferred to video.
Yet, in a world where 1.78:1 (16 x 9) aspect ratio video displays are now the
norm, 1.85, for all intents and purposes, drops precisely into the HDTV
frame. While not precisely the same aspect ratio, the 1.78:1 HDTV frame is
only 42 pixels taller than the 1.85 aspect ratio. Meaning, if you did letterbox
a 1.85 image in HDTV, you would have two 21-pixel lines above and below
the image.
9. Sharper Lenses: Many people believe it is an advantage to shoot 1.85
because spherical lenses are sharper than anamorphic 2.40’s lenses. This is a
misconception. It is true that spherical lenses are often sharper than
anamorphic; however, the much greater negative area used with anamorphic
more than makes up for the subtle difference in resolution from spherical
lenses. Properly executed camera tests comparing the two formats always
reach this conclusion.

B. DISADVANTAGES OF 1.85
1. Negative Area: The principal disadvantage is the actual size of the 1.85
format on the negative. Because of the smaller area, 1.85 is noticeably
grainier than anamorphic 2.40. This is not as noticeable in the original
negative stage and projecting in small screening rooms, but becomes more
pronounced when projected in large theaters.
Graininess can be mitigated with digital grain reduction techniques in the DI;
however, if not applied carefully, such techniques can render the images
looking artificial, a loss of sharpness, and almost video like. When compared
to 1.85, anamorphic 2.40 uses 55% more area on the negative. This is not
insignificant.
2. Composition: Because of the greater height of the 1.85 aspect ratio, ceilings
of sets are more prone to being photographed. This can be a restriction on
how easily a cameraman can light an interior set (visible ceilings limit where
a cameraman can hang lights). On some sets, it may require additional
construction, and has been the experience on films shooting on studio back
lots. Sound can also be compromised by the microphone having to be farther
away.
3. Magnification: When projected, the area of the frame for 1.85 is subjected to
much greater magnification on a screen than an anamorphic frame, resulting
in more apparent grain in the image.
4. Jump and Weave: If your motion picture will be projected from a film print,
film projectors always have some level of jump and weave, ranging from
annoying to barely detectable. Because of 1.85’s vertical height on the film
frame, it is subjected to a 55% increase in visible jump and weave over an
anamorphic image projected in the same theatre. This artifact is eliminated
with digital projection.
5. 70mm: Not truly compatible with standard 70mm: Although it can be done,
there is a large amount of unused print on the sides when blown up to 70mm.
Also, because of the greater magnification in 1.85/70mm prints, grain is
much more apparent than in anamorphic blow-ups to 70mm. While not
generally an issue any more, this may be a choice for special events where a
film is to be projected on a particularly large screen (e.g., stadiums or
outdoor venues), and 70mm is chosen to mitigate jump/weave and gain more
light on the screen. Less of an issue, with the proliferation of digital
projection, but still an available option.
II. THE 2.40 ASPECT RATIO
Photographed with Anamorphic (Scope) Lenses
The following is a discussion of the 2.40 aspect ratio photographed with
anamorphic lenses. A discussion of Super 35 composed for 2.40 will follow.
Anamorphic 2.40:1 (also known as CinemaScope®, Panavision®,
Technovision®, or any other number of brand names), optically squeezes the
width of the image to fit within the 35mm full aperture. While this discussion is
about current state of the art 35mm anamorphic releases, we are now in an era of
digital delivery where use of the area reserved for analog soundtracks could be
employed again. For a film only presented digitally, a cinematographer could
choose to use the entire full aperture width of the frame and compose for a 2.55
or 2.66:1 aspect ratio as when CinemaScope was originally conceived.
Figure 6 portrays how anamorphic 2.40 images get from camera to screen.
Many myths persist from the early days of CinemaScope when lenses
distorted images, film speeds were slow, and sets required the use of arc lamps
and their associated lighting crews. With today’s sharper anamorphic lenses,
combined with higher speed film stocks and more manageable lighting
packages, the challenges of shooting anamorphically has all but disappeared.

A. ADVANTAGES of Anamorphic 2.40

1. Negative Area: The most salient advantage is the much larger negative area.
A 55% increase in negative area over 1.85, results in finer grain, better
opticals, and an increase in apparent sharpness (I say apparent, because while
a similar image photographed in 1.85 may be sharper, the increase in grain
and greater magnification actually make it appear less sharp). This difference
becomes most apparent after going through the dupe negatives.
2. Composition: Allows for complex compositions. Able to do a tight close up
on two individuals simultaneously. Action can be spread across a wide
expanse of the frame, or a subject can be placed at one extreme edge of the
frame with an expanse of negative space emphasizing that subject. Objects
can be used to occlude part of the frame, creating an artificially smaller
aspect ratio for a given scene or camera angle. Gordon Wills, ASC’s
cinematography in Manhattan does this to great effect, as well as using the
wide 2.40 composition to photograph a very vertical city.
Figure 6: Anamorphic 2.40:1
3. Reason for Choice: Traditionally the format and aspect ratio of choice for
films with a lot of action or big production values. Conversely, many
successful films have been photographed in this format that were intimate,
dramatic interior pieces.
4. Field of View: Most closely approximates the normal field of vision.
5. Lighting: When shooting interiors, ceilings become obscured, potentially
giving the cameraman more alternatives for placement of his lighting. The
same applies to exterior city scenes with the possibility of less vertical set
construction. However, these advantages rely on the chosen composition.
6. Image Quality: A clear advantage is realized when anamorphic negatives are
scanned at 4K resolution for projection in digital cinema theaters. The area
of negative used in anamorphic films means the grain structure at least
equals the resolution of a 4K digital projector, and the benefits of the 4K
scan are realized whether projecting in 4K digital cinema, 2K digital cinema,
or displayed on a standard definition TV set. The “noisy” grain structure of
many 1.85 and Super 35 films is readily apparent even on 2K projectors.
7. 70mm: While generally only an issue for a special event presentation,
anamorphic is more compatible with 70mm. Because of the original negative
area, there is less of a blow up than 1.85 or Super 35, resulting in finer grain
in the 70mm print. Also, the aspect ratio can more closely fill the entire
70mm print frame’s 2.2:1 aspect ratio.
It must be said that poor quality anamorphic optical printing lenses can
negate any advantage the anamorphic film element has. It is important that
any lab implementing such a blowup uses state of the art optics. Or, in the
case of digital film recorders, it is important that the facility executing the
blow up uses advanced scaling algorithms.

B. DISADVANTAGES of Anamorphic 2.40

1. Video Transfer: Compromise of composition when transferred to standard
definition’s video aspect ratio. To extract a 1.33 (4 x 3) video image directly
from the center of the 2.40 frame usually results in odd compositions and the
loss of relevant action.
This is achieved with the “pan and scan” technique (panning the width of the
2.40 frame, following the most important action). While the technique is not
more expensive to perform when doing the video transfer, it usually takes
longer to perform because of the composition decisions required for each
scene. Most importantly, many people feel it damages and compromises the
original compositions.
Surprisingly, there still exist m ajor cable channels that transmit a 1.33
standard definition signal and present films panned and scanned.
The alternative is to release videos in letterbox format, where the 2.40 format
is maintained by putting black mattes above and below the frame. This is a
common practice in DVD releases of films. Letterboxing a 2.40 image with
HDTV’s 1.78 (16 x 9) aspect ratio isn’t objectionable at all, yet there are still
cable outlets that resist respecting a film’s original composition.
Performing an HDTV 16 x 9 pan and scan can have just as many
compositional compromises as those for standard definition TV.
The difficulty in video transfer is the most often stated disadvantage of the
2.40 format.
It has always been the position of the ASC that the original compositions of
motion pictures should always be respected. Therefore, letterboxing of
widescreen films is the preferred practice. When 1.33 motion pictures are
presented on widescreen displays, the image should be presented with “side
curtains” or in “pillar-box” format.
2. Expense: It is often said that Anamorphic is more expensive than 1.85.
However, the difference in cost between an anamorphic lens package vs. a
1.85 lens package is negligible. Panavision ‘C’ series anamorphic lenses
would be less than few thousand dollars more expensive over the course of a
ten-week film schedule.
Also, discussions with a number of prominent cameramen indicate they
wouldn’t increase the size of their lighting package significantly for the 2.40
aspect ratio. In fact, some say it wouldn’t change at all.
3. Composition: Single close-ups result in wide areas on either side of a face,
with potential for distracting objects in the frame. However, due to the nature
of anamorphic’s longer focal length lenses, usually anything in the
background on either side of a face would be severely out of focus, tending
to emphasize the subject.
4. Set Construction: Many feel that sets need to be built wider because of the
wider aspect ratio. There are also many who feel it doesn’t matter, and can be
accommodated by choosing lenses carefully. See again Figures 3 and 4 and
the discussion under Composition (page 64).
5. Blocking: Some directors have a hard time blocking action within the wider
frame.
6. Extras: Expense of additional extras may be necessary for some crowd
scenes.
7. Valuable lenses: Anamorphic lenses are far too valuable to risk in any risky
stunt situation (Panavision’s Primo lenses for example). Thus alternative
forms of capture with a Super 35 type of setup must be used, risking the
material may not cut well with the balance of the anamorphic originated
material. Though, if used for a quick action shot, the difference in image
quality will, most likely, not be detectable.
III. SUPER 35 FORMATS
The Super 35 formats, also sometimes referred to as Super Techniscope, Super
1.85, and Super 2.35, are all flat, spherical lens formats using similar equipment
to that used in 1.85 photography.
When created in the film lab, all of the Super 35 formats require an optical
step when making dupe negatives for 35mm release prints. When a digital
intermediate is employed, the reformatting happens when a digital negative is
created on a laser film recorder, resulting in a remarkably higher quality 35mm
release element than one created optically. In digital cinema presentations this is
not an issue, as the release element is effectively first generation.
At times, some will suggest shooting Super 35 composed for 1.85 (a.k.a.
Super 1.85). The reason for this is the belief that the slight increase in negative
area with Super 1.85 will yield a finer grained image for release. In tests with
absolutely solid, perfect exposures this difference is almost imperceptible, and is
hardly worth the effort for the subtle gain in resolution. The process of sending
the image through interpositive and internegative, and repositioning for standard
1.85 release, negates any benefit from the small increase in negative area. In
practice, when created photochemically, depending on the scene and how well it
has been photographed, Super 1.85 can end up looking worse than standard 1.85.
In a film lab workflow, Standard 1.85 produces all dupe negatives and prints
with contact printing, while Super 1.85 requires an optical step to reduce the
image into the standard 1.85 area. Contact printing significantly reduces the
appearance of grain, while any optical step precisely focuses the grain in a
negative, effectively enhancing the appearance of grain.
While a digital intermediate eliminates any generational loss of quality in
Super 1.85, the benefits are still not sufficient to justify the effort.
As for arguments that Super 1.85 yields a better 1.85 blow up to 70mm, the
difference is subtle, and only noticeable in a direct A/B or side-by-side
comparison, otherwise it is indistinguishable. If, however, a scene is already
committed to an optical step (i.e., a visual effects shot), Super 1.85 may provide
an improvement in negative area that results in a better image quality when
compared with a standard 1.85 image going through the same VFX processes.
When people speak of the Super 35 format, they are usually referring to its
use composed for a 2.40:1 aspect ratio, the same ratio as anamorphic 2.40.
Anamorphic 2.40 uses special lenses that squeeze the wide image to fit within
the special anamorphic aperture frame (full aperture less the analog soundtrack
area, a.k.a. the sound aperture). Super 35 composes for 2.40 with standard
lenses, making use of the full aperture area, extending the width of the frame
into that area of the negative traditionally reserved for the soundtrack; yet the
composition is just over 2 perfs high. Although most cameras already expose
picture information in the soundtrack area, it normally goes unused. Figure 7
portrays how Super 35 composed for 2.40 gets from camera to the screen.
Figure 7: Super 35/Super Techniscope 2.40:1
One version of Super 35 is where the image is centered on the frame of film,
referred to as common center (see Figure 8). As the figure illustrates,
information is exposed over the entire full aperture area of the film. The
filmmaker decides what format he is composing for, and it is that aspect ratio the
film lab or digital intermediate facility will eventually extract from the frame for
theatrical presentation.
Another method of photography for Super 35 is referred to as common topline
(see Figure 9). Common topline derives its name from the ground glass of the
camera having multiple formats scribed on it, all having the same, or common,
topline.

Figure 8: With common center, Super 35 images are aligned

with the vertical center of the full aperture frame.

This variant of Super 35 was originally conceived with the notion that it could
be a generic film format; shoot a movie with the option of releasing it in any
aspect ratio you want. The common topline was supposed to lessen the effect of
changing aspect ratios by maintaining the headroom and raising or lowering the
bottom of the frame. However, most cinematographers find that composing for
multiple formats neutralizes the effect of any one composition. In actual practice,
it has mainly been used to mitigate conversion of Super 35 wide screen films to
the 1.33 (4 x 3) aspect ratio of standard television. Yet, even in this application,
the change in composition from 2.40 to television’s 1.78 or 1.33 aspect ratios can
rarely be achieved automatically (close-ups become medium shots, etc.), and
usually requires the same care as an Anamorphic pan and scan.

Figure 9: With common topline, Super 35 apect ratios share

the same top, or headroom, for their compositions.
Compositions other than 2.40:1 are obtained by the bottom
of the composition.

Experience has shown, as most filmmakers will agree, just modifying a film’s
aspect ratio to fit within the video realm is a creative process. To assume that a
generic format will automatically deliver pleasing compositions no matter what
aspect ratio you choose will not hold up creatively.
That being said, there are several filmmakers that employ the common topline
format with great success and feel it allows them to create a version for those
venues still displaying a 4 x 3 image that is less objectionable than panning and
scanning. Those most successful at the transformation are careful to evaluate
each scene and camera angle on its own merits, and don’t attempt a generic
framing for an entire film.
Of course, the ideal is to view films in the composition they were originally
intended to be seen, without any alteration in the composition.
The only other technical note with regard to the common topline format, is
that scenes photographed with a zoom in common topline do not automatically
transfer over to another format by just lowering the bottom of the frame line.
Meaning, if a 1.33 extraction is performed, the zoom will still be centered
towards the top of the frame, where the 2.40 composition is centered, and a 1.33
composition will appear to drift upwards during a zoom. Any other aspect ratios
must be centered on that same point (1.33, 1.85, etc.) when a zoom takes place
within a shot. For these shots, common topline must be panned and scanned.
The rest of this discussion will only deal with Super 35 composed for a 2.40:1
aspect ratio, and apply to either common center or common topline versions.
Compositionally, Super 35’s 2.40:1 aspect ratio has the same compositional
benefits and constraints as anamorphic 2.40; here we discuss those qualities that
are unique to the Super 35 format.

A. ADVANTAGES of Super 35 Composed for 2.40 Aspect Ratio

1. Depth of Field: A principal advantage of this format is its greatly increased
depth of field over anamorphic 2.40 for the same field of horizontal view. To
achieve a width of composition (field of view) the same as with an
anamorphic lens, Super 35 will use a focal length half that of the anamorphic
lens.
For example, to capture the same composition as an anamorphic 50mm lens,
a Super 35 setup (from the same nodal point) would use a 25mm focal
length. As with all lenses, shorter focal lengths have greater depth of field;
therefore, for a given composition, the Super 35 will have a greater depth of
field vs. anamorphic.
However, as stated in the advantages of 1.85, the potential for greater depth
of field can be minimized if lenses are shot “wide open.”
2. Expense: An often-stated advantage is the production savings in the
lens/camera package over anamorphic. Yet the savings over the course of a
production would amount to less than $20K per camera. This becomes even
less relevant in a traditional lab workflow, as the expense of optical Super 35
dupe negatives (needed for 35mm release prints) negate any cost savings in
production.
When a digital intermediate is used for Super 35, the need for lab optical
dupes is eliminated because a laser film recorder is able to produce
remarkably high quality anamorphic negatives already optimized for 35mm
release.
Figure 10: 65mm/70mm 2.2:1
Figure 10: 65mm/70mm 2.2:1
3. Multiple Aspect Ratios: Able to shoot a film composed for 2.40 and, if
necessary, change directions and release in 1.85 by increasing the top and
bottom of the frame. For most filmmakers, however, this would be a serious
compromise of the original composition (see Figures 5 and 6 and
Disadvantage #9 below).
4. Size of Lenses: Lenses are much smaller than anamorphic, resulting in a
smaller, more lightweight and portable camera package. This smaller size
allows the camera to fit in smaller places than some large anamorphic optics
allow (this is one of the reasons it was chosen for Top Gun; the cameras were
able to fit in the aircraft cockpits).
5. Video Transfer: Claimed to be a simpler 4 x 3 standard definition video
transfer by just doing a full aperture extraction, resulting in a dramatic
increase in the top and bottom areas over the original 2.40 composition (See
Figures 5 and 6). In practice this never works, since a full frame extraction is
such a distortion of the original composition (e.g., close-ups become medium
shots). In actual practice, the best transfers are a combination of full aperture
extractions where appropriate with variations of panning and scanning when
required.
The word of caution here is that adapting a motion picture to the video
domain always requires careful attention, and there are rarely any quick-fix
ways to achieve that.
6. 70mm: Often claimed to be more compatible with 70mm than anamorphic.
Some have this impression because Super 35 is a straight blowup to 70mm,
while anamorphic has to be unsqueezed when enlarged to 70mm.
This would be true if Super 35 had an equivalent negative area to
anamorphic. As it stands, anamorphic’s greater negative area makes up for
any possible loss of resolution when unsqueezed to 70mm. The result is,
70mm prints from Super 35 appear noticeably grainier than those from
anamorphic negatives. This holds true for both digital and optical blow-ups.

B. DISADVANTAGES of Super 35 Composed for 2.40 Aspect Ratio

1. Negative Area: Most notable is the small negative area. It has only slightly
more negative area than standard 1.85 photography. When compared to
anamorphic 2.40’s projection aperture, anamorphic’s negative has over 53%
more area. The difference in negative area becomes most pronounced after
35mm dupe negatives are made. Anamorphic dupe negs are made with
contact printing, which in itself tends to lessen the appearance of grain.
Super 35 dupe negs created in a film lab involve an optical step where the
image is blown up, then squeezed to produce an anamorphic image for
35mm release prints. Because of this optical step, grain in the negative tends
to be more sharply resolved. Combine that with magnifying a smaller area of
negative to fill the same screen area, images become noticeably grainier than
the same scene photographed anamorphically.
The most prevalent method for posting a Super 35 is to employ a digital
intermediate. With a DI, the detrimental effects of the film lab’s optical steps
are eliminated. However, if negatives are scanned and projected at 4K, the
differences between anamorphic and Super 35 negatives again become
severe, with the anamorphic having much less apparent grain, greater
sharpness and clarity of the image.
Figure 11: IMAX
2. Opticals: If a film laboratory workflow is employed, all dissolves and fades
must be done with double IP’s or A & B printing, for best image quality. If
traditional optical methods are employed, they become excessively grainy
after being subjected to the second optical step required to produce the film
release prints.
Obviously, you will usually be using a digital intermediate, and these
disadvantages vanish.
3. Composite Prints: In a film lab workflow, because of the full aperture
image, composite prints cannot be struck until after the image has been
repositioned into a dupe negative, thus making room for the optical sound
track. If digital or HD previews are employed, this becomes a nonissue.
4. Prints from Original Negative: In traditional photochemical workflows,
because of the optical step involved, original negative composite show prints
cannot be struck. Actually, it is technically possible, but can only be done
with complex procedures and such a high risk of failure, it doesn’t merit
subjecting the original negative to the handling involved.
As you may have guessed by now, with a digital intermediate, a “new”
negative will be created on a film recorder that will integrate the required
anamorphic squeeze without introducing the grain found in traditional
optical printing.
5. Previews: More difficult to preview a traditional film print, because of a
special projection mask required for the full aperture work print. Since Super
35 uses the area reserved for a soundtrack in the workprint stage, many film
theatres cannot be adapted to project the format. A nonissue for digital
previews.
6. Projected Image Size: Not an issue in digital projection. However, when
projecting the full aperture work print image, the 2.40 composition will be
smaller than the same image projected from an anamorphic print. This is
because the standard practice with Super 35 is to use a 1.85 lens when
projecting the work picture. While possible to get custom lenses that enlarge
the image to the same size as an anamorphic print, it isn’t practical since you
would need a special lens for each theatre where you would want to do this.
Also, while a special lens may equal the size of an anamorphic projected
image, the magnified image also means much greater magnification of
projector jump and weave, and a loss in projection brightness.
7. Editing: On the rare occasion that a flatbed editing console would be used
(KEM), it may require adaptation to reveal the image contained in the
soundtrack area.
8. Choice of Negative: Because of the small negative area, cinematographers
should limit choice of negatives to slower speed stocks, or overexpose high
speed negatives a stop or more for better grain quality, often negating the
advantage of the high speed negative.
Because of the optical step involved, proper exposures are critical. Super 35
is not forgiving, should a negative be underexposed. In one instance, a film
was so poorly exposed, that the film was altered from the 2.40 composition
to a Super 1.85 composition as the reduction employed in Super 1.85 was
less objectionable than the steps involved with creating an anamorphic
element.
Sometimes a DI can mitigate this problem, but not without some
compromises.
9. Pan and Scan: 4 x 3 video transfers can involve panning and scanning of the
widescreen aspect ratio. This is also a pan and scan of a much smaller
negative area than anamorphic 2.40, resulting in a lower quality video
transfer for 4 x 3 presentations. This becomes most evident in letterbox
versions of a film and particularly in 16 x 9 pan and scans for HDTV.
10. Visual Effects: There is potential for more expensive visual effects, if a
decision is made to have coverage beyond the 2.40 composition, allowing for
full frame video transfers. Matte shots, miniatures, etc., might be
compromised on full frame transfers if the image isn’t protected completely
to 1.33 (see Figure 5). However, the expense of coverage above and below
the 2.40 composition for visual effects shots could add significant cost to
those effects, making a pan and scan the more cost-effective option.
DIGITAL MOTION PICTURE CAMERAS
Suffice it to say that any aspect ratio is achievable with the current digital
motion picture cameras available.
Up until the past few years, the capture format of most digital cameras has
been that of HDTV (1920 x 1080) or what is commonly called 2K.4 The aspect
ratio of all but a few of these cameras is the HDTV aspect ratio of 1.78:1 (16 x 9
in video parlance). This 1.78:1 aspect ratio is a result of the different camera
manufacturers leveraging what they have built for HDTV broadcasting cameras.
It’s rare to find a digital camera that doesn’t owe part of its design to television
cameras.

Figure 12: In a 1920 x 1080 digital camera, only the center

800 lines are used for a “Scope” or 2.40:1 aspect ratio.

More recently however, Arri, Red, and Sony have built cameras that have
unique designs optimized for motion picture cinematography.
Previously, the photo chemical process of film put all the burden of imaging
science on the film itself, allowing motion picture camera manufacturers to focus
their tasks, when building cameras, on the functionality of everything that was
required to get the image to the film; lenses, stable film transport, ergonomics,
etc.
With the world of digital imaging, there has been a paradigm shift. Now the
burden of the imaging science has been put on the camera manufacturers
themselves; something once left to the likes of Kodak or Fuji.
When composing for the 2.40:1 aspect ratio, most digital cameras will capture
a letterboxed 2.40 slice out of the center of the imaging sensor, which, in 1920 x
1080 cameras, results in the pixel height of the image being limited to only 800
lines.
Cameras with sensor aspect ratios approaching 2.0:1 or 1.33 sensors that can
use anamorphic lenses mitigate the compromise of clarity when composing for
2.40:1.
Yet another camera does creative things with the clocking of CCD pixels so
that the entire imaging area is still utilized when shooting a 2.40 image, with a
subtle compromise in overall resolution.
We are already witnessing more and more cameras with imaging sensors with
4K pixel resolution. So, hopefully, we’ll be back to movies having the highest
fidelity imagery again.

Resolution vs. Megapixels

When it comes to determining which digital camera to choose, don’t allow
claims of “megapixels” or numbers of “K” to influence your understanding of
what a camera is capable of. They are terms that are used loosely to indicate the
resolution of a digital camera that don’t follow any set guidelines. There are
many factors that would have to be taken into account if you were going to
evaluate the merits of a digital imaging device based on specifications alone.
Two different cameras with precisely the same number of pixels/photosites can
deliver images of dramatically different resolution, tonal scale, and dynamic
range.
The most straightforward way to understand a digital motion picture camera’s
capabilities is to shoot your own rigorous tests and evaluate the images in a
proper viewing environment (see “Screen Heights are Critical” on page 60). In
the same manner when a new film stock has been introduced, the best way to
truly understand that emulsion’s capabilities is to test it, rather than rely on the
claims of the manufacturer.
Also, it will be less confusing if you focus your evaluations on the final image
delivered by a given digital camera. Claims about a camera’s imaging sensor can
be influenced by marketing. If we concentrate on the final processed image that
is delivered for projection, color correction, and final presentation, we will be
evaluating a camera’s true caliber. This cannot be achieved looking at an on-set
monitor.

Fill Factor
There is one area of a digital camera’s specifications that is most helpful in
determining its sensitivity and dynamic range. This is the statistic that conveys
how much area of an imaging sensor is actually sensitive to, and captures light
vs. how much of a sensor is blind, relegated to the circuitry for transferring
image information. This is called the “fill factor.” It is also a statistic that is not
readily published by all camera manufacturers.
This is an area where not all digital cameras are created equal. The amount of
area a digital imaging sensor is actually sensitive to light (the “fill factor”) has a
direct correlation to image resolution and exposure latitude. With the currently
available professional digital motion picture cameras, you will find a range of
high profile cameras where less than 35% of the sensor’s total area is sensitive to
light, to cameras where more than 50% of the sensor is light sensitive.
As film cinematographers, we are used to working with a medium where it
was presumed that the entire area of a 35mm film frame is sensitive to light; in
digital parlance, that would be a fill factor of 100%. When a digital camera has a
fill factor of 40%, that means it is throwing away 60% of the image information
that is focused on the chip. Your instincts are correct if you think throwing away
60% of image information is a bad idea.
Since the imaging sites on a solid state sensor are arrayed in a regular grid,
think of the 40% sensitive area as being holes in a steel plate. Thus, the image
gathered is basically similar to shooting with a film camera through a fine steel
mesh. You don’t actually see the individual steel gridlines of the mesh, but it
tends to have an affect on image clarity under most conditions.
The fill factor is accurate only when it ignores lenslets, and only reflect the
size of the actual photosite well that captures photons vs. the rest of the imaging
area.
With this statistic, you can quickly compare camera capabilities, or at least
understand their potential.
The higher the fill factor of a given sensor (closer to 100%), the lower the
noise floor will be (the digital equivalent of film grain) and the better the
dynamic range will be.
In addition, solid state sensors tend to have various image processing circuits
to make up for things such as lack of blue sensitivity, etc., so it is important to
examine individual color channels under various lighting conditions, as well as
the final RGB image. Shortcomings in automatic gain controls, etc. may not
appear until digital postproduction processes (VFX, DI, etc.) begin to operate on
individual color channels.
Sound complicated? Perhaps, but all you need to understand is that product
claims can, and will, be misleading. We’ve lost our way a bit when thinking that
counting pixels alone is a way of quantifying a digital camera’s capability. A
return to photographing resolution charts, and actually examining what these
cameras are capable of will serve you much better in understanding how a given
camera will help you tell your story.
In short, do not be seduced by technical specification mumbo jumbo. Look at
images photographed by the camera in question, and evaluate from a proper
distance of screen heights from the image.

Scanner vs. Cameras

To clarify, at the risk of confusing, 2K and 4K film scanners often capture
more information than their camera counterparts; a 2K film scanner will usually
have a CCD array of 2048 x 1556, while a 4K scanner will capture a 4096 x
3112 image. The lesson here is that one’s definition of the dimensions of 2K or
4K can vary; the terms 2K and 4K are only guidelines, your mileage may vary.
It is important to understand these variables in characteristics, and the need to
be very specific when describing the physical characteristics of film cameras,
digital cameras, scanners and telecines. In the world of film cameras (and film
scanners), 2K refers to an image which is 2048 pixels horizontally (perf to perf)
and 1556 pixels vertically. This image captures the area of either the SMPTE 59
Style C full aperture frame (.981″ x .735″) or the SMPTE 59 Style B sound
aperture frame (.866″ x .735″).
Figure 13: At left, a Bayer pattern photogate sensor, where each
photosite is transformed to yield one full color pixel value. At right,
A photodiode “macrocell” design, where it takes six photosites to
yield one full color pixel value.

A 4K scan captures the same areas of the film frame as a 2K scan, but the
image yielded is usually 4096 x 3112. With both 2K and 4K scanners, each
individual pixel contains a single unique sample of each of red, green and blue.
In the digital camera world, 2K often refers to an image that is 1920 pixels
horizontally and 1080 pixels vertically. Again, each individual pixel contains a
single unique sample of each of red, green and blue. This sampling of a unique
red, green and blue value for each pixel in the image is what is called a “true
RGB” image, or in video parlance, a 4:4:4 image. While these cameras have an
image frame size that corresponds to HDTV standard, they provide a 4:4:4
image from the sensor, which is not to HDTV standard; which is a good thing, as
4:4:4 will yield a superior picture.

Pixels
Much confusion could be avoided if we would define the term “pixel” to
mean the smallest unit area which yields a full color image value (e.g., RGB,
YUV, etc., or a full grayscale value in the case of black and white). That is, a
“pixel” is the smallest stand-alone unit of picture area that does not require any
information from another imaging unit. A “photosite” or “well” is defined to be
the smallest area which receives light and creates a measure of light at that point.
All current digital motion picture cameras require information from multiple
“photosites” to create one RGB image value. In some cases three photosites for
one RGB value, in others, six photosites to create one RGB image value, a then
Bayer pattern devices that combine numerous photosites to create one RGB
value.
These definitions inevitably lead us to define the term “resolution” as the
number of pixels that yield a single full color or grayscale image value (RGB,
YUV, etc.).
The images above are just two of many examples of photo sensors used by
digital cameras. One illustrates a Bayer pattern array of photosites using a
photogate sensor, and the other an interline transfer array of photosites
employing a photodiode lenslet design.
© 2012 Robert C. Hummel III

Special Thanks
To stephen H. Burum, ASC, Daniel Rosen, Garrett Smith, Evans Wetmore, and
Anne Kemp Hummel in helping bring greater clarity to this discussion.

1. A historical note regarding 2.35 vs. 2.40 vs. 2.39. CinemaScope films with an analog soundtrack were
originally an aspect ratio of 2.35:1. In the early 1970s, the height of the anamorphic aspect ratio was
modified slightly by SMPTE to help hide splices, effectively changing the ratio to 2.40:1. Old habits die
hard and many still refer to the format as 2.35:1. Also, in 1995, SMPTE again made a change in the size of
the CinemaScope projection area to accommodate digital soundtracks. In both cases the math of the aspect
ratio yields an aspect ratio number of 2.39 and continues on several places to the right of the decimal point.
Cinematographers felt that rounding up to 2.40 ensured there would be less confusion with the 2.35 aspect
ratio. The actual difference between 2.39 and 2.40 is so inconsequential that, from a compositional
standpoint, they are the same.
2. If you actually calculate the aspect ratio of Academy aperture from SMPTE specs, the math has always
come out to 1.37:1. More often than not, people will refer to Academy aperture compositions as 1.33 (the
original aspect ratio of silent films), and almost never is the ratio called 1.37. The compositional difference
between the two is negligible.
3. Anamorphic comes from the word anamorphosis, meaning an image that appears distorted, yet under the
proper conditions will appear normal again. Leonardo da Vinci is credited with first using the technique
during the Renaissance.
4. When film resolutions are discussed, and the terms 2K or 4K are used, these refer to the number of lines
that can be resolved by the film. In the case of 2K, that would mean 2048 lines or 1024 line pairs as
photographed from a resolution chart. In the case of 4K, that would mean 4096 lines or 2048 line pairs
(4096 lines) as photographed from a resolution chart.
In digital imagery the term is applied a bit more loosely. While 2K and 4K still mean 2048 and 4096,
respectively, with digital scanning and photography it refers to a number of photo sites on the scanner or
camera image sensor. Numbers of pixels does not necessarily translate into actual image resolution. Add to
the confusion that many manufacturers have a curious habit of rounding up; which is how 1920 pixels gets
called “2K.”
Anamorphic Cinematography

by John Hora, ASC

A namorphic motion picture photography refers to a process by which an

image is compressed or “squeezed” optically at the time of original
photography. This geometrically distorted image is then expanded or unsqueezed
in presentation by a complementary process of de-anamorphosis.
Beginning in the early 1950s, in response to competitive pressures from a
growing television audience and reduced theater attendance, the motion picture
industry moved to enhance the theatrical experience with large “widescreen”
presentations with an aspect ratio wider than that of the previous standard of
1.37:1. The 20th Century Fox Corporation revolutionized the industry by
introducing the “CinemaScope” process, which allowed the continued use of
existing 35mm cameras and projectors. The CinemaScope process consisted of a
system of 2X anamorphic compressed wide-angle photography and projection, a
very large, curved, high-gain screen, four-channel discrete stereophonic sound,
and specially perforated print stock. This special “Fox Hole” stock had smaller
perforations, which allowed more area on the print for the magnetic striping that
carried the special sound track.
In contrast to methods that simply masked the top and bottom of the Academy
Aperture and required increased magnification in projection, the CinemaScope
system increased the area of negative available for the photographic image.
CinemaScope was able to use the full height of the available 35mm frame,
simultaneously expanding the aspect ratio horizontally to 2.55:1 with
anamorphic optics and reducing the magnification required to fill the large
screen. This basic system has continued in use with various modifications.
In accurately controlled demonstrations, it has repeatedly been shown that the
anamorphic photographic process produces an image quality that is superior to
any other widescreen process where original photography is performed on 35mm
film with standard 4-perf production cameras. One primary reason for this is
that, compared to 1:85 or Super 35 (SuperTechniscope) methods, anamorphic
photography is able to use a considerably greater area of the original negative,
resulting in decreased grain, increased spatial resolution and increased fineness
of tonal delineation.
High-quality anamorphic release prints can also be derived from “flat”
(nonanamorphic) photography originated on larger negatives such as 65mm or
VistaVision. This is often the preferred method for visual effects work.
Anamorphic 35mm production photography also yields acceptable 70mm release
prints.
Other systems of production photography such as Techniscope, SuperScope
and Super 35 (SuperTechniscope), attempt to emulate the wide aspect ratio of the
“scope” image while using considerably smaller negative areas. In these
systems, quality is lost when the image is converted to an anamorphic release
print. The small image area requires slower and finer-grained film stocks to
survive the blow-up, and many of the advantages sought by using the process are
thus nullified. The high resolution use of the Digital Intermediate process can
mitigate these losses.
The anamorphic optical system used for CinemaScope and Panavision
processes are configured to compress the horizontal field of view by a factor of 2
times while leaving the vertical field unchanged.
There have been numerous methods to achieve this anamorphic capture of
images, and some designs date to the nineteenth century. The original
CinemaScope system was based on designs of Henri Chretien and consisted of a
conventional prime lens that formed the image, and a supplementary afocal
wide-angle attachment on the front. This attachment was essentially a reversed
Galileon telescope, similar to viewing through a set of “opera glasses” in
reverse. A large front concave negative element is seen through a positive
convex element. This is essentially a supplementary wide-angle adapter. The
anamorphic effect is achieved by grinding these lenses as sections of a cylinder
rather than as sections of a sphere, as is the case with conventional optics. The
power of this attachment is zero in the vertical axis and 1⁄2 in the horizontal, axis
resulting in a “squeeze” factor of 2. Placed in front of a 50mm prime, for
example, the lens system would behave as a 50mm in the vertical plane and as a
25mm in the horizontal plane. Thus, the lens behaves as if it were two different
focal lengths simultaneously.
The anamorphic attachment had to be adjusted to bring the horizontal field
into focus at the same plane as the vertical field which had been brought into
focus by the spherical prime lens. With the introduction of integrated designs,
these two focus adjustments are automatically done by precision mechanical
coupling within the lens assembly. For example, when the focus is changed to a
closer object, the prime lens which forms the image must be moved forward to
obtain focus. Additionally, the anamorphoser’s position and spacing must be
simultaneously adjusted to bring the horizontal rays into focus at the same plane
as the vertical.
However, since the spherical prime lens will have been racked forward from
the film plane by the amount that a 50mm would demand, it will be forward of
the position that a 25mm would need. When the anamorphic unit is adjusted to
obtain correct focus, the effective focal length of this horizontal lens system will
have effectively been increased in the horizontal, producing a larger image on
that one axis. The result is that the squeeze ratio is now less than a full 2 times in
the horizontal direction when compared to the unsqueezed vertical direction.
Since the projection expansion remains constant at 2 times, close-up objects
(such a human face) will be overly expanded horizontally by the projector lens,
resulting in fat faces or “anamorphic mumps.”
This can be avoided by leaving the lens at a more distant focus, even at
infinity, and affecting focus by placing a lens of positive Diopter in front of the
anamorphoser. A method of constructing anamorphics is to manufacture the lens
pre-focused at some ideal distance for the particular lens and then use a spherical
focusing lens system in front to do the actual focusing. This is similar to the
methods used to focus most zoom lenses.
Panavision successfully eliminated the “mumps” problem by using
counterrotating cylindrical elements. When the lens was set at infinity, these two
elements were aligned to cancel each other and provided no cylindrical effect.
As focus was placed on closer objects, the prime elements were moved forward
to focus the vertical axis; at the same time, the horizontal axis would be brought
to focus by the power obtained by rotating the two astigmatizers by appropriate
amounts in opposing directions. With this design, rather than the image
“pumping” horizontally with focus changes, the background will appear to
stretch vertically. The lack of distortion on actor’s faces quickly made the
Panavision system universally favored in Hollywood.
On longer focal lengths, and on zoom lenses, a rear anamorphic unit can be
fitted. This is equivalent to the familiar 2X extender attachment, except that it is
again not a spherical lens but rather a cylindrical section. In this case, it cannot
increase the angle of view of the spherical fore section, but rather is used to
stretch the image vertically by a factor of 2 so that when expanded horizontally
two times by the projection lens, images will have the correct geometry. Since
the field of view is not increased horizontally but rather decreased vertically, the
focal length is described as that which would be equivalent to a spherical lens
with the same vertical field of view, i.e., equal to two times the lens’ original
focal length. Thus, a 20–100mm becomes a 40–200mm zoom. A 200mm prime
would be labeled a 400mm. This keeps the terminology consistent. Also, the 2X
vertical stretch will result in a loss of light of one stop, which is half what a
conventional 2X extender would have required, since the expansion of the image
is only along one axis, the vertical.
As a rule, short lenses are anamorphosed in front of the spherical components,
and long lenses in the rear.
Other methods of compressing the image include the use of prisms and
mirrors. Two wedge prisms may be placed before a spherical prime so that they
will compress the image in one direction. This system allows the squeeze factor
to be varied as the angle between the prisms is increased or decreased. To focus
closer than infinity, a spherical focusing unit must be incorporated in front of the
prisms, and it is possible to add the counter rotating astigmatizers. Traditionally,
such prism systems were usually applied to lenses with narrow angles of view,
and long lenses working at greater distances, such as those used in projection.
Light losses are greater than with cylindrical lens systems. Prism systems have
been used at lower squeeze ratios for original photography in the Ultra-
Panavision and MGM Camera 65 systems with outstanding results.
Curved reflecting prism-mirror systems of very high quality have been
constructed in the form of a periscope. Known as “Delrama,” these optics were
used with the Technirama system employing a moderate compression factor of
1.5.
All of these various methods are compatible and can be mixed as long as the
long as the squeeze ratio remains consistent throughout the production and
matches the expansion during the presentation.
USING THE LENSES
All anamorphic equipment must be manufactured and maintained to very
close tolerances. As with all lenses, thorough inspection and testing should be
performed before committing the equipment to a production. Lenses should be
inspected on a lens projector and collimation and focus marks checked on the
cameras to be used. Judging focus on the groundglass of the camera while in
production is much more difficult for the camera operator with anamorphic
lenses. The reliability of focus marks also takes on increased importance.
Film tests should be shot with every lens at full aperture, as well as at other
apertures likely to be used. Due to the high (2X) power required of the
anamorphoser, most anamorphic lenses will improve dramatically when stopped
down from the maximum aperture by several stops. While very good results
should be expected at even the widest apertures, test for improved quality at f/4
or f/5.6. Observe any differences in quality at the far right and left sides of the
image. It is important to view tests projected on a large screen under optimal
conditions. Anamorphic films are meant to be presented large.
The quality of the lens may change dramatically when focused at the closest
distances, so test the lenses at these distances. In some cases it is possible to
obtain better results using a +1⁄4 or +1⁄2 supplementary diopter, rather than
racking the focus to the closest range. Testing will reveal if this is the case.
Also test to observe how the depth of field falls off when focus is brought
forward. The differing designs can give considerably different effects, even
when set at the same focus and same f-stop.
When mounted on the camera or projector, the azimuth or vertical orientation
is especially critical and must be straight north and south relative to the aperture
or strange geometrical distortions will occur. This effect is sometimes used
intentionally and rotating versions have been marketed as “Mesmerizers.” (In the
1920s Bell & Howell sold just such a device for 16mm home movies.) Looking
into the front of a front-anamorphosed lens while shining a flashlight or pocket
laser pointer into it will quickly reveal if the vertical orientation is off. Lining the
camera up exactly level and perpendicular to a chart with a vertical and
horizontal grid on it, and shooting a film test, is recommended.
Over the years, differing generations of anamorphic lenses have found loyal
adherents due to the specific “looks” or qualities of the particular lenses.
Matching the lenses within a production is essential. The decision to choose
lenses of a certain series or manufacturer has aesthetic as well as practical
implications.
Anamorphic lenses have lots of glass, and much of it can be expected to move
with changes in focus. Some elements may even rotate in opposing directions.
The types of flare(s) that can be produced may be unique to a particular design.
The rather dramatic horizontal line that can be caused by a light source such as a
flashlight shining into the lens can be used for dramatic effect. Preparation
should involve testing for flare and these possibly unique effects, whether or not
they are desired.
As with all cinema lenses, depth of field should be calculated using the f-stop,
and exposure set using the T-stop. Rather than being able to use a circle of
confusion to calculate depth of field, anamorphic lens systems produce an
“ellipse of confusion.” The vertical and horizontal axes have differing depths of
field. For example, a 50mm lens behaves as a 50mm vertically and as a 25mm
horizontally. Between the vertical axis and the horizontal axis, the lens will
exhibit the depth of field equivalent to various focal lengths between 25 and 50
millimeters. It is safe to use the most conservative value for calculating depth of
field, which would be that of the spherical prime component. However,
experience may show that the system can be quite forgiving. Again, testing and
familiarity with the lenses being used is the best answer.
Despite what may at first seem to be formidable complications, anamorphic
production photography remains the premier method of achieving large, high-
quality images in 35mm production. The system frees the aspect ratio from the
constraint of the shape of a predetermined camera aperture. The nearly square
shape of the scope aperture is optically efficient. The undesired effects of higher
speed films are reduced because of the large negative area, compensating for any
need to work at a smaller aperture. The results on the screen at dailies is usually
the clincher, and that quality can be depended on to hold to the release print, as
no blowup or optical conversion is required.

John Hora is a member of the ASC Board of Governors. His many credits as a
cinematographer include the feature films The Howling, Twilight Zone: The
Movie, Gremlins and Honey, I Blew Up the Kid.
Exposure Meters

by Jim Branch

T he usual final adjustment of a motion picture camera for exposure control is

made with the iris diaphragm in the camera lens. While this is a very
simple adjustment, a great deal depends upon its accuracy. Much thought has
gone into the objectives to be attained by the adjustment of the diaphragm, and
the means to obtain a correct adjustment.
It is recognized that a prime object of exposure control in motion picture
photography is to obtain consistent and uniform images of the principal subjects.
It is very important to obtain flesh tones that will be consistent from one scene to
the next. It is undesirable to have flesh tones that are light in one scene, dark in
the next without reason, and light again in the subsequent scene. Correct
exposure control will provide negatives that are consistent from scene to scene,
and that can be printed on a very narrow range of printer lights.
Modern exposure control is based on the use of a good light meter. The light
meter measures the effective intensity of the light and takes into account the
sensitivity of the film in the camera and the exposure time. The exposure time is
a result of the frames-per-second rate at which the camera operates, and the
angle of the shutter opening. Professional cinematographers usually think in
terms of 24 frames per second and a 170- to 200-degree shutter, that give a basic
exposure time of 1⁄50 of a second. The light meter combines all of the foregoing
factors to give an answer in terms of the appropriate camera lens stop.
Light meters are of two types. Some measure the incident light that
illuminates the subject. Others measure the light that is reflected from the scene.
The results obtained from these two different types of meters may be quite
different. It is therefore important to understand the differences between the two
types.
INCIDENT-LIGHT METERS
These meters are normally used at the location of the photographic subject.
They measure the light that is effective in illuminating the subject, and provide
an answer in terms of f-stop or T-stop for the camera lens. The camera lens
diaphragm opening is then set to match the effective intensity of the prevailing
illumination.
When the film is exposed, the various reflectances presented by the subject
will then each fall into a given place in the film acceptance range. For example,
a face tone of 30% reflectance will fall into the 30% reflectance position in the
film acceptance range. This method thus provides consistently uniform face
tones from scene to scene.
The incident-light meter accomplishes its purpose by doing two things. It
measures the incident light intensity at the location of the photographic subject.
It also takes into account the conditions of illumination geometry—that is,
whether the subject has front key light, side key light, or a back key light. The
meter combines these factors and gives an answer in terms of the correct setting
for the camera’s lens diaphragm.
There are several makes of incident-light meters that use a three-dimensional
light collector. The hemispherical light collector allows these meters to
automatically perform the dual function described above.
These incident-light meters are normally used at the position of the principal
subject, with the hemisphere pointed at the camera lens. The hemisphere then
acts as a miniature face of the subject. All illumination that will be effective on
the subject, including key light, fill light, line light, hair light, eye lights, etc.,
will be received, evaluated and integrated by the meter. The meter will then
indicate directly the correct f-stop or T-stop for the camera lens. Incident-light
meters are particularly useful because they may be used on a scene before the
principal subject appears. They may also be carried through a scene, with the
hemisphere always pointed at the camera lens, to detect uneven illumination and
particularly hot spots, into which the subject may move during the action. This
allows the scene illumination to be suitably balanced before the principal subject
is at hand.
In the case of outdoor photography, it is not always necessary to take the
meter to the location of the principal subject. Under such conditions, the
illumination is usually uniform over considerable areas. If the illumination is the
same at subject location and at camera location, the meter may be used at camera
location. Care should be exercised to point the meter in the proper direction, as
though it were at the subject location.
In general, exposure meters are either analog (with a needle) or digital. The
introduction of the analog incident meter with the 3-D light-collecting
hemisphere revolutionized the method of determining proper exposure for the
cinematographer.
Today, a number of companies throughout the world manufacture exposure
meters that employ the basic incident-type principles in their design, but all due
credit for the invention of this meter should be given to ASC Associate Member
Don Norwood, who patented it, and Karl Freund, ASC, who was instrumental in
its development. Most incident meters are provided with suitable adapters so that
they may be converted for use as a reflected-light meter if the occasion should
require it. The reflected-light adapter can be used in a situation where the
cinematographer encounters difficulty in putting the meter into a position to read
either the illumination directly on the subject, or illumination similar to that on
the subject. For example, such a situation might be encountered when taking a
picture out of the window of an airliner in flight. The reflected-light attachment
can also be used in other situations to evaluate the relative brightness of a
background.
SPECIAL EFFECTS
When a special effect is desired, the cinematographer may use the incident-
light meter to first determine normal exposure for the subject. He may then
deliberately modify that value, up or down, to achieve the desired effect. This
can be done with considerable confidence, because the incident light meter will
give a firm foundation upon which to base the desired modification.
SPECIFIC SITUATIONS
There are some situations, occasionally encountered in outdoor photography,
that require special attention.
1. Unusually light or dark backgrounds are cause for consideration. When a
scene includes an unusually light background, the cinematographer may wish
to first use the meter as an incident-light meter to determine the basic
exposure for the principal subject in the foreground. Then he can convert the
meter to a reflected-light meter in order to measure the brightness of the
unusual background. The second reading is then used to modify the basic
incident-light reading somewhat. The same procedure could be followed in
the case of an unusually dark background.
2. Outdoor scenes that include a subject in the foreground as well as distant
objects, such as mountains, in the background, usually also include
considerable aerial haze. This haze may be invisible or only partly visible to
the eye, but strongly visible to the camera. A frequent photographic result is
a recording of the aerial haze overlaid on the scene background, which gives
the appearance of an overexposed background. In such a situation, a haze-
cutting filter should be used to improve the background. In addition, use the
procedure previously described for the case of an unusually light
background.
3. Scenes consisting of a mixture of sunshine and shade areas, with the principal
subject in a shade area, can be handled by: (a) using the meter in the
sunshine area, or (b) opening up the lens by 1⁄2 to 2⁄3 f-stop from the meter
indication.
REFLECTED-LIGHT METERS
A spot meter may be used at camera location and aimed at a selected spot in
the scene. The effectiveness of the meter is heavily dependent on the operator’s
judgment in the selection of the spot. The selected spot must be precisely
representative of the particular combination of elements in the composition of
the scene. When using such a meter, the operator must be particularly careful
when confronted with a scene that presents strong contrasts between the selected
spot and the scene background. An example of such a situation would be a case
where a person in the foreground is in front of a very light background, such as
sky or white buildings, etc. In such a situation, the operator should modify the
spot reading provided by the meter according to his own estimate of the
situation. When the use of a reflected-light meter is required, the results of
determining the exposure can be greatly improved by using a “Kodak Neutral
Test Card.”
This card is a piece of sturdy 8″ x 10″ cardboard that is neutral gray on one
side and white on the other. The gray side reflects 18% of the light falling on it,
and the white side reflects approximately 90%. Also, the gray side has a
protective lacquer overcoat that reduces specular reflectance and resists damage
due to fading, fingerprints, soil, etc. To a light meter, an average scene is one in
which the tones, when averaged, form a tone brightness that is equivalent to
middle gray—a tone that reflects 18% of the light illuminating it (the same tone
and reflectance of the gray card). When a scene is not average, the gray card is a
reference that helps you make the proper exposure judgments. A Kodak Gray
Card is manufactured under close tolerances to provide a neutral gray-side
reflectance of 18% (+ 1%) and white-side reflectance of approximately 90%.
TESTING
Small errors may exist in meters, lens calibrations, emulsion speeds and
development. These small errors will frequently cancel out without undue harm
to the final picture. It is when these errors add up in the same direction that their
cumulative effect is serious. It is therefore wise to test equipment, film and
meters under simulated production conditions so that errors may be detected and
corrected before production begins. It is always a good idea to “tune up to the
variables.”
Much of the material in this section of the manual is basic, but reference
should be made to ASC Associate Member Don Norwood and Eastman Kodak
Co. for the gray card information.
EXPOSURE METERS
Gossen Starlite
Type: Handheld exposure meter for measuring ambient and flash and
incorporating both incident and spot meter reading ability.
Light Sensor: 2 silicon photo diodes
Measuring Capability:
Measuring Range: Ambient light: Incident (at ISO 100/21°): EV -2.5 to +18;
Reflected with 1°: EV 2.0 to 18; Reflected light with 5°: EV 1.0 to 18. Flash
Light: Incident (at ISO 100/21°): f/1.0 to f/128; Reflected light with 1°: f/2.8
to f/128; Reflected light with 5°: f/1.4 to f/128.
Measurement Modes: lx, fc, cd/m2, fL, lxs, cds/m2, flLs
ISO Film Speeds: ISO 3.2/6° to 8000/40° (in 1° DIN increments)
Camera Speeds: 8–128 fps, additional Cine speeds can be adjusted.
Shutter Speeds: 1⁄8000 sec. to 60 min.
Flash Sync Speeds: 1 to 1⁄1000 sec.
F-Stops: f/1 .0 to f/128.
Power Source: 1.5V AA battery or 1.2V rechargeable.
Dimensions: 61⁄2″ x 21⁄2″ x 1″
Weight: Approximately 6.4 ounces.

Gossen Color-Pro 3F
Type: Handheld digital 3-color meter for ambient and flash; determines
photographic color temperature of light sources and filtration required.
Light Sensor: 3 balanced silicon photodiodes for ambient and flash.
Measuring Range: 2000 to 40,000 degrees Kelvin.
Light Balancing Filters: -399 to 475 Mired Scale, switchable to corresponding
Kodak Wratten filters.
CC filter Values: 0 to 95 Magenta and 0 to 06 Green.
Power Source: 9V MN1604 or equivalent.
Dimensions: 5″ x 23⁄4″ x 1
Weight: Approximately 4.5 ounces.
Gossen Luna-Star F2
Type: Handheld exposure meter for measuring ambient and flash in both
incident and reflected light (with 5° Spot attachment).
Light Sensor: sbc photodiode, swivel head
Measuring Range: Ambient light (at ISO 100/21°): EV -2.5 to +18; Flash Light
(at ISO 100/21°) f/1.0 to f/90.
Measuring Angle in Reflected Mode: 30°
ISO Film Speeds: 3/6° to 8000/40°
Camera Cine Speeds: 8–64 fps, as well as 25 fps and 30 fps for TV.
Shutter Speeds: 1⁄8000 sec. to 60 min.
Flash Sync Speeds: 1 to 1⁄1000 sec., as well as 1⁄90 sec.
F-Stops: f/1.0 to f/90.
Power Source: 9V battery.
Dimensions: 23⁄4″ x 5″ x 1″
Weight: Approximately 4.5 ounces.

Gossen Luna-Pro Digital

Type: Handheld exposure meter for measuring incident and reflected light.
Light Sensor: sbc photodiode
Measuring Range: Incident Light (at ISO 100/21°): EV -2.5 to +18.
ISO Film Speeds: 3/6° to 8000/40°
Camera Cine Speeds: 8–64 fps, as well as 25 fps and 30 fps for TV.
Shutter Speeds: 1⁄8000 sec. to 60 min.
F-Stops: f/1.0 to f/90.
Power Source: 1.5V battery.
Dimensions: 21⁄2″ x 45⁄8″ x 3⁄4″
Weight: Approximately 3.5 ounces.

Gossen Luna-Pro Digital F

Type: Handheld exposure meter for measuring ambient and flash light.
Light Sensor: sbc photodiode.
Measuring Range: Incident Light (at ISO 100/21°): EV -2.5 to +18; Flash Light
(at ISO 100/21°) f/1.0 to f/90.
ISO Film Speeds: 3/6° to 8000/40°
Camera Speeds: 8–64 fps, as well as 25 fps and 30 fps for TV.
Shutter Speeds: 1⁄8000 sec. to 60 min.
Flash Sync Speeds: 1 to 1⁄1000 sec., as well as 1⁄90 sec.
F-Stops: f/1.0 to f/90
Power Source: 1.5 V battery.
Dimensions: 21⁄2″ x 45⁄8″ x 3⁄4″
Weight: Approximately 3.3 ounces.

Gossen Luna-Pro F
Type: Handheld analog exposure meter for measuring ambient and flash light.
Light Sensor: sbc photodiode.
Measuring Range: Incident Light (at ISO 100/21°): EV -4 to +17; Flash Light
(at ISO 100/21°) f/0.7 to f/128.
ISO Film Speeds: 0.8/0° to 100,000/51°
Camera Cine Speeds: 4.5–144 fps.
Shutter Speeds: 1⁄4000 sec. to 8 hours.
Flash Sync Speeds: 1⁄60 sec.
F-Stops: f/0.7 to f/128.
Power Source: 9V battery.
Dimensions: 21⁄2″ x 45⁄8″ x 3⁄4″
Weight: Approximately 3.3 ounces.

Gossen Luna-Pro S
Type: Handheld analog exposure meter for measuring ambient sun and moon
incident and reflected light.
Light Sensor: Photoresistance (CdS)
Measuring Range: Incident Light (at ISO 100/21°): EV -4 to +17.
Measuring Angle in Reflected Light Mode: 30° (with Tele attachment).
ISO Film Speeds: 0.8 to 25,000
Shutter Speeds: 1⁄4000 sec. to 8 hours.
Flash Sync Speeds: 1⁄60 sec.
F-Stops: f/0.7 to f/128.
Power Source: Two 1.5V batteries.
Dimensions: 23⁄4″ x 41⁄3″ x 13⁄8″
Weight: Approximately 6 ounces.

Gossen Ultra-Spot 2
Type: Handheld Spot meter for measuring ambient and flash light.
Light Sensor: sbc photodiode.
Measuring Range: Ambient Light (at ISO 100/21°): EV -1 to +22; Flash Light
(at ISO 100/21°) f/2.8 to f/90.
Measuring Angle of Reflected Light: Viewfinder (15°), metering field (1°).
ISO Film Speeds: 1/1° to 80,000/50°
Camera Speeds: 8-64 fps, as well as 25 fps and 30 fps for TV.
Shutter Speeds: 1⁄8000 sec. to 60 min, as well as 1⁄90 sec.
Flash Sync Speeds: 1⁄8 sec. to 1⁄1000 sec., as well as 1⁄90 sec.
F-Stops: f/1.0 to f/90.
Power Source: 9V battery.
Dimensions: 31⁄2″ x 21⁄4″ x 71⁄2″
Weight: Approximately 12 ounces.

Gossen Mavolux 5032 C/B

Type: Handheld exposure meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon cell.
Measuring Modes: fc, lx, cd/m2, and fL.
Measuring Range: .01 to 199,900 lx in 4 ranges (MR I: 0.01 lx/0.001 fc; MR
II: 1 lx/0.1 fc; MR III: 10 lx/1 fc; MBR IV: 100 lx/10 fc.), 0.01 to 19,990 fc.
Luminance Measurement with Luminana attachment: 1 to 1,999,000 cd/m2,
0.1 to 199,900 fL.
Power Consumption: Approximately 75 hours.
Power Source: 1.5V alkaline manganese AA (IEC LR 6).
Dimensions: Meter: 21⁄2″ x 43⁄4″ x 3⁄4″
Sensor: 11⁄4″ x 41⁄8″ x 11⁄8″
Weight: Approximately 7 ounces.

Minolta Cinemeter II
Type: Handheld digital/analog incident meter.
Light Sensor: Large area, blue enhanced silicon photo sensor. Swivel head, 270
degrees.
Measuring capability: Direct readout of photographic exposures in full f-stops
or fractional f-stops. Also measures illuminance level in footcandles and
Lux.
Measuring Range: Direct-reading multiple-range linear circuit incorporates a
high quality CMOS integrated amplifier whose bias current is compensated
against drift up to 70E° C.
Dynamic Range: 250,000 to one. Digital f-stop: f/0.5 to f/90 in 1⁄10 stop
increments. Analog f-stop: f/0.63 to f/36 in 1⁄3-stop increments. Photographic
illuminance: 0.20 to 6400 footcandles, 2 to 64,000 Lux.
Display: Vertical digital/analog bar graph that consists of 72 black liquid crystal
bars (6 bars per f-stop), that rise and fall depending on the light intensity.
The scale can be used in three different display modes (Bar, Floating Zone
and Dedicated Zone), and in three different measurement modes (f-stops,
footcandles and Lux).
Display Modes:
1. Bar mode is similar to a needle-reading meter, except that the movement is
up and down instead of left to right.
2. Floating Zone mode: a single flashing bar forms a solid bar that graphically
indicates the range of illumination in the scene. It can also be used for the
measurement of flickering or blinking sources.
3. Dedicated Zone mode is used to save up to five separate measurements.
Display Range:
ISO film speed: 12 to 2500 in 1⁄3-stop increments.
Camera speed: 2–375 fps
Shutter Angle: 45E° to 90E° in 1⁄9-stop increments, 90E° to 205E° in
1
⁄12-stop increments
Filter factors: 1⁄3-stop to 7 f-stops.
Resolution: Digital: 1⁄6 stop. Analog: 1⁄6 stop.
Accuracy: Digital 1⁄6 stop.
Additional Functions: Memory store and recall.
Lamp: Electroluminescent backlit liquid-crystal display.
Power consumption: Operating reading 5 mA with backlite on.
Power Source: One 9V battery.
Dimensions: 65⁄8″ x 3″ x 13⁄16″
Weight: Approximately 10 ounces.

Minolta Auto Meter IV F

Type: Handheld exposure meter for measuring ambient and flash light.
Measuring Modes: Ambient, flash.
Ambient Range (at ISO 100): Incident: EV 2.0–19.9. Reflected: Viewfinder 5
degrees EV 2.5–24.4
Display Range: ISO : 3–8000 in 1⁄3-stop increments
Shutter Speed (ambient): 1⁄8000 sec.–30 min. in 1⁄2-stop increments.
Shutter Speed (flash): 1⁄500 sec.–1 sec. in 1⁄2-stop increments.
Camera Speeds: 8–128 fps.
F-Stops: f/1.0 – f/90 in 1⁄10-stop increments.
EV: -7.8 – 31.5 in 1⁄10-stop increments.
Power Source: 1.5V battery.

Minolta Auto Meter V

Measuring Modes: Ambient, Flash
Ambient Range (at ISO 100): EV-2.0 TO 19.9
Reflected: View Finder 5° EV 2.5 to 24.4.
Display Range: ISO 3 to 8000 in 1⁄3-stop increments.
Shutter Speed (Ambient): 30 min. to 1⁄1600 sec.
Shutter Speed (Flash): 30 min. to 1⁄1000 sec.
Camera Speeds: 8, 12, 16, 18, 24, 25, 30, 32, 64, 128 fps.
F-Stops: f/0.7 to f/90 +.09
EV: -11.8 to 35.5
Power Source: 1.5V battery
Repeatability: ±0.1 EV

Minolta Auto Meter VF/Kenko KFM-1100

Same stats as Auto Meter IVF - Except:
Measuring Range: EV: -17 to 40.8 in 0.1 stop increments
Minolta Luminance: ft-1E°, nt-1E° & nt-1⁄3E°
Type: Reflex-viewing spot-reading automatic/manual luminance meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell with 1E° (1⁄3E° in model nt-1⁄3E°) angle
of acceptance.
Viewing System: Focusing through-the-lens reflex type. Objective lens 85mm
f/2.8. Angle of view: Circular 9E° with central 1E° (1⁄3E° in model nt-1⁄3E°)
marked circle.
Magnification: 2.96X focused at infinity.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of illuminance level in footlamberts or
candelas.
Measuring Range: Model ft-1E°: 0.01 to 99900 ft-L (0.01step); Model nt-1E°:
0.1 to 99900 cd/m2 (0.1 step); Model nt-1⁄3E°: 1.0 to 99900 cd/m2 (0.1 step).
Display Range: Red (+) LEDs at the right of the number display indicates 10X
and 100X the display reading.
Accuracy: Within +4% of C.I.E. standard +1 digit in last display position.
Screen-flicker accuracy: Within 1% of average luminance with projection
cycle of more than 72 Hz and duty of 7% (projector at 24 fps).
Analog Output: Output voltage: 1v over full scale. Output impedance: 10 kilo-
ohms.
Power Consumption: 6 mA in analog mode. Meter can monitor changes in
luminance for a period up to 40 hours.
Power Source: 9V battery (Eveready 216 or equivalent).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year with normal use.
Dimensions: 27⁄8″ x 63⁄8″ x 411⁄16″
Weight: 181⁄8 ounces, without battery.
Minolta 1-Degree Spot Meter
Type: Spot-reading reflex-viewing exposure meter for ambient or flash light.
Measuring Method: Reflected light by silicon photo cel detector masked for 1
degree angle of acceptance.
Measuring Range: Ambient: EV 1.0 to EV 22.5; Flash: f/2 to f/90.
Accuracy: ±1⁄10-stop repeatability.
F-Stops: F-numbers: f/0.7 to f/90 +0.9 stop in 1⁄10-stop increments.
EV numbers: -43 to +28 in 1⁄10-stop increments.
Brightness difference: -9.9 to +9.9 stops in 1⁄10-stop increments.
ISO range: 12 to 6400 in 1⁄3-stop increments.
Ambient Exposure Time: 30 min. to 1⁄8000 sec. in 1-stop increments (cine 1⁄50
sec.).
Flash Exposure Time: 1 to 1⁄1000 sec. in 1-stop increments.
Note: F-number, EV-number and brightness difference shown in both external
and finder displays.
Memory: 2-measurement capacity, both indicated by pointers on analog
display; digital recall possible.
Exposure Time Calculation: Analog/digital readout and recall of highlight,
shadow or averaged (midtone) exposures automatically calculated for
optimum correspondence of brightness range of subject with film latitude.
Power Source: 1.5V AA alkaline manganese (Eveready E91 or equivalent),
carbon zinc or 1.2V nickel cadmium (Ni-Cad) cell.
Size: 17⁄8″ x 57⁄8″ x 39⁄16″ (48 x 150 x 89mm).
Weight: 81⁄2 ounces (240g) without battery.

Minolta Color Meter III-F/Kenko KCM-3100

Type: Three-color digital color meter for color photography; determines
filtration required and photographic color temperature of light sources.
Film Type Settings: Daylight film balanced to 5500°K; Type-A tungsten film
balanced to 3400°K; Type-B tungsten-balanced to 3200°K.
Measuring Range (ISO 100): Ambient: EV 3–16.3; Flash: f/2.8–180 (in two
ranges).
Shutter Speed Setting Range (for flash measurements): 1 to 1⁄500 sec. in 1-
stop increments.
Display Modes: LB index and CC index; LB filter number and CC index;
photographic color temperature.
Display Range: LB index: -500 to 500 mireds; CC index: 200G to 200M; LB
filter number: 80A + 80D to 85B + 81EF; Photographic color temperature:
1600 to 40,000°K.
Repeatability: LB index: 2 mireds; CC index: 2 digits.
Power Source: 2-1.5V AA batteries.

Pentax Spotmeter V
Measuring Range: EV 1–20 (100 ASA).
Film Speeds: ASA 6-6400
Shutter Speeds: 1⁄4000 sec.-4 min.
F-Stops: f/1 to f/128.
EV Numbers: 1-192⁄3; IRE 1-10.
Measuring Angle: 1 degree.
Measuring Method: Spot measuring of reflected light; meter switches on when
button pressed; EV direct reading; IRE scale provided.
Exposure Read Out: LED digital display of EV numbers (100 ASA) and up to
2 dots (each of which equals 1⁄3 EV).
Photosensitive Cell: Silicon Photo Diode.
Power Source: 6V silver-oxide battery.

Pentax Digital 1 Degree Spot Meter

Measuring System: Spot measuring of reflected light; meter switches on when
button pressed.
Exposure Read Out: LED digital display of EV numbers (100 ASA) and up to
2 dots (each of which equals 1⁄3 EV).
Photosensitive Cell: Silicon Photo Diode.
Measuring Angle: 1 degree.
Measuring Range: (ASA/ISO 100) EV 1-128 (EV 20 displayed as “0”).
Film Speeds: ASA 6-6400.
Shutter Speeds: 1⁄4000 sec.–4 min.
F-Stops: f/1 to f/128.
Camera Speed: 24 fps.
IRE: 1–10.
Power Source: 6V silver oxide battery (A544, PX28L or PX28).

Sekonic L508C
Type: Handheld exposure meter for ambient and flash incorporating both
incident and spot meter reading ability.
Measuring Range: Incident Light: EV (-) 2 to EV 19.9 @ 100 ISO
Reflected Light: EV3 to EV 19.9 @ 100 ISO
Incident Reading Head: 270 Swivel Head
Measurement Modes: Footcandle 0.1 to 99,000, Lux 0.63 to 94,000, Foot-
lambert 3.4 to 98,000
ISO Film Speed: ISO 3 to ISO 8000 (1⁄3-stops)
Camera Speed: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 18, 24, 25, 30, 32, 36, 40, 48, 60, 64, 72,
75, 90, 96, 120, 128, 150, 200, 240, 256, 300, 360, 375, 500, 625, 750, 1000
fps
Shutter Angle: 5 to 270 at 5 stops + 144 and 172 degrees.
Shutter Speeds: 30 min. to 1⁄8000 sec. (full, 1⁄2- or 1⁄3-stops)
F-Stop: f/1.0 to f/128.9 (full, 1⁄2- or 1⁄3-stops)
Accuracy: ±0.1 EV or less
Additional Functions: Digital f-stop and shutter speed readout in viewfinder;
Parallax-free rectangular 1–4 spot zoom; Retractable incident Lumisphere
for dome or flat disc readings; Auto Shut-Off 20 min.
Lamp: Electro-luminescent auto illumination at EV6 and under for 20 Sec.
Power Source: 1.5V AA battery (alkaline, manganese or lithium)
Dimensions: 3.3″ W x 6.1″ H x 1.6″ D (82mmW x 161mmH x 39mmD)
Weight: 81⁄2 ounces (240g)

Sekonic L608C
Type: Handheld exposure meter for ambient and flash incorporating both
incident and spot meter reading ability.
Light Sensor: Silicon photo diodes (incident and reflected)
Measuring Range: Incident Light: EV (-) 2 to EV 22.9 @ 100 ISO
Reflected Light: EV3 to EV 24.4 @ 100 ISO
Measurement Modes: Footcandle 0.12 to 180,000, Lux 0.63 to 190,000; Cd/m2
1.0 to 190,000; Foot-lambert 0.3 to 190,000
Display Mode: Digital f/0.5 to f/128.9 (in 1⁄3-stops); Analog f/0.5 to f/45 (in 1⁄3-
stops)
ISO Film Speed: ISO 3 to ISO 8000 (1⁄3-stops)
Camera Speed: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 18, 24, 25, 30, 32, 36, 40, 48, 50, 60, 64,
72, 75, 90, 96, 100, 120, 125, 128, 150, 200, 240, 250, 256, 300, 360, 375,
500, 625, 750, 1000 fps
Shutter Angle: 5–270 at 5 stops + 144 and 172
Shutter Speeds: 30 min. to 1⁄8000 sec. (full, 1⁄2- or 1⁄3-stops)
F-Stops: f/0.5 to f/128.9 (full, 1⁄2- or 1⁄3-stops)
Filter Factors: 85, -n.3, -n.6, -n.9, -A3, -A6, -A9
Memory Function: 9 readings on analog scale (f/stop and shutter speed) with
memory recall and clear feature
Accuracy: ±0.1 EV or less
Additional Functions: Digital f-stop and shutter speed readout in viewfinder;
Parallax-free rectangular 1–4 spot zoom with digital display. Shutter speed
and aperture are displayed in viewfinder; Retractable incident Lumisphere
for dome or flat disc readings; Digital Radio Transmitter Module that
eliminates the need for an additional external transmitter at the meter’s
position; 12 Custom Function Settings for advanced preferences and
features.
Power Source: 3.0V (CR123A lithium battery)
Dimensions: 3.5″ W x 6.7″ H x 1.9″ D (90mmW x 170mmH x 48mmD)
Weight: 91⁄2 ounces (268g)

Sekonic L-308BII
Measuring System: Incident or reflected for flash and ambient light; Silicon
photo diode.
Measuring Modes: Ambient and flash (cord, cordless) – incident and reflected
(40 degrees)
Receptor Head: Nonrotating, noninterchangeable.
Aperture/Shutter Priority: Shutter speed priority.
Display Read-out: Digital LCD
ISO Range: ISO 3 to 8000 in 1⁄3-stop increments.
F-Stops: f/0.5–f/90 9/10
Shutter Speeds: Ambient: 60 sec.–1⁄8000 sec.; Flash: 1 sec.–1⁄500 sec.
EV Range: (ISO-100) EV(-) 5 to EV 26.2
Camera Speeds: 8–28 fps.
Power Source: 1.5V AA battery.
Dimensions: 4.3″ x 2.5″ x .9″ (110 x 63 x 22mm) WDH
Weight: 2.8 ounces (80 g) without battery.

Sekonic L-398M
Measuring System: Incident light type, reflected light measurement is also
possible
Measuring Modes: Ambient incident and reflected
Receptor Head: Rotating, interchangeable receptor.
Display Readout: Indicator needle
ISO Range: 6 to 12,000; Measuring Range: EV4-EV17 (for incident light)
EV9-EV17 (for reflected light)
F-Stops: f/0.7–f/128
Shutter Speeds: Ambient: 1⁄8000 to 60 sec.; Flash: None.
EV Range: (ISO-100) EV 4 to 17
Camera Speeds: 8–128 fps
Power Source: Selenium photocell (no battery needed)
Dimensions: 4.4″ x 2.3″ x 1.3″ (112 x 58 x 34mm) WDH
Weight: 6.7 ounces (190 g)

Sekonic L-358
Measuring System: Incident: Dual retractable lumisphere, Reflected: with
included reflected light attachment; Silicon photo diodes
Measuring Modes: Ambient and flash (cord, cordless, multi flash)—incident
and reflected (54 degrees).
Receptor Head: Rotating 270 degree with built-in retractable lumisphere.
Aperture/Shutter Priority: Aperture and shutter priority
Display Readout: Digital LCD plus LCD analog, (auto-backlit LCD at EV 3
and under for 20 sec.)
ISO Range: Dual ISO settings: 3 to 8000 (1⁄3-steps)
F-Stops: f/1.0 to f/90.9 (full, 1⁄2- or 1⁄3-steps)
Shutter Speeds: Ambient: 1⁄8000 sec. to 30 min.; Flash: 1⁄1000 sec to 30 min.
EV Range: (ISO-100) EV -2 to 22.9
Camera Speeds: 2–360fps
Exposure Memory: Capable of nine exposure measurement readings
Shadow/Highlight Calculation: Yes
Brightness Difference: Displays the difference in 1⁄10-stop increments
Flash To Ambient Ratio: Yes
Multiple Flash: Yes, unlimited
Exposure Calibration: ±1.0 EV
Power Source: One CR123A lithium battery
Dimensions: 2.4″ x 6.1″ x 1.46″ (60 x 155 x 37mm) WHD
Weight: 5.4 oz (154 g)

Sekonic L-558
Measuring System: Dual function retractable incident lumisphere; 1° spot
viewfinder; Two silicon photo diodes (SPD).
Measuring Modes: Ambient and flash (cord, cordless, multi-flash) – incident
and spot (1°).
Metering Range: Ambient Incident Light: EV -2 to EV 22.9; Reflected Light:
EV 1 to EV 24.4; Flash Incident Light: f/0.5 to f/161.2; Reflected Light:
f/2.0 to f/161.2
Receptor Head: Rotating 270 degrees; with built-in retractable lumisphere.
Aperture/Shutter Priority: Aperture, shutter priority and EV metering value
Display Readout: Digital LCD plus LCD analog, (Auto-backlit LCD at EV 6 or
under for 20 seconds)
ISO Range: 3 to 8000 (in 1⁄3-stop steps)
F-Stops: f/0.5–f/128.9 (full, 1⁄2- or 1⁄3-stops); Under and Overexposure
indication.
Shutter Speeds: Ambient: 30 min. to 1⁄8000 sec. (full, 1⁄2- or 1⁄3-stops, plus 1⁄200
and 1⁄400); Flash: 30 sec. to 1⁄1000 sec. (Full, 1⁄2- or 1⁄3- stops; Special flash
speeds: 1⁄75, 1⁄80, 1⁄90, 1⁄100, 1⁄200, 1⁄400)
EV Range: (ISO-100) EV -9.9 to 46.6 (in 1⁄10-stops).
Camera Speeds: 2–360 fps, (fps at a 180°).
Exposure Memory: Up to nine readings on analog scale with memory recall
and clear feature.
Shadow/Highlight Calculation: Yes
Brightness Difference: ±9.9EV (in 1⁄10-stops) flash or ambient light evaluation.
Flash To Ambient Ratio: Yes; Displays percentage of flash in total exposure in
10% increments.
Multiple Flash: Unlimited readings.
Exposure Calibration: ±1.0EV for incident and reflected independently (in 1⁄10-
stops); Exposure Compensation ±9.9EV for incident and reflected
independently (in 1⁄10-stops); Filter compensation ±5.0EV for incident and
reflected independently (in 1⁄10-stops).
Power Source: Lithium type, One CR123A; Auto “shut-off” after 20 minutes;
Battery power displayed with a symbol in three status levels.
Dimensions: 3.5″ x 6.7″ x 1.9″ (90 x 170 x 48mm) WDH
Weight: 91⁄2 ounces (268 g)

Sekonic L-778 Dual Spot F

Type: Multi-function design light meter.
Incident: 270-degree swivel head with dual function retractable incident
lumisphere.
Reflected: 1-degree to 4-degree parallax-free zoom spot viewfinder.
Photo Cells: 2 silicon photo diodes (SPD).
Measuring Range: Ambient incident: EV 0.2–EV 19.9; ambient reflected: EV
3–EV 19.9.
Film Speed: ISO 3-8000 in 1⁄3-stop increments.
F-stops: f/1.0–f/128 in 1⁄10-stop increments.
Shutter Speed Range: DIP Switch preselectable full speeds or 1⁄2-stop range.
Camera Speeds: 1⁄75, 1⁄80, 1⁄90, 1⁄100, 1⁄200, 1⁄400, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 18, 24, 25,
30, 32, 36, 40, 48, 60, 64, 72, 96, 120, 128, 150, 200, 240, 256, 360 fps
EV Range: 0.9–36.1
Exposure Compensation: ±9.9EV in 1⁄10-stop increments.
Power Source: 1.5V AA penlight battery or 1.5V alkaline manganese or lithium
battery.
Repeat Accuracy: ±0.1 EV or less.
Auto Shut Off: 20 minutes.
Tri Pod Socket: 1⁄4″.
Weight: 7.4 ounces (210 grams).
Dimensions: 3.3″ x 6.1″ x 1.7″ (84 x 156 x 40mm).

Spectra Cinespot 1E Spot Meter

Type: Through-the-lens viewing, spot-reading auto-matic/manual luminance
meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell with 1E° angle of acceptance.
Viewing Optics: 1.6x magnification: erect system with focusing eyepiece.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of illuminance level in footlamberts or
candelas.
Measuring Range: Low Range 0–30 fL (or 0-100cd/m2) readings legible down
to 0.5fL. High Range 0–300 fL (or 0–1,000 cd/m2), upper limit may be
increased by use of accessory 10X or 100X attenuators.
Spectral Response: Within +4%(by area) of CIE Photopic Luminosity
Function.
Accuracy: +1% of full scale or +5% of reading (whichever is greater).
Error Due To Chopped Light: +0.5 % at 24 cycles /second.
Power Source: 6V battery (Eveready 544 or equivalent).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year with normal use.
Dimensions: 5” x 2” x 6.4”.
Weight: 15 ounces.

Spectra Cinespot Footlambert Meter

Measuring Capability: Footlamberts or candelas/square meter; also measures
illuminance with accessory reflectance standard.
Sensitivity: Low range, 0 to 30 footlamberts (0 to 100 cd/square meter on metric
version); readings legible to 0.5 footlamberts. High Range, 0–300
footlamberts (0–1000 cd/square meter on metric version); accessory 10X and
100X attenuators increase upper limit to 3000 or 30,000 footlamberts
(10,000 or 100,000 cd/square meter).
Angle of Coverage: 1-degree measuring field, 21-degree diagonal viewing field.
Viewing Optics: 1.6X magnification; focusing eye-piece; illiminated scale for
low light reading.
Photodetector: Silicon photovoltaic cell.
Spectral Response: Matched to the human eye response (CIE 1931 photopic
luminosity function) within +5% (by area), using computer-selected glass
filter.
Accuracy: ±1% of full scale or ±5% of reading, whichever is greater, when
measuring blackbody sources: traceable to the National Bureau of Standards.
Dimensions: 5” x 2” x 6.4” (127 x 52 x 162mm).
Power Source: 6V battery (A544 or equivalent).
Warranty: One year, limited.

Spectra Professional IV
Type: Handheld exposure meter for measuring incident and reflected light.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell, computer-selected glass filters tailored
to spectral response of the film. Swivel head, 270 degrees.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of photographic exposures. Also
measures illuminance level in foot-candles and Lux.
Measuring Range: One million to one (20 f-stops) direct-reading multiple-
range linear circuit controlled by microcomputer.
Display Range: ISO film speed: 3 to 8000 in 1⁄3-stop increments.
Camera Speeds: 2–360 fps.
Resolution: Digital: 0.1 f-stop. Analog: 0.2 f-stops.
Accuracy: Digital: 0.05 f-stop.
Additional Functions: Memory store and recall.
Lamp: Optional electroluminescent lamp for backlit liquid-crystal display.
Power Consumption: Operating (reading) 5mA. Data retention 5uA.
Power Source: 6V battery (A544, PX28L or PX28).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year with normal use.
Dimensions: 51⁄2″ x 21⁄2″ x 2.
Weight: Approximately 6 ounces.

Spectra Professional IV-A

Advanced Digital Exposure Meter (ADEM)
Type: Measures both incident and reflected light; reflected light angle of
acceptance is 42 degrees square.
Technology: Advanced front-end op amp, custom-sealed hybrid electronic
circuitry, multiple-range linear-circuit-controlled by advanced
microcomputer and custom liquid-crystal display with aviation green backlit
electro-luminescent lamp.
Light Sensor: Silicon photovoltaic cell, computer-selected glass filters tailored
to spectral response of the film; swivel-head assembly turns 270 degrees.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of photographic exposures; measures
contrast ratios and average in f-stop and illuminance modes; measures
illuminance level in footcandles (fc) and lux (lx).
Measuring Range: One million to one (20 f-stop), widest sensitivity range
available; digital f-stops: f/0.35 to f/128 in 1⁄10-stop increments; analog f-
stop from f/0.7 to f/45 in 1⁄3-stop increments.
Photographic Illuminance: Footcandles 0.1 to 70,000 and lux 1 to 100,000.
Contrast Ratios: Contrast ratio of two readings – key plus fill to fill light alone
from 1:1 to 999:1; f-stop difference: the difference in f-stop between a new
reading and the last standard/memorized measurement is displayed in 1⁄10-
stop increments up to ±12 f-stops.
Averaging: Average of two readings and or continuous averaging in f-stop and
footcandle modes are made possible.
Film Speed: ISO 3 to 8000 in 1⁄3-stop increments.
Camera Speeds: 2–360 fps.
Exposure Time: 1⁄8000 sec.–30 min.
Accuracy: Digital: 0.05 f-stop; calibration is traceable to National Institute of
Standard Technology, Washington, D.C.
Memory Recall: Recalls stored reading in memory (M1), second reading in
memory (M2) and/or the ratio, average and f-stop of the two readings.
Instant Recall of All Measurement and Calculations: By pressing the recall
(RCL) switch, the first stored/memorized reading (M1), the second
stored\memorized reading (M2), contrast ratio or brightness (f-stop)
difference, average footcandle or average f-stop can be recalled.
Immediate Update of All Exposure Calculations: If the film speed (ISO),
fps/cine (fps) or exposure time/still (time) settings are changed, the f-stops
are immediately recalculated and displayed in normal, f-stop difference or
average modes.
Memory Erasure: You can erase the stored/memorized readings in memory
(M1) and memory (M2) by pressing the store (STR) and recall (RCL) switch
simultaneously.
Camera Shutter Angle: Complete list of shutter angles and equivalent
compensation table conveniently provided.
Bright Green Display: Electro-luminescent lamp for viewing at very low light
levels.
Power Consumption: Operating 5mA/reading; data retention 5uA.
Power Source: 6V battery, #s A544, PX28L, PX 28.
Battery Life: Approximately one year with normal use.
Dimensions: 51⁄2″ x 21⁄2″ x 2.
Weight: 6 ounces.
Supplied Accessories: Photosphere (for ambient light); photodisc (for key or
directional light); leather carrying case; neck strap; 6V battery; instruction
manual; warranty card (two-year limited warranty).
Lenses

by Iain A. Neil ASC Associate Member

I n the realm of cinematography, lenses form one part of a three-part camera

system that comprises:
i) a light (or radiation) collecting and imaging device – the lens
ii) a light (or radiation) detecting medium – the film1
iii) a storage device – the film itself2
The above sequence i), ii) and iii) follows the path of light from the object to
the image and storage of many images over time (for later viewing). In essence,
it technically describes the basic function of not only 100-year-old and modern
film camera systems, but also future electronic camera systems. Interestingly, all
of these past, present and future camera systems rely singularly on one image-
forming device—the lens—which predates film and will probably outlast current
silicon electronics (see Future Lenses section later in this chapter).
Yet the cine lens, with its centuries-old history of development, is generally
not well understood. Indeed, the pedigree of contemporary cine lenses, bearing a
descriptive title that is usually meaningless to anyone but the lens designer, has
become a marketing tool. In a similar vein, “techno” terms such as modulation
transfer function (MTF), which is common in defining military lenses, electronic
and optical system performance, are now used to describe the overall
performance of cine lenses. However, MTF is only one criteria for measuring
cine lens performance; its real value lies in the lens designer/manufacturer
domain.
In the field of cinematography, lens performance characteristics, both
technical and artistic or aesthetic, are quite well known and appreciated to some
degree, particularly by experienced and accomplished cinematographers.
Therefore, considerable effort has been concentrated on providing useful,
practical information regarding cine lenses in this chapter; for example, rules of
thumb, tricks of the trade, special considerations, as well as some basic lens
theory will be covered.
INTRODUCTION TO LENSES IN GENERAL
Before getting into any details about cine lenses, it is worth addressing some
of the most commonly asked questions about lenses in general, which apply both
to cine and still-photographic lenses. The most common questions pertain to the
basic formulation and function of lenses. For example:
i) What is a lens?
ii) What does it do?
iii) What is it made of?
iv) Where and how does it fit into a cine camera system?
To answer such questions, Figure 1 depicts a simple lens configuration, which
may be referred to in the following brief discussion of the pertinent questions
and other points of interest.
Essentially, a cine camera objective lens, or “taking lens,” is tasked with
collecting light (or radiation) emanating from object points in an object space
(within a given field of view, which is dependent on lens effective focal length
and size of image format) and forming image points in an image space; hence,
the name objective lens.
Before we answer the above questions, some definitions are required. Because
cine lenses are all tasked with collecting light (or radiation) from an object space
and relaying this to an image space, and because the object and image are real
and the light or radiation is almost always in the visible spectrum (as seen or
nearly seen by the human eye), the following discussion of lenses refers to
visible waveband objective lenses. Therefore, all cine lenses may be classified as
objective lenses that collect visible light from a real object in front of the lens
(anywhere from close to the lens to infinity distance) and form a real image of
the light somewhere after the lens.
A lens is an image-forming device, normally refractive but sometimes
reflective, which collects light emanating from a real object and, by virtue of its
refracting or reflecting properties, forms a real image. Lens systems may be
refractive or reflective or a combination thereof. Systems that are either partly or
totally reflective, which are quite popular in long focal-length still-photography
lenses and astronomical telescopes because of their compactness or efficiency at
collecting light, are uncommon in cine lenses for one major reason. A reflective
or partly reflective system (with coaxial optics) depends on at least two mirrors
to change or reverse direction of the light from object space before it reaches a
real image (see Figure 2). To achieve this, such an optical system, with mirrors
aligned on a common optical axis, must involve a central obscuration so that, in
the central portion of light beams, light is vignetted and not transmitted to the
final image (see Figure 2). At first, this condition might not seem important to
cinematography; however, the aesthetic result can be quite unacceptable to a
cinematographer. To explain this, imagine a night scene with two street lamps,
one at six feet and in focus, and one at 20 feet and considerably out of focus.
With a refractive lens system, the result is as expected: one lamp sharp, and one
lamp soft with a blurred image. However, in the case of a reflective or partly
reflective system, one lamp is sharp and the other is soft, but in the form of a
blurred, donut-shaped image that does not look normal or realistic (see Fig. 2b).
Sometimes such a result is visually acceptable, maybe even appealing. However,
for the majority of filming situations, this characteristic or effect of reflective
(sometimes referred to as catadioptric3 lens systems makes them unappealing to
cinematographers).

Figure 1a. Single lens definition

Figure 1b. Single lens illustration

Figure 2a. Reflective lens layout

The question “What is a lens made of?”(now restricted to refractive lens
systems) is answered as follows: Objective lenses, including cine lenses,
comprise one or more lens elements in a series that refract or “bend light” at
their air-to-element surface interfaces. The lens element refractive materials can
be glass, plastic, crystalline, liquid or even chemically vapor-deposited (CVD)
materials (such as zinc sulfide, which transmits light from the visible to far
infrared wavebands).
For the most part, glasses are the predominant refractive medium or substrate,
mainly because their optical and mechanical characteristics are superior and
consistently precise; this is extremely important in the field of cinematography,
where lens-performance requirements are very demanding. Therefore, cine
lenses are almost always made of glass elements, although occasionally they
utilize calcium fluoride4, a crystalline material (e.g., long focal-length telephoto
Canon primes).

Figure 2b. Appearance of out-of-focus bright point objects at night

To answer the remaining lens question, “Where and how does it fit into a cine
camera system?,” it is first necessary to describe a couple of aspects about
modern vs. old camera systems and how they, together with changing lens
technology (both design and manufacture), have influenced the progressive
design of cine lenses.
In the “old days,” say, the first half of the twentieth century, all lens designs,
including cine ones, had to be kept simple, employing up to five lens elements or
five doublet components (i.e., two elements cemented together). This was simply
due to the fact that anti-reflection coatings did not exist, thus causing
tremendous light loss through a lens. For example, a 50mm f/2.8 focal-length
lens containing five single lens elements and 10 refractive surfaces would
typically experience a 5% loss per surface (i.e., 95% transmission or 0.95
normalized transmission), meaning that for 10 surfaces the overall transmission
might be 60% (i.e., 0.9510). Since T-stop = f-stop ÷ √ (normalized transmission),
this 50mm f/2.8 lens would have a T-stop = 3.6. A f/2.8 lens working at T3.6
does not sound too bad, but consider a 10 or even 20 element f/2.8 lens with
corresponding T-stops of 4.7 and 7.8. Fortunately, cine lenses of this era had one
major advantage over later lenses: the film cameras they were attached to were
predominantly nonreflex. Therefore, the lens could be placed quite close to the
film, which made the lens-design task easier and the lenses less complicated. In
fact, it is interesting to note that in the case of old wide-angle, short focal-length
lenses, their back focal length was normally smaller than their focal length,
which would make them incompatible with modern reflex cameras. However, all
of the light that is lost has to go somewhere, and even in the best lens designs,
some of it would, by successive lens-element surface reflections, head toward
the film, causing ghosting and/or veiling glare. To aggravate matters even more,
these slow lenses of T3.6–T5.6 full aperture, coupled with the insensitivity of
film stock, say ASA 50, meant that huge amounts of light were required to
illuminate a scene—good for the lighting supplier but trouble for the
cinematographer, especially in terms of ghosting and veiling glare. Still, the
cinematographer benefitted from one great, indeed overwhelming advantage—a
larger depth of field than he/she is accustomed to now. So these early cine lenses
got close to the film, were necessarily simple in construction (no coatings), and
due to their lack of speed (aperture) performed well (because of good aberration
correction at their full aperture, albeit with careful lighting). A sampling of these
old lens forms is depicted in Figure 3, which includes their well-known technical
or inventor names.
Of course, modern cine cameras are virtually all reflex because of their need
to provide continuous line-of-sight, through-the-lens viewing to the camera
operator. What this means for the lens is that its rear element must be located
some distance in front of the film as predicated by the reflex mirror design of the
camera. Fortunately, by the 1950s the previously discussed transmission problem
had been remedied by the introduction of thin-film technology that ushered in
anti-reflection coatings. More complex lens configurations, containing anywhere
from ten to twenty elements, were now considered practical, and the fixed focal-
length lens (or prime) suddenly had a partner—the zoom lens. Both lens types
still had to deal with a large back focal-length distance, but this was now easily
managed because complex lens arrangements were feasible. Even those
troublesome wide-angle lenses, now sitting at a film distance mostly exceeding
their focal lengths, could be relatively easily constructed.
Even though the post-1950s cine lenses were substantially better than their
predecessors, they had one additional demand—faster speed, i.e., greater
aperture. Although film-stock sensitivity had gradually improved, low-light
filming situations had increased, thus requiring cine lenses of full aperture T1.3-
T1.4 and sometimes T1.0 or less. Fortunately, or perhaps with good timing due
to demand, glass technology started to improve substantially in the 1960s. The
first major effect on cine lenses was the realization that those fast-aperture lenses
were now possible due to high refractive index glasses. However, aberration
correction was still limited, especially at T1.3-T1.9 apertures. By the early
1980s, glass technology had improved so much that aberration correction, even
in lenses of T1.9 full aperture and, to a lesser extent, T1.3, was approaching the
maximum theoretical limit, even after allowing for all other lens design
constraints such as length, diameter, weight, cost, etc.
Figure 3. Basic “old” lens forms

Perhaps more significantly, zoom lenses could be designed to perform as well

as prime lenses but were still of greater size, weight and cost. Of course, it is
easy to draw comparisons with the still-photography market, but this is
misleading because the performance requirements of that market are normally
lower than than those of the cine arena. Nevertheless, advancements in the still-
photography lens market are a good indication of where cine lenses might go.
One important area of distinction between still and cine lenses is in the
mechanical design. Whereas still lenses are intended for a consumer (amateur)
market, cine lenses address an industrial (professional) market. The mechanical
requirements placed on the latter dictate greater accuracy, reliability and higher
cost than is necessary for the former. Precision lead screws (or threaded mated
parts) have, for some time, been the norm in prime cine lenses, but they are
slowly being supplanted by linear-bearing technology in some primes and many
zooms. Zooms are the main benefactor of linear-bearing technology because
they have at least two moving zoom groups and one focus group, all of high
optical power requiring precision alignment and maintenance thereof. Just like in
the still-photography market, the cost of all the technologies so far described
means that in the field of cine lenses, zooms are likely to eventually dominate
over prime lenses, except in extreme applications such as very wide-angle,
fisheye, or long focal-length lenses.
Another optical technology in its infancy is the design and manufacture of
cine lenses utilizing aspherical surfaces. These axially rotational, symmetrical,
nonspherical surfaces, which have been used in infrared waveband military
systems (e.g., thermal imagers) since the 1970s, are only now being introduced
in cine lenses. Manufacturing and assembly techniques have improved to the
extent that several cine zoom lenses employing one aspherical surface, and even
one cine zoom lens employing two aspherical surfaces, are now available for use
by the cinematographer. The aspheric technology utilized in cine lenses should
not be confused with that used in inferior-performance still-photography lenses.
Extremely high-precision, ground and polished glass aspherical surfaces are
needed for cine lenses to achieve the high-performance imaging expected, but
the much-advertised, aspherically surfaced still-photography lenses depend on
essentially low-quality, low-cost, molded and replicated lens elements. Many
other optical technologies that are perhaps relevant to cine lenses could be
described, such as gradient index glasses (i.e., GRINS), diffractive or binary
surfaces, and holographic elements, but for the time being aspherical-surface
technology is the most promising (at least until, the next edition of the ASC
Manual). Figure 4 illustrates several modern cine-lens optical designs.
To summarize what has been discussed so far, optical technology, along with
camera equipment and customer requirements, have yielded the cine lenses
commonly available today. Getting back to the question, “Where and how does a
cine lens fit into a camera system?,” the modern cine lens, be it prime or zoom,
houses up to twenty-five lens elements and comprises high-technology glasses,
coatings and mechanical components. Focal lengths from 6mm to 1000mm at
working apertures from about T1-32 are available. All of these lenses fit onto
reflex camera systems and generally perform admirably given all the physical
constraints (length, diameter, weight) and cost imposed on their designs.
Derivatives and other embodiments of these technology-driven lenses are
available today in many forms. We will later discuss them in terms of function
instead of technology via movie examples that indicate their purpose, versatility
and limitations.
KINDS AND TYPES OF LENSES
In cinematography, three kinds of lenses are commonly used, providing wide,
medium and narrow fields of view. For the dominant spherical (or so-called flat)
format, 1.85:1, wide lenses have focal lengths from 10mm (or less) to 35mm,
medium lenses have focal lengths from 35mm to 100mm, and narrow lenses
have focal lengths from 100mm to 1000mm (or more). The above categorization
is somewhat arbitrary, but it encompasses not only the preferred fields of view,
but also the majority of lens constructional forms currently employed.
For the wide-angle lenses (as with the others), the exact constructional form
varies depending on the source (designer, manufacturer, supplier). However, the
form is almost always based on an inverse telephoto (i.e., retrofocus)
arrangement of lens elements, which means that the front grouping overall is
negatively powered and the rear grouping overall is positively powered. This
arrangement is a prerequisite for obtaining the necessary back focal length or
lens-to-film interface distance. Many variations within this power arrangement
have been derived, but they all effectively do the same thing—suitably increase
the back focal length while ensuring image-quality performance. A modern
wide-angle lens design is shown in Figure 4a.
For the medium-angle lenses, the constructional form may vary from an
inverse telephoto to a double Gauss and even a weak telephoto construction
(Figure 3). This means that the power groupings may be quite different
depending on the exact focal length, as well as size, weight, full aperture, cost,
etc. Figure 4b shows a modern, medium-angle, double Gauss derivative lens
design.
The narrow-angle lenses are dependent on “stretched” double Gauss and
telephoto lens power constructional forms, with the latter dominating focal-
length designs of 200mm or longer. Figure 4c gives an example of the former
and Fig. 4d gives a zoom-lens example of the latter.
Anamorphic lenses contain a hybrid construction comprising either a spherical
prime or zoom lens and either a front- or rear-integrated anamorphic lens usually
containing mostly cylindrically surfaced lens elements. Due to the size of front
anamorphic optics, they are most commonly used on prime lenses of focal length
25–200mm with full apertures of T2–T2.8; rear anamorphic optics, being
relatively small in size, are usually found on large telephoto prime and zoom
lenses with full apertures of T2–T4. With respect to anamorphic lens image-
quality performance, a good rule of thumb is that front anamorph lenses are
invariably better than rear anamorph counterparts even though they tend to be
faster, offering full apertures of T2–2.8. In terms of focal length, anamorphic
lenses usually afford twice that of spherical lenses. However, due to their
horizontal squeeze, they still provide the same vertical field of view, per focal
length, as spherical lenses.
Zoom lenses are highly complex, usually having upwards of fifteen elements.
They may be telephoto or inverse telephoto in constructional form, but many
times their form is not distinguishable. Figure 4d shows a modern, long focal-
length, slightly telephoto zoom lens containing twenty-four elements. An even
more complex inverse telephoto, macro-focus zoom lens is illustrated in Figure
7.
FORMATS AND LENSES
There are three film sizes currently in use: 35mm, 16mm and 65mm; the
former two are the most popular. In terms of image formats, there are many, e.g.,
16mm, Super 16mm, 1.85:1 35mm, 2.40:1 (anamorphic) 35mm, 1.33:1 (TV)
35mm, 8-perforation (VistaVision) 35mm, 65mm, 15-perforation (IMAX)
65mm, to name just a few of the more common ones. All of them require the
film to be transported vertically through the camera (i.e., perforations traveling
in a vertical direction) except for the 8- and 15-perforation ones, which require
the film to travel horizontally through the camera (i.e., in a direction
perpendicular to the other formats). The direction of movement is in itself not
important to the lenses used, but the large difference in image format or negative
area profoundly affects various aspects of the lenses to be used. In fact, the
difference in area, or more exactly the diagonal dimension of any image format,
is the parameter that directly relates to what the lens needs to cover in terms of
field of view.
It must be unequivocally stated that the anamorphic format is defined as
2.40:1 and not 2.35:1, which has been popularized by well meaning but incorrect
individuals or companies. To be exact, the universally used anamorphic film
format is 2.39:1 at the film, which translates to 2.40:1. This anamorphic ratio has
been around for nearly 30 years, and it is remarkable that other format ratios like
2.35:1 keep popping up to describe widescreen anamorphic movies. To be
absolutely clear, the 2.35:1 anamorphic format first appeared in the mid-1950s
but died out by the early 1970s. Just consider that over the last thirty years, the
vast majority of 35mm format anamorphic movies have been shot using
anamorphic lenses with a 2X horizontal squeeze covering a 1.2:1 film negative
format, giving 2.40:1 presentation. The originator of the anamorphic format,
CinemaScope, in the early 1950s defined it as an even larger 2.55:1, but this
quickly disappeared when the 2.35:1 format was introduced. By the early 1970s,
these anamorphic formats and others were superceded by the widely adopted
2.40:1 format, which became and is presently the de facto standard in
anamorphic cinematography (see SMPTE 59-1998).
Figure 4. Variety of modern lens designs (29mm image size)

Before getting into format and lens specifics, it should be mentioned that
detailed information about format image size, area, etc., can be found elsewhere
in this manual (see Cinematographic Systems chapter). Also, to discuss the
effect of specific formats on lenses, it is necessary to explain some elementary
theory about film formats and lenses. Referring to Figure 5a, it can be seen that
if the same focal-length lens, set at a constant aperture, is used in three widely
differing image format diagonals, then the fields of view are entirely different.
Now, let’s say the focal lengths of the lenses (still at a constant aperture) are
selected for constant fields of view as shown in Figure 5b. Then, upon projection
of each image (after processing to a print) on a constant-size viewing screen, it
would be apparent that the in-focus objects would look the same. However, for
out-of-focus objects it would be clearly apparent that the depths of field are quite
different. This result is extremely important to the cinematographer, not only
because of the artistic impact, but also because apart from changing the lens
focal length and hence field of view and perspective, nothing can be done to the
lens design to alter this result. The optical term “Lagrange invariant” (an
unalterable law of physics), has been defined (see Figure 1), and the
aforementioned result is a direct consequence of it. In Figure 5b, its controlling
effect on field of view (perspective), focal length and depth of field vs. image
format size are self-evident. Only one real option is available to the
cinematographer to alleviate this condition or even solve it—change the lens
aperture. This seems quite simple until the practicalities of actual shooting are
fully considered. How can you shoot in the 65mm format or, for that matter, the
16mm format and achieve the same look as for the 35mm format? Some
remedies (not cures) can be implemented, and they are best understood by taking
examples from old and new 65mm-format feature films. It should be understood
that because the 65mm format intrinsically has less depth of field than the 35mm
format for lenses of equivalent field of view, an abundant use of lighting
combined with stopping down the lens enables a similar image to be realized
(see Lawrence of Arabia, Dr. Zhivago and Ryan’s Daughter all shot by Freddie
Young BSC). Also, diffusion filters can help to increase the apparent depth of
field, albeit with some loss of image sharpness. Another option to help the
65mm-format depth of field in certain scenes are slant-focus lenses (see the bar-
top bar scene in Far and Away, shot by Mikael Salomon, ASC). In comparison,
for the 16mm format the greater depth of field is more difficult to correct since
this implies even faster lenses, which are not available because there is a
minimum f-stop that cannot be gone below, f/0.5. Therefore, the only real
solution for the 16mm format is to forego the preferred field of view and
corresponding perspective by changing the focal length of the lens or working at
lesser object distances. Using hard lighting is another approach that helps
somewhat with 16mm format depth of field, but the overall look may suffer.
Electronic enhancement in postproduction is another possibility, but again, the
overall look may suffer.
Figure 5. Formats and lenses.

To conclude, it is fair to say that for 35mm and 65mm film formats, just about
anything can be successfully shot as long as one is willing to accept the costs
involved for, say, lighting. For smaller formats, such as 16mm film or high-
definition video cameras (with 2⁄3-inch detectors), the main limitation is too
much depth of field in low-light-level situations where the lens aperture cannot
realistically and practically be less than T1.2–T1.5. Only faster lenses or a retreat
to larger formats, be they film or electronic, will completely solve the depth of
field issue. Of course, what is or is not deemed acceptable in terms of the depth
of field or look of the picture has so far been determined by what is expected. In
other words, it is highly influenced by past results. Future results, especially with
digital-video cameras and lenses, might look different, and over time might
become quite acceptable. So maybe the depth of field concerns will disappear. In
the meantime, the Lagrange invariant, just like Einstein’s theory of relativity,
cannot be broken, so lens depth of field, perspective and look is inextricably
linked to and governed by the format size.
Anamorphic vs. spherical depth of field will be covered later in this chapter.
Also, the deliberate omission of the circle of confusion in the preceding
discussion about depth of field is because it has no bearing on different film
formats that have similar resolution capabilities, especially when viewed
eventually on a cinema screen. The circle of confusion is a purely mathematical
value used to determine an estimate of expected or effective or apparent depth of
field, but that’s all, and it should only be used for that purpose.
SPHERICAL VS. ANAMORPHIC LENSES
Here we will discuss some of the differences between spherical and
anamorphic lenses. There will be no attempt to suggest or imply which of these
formats is better. Only lenses for the 35mm cine format will be described, but the
same observations apply to other formats. Unlike the Super 35 pseudo-
anamorphic format, both the true spherical (1.85:1) and anamorphic (2.40:1)
35mm formats require no anamorphic opticals (i.e., special printer lenses) in the
process of film negative to release print. Since the late 1950s, the anamorphic
film format has been about 59% greater in negative film area than the spherical
1.85:1 film format. An often-asked question is, what happened to the original
CinemaScope anamorphic lenses? Interestingly, the word “scope” has survived
to this day, even though the terms spherical (i.e., flat) and anamorphic (i.e.,
widescreen) are best suited to describe the format difference. There are many
reasons, mostly economic or business-related, as to why CinemaScope lenses
disappeared by the mid-1960s. Some aspects of the early lenses did have
technical deficiencies, and these are worth expanding upon.
Early anamorphic lenses produced one particularly disconcerting, focus-
related image characteristic, which caused several problems with both actors
(especially actresses) and the camera crew. The problem was “anamorphic
mumps,” a well-known term coined by movie production people. A good
example of this is to consider an actress (speaking her lines) walking from, say,
20 feet to 5 feet (i.e., full-body to facial shot) while the camera assistant or focus
puller does a follow focus to keep her in focus at all times. Assuming a high-
quality anamorphic prime lens was used (CinemaScope circa 1955-1965), the
face of the actress would naturally increase in size as she approaches the camera.
However, due to lens breathing through focus (explained in detail later), and
more specifically anamorphic lens breathing, not only did the face of the actress
increase in size, but also the face would become fatter at the close focus. So the
breathing effect, or increase in size of the object, is much greater in the
horizontal direction as compared to vertical direction. Obviously, actors were
unhappy about this phenomenon, so early anamorphic pictures had close-up
shots at 10 feet instead of 5 feet (to alleviate the effect). Production companies
and camera crews, particularly the cinematographer, did not like this, because
with the old, slow film stocks, a ton (for lack of a better word) of lighting was
required, and the perspective of the shot was not as it should be. Heat from the
vast lighting required also produced problems, like sweat on the actors’ faces and
makeup meltdown. In 1958, a U.S. patent was issued for an anamorphic lens
design that virtually eliminated this problem, and anamorphic lenses utilizing the
patented invention have been used continuously for more than forty years. They
are the predominant anamorphic lenses used to shoot the majority of widescreen
movies to this day. The importance of these new anamorphic lenses was
exemplified by the fact that Frank Sinatra the main actor, in the movie Von
Ryan’s Express, shot by William H. Daniels, ASC, demanded that these lenses be
used. Before leaving this subject, an interesting piece of historical information:
The first prototype anamorphic prime lenses with reduced “anamorphic mumps”
were used in the 65mm-format film (2.75:1 with 1.25x anamorphic squeeze) Ben
Hur, released in 1959 by MGM and shot by Robert Surtees, ASC. A little-known
anecdotal fact about these anti-anamorphic mumps lenses is that they can be
specially designed to squeeze, or thin, an actor’s face in close-ups; indeed, this
was soon requested by a particular actress (who shall remain nameless) whose
face had fattened with age.
An often-asked question about anamorphic vs. spherical lenses is, “What is
the depth of field for each?” For a spherical lens, the answer is simple: look up
published depth of field tables (provided in this manual; see page XXX). For an
anamorphic lens, the answer is complicated; firstly, there usually are not any
published depth of field tables, and, secondly, the depth of field is different
depending on whether it is measured in the vertical or horizontal directions of
the film format. What does this mean in reality? Taking an example of, say, two
50mm focal-length lenses, one spherical and one anamorphic, both set at the
same aperture, two anamorphic scene compositions can be created, whereas only
one is available spherically. Rather than dissect all possible compositions of a
scene, a good rule of thumb is to allow for half the depth of field when
comparing anamorphic to spherical lenses of equal vertical or horizontal fields
of view and aperture. Although this covers a worst-case scenario of fitting an
anamorphic scene horizontally into a spherical-format width, it does provide a
good safety margin for all filming scenarios.
In terms of absolute or theoretical image quality and overall aberration
correction, there is no doubt that spherical lenses are capable of superior
performance over anamorphic lenses. However, in terms of practical image
quality or what will be eventually viewed on the screen or on smaller
presentation mediums (e.g., television), both easily provide adequate
performance. For theatrical presentation on a fixed-width cinema screen, the
anamorphic format will have a distinct advantage over the spherical format
because there is more depth of focus at the film print in the projector, which
means that constancy of film print position in the projector is less critical.
Another consideration relating to image quality or residual aberration correction
differences in spherical as opposed to anamorphic lenses is integration of visual
effects (optical and computer-generated). Part of the reason why the Super 35
format (spherical-lens origination, anamorphic release) has recently become
popular, even though the film negative is small—65% smaller than pure
anamorphic 2.40:1—is because the aforementioned low residual aberrations may
aid the effects community. Considering various aspects of spherical vs.
anamorphic-lens residual aberrations, the latter lens tends to produce more field
curvature, astigmatism and distortion. Because of this, the spherical lens has a
sweet spot (i.e., excellent image quality) with a diameter roughly equal to 90%
of the width of the format. In comparison, the anamorphic lens has an elliptical
sweet-spot area bounded vertically within 80% of the format and bounded
horizontally within 90% of the format (see Figure 6a). What this means
practically for the cinematographer is that objects of principal importance are
best kept within these sweet spots (at lens apertures approaching full aperture). It
should also be noted that all lenses, spherical and anamorphic, tend to perform
best beginning at an aperture stopped down by at least one from their maximum
aperture opening and up to, say, an aperture of T11 to T32 depending on lens
focal length (i.e., T11 for very short focal-length lenses, T32 for very long focal-
length lenses).
Figure 6. Color sampling as a compression of image data

Until quite recently, a particular problem associated with anamorphic prime

lenses has been their limited ability to provide good-quality imaging at close
focus distances. In fact, all lenses, spherical and anamorphic, are usually
designed to perform best at one distance, and gradually lose image-quality
performance toward infinity focus and especially at close focus. Modern zoom
lenses, spherical and anamorphic, are less afflicted by this problem because they
incorporate complex, usually multiple, internal focus lens groups (described
later). In the case of anamorphic prime lenses (as opposed to spherical prime
lenses, which do quite well in this respect), there has always been a trade-off
with regard to lens size, weight and image quality at close focus (6 feet to 3
feet). Indeed, compact, lightweight close-focusing anamorphic lenses of fairly
low image quality have been around since the 1960s, but until recently no
anamorphic lenses, large or small, could provide good image quality over a
focus range from infinity to 2–3 feet with low veiling glare characteristics. In the
mid-1980s, technological advances in lens coatings and fabrication techniques
brought spherical prime lenses with the above attributes to the marketplace.
Later, cinematographer (now director) Jan DeBont, ASC suggested that the
combination of these spherical prime lenses with the best anamorphic optics
might produce anamorphic prime lenses of high image quality and low veiling
glare that would compete favorably with the best available spherical prime
lenses. Such anamorphic lenses were produced and first used on the movie
Flatliners, shot by DeBont. Still, the close-focus anamorphic lens image-quality
problem had to be solved. The source of the solution turned out to be using
developments in spherical zoom-lens cam technology. Using precision cams in
modern anamorphic lenses, still based around that 1958 anamorphic lens patent
invention, high-quality-imaging anamorphic prime lenses with substantially
reduced veiling glare and close focusing down to 21⁄2 feet or less were produced
and are commonly used in the marketplace. They are still somewhat large and
heavy, but they provide the main and preferred image-quality characteristics
required for modern filmmaking.
Since anamorphic (widescreen) and spherical (flat) movies are no longer
identified before being shown in theaters, and many times are not even presented
in their full format ratio, what sets them apart lens-wise? Depth of field
differences previously mentioned can be looked for. Streaking of hot (bright)
objects, especially point objects such as a kick of sunlight off the chrome trim of
a car, is usually more pronounced when anamorphic lenses have been used. Two
good examples of films that purposefully use this characteristic to intensify the
action are Close Encounters of the Third Kind,5 shot by Vilmos Zsigmond, ASC,
where the small alien spaceships with bright lights fly low along a twisty road at
night; and Speed, shot by Andrezej Bartkowiak, ASC, where the underground
runaway train with bright headlights hurtles along the tracks just before crashing.
In both of these scenes, the streaking can be seen as blue, red, purple and white
bright lines, mainly horizontally spread across the picture but also at other
angles. To reduce streaking where bright point sources are unavoidable, one
technique is to introduce a tiny amount of diffusion, say, by single fog or black
Pro-Mist types of filters. Perhaps the definitive giveaway of an anamorphically
lensed movie appears in a scene shot at night with a streetlamp well out of focus.
In a spherical movie the lamp will be blurred and circular in shape, but in an
anamorphic movie the lamp will be blurred and elliptical in shape. (See Figure
6b.)
In summary, the pace of development in spherical vs. anamorphic prime
lenses has been greatest in the former, and yet the latter has benefited greatly
from some of the former’s developments. The image-quality performance
differences and depth of field considerations have been reduced from a technical
level to that of artistic or aesthetic preference, which is good, because it involves
interpretation of the storyline. To elaborate on this, it is worth considering a
movie example concerning the practical issue surrounding anamorphic vs.
spherical-lens depth of field. Dean Semler, ASC, ACS shot the feature film Dead
Calm in the anamorphic format. Given the confined, if not claustrophobic,
circumstances of filming almost entirely on a yacht on the open sea with many
close focus distances, one might question the reason for choosing the
anamorphic format. However, Semler had good reason: the cinematographer
wanted to emphasize what was happening on the yacht during the movie, and not
distract the viewer by drawing attention to things in the distance or not relevant
to the scenes being enacted.
To conclude, it may seem that an excessive amount of attention has been
placed on spherical vs. anamorphic lenses, but we wanted to thoroughly explain
why the choice is artistic as well as technical.
PRIME LENSES VS. ZOOM LENSES
Earlier in this section, we discussed various technological developments
relating to lenses in general. All of these and other developments have been
instrumental in bringing zoom lenses to a point where today they rival or exceed
prime lenses in virtually every aspect, be it cost, performance or versatility; their
only drawbacks are still size and weight, but even those are being gradually
eroded. In cinematography, where optical and mechanical performance
requirements and expectations are traditionally higher, zoom lenses have seen a
much slower acceptance than in other applications, (e.g., still photography—
especially point-and-shoot cameras—photocopiers, video camcorders, etc). In
the late 1950s to early 1960s, zoom lenses gained popularity with
cinematographers mainly for their intrinsic zooming capability. Today, the most
technologically advanced cine zoom lenses have become popular not only
because of their zooming capability, but more importantly for their performance
and versatility. They are used equally for zooming and as variable focal length
primes.
Prime cine lenses, having a huge range of discrete focal lengths from about
6mm (fisheye) to 1000mm, full apertures starting at about T1.2 and close
focusing to 1 or 2 feet, are commonplace. The overall performance of these
modern prime cine lenses is usually excellent. In general, if you want more from
a prime lens you can get it; you just have to pay more. The performance that can
be achieved now closely approaches limits set by the laws of physics. Of course,
good prime cine lenses still need proper optical design, mechanical design,
manufacturing, assembly, testing and calibration, no matter how much
development money is invested. Zoom lenses are controlled by the same factors.
However, zoom lenses, apart from their zoom capabilities, can and already do
offer considerable advantages over even the best prime lenses. Primarily due to
their greater cost but far better return on investment, as well as their greater
overall complexity, zoom lenses can readily incorporate advanced features, such
as close-to-macro focusing (with virtually constant aperture throughout focus
and zoom) and reduced breathing at short focal lengths. In particular, the
breathing control offered in some modern cine zoom lenses is important to many
cinematographers.
Optical breathing is a phenomenon peculiar to cameras that continually record
images over time, i.e., film or video. It is not present in still photography.
Breathing is well illustrated by considering a scene containing two persons
talking intermittently with each other, one at 6 feet and one at 20 feet focus.
Let’s say the person at 20 feet (in focus and at the edge of the scene) first talks to
the person at 6 feet (slightly out of focus but quite discernable, centered in the
scene). Then let’s say that during the conversation, the person at 6 feet (now in
focus by refocusing the lens) starts talking to the person at 20 feet (now slightly
out of focus), but the person at 20 feet, due to refocusing the lens, moves out of
the scene. This means that the person at 6 feet is talking to nobody in the scene,
thus ruining the take. In other words, breathing, through change in field of view
during focusing, has moved objects at the edge of the scene into and out of the
scene. Patents of zoom-lens inventions dating back to the late 1950s have
addressed this problem, and several modern cine zoom lenses, sometimes using
complex internal focusing arrangements, have successfully minimized this effect
—especially at short focal lengths, where the larger depths of field make this
effect more noticeable.
Modern cine zoom lenses are available in a variety of forms—lightweight (2-
3:1 zoom ratio), variable prime (2.5:1 zoom ratio) and conventional. The latter
comprises medium ratio (3:1–5:1), wide-angle and telephoto zoom lenses, e.g.,
14.5–50mm T2.2, 17.5–75mm T2.3, 20–100mm T2.8, 135–420mm T2.8, 150–
600mm T6.3, and large-ratio (10:1-11:1) wide to long focal length zoom lenses,
e.g., 24–275mm T2.8, 25–250mm T3.5–4.0.
To conclude, prime and zoom lenses complement each other in the field of
cinematography, and virtually all movies now feature prime lenses and one zoom
lens. Many movies use prime lenses and more than one zoom lens; some movies
use only a few prime lenses and are shot almost entirely with zoom lenses.
SPECIALTY LENSES AND SYSTEMS
In addition to prime and zoom lenses, the cinematographer has at his or her
disposal a large variety of other lenses or lens systems (which contain primes or
zooms) that provide different imaging characteristics or other features: specialty
lenses. Some of these specialty lenses may be just prime lenses with unusual
features, and some may involve an optical system that accepts attachment of a
variety of primes or zooms.
Figure 7. Color sampling as a compression of image data

The Cine Lens list, starting on page 653 in this manual, contains some of the
best-known specialty lenses and systems and identifies their specific
characteristics and possible applications. Some of them are dependent on folded
optical configurations utilizing mirrors or prisms. They are all unique, but some
have overlapping properties. None of them can be construed as front or rear lens
attachments, because they attach directly to the camera.
By far the most significant aspect of these lenses and optical systems is their
ability to achieve in-camera real-time shots not possible with regular primes and
zoom lenses. Other advantages include provision of large depth of field, extreme
close or even macro focusing, and maneuvering among objects (e.g., miniatures,
models, forced perspective).
Some good examples of their shot-making capability can be seen in the
following movie and TV sequences. In Titanic, cinematographer Russell
Carpenter, ASC and visual-effects supervisor Erik Nash used a
Panavision/Frazier lens system and camera, each under motion control, to shoot
the beginning of the last sequence in the movie. Shortly after the woman drops
the gemstone into the ocean from the back of the research ship, a dry-for-wet
scene commences with the camera system approaching a model of the sunken
Titanic hulk (in dark blue lighting), then traversing over the bow of the ship
heading toward the port side, then entering and traveling through a covered
outside walkway, and eventually slowing to a halt after turning left to see two
doors with unlit glass windows, which then are lit and open to reveal a
congregation of people collected together to toast the lead actor and actress. In
this shot, which is far too complicated to describe fully (although it is worth
noting that CGI and a Steadicam rig are also involved), the large depth of field,
image-rotation control and pointing capability of the Frazier lens system are
utilized up to the point where the doors open. Another movie, The Rock, shot by
John Schwartzman, ASC, exemplifies the variety of shots that can be
accomplished with the Frazier lens system and some other specialty lenses.
Many of the shots are seen toward the end of the movie, when Nicolas Cage is
being chased on the Alcatraz prison walkways while carrying the deadly green
marbles and accidentally dropping, then grabbing, them on the parapet of the
lighthouse tower. In this shot, the macro focus (close-up of his feet) to the
infinity focus (San Francisco distant skyline) carry of focus (i.e., huge depth of
field with no follow focus) is clearly illustrated. For periscopic specialty lenses,
a good example can be seen in the introduction to public television’s
Masterpiece Theatre series, where the point of view given has the lens working
its way through table-top memorabilia in a Victorian-era drawing room,
eventually halting in front of a hardbound book with the title of the play about to
be presented on its front cover. This particular shot combines the maneuvering,
pointing, role and close-focus capabilities of the Kenworthy snorkel.
The above examples relate to specialty lens systems where different objective
or taking lenses, primes and zooms, can be attached to an optical unit which
basically relays the light through mirrors and prisms to form a final image, and
wherein pointing and image-rotation means are housed. Many other lenses or
lens systems, some under remote control, such as the pitching lens, can be used
to achieve similar results.
Other specialty lenses, such as slant-focus lenses and bellows-type lenses,
typically have fewer features than those afforded by the aforementioned lens
systems. However, they do offer the cinematographer opportunities to capture
other distinctive views of a scene. For example, the slant-focus lens permits
reduced depth of field limitations to be overcome in low-light-level scenes
where objects span across the field of view with continuously increasing focus
distance or with continuously decreasing focus distance, such as is found in the
typical car scene with the driver and passenger in conversation and the camera
looking into the car from either the passenger or driver window. Bellows-type
lenses can produce shots similar to slant-focus lenses, but because of their
bellows dependency cannot easily be adjusted in shot. However, the real
advantage of bellow lenses is their ability to produce a distorted field of view or
perspective. In other words, even though the film-format shape remains constant,
objects can be highly distorted and defocused differentially across the scene. For
example, the well-known THX rectangular-shaped credit could be made
trapezoidal in shape, with each corner defocused by different amounts.
All of these specialty lenses are currently very popular with cinematographers.
Their attributes are quite well-suited to movie making, and they are used to great
effect in TV commercials to get that difficult-to-obtain or different look.
LENS ATTACHMENTS
The most common cine lens attachments are placed before or after (and
occasionally within) a cine camera lens, be it a prime or zoom, spherical or
anamorphic.
Front lens attachments include diopter and split diopter close-focusing lenses,
image stabilizers, image shakers, distortion optics and inclining prisms. Their
main duty is to maximize the versatility of the lens to which they are attached.
Most of these front attachments lose some light transmission and, in some
instances, image quality, but their overall effect proves them to be worthwhile
even though they have deficiencies.
Rear lens attachments mainly include extenders (to increase or decrease the
overall lens focal length) and mesmerizers (rotatable anamorphic optics).
Extenders are well established in still photography. Their main property is to
increase (or even decrease) the overall focal length of the lens. There are three
disadvantages when using them: overall image quality may be somewhat
degraded; aperture is reduced at the rate of one stop per each 1.4x multiplier
(e.g., x2.0 extender = 1.4x1.4x, giving a two-stop loss); and the focus scale of
the lens will be incorrect by approximately the physical length of the extender. In
practical terms, the rule of thumb is that a good high-quality 1.4x rear extender
will not substantially affect the overall image quality, but a 2x or greater
extender will probably cause a significant reduction in image quality.
Technically, rear extenders should only be employed if no alternative prime or
zoom lens is available. Mesmerizers, due to their anamorphic nature, may
degrade image quality even further. In TV commercials this is not a problem, but
in moviemaking some caution should be exercised, such as stopping down the
aperture at least one stop.
One front lens attachment, which is quite commonplace in the video-lens
marketplace but has only recently been introduced in cine lenses, is the single or
double aspherically surfaced element. The idea here is to take a single,
negatively powered lens element with one or two nonspherical surfaces and
attach it to the front of a wide-angle prime or zoom lens so that the focal length
is decreased to 80% (or even as far as 66%) of its original value;
correspondingly, the field of view is proportionally increased, the image quality
is little changed. It should be pointed out that such attachments only work
properly with prime or zoom lenses that have a minimum full field of view of
about 75°. These front lens attachments offer an economical way to provide
increased wide-angle, short focal-length lenses not available in a lens series and,
by virtue of their aspherically surfaced lens design prescription, astigmatism,
distortion and lateral chromatic aberrations are kept under control. The only real
disadvantage of this wide-angle lens approach is the loss of focus capability,
because the front attachment requires the principal lens to be set at the end of its
close-focus range to reach the hyperfocal-focus distance of the overall system.
However, such wide-angle lenses’ large depth of field does not really warrant
any focusability. Examples of these front lens attachments currently being used
include a 6mm T2 prime covering the Super 16mm film format, which becomes
a 4.5mm prime (using a 0.75x front lens attachment), and a 14.5mm T1.9 prime
covering the Academy 35mm film format, which becomes an 11.5mm prime
(using a 0.8x front lens attachment). Due to the simplicity of these front lens
attachments, no significant stop loss is associated with their use.
FORMAT SIZE AND LENS ATTRIBUTES
Earlier, in Formats and Lenses, lens depth of field was discussed. There are
some other important implications resulting from format size on lens size
(volume and weight), image quality and aperture, as well as reflex mirrored
camera considerations.
Perhaps the most noticeable effect is the tendency for lens size to increase
almost linearly with each format size, assuming a constant focal length and
constant full aperture. Of course, this must partly happen in reflex camera
systems because the reflex mirror, size and position dictate the lens back-focal
length. Since the size and distance of the mirror from the film (or image plane)
increases mainly according to film-format size, this means that 65mm-format
lenses tend to be larger than 16mm-format lenses, at least at their rears.
However, the greater difficulty in covering a larger format, combined with the
need for larger depth of field, makes 65mm-format lenses slower, T2.8–T5.6 full
aperture, whereas 16mm format lenses are faster T1.4–T2.0. Unlike in still
photography, where a larger-format lens is chosen to provide a larger print, in
cinematography the 65mm, 35mm and occasionally 16mm prints are invariably
shown on similarly sized cinema screens, roughly 20–50 feet wide. In summary,
65mm-format cine lenses are optically less complex, slower and have slightly
less resolution per millimeter of film negative than 35mm- or 16mm-format
lenses. Nevertheless, 65mm lenses perform as well as they need to, based on the
size of the format. The key to the final presentation quality using large-format
lenses, including 65mm, VistaVision and 35mm anamorphic, is, as it always has
been, the larger format size and corresponding area of the negative.
SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF LENSES
Special applications fall into the category of visual effects, which include
special effects, computer-graphics imaging (CGI), digital effects, animation, etc.
Most of these applications have one thing in common: they require principal
photography with lenses and film to achieve about 2,000 pixels of usable
information (and more recently up to 4,000 pixels) across the film format. Today,
the most-used and best cine lenses perform adequately and can meet this
requirement. Even anamorphic lenses, which get a bad name, are not pressed in
meeting this requirement. In fact, until quite recently, film stocks, because of
their chemical image processing for enhanced contrast in the negative, have
proved to be more problematic than lenses, especially in blue or green matte
screen applications.
Although modern cine lenses may be considered precision optical instruments
that were designed, manufactured, tested and calibrated in a highly scientific
manner, many of their characteristics, features and specific properties have not
been made available publicly or accessible to people working in special
applications. In the last five to 10 years, books or manuals containing some of
this information have appeared; however, further dissemination of lens
information is necessary.
To explain what some of this lens information is, a good method is to examine
a recently made movie with many special effects, such as Titanic. After camera
equipment was supplied to the production, the crew requested certain lens
information. In particular, variations of distortion and field of view (see
breathing earlier described) through focus and zoom and lens repeatability were
topics that kept arising. Eventually, this and other kinds of information were
released so that the desired special effects could be realized.
With the ever-increasing utilization of visual effects, a tremendous amount of
lens information will be not only required, but also indispensable in the making
of movies. Most of this information is not yet publicly available.
LENS DEPTH OF FIELD
Depth of field lens information is worth a special mention because until quite
recently, its method of calculation, especially at close- to medium-focus
distances (say 2–6 feet), has been somewhat inaccurate for wide-angle prime and
zoom lenses; and its interpretation for wide-angle lenses in general needs
clarification.
For modern, high-quality, wide-angle cine zoom lenses that are typically about
6–12 inches long, the lens length cannot be ignored when calculating the depth
of field. To properly calculate the depth of field, the first nodal, or conveniently
entrance pupil position of a wide-angle lens must be known. In most wide-angle
zoom and prime lenses they are normally a few inches back from the front of the
lens. So assuming that properly calculated depth of field tables for the lens in
question are not available, a good rule of thumb for a short focal-length lens is to
subtract the physical lens length (from front to flange/mounting point) away
from the object distance (i.e., object to film), and then look up the depth-of-field
table. It goes without saying that a lens at a close focus distance of 4 feet (object
to film), after the subtraction of, say, one foot, will produce a significant
difference in the depth of field from that expected—just look at any
contemporary depth of field table to compare 4 feet and 3 feet at T2 for a lens of
any focal length.
One common complaint about the depth of field observed for wide-angle
primes or zooms: when the focus distance is 6 feet and the expected depth of
field (according to the tables) is 4 to 9 feet, why is the defocused object at 4 feet
almost as sharp as the focused object at 6 feet, while the defocused object at 9
feet looks comparatively very soft? The answer has nothing to do with the lens
performance, the validity of the depth-of-field tables, or even lens physical
length; it simply has to do with the magnification of objects at different focus
distances. Since the object at 4 feet is only 11⁄2X larger than the object at 6 feet,
but the object at 4 feet is 21⁄4X larger than the object at 9 feet, then for the same
object, (say, a person’s face at all three focus distances, and all faces lit in a
similar manner), it is to be expected that the aforementioned result will appear.
In addition, it is worth noting that the introduction of even the weakest diffusion
filters, as well as soft lighting, will further compound and exaggerate this
condition.
LENS DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE
To the various suppliers of cine lens products, the design and manufacture
(including assembly, test and calibration) of cine lenses have been, and still is,
considered proprietary, as in intellectual property. A survey of cine-lens patents
from the 1950s through today (few in number) confirms the secretive nature
attached to cine-lens products by various suppliers. Quite a few technical and
scientific publications on some of the above aspects of cine lenses are available
and are listed under References toward the end of this manual. Most of them
concentrate on the optical design of cine lenses.
Over the years, several different approaches have been used to provide
suitable cine lenses to the cinematographic marketplace. More often than not, the
best approach has been to design custom cine lenses from scratch. In this case,
two substantially different lens development approaches have been chosen. The
first, which for the sake of discussion will be called the old-world method,
entails a company performing virtually all tasks in-house. The second, called a
new-world method, has the design and development process controlled at one
company (with the final assembly, testing and calibration performed there), but a
large number of specialized suppliers being subcontracted for partial design and
component manufacture—sort of like the way modern jet aircraft are produced.
Both approaches have advantages, the first having everything totally controlled
under one roof, and the second being better suited to exploit new technologies.
In terms of which approach produces the best cine lenses, only the results can
provide an answer. However, the latter approach is best suited to providing faster
development of new lenses.
In such a limited space it is not realistic to discuss all the aforementioned
aspects of cine lenses. The references we have mentioned, although mainly
containing theoretical information, such as MTF performance, are very useful in
gaining a fairly comprehensive understanding of optical aberrations and
numerous other optical (e.g., veiling glare) and mechanical (e.g., use of linear
bearings) considerations in the design of cine prime and zoom lenses. We
suggest that the reader peruse the listed references for a more detailed account of
this subject.
LENS ERGONOMICS
Unlike most still-photography lenses, which are purely driven by cost vs.
image-quality requirements, cine lenses have a strong ergonomic component.
This component is indirectly dependent on what the cinematographer expects of
a cine lens, but is directly related to what his or her crew, specifically camera
assistants, must do to obtain the desired shot. Since the assistant’s job may
depend on ergonomic aspects of the chosen cine lens, this little-discussed lens
aspect is certainly worth noting.
It is often believed that the quickness of sharp focus being attained in a cine
lens by rotation of the focus gear means that a sharp in-focus image of the object
has been achieved. However, the opposite is true, because it is best (and this has
been conclusively tested and will be verified by most camera assistants) for the
lens to have a lengthened focus scale with many spaced-apart focus calibration
marks (e.g., infinity, 60, 30, 20, 15, 12, 10, 9 feet, etc., continuing down to close
focus) so that the sharpness of focus may appear more difficult to reach, but the
likely error in focus is reduced. Camera assistants say that this ergonomic lens
aspect of providing an extended, well-spaced and clear focus scale, usually on a
large lens barrel, is crucial to providing a well-focused, sharp image.
The aperture or T-stop scale is also important, because it should have clear
markings (e.g., T2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, etc.) spaced well apart and preferably linearly
spaced for equal stop differentials. The ergonomics of the latter condition have
become more important lately due to motion-control-powered iris practices
including variable, aperture and frame-rate shots.
Zoom scales were until recently largely ignored in terms of the focal-length
markings and spacing on the lens zoom scale. On modern zoom-lens scales, the
normal cramping of long focal-length marks has been avoided through
optimization of zoom cam data so that long focal-length zoom mark spacings
have been expanded and short focal-length zoom markings have been
compressed (but not to adversely affect selection of short focal-length settings).
Most modern prime and zoom cine lenses can be expected to offer expanded
focus, aperture and zoom scales on both sides of the lens, i.e., dual scales. Also,
all of these scales should not be obscured by matte boxes, motors or other
ancillary devices.
Some other ergonomic or perhaps more practical aspects of cine lenses are
worth identifying. In prime or zoom lenses, mechanical precision and
repeatability of focus marks are important, especially in 35mm-format lenses of
short focal length, say 30mm or less. Typically, in a high-quality, wide-angle
prime lens, where the entire lens is moved to focus, the repeatability error due to
mechanical backlash, slop, high spots, etc., should be less than a half-thousandth
of an inch (i.e., 12 microns metrically). Correspondingly, in wide-angle prime or
zoom lenses where internal or “floating” lens elements are utilized, a similar
tolerance, sometimes smaller, needs to be achieved. The eventual tolerance
required in this case may be larger or smaller than that mentioned, depending
upon the focal length (or power) of the movable focus group(s).
Maintenance of line of sight or “boresight” in primes, but more so for zooms,
is a major ergonomic consideration, especially in visual-effects and motion-
control applications. The best quality zoom lenses today can be expected to
provide a maximum, or, worst case, line of sight variation through zoom of less
than one inch at a 12-foot focus distance.
In addition to what has been described, the camera assistant or any other lens
user demands that a cine lens not only provide accurate focus, aperture and zoom
control, but also the right feel. An analogous way to explain this is to consider
the turning of the frequency-control knob on a radio. Any movement of the knob
should be smooth, not rough or sticky, and yet require some force. The same
applies to the feel of the focus, aperture, zoom or other gears on a cine lens. For
the best cine lenses, this feel is taken for granted, but for many others an
uncertainty and lack of confidence about the lens is built up in the camera
assistant’s mind, and this is not conducive to good filmmaking.
FUTURE LENSES
From conception to final use, all modern cine lenses are heavily dependent on
computers. The complexity of modern cine lenses, whether optical, mechanical,
electronic, some combination thereof, or otherwise, is so great that computers
are not only needed, they are fundamental to producing high-quality cine lenses.
The advancement and gradual inroad made by zoom lenses in many fields,
including cinematography, is a testament to the importance of the computer in
the whole zoom-lens design process, from initial idea to final application.
Without computers, most modern zoom lenses would not exist.
A full series of prime lenses will still continue to be available for some time,
but increasingly, the prime lens will need to become more complex, with
features such as continuous focusing from infinity to close or even macro object
distances; internal, optically generated filtration effects; and so on, so that their
design and manufacturing costs, i.e., return on investment, remain economically
attractive. Individual prime lenses do offer one valuable advantage over zooms:
they fill niche or special lens requirements better, e.g. very wide angle and
fisheye field of view, very long focal lengths, slant focus, bellows, etc.
Therefore, in the future, cine lens complements will still include primes as well
as zooms and specialty lenses, but the mix will undoubtedly change.
Technological advancements in raw glasses, aspherical surfaces, thin films
(i.e., coatings), diffractive optics and other aspects of lenses will continue to fuel
lens development. A recently introduced compact, wide-angle, macro-focus
(continuously focusable from infinity down to almost the front lens element),
constant-aperture (through focus and zoom) cine zoom lens indicates what is to
come. This lens, which employs two aspherical surfaces, some of the most
exotic glasses ever produced, five cams, two movable focus groups, two
movable zoom groups, a movable iris and a total of twenty-three lens elements,
is a good example of what is already possible (See Figure 7). Given the high
performance level achievable by such a zoom, whether it be image quality,
breathing control, macro focusing or many other features, it is easy to understand
why zoom lenses have gained and will gain ground over traditional primes.
A good footnote is to consider where lenses have come from and where they
are likely to go in comparison to other technologies. Lenses were here before
film and will be here after film. Lenses were here before silicon-based electronic
computer processors and will be here after they are long gone! When optically
based, electronic-like computer processors arrive in the not too distant future,
lenses will still be around, and their development will still be thriving.
LENS DATA TABLES
The lens data tables provided in this manual have been compiled for many
35mm, 16mm, VistaVision and 8mm spherical cine lenses purely as a guide to
what might be expected in terms of lens depth of field, hyperfocal distance and
other characteristics. It is extremely important to note that only a real film test
will determine the actual characteristics of any lens.
For lens depth of field, a conservative circle of confusion of .0010 inches
1
( ⁄1000) has been consistently used throughout the lens data tables. However, with
modern cine equipment, lesser circles of confusion may be necessary. There are
two reasons for this. Firstly, most modern spherical cine lenses produce sharp
images mainly due to their high-contrast capabilities, and, secondly, most
modern film negative stocks exhibit similar high-contrast tendencies. So, for
such a lens and such a film stock, with hard lighting and no filtration, the
effective or apparent depth of field falls within a smaller range about the chosen
focus distance than shown in the lens data tables. Although this lens depth of
field scenario may be considered extreme, it seems to arise more and more often
in modern filmmaking, and as most cinematographers and their film crews will
attest, it is usually better to play it safe when dealing with lens depth of field.
Therefore, it is recommended that a reduced depth of field, up to half of what is
shown in the lens data tables, be adopted when extreme conditions arise.
In order to accommodate these needs (as indicated in the tables), the tables
enable you to calculate a circle of confusion of .0005 (5⁄10,000), or half the size
and twice as critical as listed under a given f-stop. Once you match your
focusing distance to the chosen f-stop, merely move two columns to the left in
order to see the depth of field value for a 5⁄10,000 circle of confusion.
The hyperfocal distances provided in the lens depth of field tables in this
manual indicate the focus distance to which a lens must be set so that the
(defocused) image quality performance is nearly equal for objects placed at
infinity and half the hyperfocal distance.
To conclude, it must be emphasized that no matter how rigorous the
mathematical calculations of lens properties or characteristics (including depth
of field) are, there will always be nonlens contributions, such as filters, film
stock, lighting, etc., and these must be considered in the final outcome. Only the
results of an actual film test can determine the depth of field that is acceptable to
the eye of the beholder.
Iain A. Neil is an Optical Consultant based out of Switzerland. His company
ScotOptix contracts globally with optical technology companies, providing
technical, business and intellectual property expertise with specialization in
zoom lenses, multi-configuration optical systems and new technology
implementation. He has more than 100 worldwide optically related patents
issued and applied for, has published and edited more than thirty papers and
books and has garnered eleven Academy Awards, two Emmys and the Fuji Gold
Medal. He has been active in the optics industry for over thirty-six years and is
currently a fellow member of SPIE and SMPTE, an associate member of ASC, a
member of OSA and a voting member of A.M.P.A.S.
1. Or, in the future, digital image detector, such as a charge-coupled device (CCD).
2. In the future, magnetic tape or magnetic/optical disk containing digital data.
3. Catadioptric still-photography lenses that utilize mirror surfaces (flat, spherical or aspherical), in addition
to refractive surfaces, offer the intrinsic advantage of folding the optical path back on itself twice, making
the lens compact in length, which is particularly attractive in narrow-angle, long focal-length lenses that
otherwise would be large and cumbersome (see Figure 2). Wide-angle, short focal-length catadioptric lenses
are uncommon because of the presence of large field-dependent aberrations that are difficult to correct in a
mirrored lens system.
4. The use of calcium fluoride is best avoided in telephoto cine lenses because it is highly sensitive to
temperature changes of even a few degrees Fahrenheit (or Celsius) and can be expected to produce
significant defocusing that may be troublesome in obtaining and maintaining sharp focus of objects over a
short period of time (1–5 minutes).
5. In some scenes, the streaking was introduced by visual effects using 65mm format lenses.
Camera Filters

by Ira Tiffen ASC Associate Member

C amera filters are transparent or translucent optical elements that alter the
properties of light entering the camera lens for the purpose of improving
the image being recorded. Filters can affect contrast, sharpness, highlight flare,
color and light intensity, either individually or in various combinations. They can
also create a variety of special effects. It is important to recognize that even
though there are many possibly confusing variations and applications, all filters
behave in a reasonably predictable way when their properties are understood and
experienced. Most of these properties relate similarly to filter use in both film
and digital imaging. The following will explain the basic optical characteristics
of camera filters, as well as their applications. It is a foundation upon which to
build by experience. Textual data cannot fully inform; there is always something
new to discover for yourself.
In their most successful applications, filter effects blend in with the rest of the
image to help get the message across. Use caution when using a filter in a way
that draws attention to itself as an effect. Combined with all the other elements
of image making, filters help make visual statements, manipulate emotions and
thought, and make believable what otherwise would not be. When used
creatively, with an understanding of their abilities, they can really get the viewer
involved.
CHANGING TECHNOLOGY
More than ever, changes in technology have fostered new applications,
considerations and formats for filters. Digital technology requires a new array of
spectrum and sensitivity concerns as well as opening up new imaging
opportunities, especially post-capture. Look for references to such changes
throughout this section.
FILTER PLANNING
Filter effects can become a key part of the look of a production, if considered
in the planning stages. They can also provide a crucial last-minute fix to
unexpected problems, if you have them readily available. Where possible, it is
best to run advance tests for preconceived situations when time allows.
SIZES, SHAPES AND ON-LENS MOUNTING TECHNIQUES
Lens-mounted filters are available in round and rectangular shapes and in
many sizes. Round filters generally come supplied with metal rings that mount
directly to the lens. Frugal filter users might find it preferable to use adapters
allowing the use of a set of filters of a single size with any lenses of equal or
smaller sizes. Round filters can also be supplied with self-rotating mounts where
needed, as for polarizers or Star effects. They can be readily stacked in
combination. Rectangular filters require the use of a special filter holder or matte
box. They offer the additional benefit of allowing slidability for effects that must
be precisely aligned within an image, such as graduated filters. In all cases, it is
advisable to use a mounting system that allows for sturdy support and ready
manipulation. In addition, the use of a lens shade at the outermost mounting
position (from the lens) will minimize the effect of stray off-axis reflections.
FILTER FACTORS
Many filter types absorb light that must be compensated for when calculating
exposure. These are supplied with either a recommended filter factor or a stop
value. Filter factors are multiples of the unfiltered exposure. Stop values are
added to the stop to be set without the filter. Multiple filters will add stop values.
Since each full stop added is a doubling of the exposure, a filter factor of 2 is
equal to a one-stop increase. Example: Three filters of one stop each will need
three additional stops, or a filter factor of 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 times the unfiltered
exposure.
When in doubt in the field about compensation needed for a filter that you
have no information on, you might use your light meter with the incident bulb
removed. If you have a flat diffuser, use it; otherwise just leave the sensor bare.
Aim it at an unchanging light source of sufficient intensity. On the ground, face-
up at a blank sky can be a good field situation. Make a reading without the filter.
Watch out for your own shadow. Make a reading with the filter covering the
entire sensor. No light should enter from the sides. The difference in the readings
is the compensation needed for that filter. You could also use a spot meter,
reading the same bright patch, with similar results. There are some exceptions to
this depending on the filter color, the meter sensitivity, and the target color, but
this method is often better than taking a guess.
Published filter-factor information should be taken as a starting point.
Differing circumstances may call for deviations from the norm.
FILTER GRADES AND NOMENCLATURE
Many filter types are available in a range of grades of differing strengths. This
allows the extent of the effect to be tailored to suit various situations. The grade
numbering range can vary with the effect type; generally, the higher the number,
the stronger the effect. Unless otherwise stated, there is no mathematical
relationship between the numbers and the strengths. A grade 4 is not twice the
strength of a grade 2. A grade 1 plus a grade 4 doesn’t add up to a grade 5.
Another possible source of confusion is that the various filter manufacturers
often offer filters with similar names, using terms such as “fog” and ‘diffusion,’
which may have different characteristics.
The oldest standard for naming filter colors was developed early in the 20th
century by Frederick Wratten and his associate, C.E. Kenneth Mees. While at
Kodak they sought to make early film capabilities more closely respond to
customer requirements. In doing so, they created specifications for a series of
filter colors that correspond to particular applications. They gave each color a
number, what we have since called Wratten numbers. These will be referenced
later in this article. Kodak makes gel filters that are the defining standard for the
Wratten system. Other manufacturers may or may not reference the Wratten
designations, even if they otherwise use their own numbering system.
Contact the various manufacturers for additional details about their filter
products and nomenclature.
CAMERA FILTERS FOR BOTH COLOR AND BLACK-AND-
WHITE
Ultraviolet Filters
Film often exhibits a greater sensitivity to what is invisible to us: ultraviolet
light. This is most often outdoors, especially at high altitudes, where the UV-
absorbing atmosphere is thinner, and over long distances, such as marine scenes.
It can show up as a bluish color cast with color film, or it can cause a low-
contrast haze that diminishes details, especially when viewing far-away objects
in either color or black-and-white. Ultraviolet filters absorb UV light generally
without affecting light in the visible region.
It is important to distinguish between UV-generated haze and that of airborne
particles such as smog. The latter is made up of opaque matter that absorbs
visible light as well as UV light, and will not be appreciably removed by a UV
filter.
Since the amount of UV encountered changes often, some cinematographers
find that they can obtain more consistent color outdoors through the regular use
of a filter that totally removes UV, along with their other filters. Some
manufacturers will offer combination UV absorbers with other effects on special
order for this purpose.
Ultraviolet filters come in a variety of absorption levels, usually measured by
their percent transmission at 400 nanometers (nm), the visible-UV wavelength
boundary. Use a filter that transmits zero percent at 400nm for aerial and far-
distant scenes; one that transmits in the 10%–30% range at 400nm is fine for
average situations.
Figure 1a. NO FILTER: Digital cameras can be overly
sensitive to light in the far red and infrared. Certain objects
have the property of reflecting a disproportionate amount of
light in this spectral region, which can result in dark objects
like the four black fabric samples in the center and at the left
of the chart appearing with a distinct reddish tint while the
two samples on the right remain neutral.

Digital imaging sensors typically are less sensitive than film to UV light and
have less need of UV-attenuating filters.

Infrared Filters and Film Imaging

Certain special situations call for the use of black-and-white or color infrared-
sensitive films. For aerial haze penetration, recording heat effects and other
purposes, they are invaluable. Their color and tonal renditions are very different,
however, from other film types (consult film manufacturers for further details).
Various filters are used to reduce unwanted visible light. Red, orange and yellow
filters, as used for panchromatic black-and-white film, can enhance contrast and
alter color.
Filters that absorb all visible light, transmitting only infrared, such as the
Wratten #87 or #89, can also be useful. Bear in mind that you cannot see through
these filters, which makes their use more complicated. Results will vary with
film type and other factors.
Since most lenses focus infrared wavelengths slightly differently than other
colors, you may need to use a different focusing scale on your lens when using
infrared film.
In general, for black-and-white imaging, heat-reflecting surfaces will appear
lighter than they might ordinarily; for color imaging, the image will consist of
artificial colors corresponding to the various levels of reflected heat. Prior testing
for most situations is a must.

Figure 1b. WITH FAR RED/INFRARED FILTER: The

addition of a filter that absorbs or reflects an appropriate
amount of light in the far red/infrared region can eliminate
the reddish cast and visually restore the objects to their
proper neutral appearance, as seen in this image. Digital
cameras differ by design so that the correction filter
required by each will vary. It is best to check with the
camera and filter manufacturers for what will work best
with any given camera.

Infrared Filters and Digital Imaging

Digital imaging sensors have a greater sensitivity to far red and infrared than
film. This part of the spectrum plays a more important part in the rendition of
proper color, particularly for skin tones, than with film. However, this also raises
some difficulties that can be mitigated by certain optical filters.
Black objects in particular can reflect varying amounts of far red and infrared
light while often retaining a similar appearance to the eye. The difference is due
to variations in the dyes used to color the objects. The extra sensitivity of the
digital sensor to this light, though, can impart a color tint, often brownish-red, to
the rendition of certain of the objects (and not to others) as captured by the
camera. This can produce unacceptable color variations.
Using a filter that reflects infrared light, known as a hot mirror, is often the
solution to this problem. Its dichroic coating equalizes the amount of far red and
infrared light reflected from each object to a point where it does not exhibit a
reddish color cast. Colors otherwise unsuitably tinted appear natural with this
filter.
Some digital cameras already incorporate varying degrees of hot mirror
capability in their internal design. It will be important to know what level, if any,
of such attenuation of far red and infrared light is needed by the camera in use to
avoid both the above effect and introducing any other unwanted color artifacts.
Another technique is the combination of certain color temperature control
filters with hot mirrors. Examples include the 80C and the 80D Wratten colors.
This has been found to be helpful for certain cameras.

Neutral-Density Filters
When it is desirable to maintain a particular lens opening for sharpness or
depth-of-field purposes, or simply to obtain proper exposure when confronted
with too much light intensity, use a neutral-density (ND) filter. This will absorb
light evenly throughout the visible spectrum, effectively altering exposure
without requiring a change in lens opening and without introducing a color shift.
Neutral-density filters are denoted by (optical) density value. Density is
defined as the log, to base 10, of the opacitance. Opacitance (degree of
absorption) of a filter is the reciprocal of (and inversely proportional to) its
transmittance. As an example, a filter with a compensation of one stop has a
transmittance of 50%, or 0.5 times the original light intensity. The reciprocal of
the transmittance, 0.5, is 2. The log, base 10, of 2 is approximately 0.3, which is
the nominal density value. The benefit of using density values is that they can be
added when combined. Thus, two ND 0.3 filters have a density value of 0.6.
However, their combined transmittance would be found by multiplying 0.5 x 0.5
= 0.25, or 25% of the original light intensity.
Neutral-density filters are also available in combination with other filters.
Since it is preferable to minimize the number of filters used (see section on
multiple filters), common combinations such as a Wratten #85 (daylight-
conversion filter for tungsten film) with an ND filter are available as one filter,
as in the 85N6. In this case, the two-stop ND 0.6 value is in addition to the
exposure compensation needed for the base 85 filter.
There are two types of neutral-density filters in general use. The most
prevalent type uses organic dyes to attenuate light. For situations where it is
necessary to obtain the most even control from near-ultraviolet through the
visible spectrum into the near-infrared, a metallic vacuum-deposition coating,
often a nickel alloy, is ideal. For most situations, though, the silvered-mirror
appearance of these filters imparts internal reflections that need to be addressed
in use.
Special metallic coatings can also be employed for recording extreme bright-
light situations, such as the sun during an eclipse. These filters are very dense
and absorb substantially through the IR and UV range, as well as the visible, to
reduce the potentially blinding level of light. The best have a density value of
about 5.7, which allows less than 0.001% of the overall light through. Caution:
Do not use any filter to aim at the sun unless it is clearly labeled as having been
made for that purpose. Follow the manufacturer’s directions and take all possible
precautions to avoid accidental (and potentially permanent) blindness.

Variable Neutral Density Filters

While available for some time for use with film, the growth of digital imaging
with its inherently greater light sensitivity has fostered a growing need for the
variable ND filter. The most common version combines two polarizers in one
assembly which, when rotated relative to each other, produce the desired
variation in overall light transmission while retaining a mostly neutral color
rendition. While you can produce your own version of this effect using two
separate polarizers, particularly a circular one mounted on the lens and a linear
one mounted onto that (away from the camera), there are reasons to obtain a
purpose-built unit. Since polarizers can affect light of different wavelengths
somewhat differently, they can generate a color cast, often deep blue, at the
lowest transmission point, which is reached when both polarizers are positioned
so their polarization axes are perpendicular to each other. Proper selection of
polarizer foil characteristics for use by the manufacturers of variable ND filters
will produce more neutral color balance, but even then, using these filters is
usually better when not set for the lowest possible transmission.
For most current cameras that require circular polarization, it is important that
the variable ND has a quarter-wave retarder on the side facing the camera, as
with a traditional circular polarizer. In addition, if the variable ND assembly
allows not only one filter element to rotate relative to the other (necessary to
achieve the variable density effect) but also allows both elements to rotate
together (while retaining their positions relative to each other) then the assembly
can also function similarly to a traditional polarizer, where reduction of polarized
reflected glare improves images of the sky, surfaces of bodies of water, and
when imaging through windows. When using these remember to separately
make rotational adjustments for both overall transmission as well as for
polarized glare reduction.

Infrared-Neutral Density Filters

Digital camera sensors often have greater sensitivity to light than most film.
This has prompted the need for increasing use of denser versions of neutral
density filters for exposure control and for manipulating depth-of-field. An issue
with these relates to the preponderance of infrared sources and reflecting
surfaces as well as the manner in which neutral density filters are made, in
reference to how ND filters handle light in the far-red and infrared regions of the
spectrum.
Traditional ND filters made using dyes do not absorb light in the far red quite
the same as elsewhere in the visible spectrum. When such a one-stop (0.3) ND
filter is used it will allow a slightly greater percentage of light in the far red
through than would be dictated by color neutrality. This percentage increases as
the ND density increases, but is usually acceptable up through ND 0.9. Beyond
that, the incremental increases in the relative amount of far red light passing
through imparts an unwanted brownish-red color tint effect.
This can be handled by certain dyes in the glass that absorb specifically in the
far red region. Another approach is to use strong dichroic coatings that reflect
such light, like the hot mirrors mentioned earlier. These can be made to various
transmission percentages to match a particular camera’s requirements. A
characteristic of such a coating is that it is angle-dependent, meaning the color of
light passing through it is different depending on the incident angle. In practical
terms, light going straight through the center of the filter will be slightly
differently tinted than light entering at a greater angle at the filter’s edge. The
stronger the effect of the coating, the greater this disparity between center and
edge. In addition, this effect becomes especially prominent at wider lens angles.
In some situations, you may find that this color shift is unacceptable.Testing is
recommended.
Figure 2a. NO FILTER: Midday scene as it appears without
a filter. The underexposed foreground appears unnaturally
dark when the exposure is set to properly render the sky.

Ultimately, what you need to know is that there are infrared-neutral density
(IR-ND) filters made using various combinations of these techniques, the
dichroic hot mirror coatings and the far-red-absorbing dyes, that are offered by
various filter manufacturers that each work with a particular range of applicable
cameras. A key concern to be aware of is that they may or may not be able to be
stacked in combination depending on the specific filter types and application.
The matching filter specifications can change with each new camera
introduction. Keep abreast of developments in this area with your suppliers of
cameras and filters.
A relatively new entry offering a unique approach in this field is the Tessive
Time Filter. Essentially a controllable liquid crystal shutter panel that fits in a
standard matte box, its primary use is to eliminate certain undesirable motion
artifacts. Since it also acts as an electronically variable ND filter that attenuates
IR it can function as a variable IR-ND filter.
Figure 2b. GRADUATED NEUTRAL DENSITY 0.6
FILTER: Taken at the same midday time as the unfiltered
image, the filter absorbs two stops from the sky, allowing it
to appear correctly while the exposure is adjusted to
properly render the foreground through the clear half of the
filter. The soft transition between the clear and the ND
halves of the filter allow the effect to blend well together and
make for a more balanced image.

Graduated ND Filters
Often it is necessary or desirable to balance light intensity in one part of a
scene with another, namely in situations where you don’t have total light control,
as in bright exteriors. Exposing for the foreground will produce a washed-out,
overexposed sky. Exposing for the sky will leave the foreground dark,
underexposed
Graduated ND filters are part clear, part neutral-density, with a smoothly
graded transition between. This allows the transition to be blended into the
scene, often imperceptibly. An ND .6-to-clear, with a two-stop differential, will
sometimes compensate the average bright-sky-to-foreground situation.
These filters are also available in combination colors, where the entire filter is,
for example, a Wratten #85, while one half also combines a graded-transition
neutral-density, as in the #85-to-85N6. This allows one filter to fulfill the need
for two
Graduated filters generally come in three transition types. The most
commonly used is the soft-edge graduation. It has a wide enough transition area
on the filter to blend smoothly into most scenes, even with a wide-angle lens
(which tends to narrow the transition within the image). A long focal length,
however, might only image in the center of the transition. In this case, or where
the blend must take place in a narrow, straight area, use a hard edge. This is ideal
for featureless marine horizons. For situations where an extremely gradual blend
is required, an attenuator is used. It changes density almost throughout its length.
The key to getting best results with a graduated filter is to help the effect blend
in as naturally as possible. Keep it close to the lens to maximize transition
softness. Avoid having objects in the image that extend across the transition in a
way that would highlight the existence of the filter. Don’t move the camera
unless the transition can be maintained in proper alignment with the image
throughout the move. Make all positioning judgments through a reflex
viewfinder at the actual shooting aperture, because the apparent width of the
graduation is affected by a change in aperture.
Graduated filters are best used in a square or rectangular format in a rotating,
slidable position in a matte box. This will allow proper location of the transition
within the image. They can be used in tandem; for example, one affecting the
upper half, the second affecting the lower half of the image. The center area can
also be allowed to overlap, creating a stripe of the combination of effects in the
middle, most effectively with graduated color filters (see section on Graduated
Color Filters).

Circular Gradient and Circular/Elliptical Center Spot ND Filters

Replicating the look of early lenses, which tended to go dark at the edges, or
for other situations where such an effect is desirable, circular gradient filters can
be made; they have a clear circular center that gradually darkens in a circular
fashion out toward the edges. Center spot ND filters are similar in having a clear
center, but there is no graduated transition: a clear circle or ellipse (or other
shape, to order) with a razor-hard edge is surrounded by an even border of
neutral density. In addition, subtly brightening a particular area of the image with
these filters (relative to the darker edges) helps direct the viewer’s eye toward
action in the brighter area. This is especially useful when positioning the filter
using a slidable, rotating mount such as a matte box so that the brighter area can
be located almost anywhere within the frame.
Conversely, when using certain lenses with a design that produces a brighter
center and darker edges, there are circular gradient filters that are darker in the
center and clear toward the edges to compensate. These filters are usually
offered by the same companies that manufacture these lenses.

Polarizing Filters
Polarizers allow color and contrast enhancement, as well as reflection control,
using optical principles different from any other filter types. Most light that we
record is reflected light that takes on its color and intensity from the objects we
are looking at. White light, as from the sun, reflecting off a blue object appears
blue because all other colors are absorbed by that object. A small portion of the
reflected light bounces off the object without being absorbed and colored,
retaining the original (often white) color of its source. With sufficient light
intensity, such as outdoor sunlight, this reflected glare has the effect of washing
out the color saturation of the object. It happens that for many surfaces, the
reflected glare we don’t want is polarized, while the colored reflection we want
isn’t.
The waveform description of light defines nonpolarized light as vibrating in a
full 360-degree range of directions around its travel path. Polarized light in its
linear form is defined as vibrating in only one such direction. A (linear)
polarizing filter passes light through in only one vibratory direction. It is
generally used in a rotating mount to allow for alignment as needed. In our
example above, if it is aligned perpendicular to the plane of vibration of the
polarized reflected glare, the glare will be absorbed. The rest of the light, the
true-colored reflection vibrating in all directions, will pass through no matter
how the polarizing filter is turned. The result is that colors will be more strongly
saturated, or darker. This effect varies as you rotate the polarizer through a
quarter-turn, producing the complete variation of effect from full to none.
Polarizers are most useful for increasing general outdoor color saturation and
contrast. Polarizers can darken a blue sky, a key application, on color as well as
on black-and-white film, but there are several factors to remember when doing
this. To deepen a blue sky, the sky must be blue to start with, not white or hazy.
Polarization is also angle-dependent. A blue sky will not be equally affected in
all directions. The areas of deepest blue are determined by the following rule of
thumb: when setting up an exterior shot, make a right angle between thumb and
forefinger; point your forefinger at the sun. The area of deepest blue will be the
band outlined by your thumb as it rotates around the pointing axis of your
forefinger, directing the thumb from horizon to horizon. Generally, as you aim
your camera either into or away from the sun, the effect will gradually diminish.
There is no effect directly at or away from the sun. Do not pan with a polarizer
without checking to see that the change in camera angle doesn’t create
undesirable, noticeable changes in color or saturation. Also, with an extra-wide-
angle view, the area of deepest blue may appear as a distinctly darker band in the
sky. Both situations are best avoided. In all cases, the effect of the polarizer will
be visible when viewing through it.
Polarizers need approximately 11⁄2 to 2 stops exposure compensation,
generally without regard to rotational orientation or subject matter. They are also
available in combination with certain standard conversion filters, such as the
85BPOL. In this case, add the polarizer’s compensation to that of the second
filter.
Certain camera optical systems employ internal surfaces that also polarize
light. One example is the use of a videotap. Using a standard (linear) polarizer
may cause the light to be further absorbed by the internal optics, depending on
the relative orientation. This may interfere with the normal operation of the
equipment. The solution in these instances is to use a circular polarizer. The term
“circular” does not refer to its shape. Rather, it is a linear polarizer to which has
been added, on the side facing the camera, a clear (you can’t see it, you can only
see what it does) quarter wave retarder. This corkscrews the plane of
polarization, effectively depolarizing the light (after it has been through the
linear polarizer, which will have already had its effect on enhancing your image),
eliminating the problem. It is of critical importance, then, when using a circular
polarizer that it be oriented in the proper direction. That is, the retarder layer
must be on the side facing the camera. The filter must be either clearly labeled
by the manufacturer as to the correct direction, or mounted in a ring that only
threads on one way. Be careful when using a filter that mounts on the rear of a
lens, as in some wide-angle designs. Some lenses will allow the threaded filter
ring to mount in the wrong orientation. You can ensure the correct direction by
seeing that the direction the camera views through the filter is the one where the
filter functions as a normal polarizer. If turned the other way, it will not produce
the polarization effect. The circular polarizer otherwise functions in the same
manner as a standard linear one.
Polarizers can also control unwanted reflections from surfaces such as glass
and water. For best results, be at an angle of 33 degrees incident to the reflecting
surface. Viewing through the polarizer while rotating it will show the effect. It
may not always be advisable to remove all reflections. Leaving some minimal
reflection will preserve a sense of context to a close-up image through the
reflecting surface. For example, a close-up of a frog in water may appear as a
frog out of water without some telltale reflections.
For certain situations, it may be desirable to use a pair of polarizers to create a
variable-density filter. Although the transmission will vary as you rotate one
relative to the other, you should be aware of the resultant light loss, even at its
lightest point.
For relatively close imaging of documents, pictures and small three-
dimensional objects in a lighting-controlled environment, as on a copy stand,
plastic polarizers mounted on lights aimed at 45 degrees to the subject from both
sides of the camera will maximize the glare-reducing efficiency of a polarizer on
the camera lens. The camera in this case is aimed straight at the subject surface,
not at an angle. The lighting polarizers should both be in the same perpendicular
orientation to the one on the lens. Again, you can judge the effect through the
polarizer.

Polarization Filters and 3-D

The development of optical systems for capturing right and left eye
stereoscopic views for 3-D productions uncovered new applications for
polarization. A staple of 3-D production today, the beam-splitter rig positions
two cameras at right angles to each other, each aimed at opposing sides of a
partially silvered mirror. One camera sees through the mirror, the other images
off the reflection. The reflected light will be partially polarized by the mirror; the
transmitted light will only exhibit the partial polarization inherent in the scene
that both cameras are recording. The differences in the two light paths can cause
troublesome differences in brightness of particular details in the image that can
disrupt the stereoscopic effect. One solution to this is to position a quarter-wave
retarder plate, essentially a clear piece of glass that twists the polarization axis of
the incoming light, in front of the mirror in the beam-splitter rig, effectively
neutralizing the negative polarization effect.
SPECIAL EFFECT FILTERS
General Information
The following filter types are available in a wide range of grades useful in
both color and black-and-white imaging. They have no recommended filter
factors, but may require exposure compensation based on several things. Filters
that lower contrast or create flare, where contrast and/or light intensity is higher,
will do more for any given grade. The more light they have to work with, the
more they can do. The same filter in two different lighting conditions may
produce two different effects. With diffusion, or image-softening filters, higher
contrast scenes appear sharper, needing more diffusion than scenes of lower
contrast. Diffusion requirements will also vary with other conditions. Smaller
film formats will allow less diffusion, as will large-screen projection. Color may
allow less diffusion than black and white. Producing for television may require a
greater degree of diffusion to survive the transition. These relationships should
cause you to choose exposure and filter grade based on the situation and
personal experience. Prior testing is always recommended.

Diffusion Filters
Many different techniques have been developed to diffuse image-forming
light. Strong diffusion can blur reality for a dream-like effect. In more subtle
forms, diffusion can soften wrinkles to remove years from a face. The optical
effects all involve bending a percentage of the image-forming light from its
original path to defocus it.
Some of the earliest portrait diffusion filters still in use today are nets. Fine
mesh, like a stocking, stretched across the lens has made many a face appear
youthful, flawless. This effect can now be obtained through standard-sized
optical glass filters, with the mesh laminated within. These function through
“selective” diffusion. They have a greater effect on small details, such as
wrinkles and skin blemishes, than on the rest of the image. The clear spaces in
the mesh transmit light unchanged, preserving the overall sharp appearance of
the image. Light striking the flat surface of the net lines, however, is reflected or
absorbed. A light-colored mesh will reflect enough to either tint shadows lighter,
which lowers contrast, or its color while leaving highlight areas alone. The effect
of diffusion, however, is produced by the diffraction of light that just strikes the
edges of the mesh lines. This is bent at a different angle, changing its distance to
the film plane, putting it out of focus. It happens that this has a proportionately
greater effect on finer details than on larger image elements. The result is that
fewer wrinkles or blemishes are visible on a face that otherwise retains an
overall, relatively sharp appearance.
The finer the mesh, the more the image area covered by mesh lines and the
greater the effect. Sometimes, multiple filters are used to produce even stronger
results.
As with any filter that has a discrete pattern, be sure that depth of field doesn’t
cause the net pattern to become visible in the image. Using small apertures or
short focal length lenses make this more likely, as will using a smaller film
format such as 16mm vs. 35mm, given an equal field of view. Generally,
midrange or larger apertures are suitable, but test before critical situations. When
in need of net diffusion in circumstances where mounting it in front of the lens
will cause the pattern to show, try mounting the filter in a suitable location
behind the lens (if the equipment design allows). This should reduce the chance
of the pattern appearing. Placing a glass filter behind the lens may alter the back-
focal length, which may need readjustment. Check with your lens technician. A
test is recommended.
When diffusing to improve an actor’s facial appearance, it is important not to
draw attention to the presence of the filter, especially with stronger grades, when
diffusion is not required elsewhere. It may be desirable to lightly diffuse adjacent
scenes or subjects not otherwise needing it to ensure that the stronger filtration,
where needed, is not made obvious.
In diffusing faces, it is especially important that the eyes do not get overly soft
and dull. This is the theory behind what might be called circular diffusion filters.
A series of concentric circles, sometimes also having additional radial lines, are
etched or cast into the surface of a clear filterThese patterns have the effect of
selectively bending light in a somewhat more efficient way than nets, but in a
more radial orientation. This requires that the center of the circular pattern is
aligned with one of the subject’s eyes—not always an easy or possible task—to
keep it sharp. The rest of the image will exhibit the diffusion effect.
A variation on the clear-center concept is the center-spot filter. This is a
special-application filter that has a moderate degree of diffusion surrounding a
clear central area that is generally larger than that of the circular diffusion filter
mentioned previously. Use it to help isolate the main subject, held sharp in the
clear center, while diffusing a distracting background, especially in situations
where a long lens and depth-of-field differentiation aren’t possible.
Figure 3a.
NO FILTER – STANDARD EXPOSURE. Midday scene as it
appears without a filter.
Figure 3b.
BLACK PRO-MIST 1
STANDARD EXPOSURE
Midday scene with highlight haze more visually suggestive of
the sun’s heat and the humidity by the lake.
Figure 3c.
SUNRISE 3 GRAD PLUS
BLACK PRO-MIST 1,
one stop under.
Combining the hazy atmosphere of the Black Pro-Mist with the
color of the Sunrise Grad, underexposure produces a visual
sense of early morning.
Figure 3d.
TWILIGHT 3 GRAD,
two stops under.
The cool colors of the Twilight Grad plus a two-stop
underexposure produces a visual sense of early evening.

Another portrait diffusion type, long in use, involves the placement of small
lenslets or clear refracting shapes dispersed on an otherwise clear optical surface.
They can be round, diamond-shaped or otherwise configured. These are capable
of more efficient selective diffusion than the net type and have no requirement to
be aligned with the subject’s eye. They don’t lower contrast by tinting shadows,
as light-colored nets do. These lenslets refract light throughout their surface, not
just at the edges. For any given amount of clear space through the filter, which is
relative to overall sharpness, they can hide fine details more efficiently than net
filters.
The above types of filters, though most often used for portrait applications,
also find uses wherever general sharpness is too great and must be subtly altered.
Some diffusion filters, notably called “dot” filters, can effectively combine
image softening with the appearance of mild highlight flare and a reduction in
contrast. Although perhaps more akin to mist and fog effects, they also fall into
the category of diffusion filters.
Sliding Diffusion Filters
When attempting to fine-tune the application of diffusion within a sequence, it
can be invaluable to be able to vary the strength of the effect while filming. This
can be accomplished by employing an oversized filter that has a graduated
diffusion effect throughout its length. It is mounted to allow sliding the proper
grade area in front of the lens, which can be changed on camera. When even
more subtle changes are required, maintaining consistent diffusion throughout
the image while varying the overall strength, a dual opposing-gradient filter
arrangement can be used.

Optical Diffusion in the Digital Camera

Unlike film, digital imaging records on discrete elements known as pixels.
These are positioned as an array over the surface of the imaging sensor. The
pattern of pixels can produce a distractingly animated moiré effect with details in
the scene being recorded. To address this, digital cameras are typically provided
with an optical low pass filter, or OLPF, placed in the light path just before the
sensor. This alters the position and pattern of fine details striking the sensor so
that the risk of generating unwanted moiré artifacts is substantially reduced or
eliminated.
The OLPF will result in a typically minimal amount of image diffusion, but
also a much improved image due to its effect on moiré.

Fog, Double Fog and Mist Filters

A natural fog causes lights to glow and flare. Contrast is generally lower, and
sharpness may be affected as well. Fog filters mimic this effect of atomized
water droplets in the air. The soft glow can be used to make lighting more
visible, make it better felt by the viewer. The effect of humidity in, say, a tropical
scene can be created or enhanced. In lighter grades, these filters can take the
edge off excess contrast and sharpness. Heavier grades can create unnatural
effects, as for fantasy sequences. In general, however, the effect of a strong
natural fog is not produced accurately by fog filters in their stronger grades.
Their look is too soft, with too much contrast, to faithfully reproduce the effect
of a thick natural fog. For that, double-fog or graduated-fog filters are
recommended.
Double-fog filters have milder flare and softening characteristics than
standard fog filters while exhibiting a much greater effect on contrast, especially
in the stronger grades. A very thick natural fog will still allow close-up objects to
appear sharp. So will a double fog filter. The key to the effect is the much lower
contrast combined with a minimal amount of highlight flare.
Graduated-fog filters, sometimes called “scenic,” are part clear or light fog
and part denser fog effect. Aligning the clear or weaker half with the foreground
and the stronger half with the background will render an effect more like that of
a natural fog, accumulating density with distance.
Mist filters generally produce highlight flare which, by staying closer to the
source, appears more as a halo than will the more outwardly extended flare of a
fog filter. They give an almost pearlescent glow to highlights. The lighter grades
also find uses in toning down the excessive sharpness and contrast of modern
film and lens combinations without detracting from the image. Black Pro Mist-
type filters also create moderate image softening and modest-to-strong highlight
flare, but without as much of a lightening effect on shadows.

Contrast Control Filters

There are many situations, such as bright sunlit exteriors, where proper
contrast is difficult to maintain. Exposing for either highlights or shadows will
leave the other severely under- or overexposed. Low-contrast filters create a
small amount of localized flare near highlight areas within the image. This
reduces contrast by lightening nearby shadow areas, leaving highlights almost
unchanged. A variation, called Soft Contrast by its manufacturer, includes a
light-absorbing element in the filter that, without exposure compensation, will
reduce contrast by also darkening highlights. Use the Soft Contrast filter when
lighter shadows are not desired and highlights are too bright. In both cases, the
mild flare produced from bright highlights is sometimes used as a lighting effect.
Another type of filter reduces contrast without any localized flare. As named
by Tiffen, the Ultra Contrast filter series uses the surrounding ambient light, not
just light in the image area, to evenly lighten shadows throughout. Use it where
contrast control is needed without any other effect on sharpness or highlight flare
being apparent.

Star and Flare Effects

Making points of light in the scene more interesting has long been the purpose
of star filters. These typically have patterns of parallel lines chemically etched
into the filter’s surface which act like cylindrical lenses, refracting the light into
bright lines that appear to extend outward from the light source in a direction
perpendicular to the lines on the filter. There will be two star points for each
direction of parallel lines. Spacing the lines closely makes for a stronger effect;
conversely wider spacing makes it more subtle.
A related flare effect originated with anamorphic lenses. When aimed into a
bright point light source, it was possible to achieve a broad cyan-blue flare
streak, often simply referred to as a “blue streak,” due to the internal reflections
in the nonspherical lens. More recently, lens accessories have been developed
that achieve this effect with spherical lenses when desired. One is a mechanical
device mated to a matte box that can produce two different strengths of this
effect. Another approach embeds cylindrical lenses into the traditional glass
filter format for use with standard matte boxes. This latter version also facilitates
creating streaks in several strengths and a variety of colors besides blue.
FILTERS FOR BLACK-AND-WHITE
Tone Control Filters
Black-and-white imaging records only tonal differences between colored
objects, which appear as black, white or different shades of gray. Proper
rendition depends on your own desires and, for film, the differences between
film sensitivity to colors and that of the eye. The latter is due to the fact that
most panchromatic emulsions are more sensitive to blue, violet and ultraviolet
than to other colors. Therefore, blue appears as lighter on film than it does to the
eye. This can make a blue sky light enough to appear a similar shade of light
gray as the clouds that are in it, making the clouds disappear. A more “correct”
cloud presence is obtained through the use of a yellow filter, such as a Wratten
#8, which can absorb blue light, darkening the sky to more closely match what
the eye would see. The #8 also acts as a general compensator for most subjects,
giving a tonal rendition similar to that of the eye. Deeper colors, closer to the red
end of the spectrum, such as Wratten #15 deep yellow, #16 orange, and #25 and
#29 red filters, will produce progressively deeper and artificially more dramatic
renditions of blue sky.
Remember that since these filters act on color differences to produce tonal
differences, the required colors must be present. The part of the sky you are
recording must be blue to be affected. Areas of sky closer to the sun or nearer the
horizon are generally less blue than elsewhere. Use of a graduated neutral-
density filter can darken a sky relative to the foreground, but will not increase
contrast between a blue sky and the clouds.
Using filters for contrast control can be a matter of artistic preference or of
necessity. It is possible for two disparate colors, say, a certain orange and blue, to
record as the identical tone, eliminating any visible difference between them.
Filters will lighten objects of their own color and darken those of their
complement. Complementary color pairs are: green-red, orange-blue, and violet-
yellow. An orange filter in the above case will darken the blue and lighten the
orange; a blue filter will perform the reverse.
A green filter, such as Wratten #11, can be used to lighten green foliage to
show more detail. It may also be used to provide more pleasing skin tones
outdoors, especially against blue sky.
FILTERS FOR COLOR
General Information
Recording color involves knowing more about light sources than is necessary
for black-and-white imaging. Sunlight, daylight, exterior lighting at different
times of day, incandescent, fluorescent, as well as other artificial sources, all
have color characteristics that vary significantly. We see images through our eyes
only after they are processed by our brain, which has the ability to make certain
adjustments to the way we see color. White will still appear white to the eye in
various types of lighting, as long as we don’t have more than one type visible at
a time. Film has no such internal compensation. It is designed to see only a
certain type of light as white—all others will appear different to the extent of
their difference. Filters are required to provide the necessary fine-tuning.
Knowing that light is a form of energy, we can theoretically view it as energy
emitted from a hot object, usually termed a “black body,” that gives off light as a
function of its temperature. The color of that light can be measured in degrees
Kelvin (°K). The normally encountered types of light can be categorized by
certain anticipated color temperatures or can be measured with a color
temperature meter.

Color in a Digital World

Optical filters for controlling color in digital imaging can yield different
results than they do with film. The relationship between the light sensitive
components and the techniques used to produce full-color images is sufficiently
different between the two recording formats that it will help to learn more from
their respective manufacturers about the important color rendition characteristics
of the particular film stock or digital camera in use.
Film may be said to be chemically coordinated to expect light at a certain
color temperature—using optical color filters will alter the spectral balance of
incoming light in a manner that works well with this format.
Digital imaging combines optical as well as electronic manipulation of
incoming light and its subsequent color rendition that may or may not react well
to optical color filters depending on the particular design parameters of the
equipment in use. It will be best to check with the camera manufacturer to
determine their recommendation.
The following discussion of color control references those systems, film and
digital, that react well to the use of optical color filters for attenuating the
spectrum to yield desired color effects.

Color-Conversion Filters
Color-conversion filters are used to correct for sizable differences in color
temperature between the film and the light source. These are comprised of both
the Wratten #80 (blue, as used for daylight film in tungsten lighting) and the
Wratten #85 (amber, as used for tungsten film in daylight) series of filters. Since
they see frequent outdoor use in bright sunlight, the #85 series, especially the
#85 and #85B, are also available in combination with various neutral-density
filters for exposure control.

Light-Balancing Filters
Light-balancing filters are used to make minor corrections in color
temperature. These are comprised of both the Wratten #81 (yellowish) and the
Wratten #82 (bluish) series of filters. They are often used in combination with
color conversion filters. Certain #81 series filters may also be available in
combination with various neutral-density filters for exposure control.

Color-Compensating Filters
Color-compensating (CC) filters are used to make adjustments to the red, blue
or green characteristics of light. These find applications in correcting for color
balance, light source variations, different reversal film batches and other color
effects. They are available in density variations of cyan, magenta and yellow, as
well as red, blue and green filters.

Decamired® Filters
Decamired (a trademark of the manufacturer) filters are designed to more
easily handle a wide range of color-temperature variations than the previously
mentioned filters. Available in increments of both a red and a blue series,
Decamired filters can be readily combined to create almost any required
correction. In measuring the color temperature of the light source and comparing
it to that for which the film was designed, we can predict the required filtration
fairly well.
A filter that produces a color-temperature change of 100° K at 3400° K will
produce a change of 1000° K at 10,000° K. This is because the filter relates to a
visual scale of color. It will always produce the same visible difference. A color
change of 100° K at the higher temperature would hardly be noticed.
To allow simple calculation of such differences, we convert the color
temperature into its reciprocal, that is, to divide it into 1. Then, since this is
usually a number with six or more decimal places, we multiple it by 106, or one
million, for convenience. This is then termed the “mired value,” for micro
reciprocal degrees. It identifies the specific change introduced by the filter in a
way that is unrelated to the actual temperature range involved.
To see this more clearly, let’s look at the following changes in color
temperature from both the degree and mired differences. Numbers are degrees
Kelvin, those in parentheses are mireds:
9100 (110) to 5900 (170) = difference of 3200 (60)
4350 (230) to 3450 (290) = difference of 900 (60)
4000 (250) to 3200 (310) = difference of 800 (60)
From this, you can see that although the degree differential varies as the range
changes, the actual filtration difference for these examples, in mireds, is the
same.
To use this concept, subtract the mired value of the light source from that of
the film (the mired value of the Kelvin temperature the film is balanced for). If
the answer is positive, you need a reddish filter; if negative, use a bluish filter.
Mired-coordinated filters are termed “Decamireds.” Mired value divided by 10
yields Decamireds. The 60 mired shifts (above) would be produced by an R6
filter, where the higher values were that of the lighting. Sets of such filters come
in values of 1.5, 3, 6 and 12 Decamireds, in both B (bluish) and R (reddish)
colors. These numbers are additive; that is, a pair of R3s produces an R6. An R6
plus a B6 cancel each other out to produce a neutral gray.

Fluorescent and Other Discontinuous Spectra Lighting Correction

Since filters never actually add color but only absorb certain wavelengths to
increase the relative proportion of others, the original light source must have the
colors you want to start withSome sources are totally deficient in certain
wavelengths, which cannot be added back using only filters. This is particularly
true of many types of metal-halide lighting. With other lighting types, such as
fluorescent, color-temperature measurements may not provide the correct filter
requirements, because color-temperature theory is based on having a continuous
spectrum, meaning light at all wavelengths. It is possible for a light source to
have a sufficient spectral distribution to emulate a correctable color temperature
when so measured, but its effect on film can be very different. (See section on
Lighting for further details page 375.)
Fluorescent lighting generally produces a greenish color overcast. Each of the
many lamp types varies in color, and it can be difficult to know the precise
correction. Similarly named lamp types can vary with manufacturer, and lamps
will also vary over time in use. Special filters are available, however, that are
designed to yield good-to-excellent color under fluorescents, without the need
for a color- temperature meter and a variety of CC filters.

Figure 4a. NO FILTER: Standard exposure/midday scene as

it appears without a filter.

Mixed Lighting Situations

A question often arises about what to do when there is more than one type of
lighting used in a scene. The key to this is to first try to make all the light
sources behave the same. That is, choose one that predominates, correct the
camera for that, and correct the other lighting with gel filters made for them. You
can convert daylight coming through a window with a gel placed over the
window, which will make it a similar color temperature as the predominant
tungsten, or even fluorescent, lighting inside. Then correct the camera for that
type of light. There are many such combinations that will work; which one to
choose is often a matter of economics. Filtering a factory of fluorescents with
gels or filter tubes may cost far more than just gelling up the occasional window.
If there is no way to correct all the lights for one color temperature, try to
minimize the intrusion of those for which you cannot correct to the camera.
Sometimes, this can be used to advantage. The cool blue light from outdoors
through a window can make the tungsten-lit interior seem that much warmer and
cozier. Once “normal” color is within reach, frequently a variation can be even
better. It all depends on your purpose and the story you are telling.

Graduated Color Filters

Similar to graduated ND filters, graduated color filters are also produced in a
wide range of standard and custom colors, densities and proportions for many
applications. A blue-to-clear filter can add blue to a white, hazy sky without
affecting the foreground. An orange-to-clear filter can enliven a tepid sunset.
Color can be added to the bottom of the scene, as with a green-to-clear filter
used to enrich the appearance of a lawn.

Figure 4b. TAKEN AT THE SAME MIDDAY TIME AS

THE UNFILTERED IMAGE: The filter absorbs two stops
and is shown here with an additional one stop
underexposure – a total of three stops under. The cool tones
and underexposure produce a visual sense of evening under
moonlight illumination.

Stripe filters are another type of graduated filter, having a thin stripe of color
or neutral density running through the center of the filter, graduating to clear on
either side. These are often used to horizontally paint various colors in layers
into a sky, as well as for narrow-area light balancing.
When seeking to gradually alter the color or exposure of a scene on-camera,
an extra-long graduated (attenuated) filter, mounted to slide in front of the lens,
can accomplish what might otherwise be a complicated task. For example, going
from the appearance of daylight to that of twilight can be synthesized with a day-
for-night filter in combination with a neutral density, both gradually altering
density in the one filter. With careful lighting, this can achieve a realistic change-
of-time look with a minimum of difficulty, as both exposure and color are altered
together in a controllable manner

Coral Filters
As the sun moves through the sky, the color temperature of its light changes. It
is often necessary to compensate for this in a variety of small steps as the day
progresses, to match the appearance of different adjacent sequences to look as
though they all took place at the same time. Coral filters are a range of graded
filters of a color similar to a #85 conversion filter. From light to heavy, any effect
from basic correction to warmer or cooler than normal is possible. Corals can
also compensate for the overly cool blue effect of outdoor shade.

Sepia Filters
People often associate sepia-toned images with “early times.” This makes
sepia filters useful tools for producing believable flashbacks and for period
effects with color film. Other colors are still visible, which is different from
original sepia-toned photography, but appear infused with an overall sepia tint.

Didymium Filters
The Didymium Filter is a combination of rare earth elements in glass. It
completely removes a portion of the spectrum in the orange region. The effect is
to increase the color-saturation intensity of certain brown, orange and reddish
objects by eliminating the muddy tones and maximizing the crimson and scarlet
components. Its most frequent use is for obtaining strongly saturated fall foliage.
It also enlivens brick and barn reds, colors that aren’t bright scarlet to begin
with, most effectively. The effect is minimal on objects of other colors. Skin
tones might be overly warm. Even after subsequent color timing or correction to
balance out any unwanted bias in these other areas, the effect on reddish objects
will still be apparent. Prior testing should be done because film color
sensitivities vary.

Underwater Color-Correction Filters

When imaging underwater, the light you are recording is filtered by the water
it passes through. Longer wavelength reds and oranges are absorbed until only
blue is left. The actual effect is determined by numerous factors, such as light
source (sun or artificial), water quality and the water path. The latter is the
distance the light travels through the water. In natural (sun)light, this is the depth
of the subject from the surface plus the subject-to-camera distance. For artificial
lighting, it is the light-to-subject-to-camera distance. The longer the water path,
the greater the filtering effect of the water. In many cases, certain color-
correcting filters can absorb enough shorter wavelengths to restore better color
balance. For example, Aquacolor®, a patented system that precisely
compensates for the light-filtering effects of water, comes in filter densities that
match different water paths. The difference between corrected and uncorrected
color can be dramatic. The use of faster speed films and lenses will facilitate the
use of light-absorbing correcting filters.

Differences Between Camera and Lab/Post Correction

It is the job of the lab timer to fine-tune the finished color rendition of a film
production. This accounts for variables in exposure, print stock and processing.
Timing can also be used to impart certain color effects for densities available in
the film emulsion to work with, and is limited to the range of variation of the
optical printer. These are much more limiting than the multitude of colorants in
the real world and the number of ways in which adjustments can be made at the
camera. Filtering on the camera brings the lab that much closer to the desired
result, providing a greater latitude of timing options. It can also center more
creative control in the hands of the cinematographer.
There will be times when counting on the lab is either the only choice, or can
produce some unusual effects. When faced with a low-light situation in daylight
using tungsten film, it may be necessary for exposure reasons to pull the #85
filter and correct in the printing. When you do this, however, neutral gray tones
will appear slightly yellow, even when all else looks correct. This effect can be
used to artificially enhance lush green foliage colors through the addition of
yellow. It may have other uses, but you will not achieve the same result as if you
had used the 85 filter.

LL-D®
The LL-D was designed to help in the above situation. It requires no exposure
compensation and makes sufficient adjustments to the film to enable the timer to
match the color of a properly 85-filtered original. It is not an all-around
replacement for the #85. Use it only where needed for exposure purposes, and
for subsequently printer-timed work.

Digital Post Processing Options

There are many new options available that allow images to be manipulated
after capture. Software now facilitates extensive control of color, contrast,
sharpness, and other factors. There are numerous versions and platforms so it
will be of benefit to find what applies best to the particular task at hand.
One variation among these produces digital filter effects that are close
emulations of optical filter effects. These have special use in that they can more
readily blend the looks of optically and digitally filtered scenes when combined
in editing.
SPECIAL APPLICATION FILTERS
Contrast-Viewing Filters
Balancing lighting by eye is a matter of experience. Decisions can be aided
through the use of contrast-viewing filters. These are designed to handicap the
eye, with its much greater range of apparent densities, to resemble the range of
the various types of film. Use contrast viewers to judge relative highlight and
shadow densities. There are viewers for black-and-white film, as well as various
viewer densities for color film. A darker viewer is used for slower film speeds,
where you would tend to use brighter lighting. Faster film, which can be used in
dimmer settings, would require a lighter viewer. Further details can be obtained
from the manufacturers.

Figure 5a. WITHOUT THE SPLIT-FIELD LENS (1): The

foreground here is out of focus when the background is
sharp. You can’t focus on both at the same time.

There are also Green, Red and Blue viewing filters used to judge lighting
effects when doing process work like greenscreen.
Figure 5b. WITHOUT THE SPLIT-FIELD LENS (2): The
foreground here is sharp when the background is out of
focus. You can’t focus on both at the same time.
Figure 5c. WITH THE SPLIT-FIELD LENS: The close-up
lens half allows sharp focus on the foreground while the
camera lens is focused on the background. There is a soft
transition between the two areas at the edge of the split-field
lens at this middle-of-the-range lens opening.

Close-up and Split-Field Diopter Lenses

Close-up lenses allow for closer focusing than would otherwise be available
with the unaided camera lens. Cutting such a lens in half produces the split-field
lens. This can be used to have two fields of focus, one very near, the other very
far, in one scene.
A more recent variation is to have a narrow linear sliver of lens that can be
positioned in the middle region of the frame with clear spaces on either side.
(See Extreme Close-Up Cinematography page 667.)
OTHER FILTER CONSIDERATIONS
Effect of Depth-of-Field and Focal-Length Changes
Standard color filters generally function without change through variations in
depth-of-field and focal length. This may not be true of many of the special-
effect filter types. There are no solid rules for predicting the variation in filter
effect due to depth-of-field or focal-length changes. There are some things we
can expect, however, especially when changing focal length. Let’s look at a
fog/mist type filter that causes a light to glow or flare. Take the example of a
certain grade filter where we can see that the ratio of light diameter to glow
diameter is, say, 1:3. As we view this through a changing focal length, we will
see that the ratio remains the same, although the magnification will vary
accordingly. So the decision to use a filter of a different grade to maintain a
certain appearance at different focal lengths will be based on wanting to change
the ratio, as opposed to any otherwise corresponding relationship. Tests are
advisable for critical applications.

Multiple Filter Use

When any single filter is not enough to produce the desired results, use
combinations. Choose carefully to minimize the number required. Try to get the
job done with no more than three filters. Use filters that individually add to the
final effect without canceling each other out. For example, don’t use a polarizer,
which can increase color saturation, in combination with a low-contrast filter
that reduces saturation, unless it works for some other reason (the polarizer
could also be reducing window reflections, for instance). It is important that
diffusion filters be mounted closest to the lens with any additional filters going
after. Some popular filter combinations may also be available in one filter to
simplify their use.

Secondary Reflections
Lighting can cause flare problems, especially when using more than one filter.
Lights in the image pose the greatest difficulties. They can reflect between filter
surfaces and cause unwanted secondary reflections. Maintaining parallelism
between filters, and further aligning the lights in the image with their secondary
reflections where possible, can minimize this problem. In critical situations, it
may be best to make use of a matte box with a tilting filter stage. Tilting filters of
good optical quality only a few degrees in such a unit can divert the secondary
reflections out of the lens axis, out of the image, without introducing unwanted
distortion or noticeable changes in the filter’s effect.

Custom (Homemade and Field-Ready) Filters

There will be times when you need an effect and don’t have time to obtain one
ready-made. Certain effects can be produced that, although different from
factory filters, can be useful in a pinch or for unusual custom situations. Net-
diffusion effects can be produced as they were originally by stretching and
affixing one or more layers of stocking material to the lens end, held in place
with a rubber band. (This is also an easier way of mounting net effects behind
the lens.) There are also numerous things you can do if you have a clear filter (or
several). Petroleum jelly can cause flare or diffusion, or even some star-like
streaks, depending on its application on a clear filter, spread with a finger or
cloth. The chief benefit here is that the effect can also be applied only to selected
portions of the scene. Breathing on a clear filter can produce interesting but
temporary fog-like results. Using cut gels can simulate certain graduated-filter
effects. When doing this, be sure to keep the filter close to the lens, and use
larger lens openings to keep the visible edge as soft as possible.

Rain Spinners
When rain or boat spray send distracting water drops onto the lens, you can
mount a rain spinner, sometimes called a rain deflector, as you would a matte
box on the front of the lens. A round filter, usually clear, spins at over 3000 rpm
and flings off droplets before they form. This is very effective when filming the
Tour De France in the rain.

Filtering for Digital Intermediate

When adding computer generated effects to filmed original, it may be best to
minimize or eliminate the use of diffusion filters for image capture. Until digital
software effects provide suitable correlated results as optical effects, it will be
important to produce a suitable base for the digital post work.
It will still be best to record all of the important detail in the form that is
closest to the desired finished result. Polarizing filters are perhaps the most
useful in that they produce effects, such as reducing reflections from water and
windows, that are unlikely to be done any other way. Contrast control filters can
render shadow details visible that also may not be digitally added in later
without a lot of effort if at all.
(For more information on filters see charts section pages 819-820 and 822-
834.)
Ira Tiffen, ASC Associate Member, has created many of the important filter
effects of the last forty years. He earned a 1992 Academy Technical Achievement
Award for the development of the Ultra Contrast filter series and received a
Prime Time Emmy Award in 1998. He was elected a Fellow of the SMPTE in
2002.
Camera Stabilizing Systems

T here is good reason why the medium discussed in this manual is popularly
known as “motion” pictures. Since the earliest days of the industry,
cinematographers have been challenged to serve their stories by finding new and
inventive ways of moving the camera. This section examines the latest devices
that allow the operator to maintain control of the image while taking the viewer
on a ride up, down or anywhere else.
BODY-WORN SYSTEMS
Modern camera-stabilizing systems enable a camera operator to move about
freely and make dolly-smooth handheld shots without the restrictions or the
resultant image unsteadiness encountered with prior methods. These systems
transfer the weight of the camera unit to the operator’s body via a support
structure and weight distribution suit. This arrangement frees the camera from
body motion influences. It allows the camera to be moved by the operator
through an area, generally defined by the range through which his arm can
move.
Camera smoothness is controlled by the “hand-eye-brain” human servo
system that we use to carry a glass of water around a room or up and down
stairs. Viewing is accomplished through the use of a video monitor system that
displays an actual through-the-lens image, the same image one would see when
looking through a reflex viewfinder. The advantage of these camera-stabilizing
systems is that the camera now moves as if it were an extension of the operator’s
own body, controlled by his or her internal servo system, which constantly
adjusts and corrects for body motions, whether the operator is walking or
running. The camera moves and glides freely in all directions—panning, tilting,
booming—and all movements are integrated into a single, fluid motion that
makes the camera seem as if it were suspended in midair and being directed to
move at will. These camera-stabilization systems turn any vehicle into an instant
camera platform.
As with remotely controlled camera systems, servo controls may be used for
control of focus, iris and zoom on the camera lens.
ADVANCED CAMERA SYSTEMS, INC.
BodyCam
The BodyCam camera support system moves the camera away from the
operator’s eye by providing a monitor for all viewfinding. Once separated that
way, the camera is able to go into places and point in directions that would not
be possible if the operator’s head were positioned at the eyepiece. The lens can
be placed anywhere the arm can reach. This also allows the operator’s unblocked
peripheral vision to see upcoming dangers and obstacles.
The BodyCam prevents unwanted motion from being transferred to the
camera. With the average video camera, lens focal lengths up to 125mm are
possible, and on 35mm film cameras, focal lengths up to 250mm are usable.
The Balance Assembly is suspended in front of the operator. It supports the
camera, a viewfinder monitor and one or two batteries. The monitor is the green
CRT-type. Batteries are brick-style and last two to three hours.
Adjustments allow precise balancing of the Balance Assembly around a three-
axis gimbal. At this gimbal is an attach point where the Balance Assembly
connects to the Suspension Assembly.
The Suspension Assembly consists of an arm supported and pivoted behind
the left shoulder. The rear part of the arm is attached to a double-spring
arrangement that counters any weight carried by the other end of the arm and
provides vertical movement over a short distance. This arm isolates higher
frequency motion. The front end of the arm attaches to the Balance Assembly
with a hook. This hook is connected to a cable that travels from the front of the
arm to the pivot point of the arm and an internal resilient coil.
The Suspension Assembly is attached to the Backbrace. The Backbrace is a
framework that carries the load and transfers it to the human body.
Model L weighs 24 lbs (10.9kg) without camera or batteries and will carry up
to 25 lbs (11.3kg) of camera package (not counting batteries). Model XL weighs
28 lbs (12.7kg) without camera or battery and will carry up to 40 lbs (18.2kg)
without battery. Both models offer options for wired or wireless focus, zoom and
iris control.
GLIDECAM INDUSTRIES, INC.
Glidecam V-20
The Glidecam V-20 professional camera stabilization system was constructed
primarily for use with 16mm motion picture cameras and professional video
cameras weighing 15–26 lbs.
The lightweight, adjustable Support Vest can be adjusted to fit a wide range of
operators. High-endurance, closed-cell EVA foam padding and integral T-6
aluminum alloy create a vest which can hold and evenly distribute the weight of
the system across the operator’s shoulders, back and hips. For safety, quick-
release, high-impact buckles allow the vest to be removed quickly.
The adjustable, exoskeletal Dyna-Elastic Support Arm is designed to
counteract the combined weight of the camera and Camera Mounting Assembly
(Sled) by employing high carbon alloy springs. The arm can be boomed up and
down, as well as pivoted in and out and side to side. The spring force is field
adjustable to allow for varying camera weights. For safety, dual-spring design is
used to reduce possible spring failure damage.
The free-floating Three-Axis Gimbal, which incorporates integrally shielded
bearings, creates the smooth and pivotal connections between the front end of
the arm and the mounting assembly. A locking mechanism allows the gimbal to
be placed at varying positions on the Central Support Post.
The Camera Mounting Assembly (Sled) is designed with a lower Telescoping
Center Post which allows for vertical balance adjustment as well as varying lens
heights. The center post can be adjusted from 22″ to 32″. The Camera Plate has
both 1⁄4″ and 3⁄8″ mounting slots to accommodate a variety of camera bases. For
remote viewing, a LCD Monitor can be attached on the Base Platform, or either
a LCD or a CRT Monitor can be attached to the base’s adjustable monitor
bracket. The base platform can also be configured to use counterbalance weight
disks if a monitor and/or battery is not mounted on the base platform. The back
of the base platform has threaded mounting holes for an Anton Bauer Gold
Mount battery adapter plate.
Accessories include a low-mode camera mount, sled offset adapter, vehicle
mount, and Vista Post 33″ central support post extender.

Glidecam V-16
The V-16 is the same as the V-20 but designed to support lighter cameras
weighing 10–20 lbs.
Glidecam Gold Series
The top-of-the-line Gold Series is made up of the Gold Vest and the Gold
Arm. The Gold Vest offers no-tools adjustment with a breakaway safety system.
It has a quick pressure-release dual-buckle design with positive locking buckles
and fast-ratcheting adjuster buckles. The vest features integral black anodized T-
6 aluminum with EVA foam padding, reversible and vertically adjustable arm
mounting plate, and an industry standard arm connector. An optional V-series
arm connector is available. Arm connectors are made of titanium.
The Gold Arm incorporates six titanium springs in order to handle a camera
load of 13–38 lbs. Its combined camera and sled carrying capacity ranges from
31–56 lbs. Unique to the Gold Arm are its Hyper-Extension Hinges, which allow
the arm more freedom of movement. The vest connectors are made of titanium.
GEORGE PADDOCK INC.
PRO-TM
The PRO-TM System’s Donkey Box II camera mounting platform has linear
slide bearings. The metal-on-metal design allows for smoother, easier movement
fore/aft and side/side. Finer-thread lead screws and captured lead nuts enable the
operator to make smaller, more accurate adjustments. A quick-release
mechanism allows the camera to be mounted/dismounted with ease.
The PRO Gimbal is compatible with all 1.5″ center posts and existing
oversized grips. A locking mechanism achieves concentric clamping about the
post, ensuring that all axes converge at the post’s center.
The PRO Battery Module II batteries provide an independent and clean power
supply to the monitor and video-related accessories while eliminating the need
for a converter when running 24V cameras. The Sled can be configured to carry
one to three batteries in multiple combinations to support a wider range of
camera systems.
The PRO Arm, a departure from traditional tensioning methods has resulted in
minimal friction and a force curve designed to complement an operator’s
instincts. It can be easily configured to accommodate a wide variety of load
requirements ranging from 13–75 lbs.
The Post system was designed to eliminate all external cables except the
monitor cable. The Upper Junction Box and the 171⁄2″–261⁄2″ extendable post,
which houses one internal cable, connects to the lower Junction Box via a quick
disconnect/connect bayonet mount.
The Superpost allows the operator to achieve super hi/low-mode shots. It
extends from 51″–60″ (5′) and is of the same design configuration as the PRO-
TM Post.
The PRO Vest offers increased comfort due to improved load distribution. It is
designed to conform anatomically to the individual operator and allows the
operator a greater choice of hip and/or shoulder load distribution. A
revolutionary latching system permits vest tension to be relaxed between takes
without a change of settings.
The 5″ Diagonal High Intensity Monitor II is a self-contained design that
incorporates all electronic components within a water-resistant housing. The
high-voltage, high-intensity screen features familiar onscreen graphics and
indicators such as framelines, crosshairs and low battery and level indicators.
Controls for brightness, contrast, image orientation, standard/anamorphic and
graphics are all located on the faceplate for easy adjustment.
Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries deliver 14.4V @ 3.5A hours. A Fuel Gauge
LED display on each battery provides immediate readout of battery condition.
Weight is 1.9 lbs per battery.
The Pro Gyro Module is designed specifically for the PRO Battery Sled II.
The new Gyro system increases the configuration possibilities of one to three
gyros, while decreasing the time and complexity involved in transitioning to and
from the use of gyros. Keeping one or two batteries on the sled leaves sled
power in place, eliminating the need for an obtrusive umbilical cable. The
umbilical cable is replaced by a small, lightweight AC-only cable. A battery belt
carries one battery and the DC/AC inverter.
MK-V
MK-V Evolution
The MK-V Evolution Modular Sled system can evolve with the operator. With
the addition of optional extras, the basic MK-V Evolution rig can become a 24V
35mm sled. The base features a modular framework, allowing for customization
in the field to any configuration and battery system and the addition of various
accessories. It has a 4-by battery bar and clamp system for stability and universal
battery compatibility. The modular base is also compatible with other leading
stabilization systems. All battery systems, 12V and 24V, plug into the D-box
distribution box. The D-box Deluxe has built-in digital level sensing and an
onscreen battery display. MK-V’s latest, highly configurable Nexus base is
compatible with the Evolution.
The available carbon-fiber posts are two- and four-stage telescopic and
available in three different lengths. The base has optional gyro mounts. The
modular telescopic monitor works with CRT and LCD monitors. The V2
advanced, frictionless gimbal is compatible with leading sled systems, tools-free
and designed to have no play in any axis. Front-mounting standard and advanced
Xo vests are available. The Xo arm is frictionless and can support cameras of
any weight with the change of its springs and features a modular front end.
SACHTLER
Artemis Cine/HD
The Artemis Cine/HD Camera Stabilizing System’s post has a telescopic
length ranging from 16.5″–27.5″ (42–70cm). A variety of modules can be fixed
to either end of the post to enable cameras, monitors and battery packs to be
mounted. Scales on both tubes allow fast and precise adjustment. The gimbal’s
self-centering mechanism ensures aligned, precise position of the central bearing
for easy system balancing.
The side-to-side module situated between post and camera gives the camera a
sliding range of 1.18 (30mm) left, right, forward and back and includes a built-in
self-illuminating level at the rear of the module. Two positions at the front and
two at the rear enable mounting of remote focus brackets. All adjustments or
locking mechanisms can be performed tool-free or with only a 4mm Allen
wrench. The Artemis vest, made from materials such as cordura, has a full-
length pivoting bridge made of reinforced aluminum alloy. It can be vertically
adjusted independently of body size. Most of the weight is carried on the hips,
reducing pressure on the operator’s back. The arm is available with different
spring sets that offer a load capacity ranging from 30–70 lbs (15–35kg). The two
standard arm capacities are 44 lbs (20kg) and 57 lbs (25kg). It is fully
compatible with all other stabilizer systems using the standard arm-vest
connector and a 5⁄8″ arm post.
TIFFEN STEADICAM
Universal Model III
The Steadicam system consists of a stabilizing support arm which attaches at
one end to the camera operator’s vest and at the other end to a floating camera
mounting assembly which can accept either a 16mm, 35mm or video camera.
The comfortable, adjustable, close-fitting camera operator’s vest transfers and
distributes the weight of the Steadicam system (including camera and lens)
across the operator’s shoulders, back and hips.
The stabilizer support arm is an articulated support system that parallels the
operator’s arm in any position, and almost completely counteracts the weight of
the camera systems with a carefully calibrated spring force. The double-jointed
arm maximizes maneuverability with an articulated elbow hinge. One end of the
arm attaches to either side of the vest’s front plate, which can be quickly
reversed to allow the stabilizer arm to be mounted on the right or left side of the
plate. A free-floating gimbal connects the stabilizer support arm to the camera-
mounting assembly.
The camera-mounting assembly consists of a central support post, around
which the individual components are free to rotate as needed. One end of the
post supports the camera mounting platform, while the other end terminates in
the electronics module. The adjustable video monitor is attached to a pivoting
bracket. An electronic level indicator is visible on the CRT viewing screen.
Electronically generated framelines can be adjusted to accommodate any aspect
ratio. Positions of the components may be reversed to permit “low mode”
configuration. The Steadicam unit is internally wired to accept wireless or cable-
controlled remote servo systems for lens control. A quick-release mechanism
permits the operator to divest himself of the entire Steadicam unit in emergency.
A 12V/3.5A NiCad battery pack mounts on the electronics module to supply the
viewfinder system and film or video camera.

Master Series
The cornerstone of the Steadicam family, this high-end production tool
incorporates a new motorized stage, an enhanced Master Series vest, an
advanced 5″ monitor with artificial horizon and every state-of-the-art feature in
the industry today.
System Includes: Camera Mounting Chassis (Sled), Motorized Stage, Low-
Friction Gimbal, Composite Center Post and Covers, Advanced Monitor: 5″
CRT w/16:9 aspect ratio switchable to 4:3, Artificial Horizon, Frameline
Generator, On-screen Battery Display, Dovetail Accessory Bracket, 20–45 lbs
camera capacity Iso-Elastic Arm, No-tools Arm Post, Master Series Leather
Vest, four CP batteries with built-in Meter Systems, 12V/24V DC to DC Power
Converter, Dynamic Spin & Docking Bracket, Long and Short Dovetail Plates,
12V power cable, 24V power cable (open-ended), two power cables for
Panavision and Arri (24V) cameras, two power/video cables for Sony XC-75,
soft case for the Arm, soft case for the Vest, hard case for the Sled, Owner’s
Manual.

Master Series Elite

With many of the same features as the Master Series, the Elite is a more basic
and affordable Steadicam with a variety of upgradeable options.
System Includes: Camera Mounting Chassis (Sled), Low-Friction Gimbal,
Composite Center Post and Covers, Monitor: 4″ CRT w/4:3 aspect ratio
switchable to 16:9, Frameline Generator, 20–45 lbs camera capacity Iso-Elastic
Arm, No-tools Arm Post, Lightweight Master Series Vest, Dynamic Spin &
Docking Bracket, two CP batteries with built-in Meter System, Long and Short
Dovetail Plates, 12V power cable, 3′ Lightweight video cable, hard case for the
Sled, soft case for the Arm, soft case for the Vest, Owner’s Manual.

Vector 12, Vector EL, Vector CN

Tiffen’s latest system for film and video is surpassed only by the Ultra series.
Each model offers no-tool arm technology that accommodates camera weights
up to 45 lbs (20.5kg). The Vector Sled features carbon fiber post and covers, a
three-post system that extends from 27″–48″. The slim 2.75″ wide sled has
modular construction, 24V single battery system (Vector 12 is 13.2V only) and
low-friction precision gimbal. Standard or compact lightweight vest.
The CN model includes the Tiffen HD UltraBrite Version2 color 8.4″ LCD
monitor that can display virtually all component high-definition and composite
NTSC/PAL/SECAM signals (optional on 12 and EL models). The iso-elastic
Vector arm has 24″ of boom travel and utilizes titanium springs that can be
adjusted while supporting the camera.

Ultra Elite, Ultra Cine

These models can configure quickly to the best advantage for each individual
shot. The key component is a +20° head that maximizes use of extended posts,
preserves dynamic balance in regular and long modes, helps with clearance
reach and viewing, and enables whip pans with lens angled up or down. It
features carbon-fiber telescoping posts, monitor, battery rods and brackets and a
proprietary stiffening system.
The Ultra Cine system includes: Wireless motorized stage V.2.0, Dynamic
Balance Calculator, Super Performance Monitor 4:3/16:9 switchable, Artificial
Horizon, Frameline Generator, 20–40 lb camera capacity Iso-Elastic Arm, 24V
battery, Onscreen Battery Display, No-tools Arm Post, Low-Friction Gimbal,
Composite Post and Covers, Leather Vest.
HANDHELD STABILIZATION SYSTEMS

DOGGICAM SYSTEMS
The Doggicam
The Doggicam is a self-contained, lightweight and fully balanceable handheld
camera system. In low mode, shooting forward allows dynamic tracking free of
tracks, and shooting backwards, the operator can view the monitor to see where
he is going while leading the subject. High mode allows the operator to move the
camera in an extremely dynamic fashion. Configuring from low mode to high
mode takes 3–4 minutes.
At the heart of the Doggicam system is a lightweight, 6.5 lbs, highly modified
Arri 2-C with crystal speeds from 4–60 fps, PL or Panavision mounts and reflex
viewing. The camera may be set up for Super 35 or anamorphic formats. It is
easily adapted for 16mm cameras. Handheld bracketry is available. The system
is readily integrated for studio mode use by adding a riser block, rotating
eyepiece and video door.

Robodog
This motorized version of the Doggicam allows the operator full-tilt control of
the camera by the handle-mounted motor controller. The inherent stability of the
system is maintained by keeping the post vertical while allowing the full range
of camera tilt within the yoke.

Doggimount
The Doggimount quickly secures the camera at any point in space using a
compact aluminum framework similar to speedrail, yet much smaller.

Bodymount
Bodymount uses a specially designed vest and the standard Doggimount
bracketry to allow easy and comfortable attachment of the camera to a person.
The vest can be covered with wardrobe to allow framing to the middle of the
chest.

Pogocam
The Pogocam is a small, weight-balanced handheld system that utilizes a
converted 35mm Eyemo (100 daylight loads) with a videotap and onboard
monitor. Nikon lenses are used. The compact size allows you to shoot where
most stabilization systems would be too cumbersome to go.
MITCHELL-BASED PLATFORM-MOUNTED
STABILIZATION SYSTEM

COPTERVISION
Rollvision
Rollvision is a lightweight, portable, wireless 3-axis camera system with 360°
unlimited pan, tilt and roll capabilities and a gyro for horizon compensation. The
dimensions are 14.5″ x 19″ x 19.5″ with a weight of 16 lbs (camera system
only). Rollvision works on numerous platforms including, but not limited to,
cable systems, cranes, jib arms, camera cars, Steadicams, tracking and rail
systems and much more. Mounting options consist of a 4″ square pattern 1⁄4″–20,
Mitchell Mount adapter receiver 1⁄4″–20 and two adjustable T-nuts sized from
1
⁄4″–20.
The Rollvision features electronic end stops, an hour meter with total system
running time, lock for pan and tilt, removable sphere covers, film and video
mode switch, and voltmeter.
Camera options include: Arri 435, 35-3, 2-C, 2-C SL Cine, 16SR-2 and 16SR-
3, Aaton XTRprod and A-Minima plus multiple Sony and Panasonic High-
Definition cameras.
Lenses up to 6 lbs can be used, including but not limited to, Panavision
Primos from 17.5mm to 35mm, Ultra, Super and Normal Speeds; 35mm primes;
and 16mm primes. Lens mount options include Arri standard, lightweight PL
and lightweight Panavision mounts.
Several types of film magazines can be used including 400′ SL Steadicam
Mag, 200′ Standard and 200′ Steadicam Mag.
Remotevision,also designed by Coptervision, is the wireless, 4-in-1 radio
control used to operate the Rollvision. Remotevision features a 5.6″ color
monitor and pan, tilt, and roll controls as well as camera zoom and iris controls.
Gyro on/off and roll/record switches are included. The speed of the pan, tilt and
roll is adjustable and a reverse switch allows the head to reset to the zero
position.
The Rollvision fits in one to two ATA-approved size cases, and travels with
the Rollvision operator as luggage.
GLIDECAM INDUSTRIES, INC.
Gyro Pro
The Gyro Pro camera stabilizer units liberate you to film while moving in any
direction, even over rough ground, on rough rivers, in high seas or turbulent air.
Accommodates most cameras weighing up to 100 lbs. Sets up in 20 minutes and
features 360° pan, 60° tilt and 30° roll. 36V DC power is required. Ships in three
cases totaling 310 lbs.
LIBRA HEAD, INC.
Libra III
The Libra III is a three-axis, digitally stabilized camera mount. It can be
operated in either direct (digital) mode, or the operator can choose to stabilize
one, two or all three axis at the flick of a switch. Custom-designed motors give it
the precision of a well-tuned geared head that is extremely stable. Wet and
muddy conditions are well tolerated. It fits on all industry-standard cranes and
gripping equipment and either can be suspended or mounted upright. Fail-safe is
comprised of two-systems-in-one electronics. It pans 350°, tilts 90° and rolls
90°. The Libra III comes with Preston FIZ remote-control system, a lens witness
cam, 14″ and 8″ Sony color monitors, and AC and DC power supplies.
MOTION PICTURE MARINE
Hydro Gyro
A state-of-the-art digital-stabilization head that enables shot-making in the
harshest of filming environments. The Hydro Gyro mounts under your pan/tilt
head or camera. The result is a stable horizon without the pitch and roll
generated by camera boats, cars, aircraft, dollys or other moving platforms. It
weighs 32 lbs with a shipping weight around 70 lbs. It handles camera systems
up to 150 lbs and can use lenses up to 500mm. The Hydro Gyro is waterproof up
to 30. Fine vibration can be reduced with a Hydro Gyro Shocksorber, a
lightweight, 2″ high, anti-shock and vibration damping system.
MINIATURE AERIAL SYSTEMS

COPTERVISION
CVG-A
The CVG-A is an autonomous, unmanned, small-scale helicopter platform and
camera system. Possessing the same characteristics as Coptervison’s line-of-
sight, remote control helicopter (5′ in length with a 6′ blade span and weighing
40 lbs), the CVG-A incorporates a 3-D GPS waypoint navigation and flight-
control system which is programmed through a computerized Ground Control
Station (GCS).
Two different camera systems are available—the standard Coptervision three-
axis, gyro-stabilized camera system that carries 35mm, 16mm and digital video
cameras and/or a new smaller, three-axis, gyro-stabilized gimbal designed by the
company called Flexvision that carries smaller video cameras. The 35mm
camera package consists of a modified Arri 2-C and comes with either an Arri
Standard mount, PL mount or Panavision mount. Lenses include 16mm and
24mm Zeiss prime lenses, with an optional 40mm anamorphic or Cooke S4
Wide Prime lens.
Any given flight plan can be preprogrammed, flown and repeated as many
times as is necessary thus allowing flight patterns to be memorized. This feature
allows for scalable shots that can be used in visual effects plates. A “return to
home” command can be input into the flight parameters so that the helicopter
will automatically return back to its starting position if necessary.
Like the Coptervision line-of-sight helicopter, the CVG-A is modular in
design and has all of the same flight characteristics: up to 75 mph forwards, 45
mph backwards, 35 mph side to side, and hover. Since a digital microwave
downlink is used to bring the signal down to the ground, the CVG-A camera
operator can maintain precise framing while the helicopter is in motion. The
system runs on aviation-grade fuel and does not emit smoke from the exhaust
while flying backwards. The modular design allows for ATA-approved boxes so
that a total of six cases travel with the crew as luggage. With the CVG-A, there
is increased range (up to 3 miles and 450′) and endurance (from 30–45 minutes).

Flying-Cam
The Flying-Cam is an unmanned aerial filming helicopter. The Flying-Cam
aeronautical design, manufacturing quality, safety features and maintenance
procedures are equivalent to those used in General Aviation. The vehicle has all
the characteristics required for safe operation close to actors. The system is self-
sufficient and combines the use of aeronautics, electronics, computer vision and
wireless transmission technologies that are tailor made to fit in a 30 lbs take-off
weight platform and a 6′ main rotor diameter. Camera available are: 16mm,
S16mm, 35mm, S35mm and various Video standards including HD and
Broadcast live transmission.
The embedded Super 35mm 200′ camera is custom made by Flying-Cam and
mounted in a 1′ diameter, three-axis gyro-stabilized remote head. The camera is
the integration between an Arri 2-C and an Eyemo. The movement has been
designed to achieve the same steadiness of an Arri 35-3 up to 30 fps and of an
Arri 2-C up to 50 fps. The 200′ magazine use standard core and is part of the
camera body. When short reloading time is requested, the cameras are hot-
swappable. The electric camera motor is crystal-controlled with two-digit
precision. Ramping is optional. The minimum speed is 4 fps, the maximum 50
fps. Shutter is 160°. Camera trigger is remote. Indicators and readouts—timer,
sync signal and roll out—are monitored from the ground control station. A color
LCD monitor and a digital 8mm tape recorder are provided for monitoring
playback on the ground. A color wireless video assist, used as parallax, gives
peripheral information, allowing for anticipation in the camera remote head
operation. A frameline generator is provided with prememorized ratio. The
mattebox used is an Arri 3″x3″. ND3-6-9, 85ND3-6-9, Pola and 81EF filters are
provided as standard. Aperture Plate is full and optical axis is centered on full.
Available lenses are wide-angle: Cooke, Zeiss and anamorphic 40mm. Aperture
is remote, focus remote is optional on standard lens and included on
Anamorphic. Lens mounts are Arri Standard, PL, BNCR, and Panavision.
The HD Camera is a 3-CCD with HD-SDI output and onboard recording
capability.
The Flying-Cam gyro-stabilized patented Remote Head includes one-of-a-
kind top-shot horizon control. Pan: 360° unlimited, 180°/sec adjustable from
ground. Roll: 360° unlimited, 60°/sec adjustable from ground. Tilt: 190º
including 90º straight up and 100° down, 60°/sec adjustable from ground. On
90° tilt down with the 16mm Zeiss lens the front glass is 1′ above ground. The
maximum height above ground is 300′ (100m) to respect FAA safety separation
with general aviation. Flying-Cam provides the wireless Body-Pan® proprietary
system: the camera operator has the option to take control of the tail rotor giving
an unlimited unobstructed, gyro-stabilized 360° pan capability. The pilot has a
transparent control and override authority if needed.
The Flying Platform has a top speed of 75 mph (120 kph) and can combine all
the moves of a full-size helicopter. Take off weight of 30 lbs (15kg) reduces
down wash to a minimum. Autorotation capability is enhanced by high rotor
inertia. Tail rotor is overpowered for Body-Pan operation. The flight is
controlled by a Flying-Cam licensed Pilot using a computer-base radiodensity.
Density altitude is affected by temperature, humidity and pressure. The radio
range is more than one mile. The maximum flight altitude is 14,000. The
practical range is the visual one. Pilot-in-relay operations are optional.
SUSPENDED CAMERA SYSTEM

SPYDERCAM
Spydercam is a suspended camera system that allows filmmakers to move
their lens in safe, precise, multi-axis paths through space by combining highly
specialized rigging components with computerized winch systems and an
experienced crew.
• Speeds in excess of 70 mph
• Distances in excess of 4000′ long, 600′ high
• Compatible with most modern remote heads (Libra, Stab-C, Wescam,
Flir, SpaceCam, etc.)
• Video, HD, 16mm, 35mm, VistaVision, IMAX
• Configurations for one-, two- or three-dimensional envelopes
• Seamless integration with previz systems
• Live fly or preprogram movements interchangeably on any axis. (X, Y,
Z, pan, tilt, roll, focus, zoom)
• Small studio systems to giant outdoor runs
• Highly accurate (some 3-D systems are actually capable of double-
pass motion control work)
• Modular, portable.
The system offers greater accuracy and allows closer proximity to sets, actors
and crew than a helicopter can safely negotiate and offers a much greater speed
and range of motion than can be provided by a standard camera crane. It a
incorporates a 3-D GPS waypoint navigation and flight-control system which is
programmed through a computerized Ground Control Station (GCS).
CABLECAM
A scaleable, multi-axis camera and stunt platform for film and HD. Cablecam
scales its rigs in interior and exterior locations. Truss, track, ropeways, towers,
and crane attachments are modular.
Types of rigs include,
Basic: One-axis point to point.
Elevator Skate: Two-axis XZ travel.
Flying V: Two-axis XZ travel.
Traveling High Line: Three-axis XYZ travel using a gantry-like rail and rope
rig.
Dual High Line: XYZ travel using parallel high lines.
Multi-V: Three-axis XYZ travel using four attachment points to construction
cranes or high steel.
Mega-V: The upside down crane. XYZ flight of a 20′ vertically telescoping
pedestal. Attached to the bottom of the pedestal is a horizontal 12′
extension/retraction arm which pans, tilts, and rolls. The camera head of
choice is attached at one end of the arm.
Teathered Ballooncam: One-three-axis of aerial control over expansive
distances.
Speed range of systems: 0–70 mph. Length, width, and height of rigs: 100–
5,000′. Propulsion: electronic or hydraulic. Software: Kuper and custom.
Cablecam’s Kuper or custom, controlled servo-driven camera and stunt rigs
are modeled in Maya and Soft image and exported to a previz model. “Virtual”
Cablecam is flown in the previz milieu using teach and learn protocol.
Aerial platforms, balloons, and flying 3-D cranes support the Libra, Stab-C
and XR as well as the Cablecam LP (low profile) stabilized HD head.
Lightweight, mobile operating stations. Repeatable motion control of both
hydraulic and electric servos. Noise-free communications over long distances.
Custom joystick control. Interfaces with other motion control systems for control
of steppers, servos, relays, lighting, cameras and camera heads. Remote
monitoring of servo drive functions. Mechanical and electronic braking.
Previsualization

by Colin Green

(Incorporating material formulated and approved by the ASC-ADG-VES Joint

Technology Subcommittee on Previsualization and adopted and maintained by
the Previsualization Society)
I. INTRODUCTION TO PREVISUALIZATION
Previsualization, also known as “previz,” is a collaborative process that
generates preliminary versions of shots or sequences, predominantly using 3-D
animation tools and a virtual environment. It enables filmmakers to visually
explore creative ideas, plan technical solutions and communicate a shared vision
for efficient production. Filmmakers can leverage the previz process to
effectively work out and convey the details of their vision to the people that will
help execute it. The process allows sets, stunts, visual effects, sequences of
action, story flow and other elements to be designed, developed, understood,
refined and planned in advance using the visual power of 3-D modeling and
animation and with a high degree of production-specific accuracy.
The prehistory of previsualization prior to the availability of computer-based
imaging includes many years of creative solutions using a variety of physical
tools. Popular techniques included mocking up shots and key elements with
materials such as foam core and prefilming the “action” with lipstick video
cameras. Digital previsualization first developed in the early 1990s in tandem
with major milestones and enhancements in computer animation software and
processing speed. Professionals around the industry quickly embraced these
enhancements, with the majority utilizing the new 3-D animation capabilities
towards creating stunning, never-before-seen synthetic creatures and imagery in
visual effects. Concurrently, a smaller group was applying the same
advancements to improve fundamental film design, planning and production
techniques to create what is now called previz.
The earliest innovations in digital previz were made by pioneers at studios
such as Sony Pictures Imageworks, Lucasfilm/ILM and The Trumbull Company.
These innovators focused on large, visual effects-driven projects, paving the way
for a wider use of previz with an expanding pool of previz-specific artists. Today
previz is used on projects of all genres where a high degree of control over
creative execution or advanced problem solving is sought. Previz continues to
map to the needs of the market as the demands of shooting and shot completion
become more challenging, time-critical and complex.
In 2009, the Previsualization Society, a permanent and ongoing
previsualization organization inspired by groundwork from the interdisciplinary
ASC-ADG-VES Joint Technology Subcommittee On Previsualization, was
formed. The Previsualization Society provides an aggregate of resources on
previz and offers membership to all disciplines that interface with the previz
process. Materials maintained by the society and collected on its website,
www.previssociety.com, include a library of previz examples, tips for using
previz, best practice guidelines, professional forums and further links.
II. DEFINITIONS AND TYPES
The term “previz” has seen its fair share of differing meanings and usages
over the years. The description in the first paragraph of section I above provides
an accepted formal definition. A number of distinctive subtypes of previz have
also been defined:
Pitchvis illustrates the potential of a project before it has been fully funded or
greenlit. As part of development, these sequences are conceptual, to be refined
or replaced during preproduction.
Pitchvis is often used with a more conceptual intention. Because it is typically
created before a production staff is even assembled, pitchvis departs from the
main definition of previz in that it is not specifically relevant to physical
production or reflecting input and collaboration with key crew.
Technical Previz incorporates and generates accurate camera, lighting, design
and scene layout information to help define production requirements. This often
takes the form of dimensional diagrams that illustrate how particular shots can
be accomplished, using real-world terms and measurements.
Technical previz may include virtual stage planning in which correct
representations of actual shooting conditions can be defined, manipulated and
studied to yield greater production efficiency and a more informed crew. This
can include virtual representations of stages, blue- or greenscreens, camera
cranes, motion control equipment and other gear. Technical previz can also
provide motion control move exports, where data files containing the exact
coordinates of the camera for each frame of the shot are exported and uploaded
into motion control camera systems to precisely replicate the previsualized
motions by the camera capturing the photography. The cinematographer should
be consulted during this stage in order that the previz sequence has a harmonious
flow with the project’s visual objectives as a whole.
On-set previz creates real-time (or near real-time) visualizations on location to
help the director, cinematographer, visual effects supervisor and crew quickly
evaluate captured imagery. This includes the use of techniques that can
synchronize and composite live photography with 2-D or 3-D virtual elements
for immediate visual feedback.
Rather than delivering a specific end previz product or finished sequence, the
purpose of on-set previz is to leverage previz assets to provide a quick
mechanism for visualizing and evaluating any number of “what if?” scenarios.
Decisions on trying out a specific setup can be made effectively, for example,
before heavy rigging or equipment is moved. On-set previz can additionally
serve a purely creative function as instant “postviz,” with the video tap image
being integrated into the previz sequence to immediately see how the shot
footage works.
Postviz combines digital elements and production photography to validate
footage selection, provide placeholder shots for editorial, and refine effects
design. Edits incorporating postviz sequences are often shown to test audiences
for feedback, and to producers and visual effects vendors for planning and
budgeting.
Postviz is typically driven by the editorial process and is especially essential
when there are key plot points, CG characters, etc. that are dependent on being
realized through visual effects. Postviz, typically a combination of previz
combined with principal photography, bridges the gap to provide immediate
visual placeholders for storytelling purposes until final visual effects elements
arrive. Postviz often also provides helpful information for visual effects
completion and integration.
III. THE PREVISUALIZATION PROCESS STEP BY STEP
The typical previz workflow can be described by the following phases:

Asset Assembly
Working from a script, treatment, story outline or storyboards, key scene
elements comprising the main visual subject matter of the sequence are
constructed accurately in 3-D in the computer. The elements can include
characters, sets, vehicles, creatures, props—anything that appears in the
sequence being previsualized. The assets are ideally sourced through the Art
Department (e.g., as concept art, from storyboards or from physical or digital
models) and have already been approved by key creatives on the project. If
specific assets, such as locations, are still being determined, best approximations
are made.

Sequence Animation
The assets are laid out in space and time using 3-D software to create an
animated telling of the story’s action. The resulting previz sequence is reviewed
by key creative personnel and is further tweaked until accurate and approved.

Virtual Shoot
Virtual cameras are placed in the scene. Previz artists ensure that these
cameras are calibrated to specific physical camera and lens characteristics,
including camera format and aspect ratio. This step allows the animated scene to
be “seen” as it would from actual shooting cameras. These views can be based
on storyboard imagery or requests from the director or cinematographer. It is
relatively easy to generate new camera angles of the same scene or produce
additional coverage without much extra effort.

Sequence Cutting
As previz shots/sequences are completed, they can be cut together to reflect a
more cinematic flow of action, and are more useful as the entirety of the film is
evaluated and planned. Changes required for previz sequences often are
identified in the editing process.

Study and Review

The completed previz scene, with animation and virtual cameras, can be
studied to consider many useful production aspects: configuration of the sets,
speed of the action, frame composition, stunt planning, camera motion, rigging
and equipment requirements and so forth.
The relevance of the previz is contingent upon including as many actual
production specifications and limitations as possible. The previz process should
inherently incorporate information from key collaborators, such as the
cinematographer and art director, who influence the process and provide input to
ensure the desired results can actually be achieved. In cases where information
changes or new details come into play later in the process, the previz team may
re-tool the sequence to fit within the new specs.

Crew Communication and Outreach

A key part of the previz process is distributing the previz sequences, once they
have been approved by the director, to multiple production departments. The
previz can be “communicated” in a number of forms—diagrams, documents,
overview movies, stage layouts, visual effects breakdowns, etc. This information
can be broken down by each department to ascertain the achievability of the
previsualized shots.

Additional Problem Solving

During production, the previz team may take on a “rapid response” problem-
solving role by working to address evolving planning and coordination needs
that would benefit from on-set previz. This team can continue to be effective
after the shoot is complete in a postviz capacity, using previz assets to make
temp shots that accelerate the editing process and streamline the production of
final visual effects.
IV. SOME BENCHMARKS FOR SUCCESSFUL PREVIZ
Taking into consideration the idea that previz by nature is a constantly
evolving collaborative process, it is difficult to describe a particular previz
sequence as specifically “finished” and successful. But there are some basic
measures that are all equally important in measuring the success of previz for
any given project.
1. The previz represents an approved creative road map. The director can watch
a previz sequence and is confident that it expresses the film’s intended story
and creative vision.
2. The previz represents an approved technical road map. The previz is based on
a foundation of the most accurate and current representations of sets,
locations, production conditions and incorporates input from across many
production departments.
3. The previz is distributed across the production and viewed as achievable.
Previz sequences have been evaluated and provided as needed, and everyone
on the production that the director has chosen to help realize the project feels
it can be done as planned in both the practical and budgetary sense.
4. The previz is completed early enough to be effective. Previz sequences are
done in time to affect the actual production of the shots.
V. PREVIZ AND THE CINEMATOGRAPHER
Input from the cinematographer, both from a technical and an aesthetic
perspective, is a valuable part of making the previz process beneficial to a
production. As early as possible, making the previz team aware of the shooting
specs for the project, including the expected camera format, lens package and
shooting aspect ratio, will help ensure that these critical parameters are
incorporated into the previz work.
Previz serves a number of purposes for filmmaking, but it cannot simulate all
aspects of motion picture photography. Previz in its normal form offers
approximations of lighting conditions only in a general sense, not as the basis for
determining lighting choices. Producers should note that, even though the
cinematographer may be consulted for technical information during the previz
process, previz sequences are not intended to represent the cinematographer’s
visual approach to the lighting, color and general aesthetic of the film.
3-D Stereoscopic Cinematography

by Robert C. Hummel III Updated from the April 2008 issue of American
Cinematographer magazine

T he recent resurgence in stereoscopic motion pictures, more often called 3-

D, is completely due to the application of digital technologies in both
exhibition and production. As a result, they are being taken more seriously than
ever before.
In exhibition, the advantage is digital projection that allows a single projector
to project alternating left-eye/right-eye images at a fast enough frame rate that
allows the images to be integrated by our brains into a continuous 24 fps 3-D
motion picture. Also, because of digital imaging, it is allowing filmmakers to
explore higher frame rates in 3-D. The Hobbit was photographed at 48 fps, and
James Cameron has announced his Avatar sequel will be presented at 60 fps.
In production, the smaller form factor of many digital cameras allow for a
more compact 3-D camera rig that was previously not possible. 35mm beam
splitter rigs were virtually impossible for one person to lift, yet today’s HD rigs
are easily hand held by one person.
This chapter is intended as a primer on the basic constructs of this complex
medium, and should give you a solid foundation from which to pursue further
research on the subject. In order to save some ink, we will cave to convention
and henceforth refer to stereoscopic cinematography as “3-D.”
Before we begin the discussion, let’s first define some terms.
Left Eye: Refers to photographed images that are intended to be seen only by a
person’s left eye. This term can refer to the lens or camera that is capturing
the left-eye images, or the left-eye images projected in a theater.
Right Eye: Photographed images that are intended to be seen only by a person’s
right eye. In 3-D Cinematography, often called the master eye, or dominant
eye.
Stereoscopic: Refers to the dual imagery obtained when viewed from two
vantage points slightly offset horizontally from one another. Quite simply, it
is what we observe when viewed with our left and right eyes, and gives a
sense of dimensionality to objects closer than 19′ to 23′ (6 to 7 meters). Also
called “binocular vision.”
Monocular Depth Perception: Refers to depth perception not requiring dual
image cues, or the depth perception that comes into play with objects farther
than 19 to 23 away.
Convergence: What happens with the human visual system as two images seen
with the left and right eyes become overlaid so they become one image.
When looking at an object at infinity, your eyes are looking straight ahead
(Figure 1).
Convergence happens when stereoscopic depth perception comes into play,
i.e., when objects you are targeting/focusing on are closer than 13′-16′
(Figure 2). When focused at infinity, objects close to you appear as two
transparent images; as you converge on those close objects, they become one
solid image, and objects in the background become double images.
Convergence in 3-D cinematography is when the two taking lenses are
aimed to converge on a single point in space.

Figure 1. When we look at something on the horizon, our

eyes are focused at infinity and look straight ahead.
Figure 2. Eyes converging on a close object.

Figure 3. Interocular is the distance between the left and

right eyes. In 3C Cinematography, the distance between the
LEFT and RIGHT taking lenses is called the interaxial, and
is the variable distance between the left and right taking
lenses, adjusted for each scene.

Screen Plane: The position in a theater where the projection surface is located;
a vertical plane coincident with the screen that helps define where objects
appear in front of, behind, or on the screen.
Plane of Convergence: The vertical plane where your eyes are directed to
converge on a 3-D object. If an object appears to be floating in front of the
movie screen, the plane of convergence is where that object appears to be.
The same would apply to objects appearing to be “behind” the screen.
Proscenium Arch: For our purposes, this refers to the edge of the screen when
an object becomes occluded.
Interocular (also called Interaxial): The distance between your eyes (Figure 3)
is properly referred to as interocular. In 3-D cinematography, the distance
between the taking lenses is properly called interaxial; however, more
recently, you will find filmmakers incorrectly referring to the distance
between taking lenses as the interocular. In 3-D cinematography, if done
properly, the interaxial distance between the taking lenses needs to be
calculated on a shot by shot basis. The interaxial distance between the taking
lenses must take into account an average of the viewing conditions in which
the motion picture will be screened. For large screen presentations, the
distance is often much less than the distance between an average set of
human eyes. Within reason, the interaxial can be altered to exaggerate or
minimize the 3-D effect.
The 3-D cinematographer must weigh several factors when determining the
appropriate interaxial for a shot. They are: focal length of taking lenses, average
screen size for how the movie will be projected, continuity with the next shot in
the final edit, and whether it will be necessary to have a dynamic interaxial that
will change during the shot.
Because the interaxial distances are crafted for a specific theatrical
presentation, a 3-D motion picture doesn’t easily drop into a smaller home
viewing environment. A movie usually will require adaptation and modification
of the interaxial distances in order to work effectively in a small home theater
display screen environment.
The facts presented in this chapter are indisputable, but once you become
enmeshed in the world of 3-D, you will encounter many differing opinions on
the appropriate ways to photograph and project a 3-D image. For example, when
you’re originating images for large-format 3-D presentations (IMAX, Iwerks,
etc.), some people will direct you to photograph images in ways that differ from
the methods used for 1.85:1 or 2.40:1 presentations. Part of this is due to the
requirements for creating stereoscopic illusions in a large-screen (rather than
small-screen) environment, but approaches also derive from personal
preferences.
Many think stereoscopic cinematography involves merely adding an
additional camera to mimic the left-eye/right-eye way we see the world, and
everything else about the image-making process remains the same. If that were
the case, this chapter wouldn’t be necessary.
First off, “3-D” movies are not actually three-dimensional. 3-D movies hinge
on visual cues to your brain that trigger depth stimuli, which in turn create an
illusion resembling our 3-D depth perception. In a theatrical environment, this is
achieved by simultaneously projecting images that represent, respectively, the
left-eye and right-eye points of view. Through the use of glasses worn by the
audience, th e left eye sees only the left-eye images, and the right eye sees only
the right-eye images. (At the end of this chapter is a list of the types of 3-D
glasses and projection techniques that currently exist.)
Most people believe depth perception is only created by the use of our eyes.
This is only partially correct. As human beings, our left-eye/right-eye
stereoscopic depth perception ends somewhere between 19″ to 23″ (6 to 7
meters). Beyond that, where stereoscopic depth perception ends, monocular
depth perception kicks in.
Monocular depth perception is an acquired knowledge you gain gradually as a
child. For example, when an object gets larger, you soon learn it is getting closer,
and when you lean left to right, objects closer to you move side to side more
quickly than distant objects. Monocular depth perception is what allows you
catch a ball, for example.
3-D movies create visual depth cues based on where left-eye/right-eye images
are placed on the screen. When you want an object to appear that it exists
coincident with the screen plane, both left- and right-eye images are projected on
the same location on the screen. When photographing such a scene, the
cinematographer determines the apparent distance of the screen plane to the
audience by the width of the field of view, as dictated by the focal length of the
chosen lenses. For example, a wide landscape vista might create a screen-plane
distance that appears to be 40 from the audience, whereas a tight close-up might
make the screen appear to be 2′ from the audience. Figure 4 illustrates when an
object is at the screen plane and where the audience’s eyes converge while
viewing that object. (Figure 4 also effectively represents where your eyes
converge and focus when watching a standard 2-D movie without special
glasses).
Figure 4. Eyes converging on an “on screen” object. As seen
from above, as if viewing from the theater’s ceiling, looking
down on the audience and the screen plane.
Figure 5. How a behind screen object is created.

If we want an object to appear behind the screen, the image is photographed

with the lenses converged behind the screen plane. On set, the screen plane is an
invisible plane that you establish to control where objects will be perceived by
the viewer of the 3-D motion picture. In the theater, of course, the screen plane is
a very real, physical object.
When the object you want to appear behind the screen is projected, it appears
similar to what is presented in Figure 5.
In Figure 5, the right-eye and left-eye images are kept separated by the special
glasses worn by the audience; in other words, the left eye sees only the left-eye
image and the right eye sees only the right-eye image. If you were to remove
your glasses, you would see both images simultaneously, as in the Figure 6
example of a behind-screen object viewed without special glasses.
Next, we want an object to appear in front of the screen plane so that from the
audience’s perspective, the object appears to be coming into the theater and
closer to the viewer’s face. This is achieved on set by adjusting the convergence
of the left- and right-camera lenses so they are converging in front of the in
theater screen plane. When projected, the images are viewed by the audience as
illustrated in Figure 7.
This technique can be used to make audience members perceive that an object
is very, very close to their faces. This creates a very effective 3-D illusion, but
experience has shown that extreme examples of this effect should be used
sparingly, if at all. Remember that while the viewer will be converging that
object mere inches from his face, he will still be focusing on the screen plane
many meters away. As a result, this type of 3-D “gag” (when properly done)
always gets gasps from an audience yet, because of that disparity of focus, never
quite matches reality.

Figure 6. A projected 3-D image viewed without special

glasses.

This example illustrates an important difference between 3-D movies and

what you experience in real life. In life, when an object is half a meter from your
face, your eyes converge and focus at half a meter from your face. In a 3-D
movie environment, you can choose an angle of view and scale that, from your
perspective, makes an object appear to be half a meter from your face even as
your eyes are focused on the screen plane, which may be anywhere from 5 to 30
meters away from you.
Figure 7. How an object appearing in front of the screen is
created.
Figure 8. On-screen objects are seen in the same location by
all audience members.

This doesn’t mean the 3-D approach is “wrong;” it’s just an example of why
3-D depth cues in a 3-D movie often seem to be exaggerated—why 3-D movies
seem to be more 3-D than reality.
When an object appears on the screen plane, every member of the audience
sees the object at the same location on the screen because the left- and right-eye
images appear precisely laid on top of each other (and thus appear as one
image). Basically, the image appears the same as it would during a regular “2-D”
movie projection (Figure 8).
Take a look at Figure 9, however, and see how things change when an object
is placed behind the screen plane. As you can see, a person’s specific location in
the theater will affect his perception of where that behind-screen object is
located. Also, how close that person is to the screen will affect how far behind
the screen that object appears to be; the closer one’s seat is to the screen, the
shorter the distance between the screen and the object “behind” it appears to be.
Again, it is not “wrong” that this happens. Figure 9 simply clarifies the point
that stereoscopic cinematography is not 3-D. Were it truly 3-D, every audience
member would see these behind-screen objects in the same location. When
planning shots for a 3-D motion picture, the filmmaker should be conscious of
how a dramatic moment might be received by viewers seated in various
locations. Audience position will also affect the perceived location of off screen
objects as well.

Figure 9. Audience position affects both lateral and depth

convergence of behind-screen objects.

My next points concern the proscenium arch and “off-screen” objects. As

mentioned earlier, the edges of the screen image (top, bottom, left and right) are
collectively referred to as the proscenium arch. This is a nod towards live
theater, where the term applies to that area of the stage in front of the curtain. In
3-D, the term is used when referring to objects that appear to be in front of the
screen plane.
In short, the edges of the screen are relevant to objects appearing in front of
the screen plane. Such an object can have very strong stereoscopic convergence
cues that will make it appear to be “floating” very close to a viewer’s face. A
good example of this phenomenon occurs in the film Muppet*vision 3-D, during
a scene in which the characters Waldo and Kermit the Frog appear to extend into
the audience while clinging to the end of a ladder. Many recent 3-D motion
pictures avail themselves of this 3-D principle, from Beowulf, when a spear is
thrust toward Beowulf’s face after he arrives on a beach, to dogs lunging
towards the camera in Hugo.
However, if that floating object moves so close to the edge of the screen that it
is occluded by that edge, your brain will quickly employ its knowledge of
monocular depth cues, and your perception that the object is floating in front of
the screen will diminish to the point of inconsequence. Your brain has learned
that when one object is occluded by another, the occluded object must be farther
away. In spite of all the stereoscopic depth cues, your brain knows that if that
object is occluded by the edge of the screen, then it must be at, or behind, the
screen plane. This scenario will be very noticeable to viewers as their brains
attempt to sort out these contradictory depth cues.
Monocular depth perception overrules stereo depth cues because we are hard-
wired to protect ourselves from danger. Because most danger (such as an
approaching lion, bear or saber-toothed tiger) starts from outside our
stereoscopic depth zone, it’s easy to understand how the brain defaults to the
depth cues that govern most of our life. The 3-D axiom to remember is that off-
screen objects should never touch the edge of the screen, because if they do, the
illusion will be disrupted. The illusion is most effective with objects that can
float or be thrust toward the audience. You will also notice that when you
experience these illusions, filmmakers are keeping the off-screen objects closer
to the center of the screen in order to avoid the proscenium arch.
As with many axioms, however, there is sometimes an exception. There is a
scenario in which an occluded object can still appear as though it is coming off
the screen. Imagine a medium shot of a man who walks from behind the screen
plane toward the screen plane, and then continues toward the audience until he is
in front of the screen. Surprisingly, this shot will still work with the character
apparently coming off the screen, even though the lower half of his body is cut
off by the bottom of the projected image. The requirement for it to work,
contrary to our earlier axiom, is that the viewer must have other audience
members in front of him, with the bottom of the screen occluded by people’s
heads. When the bottom of an object is occluded by people very close to you,
your brain will still believe the object is getting closer. However, even a clear
view of the bottom of the screen will result in a fairly good effect of the man
coming off of the screen; because we’re programmed to look straight ahead, and
often don’t see, or focus on the lower half of a person coming towards us,
obscuration of the lower half of a person usually won’t entirely ruin the off
screen effect.
One must also be aware of the constraints on editing in 3-D. This concept is
relatively simple to grasp but is often disregarded to the detriment of a 3-D
presentation. When editing for 3-D, it is important to consider the convergence
extremes that the audience will experience in order to realize the stereoscopic
illusion. For example, if the audience is viewing action that occurs behind the
screen plane, it is inadvisable to then cut directly to an object in front of the
screen. The average viewer will have difficulty converging the suddenly “close”
object, to the point where he might see double images for several moments.
Experienced viewers of 3-D films won’t have this problem, and this can lead
to mistakes if you happen to be part of the creative team involved in a 3-D
production. If you work extensively in post for 3-D movies, you become more
and more adept at quickly converging disparate objects. However, your audience
won’t have the advantage of exercising their eyes as much as someone working
on a 3-D film. If this disparity isn’t taken into account, the resultant movie can
cause problems for the audience. The filmmakers will have no trouble watching
it, but the average viewer will find it difficult to converge 3-D images that cut
between extreme positions in front of and behind the screen plane.
These extremes of convergence can mitigated to a great degree in the digital
intermediate or by the post handling of the 3-D images. A technique of “handing
off” the A side of cut to the B side by quickly easing the convergence between
the two cuts can be very effective at making the cut much easier for the audience
to watch.
Some 3-D films attempt to guide the viewer to converge objects in front of the
screen. They do this by slowly bringing an object closer to the audience,
allowing viewers to track the object as it comes farther and farther off the screen.
The makers of the theme-park attraction Captain EO accomplished this with a
shot of a floating asteroid that comes off the screen at the beginning of the film.
In Muppet*vision 3-D, the effect is created with the simple gag of a “3-D” logo
positioned at the end of a broomstick that is pushed into the audience’s face; the
effect is repeated at the end of the film with the shot of Kermit perched at the
end of a fire truck’s ladder. In Terminator2®: 3-D, Robert Patrick’s molten head
slowly comes out off the screen towards the audience.
THE GLASSES
Creating the illusion of true stereoscopic imaging requires that the left eye and
right eye see unique left/right imagery. This is achieved with various kinds of
glasses that perform the task for the viewer. It should be noted that all 3-D
glasses—and projection systems—have an impact on the brightness of the
projected image, generally a light loss on the order of 2–3 stops.
The first public use of polarized glasses for a 3-D motion-picture presentation
took place at the 1939 New York World’s Fair. Called linear polarizers, these
glasses work by orienting the left- and right-eye polarizing material at right
angles to each other. Though this is not actually visible to your eye, the effect is
graphically illustrated in Figure 11.
In this system, the left- and right-eye projected images are each projected
through linear polarizers that match the orientation of the glasses. This method is
effective at separating the left and right image material; however, if the viewer
tilts his head at an angle, there will be “leakage” of the image information,
allowing the viewer to see both images simultaneously, which, of course, is not
ideal. Polarizing glasses, and all glasses that do not require any electronics in
order to function, are called “passive glasses.” Polarized 3-D presentations
always require projection onto a silver screen in order to maintain polarization of
the projected image.
Figure 10. Linear Polarized Glasses
Figure 11. Linear Polarizing Glasses, graphically illustrated.
Figure 12. Circular Polarization Glasses, graphically
illustrated.

Glasses that employ circular polarization, with a casual observation, look just
like their linear cousins in Figure 10, but perform quite differently. A simple
explanation is that circular polarization can be oriented in clockwise and
counterclockwise directions. The left- and right-eye projected images are
polarized in opposing circular-polarization orientation, as are the respective
lenses on the glasses. The circular-polarization effect is graphically illustrated in
Figure 12.
A principle advantage of circular polarization is that the integrity of the left-
and right-eye image information is always maintained, no matter how much the
viewer tilts their head. Circular polarization is the technique employed with the
Real D “Z Screen” technique, used in conjunction with single-projector digital-
cinema projection.
A variant on the passive-glasses front is Dolby 3-D technology (Figure 13).
Developed in conjunction with Infitec GmbH, this system can use existing
screen installations, as it doesn’t require a silver screen. By shifting about half a
dozen different RGB “primaries” of the projected image, the process is able to
create separation of the left and right eye images. Dolby’s glasses then filter
these spectrums of light so each eye only sees its respective left and right image
information. Dolby’s color-spectrum technique could technically be described as
anaglyph; yet it is actually a much more complex system that doesn’t cause any
of the color distortion usually associated with anaglyph.

Figure 13. DOLBY 3-D Glasses.

Figure 14. Anaglyph 3-D Glasses.

Figure 15. Liquid Crystal or Active 3-D Glasses.

Figure 16. Pulfrich 3-D Glasses.

Another type of passive glasses is the anaglyph system (Figure 14). The
separation of left- and right-eye imagery is achieved by representing the left-eye
material with the cyan spectrum of light and the right-eye material with the red
spectrum. When the glasses are worn, those colors are directed to your left and
right eyes, respectively. This system is often mistakenly thought to be how all 3-
D films were viewed in the 1950s; actually, this method was not used very often,
and almost all films in the 1950s utilized polarized projection and glasses. Over
the past few years, it has been revived for some 3-D presentations, such as Spy
Kids 3-D. This technique works on a standard white screen and does not require
a silver screen.
Active glasses, also called “shuttered glasses,” employ an electronically
triggered liquid-crystal shutter in each lens (Figure 14). This method alternately
synchronizes the left- and right-eye projected images with the respective liquid-
crystal shutters contained in the glasses. An advantage of active glasses is that
they do not require a silver screen. The glasses are electronic, require battery
power to function, and usually operate in conjunction with a transmitted infrared
signal that synchronizes the glasses with the projected left- and right-eye images.
Pulfrich glasses (Figure 16) are definitely the poor man’s choice for 3-D,
because they do not even produce true stereoscopic 3-D. The “Pulfrich Effect”
was first documented by Carl Pulfrich in 1922. This passive eyewear has one
clear lens and one lens that is significantly darker. It operates on the principle
that it takes longer for your brain to process a dark image than a bright image.
The resultant delay creates a faux 3-D effect when objects move laterally across
the field of view. Objects “appear” 2-D until they move laterally across the
frame, which causes an optical illusion that the brain interprets as a 3-D depth
cue. This technique has usually been limited to broadcast-TV applications such
as the short 3-D sequences in a 1990 Rolling Stones concert broadcast on Fox,
and Hanna-Barbera’s Yo Yogi! 3-D.
Is there more to 3-D production than the ground we’ve covered? You bet. But
this chapter should gird you with a foundational understanding of the medium,
allow you to converse in the vocabulary of 3-D, and enable you to begin to make
the medium your own. I also hope you now appreciate that the complexities of
3-D stereoscopic cinematography should not be underestimated.
Day-for-Night, Infrared and Ultraviolet
Cinematography

by Dr. Rod Ryan

DAY-FOR-NIGHT

T he speed of modern color films makes it possible to shoot night-for-night

scenes. However, there are night scenes that are impractical to illuminate
artificially and actually film at night. Shooting such scenes day-for-night
eliminates the additional problems and expense of night shooting and can deliver
excellent pictorial results.
Techniques for filming day-for-night scenes in color or black-and-white vary
greatly because of the many factors involved. Cinematographers naturally differ
in their interpretation of what constitutes a night effect. The overall effect must
be one of darkness. Processing laboratories differ in their negative preferences,
although most prefer sufficient density on the original negative since it is always
possible to “print down” for a darker effect, but impossible to obtain a rich, full-
bodied print from a thin, shadowless original negative (if black shadows are
desired, the scene must print at center scale or higher).
Choice of filters and degree of underexposure will vary according to sky
conditions; color and contrast of subject and background; the strength, quality
and direction of sunlight; and the particular effect desired. Very generally
speaking, the most convincing day-for-night shots, in either color or black-and-
white, are made in strong sunlight, under blue skies and with low-angle back-
cross lighting.
Direct backlighting results in a “rim-light” effect which, although pleasing in
a long shot, lacks the necessary three-dimensional, half-illuminated facial effects
required in medium and close shots. Front lighting will flatten and destroy all
shadows. Side and front-cross lighting is permissible but not as effective as
back-cross illumination. Because production does not always permit shooting
when conditions are exactly right, and since day-for-night shots must sometimes
be made all day long, often the choice of sun angle must be compromised. Under
these conditions, avoid front lighting as much as possible and stay with any sun
angle that results in partial illumination, preferably with shadows toward the
camera.
Skies give the most trouble, since they will invariably read too high and are
difficult to balance against foreground action. Graduated neutral-density filters,
which cover the sky area only, and Pola Screens, which will darken the sky with
the sun at certain angles, are both useful for either color or black-and-white films
because they do not affect color values and can be used in combination with
other effect filters.
Neutral-density filters will tone down a “hot” sky even if it is bald white. A
partial or graduated neutral-density filter covering only the sky will therefore be
very useful for bringing the sky into exposure balance with the foreground. Care
must be taken, however, that action does not cross the demarcation line between
the filter material and the clear glass area. Pola Screens are most useful when the
sun is directly overhead at right angles to the camera.
A Pola Screen should not be employed if the camera must be panned through
a wide arc, since the polarization will vary and the sky tone will change in
density as the camera revolves. Typical underexposure is 11⁄2 to 21⁄2 stops, rarely
more. Brilliant sunlight will require greater underexposure, gray days less. The
underexposure can be handled in several ways. One is by ignoring the filter
exposure increase required, if it is close to the amount of underexposure desired.
For instance, the filter being employed may require two stops increase in
exposure for a normal effect. The increase is ignored and the diaphragm set for
the exposure without the filter, thus delivering the necessary underexposure for
the night effect. Or, a neutral density of the desired strength is employed and its
exposure increase ignored.
Proceed as follows: insert the effect filter or combination of filters for the
desired effect, and allow for their exposure increase as in normal filming. Add
the desired neutral (a .30 for one stop, .50 for 11⁄2 stops or a .60 for two stops).
Ignoring the neutral filter’s exposure increase will automatically underexpose the
negative the necessary amount. This is a quick and effective method in fast
production shooting where night effects are suddenly required and little or no
time is available for computations.
If the sky is not sufficiently blue to filter properly, and if it is impossible to use
a graduated neutral-density filter, try to avoid the sky as much as possible by
shooting against buildings or foliage, or choose a high angle and shoot
downward.
The contrast between the players and the background is very important
because a definite separation is desirable. Dark clothing, for instance, will merge
with a dark background, and the player will be lost. It is better to leave a dark
background dark and players in lighter, although not necessarily white, clothing
than to have a light background and players in dark clothing. The latter
combination will result in a silhouette, rather than a night effect. This is the
reason that back-cross lighting is preferable: so the background is not
illuminated and the players have a definite separation through edge lighting,
which also imparts shimmering highlights.
Black-and-White Film
The illusion of night in black-and-white cinematography is obtained by
combining contrast filtering with underexposure. Since the sky is light by day
and dark by night, it is the principal area of the scene requiring correction. Any
of the yellow-orange or red filters may be used. A very popular combination is
the light red Wratten 23A plus the green 56. This combination does everything
the red filters accomplish—plus it darkens flesh tones, which are rendered too
light by the red filters alone. When combining filters, remember that red filters
add contrast but green filters flatten, so if a greater flattening effect is desired
add a heavier green filter. Because flesh tones are not important in long shots,
such shots are sometimes filmed with heavier red filters, and only the medium
and close shots are made with the combination red-green filters. Care must be
taken, however, that clothing and background colors do not photograph
differently when filters are switched in the same sequence. If in doubt, shoot
tests before production filming begins. Remember that only a blue sky can be
filtered down. No amount of color filtering will darken a bald white sky. Use
graduated neutral densities, or avoid the sky under these adverse conditions. The
23A-56 combination is usually employed with a filter factor of 6, rather than the
20 normally required (5 for the 23A and 4 for the 56, which multiplied equals
20). The factor of 6 automatically underexposes this filter combination
approximately 11⁄2 stops and achieves the desired effect without further
computation. If a red filter is used alone, bear in mind that it will lighten faces,
and use a darker makeup (approximately two shades) on close shots.

Reversal Color Film

Typical blue night effects can be obtained with reversal color films balanced
for exposure with tungsten light by removing the Wratten 85 filter and under
exposing 11⁄3 stops. If the bluish effect is too great, an ultraviolet-absorbing filter
can be used to filter out the excess ultraviolet. Flesh tones in closeups can be
adjusted by using gold reflectors or 3200°K fill lights to light actors faces. Care
must be taken that the actors are not overlit or that such lights appear as ambient
light with the sun acting as a moonlight key.

Negative Color Film

A cameraperson shooting day-for-night with negative color film should check
with his or her processing laboratory before the production begins. Laboratories
have a far greater range of color correction available than the cinematographer
has at his disposal during the original photography. They may add or subtract
any color, or combination of colors, provided the original negative has sufficient
exposure. Once the 85 filter is removed, however, it is often impossible to
restore normal color balance to the film.
If the 85 filter is removed, it should be replaced with an ultraviolet filter,
which will prevent overexposure of the blue sensitive layer and keep the
negative within printing range. Warmer effects may be obtained by substituting a
light yellow filter for the 85. A Pola Screen may also be used to darken a blue
sky and provide the required underexposure (by ignoring its filter factor). It will
have no effect on a bald sky, but it will act as a neutral-density filter and provide
the needed underexposure. Remember that approximately 2⁄3 stop exposure is
gained by removing the 85 filter. This must be included in exposure calculations.
INFRARED CINEMATOGRAPHY
Because cinematography by infrared light has had limited pictorial use, this
will be a brief review. For more information, refer to Kodak publications number
N-17 “Kodak Infrared Films” and M-28 “Applied Infrared Photography.”
Infrared for photographic purposes is defined as that part of the spectrum,
approximately 700 to 900 nanometers (nm), which is beyond the visible red but
not as far as would be sensed by humans as heat.
All infrared films are sensitive to heat and should be kept refrigerated before
exposure and during any holding time before processing. While no longer listed
as a regular catalogue item, Eastman Kodak still manufactures a black-and-white
infrared-sensitive film, Kodak High Speed Infrared Film 2481, and modified
color-sensitive film, Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Film 2236. Both of these films
are on Estar base. Before deciding to use either film in a production, the
manufacturer should be contacted regarding its availability, minimum order
quantities and delay in delivery.

Black-and-White Films
For pictorial purposes, the greatest use of infrared-sensitive film for motion-
picture photography has been for “day for night” effects. Foliage and grass
reflect infrared and record as white on black-and-white film. Painted materials
that visually match in color but do not have a high infrared reflectance will
appear dark. Skies are rendered almost black, clouds and snow are white,
shadows are dark but often show considerable detail. Faces require special
makeup and clothing can only be judged by testing.
A suggested EI for testing prior to production is daylight EI 50, tungsten EI
125 with a Wratten 25, 29, 70 or 89 filter, or daylight EI 25, tungsten EI 64 with
87 or 88A (visually opaque) filter. Infrared light comes to a focus farther from
the lens than does visual light. (Speak to your lens supplier for correct focus
compensation for infrared photography.)

Color
No human can see infrared; color film can only record and interpret it. Kodak
Ektachrome Infrared Film 2236 was originally devised for camouflage detection.
Its three image layers are sensitized to green, red and infrared instead of blue,
green and red. Later applications were found in medicine, ecology, plant
pathology, hydrology, geology and archeology. Its only pictorial use has been to
produce weird color effects.
In use, all blue light is filtered out with a Wratten 12 filter; visible green
records as blue, visible red as green, and infrared as red. The blue, being filtered
out, is black on the reversal color film. Because visible yellow light is used as
well as infrared, focus is normal, and the use of a light meter is normal for this
part of the spectrum. What happens to the infrared reflected light is not
measurable by conventional methods, so testing is advisable. A suggested EI for
testing prior to production is daylight EI 100 with a Wratten 12 filter.
ULTRAVIOLET CINEMATOGRAPHY
There are two distinctly different techniques for cinematography using
ultraviolet radiation, and since they are often confused with each other, both will
be described.
In the first technique, called reflected-ultraviolet photography, the exposure is
made by invisible ultraviolet radiation reflected from an object. This method is
similar to conventional photography, in which you photograph light reflected
from the subject. To take pictures by reflected ultraviolet, most conventional
films can be used, but the camera lens must be covered with a filter, such as the
Wratten 18A, that transmits the invisible ultraviolet and allows no visible light to
reach the film. This is true ultraviolet photography; it is used principally to show
details otherwise invisible in scientific and technical photography. Reflected-
ultraviolet photography has almost no application for motion-picture purposes; if
you have questions about reflected-ultraviolet photography, information is given
in the book “Ultraviolet and Fluorescence Photography,” available from Eastman
Kodak.
The second technique is known as fluorescence, or black-light, photography.
In motion-picture photography, it is used principally for visual effects. Certain
objects, when subjected to invisible ultraviolet light, will give off visible
radiation called fluorescence, which can be photographed with conventional
film. Some objects fluoresce particularly well and are described as being
fluorescent. They can be obtained in various forms such as inks, paints, crayons,
papers, cloth and some rocks. Some plastic items, bright-colored articles of
clothing and cosmetics are also typical objects that may fluoresce. For objects
that don’t fluoresce, fluorescent paints (oil or water base), chalks or crayons can
be added. These materials are sold by art-supply stores, craft shops, department
stores and hardware stores. (Many of these items can also be obtained from
Wildfire Inc., 10853 Venice Blvd., Los Angeles, CA, 90034, which
manufactures them specially for the motion-picture industry.)
Fluorescence may range from violet to red, depending on the material and the
film used. In addition to the fluorescence, the object reflects ultraviolet light,
which is stronger photographically. Most film has considerable sensitivity to
ultraviolet, which would overexpose and wash out the image from the weaker
visible fluorescence. Therefore, to photograph only the fluorescence, you must
use a filter over the camera lens (such as the Wratten 2B, 2E or 3, or equivalent)
to absorb the ultraviolet.
The wavelengths of ultraviolet light range from about 10 to 400nm. Of the
generally useful range of ultraviolet radiation, the most common is the long-
wavelength 320 to 400nm range. Less common is the short to medium-
wavelength range of 200 to 320nm. In fluorescence photography you can use
long-, medium-, or short-wave radiation to excite the visible fluorescence
depending on the material. Some materials will fluoresce in one type of
ultraviolet radiation and not in another.
Certain precautions are necessary when you use ultraviolet radiation. You
must use a source of short- or medium-wave ultraviolet with caution because its
rays cause sunburn and severe, painful injuries to eyes not protected by
ultraviolet-absorbing goggles. Read the manufacturer’s instructions before using
ultraviolet lamps.
Eye protection is generally not necessary when you use long-wave ultraviolet
because this radiation is considered harmless. However, it’s best not to look
directly at the radiation source for any length of time, because the fluids in your
eyes will fluoresce and cause some discomfort. Wearing glass eyeglasses will
minimize the discomfort from long-wave sources.
There are many sources of ultraviolet radiation, but not all of them are suitable
for fluorescence photography. The best ultraviolet sources for the fluorescence
technique are mercury-vapor lamps or ultraviolet fluorescent tubes. If an object
fluoresces under a continuous ultraviolet source, you can see the fluorescence
while you’re photographing it.
Since the brightness of the fluorescence is relatively low, the ultraviolet source
must be positioned as close as practical to the subject. The objective is to
produce the maximum fluorescence while providing even illumination over the
area to be photographed.
Fluorescent tubes designed especially to emit long-wave ultraviolet are often
called black-light tubes because they look black or dark blue before they’re
lighted. The glass of the tubes contains filter material that is opaque to most
visible light but freely transmits long-wavelength ultraviolet. These tubes,
identified by the letters BLB, are sold by electrical supply stores, hardware
stores and department stores. They are available in lengths up to 4 and can be
used in standard fluorescent fixtures to illuminate large areas. Aluminum-foil
reflectors are available to reflect and control the light.
Mercury-vapor lamps are particularly suitable for illuminating small areas
with high ultraviolet brightness. When these lamps are designed for ultraviolet
work, they usually include special filters which transmit ultraviolet and absorb
most of the visible light. Mercury-vapor ultraviolet lamps are available in two
types, long-wave and short-wave. Some lamps include both wavelengths in the
same unit so that they can be used either separately or together. If you use a light
source that does not have a built-in ultraviolet filter, you must put such a filter
over the light source. The filter for the radiation source is called the “exciter
filter.”
You can use a Kodak Wratten Ultraviolet Filter No. 18A or Corning Glass No.
5840 (Filter No. CS7-60) or No. 9863 (Filter No. CS7-54) for this purpose.
Kodak Filter No. 18A is available in 2- and 3-inch glass squares from photo
dealers. The dealer may have to order the filter for you. The Corning Glass is
available in larger sizes from Corning Glass Works, Optical Photo Products
Department, Corning, NY, 14830. The filter you use must be large enough to
completely cover the front of the lamp. The scene is photographed on a dark set
with only the ultraviolet source illuminating the subject. In order for the film to
record only the fluorescence, use a Kodak Wratten gelatin filter, No. 2A or 2B,
or an equivalent filter, over the camera lens to absorb the ultraviolet. When used
for this purpose, the filters are called “barrier filters.” Since the fluorescence
image is visible, no focusing corrections are necessary. Focus the camera the
same as for a conventional subject.

Determining Exposure
Many exposure meters are not sensitive enough to determine exposure for
fluorescence. An extremely sensitive exposure meter should indicate proper
exposure of objects that fluoresce brightly under intense ultraviolet, if you make
the meter reading with a No. 2A or 2B filter over the meter cell. If your exposure
meter is not sensitive enough to respond to the relative brightness of
fluorescence, the most practical method of determining exposure is to make
exposure tests using the same type of film, filters and setup you plan to use for
your fluorescence photography.

Films
While either black-and-white or color camera films can be used for
fluorescence photography, color film produces the most dramatic results. The
daylight-balanced films will accentuate the reds and yellows, while the tungsten
balanced films will accentuate the blues. Since fluorescence produces a
relatively low light level for photography, a high-speed film such as Eastman
Vision 3 500T (5219) or Eastman Vision 250D (5207) is recommended.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Some lenses and filters will also fluoresce under ultraviolet radiation. Hold the
lens or filter close to the ultraviolet lamp to look for fluorescence. Fluorescence
of the lens or filter will cause a general veiling or fog in your pictures. In severe
cases, the fog completely obscures the image. If a lens or filter fluoresces, you
can still use it for fluorescence photography if you put the recommended
ultraviolet-absorbing filter over the camera lens or the filter that fluoresces. It
also helps to position the ultraviolet lamp or use a matte box to prevent the
ultraviolet radiation from striking the lens or filter.
Aerial Cinematography

by Jon Kranhouse

A rudimentary understanding of basic aviation is essential for safe filming.

When airborne, things can go wrong very quickly. Within respective
aircraft flight envelopes, altitude and speed provide an extra margin of safety;
“low and slow” leaves little margin for error. The immutable laws of physics are
unforgiving and must not be ignored, despite egos, budgets and schedules. Aerial
filming can be exceptionally safe, or turn deadly with poor judgment.
Air-to-ground and air-to-air filming require the cinematographer to consider
the proper type of helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft to use as a camera platform,
as well as the appropriate camera mount. Factors include: matching air speeds of
camera aircraft and story aircraft, total weight of people/equipment, top speed,
low speed, range and time aloft, terrain to be flown over, working altitude,
prevailing winds, precipitation, temperature and, of course, the budget.
While helicopters offer unobstructed views and outstanding maneuverability
at low speed and/or very low altitude, they are much more expensive to operate
per hour than most fixed-wing aircraft. Adequate results might be achieved from
a small Cessna, if aircraft architecture doesn’t block the required view. Many
fixed-wing aircraft have greater range and altitude capability than helicopters.
For maximum stability and safety, select a camera aircraft that will, during
actual filming, be working near the middle of its flight envelope. There have
been times when a Lear jet had to drop its landing gear and flaps during filming
at altitude just to match speed with a slower story aircraft. In another example
that I recall, a helicopter couldn’t keep up with a race car; a fixed-wing aircraft
should have been selected instead.
Sometimes the wrong aircraft is selected because a helicopter pilot doesn’t
want to lose a job to a fixed-wing pilot, or vice versa. At other times, the
producer, director and cameraman were not envisioning the same shots; there’s
no substitute for good prep. Many variants of each aircraft type exist; if one
variant is suitable for your needs, don’t assume they all are. Blimps and hot-air
balloons offer the most vibration-free mounting platforms, but they are the least
maneuverable.
On-board cinematography is often accomplished with a handheld camera,
onboard Steadicam, or by various methods of mounting the camera to the
airframe (under guidelines of FAA #337 certificate; see FAA rules below).
Skydiving cinematography is a rare specialty of very experienced skydivers,
usually working with helmet-mounted Bell & Howell 35mm Eyemo cameras or
variants. Skydivers can be photographed from the ground with very long lenses,
as well as from helicopters using various stabilization mounts.
Miniaturized radio-controlled helicopters bearing ultra-lightweight film
cameras and video transmitters have yielded promising results. Depending on
the shots desired, these might be the right tool for the job. Using these machines
above crowds is illegal, their blades are as lethal as those of a full-sized
helicopter.
AESTHETICS
Time of day: Of course, early morning and late afternoon light is desirable to
reveal textures on the ground, and wind is usually calmest at these times.
Consideration must be made for keeping aircraft shadow or reflection out of
the shot. Midday heat can cause wind gusts, affecting stability. It is common
for pilot and camera crew to be aboard a warmed-up helicopter, parked and
“turning” on the ground, awaiting the earliest flyable light—it is not safe to
fly low-to-ground in pitch-black night. Night filming is perfectly safe at
altitude—above the power lines.
Metering: When the sky is clear, an incident light meter is quick and easy; the
light hitting you is the same as that hitting your subject. When shafts of
sunlight poke through stormy clouds, a spot meter is most useful. Lens
hoods for spot meters prevent flare from biasing readings.
Filming speeds: To create shot dynamics, shooting at less than 24 fps is
common. When viewed from the air, most inanimate air-to-ground subjects
(e.g., city traffic, ocean waves and large ships) appear to move slowly; they
can safely be shot at 18–22 fps and still appear quite natural. Exterior gyro
mounts allow for exceptional stability at very slow framing rates (e.g., 2
fps), but usable pans and tilts must be pre-programmed. A door mount or
handheld may be more appropriate if a less steady POV is called for.
Conversely, in turbulent air with a door mount, slight overcranking (30–36
fps) can smooth results.
Choice of film stocks/T-stops: Geography and sun conditions may require
changing the f-stop in-shot. It is not unusual to pull from T4 to T22 in one
shot; the trick is hiding the change with shot choreography and a smooth
remote aperture motor. Door mounts allow the changing of filters and
magazines in mid-air, allowing for quick adaptation to changing conditions.
Nose and exterior gyro mounts, however, require a smart compromise to be
considered before take-off during sunrise/sunset periods of rapidly changing
light intensity. You don’t want to have to land to change filters or stocks just
when the light is magic. Exterior gyro mounts require focus to be a
combination of estimations from the videotap finder, coupled with the
estimations of a great assistant. But it doesn’t hurt to have a T16 when doing
air-to-air at 250mm. Low-speed daylight-balanced stocks with UV filtration
are excellent for aerials if you have the light. When details in dark-green
trees are important, some prefer tungsten-balanced film with No. 85 filter, or
with only partial correction (e.g., Coral No. 1).
Creating dynamic action: Finding foreground elements to shoot through (e.g.,
trees, rock formations) can increase shot “energy.” For air-to-air, plan
intersecting vectors of the aircraft. If air-to-ground, utilize the horizon roll
capability of a nose mount or the pirouette ability of a door mount. Exterior
gyro mounts can combine zooms with helicopter motion to create
tremendous approaches and reveals (peek-a-boo from behind
hills/buildings), or can be undercranked for super-fast approaches. Most
gyro-based systems don’t tolerate panning as fast as fixed nose mounts,
helicopter turns should not be too extreme. For example, long focal lengths
with slower orbits around the subject can create a rapidly moving
background behind a subject on a mountaintop. Because helicopters can’t
stop on a dime, some gyro-system approach shots are performed in reverse,
rapidly climbing shots.
AVIATION BASICS
FAA Regulations for Camera Mounts
Federal Aviation Administration rules require that when any object is bolted
or strapped anywhere to any airframe—Cessna or 747—the installation must be
certified airworthy by a recognized FAA inspector. The inspector issues a
temporary-use type 337 certificate specific to that aircraft. If you use the same
mounting bracket on another aircraft of identical type, a new 337 must be
obtained. Once granted, the 337 is added to a particular aircraft’s manual, so
future reinstallations don’t require FAA recertification. Time must be allowed in
the production schedule for this FAA field inspection, if required; the inspector is
typically busy and backlogged.
Mounting hardware that has earned an STC (Standard Type Certificate) means
that the equipment vendor has persevered through a costly process. STC
installations do not require field inspection by an FAA examiner and are certified
flight-ready by a more readily available A&P (airframe and power-plant
mechanic).

Pilots
A truly qualified pilot is critical for both the safety and success of the
production; it is obviously essential for the pilot to have many hours of “time-in-
type” of similar aircraft. When filming in the United States, a pilot should be
operating under his or her own (or company’s) FAA Motion Picture Manual. This
allows a pilot some latitude within the FAA guidelines, which restrict the
activities of all other aircraft. A high level of expertise and judgment must be
demonstrated before the FAA grants such manuals. Of course, many flying
situations still require advance approval from the regional FAA office, as well as
other local authorities. Preproduction consultation with pilots is strongly
recommended.
Remotely operated gyrostabilized camera systems are often called upon for
very close work with long lenses; precise camera positioning is absolutely
critical. Few pilots have the skills necessary to hold a helicopter in a steady-
enough hover for a shot with a tight frame size. While the gyro systems isolate
the camera from helicopter vibration, an unstable hover causes XYZ spatial
excursions, resulting in constant relocations of the film-plane—an undesirable
parallax shift. The footage may appear as if the camera is panning or tilting;
actually, the helicopter is wobbling about in the hover position.
A local pilot and helicopter may be the only option when on very remote
locations. Some regional helicopter companies may not allow other pilots to fly
their helicopter. These local pilots must understand that some filming maneuvers
might require an exceptional degree of mechanical reliability from their aircraft;
when hovering below 300 feet in calm air, a safe autorotate is impossible. Spend
the minimum amount of time hovering low, and don’t press your luck with
unnecessary takes. If you must work with a helicopter pilot who has no film
experience, try to choose one with many hours of long-line work (i.e., heavy
cargo suspended by cable, or water-bucket fire suppression), as this type of
flying requires both a high level of aviation skill and judgment.

Protocol, Planning and Nonessential “Payload”

For those new to aerial filming, getting swept up in the excitement of
something new, combined with the typical rush of production, can distract one
from safety. Always think before moving around aircraft—more than one crew
member has died walking into spinning tail rotors. Never walk toward or around
the rear of a helicopter!
Air-to-air shots must be choreographed so that one pilot can maintain visual
contact with the other aircraft; the pilot with “visual” can switch off during
filming, but never depend on a video monitor to determine safe spacing.
Ground locations that involve close helicopter work may require a wet-down
to eliminate flying dust that might damage jet engines. Helicopter pilots should
not be expected to land or fly low in unfamiliar terrain with no prior knowledge
of electricity or telephone wires.
When a camera mount is installed aboard a helicopter under an STC or 337,
that aircraft is put in a restricted category. Nonessential personnel are not
allowed on board, according to FAA rules. Extra people cause the pilot to have
less lift and agility. Unexpected wind gusts may require extra torque (or
temperature demands of the turbine), which is not available when close to
maximum payload. An extra person also means that less fuel can be carried.

Communication: Radios and Pilot Jargon

Handheld ground-to-air aircraft frequency radios are available and are most
preferred. Tyler and Advanced Camera Systems (formerly Continental Camera)
offer intercom boxes for helicopters, which allow communication to and from
the helicopter using standard motion-picture walkie-talkie frequencies. For one-
way communication with on-camera talent, an induction loop can be worn under
wardrobe, which relays signals to an “earwig,” a tiny wireless induction pick-up
earphone (available from audio suppliers).
While flying in helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft, don’t distract the pilot from
his primary job. Theoretical conversations belong on the ground and should be
kept to a minimum when airborne. In metropolitan areas, the pilot needs to listen
for radio calls from air-traffic controllers and look for “Sunday fliers” who are
“off” radar control.
Make things easy for your pilot; be specific and concise so he can anticipate
his flight path. Pilots require a clear description of where the lens is pointing and
what you’re seeing. During a preflight briefing, learn each other’s language.
Usually when filming aboard a fixed-wing aircraft bigger than a small Cessna,
the camera operator is positioned somewhere in the back, unable to
communicate visually with the pilot and often relying upon headset
communication. If the cinematographer cannot see out the front of the camera
aircraft, the pilot might have to steer the plane off-course by 90° so the
cinematographer can see what lies ahead.
Lining up a particular background behind a story aircraft can be tricky, even
for experienced pilots. Getting story aircraft to enter an empty frame requires
formation flying from very capable pilots. Military-trained pilots with high
formation time are adept at such positioning.

Fuel Trucks
Helicopter agility suffers greatly as payload increases; having a fuel truck on
location allows fuel weight to be kept to a safe minimum. Not all airports have
jet fuel, which is required for the jet-turbine helicopters listed below. Not all fuel
trucks are permitted to leave airports and travel on public roads.

Weather Basics
Aircraft performance suffers when air becomes less dense, which happens
when heat and/or altitude is increased. Helicopters are most stable when moving
forward faster than 20 mph air speed (translational lift). Therefore, steady
breezes can be beneficial, allowing the helicopter to hover relative to the ground
while actually flying forward in the airstream. Conversely, a strong, steady wind
can make it impossible for a helicopter to maintain a hover in a crosswind or
downwind situation. The types of helicopters used for filmming are rarely
intrumented to fly in heavy fog or clouds; they operate under Visual Flight Rules
(VFR).

Choice of Sides for Mounting

All things being equal, it is best to mount the camera on the pilot’s side of the
aircraft, giving him or her the best visibility of the subject.

Max Speed
When an aircraft has any kind of exterior modification for camera mounts
(i.e., door removed, nose/belly mounts or gyro mounts), a maximum allowable
air speed known as VNE or “Velocity Not to Exceed” is determined through
FAA certification. Be sure this VNE speed will match your subject. Air speed
should not be confused with ground speed; prevailing wind conditions may help
or hinder filming logistics.

Safety
See the related Industry-Wide Labor-Management Safety Bulletins at:
http://www.csatf.org/bulletintro.shtml.
GLOSSARY OF FLIGHT PHYSICS
Awareness of these concepts, most of which are related to helicopters, will
expedite communication and increase safety.
AGL: Above Ground Level altitude, expressed in feet or meters.
Flight Envelope: Published by the aircraft manufacturer, this term refers to the
conditions in which a given aircraft can be safely operated. This takes into
account air density (altitude, humidity and temperature) and allowable
torque and temperature output of the engine/transmission/turbine.
Ground Effect: Condition of improved lift when flying near the ground. With
helicopters, this is roughly within 1⁄2 rotor diameter, becoming more
pronounced as the ground is approached.
Losing Tail-Rotor Authority: When helicopters attempt to hover or crab in a
crosswind, especially when heavily loaded in thin air (close to the edge of
their flight envelope), it sometimes happens that not enough power can be
diverted to the tail rotor to maintain the sideways position relative to the
wind direction. When the rudder pedal is maxed out, a wind gust can spin
the helicopter on its mast like a weather vane. This causes an abrupt loss of
altitude. If shot choreography requires such a position, have plenty of
altitude above ground level for recovery.
Rudder Pedals: Cause an aircraft to yaw; if using a nose mount, the same as
panning. Airplanes have a vertical rudder, though single-rotor helicopters
use a tail rotor to control yaw. Helicopters change the pitch of the tail rotor
blades to alter the force of the tail rotor, which counteracts the torque from
the main rotor.
Settling with Power: When helicopters hover out of ground effect, but still near
the ground in still air, prop wash can bounce off the ground and wrap back
around the top of the helicopter as a cyclonic down-draft. A pilot can be
fooled into applying more horsepower, which only increases the down-draft
intensity. All pilots know of this phenomenon, but those who work
infrequently in low-AGL situations may not be on guard. Try to change shot
choreography to continuously move out of your own “bad” air.
Yoke/Control Stick: Makes the aircraft pitch and roll (stick forward = nose
down, stick right = roll right). When using nose-mounts, coordinate with the
pilot so aircraft pitch and camera tilts are harmonious.
COMMON HELICOPTERS
Aerospatiale A-Star/Twin-Star (AS350 and AS355 twin)
Pro: Very powerful engine(s) for superior passenger and fuel-range capacity.
Extremely smooth flying with three-blade system. Accepts door and exterior
gyro-stabilized mounts (gyro mounts require helicopter to have aft “hard
points”). Tyler Nose Mount can fit if the aircraft is equipped with custom
bracket by the helicopter owner. High-altitude ability is excellent.
Con: Costlier than Jet Ranger. Does not hold critical position well in ground-
effect hover.

Aerospatiale Llama
Pro: Powerful engine mated to lightweight fuselage specifically designed for
great lifting ability and high-altitude work. Accepts door and some gyro-
stabilized mounts. Holds position quite well in ground-effect hover. Set the
helicopter height record in 1972 at over 40,000′.
Con: Expensive; very few available.

Bell Jet Ranger (206)

Pro: Agile and relatively economical. Accepts door and nose mounts. Most
variants will accept gyrostabilized mounts (must have external “hard
points”); excellent close-hovering stability.
Con: Earlier models have low-power engines. Poor high-altitude performance;
reduced range/payload for exterior gyro-mount work.

Bell Long Ranger (206L)

Pro: Excellent for both door and nose mounts. Very smooth and powerful; high-
altitude performance is good.
Con: More expensive than Jet Ranger. Reduced inventory of external gyro-
mount brackets from various vendors.

Bell Huey UH-1 (civilian version known as 204/205)

Pro: Accepts door mounts. Very powerful; high-altitude performance is good.
Utilized more as a story ship than as a functional camera ship; camera often
onboard with shots involving talent.
Con: Very bouncy, expensive. Requires permanent modification of airframe to
fit external gyro mounts.
Hughes 500 series A through E + NOTAR models)
Pro: Smoothest-flying (five rotor blades) and most agile of all helicopters;
relatively economical. High-altitude ability OK.
Con: Extremely small rear compartment, impractical for door/side mounts;
better for handheld. Custom-built (337 installation rules) bungee mount,
“Outside Mount,” or Spacecam bracket requires a permanent modification to
the airframe. Earlier models have low-power engines.
COMMON FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
But first another word about pilots:
The costs of operating a jet-turbine helicopter weeds out most “Sunday
flyers.” By comparison, many amateur fixed-wing pilots want to expand their
experience, and some professional fixed-wing charter pilots may have low
“time-in-type” of the aircraft most appropriate for your filming needs.
Practically all fixed-wing pilots will be eager for a film job, but most
underestimate how complicated piloting tasks can become while positioning for
the camera. It’s your life—choose wisely.

Cessna (many variants)

Pro: High-wing good for air-to-ground situations. Economical and ubiquitous.
Some types may be flown with window/door ajar or removed with 337
waiver. Stability dramatically increased for short duration when flown in
side-slip.
Con: Limited space for rigging mounting devices.

Twin (e.g. Piper Navaho, Cessna 414)

Pro: Higher speed, greater range. Some types may be flown with rear
window/door ajar or removed with 337.
Con: Limited field of view to avoid aircraft structure for both air-to-air or and
air-to-ground.

Customized Propeller aircraft

(e.g., B-24, B-25, Cessna 414, Pilatus Porter, Pitts)
Each offers unique capabilities: hard mounts on an aerobatic plane (Pitts);
wide range of low to high speeds with harness to lower operator (protected by
wind shroud) for wide field of view aft using door-mount type arm (Porter);
unobstructed view through gun-port fuselage openings at speeds higher than the
helicopter domain (B-24, 25). Nonpressurized aircraft become quite cold at
altitude, which may create condensation problems for optics (see Arctic
Cinematography page 239).

Customized Jet Systems (Learjet, L-39)

Pro: High-altitude and/or high-speed work. First choice for air-to-air of jet
aircraft.
Con: Expensive.
TYPES OF CAMERA MOUNTS
A handheld camera may be adequate for wide perspectives with minimal
pans/tilts for small cameras, but when more sophisticated shots are desired, there
are three basic types of mounts.

Helicopter Nose/Belly Mounts

Abilities: Shoot straight forward or straight back, with tilting ability. Video-
assist viewing. Very dynamic shots when used with a wide-angle lens, low to
the ground, in narrow canyons or city streets and/or when the helicopter is
making steeply banked turns. These mounts can tilt straight down or
rearward, a position used when ferrying to protect the lens from bug strikes.
Designed for Jet Rangers and Long Rangers, if equipped with standard or
high skids.
Limitations: These systems do not pan; the helicopter must be yawed (steer
left/right). No vibration isolation; smooth air and wider focal lengths
required. Takes 400 of film at a time; landing to reload required. Bug strikes
and moisture droplets cannot be cleaned in-flight, and if small might not be
seen through the video viewfinder while in flight. These systems cannot be
installed on helicopters with low skid gear. As the frontal area of the camera
package exposed to wind-pressure increases, vibration increases; screw-on
filters are recommended over matte boxes. Lens servo motors and the like
should be kept to an absolute minimum. Vibration restricts use of focal
lengths to no longer than 50mm in the best of conditions.

Helicopter Door/Side Mounts

(can be used from larger fixed-wing aircraft and camera cars)
Comprised of a platform attached to the aircraft floor with a vertical mast,
which supports the camera arm. The rear of the camera arm extends behind the
operator and forms a counterweight. Some arm systems may be attached to a
Mitchell tripod plate for camera car use. Some mounts isolate the operator from
vibration atop a sprung seat.
Abilities: Shoot fast pirouettes at radical down angle, either air-to-ground or air-
to-air. Allows pilot to fly in a fairly normal manner, presenting the side of
the aircraft toward the action. Takes 400 of film at a time; camera can be
reloaded in the air. For optimal results, the camera should be allowed to float
on the isolation mast, guided with slight fingertip pressure on hand grips,
which contain servo focus/zoom controls. In general, the greater the mass of
the vibration-isolated section of the mount, the better the image stability.
Wind deflector fitted to the available aft doorhinge helps reduce wind
pressure on front of lens. By ganging multiple Kenyon gyros on the camera
arm and counterweight, using a 275mm lens is possible, if minimal panning
and tilting is required.
Limitations: Fairly smooth air required. Slight overcranking may be required to
steady the image. Shots for background plates may call too much attention to
image chatter. Pan/tilt range is usually limited by the interior architecture of
the aircraft cabin interfering with the swinging counterweight.

Exterior Gyrostabilized Mounts (a.k.a. Ball Mounts)

Offering ultimate image stability, a remotely operated camera housed inside a
spherical wind shroud is bolted to the outside of the airframe with special
brackets. All controls remain inside the helicopter; optical viewfinder is replaced
with videotap. Most mounts attach to most Jet Rangers, A-Star/TwinStars and
Llamas. These systems are also used on camera cars, cranes and boats. Some
systems allow removal of wind-shroud sphere for use of wide-angle optics for
ground applications.
Rate vs. Mass: The first gyro-stabilized aerial systems used heavy spinning
wheels to generate angular momentum (mass gyros). Miniature solid state
rate gyros and direct-drive motors, used in current military and video
systems, have spawned a new genereation of on-the-ground stabilizing heads
for film cameras (e.g., Flight Head, Libra, Stab-C, WescamXR); some of
which are superior for longer focal lengths. Compared to mass-gyro systems
offer superior operator response and allow far more aggressive helicopter
maneuvering; gear wheels are optional.
Abilities: Complete isolation of the camera from all vibration; independent from
pitch, roll and yaw movements of the vehicle. Frame rates below 4 fps yield
perfectly stable images. Focal lengths in 35mm format up to 500mm can be
used. As the helicopter yaws (steers left and right), the mount acts like a
compass, keeping the camera pointed in the direction last panned. Shoot
straight back, forward and down within one shot. Regardless of how bumpy
the air, these systems deliver perfectly smooth images on days that would
ground a door mount. Bugs and moisture droplets can be wiped off in flight
in some configurations. Ideal for shooting background plates. All current
gyro systems use a fourth vertical reference gyro to maintain a level horizon,
regardless of helicopter bank angle. Some systems allow the camera to
Dutch angle during helicopter turns if desired. All systems can be remotely
operated at the end of very long tethers (e.g., 500 feet), some by radio link.
All current systems allow camera speeds to be varied in-shot with automatic
iris compensation. Magazines are 1,000 and require a full load for proper
weight and balance. All current systems offer BNCR or Panavision mount
cameras with choice of zooms or primes; 10:1 zoom is standard
configuration.
Limitations: Mass-Gyro systems do not pan/tilt as fast as remote heads, and
exhibit minor lag and over-shoot. They utilize a similar two-axis joystick
control for pan/tilt, which takes time for operator skills to develop; no gear-
wheel input available for on-the-ground application. All gyro systems
require landing to reload and change filters; an experienced technician is
required. Critical balance of these systems restricts their choice of lenses;
lens changes between zooms and primes requires considerable time.
ALTERNATE STABILIZERS IN THE AIR
Bungee or Surgical Tubing Mounts
For filming inside-to-outside of a story aircraft, this is often the best solution.
The camera is hung by a web of rubber shock cords that are secured to the
airframe, so that the camera weight pulls the cords to the middle of their stretch
range, thereby allowing for maximum excursions of the camera in any direction.
Limitations: Multiday custom design and fabrication; 337 inspection required.

Steadicam
Using a short center post between camera and sled and attached to an an
appropriate vehicle mount (not worn), good results can be achieved as long as
the camera is kept sheltered from the wind. Best for onboard a story aircraft,
rather than as a substitute for a door mount.
Limitations: Wind pressure striking the camera causes gross instability. 337
inspections required.

Rigid/Hard Mounts (fixed-wing or helicopter)

Sometimes rigidly mounting the camera to the inside or outside of the aircraft
achieves the best results. While the image of the background outside the aircraft
may vibrate, the image of the airframe and passengers remains steady relative to
the camera (think car-mount, but engineered for the FAA).
Limitations: Multiday custom design and fabrication; 337 inspection required.
The Arriflex stabilizer (limited availability) is a small periscope box of two
front-surface mirrors, one gyrostabilized. The Arri unit has somewhat limited
pan/tilt ability due to gyro lag and is for small-diameter, longer focal-length
primes (75–180mm in 35mm format).
Dynalens stabilizers, built in 1962, are liquid-filled prisms that are the
predecessor to the “steadi-shot” found on modern home-video cameras. Two
glass discs are coupled together with a bellows; sandwiched between the discs is
a layer of high-index refractive fluid. Gyro motion sensors detect deviations in
pitch and yaw, sending signals to servo motors which counter-pivot the
appropriate “pan” or “tilt” disc. This counter-pivot creates a partial prism shape.
The Dynalens can correct rapid vibration excursions up to 6° in either pitch (tilt)
or yaw (pan); however, camera pan/tilt speeds must be reduced.
Only six units remain but have been refurbished; the maximum diameter
available is 6. Available from Steve Peterson in California: (714) 579-7857.
The Kenyon stabilizer is a small package containing two gyros to resist
motion in two axes (typically pitch and roll). It mounts to the bottom of the
device to be stabilized. Works best with ultralightweight handheld cameras with
a videotap finder/mini-monitor replacing the optical viewfinder. Note that the
gyro is useless if attachment to camera is not extremely rigid (bolted on). (800)
253-4681; http://www.ken-lab.com
CAMERA MOUNTS AND DEDICATED GYRO SYSTEMS
Advanced Camera Systems (formerly Continental Camera)
(Door and nose mounts; other ground based gear)
(818) 989-5222; http://advancedcamera.com
Door mounts for most common helicopters for video/16mm/35mm and
specialty large formats. GyroMaster, Master and Magnum mounts handle
cameras up to 46 lbs. GyroMaster uses up to four Kenyon gyros bolted to Master
arm and counterweight.
Two belly mounts are available for Bell 206 A/B and L helicopters with
standard or high skids. Megamount can be used on a crane arm as a three-axis
head, or on the nose of a helicopter as two axis (no pan; tilt 225° and roll 360°).
Megamount can handle large cameras up to 80 lbs and has the unique ability
among nose mounts to look forward and rearward without having to land to
change camera mounting. Megamount can also record 40-second moves for auto
replay, and can be controlled by wheels or joystick. The Belly Mount
accommodates 35mm cameras, no pan, 100° tilt. Can be mounted with camera
looking fore or aft. Also Body-Cam stabilizer and various remote heads.

Gyron Systems (Dedicated Rate-Gyro System for Film and Video)

(626) 584-8722; www.gyron.com
Fiber optic rate-gyro coupled to active bearings allow for very rapid and
precise pan, tilt and roll input during the most extreme helicopter maneuvering.
Fast stabilized horizon roll possible (45° for film/90° for video); gear wheels
available. Video system can be mounted on customized twin-eingine Cessna
337. Waterproofed components inside ball allow for windowless operation in
most conditions; flies without shroud for extreme wide-angle film lenses.
Camera: Standard Arri 435, 1000 mags, lenses up to Panavision 11:1 Primo.
Video systems use 36:1 lens (non-doubled).

Gyrosphere (Dedicated Mass-Gyro System)

(818) 787-9733; www.gyrosphere.com
Two Gyrosphere systems were built in the mid-1980s using earlier Wescam
parts; the extensive upgrade and redesign work represented many “firsts.”
Vertical-reference gyros were added to automate level horizon; the speed-
aperture computer was intergrated; improved stabilization and camera steering
enabled faster and more accurate pans/tilts with less lag; improved ergonomics
were made possible with hanheld joysticks; prime lens capability. Mixed analog
and digital electronics. The vertical slit curved plexiglass window negates the
use of a polarizing filter.
Camera: Modified Mitchell Mk-2 (3–36 fps) with underslung XR-35
magazine. Also available with Empireflex VistaVision camera from ILM (2–48
fps) or Vistacam from BCS (2–48 fps).

Pictorvision (Gyro-Stabilized Digital & Film Aerial and Ground Systems

for Cinematographers)
(818) 785-9282; pictorvision.com
The original gyro-stabilized aerial systems were begun in the 1960s as
Wescam systems—and Pictorvision is the original rental group from that
Wescam era. Now Pictorvision offers all options of aerial systems—from the
original Wescams, Cineflexes, the XR-Series for ground applications, and the
most current and advanced technology—the Eclipse system. Revolutionizing a
new generation of aerial camera systems, the Eclipse offers the most advanced
steering, stability, and pointing capabilities available on the market. By
partnering with some of the world’s most creative and experienced DPs,
Pictorvision’s engineering team integrated user functionality with industry
defining technology to produce the Eclipse—ushering in a NEW dawn of aerial
cinematography.
Cameras: The open-architecture of the Eclipse & XR-Series allows for an
unlimited choice in digital or film camera and lens combinations, including Arri
435, Alexa-Series, F65, Genesis, IMAX MSM, iWerks Compact, Phantom 65,
Red One, RED Epic. The Wescam can support many of the current digital
camera systems, or our own Mitchell Mk-2 (1–60 fps) all with a variety of
cinema lens choices.

Spacecam (Dedicated Mass-Gyro System)

(818) 889-6060; www.spacecam.com
Unique gyro system using heavier gyro wheels spinning at greater rpms.
Patented powered cardin joint allows more responsive and faster pans/tilts.
Digital electronics allow many abilities (e.g., Dutching in sync with helicopter
turns). The lens looks through a windowless port. Action-arm nose bracket for
modified Hughes 500 helicopter allows steep banking; nose and tail position
brackets for some other helicopters.
Camera: Customlightweight Mitchell Mk 2 (1–120 fps); VistaVision (1–48
fps); 65mm 5-perf
Underwater Cinematography

by Pete Romano, ASC

U nderwater photography presents the cinematographer with a wide variety

of situations not encountered in above water photography. Water is a dense
medium and has certain light-absorption properties that cannot be changed.
When working in open water, weather, current and visibility can change daily or
sometimes even hourly and you have to be prepared for just about anything.
Tank and pool filming present you with water temperature issues for talent
comfort and visibility issues that might not work with the scenes to be shot.
Locations might vary from a tropical reef to a frozen ice pack, from a backyard
pool to a cement tank 200 in diameter and 60 deep, and water visibility could
vary from 100′ to less than a few feet. It is crucial to understand how to work
with and around these factors. If you are an experienced diver and really
understand the mechanics and optics of your underwater camera, you will be
able to deal with most underwater filming assignments.
Buoyancy control is a very important consideration when shooting
underwater. At certain times you will want to be neutrally buoyant so you can
swim the camera like a Steadicam® and crane combined, or you might be
stationed on a set of parallels or a ladder in a tank, without fins and be heavily
weighted for stability and controlling the camera.
As the underwater specialist, your skills have to go beyond just dropping in
the water and getting the shots. A lot of your assignments will have you as part
of a first unit where your knowledge and experience will be called upon to
explain the in’s and out’s of working underwater. Shots might be presented to
you that might not be possible underwater or might be a safety concern. Your
diplomatic skills will be called upon to explain the problems but you should
have shot options to present to still be able to tell the story. Do not forget that
you are there as a tool to record the director’s vision while working closely with
the film’s director of photography.
When working with talent, who for the most part are in wardrobe without
mask and fins and also holding their breath, your job is to get the shot as safely
and quickly as possible. Your ability to move in to help make the shot happen
instead of waiting for it to happen, could be the difference between getting or not
getting the shot,
HD UNDERWATER
HD technology is constantly evolving. Although you can instantly see what
you’ve recorded, at this time, HD is not as forgiving as film. The need to more
accurately determine your underwater exposure will be essential. Relying on
determining a working ASA/ISO setting for the HD camera you are using will
not take into account the differences in color space and contrast between the
various cameras available, and how those cameras will react to the lighting
conditions underwater. You will most likely need a good HD engineer as part of
your support crew. There are two camps on the best way to color correct for
underwater HD. One camp white balances underwater, sometimes after every
depth change. The problem with this scenario is when you tilt up your image
goes orange because you have compensated for the lack of warm tones in the
water. The other camp goes with the preset auto white balance and corrects the
color in post. My advice is to keep it as simple for the operator/DP as possible.
Most HD auto settings will deliver an adequately balanced image for color and
exposure, and will save the underwater operator the hassle of trying to determine
the proper settings while in an already abstracted environment.
Most HD cameras are sensitive to shifts in temperature and humidity. This can
lead to problems with tape transport or back focus shifts. The sudden
temperature change that can occur from the surface of the water to a few feet
below the surface may in some instances be enough to impair a camera’s normal
function. Take adequate precautions to ensure that the camera is handled in a dry
environment during tape or disc changes, and if filming in an area of cold
depths, allow sufficient time while surfacing for the camera to gradually
approach surface temperature in order to avoid moisture condensation.
HOW LIGHT IS CHANGED BY WATER
The intensity and quality of light available to the underwater cinematographer
depends on many factors. Light rays from the sun, sky or motion picture lamps
that strike the sea’s surface or the surface of a pool or tank produce a number of
phenomena that should be understood, so the undesired effects can be avoided or
compensated for.
Reflection: Light is reflected back into the air at an angle equal to the angle of
incidence. Light penetration is dependent upon the angle and intensity of the
light source and water’s surface conditions. Heavy seas and wave action will
reflect much more light than a calm sea or pool and the waves will also
affect the light intensity. Sunlight penetration in open water situations is best
in the latitudes of the United States between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. in the summer
and 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. in the winter. This does not mean you cannot shoot
film underwater before or after these times. It just means sunlight
penetration is best during these times. With the latitudes of today’s high
speed films and HD’s ability to capture images in low light, underwater
cinematography can be accomplished successfully in low light situations.
Refraction: Light travels in a straight line, but light that penetrates the water
undergoes a change in direction—it is refracted. For example, a pencil
placed in a half-full glass of water appears to be bent at the place where it
enters the water. Refraction is the source of most of the problems that are
encountered in underwater photography.
Color Absorption: As light travels through water, the water acts as a filter
reducing the spectrum of light that penetrates it. The long wave lengths of
light—reds, oranges and other warm colors—are the first to be absorbed and
the visible light is dominated by the blue-green (cyan) effects just a few feet
below the surface. All water acts as a continuous filter and the water depth
added to the distance of the subject to the camera equals the total water path
that the light has to travel.
Scattering: Caused by suspended minerals, plankton, dirt, etc. The absorption
and scattering of light rays reduces the intensity of light and the saturation of
colors.
EQUIPMENT
The cameraperson and assistant should be completely familiar with the
underwater camera equipment and have the ability to perform simple field
repairs. In general, the camera housing should have provisions to adjust its
weight for salt or fresh water and be slightly negative in buoyancy when
submerged. Features to look for are: simplicity in design; easy-to-locate, bright
reflex viewing; the ability to accept a variety of lenses; interchangeable flat and
dome ports; external focus, iris and camera run controls; video assist to the
surface; an underwater monitor; remote camera run capabilities; and the ability
to mount the housing to a tripod. Servicing the housing for lens changes, fresh
batteries and film reloads should be quick and easy so as not to eat up production
time, and a spare parts kit for repairs is mandatory. Even though a water alarm
might be incorporated into the housing’s design, the assistant should have the
ability to check the watertight integrity of the equipment before it goes into the
water. Depending on the design of the underwater housing, you can check the
sealing of the housing by either pulling a vacuum or adding slight positive
pressure (approximately 2 to 3 pounds). Check with the underwater housing
manufacturer as to whether a vacuum or positive pressure should be used.
CARE OF EQUIPMENT
At the finish of every shooting day, always rinse off the camera housing, lights
and accessories with fresh water, especially when shooting in salt water. A daily
clean and check of all exposed O-rings should be performed, as well as checking
the external controls for camera run, iris and focus for ease of operation. In full
sun, always cover the housing with a solar blanket or at least a white towel to
avoid overheating the camera, batteries and especially the film. Do not
overgrease any O-ring. The purpose of silicone on an O-ring is to keep the
rubber supple, allowing it to lay comfortably in the groove. Too much silicone
grease does nothing for the seal and actually attracts grit and debris, which can
cause a leak.
In case of salt water exposure to any camera system, immediately disconnect
battery power. Break down the entire camera system and rinse with fresh water.
After the fresh water rinse, pour alcohol over the parts to displace the fresh water
and allow the unit to dry. If there was fresh water exposure, go directly to the
alcohol step and allow the unit to dry completely. These emergency steps might
not get your camera system back on line, but will at least prevent much of the
damage that would be caused to the camera if it were sent in for repairs while
wet.
As a camera assistant caring for an underwater housing, one of the most
important things to remember is that it’s your responsibility to maintain the
watertight integrity of the housing. No matter where the equipment comes from,
no matter how recently it has been serviced or how thoroughly it was prepped,
there are countless accidents, mistakes and oversights that can cause a potential
leak. Every time a housing is opened for a magazine or lens change, careful
attention must be paid while resealing the housing. No housing is 100 percent
leakproof if safeguards are not applied.
In addition to the camera assistant’s normal complement of tools, an
underwater service kit will cover most of the problems that might arise. This kit
should include a bottle of alcohol, a tube of silicone lube and spray, silicone
adhesive, dental picks, Q-tips, a Scotch Brite pad, electrical tape, WD-40,
soldering iron and solder, cotton towels, a multi-meter, spare O-rings, self-
adhesive Velcro and an Allen wrench set.
FLAT OR DOME LENS PORTS
One of the most important and often misunderstood features of an underwater
camera housing is the lens port. Flat ports were all that were available for
underwater photography from its beginning in 1893 until 1931, when
hemispherical dome ports were first used to correct for the refractive properties
of water. Flat and dome ports both have their place in underwater photography
and it is important to know the theory and practice of each. For underwater
photography with wide lenses, the dome port is the best choice, but if the shot
starts or ends above water, or if you need to shoot a close-up with a long lens,
the flat port should be used. Glass is the best material for underwater ports. Be
careful of plastic ports. They scratch easily and will cause flares on the image.

Flat Port
The flat port is unable to correct for the distortion produced by the differences
between the indexes of light refraction in air and water. Using a flat port
introduces a number of aberrations when used underwater. They are:
Refraction: This is the bending of light waves as they pass through different
mediums of optical density (the air inside the camera housing and the water
outside the lens port). Light is refracted 25 percent, causing the lens to
undergo the same magnification you would see through a facemask. The
focal length of your lens also increases by approximately 25 percent.
Radial Distortion: Because flat ports do not distort light rays equally, they have
a progressive radial distortion that becomes more obvious as wider lenses are
used. The effect is a progressive blur, that increases with large apertures on
wide lenses. Light rays passing through the center of the port are not affected
because their direction of travel is at right angles to the water-air interface of
the port.
Chromatic Aberration: White light, when refracted, is separated into the color
spectrum. The component colors of white light do not travel at the same
speed, and light rays passing from water to glass to air will be unequally
bent. When light separates into its component colors, the different colors
slightly overlap, causing a loss of sharpness and color saturation, which is
more noticeable with wider lenses.

Dome Port
The dome port is a concentric lens that acts as an additional optical element to
the camera lens. The dome port significantly reduces the problems of refraction,
radial distortion and axial and chromatic aberrations when the curvature of the
dome’s inside radius center is placed as close as possible to the nodal point of
the lens. When a dome port is used, all the rays of light pass through unrefracted,
which allows the “in-air” lens to retain its angle of view. Optically a “virtual
image” is created inches in front of the lens. To photograph a subject underwater
with a dome port you must focus the lens on the “virtual image”, not the subject
itself. The dome port makes the footage marks on the lens totally inaccurate for
underwater focus. Therefore lenses should be calibrated underwater. The dome
port offers no special optics above water and functions as a clear window.
UNDERWATER LENS CALIBRATION
To guarantee a sharp image when using either the flat or dome ports, it is best
to calibrate the lenses underwater by placing a focus chart in a swimming pool or
tank. Even on location, the hotel pool will offer a lot more control than an ocean
or lake. Set the camera housing on a tripod and hang a focus chart on a C-stand.
If possible, calibrate your lenses at night or in an indoor pool or tank. Crosslight
the focus chart with two 1200 watt HMI’S, 2′ in front at a 45-degree angle to the
chart. Starting at 2, tape measure the distance from the underwater housing’s
film plane to the focus chart. Eye focus the lens and mark the housing’s white
focus knob data ring with a pencil. Slide the camera back to continue the same
process at 3′, 4′, 5′, 6′, 8′, 10′, 12′, and 14′. This should be done for all lenses.
Once a lens has been calibrated, you must establish reference marks between the
lens and data ring so that you can accurately sync up for underwater focus when
lenses are changed during the shoot. After marking the data rings underwater
with pencil, go over the calibration marks with a fine point permanent marker on
the surface.

Dome Port
To calibrate a lens with a dome port, use this basic formula to determine the
starting point for underwater focus: Simply multiply the inside radius of the
dome by four. That number will be the approximate distance in inches from the
film plane that the lens should be set on as a starting point for underwater eye
focus calibration. The most commonly used dome radius is 4′. Multiply the 4′
dome radius times 4. That gives you a measurement of 16′ at which to set your
lens in the housing to begin calibration for underwater photography. If a lens
cannot focus close enough to take advantage of the dome port, use a plus diopter
to shift the lens focus back. Ultimately, your lens should be able to focus down
to at least 10′ to be able to follow focus from 1′ to underwater infinity. When
using most anamorphic lenses with the dome port, you will have to add a +3
diopter to the lens to shift close focus back in order to focus on the aerial image.

Flat port
The refractive effect of the 25 percent magnification produces an apparent
shift of the subject towards the camera, to 3⁄4 its true distance. As a general rule,
for flat port underwater photography, if you measured your camera to subject
distance at 4′, you would set your lens at 3⁄4 the distance, or around 3. For critical
focus, especially on longer lenses and when shooting in low light, underwater
eye focus calibration is recommended. Shooting through a window or port of a
tank or pool is the same as using a flat port. If you do shoot through a tank
window and want to minimize distortion, the camera lens axis must be kept at
90° to the window’s surface. Camera moves will be limited to dollying and
booming to keep the lens perpendicular to the window’s surface. Panning and
tilting should not be done unless a distortive effect is desired.
LENS SELECTION
Wider lenses are usually the choice in underwater photography because they
eliminate much of the water column between the camera and subject to produce
the clearest, sharpest image. This is especially important in low visibility
situations. Longer lenses, which are being used more and more underwater,
usually will not focus close enough to take advantage of the dome port’s “virtual
image” (you need to focus down to 12) and a diopter will have to be added to the
lens to shift the focus back, or you can switch to a flat port and allow for the 25
percent magnification. Most Zeiss and Cooke lenses between 10mm and 35mm
can close focus on the dome ports “virtual image” without using diopters. When
using Panavision spherical lenses, the close focus series of lenses allow the use
of the dome port without using diopters. The commonly used anamorphic lenses
for dome port cinematography are the Panavision “C” Series 30mm, 35mm and
40mm focal lengths. Because these anamorphic lenses only close focus to
approximately 30′, you will have to use a +3 diopter to shift minimum focus
back to 12′ to 14′ to focus on the “virtual image” created by the dome port.
When using longer lenses for spherical or anamorphic close-ups with the flat
port, I set the lens at minimum focus and move the camera back and forth on the
subject or a slate to find critical focus instead of racking the focus knob.
FILTERS
Filtering for film underwater, as in above water applications, is used to lower
light levels, correct color balance and improve image contrast. Aside from the
standard 85 filter used to correct tungsten film for daylight exposure, the use of
color correction filters can be a very subjective issue. Water’s natural ability to
remove reds, oranges and other warm colors can be overcome by using
underwater color correction filters. These filters alter the spectrum of light
reaching the camera to reproduce accurate skin tones and the true colors of the
sea. Because all water is a continuous filter, the deeper you go beneath the
surface the more colors are filtered out. Also, the distance between the camera
and subject must be added to the depth of the water to determine the correct
underwater filter distance. UR/PRO™ and Tiffen AQUACOLOR® filters both
provide color correction for underwater filming, and both manufacturers offer
detailed information on the use of their filters. Polarizing filters can improve
contrast where backscatter from artificial light is a problem but sunlight
illumination underwater is not sufficiently polarized and makes polarizing filters
ineffective.
EXPOSURE METERS
Both incident and reflected light meters can be used for reading your exposure
underwater. In ambient light situations, the reflected meter is usually used
because it measures the light reflected from the subject through the water
column.
The most commonly used underwater light meters are the Sekonic L-164
Marine Meter and the Ikelite digital exposure meter. The Sekonic L-164,
designed in 1969 specifically for underwater photography, was discontinued in
1993 but then reintroduced in 1998 because of demand. It is self-contained,
needs no special housing, and is pretty straightforward in operation. The Sekonic
L-164 has a reflected 30-degree acceptance angle and gives very reliable
underwater exposures. The Ikelite digital is also a self-contained underwater
meter and can measure incident or reflected light. It has a 10-degree acceptance
angle in the reflected light mode. Both the Sekonic L-164 and the Ikelite digital
meters can be used above water or down to 200′ underwater. There are also
commercially available underwater cases for the Spectra IV, Minolta IV, Minolta
1° Spot and the Minolta Color Temperature.
UNDERWATER COMMUNICATIONS
Communication between the director/AD and cameraperson and crew is
critical. We’ve certainly come a long way since the days of banging two pieces
of pipe together, so depending on your budget and shot list, there are different
degrees of technology available.
A simple but effective means of communications between the cameraperson
and the above water director/AD is a one-way underwater P.A. speaker system.
Used in conjunction with video assist from the underwater camera, cues for roll,
cut and talent performance can be instigated by the director on the surface. The
cameraperson can also answer questions via the video assist with hand signals or
a slate presented to the camera lens or by nodding the underwater camera for
“yes” or “no”.
For more complex set-ups where the cinematographer and the director need to
talk directly to each other, or when the director works underwater with the crew,
two-way communication is very efficient. While wearing full-face masks
equipped with wireless communication systems, the underwater
cinematographer can converse with the director and also talk to the underwater
and surface crews via underwater and above water speakers.
LIGHTING
Specifics on lighting underwater, as in above water, will vary from
cinematographer to cinematographer, and the following information is merely a
guide. Experimenting and developing your own technique should be your goal.
Today’s underwater cinematographer has a wide variety of HMI, incandescent,
fluorescent and ultraviolet lights and accessories from which to choose.
Underwater lights designed for motion picture work should have the ability to
control the light output by means of diffusion glass, filters, scrims, snoots and
barndoors. Always check the condition of lampheads, connectors, plugs and
cables before use. Become familiar with the lamp’s lighting system and be able
to perform simple repairs and maintenance.
Unlike air, even in the best water, the clarity is significantly reduced in
distances as little as 10″ to 20″. Artificial lighting is often needed to adjust light
levels for exposure and vision, as well as to modify the color balance and image
contrast of the subject. By incorporating supplemental lighting, the light’s water
path, from lamp head to subject to camera, can be kept relatively short, and the
selective color absorption properties of water will be much less apparent than if
the light had to originate at the water’s surface.
HMIs light has a higher color temperature, approximately 5600 K (longer
light wavelengths), and thus penetrates further, providing more illumination over
a wider area.
The reflection of artificial light off suspended particles in the water is known
as “back scattering”. The effect is much like driving your car with your
headlights on in heavy fog or a snowstorm. In addition to back scattering there is
also side scattering and in some instances even front scattering. Light scattering
can be greatly reduced if you separate the light source from the camera and by
using multiple moderately intense lamps rather than using a single high intensity
lamp. It is advisable to keep the light at a 45-degree to 90-degree angle to the
lens axis of the camera. Generating a sharp light beam to help control the light
and further reduce backscatter is done with the aid of reflectors, barndoors or
snoots.
In addition to the basic effect of light intensity reduction in water due to
absorption, the matter is further complicated by the fact that absorption is a
function of color. Red light is absorbed approximately five times faster than
blue-green light in water. This is why long distance underwater photographs are
simply a blue tint without much color.
Fill lighting underwater on a moving subject is best accomplished by having
the lamp handheld by the underwater gaffer. With the lamp being handheld, the
underwater gaffer can maintain a constant distance between the lamp and the
moving subject, keeping the exposure ratio constant. In a more controlled
situation where the subject is confined to an area of a set, light can be bounced
off a white griffolyn stretched on a frame or through a silk on a frame.
BLUESCREEN AND GREENSCREEN
There are different schools of thought on which color screen is best to use but
both bluescreen and greenscreen have been used successfully underwater for
many years. Backlighting a bluescreen underwater has been done successfully,
but when the screen material is exposed to chlorine, it sometimes picks up
density and requires more and more light to maintain its exposure reading. Front
lighting fabric screens underwater has been very successful, and depending on
the size of the screen, the logistics of the location and the budget, there are a
variety of underwater lights to choose from. Underwater lamps also can be
augmented with above water lamps. It is best to mount the screen on a movable
frame, so it can be pulled out of the water and hosed off after every day of
shooting. Chlorine bleaches the screen quickly, and rotating the screen 180°
every day helps minimizes the color difference. From the bottom to the top, the
frame should tilt back approximately 10°. Extending the screen above the
surface of the water, even if only a few inches is very important. By extending
the screen above the water, it allows the under surface of the water to act as a
mirror and reflect the screens color on the surface. This extends the screens
coverage and allows the cameraperson to tilt up to follow the shot while using
the waters surface as an extension of the screen. It is also important to stop or at
least reduce the agitation of the water to prevent a visible ripple effect on the
screen.
LIGHTING SAFETY
From a safety standpoint, when using AC power in or near water or other
potentially wet locations, it is essential (and in most cases, mandatory) to use a
Class “A” UL approved GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) for actor and
film crew protection.
The purpose of a GFCI is to interrupt current flow to a circuit or load when
excessive fault current (or shock current) flows to ground or along any other
unintentional current return path. The standard level of current needed to trip a
“people” protection Class “A” GFCI is 5mA.
Class “A” GFCIs are designed for “people” protection. Other GFCIs are
designed for various levels of “equipment” and “distribution” protection. In
general, if you can’t readily see the Class “A” marking on a GFCI, the device is
probably not designed for “people” protection. To make sure that the GFCI being
used is a Class “A” device, Section 38 of UL 943 (the standard for GFCIs)
requires that the “Class” of the GFCI is clearly marked on the device in letters
that are clearly visible to the user.
Today, Class “A” GFCIs are readily available for loads up to 100 Amps,
single- and three-phase, for both 120v and 208/240v fixed voltage applications.
Certain special GFCIs can also operate on variable voltage power supplies
(behind dimmers). If the device’s label does not clearly state the working voltage
range of the unit, check with the device’s manufacturer before using the unit on
dimmers (or other variable voltage applications), since conventional GFCIs may
not operate correctly below their rated voltage.
Specialty GFCI manufacturers produce advanced GFCI devices that offer
other important safety features, such as monitoring predictive maintenance,
power supply phase and ground correctness.
Choose your GFCIs carefully, because if misapplied, these important safety
devices may unknowingly fail to function and render your installation with a
false sense of security.
Arctic and Tropical Cinematography

M ost of the difficulties encountered when using motion picture equipment

in the Arctic are caused by extreme cold and very low relative humidity.
Average temperatures may vary from 45°F (7°C) to -45°F (-43°C), and
temperatures as low as -80°F (-62°C) have been recorded. (Such low
temperatures may also be encountered at very high altitudes.)
The lubricating oils usually used in photographic equipment in more
temperate climates will congeal in an arctic environment so that moving parts of
cameras or other equipment will not operate. Leather and rubber also become
brittle at these temperatures. With motion picture films, loss of moisture from the
film emulsion when the original packing material is opened may result in film
emulsion shrinkage and brittleness, and subsequent film curl in the camera gate.
Such difficulties are not minimized by using films with a polyester base unless
these films (or those with a triacetate base) have a gelatin coating on the support
to compensate for emulsion shrinkage. It is the effect of the very low relative
humidity (less than 5%) and its emulsion- drying characteristics that produces
film curl. (Small heaters are sometimes used in cameras to prevent film
brittleness when working under conditions of extreme cold, but under certain
conditions this practice could actually increase the chance of emulsion shrinkage
by further reducing the relative humidity in the film chamber.)
The film speed is also lowered by extreme cold and may be about one lens
opening slower at -50°F (-46°C) to -70°F (-57°C) than at 60°F (16°C). Film
becomes progressively more brittle as the temperature drops below 0°F (-18°C),
but there is no marked change at any one temperature. Even at subzero
temperatures, film emulsion that retains its proper moisture content in the
original package (equivalent to equilibrium at 40 to 60% relative humidity) is
more flexible than film that has been allowed to become too dry. Film can also
be bent with the emulsion side in with less chance of breaking than if bent with
the emulsion side out. Whether the film emulsion cracks or the film support
breaks at very low temperatures depends on 1) how soon the film is exposed
after removal from the original package; 2) the care taken in handling the film;
and, 3) on the type and condition of the camera in which it is used.
Temperatures generally encountered in the arctic will not cause polyester-base
films to break.
PREPARATION OF EQUIPMENT
While the difficulties of photography under arctic conditions can be severe,
they are by no means insurmountable. Careful advance preparation will pay rich
dividends in the form of easier and more reliable equipment operation and better
pictorial results. The first step in preparing for filming in the arctic, high
mountain regions, or in unheated aircraft at high altitudes is to select the most
suitable equipment with due regard for the work to be done and the results
desired.
Each kind of camera has its adherents, and no one type seems to be
outstandingly superior to the others. However, considering the working
conditions, good judgment dictates that the camera or cameras selected should
be compact, lightweight, easy to use, dependable, adaptable, and portable. In
choosing a 16mm motion picture camera, many arctic explorers prefer the ease
and convenience of magazine loading, threading roll film can be very difficult
under conditions of extreme cold. Certain camera models are advantageous for
low-temperature use because large-radius bends in the film path and low film
accelerations help prevent broken film. For best protection of the film emulsion
at extremely low temperatures, film-travel rollers should have a diameter no
smaller than 1⁄2″. (13mm). Electric power, if available from a reliable source
such as a generator or vehicular power system, is more dependable than spring-
driven or battery power. However, under field conditions, a spring-driven motor
may prove more reliable than an electric motor drive that depends on portable or
storage batteries, which can fail when subjected to extremely low temperatures.
Cameras should be winterized for satisfactory service under frigid conditions.
Some camera manufacturers provide a winterizing service for cameras that are to
be used at low temperatures over a long period of time. Winterizing is a highly
specialized operation, best entrusted to the manufacturer or a competent
independent camera service representative. Essentially, the procedure calls for
dismantling the camera and removing the original lubricants. The shutter, lens
diaphragm, film transport mechanism, and other moving parts are then
relubricated with materials that will not thicken when the camera is exposed to
extreme cold. In some cases, powdered graphite is still used for this purpose.
However, so-called “broad-range” lubricants (such as Teflon and silicone) are
becoming increasingly popular, not only because of their effectiveness at low
temperatures, but also because they can be left in the camera permanently. In
fact, such lubricants are being used in manufacture. Hence, a camera that has
been lubricated with a broad-range lubricant, either in manufacture or as part of
a winterizing operation, need not be dewinterized and relubricated when it is
returned to use under normal conditions. When cameras are stripped down for
winterizing, weakened or damaged parts may be discovered and should be
replaced to avoid possible failure under the extra stress of severe arctic
temperatures.
It is also sometimes necessary to machine parts to allow greater clearance
between components. This is because aluminum and certain alloys have greater
coefficients of thermal contraction and expansion than steel. Since small levers
and knobs on cameras are difficult to operate when the photographer is wearing
thick gloves, extensions can sometimes be added to levers, and small knobs can
be replaced with larger ones.
It may be helpful to run even recently winterized motion picture cameras for a
period of three or four hours to break them in thoroughly. A piece of film three
or four feet long can be spliced end to end (to form a continuous loop), threaded
into the camera, and allowed to run during the breaking-in. In cameras intended
for use with film magazines, the loop should be formed in a dummy magazine.
After the breaking-in period, the camera should be checked for speed and
general behavior. It should be noted that, although magazine-type motion picture
cameras can be winterized, the magazines themselves are not winterized and
may jam under conditions of extreme cold. If film magazines are used, each
day’s working reserve carried into the field should be kept as warm as possible
under the cinematographer’s parka. Another possibility is to carry the film
supply in an insulated thermal bag, along with one or two small hand warmers.
Before your location shoot, a test run should be made in a refrigerator or
freezer capable of reaching temperatures as low as -30°F (-34°C) or -40°F
(-40°C). Even “winterized” cameras can fail in use because some detail was
overlooked in preparation, so this final test run is quite important. The film and
camera should be cooled for at least 24 hours prior to the test. This long period
of precooling is often overlooked, and the test becomes invalid.
Motion picture cameras should be given as much protection from icy winds as
possible during use. When battery-driven motors are used on cameras, the
motors and batteries should be kept as warm as possible. A flat black finish on
the cameras has some advantage in the arctic because it absorbs heat when the
sun is shining. Covers made from black felt material or fur and fitted with
eyelets or other suitable fasteners protect the camera from frigid winds and help
to retain its initial warmth for a time. Snaps and slide fasteners are not
recommended for use in subzero temperatures. Small magazine-type motion
picture cameras can be hung inside the coat to obtain some warmth from the
body; you may even need to wrap a chemical heating pad around the camera.
Inspect the camera’s lens each time it is removed from the clothing to take a
picture. The amount of “body static” generated under cold, dry conditions can
cause the lens to attract lint from the clothing.
Tripods should also be conditioned properly for use in the arctic. When
lubrication is required, there are oils available for use at temperatures down to
-70°F. Tripod heads for motion picture equipment should be winterized if they
include gyros, motors, or other revolving parts. As noted previously, extreme
cold causes leather and rubber to become brittle. A wax leather dressing of good
quality should be rubbed into leather carrying cases and leather-covered cameras
to prevent the absorption of moisture. Rubber should be eliminated wherever
possible.
Silk or lightweight cotton gloves under heavy woolen mittens are
recommended. Gloves or mittens made from unborn lambskin are excellent for
arctic weather. Silk gloves will keep the hands warmer and will afford
considerable protection when the outside mittens are removed for loading the
camera, adjusting the lens, etc.
EQUIPMENT AND FILMING TECHNIQUE
In the arctic or on mountain-climbing expeditions, as the altitude and the
subsequent cold increase, breathing becomes difficult, and working normally
involves a great effort. Reactions are slow. Therefore, everything pertaining to
the use of the camera should be made as simple as possible. Exposure estimates
may be poor when the faculties are dulled, so exposure and other data should be
printed on a card and fastened to the camera or its cover in plain view.
Certain general cold-weather recommendations are in order for any camera,
still or motion picture. Breathing on a lens or any other part of the camera to
remove snow or other material will cause condensation that freezes instantly and
is very difficult to remove.
An important factor to keep in mind is the ever-present danger of frostbite, a
particular threat when hands or face come in direct contact with the metal of the
camera body. Cameras that are used at eye level and must be brought close to the
face for proper viewing and focusing should have their exposed metal areas
covered with heavy electrical tape, plastic foam, or some other insulating
material. Under no circumstances should the photographer touch the camera or
other metal equipment with ungloved hands, because the skin will freeze to the
cold metal almost instantly. A painful loss of skin almost always results.
A thoroughly chilled camera cannot be used in a warm room until its
temperature equals the surrounding warmer temperature. Conversely, a warm
camera cannot be taken out into a blizzard because the blowing and drifting
snow will melt upon striking the warm camera, and soon the instrument will be
covered with ice. Loading film, even during a driving snowstorm, can be
accomplished with the use of a large, dark plastic bag, big enough to fit over the
head and shoulders.
A deep lens hood is very desirable for filming in the snow. It will help keep
the lens dry even during a fairly severe storm.
FILM
Great care must be used in handling film in subzero weather. The edges of
cold, brittle film are extremely sharp, and unless caution is exercised, they can
cut the fingers severely.
It is important that film be loaded and exposed promptly after removal from
the original packing, not left in the camera for long periods of time. If motion
picture film is allowed to stand in the camera for a day or so, the film may dry
out and break where the loop was formed when the camera is again started. The
film is adequately protected against moisture loss as long as the original
packaging is intact. When loading the camera, make sure the film and the
camera are at the same temperature—if possible, load the camera indoors.
Static markings are caused by an electrostatic discharge, and they appear on
the developed film emulsion as marks resembling lightning, tree branches, or
fuzzy spots. When static difficulties occur they can usually be traced to the use
of film that has a very low moisture content.
Static markings are not likely to occur if the film is loaded and exposed within
a short time after the original package is opened. In general, field photography
under arctic conditions involves subjects of extremely low brightness scale and
very high levels of illumination. Exposures should be held to a minimum and
overexposure should be avoided.
STORAGE
If a cold camera is taken indoors where it is warm and humid, condensation
may form on the lens, film, and camera parts. If the camera is then taken back
outdoors before the condensed moisture evaporates, it will freeze and interfere
with operation; the condensate can also cause metal parts to rust. One way to
solve this problem is to leave the camera, when not in use, in a room at about
32°F (0°C).
If a camera is left in its case outdoors, the case should be made reasonably
airtight. In the arctic, blown snow becomes as fine as dust or silt and can enter
the smallest slit or crevice. If allowed to enter the camera around the shutter or
other moving parts, the snow will affect the operation of the equipment. The
speed and timing of motors should be checked frequently. Batteries should be
checked every day and recharged at a base every night, if possible.
T. R. Stobart, who filmed the first conquest of Mt. Everest, preferred to seal
the camera in an airtight polyethylene or rubber bag and then take the camera
into the warmth of indoors. Any condensation takes place outside the bag, not
inside, and the camera remains both dry and warm. This method has the
advantage of keeping the camera from becoming “saturated in cold” for long
periods of time. There is no problem in taking warm equipment back out into the
cold, provided the snow isn’t blowing.
TROPICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY
Heat and humidity are two basic sources of potential difficulty when using or
storing photographic goods in tropical climates. Heat alone is not the worst
factor, though it may necessitate special equipment care and processing
techniques and may shorten the life of incorrectly stored light-sensitive
materials. High humidity is by far the greater problem because it can cause
serious trouble at temperatures only slightly above normal, and these troubles are
greatly increased by high temperatures.
Associated with these conditions are several biological factors—the warmth
and dampness levels encountered in the tropics are conducive to the profuse
growth of fungus and bacteria and encourage the activities of insects. Many
photographic and other related products are “food” for these organisms—gelatin
in films, filters, leather, adhesives and so on. Even if fungus, bacteria or insects
cannot attack materials directly, they can develop an environment that can.
Fungus can also either directly or indirectly induce corrosion in metals, attack
textiles and leather, change the color of dyes, attack glass, and cause a great
variety of other forms of deterioration. The probability of damage is greater with
frequent handling and transportation, especially under the difficulties met in
hunting and scientific expeditions and in military operations. Exposure to harm
is greater when equipment is used out of doors, on the ground or in makeshift
facilities.
Atmospheric condition, with respect to moisture content, is usually described
in terms of “relative humidity.” This is the ratio, expressed as a percentage,
between the quantity of water vapor actually present in the air and the maximum
quantity that the air could hold at that temperature. Thus, if a given sample of air
contains only half as much water as it would at saturation, its relative humidity is
50%.
When the temperature rises, a given space can accommodate more water
vapor, and hence the relative humidity decreases, and vice versa. When air (or an
object) is cooled sufficiently, a saturation point (100% relative humidity) is
reached, and below this temperature drops of water or “dew” are deposited. In
any locality, the temperature is much lower at high altitudes, so that dew is likely
to form on objects following their arrival by air transport, especially when high
relative humidity is present at ground level. In tropical climates, this “dew point”
is often only a few degrees below the actual temperature during the day and is
reached when the temperature drops at night.
The amount of moisture absorbed by films and by nonmetallic parts of
equipment is determined by the relative humidity of the atmosphere. Therefore,
the moisture absorption of photographic or other equipment can be reduced by
lowering the relative humidity, either by removing some of the moisture with a
desiccating agent or by raising the temperature of the atmosphere where the
equipment is stored.
Extremes of relative humidity are a serious threat to all photographic
materials, even at moderate temperatures. At high temperatures, the effects of
high humidity are greatly accelerated, particularly if the relative humidity
remains above 60%. Extremely low relative humidity, on the other hand, is not
quite so serious, but if it falls below 15% for a considerable time, as is common
in desert regions, an electric humidifier should be installed and set to maintain a
relative humidity of 40% to 50% in the storage area.

Storage of Photographic Materials

Sensitized photographic materials are perishable products when stored under
extreme conditions of high temperatures and high relative humidity. Proper
storage is therefore important at all times. Fortunately, adequate protection of
sensitized materials can be accomplished at relatively low cost and without
extreme methods. Lightweight portable refrigerators or other cooling units are
available from expedition outfitters and other similar equipment suppliers.
Desiccants are available in bulk or kit form for reducing the moisture content of
the atmosphere where film is to be stored. Further, portable electric
dehumidifiers are also available to reduce the relative humidity in larger
quarters, such as work rooms, to aid in the comfort of the occupants. And finally,
the film packaging reduces the possibility of damage when the material is stored
under recommended conditions. Usually, there will be little or no adverse effect
to the film if it is stored and handled as described below.
Black-and-white films can be stored at normal room temperatures in an air-
conditioned room. Color films should always be stored in a refrigerator at 55°F
(13°C) or lower. To avoid moisture condensation on the chilled surfaces of the
material, take film cans out of the cartons and allow 35mm rolls to warm up for
three hours for a 20°F to five hours for a 75°F temperature rise above storage
temperature. 16mm rolls take about one-third less time.
When the original packaging seal has been broken, films should be exposed
and processed as soon as possible. Since the air in a refrigerator is moist,
partially used packages should be returned to the refrigerator in a sealed
container containing a desiccant to absorb the moisture within the container.
In general, do not keep more film than necessary in stock, particularly when
good storage conditions are not available. Photographic materials can also be
affected by the chemical activity of fumes and gases. Consequently, do not store
films in newly painted rooms or cabinets. All films should be processed as soon
as possible after exposure. If you are unable to do this for some reason, enclose
the films in an airtight jar or can together with a desiccant and place them in a
refrigerator. Exposed films can be kept for several days in this way.

Preparation and Protection of Equipment

To save time and avoid damage, cameras and other equipment should be
readied well in advance of departure. It is well worthwhile to have the equipment
thoroughly overhauled and cleaned, preferably by the original manufacturer,
who should be advised as to the type of climate in which it will be used. Cases,
packing material, and moisture-absorbing material (desiccant) should be
obtained for the equipment and supplies. Protection during transportation and
storage is readily obtained by the use of hermetically sealed cans or metal-foil
bags or other water/vapor-proof containers and a suitable desiccating agent. If
the containers have been properly sealed and contain an adequate quantity of
desiccant, they will protect the contents practically indefinitely. There is,
however, one reservation and caution: if precision instruments that require
lubrication with certain types of light oils are subjected to high temperatures
while in such packing, the oils may evaporate, leaving a gummy residue on the
instrument bearings. This situation may prevent proper equipment functioning
until the equipment can be cleaned and re-lubricated properly.
The protection of equipment that is in active use requires a somewhat different
approach. The relative humidity can be lowered in an equipment-storage cabinet
that is not used for film storage by burning electric light bulbs or operating an
electric resistance heating unit continuously in the lower part of the cabinet. The
number of lamps should be adjusted to keep the temperature about 10 degrees
above the average prevailing temperature. Air spaces and small holes should be
provided at the top and bottom of the cabinet and through the shelves to allow a
slow change of air to carry off moisture introduced by the cameras and
equipment. The positions of the holes should be staggered on the different
shelves in order to produce a more thorough change of air. Since high relative
humidity favors the growth of fungus on lenses, filters and other surfaces,
storage in such a cabinet will help reduce fungus growth and may prevent it
entirely.
Electric dehumidifiers are now appearing in stores in many of the larger cities
in tropical regions. With these units, whole rooms and their contents can be
dehumidified, provided they can be closed to outside air penetration. In
dehumidified rooms, the humidity will not increase rapidly during short power
failures, as it would in heated closets or cabinets. In a small, tightly sealed room,
an average unit in operation for 12 hours out of 24 can keep the relative
humidity below 60%. This should be checked about once a month with a relative
humidity meter or sling psychrometer. When it is not practical to use a hot
cabinet or electric dehumidifier, equipment should be stored in an airtight case
containing plenty of desiccant. Two cans of silica gel the size of shoe-polish cans
will do a very good job of drying equipment in a sealed 10-gallon paint can (one
with a gasket and a “pound shut” lid).
A half-pound bag of silica gel works well in a gasketed 55-gallon “open top”
drum that can be sealed with a cover. However, where shipment and handling are
involved, or where the containers are to be opened briefly a few times, double or
even triple the quantity of gel will provide a reserve of protection. Properly
dehydrated containers will momentarily feel cool to an inserted hand due to
rapid evaporation of the normal skin moisture. The sensation is brief but can be
easily detected if one is looking for it. Its absence means the silica gel needs
replacement or regeneration.
If none of these methods is practical, and the equipment must be left in an
atmosphere of high relative humidity, the equipment should be opened and
exposed to the sun at frequent intervals in order to drive out moisture. The
exposures, however, should be kept short in order to avoid overheating. Cameras
loaded with film should not be exposed to the sun any more than necessary.
Cameras should always be protected from excessive heat because many of the
lenses used on cameras are composed of several elements of glass cemented
together. Because some cements melt at 140°F (60°C) and begin to soften at
120°F (49°C), it is obvious that the lens elements might become separated or air
bubbles might form if the lens were heated to such temperatures. Cameras
should not be handled roughly or subjected to sudden jarring when used at high
temperatures, because any slight shock might change the position of the lens
components.
MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT
One of the best protective measures that can be supplied in the tropics is to
thoroughly clean every piece of photographic equipment at frequent intervals
and expose it to air and sun whenever practical. This is particularly important for
retarding the corrosion of metal surfaces and the growth of fungus or mold on
lens surfaces and on leather coverings. Lens-cleaning fluids and papers now on
the market are recommended for cleaning lenses. During the tropical dry season,
or in any desert areas, dust should be removed from the lens surfaces with a
sable or camel-hair brush before the lens tissue is used, to avoid scratches. Lens
cleaning tissues containing silicones should not be used for coated lenses. They
leave an oily film that changes the color characteristics of the coating and
reduces its antireflection properties. This film is almost impossible to remove.
Leather coverings and cases can best be kept clean by wiping them often and
thoroughly with a clean, dry cloth. Frequent cleaning and polishing will
minimize corrosion on exposed metal parts.
BLACK-AND-WHITE FILM
The exposure of black-and-white film in tropical areas is strongly influenced
by the illumination in the subject shadow areas. The moisture and dust content of
the atmosphere are important because shadows are illuminated only by light
scattered by particles suspended in the air, except where supplementary lighting
or reflectors are used. Thus where the atmosphere is very dry and clear, objects
that do not receive the direct light of the sun appear, both to the eye and to the
camera lens, to be in deeper than normal shadow. In regions like the
southwestern United States or central Mexico, for example, the brightness range
of average outdoor subjects is much greater than it is in less clear climates. In
photographing people, this effect and the high position of the sun combine to put
the eyes in deep shadow and even sometimes give the effect of backlighting.
Therefore, it is best to avoid taking pictures, particularly close-ups of people,
when the sun is overhead; if you must take close-ups of people, use reflectors or
booster lights to soften the shadows.
Exposure meters should always be used with a reasonable amount of
judgment and experience, and this is especially true in locations with such
unusual atmospheric and lighting conditions. In the jungle areas of South and
Central America, the local farmers often clear and burn large quantities of trees
and brush during the dry season. The smoke, composed of solid particles, hangs
in the lower atmosphere and is not easily penetrated even with filters. Also, at
the height of the wet season in many localities, the water haze becomes almost
as impenetrable as a heavy cloud. Distance photography is best done a few
weeks after the close of the wet season and before burning begins, or a few
weeks after the first rains of the wet season have settled the smoke particles and
before the onset of the wet-season haze.
If extensive photographic work in the tropics is planned, the development of a
few test exposures may prevent major failures. It is usually sufficient to
determine a basic exposure that can then be modified to suit other films or
conditions. Allowance should also be made for different types of subjects. Beach
scenes, for example, generally require about one stop less exposure than an
average subject.
COLOR FILM
In general, the exposure of color films should follow the same basic
recommendations given for temperate zone exposure, with due regard to lighting
and scene classification. There are, however, some differences in the lighting
conditions and scene characteristics in the tropics that justify special
considerations.
1. During the rainy season, a light haze is generally present in the atmosphere.
When this haze is present, the disk of the sun is clearly discernible and fairly
distinct shadows are cast. Under these conditions, the exposure should be
increased by about one-half stop over that required for bright sunlight.
2. Frequently the brightness of beach and marine scenes is appreciably greater
than encountered in temperate zones. With such scenes the camera exposure
should be decreased one full stop from that required for average subjects. It
should be remembered that the term “average subject” as used in exposure
tables applies to a subject or scene in which light, medium and dark areas are
roughly equal in proportion. It should not be taken to mean “usual” for a
particular location or area. For instance, the usual desert scene is a “light
subject” rather than “average subject,” and should be exposed as such.
3. When the sun is high overhead, heavy shadows are cast across vertical
surfaces, very much like those occurring in side-lighted subjects. Therefore,
the exposure should be increased one-half stop more than normal, just as is
recommended for side-lighted scenes. For close-ups having important
shadow areas, a full stop increase in exposure is needed.
4. Many objects in the tropics, not only painted buildings and light-colored
fabrics, but even the leaves of many plants and trees, have a high reflectance
for direct lighting. Consequently, with front top- or backlighting they should
be considered average subjects.
5. Very often the colors of nearby objects will be affected by the green light
reflected from nearby bright green foliage. Similarly, in courtyards or narrow
streets, the side that is in the shade gets much of its illumination from the
opposite sunlit wall, which may be strongly colored. There is little that can
be done to correct for this situation, but it should be recognized as a possible
cause of poor results in color pictures.
Filming Television and Computer Displays

by Bill Hogan, Sprocket Digital and Steve Irwin, Playback Technologies, Inc.

W hen filming television screens, video monitors or computer displays,

there are two principal obstacles to achieving consistent and clear images
on film. The two problems are the difference in frame rates between the film
camera and the TV/computer display, and the color temperature difference
between the film stock and the display technology.
Solutions for successfully photographing various display technologies,
including televisions, computer monitors, LCD monitors, plasma screens and
DLP projectors, vary depending on many factors. Are you shooting a feature
film or episodic project where you must protect and deliver a 24- frame negative
finish? Or are you shooting a commercial or documentary where you can run the
film camera at nonstandard sync-sound speeds to match the refresh rate of the
display?
We will first consider photographing display technologies based on standard
CRT (cathode ray tube) displays, or more simply, glass picture tubes. This
includes nearly all consumer televisions, broadcast and industrial video monitors
and a majority of computer displays and consumer projection televisions. Flat-
panel displays and projection technologies such as LCD, plasma, and DLP will
be discussed later, along with color temperature.
FRAME RATES AND EXPOSURE TIME
North America and many other countries of the world have a television
standard that displays 30 frames per second. Computer monitors can have
refresh rates ranging from 50 to over 100 frames per second. The difference in
frame rates is the predominant difficulty in photographing televisions and
computers as part of a scene.
The basic concept to keep in mind is that of film camera exposure time based
on the combined elements of film camera speed and shutter angle. To
photograph clean, artifact-free images, the exposure time must be equal to or
related by an even sub-multiple of the refresh rate of the display you are
shooting. For example, standard 30 frame NTSC video (the actual frame rate is
29.97, but we will round off for ease of explanation) is composed of two
separate images called fields. Each field is displayed by the video monitor every
1
⁄60 of a second. With the film camera running at 30 frames per second with a
180-degree shutter, the exposure time is 1⁄60 of a second. This is exactly the right
relationship we are looking for. Even though we have now matched the film
camera’s exposure time to our monitor, this still requires what is generically
referred to as a “sync box.” We must align the pulldown or shutter closed timing
of the film camera to occur exactly during video’s equivalent of pulldown,
known as vertical blanking. This is the time interval, in video, which allows the
scanning beam to jump up from the bottom of the screen to the top and start
painting or scanning the next field. The sync box is fed a reference signal that is
in exact speed and time as the video we are photographing. A phase control on
the sync box allows us to adjust the shutter bar out of the image and precisely
match the film camera’s pulldown to the video’s vertical blanking.
This basic example and explanation holds true whether you are shooting 30-,
25- or 24-frame video. Before we review some newer display technologies, let’s
discuss a few more ground rules for shooting “picture tube” type displays or
projection systems.
OVER- AND UNDERCRANKING
Because it takes an interlaced video signal a full field to display a complete
image on the monitor, it is not possible to photograph the monitor at any faster
frame rates. Remember the concept of exposure time. For example, if we are
running the film camera at 60-frames per second with a 180-degree shutter while
photographing 30-frame video, our exposure time is only 1⁄120 of a second. The
video monitor will only display of its image during this time. The film camera
will only “see” of the image on one frame of film and the other half of the image
on the next frame of film, creating a very drastic strobe effect. Undercranking on
a monitor is possible by keeping one simple rule in mind. Shoot at even
submultiples of the monitor’s frame rate. For example, if shooting 24-frame
video, you can shoot at 12, 6, or 3 frames a second and have a perfect image on
the monitor. If shooting at 30 frames per second, you can shoot at 15 or 7.5 fps.
COMPUTER MONITORS
The same rules just discussed apply to standard computer monitors based on
glass picture tubes. The images are still scanned top to bottom, and the frame
rates must still be matched between the display and film camera.
When photographing a single computer monitor “insert style,” and where you
can shoot at nonstandard frame rates, a manual speed control and some way to
measure the computer monitor’s refresh rate are required. There are two well-
known film industry optical frequency meters that allow you to measure a
monitor’s exact frame rate and then set that rate into the speed control.
Computer monitors are generally noninterlaced, but this has little impact on
shooting them. Since some computer monitors can display very high refresh
rates, it is possible to photograph them at high speeds. For example, a computer
monitor with a 96 Hz refresh rate can be photographed at 48 frames a second.
The exposure time of 1⁄96 of a second matches the amount of time it takes the
monitor to display one complete image.

Flat-panel displays
With display technology constantly evolving, there is now and will continue to
be a large variety of new and constantly changing image display devices. Each
one poses unique and technically challenging problems for successful
photography.

LCD monitors and projectors

This is often referred to as the “easy one.” A majority of LCD computer
monitors and projectors can be photographed without regard to matching frame
rates. The light sources and image forming technology known as “active matrix”
creates a picture that is continuous and always on, as far as the film camera is
concerned. Laptop computers fall into this category as well. There are some low-
end LCD technologies, still in use today, known as “passive” or “dual scan.”
These are not part of the “active matrix” type and may photograph with some
breathing or flicker in the image. While viewing angles are getting very good in
high-end LCDs, you must be thoughtful of the viewing angles of any LCD
laptops or monitors you are shooting. Being only 10 or 15 degrees off the
monitor’s sweet spot can cause the image to wash-out, darken, or shift colors. It
is possible to over or undercrank to some degree on most LCD display
technologies. Unfortunately, the only way to find the limits are to run a battery
of tests on the exact model you are going to use.

Plasma displays
Often misunderstood, this display technology is a unique mix of both CRT and
LCD science. The images are created by ionizing a gas which strikes a phosphor.
The images are not always scanned like a traditional CRT display, but addressed
pixel by pixel or row by row without regard for the input signal’s refresh rate.
This can create very annoying and different-looking artifacts from those seen
when shooting standard monitors. Some manufacturers and other companies
have taken steps to modify plasma panels that allow them to be used in film
productions and photographed at 30, 25 and 24 frames per second. When
presented with the task of shooting plasma screens, try to include them in a test
day to work out syncing, exposure and color-temperature issues.
DLP DISPLAYS AND PROJECTORS
This fairly recent technology used in a wide variety of video and data
projectors employs Digital Micromirror Devices (DMDs) as the fundamental
image-creating component. Thousands of tiny mirrors acting as individual pixel
or light-switching devices are fabricated using familiar semiconductor
technology. DLP projectors are capable of extremely high lumen outputs and can
deal with very high-resolution video and computer signals. Again, as in plasma
displays, the way individual pixels are addressed and the rate at which they are
turned on and off does not always relate exactly to the input signal’s frame rate.
Often, video and computer inputs are formatted or scan-converted onto part or
all of the micro mirrors, depending on the input signal’s resolution. When these
displays are photographed, various artifacts such as image flicker and density
breathing can occur. It is usually best to match frame rates between the DLP
projector’s input signal and your desired film camera speed. It is strongly
recommended to also shoot your own tests when dealing with new or different
projectors.
VIDEO WALLS AND LED DISPLAYS
Traditional video walls are based on either CRT monitors or CRT/LCD
projection engines. These monitors or “projection cubes” are stacked into the
desired size and shape and fed from a controller or processor that splits up the
input signals across the individual monitors. When faced with a video wall, find
out the underlying display technology and use the guidelines discussed earlier
for them. Recently introduced as a large venue display technology is the LED
video screen/wall. High brightness light-emitting diodes are used to create
individual pixels. These displays are made to be viewed at long distances and are
bright enough to be used outdoors in full sunlight. LED displays are now being
used in sports arenas, at rock concerts, and at other special event venues, and can
pose very unique problems to filming. With several manufacturers in the
marketplace all designing their own control electronics, special research and film
tests will be required to determine if they can be used practically.
COLOR TEMPERATURE
Once the frame rate and syncing issues have been worked out, the final
important aspect to be dealt with is color temperature.
Regardless of the display technology you are photographing, most CRT, LCD,
plasma and DLP devices are intrinsically daylight or near-daylight in color
temperature. Most consumer televisions will be at or near 6000-8000°Kelvin.
Broadcast and industrial video monitors should be close to 6500°K. Computer
CRT and LCD monitors vary greatly between 5000°K to 9000°K; some are even
as high as 12,000°K.
Since a majority of these devices will be photographed under tungsten
lighting, some method of color correction/compensation will be required for
proper grayscale reproduction. If an uncorrected display is photographed under
tungsten lighting, the image will take on a very strong blue tone. You can use
standard color temperature meters to determine the display’s normal color
temperature by measuring a known white area. This measurement can be used as
a starting point to help in adjusting the display’s internal color balance controls.
A majority of computer monitors and projectors are now equipped with menu
functions and presets to change the color temperature of the image. However,
these internal controls will not always allow the display to reach 3200°K. A
possible alternate solution is to gel the monitor or filter the projector, but these
methods are not always practical.
CONCLUSION
A majority of productions will hire a specialist to be responsible for playback
and/or projection. They will usually precorrect the playback material or display
device to correct for tungsten photography. The playback specialist will also
assist you in setting exposure and work with the 1st AC concerning film camera
sync equipment setup and operation.
There is a large amount of misinformation circulating in the industry, and it is
very difficult to keep up on all the display technologies as they evolve. Often,
manufacturers will update or introduce new products several times a year, and
what worked for you six months ago may not work the same way now. It cannot
be emphasized enough to test any new or different display device when
considering its use in your production.

Editor’s note: For photography requiring synchronous sound recording that

includes a TV screen, video monitor or certain computer displays, 24-frame
playback is necessary. Refer to the American Cinematographer Video Manual
for further information.
Digital Postproduction for Feature Films

by Glenn Kennel and Sarah Priestnall

D igital technology is used throughout the filmmaking process, from pre-

visualization through origination, dailies, editing, conforming, color
grading, to the generation of film, digital cinema and home video masters for
distribution. The finishing processes of conforming, color grading and
generating the various distribution masters are often grouped under the term
“Digital Intermediate”, which is illustrated in Figure 1.
In postproduction, the Digital Intermediate process offers expanded creative
freedom and faster turnaround. Digital conforming allows the movie to be
quickly assembled for market previews, and quickly recut to improve the
audience response. Digital color grading is much more sophisticated than the
traditional color timing tools of the film laboratory, offering localized control of
color, contrast and detail through multiple windows and layers that effectively
allow the cinematographer to “dodge and burn” the pictures. The color grading
tools that have been available for finishing TV programs and commercials for
many years are now available for finishing feature films.
Figure 1. Digital Intermediate Process.

It is important to note here that digital technology is not a panacea and is not a
substitute for good lighting and skilled cinematography. Although substantial
creative control is provided by the selective and localized tools in today’s color
correctors, you have to start with a sharp and well-exposed image or the final
results will be compromised.
Digital Intermediate also supports better picture quality. Digitally graded
pictures can be more precisely tuned and more consistent than traditional film
prints. Blowups from Super-35 to 2.39 anamorphic format, or from Super-16 to
1.85 format, are much cleaner and sharper than optical blowups. And,
increasingly, multiple printing negatives are being created so that every print can
be a first generation “show” print, eliminating the degradation of the traditional
IP/IN analog duplication process.
In addition to making the film printing negative for traditional cinema
distribution, the Digital Intermediate process produces a digital cinema
distribution master, and the various home video masters. This consolidates the
creatively supervised color correction steps, saving time and money. Digital
Intermediate also enables the use of lower cost 3-perf 35mm and Super-16 film
formats, as well as the mixing and matching various film and digital origination
formats. All of which can represent substantial production cost savings over
traditional 35mm film.
BRIEF DIGITAL HISTORY
Digital technology has changed the way that feature films are made, replacing
traditional processes with new ones that offer expanded creative freedom, faster
results, and lower costs. Hollywood has been slower to adopt digital imaging
technology than most other imaging industries. One of the key hurdles has been
the overwhelming size of a digital movie—a movie scanned, stored and
processed in 2K resolution is around 2 TB in its finished form, and could easily
be 50 TB or more before it is edited. And these numbers are four times larger if
you are working in 4K.
Digital technology began to make inroads into the moviemaking process about
20 years ago. In the mid-1980s, Avid introduced the Media Composer, a
nonlinear editing system that revolutionized the way movies were edited. Avid
wasn’t the first to offer a nonlinear editing system, but was the first to make it
simple to use and relatively inexpensive. In a few short years, the industry
converted from cutting and splicing film on a Moviola to nonlinear editing on
computer-based systems.
Following the pioneering work at ILM, Kodak introduced the Cineon Digital
Film System in the early 1990s to provide an efficient means of converting film
to digital and back to film, with the intention of offering a computer-based
environment for the postproduction of visual effects and for digital restoration.
Kodak established Cinesite, a service bureau that offered film scanning and film
recording services to enable the industry. Within a few short years, visual effects
converted entirely from traditional optical printers and manual rotoscoping
processes to digital compositing, 3-D animation and paint tools.
Kodak’s original goal for Cineon was a complete “electronic intermediate
system” for digitally assembling movies. In the early 1990s, it was not cost
effective to digitize and assemble whole movies this way, but in choosing
computer-based platforms over purpose-built (traditional television)
architectures, these costs came down steadily, driven by the much bigger
investments that other industries were making in computing, networking and
storage technologies.
By the end of the 1990s, Kodak had discontinued the Cineon product line, but
Apple, Arri, Autodesk, Filmlight, Imagica, Quantel, Thomson and other
companies were offering products that provided the necessary tools for the
digital postproduction of movies. Kodak chose to focus its energies on the
demonstration and promotion of a new process dubbed “Digital Intermediate”
that offered to revolutionize the traditional lab process of answer printing and
release printing. The digital intermediate process provided digital conforming
and color grading tools that opened up new creative opportunities, while
improving the quality of the release prints. In 2000 Cinesite pioneered the digital
intermediate process on the Coen Brothers’ O Brother, Where Art Thou utilizing
the Thomson Spirit Datacine and a Pandora color corrector, working in a digital,
tapeless workflow at 2K resolution.
Since that early start, the supporting technology has evolved substantially with
software-based color correctors offered from Autodesk, Filmlight, daVinci and
others, and faster film scanners and recorders available. Within five years, the
industry had embraced the digital intermediate process, with a majority of major
Hollywood films, and many independent films, now finished digitally.
DIGITAL DAILIES
With the move to offline editing in the 1990s, and the increasing scrutiny of
the production process by studio executives, video dailies were widely
embraced. However, while the low-resolution, compressed video formats may
have been good enough for editorial or continuity checking, they were not
sufficient for judging focus, exposure and the subtleties of lighting. For this
reason, most cinematographers demanded traditional film dailies although this
was sometimes overruled for cost savings.
Now that HD infrastructure is widely available in postproduction, and the
costs of the transfer, playback and projection displays have come down to
reasonable levels, HD dailies are commonly used for the critical dailies review
by the cinematographer and the director. Certainly, 1080/24p HDTV transfers
with a Spirit Datacine represent a huge step up in resolution, making it possible
to judge focus and detail in dailies.
However, high quality dailies require more than just HD resolution.
Compression technology is generally used to reduce the cost of transport and
playback. It is critical that the encoding bit rate be high enough to eliminate
compression artifacts, so that the quality of the images can be judged. For
1080/24p this means a bit rate of at least 35 Mbps for MPEG2 or H.264 encoded
content, and while this bit rate is supported by most servers, and HD media like
Blu-ray disks, it is not artifact free.
High quality dailies also require a color-calibrated telecine transfer. Many
facilities offer best-light or timed video transfers with the colorist making the
picture look good on a traditional CRT monitor. While this produces good
pictures for editorial or executive use, it does not produce a picture that looks
like the final film product, and can create false impressions. Furthermore, this
method provides no feedback on exposure level. A better approach that is now
being embraced by some facilities is an extended range, best-light scan that
protects the full range of the original negative, while displaying the picture
through a look-up-table (LUT) that emulates print film. The picture can be
“printed” up or down by applying offsets calibrated to match traditional printer
lights. This provides the exposure feedback that a cinematographer needs, along
with the capability of “printing” the picture up or down in the dailies playback to
explore the range of the negative. Editorial and executive copies are created with
the LUT burned in so that the pictures that they see include the print film
characteristic.
For dailies review, it is important that a color-calibrated digital projector be
used in a dark theatre or location trailer. Small HD monitors or consumer flat-
panel displays are not acceptable for accurate color reproduction or visualization
of the scale of the movie. Recently, several 1080p projectors have been
introduced for the home theatre market that offer good contrast and stable
calibration at a reasonable (under $10,000) price point. However, calibration and
stability is critically important, so it is best to rent these from a facility that can
provide experienced technicians for installation and calibration.
Communicating the creative intent is another challenge. Previsualization or
“look management” products are available from Gamma and Density, Iridas,
Filmlight and others that allow the cinematographer to capture a digital still and
apply color correction on a laptop computer. Alternatively, some
cinematographers use Adobe Photoshop. These systems can create a DPX or
JPEG file to be sent to the dailies colorist as a proxy for guiding the color
correction, along with notes or verbal instructions. However, this method takes
an assistant to capture and catalog the digital pictures on the set, as well as time
for the cinematographer to grade the pictures, so these tools see limited use.
Furthermore, the pictures still require interpretation and visual matching.
Recently, the ASC Technology Committee has defined a format for
interchanging simple color metadata, via a Color Decision List (CDL). Many of
the color corrector manufacturers have implemented the ASC CDL, providing a
means of translating the CDL into their internal color correction parameters.
Facilities such as Laser Pacific (aIM Dailies), Technicolor (Digital Printer
Lights) and E-Film (Colorstream) are early adopters of the ASC CDL into their
internal workflows.
The ASC CDL information can be inserted into the Avid Log Exchange
(ALE) files that are generated in telecine or video dailies, so that it can be
carried through the editorial process and into the conformed DI. Here, the color
correction decisions made on-set or in dailies can be used as the starting point
for the final DI grading. This has been implemented in a few facilities for their
internal workflows, but effective execution requires careful and continuous
calibration of all telecines, scanners and reference displays.
DATA DAILIES
With modern scanners offering high speed scanning capabilities, and with the
cost of storage coming down, it is now possible to forego traditional telecines
and videotape workflows and scan dailies footage directly to data. This approach
has been pioneered by E-Film in their CinemaScan process. Dailies are scanned
to the SAN as 2K DPX files, where they are graded, synched and logged with
software tools. The scanned files are archived to LTO4 tape and stored in a
massive tape library, where the select shots can be pulled based on the editor’s
EDL, and conformed for the DI finishing step later.
SCANNING
Once the film has been edited and is “locked”, the editor provides an Edit
Decision List (EDL) to the scanning facility. There is no need to cut the
negative. The EDL is translated to negative pull lists with keycode numbers
marking the in and out points for scanning. The scanners provide automated
scanning based on frame counts or keycodes, so it is actually easier to work with
uncut camera or lab rolls, rather than compiling the select shots on a prespliced
roll. And the negative is cleaner without this extra handling step.
Several manufacturers provide digital film scanners that are used for digital
intermediate work. The Thomson Spirit Datacine, and its successor the Spirit4K
scanner which provides real-time 2K scans, is widely used. The ARRIscan and
Filmlight Northlight pin-registered scanners are also popular, but run at a
somewhat slower rate. Since the Spirit4K is edge-guided, picture stability
depends on clean film edges and tight transport velocity control. Steadiness is
seldom a problem, but some people prefer pin-registration, which has always
been used for visual effects shots. All of these scanners are calibrated to output
logarithmic printing density in 10-bit DPX files.
Framing is a critical issue since camera apertures and ground glasses vary. It is
extremely important to shoot a framing chart with each production camera and to
provide that chart to the scanning facility for set up and framing of the scanner.
In addition to defining the scan width, it is important to define the target aspect
ratio. With the increasing use of Super-35 (full aperture) cameras, the target
aspect ratio of 1.85 or 2.39 must be specified, as well as whether it is desired to
scan the full height to use for the 1.33 home video version. Table A summarizes
the typical camera aperture dimensions and scan resolutions for popular motion
picture production formats including Academy, Cinemascope, Super-35 and
Super-1.85, 3-perf 35mm and Super-16. All of these are transferred to 35mm
inter-negatives for release printing.
2K OR 4K
One of the biggest debates within the technical community has been the
question of what resolution to use for digital cinema mastering and distribution,
which in itself is a continuation of a longstanding debate about the resolution of
a frame of motion picture negative film. The studios are evenly divided between
two opinions—2K (2048 pixels wide) is good enough and more cost effective, or
4K (4096 pixels wide) is better and will raise the bar. This debate raged for
nearly a year, before DCI arrived at the grand compromise of supporting both 2K
and 4K digital cinema distribution masters, using the hierarchical structure of
JPEG2000 compression to provide a compatible delivery vehicle.
Today, most Digital Intermediate masters are produced at 2K resolution
although more and more are being produced at 4K as costs come down. Working
in 4K requires four times the storage and four times the rendering time as 2K.
The creative color grading process for 4K can be done in essentially the same
time as 2K, because proxies are used to support interactive adjustment and
display. The color correction can be rendered to the 4K images once the reel has
been approved. Several of the software-based color correctors support this
architecture, including products from Autodesk, Filmlight, Digital Vision, and
DaVinci.
So what do you get for working in 4K? Does it produce pictures that are twice
as good? If the original film format is 35mm and the release format is 35mm (the
only viable film distribution format except for 70mm IMAX), then the answer is
no. The difference between 2K and 4K is much more subtle, and very dependent
on the quality of the camera lenses. A seminal paper by Brad Hunt of Kodak in
the March 1991 SMPTE Journal describes the basis for Kodak’s development of
a 4K High Resolution Electronic Intermediate System in 1992 (which became
Cineon), using a system MTF analysis to illustrate the effect of sampling
resolution on the resulting images.1 This is reproduced in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) as a function of
sampling structure for Cineon digital file system.

Kodak modeled the system modulation transfer function (MTF) as a function

of sampling resolution in order to define the resolution requirements for its film
scanners and recorders. Figure 2 shows the system MTF responses for a
sampling series of 1000 to 5000 samples per picture width on a 35mm Academy
aperture. For reference, the MTF of a camera negative, which includes the
negative film and camera lens, is also shown. MTF curves representing an
analog photochemical system do not give you a single number to judge the
resolution of film. If one takes a middle frequency of 25 cycles per mm as a
basis, you can see that the system MTF response increases from about 15% at
1K to 40% at 2K and about 50% at 3K and 53% at 4K. So the system MTF
improves significantly as the sampling resolution is increased from 1K to 2K,
with diminishing returns beyond that. Kodak decided to design its Cineon
system with a base resolution of 4K samples per picture width. With a nod
towards practical and cost-effective postproduction work, however, Kodak also
provided a direct 2K mode. Even today, more than fifteen years later, nearly all
visual effects are done at 2K resolution.
Kodak’s analysis included the input camera negative film and the output
internegative element. It modeled the aperture response of the CCD film scanner
and the Gaussian spot of the laser film recorder. It did not include the print film
or the film projector, both of which further reduce the system MTF. Original
negative films have improved substantially in the last fifteen years, now
exhibiting higher speed and lower grain. However, the MTF has not improved
much, and typical camera lenses are the same, and today’s CCD film scanners
and laser film recorders have similar MTF characteristics as the original Cineon
conversion devices.
Even with an optically band-limited system like a camera negative (filtered by
the camera lens and the MTF response of the film), it is still desirable to
oversample the picture to avoid aliasing. In fact, scanning at 4K, then filtering
and downsampling the image to 2K, produces sharper pictures with less aliasing
than a direct 2K scanning process. So, even if the final digital master is produced
at 2K resolution, there are good reasons to scan it at 4K and “down-rez” it for
2K manipulation.
Some studios are willing to pay a little extra for a 4K digital intermediate to
deliver 4K digital cinema packages to those screens that are equipped with 4K
digital cinema projectors. Although the initial installations of 5,000 digital
cinema screens were all 2K systems, Sony introduced their 4K SXRD projectors
in 2006, and Texas Instruments announced their support for 4K in 2009. There
may also be some value in archiving a 4K digital master to protect for future
release options.
DATA MANAGEMENT
With most digital intermediate processes, the scanned data is centrally stored
in a Storage Area Network (SAN), where it can be accessed by various
workstations performing dirt fix, conforming and color correction operations.
Because of the bandwidth requirements of interactive adjustments and real-time
playback, hardware accelerators and high performance disk systems and output
cards are incorporated in many workstations.
In addition to the scanned shots, DPX files from VFX vendors are also loaded
to the networked storage. OpenEXR is gaining support as an interchange file
format for visual effects, particularly computer generated images (CGI). These
files need to be converted into 10-bit printing density for subsequent conforming
with the live action film scans.
DIRT FIX
All film images contain some dust or handling marks that have to be cleaned
up. This process is called dirt fixing or “dustbusting.” Basically, the process is to
examine each frame for white marks caused by dirt, cinch marks or scratches
and to remove these artifacts with a combination of automated and manual tools.
Common tools include MTI’s DRS and PF Clean by The Pixel Farm. The
amount of dirt fixing varies with film format and handling. Typically, 16mm film
requires more work than 35mm due to the higher magnification. Lab dirt and
scratches are twice as big with 16mm format. Some scanners are now equipped
with an infrared sensor that can detect dirt and either remove the dirt or provide
a defect matte for later removal by software. Kodak licenses a technology called
Digital ICE for this purpose, and it is now available on ARRI and Northlight
scanners.
CONFORMING
The next step is to conform or assemble the shots to the EDL, and render the
optical transitions (fades, dissolves etc.) to match the offline edit. As necessary,
the data editor also generates subtitles and inserts visual effects shots, main titles
and end credits.
COLOR GRADING
The color of the assembled shots is graded in a mastering suite equipped with
a calibrated digital projector. DLP Cinema™ projectors from Barco, Christie or
NEC are widely used as the reference display for mastering. Most facilities use a
3-D color display LUT to emulate a film print, implemented either in the color
corrector or an external LUT box. This LUT is tuned for the characteristics of
the specific print stock and lab that will be used for release printing.
Color grading is more than just adjusting or correcting the color from scene to
scene to provide consistency and continuity. It also helps to impart the emotional
context of the story, and complements the lighting and exposure used by the
cinematographer to capture the scene. Color correctors provide a range of
controls, generally grouped into primaries, secondaries and windows. The
primary color correction controls adjust parameters that were originally
implemented inside the telecine—these control the gain (white), gamma
(midscale) and lift (black) in each of the red, green and blue records. The
secondary controls mix the color primaries to create color difference signals that
allow individual hues to be selected and rotated.
Although the first color correctors were analog processors, digital technology
was incorporated in the 1980s, allowing much more control and flexibility with
higher quality. One of the digitally enabled features was the introduction of user
defined windows that allowed the colorist to draw mattes that applied selective
color correction to the windowed region of the frame. These mattes can be
tracked and animated as the subject or camera moves. Soft-edged mattes make
the edges invisible. This powerful capability allows the cinematographer to
digitally “dodge and burn” shots, brightening or darkening areas of the frame to
enhance the original photography. In certain circumstances these tools can be
used to save time in production, reducing the need for relighting or waiting for
just the right natural light.
Color grading does have its limits, however. You can’t enhance detail that
wasn’t captured on the original negative, so lighting and exposure are still
critical. And creating mattes to selectively grade regions of the picture takes time
and money. Extreme adjustments of color or contrast will amplify grain, so these
color changes don’t come free. It is always best to capture a sharp, well-lit image
on the set, because you can always darken or defocus portions of the frame in
post. It’s much harder to go the other way. The larger the negative area, the finer
the grain structure and the further you can push the color without artifacts. This
means that Super-35 and Cinemascope negatives provide more creative
flexibility over standard 35mm Academy or Super-16 formats.
COLOR GAMUT
DLP Cinema™ projectors were designed by Texas Instruments to support a
wider color gamut than standard video (ITU Rec. 709). This wider gamut is
commonly called P3, and was supported by DCI and SMPTE DC28 as the
minimum color gamut for digital cinema. This extended gamut is based on
practical mastering tests in which digital images were graded to match a film
answer print, and has served the industry for several years. Figure 3 shows the
color gamut of a SMPTE Reference Projector, compared to HDTV (ITU Rec.
709) and samples from Kodak Vision™ color print film. There are some film
colors that fall outside of the gamut of the digital projector, particularly dark
cyans, but most of the film gamut is enclosed. It is useful to note that the digital
projectors are also capable of reproducing brighter primary colors (red, green
and blue) since print film is a secondary color system with the image composed
of cyan, magenta and yellow dyes.
Figure 3. Color gamut of film compared to that of the digital cinema
reference projector and ITU Rec. 709. A series of measured film
samples are shown in green, with the reference projector gamut
shown by the dashed redline and the ITU Rec. 709 gamut shown by
the dashed blue line.
FILM OUTPUT
The finished digital master, called the Digital Source Master (DSM) in the
DCI specification and some SMPTE digital cinema documents, is sent to a bank
of film recorders for output to one or more inter-negatives for release printing.
The widely used ArriLaser™ film recorder runs at about 2 seconds per frame, so
a typical 20-minute reel requires 16 hours of continuous recording.
Color calibration is critical, and the 3-D color display LUTs that are used for
the grading process must be built for the specific film stock and processing
laboratory, because the variations between film stocks and labs are significant.
Film processing is a chemical process that varies somewhat from day to day, and
is a moving target that cannot be precisely matched. It is important to also
recognize that the precision of digital color correction is much tighter than the
process control and simple printer light adjustments of the film lab.
Each internegative can produce from 1,000 to 2,000 release prints on a high
speed release printer before accumulating dirt or scratches that make it
unsuitable for further printing. Therefore, a wide release (3000–5,000 prints or
more) will require multiple internegatives. This can be accommodated by using
the conventional IP/IN photochemical duplicating process, but this introduces
another two generations of losses, which reduce the sharpness and steadiness of
the image. The preferred approach is to generate multiple internegatives so that
each release print is made directly from the digitally recorded internegative, so
that each print is essentially a “digital show print”.
DIGITAL CINEMA
Since the movie was graded on a projector that is calibrated to the
DCI/SMPTE Reference Projector specifications, the creative work on the Digital
Cinema Distribution Master (DCDM) is done. All that remains is to render the 3-
D color LUT that was used in the preview process into the digital master, along
with a simple color conversion to X’Y’Z’. This can be implemented as a
software batch process, or if working in 2K, it can be a real-time output through
an external 3-D LUT box.
The traditional practice in film scanning and recording is to scan and
reproduce the full camera aperture, so that the image remains the same size on
the internegative as the original negative without resampling, and the resulting
print can be projected with a standard projection aperture. The standard film
projection aperture is 5% smaller than the camera aperture, providing some
margin for hiding the frame lines, covering any dirt caught in the camera
aperture and also providing some “wiggle room” for picture weave
(unsteadiness) introduced due to mechanical tolerances in printing and
projection. The traditional practice works fine for film output. However, the
Digital Cinema Distribution Master does not distinguish between the image
structure of the master and the display. In fact, the DCI specification explicitly
states that the projector must be capable of displaying the full DCDM, pixel for
pixel, without any cropping.
If the same master is converted to a DCDM without resizing, the resulting
digitally projected image will be 5% smaller than the film print shown on a
projector with a standard aperture plate. While this may not be a big issue
aesthetically, it does become a problem if the camera aperture is uneven or dirty,
because now this distracting impairment may be visible on the digital projector,
depending on the adjustment of the masking. With most theatres equipped with
variable masking, it is standard practice to bring the masking into the picture
area a little to provide a good clean black boundary to the picture. But this may
not be enough.
Another option is to resize the picture for the DCDM, pushing in so that 95%
of the original scan (1946 W) is resized to 2048 W, insuring that the digital
picture is projected at the same size as the film print. However, this means that
all DCDMs will suffer a small sharpness loss due to the 5% enlargement.
Although this is probably acceptable operationally, it is inconsistent with the
objective of optimizing the quality of the digital cinema presentation.
At the time of this writing, a proposal has been made to SMPTE to define a
Safe Image Area for digital projection, similar in concept to the film projection
aperture.
HOME VIDEO MASTERS
The next step is to generate the video masters for DVD and television
distribution. Traditionally, home video masters were generated by transferring a
color-timed IP on a telecine, with a colorist grading each scene on a calibrated
video reference monitor, under the supervision of the cinematographer or
director if they were available. This process often took an additional two to four
weeks. With digital intermediate, much of the work of creating the various video
masters can be automated, and that which requires supervision and approval can
be accomplished quickly in a couple of days while the files are still on line and
the cinematographer is still available.
Conversion to video for output requires two important processes. The first is
framing and composition for the narrower video screen, which involves a
panning operation to extract the appropriate part of the widescreen frame for the
full-frame 4:3 standard definition video outputs. This process is called
“pan/scan”. With digital intermediate, this means overlaying a 4:3 framing
rectangle and moving it as necessary to capture the most important part of the
action.
The second process is to correct the color and tone scale of the picture for the
very different characteristics and viewing conditions of a home video display.
Remember that the movie was color graded on a digital cinema projector in a
dark theatre. The home viewing environment typically includes some room light
which fills in the shadows and increases the perceived contrast of the image.
SMPTE RP166 defines a Recommended Practice for Critical Viewing
Conditions for the Evaluation of Color Television Pictures that prescribes a dim
surround that is 10% of the peak luminance of the monitor and matches the D65
color temperature of the monitor.
But grading for video is more than just a contrast correction for surround
illumination that could be implemented with a simple color transform. The
gamut of the HD video display (ITU-R Recommendation 709) is much smaller
than that of print film or the Reference Display for digital cinema. So, it is
necessary to map some colors that fall within the displayed color gamut of
reference projector, but are outside of the color gamut of the video monitor.
Although this could be implemented in a global 3-D LUT that compressed out of
gamut colors, this compression must be implemented as a soft-clip or gradual
ramp that also affects some of the in-gamut colors. So, it is always best to look at
each scene and selectively apply the gamut mapping only when required. For
these reasons, a color trim pass is often used to generate the video masters.
However, this trim pass can typically be performed in a day or two, rather than
the 2 to 4 weeks of the traditional mastering process.
ARCHIVAL ELEMENTS
As we move from a film to a digital world, the question of what materials to
archive is stirring heated debates. The biggest problem is that there is no
accepted archival digital medium today, due to both media deterioration and
software and hardware obsolescence. Magnetic tape formats are not expected to
last for more than ten years or so, requiring an expensive migration strategy to
protect the data. The lowest risk approach today to archive the finished digital
master is to make black and white film separations that have a proven shelf life
of over 100 years (if stored properly) and can either be reconstructed photo-
chemically or redigitized.
Which elements should be saved for the future? With traditional film
production, it is common practice to store the original camera negative, a timed
IP, and an answer print in addition to the black and white separations. A HD
1080/24p master tape is also stored as the home video master. A similar
approach should be taken in the digital world. A comparison of archival
elements for film and digital postproduction is shown in Table B.

The original negative or original digital tapes should be stored. The

conformed and graded Digital Source Master (DSM) is the equivalent to the
timed IP. Although the color grading has been applied, it preserves much of the
range of the original photography if the movie needs to be remastered in the
future for a high dynamic range display. The most common file format is DPX,
with the data stored as 10-bit printing density. In the future, the Open EXR file
format may also be used, storing linear RGB data in floating point form. It is
important to tag the data with the color characteristics of the Reference Projector
used in mastering, and the 3-D color LUT used to emulate print film.
Although the various distribution formats can easily be regenerated from the
DSM, it is also worth saving the output Digital Cinema Distribution Master
(DCDM) in TIFF-16 file format, storing 12-bit X’Y’Z’ color data, as well as the
HD 1080/24p home video master. The DCDM serves as the answer print for
color reference in future releases or restorations as well as the master from
which additional copies can be made. The HD 1080/24p format is the master
from which all other home video formats can be made.
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DIGITAL CAMERAS
Digital cameras are increasingly being embraced for motion picture
origination. Just as with film, it is important to run preproduction camera tests to
explore the range of the camera and to optimize the setup. Calibration is
important with both the camera setup and the post facility that is generating the
dailies or Digital Intermediate. Pioneered by the Panavision Genesis, Thomson
Viper and ARRI D-21 cameras, many cameras now offer a film-style logarithmic
storage mode, that captures an extended dynamic range that provides grading
flexibility in postproduction, much like negative film.
Data storage decisions affect production and postproduction. It is critical that
you consult the postproduction facility that will be supporting your dailies and
finishing work. Many digital cameras store the pictures on HDCAM-SR tape
which is efficient to unload and reload on the set, as well as quick to load into
postproduction. However, this does require the rental of relatively expensive
HDCAM-SR recorders.
Another option is to temporarily store the pictures as data files on portable
flash cards, flash magazines or disk packs. Both compressed and uncompressed
storage solutions are available, but it is important to understand the tradeoffs.
Later, these digital files may be transferred to tape, or transferred directly to
working storage in the postproduction facility.
S.two and Codex offer uncompressed HD data storage on their disk-based
field recorders, which can be tethered to the camera via dual HD-SDI cables. In
2009, S.two introduced the OB-1, providing dockable onboard storage of
uncompressed HD data via flash magazines. Also in 2009, Panavision
introduced their dockable Solid State Recorder SSR-1 for the Genesis camera.
The S.two and Codex field recorders also support the ARRI D-21’s
ARRIRAW format, which stores the full 12-bit signal range and full 1.33 frame
area in a packed data format that can be transmitted across dual HD-SDI cables,
a proprietary mode that ARRI calls T-LINK. This means that the ARRI D-21
camera can support traditional anamorphic lenses for widescreen photography
without compromising vertical resolution. ARRI supplies a free software utility,
the ARRIRAW Converter (ARC), which allows the ARRIRAW files to be
converted to full frame 1.33 DPX files in postproduction.
Several cameras also support compressed data storage with onboard flash
cards or disk drives, including the RED One (r3d), Panasonic 3700 (P2), and
Sony EX-3 (XD-CAM) cameras. The RED camera uses a proprietary wavelet
compression codec, which produces reasonable results at a compression ratio of
about 10:1. RED also provides software utilities for high quality rendering to
DPX files for finishing. The P2 and XD-CAM formats use much higher
compression ratios, and while the resulting artifacts are not a problem for
editorial, they are not the best solution for finishing.
With any of these data formats, the production company must consider the
need to backup or archive the production footage to tape for storage. The most
widely used approach is LTO3 or LTO4 tape. For uncompressed data, this tape
backup takes about 3:1 run time and can be performed on location or back at the
post house that is providing dailies support.
1. B. Hunt, et al., “High Resolution Electronic Intermediate System for Motion
Picture Film”, SMPTE Journal, 100:156, March 1991.
ASC Color Decision List

by David Reisner and Joshua Pines ASC Associate Members

I n most modern workflows, images—whether originated on film or with

digital cameras—spend most of their time and are processed in digital form.
Often, multiple facilities, with different color correction systems, are involved in
creating and processing elements for a show.
The American Society of Cinematographers Technology Committee, DI
subcommittee—with participants from the ASC, color correction system
vendors, postproduction facilities, and color scientists—created the ASC Color
Decision List (ASC CDL) to allow basic primary color correction data to be
interchanged between color correction systems made by different manufacturers.
This standardized interchange, when accompanied by good communication and
consistent viewing conditions, can create the same results on multiple systems,
substantially improving the consistency and quality of the resulting images while
also increasing efficiency and reducing cost. The ASC CDL is widely used in
motion picture production, television production and visual-effects. The ASC
CDL is the primary Look Management Transform used to express artistic intent
in the wide gamut, high dynamic range Academy Color Encoding System
(ACES).
The ASC CDL defines a small set of operations—transfer functions—that
provide the most basic set of color correction operations—operations that can be
implemented in all color correction vendors’ systems. They are Slope, Offset,
and Power which are applied to each of the R, G, and B signals independently,
and Saturation which operates on R, G, and B in combination. Thus, ten
parameters describe any ASC CDL color correction.
Most color correction systems natively provide vendor-specific Lift, Gain, and
Gamma functions. Slope, Offset, and Power are similar but mathematically purer
functions. In most cases, vendor-specific Lift, Gain, and Gamma can be easily
translated into some combination of Slope, Offset, and Power for interchange
between systems.
The ASC CDL defines mathematical operations that are applied to all image
data, regardless of the format/encoding of that data. The ASC CDL defines the
math, not the encoding-specific interpretation of that math. Each of the
operations will have quite different results on log data than on “linear” data. For
example, a Slope of 2.0 multiplies the image code values by 2.0. If the image
data is linear, that will brighten the image by one stop. If the image data is log, a
Slope of 2.0 will double the contrast of the image.
Figure 1. ASC CDL production workflow chart

The application of the ASC CDL provides no “interpretation” of the

underlying metric of the image code values. A given correction applied on two
systems that are assuming data in different formats, and therefore apply different
input or viewing transforms, will almost certainly produce inconsistent results.
But awareness of the data metric and encoding-customized operation is outside
the scope addressed by the ASC CDL.
And a correction applied to the right data in the right way on two systems
must still be viewed on calibrated displays with the same characteristics and in
very similar viewing conditions to communicate the intended look. Coordination
of data metrics and viewing conditions is also outside the scope of the ASC CDL
and must be handled elsewhere in a project’s workflow.
Although the ASC CDL functions are intended for purposes of interchange—
to communicate basic color correction operations from set to facility and
between systems from different vendors—many vendors also provide user level
controls that operate on ASC CDL functions directly.
In a workflow, the set of ten ASC CDL parameters for a correction is
interchanged via ASC CDL-defined XML files, by new fields in ALE and FLEx
files, or special comments in CMX EDL files. Most often the formats shown in
Fig. 1 will be used, but the exact methods used will be facility- and workflow-
dependent.
ASC CDL corrections are metadata that are associated with shots. Unlike LUT
corrections, the ASC CDL corrections are not baked-in to the image. Because of
this approach, corrections later in the workflow can be based on earlier ASC
CDL corrections without modifying the image data multiple times—yielding
highest possible image quality. And sharing an ASC CDL correction gives
information about how the earlier corrector was thinking about the look.
Corrections implemented with LUTs are fixed—they can be viewed, or
additional corrections can be layered on, but they cannot practically be adjusted
or tuned.
The ASC CDL supports only the most basic color correction operations. Not
all operations of interest (e.g., log/linear conversions, 3D LUTs, windowing,
tracking) can be expressed with these operations. It is possible that future
releases will support a somewhat expanded set of interchangeable operations.
The ASC CDL does not handle everything necessary to communicate a look.
A project must manage and communicate basic and critical information like
color space, data representation format, display device, and viewing
environment. To communicate a look between on-set and post or between post
facilities absolutely requires that information be shared and used intelligently.
ASC CDL TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
Although generally similar to the common Lift, Gain, and Gamma operations
(which, incidentally, vary in detail from system to system and manufacturer to
manufacturer), the ASC CDL defines a set of three transfer functions with
unique names and simple definitions.
The ASC CDL’s three basic transfer functions are Slope, Offset, and Power.
They are applied in that order—Slope, then Offset, then Power—and are
sometimes referred to collectively as SOP. The transfer functions are in RGB
color space and are applied independently to each color component. These three
transfer functions for the three color components (assuming the current
trichromatic systems) can collectively be described by nine parameters.

Figure 2. Slope
Figure 3. Offset

Figure 4. Power

The vendor-specific Lift, Gain, and Gamma operations found on most

systems, individually or in combination, can be translated into Slope, Offset, and
Power.
The Saturation function was added to the ASC CDL in release 1.2. Unlike the
Slope, Offset, and Power functions, Saturation operates on all three color
channels in combination. The ASC CDL uses a common industry definition for
Saturation (“Rec. 709” weightings). Saturation is applied after Slope, Offset, and
Power.
Vendors may still have their own proprietary saturation algorithms, but they
must support the ASC CDL Saturation algorithm when they are operating in
“ASC CDL mode”.

Slope
Slope (see Figure 2) changes the slope of the transfer function without shifting
the black level established by Offset (see next section). The input value, slope,
ranges from 0.0 (constant output at Offset) to less than infinity (although, in
practice, systems probably limit at a substantially lower value). The nominal
slope value is 1.0.

out = in * slope 0 ≤ slope < ∞

Offset
Offset (see Figure 3) raises or lowers overall value of a component. It shifts
the transfer function up or down while holding the slope constant. The input
value, offset, can in theory range from -∞ to +∞ although the range —1.0 to 1.0
will fit most traditional use. The nominal offset value is 0.0.

out = in + offset -∞ < offset < ∞

If the underlying data is log, then Offset is an interpretation of printer points—

the most common method of color correction in film lab work.

Power
Power (see Figure 4) is the only nonlinear function. It changes the overall
curve of the transfer function. The input value, power, ranges from greater than
0.0 to less than infinity. The nominal power value is 1.0.

out = in ^ power (where ^ is “raised to the power”) 0 < power < ∞

Saturation
Saturation provides a weighted average of the normal color (saturation 1.0)
and all gray (fully desaturated, saturation 0.0) images. The saturation operation
modifies all color components. Color components are weighted by the values
used in most Rec. 709 implementations of saturation. Saturation values > 1.0 are
supported. Values > 4 or so will probably only be used for special purposes.

Saturation is applied after the SOP (Slope, Offset, Power) operations.

sat is the user input saturation parameter. inR is the input red color component
value, G green, and B blue. outR is the output red color component value, G
green, and B blue. gray is the fully desaturated gray value, based on the color
compo nent weightings.

gray = 0.2126 * inR +

0.7152 * inG +
0.0722 * inB
outR = Clamp( gray + sat * (inR - gray) )
outG = Clamp( gray + sat * (inG - gray) )
outB = Clamp( gray + sat * (inB - gray) )
0 ≤ sat < ∞
BEHAVIOUR FOR DIFFERENT IMAGE ENCODINGS
The ASC CDL operations perform the same math regardless of the encoding
of the image data to which they are being applied. The resulting modifications to
the image will vary a great deal for different image data encodings. Management
of the image encoding and appropriate application of the ASC CDL operations is
the responsibility of the project/show and outside the scope of the ASC CDL.
VIDEO-GAMMA AND LINEAR (GAMMA 1.0)
ASC CDL operations will have similar effects on images in the common
encodings that are generally linear. Those encodings include linear light (photon
count or energy) often used in CGI; Academy ACES scene-referred linear which
will be showing up more often in both film and digitally originated material; and
video signals which are linear but always have a gamma (power function)
applied—nominally 2.2 but numbers vary in practice. Some custom “linear”
encodings may have special handling near toe (blacks/crush) or shoulder
(whites/rolloff). In those cases, the interaction of ASC CDL operations and the
non-linear regions will have to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
Figure 5a,b.
Slope
For linear encodings, Slope controls the brightness of the image while
maintaining contrast—like adjusting the f- or T-stop.

Offset
For linear encodings, Offset controls the overall “base fog” of the image. The
values of the entire image are moved up or down together, affecting both
brightness and contrast. This is not traditionally a common operation for linear
data.

Power
For linear encodings, Power controls the contrast of the image.

Saturation
For all encodings, including linear, Saturation controls the saturation—
intensity of the color of the image.

The old telecine Lift function—raising or lowering the darks while holding
the highlights constant—can be achieved via a combination of Offset and Slope.
Similarly, the telecine Gain function can also be achieved via a combination of
Offset and Slope.
Log
ASC CDL operations will have similar effects on images in the common
encodings that are generally log. Those encodings include printing density (e.g.
Cineon, DPX), commonly seen from film scanners and created or imitated by
other sources; and the various log modes output by various digital cameras to
present a more filmlike response with a wider dynamic range (at least until
cameras put out the high dynamic range Academy ACES “scene-referred linear”
floating point format). Some “log” encodings have special handling near the toe
(blacks/crush) or shoulder (whites/roll-off). In those cases, the interaction of
ASC CDL operations and the special regions will have to be evaluated on a case-
by-case basis.
Figure 5c,d.
In digital intermediate, log images will usually have a film print emulation
applied as an output display transform in order to see the color corrected images
as they will be theatrically projected. For this workflow, the ASC CDL is applied
before the film print emulation. (This procedure was applied to the example log
images shown here.)

Slope
For log encodings, Slope controls the contrast of the image.

Offset
For log encodings, Offset controls the brightness of the image while
maintaining contrast—like adjusting the f- or T-stops. This is essentially the
same as Printer Lights but with different values/units.

Power
For log encodings, Power controls the level of detail in shadows vs.
highlights. This is not traditionally a common operation for log data.

Saturation
For all encodings, including linear, Saturation controls the saturation—
intensity of the color of the image.
Figure 6a,b.
ASC CDL INTERCHANGE FORMATS
The ASC CDL allows basic color corrections to be communicated through the
stages of production and postproduction and to be interchanged between
equipment and software from different manufacturers at different facilities. The
underlying color correction algorithms are described above.
When ASC CDL color correction metadata is transferred from dailies to
editorial and from editorial to postproduction, provided that data representation,
color space, and viewing parameters are handled consistently, the initial “look”
set for dailies (perhaps from an on-set color correction) can be used as an
automatic starting point or first pass for the final color correction session. ASC
CDL metadata is transferred via extensions to existing, commonly used file
formats currently employed throughout the industry: ALE, FLEx, and CMX
EDL files. There are also two ASC CDL-specific XML file types that can be
used to contain and transfer individual color corrections or (usually project-
specific) libraries of color corrections.
ALE and FLEx files are used to transfer information available at the time of
dailies creation to the editorial database. New fields have been added to these
files to accommodate ASC CDL color correction metadata for each shot.
CMX EDL files are output from editorial and used primarily to “conform” the
individual shots into the final edit. As there is a convention to include shot
specific metadata as comment fields after the associated “event” in the EDL file,
it made sense to use this mechanism to attach ASC CDL parameters to each
“event”. There are two ways of specifying this in an EDL file—either “inline” or
“via XML reference.”
Figure 6c,d.
Many vendors are currently using XML to support their internal data
structures. The ASC CDL includes a hook so that CDL parameters can reside in
simple XML text files that can be referenced by the CMX EDL format or other
vendor-specific formats. The two types of XML files are:

1. Color Decision List (CDL): files that contain a set of color decisions (a color
correction with a reference to an image) and that may also include other
project metadata.
2. Color Correction Collection (CCC): files which solely contain one or more
color corrections.

Each and every color correction defined in these files has a unique Color
Correction id. Any specific color correction defined in these XML files can be
referenced by its unique ColorCorrection id.
FOR IMPLEMENTORS
The ASC CDL release documents are intended for implementers and vendors.
The release includes details on the interchange formats as well as example code
and test images. To get instructions on how to get the current release, send an e-
mail to [email protected].

The ASC CDL was created by the American Society of Cinematographers

Technology Committee, DI subcommittee. Participants included ASC members,
color correction system vendors, postproduction facilities, and color scientists.
Discussion and questions may be directed to: Lou Levinson, ASC Technology
Committee, DI sub committee chair: [email protected]; Joshua Pines, ASC
Technology Committee, DI subcommittee vice-chair: [email protected];
David Reisner, ASC Technology Committee and DI subcommittee secretary:
[email protected].
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
Academy Color Encoding System

by Curtis Clark, ASC and Andy Maltz, ASC Associate Member

OVERVIEW

T he Academy Color Encoding System (ACES) is an image and color

management architecture designed primarily for the production, mastering
and long-term archiving of motion pictures, although it is being successfully
used in television production as well. Developed by the Academy of Motion
Picture Arts and Sciences in collaboration with many motion-picture production
and color science experts, ACES provides a set of digital image encoding
specifications transforms and recommended practices that enable the creation
and processing of high fidelity images. It offers a larger dynamic range of scene
tones, a wider color gamut and greater mathematical precision than is possible
with 10-bit Cineon encoding or High Definition Television standards such as
ITU-R Rec. BT.709.
ACES also resolves ambiguities frequently linked to transforms between so-
called “log” and “linear” image encoding,1 as well as those associated with using
a variety of display devices during production, postproduction and mastering.
ACES supports flexible image pipeline development for many different
processes including film and digital acquisition, digital intermediate, visual
effects production, remastering and on-set color management. For
cinematographers, ACES provides the following benefits:

Eliminates uncertainty between on-set look management and downstream

color correction through standardized viewing transforms and equipment
calibration methods

Preserves the full range of highlights, shadows and colors captured on-set for
use throughout postproduction and mastering

Preserves the ability to use traditional photometric tools for exposure control
rather than having to compensate for custom or proprietary viewing
transforms in conjunction with a video monitor

Simplifies matching of images from different camera sources

Enables future expansion of the creative palette by removing the limitations of

legacy workflows
Key components and features of ACES include:
A standardized, fully-specified high high-precision, high dynamic range, wide
color gamut color encoding specification (SMPTE ST2065-1:2012 Academy
Color Encoding Specification) encompassing the full range of image color and
detail captured by current and future digital cameras

A standardized, fully-specified high precision and high dynamic range printing

density specification (SMPTE ST2065-3:2012 Academy Density Exchange
and the related SMPTE ST2065-2:2012 Academy Printing Density)
encompassing the full range of image color and detail captured by modern
motion picture film stocks

Standardized file formats for colorimetric and densitometric data based on the
popular OpenEXR and DPX data containers

A methodology for display device-independent mastering that produces higher

quality images than are possible with legacy workflows

Recommended best practices for interfacing digital motion picture camera

“raw” data and film scanner output data to ACES

Support for ASC CDL in on-set color management systems

The full benefits of ACES are achieved when cameras, color correctors, image
creation and processing tools, and display devices correctly implement the
ACES specifications and recommended practices.

ACES Technical Description

The standardized Academy Color Encoding Specification (which also is
referred to as “ACES”) is a core component of the ACES architecture. It defines
a high-precision wide color gamut digital image encoding appropriate for both
photographed and computer-generated images. From image capture to theatrical
presentation and/or other forms of display, ACES encodes the image data in a
manner that makes it available for downstream processing, which ultimately
allows more flexible and creative color grading. This is in contrast to legacy 10-
bit systems such as Cineon and ITU-R Rec. BT. 709, whose precision, color
gamut and dynamic range capabilities are below those of modern digital motion
picture cameras and film stocks.
ACES is capable of encoding all colors viewable by the human visual system
(see Figure 1). This greatly exceeds the range covered by HDTV and Digital
Cinema projectors.
ACES is derived from a hypothetical ideal recording device, designated as the
Reference Input Capture Device (RICD), against which actual recording devices’
behavior can be compared (see Figure 2). As conceived, the RICD can
distinguish and record all visible colors, as well as capture a luminance range
exceeding that of any current or anticipated physical camera. The RICD’s
purpose is to provide a documented, unambiguous, fixed relationship between
scene colors (also called “relative scene exposure values”) and encoded RGB
values. This fixed relationship is integral to a fully specified imaging
architecture, as it provides a reference point for bringing any form of image
source data into the system.

Figure 1. CIE 2-Degree Chromaticity Diagram with Gamuts

showing ACES primaries compared to other color encoding
specifications

Because ACES encodes scene colors, ACES values must be adjusted for the
target display environment and device characteristics to faithfully represent the
recorded images. These adjustments are performed by the Reference Rendering
Transform (RRT) and a display device-specific Output Device Transform (ODT)
that are, in practice, combined into a single transform. Figure 2 also shows the
combined RRT and ODT along with the SMPTE Digital Cinema Reference
projector, a common configuration for mastering theatrical motion pictures.

Figure 2. ACES Reference Signal Chain

When an actual camera records a physical scene, or a virtual camera (e.g., a

CGI rendering program) constructs a virtual scene, a camera-specific Input
Device Transform (IDT) converts the resulting image data into the ACES
relative exposure values as though the subject had been captured by the RICD
(see Figure 3).
As noted earlier, ACES images are not appropriate for final color evaluation
or direct viewing; like film negative or digital files containing scanned images
encoded as printing density they are only intermediate representations. ACES
images can be examined to identify image content, cropping region, sequencing,
the amount of shadow or highlight detail and other qualities. For final color
evaluation, the RRT must be used in conjunction with a specific display device’s
ODT to produce a “color correct” viewable image (see Figure 4).
Figure 3. Input Device Transforms (IDTs)
Figure 4. The Referencing Rendering Transform (RRT) and
Output Device Transforms (ODTs)

Figure 5 shows the full ACES block diagram.2

Using the full range of color corrector tool sets, Look Modification
Transforms (LMT - not shown for clarity) can be applied to camera and/or CGI
images in ACES to record basic color adjustments (using ASC CDL, for
example) or to achieve preferred creative looks during color grading. Examples
of preferred creative looks include bleach bypass and film stock-specific looks,
or any custom look that serves the visual storytelling.
Using ACES in practice, as with any production pipeline, requires advance
preparation and sufficient technical support to achieve satisfying results. Key
issues to consider when using ACES include:

If shooting with digital cameras, selection of appropriate IDTs to produce well-

formed ACES-encoded images

If shooting film, proper calibration of film scanners to produce well-formed

ADX-encoded images
Figure 5. Academy Color Encoding System Block Diagram.

Use of appropriate RRT/ODT combinations for on-set viewing and mastering,

as well as consideration of any LMTs that might be used both on-set and in the
mastering suite

Use of ACES-enabled color correctors and other ACES-enabled image-

processing equipment
With a correctly implemented ACES-based workflow, cinematographers can
rely on properly exposed source images as the best starting point for visual effect
integration and mastering.
For more information on ACES, please visit oscars.org/aces

Curtis Clark, ASC currently chairs the ASC’s Technology Committee and has
done so since it was revitalized in 2002.
Andy Maltz serves as the director for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and
Sciences’s Science and Technology Council.

1. The terms “log” and “linear” as currently used in motion picture production are loosely defined. “Log”
can refer to some form of printing density values or log-encoded RGB values, and “linear” can refer to
some form of video code values or linear-encoded RGB values. While the use of these terms is deprecated
in ACES-based workflows, it should be noted that log-encoded forms of ACES data are being developed
for use in certain color correction operations and for realtime transmission of ACES data over HD-SDI.
2. RDT (Reference Device Transform) is the ODT for SMPTE Reference Projector Minimum Color Gamut
(Nominal) (see SMPTE RP431-2-2007 Reference Projector and Environment, Table A. 1).
The Cinematographer and the Laboratory

revised by Rob Hummel ASC Associate Member

T he relationship between a cinematographer and the laboratory processing

his or her film can mean the difference between the revelation of seeing
exactly the images conceived upon exposing the film, or a defensive, frustrating
time spent constantly seeking to achieve the right look. Remarkably, and not
surprisingly, this all rests on effective communication between the
cinematographer and that person at the laboratory responsible for handling your
dailies. Since the production process begins with dailies and principal
photography, that’s where we’ll begin this discussion.
When working with a laboratory for the first time, it is advisable to contact the
lab well in advance of principal photography or any tests to be shot. Upon
locating the individual who will be handling your dailies, you should discuss the
film to be shot, the looks you are trying to achieve, and learn from the lab what
procedures they employ to ensure that your dailies are delivered with a
consistent look. At this time, you should find out what light points the lab
considers to be normal from a properly exposed piece of film, and whether the
lab utilizes RGB or YCM color-timing methods. Ideally, this process begins with
a visit to the lab for a face-to-face meeting.
For reasons discussed below, it should be understood that for the same piece
of film, light point values can vary many points one way or another depending
on where a lab has trimmed their printers. This needs to be understood so as not
to be alarmed when using a lab for the first time and discovering that your
printer lights are 8 points lower than the lab you are accustomed to using.
Laboratories routinely use the film manufacturers’ recommended
specifications for processing, modified to meet their particular equipment. (The
entire system—type of film, manufacturers’ EI recommendation, laboratory
printing and processing range—is calibrated to produce a pleasing rendition of
fully lighted flesh tones under normal projection conditions.) In addition to
producing normal results on the screen, most laboratories are able to offer
several techniques that can modify the look of a film to a certain degree; these
processes would include flashing of negative or positive, push/pull processing,
ENR and bleach bypass. You should speak to your lab representative to
understand all of the techniques that are available to you.

Figure 1. LAD color chart

PRINTER POINTS
The laboratory controls print density and color balance by increasing or
decreasing the intensity of each primary color of light in steps called printer
points. Since the development of the B&H Model C printer, most manufacturers
have standardized on a range of 50 light points in 0.025 Log E increments. In
addition to the light points, each printer usually also has 24 trim settings (0.025
Log E), providing an available total of 74 lights.
When a lab changes the brightness/darkness of a print, they will say they are
adjusting the density of the print (which, quite literally, they are). Density is
adjusted by moving the values of all three light points (RGB or YCM) in unison.
Individual adjustment of the colors is obviously used for specific color
correction, or timing.
This means that at some laboratories, just because your light point is up at 50,
it may not mean there isn’t any more room to go. Sometimes you may have the
ability to go up to the equivalent to a 65 light point. That being said, at some
laboratories it can also mean that when you are at a 50 light point, there isn’t any
more room at all. Again, you must consult the lab you are using and get advice
about the flexibility of their light point scale.
One could argue that the ideal settings for scene-to-scene timing would be at
mid-scale (Trim 12 + Tape 25 = 37 lights). In actual practice the available range
is considerably less. Printer lamps are usually operated under their rated voltage.
This reduces the light intensity in all three colors. For example, lowering the
voltage from 120 to 90 volts on a BRN-1200 watt lamp results in a relative
change in printer points equal to minus 12 Red, 13 Green, 17 Blue. The trims are
usually used to balance the printer for a given print-film emulsion. A typical
emulsion might require 16 Red, 13 Green, 10 Blue or, in terms of the ideal, plus
4 Red, plus 1 Green, minus 2 Blue. Other factors influencing the available
printer points are the operating speed of the printer, and the use of neutral-
density filters in the individual channels and the main light beam.
The sum of these variables explains why a given negative might be printed 28
Red, 29 Green, 22 Blue at one laboratory and 36 Red, 32 Green, 36 Blue at
another laboratory to produce matched prints. It is important to understand that
printer points relate only to how the printer exposes film. A one-stop .30 Log E
change (12 printer points x .025 Log E ) is equal to a one-stop exposure in the
camera only if the film in the camera has a gamma of approximately 1.0.
The current negative films, both black & white and color, have gammas of
approximately .65. Therefore, in correlating camera and printer exposure, one
stop equals 2⁄3 x 12 = 8 printer points per stop. Much testing has borne out the
fact that one camera stop change in exposure equals 8 points of printer density.
At extreme ends of the printer scale it may vary a point or so from that, but using
8 points is always the best rule to follow.
MONITORING THE PROCESS
It must be pointed out that all manufacturing processes are subject to variables
and, as such, acceptable tolerances are set to ensure success without being
unreasonably demanding. The same principal applies to the processing of film.
Through the use of a device called a densitometer, labs can measure the
processing of film and determine how far off of a predetermined standard the
negative is printing. By measuring a photographed gray scale, the accuracy of
original negative exposure can be measured. Most major laboratories have the
ability to expose a 21-step gray scale into an original negative, which, when each
step is measured and plotted, can produce a curve that will illustrate a negative’s
characteristics (sensitivity, gamma/contrast, highlight/sshadow detail, etc.).
Labs have control departments whose principal purpose is to constantly
monitor the negative and positive processes, and calibrate the printers. Printer
calibration is, in fact, one of the areas most subject to drift, as the lamp in each
printer is constantly migrating color and brightness as it ages. Through exposing
predetermined exposure strips through the printers, the control department can
keep the printers on target by adjusting their trims.
While film manufacturers can always provide you with the characteristic
curve of any specific emulsion batch, if you’re uncertain about an emulsion (due
to age, transport conditions, possible exposure to radiation, etc.), the lab will
happily expose a section of your negative with a 21-step gray scale, process the
negative and plot the negative’s curve, so you will immediately be able to see
what condition your emulsion is in. When compared with the curves supplied by
the manufacturer of that emulsion batch, you can precisely determine if this
batch has shifted.
I’d like to make a comment here about professional motion picture negatives.
It is always assumed that motion picture negatives will be used within six
months or so of manufacture, and once exposed, will be processed within 72
hours. Negatives older than six months run the risk of a high base fog density
that will result in milky blacks in your print. Motion picture films don’t remotely
have the latent image stability of still-camera films, which is why they need to
be processed promptly or refrigerated at very low temperatures when timely
processing isn’t possible.
For consistent tracking and monitoring of processing from lab to lab, the
industry came up with Laboratory Aim Density, or LAD.
With LAD, film laboratories can determine how far off of a reference standard
they are when printing. We are principally concerned with LAD for color
positives printed from original negative; however, there are LAD values for
interpositives and internegatives as well. Again, a densitometer is used to read a
predefined “LAD patch” on a print. The RGB/YCM LAD value is the same for
all Eastman Kodak Motion Picture negatives. Fuji elements have their own LAD
values.
LAD values for all Kodak negatives are: 0.80 Red, 1.20 Green and 1.60 Blue.
Cutting in of a LAD reference frame is standard operating procedure for
answer printing at film laboratories. This enables the answer-print timer to know
exactly where any given print stands vs. the LAD reference point. Reading of the
LAD patch lets the timer know if the print is leaning one way or another in color
or density. It’s always advisable before beginning a screening of any answer
print to ask the timer how the print is, or “What’s the chart reading?” The timer
will then express to you the values for each color and how far off of standard,
plus or minus, the print is.
While not standard, it’s not out of the question to ask to have a LAD patch cut
into your dailies each day, and have the patch read so you can know how far off
of standard your daily prints may be. If this is requested, also understand that it
adds one more part to the delivery of your print dailies, and will delay their
delivery ever so slightly. When printing one-light dailies, an advantage of a LAD
patch cut into your dailies is you will know immediately if color drift is the
cause of the laboratory or your own cinematography.
As for tolerance in LAD readings, understand that for camera negative, 0.025
Log E equals one point. For release prints, the lab should be allowed a swing of
0.05 Log E (two points) on any individual color; however, you shouldn’t have to
be tolerant of anything more than 0.05 Log E sway in any of the readings
(especially for answer prints), but how tolerant you want to be is at your
discretion.
An example of how this procedure is implemented at a lab might be as
follows:
You travel to the laboratory to screen a reel of your movie with the answer
print timer. As you settle into your seat, you ask, “How did this print come up?,”
“What’s the chart reading for this print?” or “How are we doing today?”
While the timer is provided the precise Log E value plus or minus from the
standard, he or she will usually do some quick math and express its values in
light points. For example, you might hear, “It came up plus one, zero, minus a
half,” which would translate into plus one point red, on target for green and
minus a half point of blue (unless you are at a lab that uses subtractive colors,
where they would be referring to yellow, cyan, and magenta). That being said,
they will happily provide you with the precise Log E values if you request it,
remembering that 0.025 Log E translates into one printer point.
EXPOSURE REPORTING
It used to be normal practice for laboratories to furnish one-light rather than
timed daily rush prints. However, most labs today find that, to be competitive,
they must offer scene-to-scene timing of dailies. That being said, timed dailies
usually yield an inconsistent workprint since they end up being timed on an
individual basis each day.
The term “one-light dailies” doesn’t mean that all negatives are printed at the
same light points. The laboratory establishes a day exterior, day interior, night
exterior and night interior light points for each film stock a cinematographer may
choose when he or she starts a picture, based on the first few days of shooting.
Each laboratory establishes its own method, but basically all try to keep usable
negative within the 1 to 50 light point scale (laboratories do not necessarily
agree on the numerical value of the preferred mid-scale light point, but this is not
critical as long as you know which system your laboratory uses). A conference
with your laboratory representative will establish methods that fit your style of
photography. After that, variation in your exposure will show up as variation in
the density of your solid black in any area of the print; exposure must be kept at
or above what the laboratory tells you is their average light point for a well-
exposed piece of film.
Should you feel uncomfortable committing to one-light dailies, at least
instruct your dailies timer/grader to try and use the same color and density ratio
light point, should you be shooting the same scene for several days at a time.
This will mitigate color shifts from timing the dailies on their own merits each
day.
Negative raw stock from different manufacturers may or may not have the
same base density, maximum density or density/exposure characteristic (curve
shape), although these differences are usually small. A daily print made by the
LAD control method shows the density and color ratio at mid-scale on the
printer. Negative from two manufacturers, both exposed correctly, may or may
not look the same at this printer point. If necessary, an adjustment to the printer
point may be made for the difference in raw stock, and this new light point can
be used for printing dailies on the subject.
SPECIAL PROCESSING
If special processing is requested, a conference with the laboratory
representative and experimentation (or experience) is desirable. If special
processing is requested, or the cinematographer is using high or low exposure
for effect, it is desirable to test the effect by going through the entire release-
print technique, including the interpositive/duplicate negative generations, and to
view the result as nearly as possible under the anticipated release-print viewing
conditions. If the scene to be photographed will be used in an optically printed
visual-effect, it is wise to confer with the appropriate visual-effects experts.
RELEASE PRINTING PROCEDURES
After the picture negative and soundtrack negative have been assembled in
their final form, the laboratory will analyze the picture negative for scene-to-
scene color and density variations and make a print known as the first trial
answer print. As many trial prints are made as are necessary to resolve all
printing data. The final approved timing is also often known as a final answer
print. With the data thus obtained, one or more intermediates are printed and
from these the release prints are made. Modern film stocks used to make the
interpositives and internegatives or intermediate negatives are of excellent
quality, but they do entail added printing generations. The appearance of scenes
involving effects such as off-normal film exposure or processing can suffer if
they exceed the extremes the system can handle. (See also Testing and
Evaluation.)
COLOR REVERSAL FILMS
Most of the above also applies to color reversal films; however, color reversal
films are now usually used only when it is intended to project the original, or for
a desired visual effect. Exposure latitude is short compared to that of color
negative films. Proper exposure is therefore critical in order to keep all scenes at
a usable density.
BLACK-AND-WHITE NEGATIVE AND REVERSAL FILMS
The above also applies to black-and-white reversal films. Black-and-white
negative films, however, are an exception. Both their contrast and density are
more strongly affected by developing time than are color negative films. While
there is much more latitude in exposure with black-and-white negative films as
compared to color negative films, both grain and acutance are affected by
exposure variations. Deviation from the manufacturers’ recommended EI
(exposure index) should be tested and evaluated.
FORCED DEVELOPMENT OF COLOR FILMS
With the color films most commonly used today, it is possible to compensate
for underexposure by extended development, or “pushing.” Similar to the
principles of traditional black-and-white sensitometry, forced development of
these color films increases their contrast, graininess and the fog level.
Therefore, forced development can never yield the same image quality
possible when films are exposed and processed strictly according to the
manufacturer’s recommendations. In many instances, however, the image quality
obtained with underexposure and overdevelopment is entirely satisfactory, and a
cinematographer may want to take advantage of this fact when shooting under
adverse light conditions. What pushing means, in effect, is that the
cinematographer can deliberately underexpose the film (sometimes by as much
as two stops) and request that the laboratory compensate in development.
With the introduction of high-speed color negative emulsions, there is less call
for pushing the moderate-speed films, except for a special “look” or when
underexposure is unavoidable and high-speed negative is not at hand. It is
possible to push one stop in development without appreciable loss in image
quality. The scenes produced in this manner can be intercut with scenes exposed
and processed normally.
If color negative is pushed two stops in development, the increase in the
graininess and the fog level is substantial, but the results are acceptable for
scenes involving night-for-night photography or available-light photography
under exceptional circumstances.
Extending development beyond two stops does not appreciably contribute to
the image; rather, it increases the grain and fog level and should not be attempted
even as an emergency measure. It should be realized that with color films the
sensitometric balance of the three emulsion layers is only achieved with normal
processing and that forcing the development does not accomplish a true
compensation for underexposure. Forced development does not result in a
substantial increase in the exposure index of the negative as measured by
accepted scientific methods. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that the technique
proves to be of some practical value if it brings the underexposed negative into
an acceptable printing range.
Reversal films, unlike negative, derive their projection density from the
camera exposure. Forced processing of underexposed film can bring up the
projection density to normal. Eastman Ektachrome Films 7240 and 7285
(tungsten balanced), can be pushed one stop with acceptable results. In
emergency situations they can be pushed up to three stops with some loss in
quality. The ability to underexpose these films and still obtain on film a usable
image should by no means be regarded as a suitable substitute for additional
lighting when it can be provided.
If a cinematographer anticipates the need for deliberate underexposure during
a production, he or she should, if possible, shoot careful tests in advance using
the same emulsion that to be used for the production and have them processed by
the lab that will be processing the production film. The results can then be
analyzed with the help of a laboratory representative. Needless to say,
underexposed rolls should be clearly marked with instructions as to how much
they should be pushed when they are sent to the laboratory.
FLASHING
Even before discussing flashing, it must be said that one lab’s measurement of
a flash is not likely to match how another lab measures it. Thus, don’t base a
request for a type of flash on an experience at another lab; testing is critically
important.
Flashing may be described qualitatively as subjecting the negative film to a
weak, controlled, uniform fogging exposure prior to development—either
before, during or after photographing the desired subject. There is no measurable
difference in the effect if the flashing takes place before or after the principal
exposure. As a result, because of various unfavorable factors (such as not being
able to control the time interval between the flash exposure and the time that
development will actually take place, and not knowing the actual conditions of
photography in advance), preflashing is generally avoided in favor of
postflashing.
Simultaneous flashing during actual photography by means of a special device
attached to the front of the camera lens is described shortly under the heading
Lightflex. However, if not properly controlled, flashing on the camera in the
field runs the risk of an imprecise and improperly color-balanced flash.
Since color negative consists basically of three emulsion layers sensitive to
red, green and blue light, the spectral composition of the light used for flashing
can be a neutral equivalent to tungsten light (3200°K) or daylight (5500°K)
which, depending on the film, would affect all three emulsion layers equally. The
fundamental reasons for using a neutral flash are to reduce the contrast of the
image and to increase shadow detail. This effect is accomplished because the
flashing exposure affects principally the shadow region of the negative image.
Another reason for flashing is to achieve certain creative effects by using a
nonneutral flashing exposure that would then alter the normal color rendition of
the developed negative.
Flashing is also used sometimes to reduce contrast of positive or reversal films
when such films are to be used for special effects duplication purposes, such as
projection backgrounds or aerial image compositing with animation.
Some good examples of negative flashing can be seen in the films McCabe
and Mrs. Miller, Heaven’s Gate and Deliverance, all shot by Vilmos Zsigmond,
ASC. In Heaven’s Gate, Vilmos combined a 10% negative flash with a 30%
positive flash (as measured at Technicolor).
LIGHTFLEX
Lightflex (and Arriflex Varicon) is an on-camera accessory, mounted in front
of the lens, which overlays a controlled amount of light on the scene to be
photographed at the time of exposure. It allows the cameraperson to modify the
gamma curve of the film in the camera during shooting. This can extend the
photometric range of the film, and provide more detail in the shadow areas
without affecting grain.
Lightflex works exactly the same with video cameras, providing more shadow
area detail with no increase in noise. A filter tray between light sphere and
reflector permits colored light overlay for special effects. The system’s
lamphouse holds three quartz bulbs that operate selectively or simultaneously to
hold color temperature stable over the widest possible range. Compound curved
reflectors cover all standard 16mm and 35mm fixed lenses and zooms.
Intensity control is by a handheld electronic dimmer with a digital 1⁄10-volt
line indicator. The lamphouse front features a built-in Obie light, with
changeable masks for direct or diffused light. The unit housing is mounted on a
swing-away bracket to facilitate lens changes and maintenance. There are two
front-mounted matte box shades for wide angle or normal lenses. There are two
lens filter stages: one for two 3″ x 3″ filters and one for two 4″ x 4″ or 4″ x 5.6″
filters or grads (rotatable). A single 4″ x 5.6″ filter may be mounted inside the
Lightflex housing.
Panavision’s Panaflasher achieves similar results with an internal device.
Emulsion Testing

by Steven Poster, ASC

T he object of these series of tests is to determine the best working exposure

index and the dynamic range for your original camera negative. This
system takes into account any processing techniques, print stocks, further duping
of the original camera negative and the effects of scanning and digital output.
Judging these tests should be done visually, although densitometer readings
should be taken for later reference. It is more important to train your eye to see
the various characteristics of the chain of events that result in the presentation of
images that we create during production than to know scientifically all of the
sensitometery that goes into the imaging system.
PREPARING BENCH TEST NEGATIVE
The basic physical nature of the film stock (i.e., how much density there is in
the negative without any exposure) must be calibrated.
If you are going to test or use other film stocks and/or processing techniques,
these should also be calibrated at this time. If the negative is going to be push- or
pull-processed, or if it is going to be flashed, or skip-bleach processed, or if you
create a negative by cross-processing reversal stock, these special treatments
should also be done in the prescribed way at this time. You can measure the
specific densities of the base density plus fog levels on a densitometer for
reference. (This reference can be used later if there is a change of emulsion or
lab, or just as a simple check on your standard emulsion.)
We know that this specific density will be used to reproduce a black tone on
the final print. If this density on the negative is not printed deep enough to
reproduce a desirable black on the print stock, there will be no black tones in the
final print, and the images will be appear to have been underexposed. If this is
the case, the images can also develop a grainy appearance and will not dupe
well.
The lab should process a short length of unexposed negative no less than 50 in
length. At this point you have a piece of unexposed, processed negative that
reflects any pre-exposure or special processing techniques done to that negative.
You should also have noted reference densities of that negative. This leads us to
the second part of the test.
PRINTED BLACK TEST
In order to determine the specific amount of light needed to print your test
negative to a desirable black tone, you must test the print stock and any printing
techniques (flashing the print stock, ENR, CCR, optical printing, digital
scanning or print skip-bleach processing for example). This is done by printing
your piece of unexposed processed film stock at a succession of printer lights
increasing by 2 to 4 points of density (the equivalent of 1⁄3 of a stop of printer
exposure at your lab). If you are planning to use any unusual printing techniques
or print processing techniques, they should be applied at this point. Any
subsequent printing for these series of tests should have these techniques applied
as well.
A trick that I have often used to help me judge my optimum black density is to
punch a hole in the negative with a single-hole paper punch before it is printed.
This will give you a reference to zero density in the frame, which can help
determine the optimal visual black tone that you want. Your desired black tone
will never be as black as the portion printed through the hole, but the reference
helps to determine what density you will want to achieve with your processing
and printing techniques.
If your lab has film-strip projectors that they use for timing purposes, this is a
very good way to view these tests. Two identical prints can be made which can
be viewed side by side on these projectors, allowing you to study the results and
compare different densities. If no filmstrip projectors are available, the length of
each exposure should be long enough to allow you time to view it sufficiently on
the screen during projection.
Once you have determined which density you would like to represent black in
your final print, this should be read on the densitometer and used for later
reference. You can also read the densities of each level of printer lights to see
where reciprocity sets in, although this is not actually necessary because this
density will probably be deeper than you will actually be using to print.
A test for no-density print highlights can also be done at this time by printing
a piece of opaque leader at the determined printer lights and reading the resulting
density. The difference between your chosen black density and the resulting
white density will determine the dynamic range of the print stock. In order to
determine the speed and working range of your negative in relation to that print
stock, further testing is necessary.
You should now have an optimum black density and a reference to the
intensity of the printer lights that will be required at your lab to achieve that
density with your chosen negative stock, as well as any unusual processing
methods and any variation in printing techniques that you choose to use. This
brings us to the third part of the test.
EXPOSURE CALIBRATION
This will be the first camera test that will provide the working speed or
exposure index (EI) that will allow you to judge the exposure necessary to
represent the values photographed as normal tones on the final print, when that
print is made using the recommended density arrived at during the first two parts
of these tests. You must determine the amount of light that it will require to
properly photograph a midgray tone when the negative is printed to the
benchmark density.
There are several things I would like to mention at this point about testing
methods. Everybody has their own method of measuring light values. There are
probably as many methods as there are people taking exposure readings. If your
meter and method of reading works for you, it is correct.
I prefer to use a spot meter and take my neutral readings off of a Permanent
Gray Card. I feel that this gives me a consistent and accurate way of judging not
only the light falling on a subject but the reflectance of that subject as well. For
these tests I also like to vary the amount of light falling on the subject rather than
changing the T-stop on the lens. I feel that this method gives me a more accurate
series of exposures because there is no reliable way to vary the stop by fractions
due to the variables and tolerances of the lens iris. As you see later extreme
exposures will be needed. In these cases I may vary exposure speed but never T-
stop.
The lighting for these tests require flat, even illumination over the surface of
the subject like copy light (light from two sides of the subject, at a 45° angle
from the camera). The color temperature of the light should be as close to 3200°
Kelvin as you can get, except in tests of daylight film, when 5500° Kelvin
should be used.
If you are planning to use filtration (such as diffusion of some kind), these
filters should be used in all subsequent tests. This is because some of these filters
can tend to absorb light. Even though this effect will be very slight, it can affect
the results of your tests by as much as 2⁄3 of a stop when you use heavy filtration.
Make a series of exposures of an 8″ x 10″ gray card and a face with neutral
skin tone at a series of stops based on variations in the manufacturer’s
recommended exposure index. Start the series at one stop under the EI and
decrease the exposure by 1⁄3 of a stop until you reach one stop over the
recommended speed.
For instance, if you were testing an emulsion with a recommended speed of
500, you would start your test at an EI of 1000 and proceed to an EI of 250 in
1
⁄3-stop increments, resulting in seven different exposures.
Remember, don’t vary the T-stop. Change the amount of light to give the
proper exposure at the T-stop you are using.
Print the negative at the benchmark density arrived at in the second part of the
test, adjusting the printer ratio (color balance) to reproduce a neutral gray. Read
the print density of the gray in each exposure. A proper mid-gray print density
for theater viewing should be R/1.09, G/1.06 and B/1.03 (status A filters).

View the print to determine which print is closest to that recommended

density. Look carefully at the quality of the color balance of the skin tones in
relation to the gray card. If an emulsion cannot reproduce skin tones properly
when the gray card is printed correctly (or vice versa), this is a good indication
that there are problems with either the emulsion or the lab processes that have
taken place. If this is the case when the skin tones are printed properly in the
final print, there will always be problems getting the proper color balance in the
shadows.
The print that is chosen as the best representation of the gray card and skin
tone will become the midpoint in the dynamic range of your negative. Check
which exposure index was used for this test. This EI will become your empirical
emulsion speed. Most often I have found that the EI that is derived will be within
1
⁄3 of a stop of the manufacture’s recommended speed unless some form of
processing modification is used (such as push- or pull-processing).
TESTING FOR DYNAMIC RANGE
This is the part of the testing process that will determine the usable dynamic
range of your negative when exposed, processed and printed using the
information gathered in the previous tests.
Make a series of exposures using a Macbeth Color Checker color chart, an 8″
x 10″ gray card, a small gray scale and a face with neutral skin tone. Mount the
color chart vertically with the gray card in the middle and the scale vertically
next to the gray card all on one piece of card. Mount this card on a grip stand
and place it over the head of the model. This allows you to fill the frame with the
cards and then tilt down to see the face. Shoot the chart and the face each for a
minimum of 10 seconds (more if you can afford the film) so that you will have
enough time to study the results on the screen. If you are comparing emulsions
or processing techniques, repeat these tests for each variation.
Using the EI that you derived from the last test, start the series of exposures at
normal and underexpose successively until you reach five stops underexposed.
Do the same with overexposure.

For example:
First Series Second Series
Normal Normal
1 Stop Under 1 Stop Over
11⁄3 Stops Under 2 Stops Over
12⁄3 Stops Under 3 Stops Over
2 Stops Under 31⁄3Stops Over
21⁄3 Stops Under 32⁄3 Stops Over
22⁄3 Stops Under 4 Stops Over
3 Stops Under 41⁄3 Stops Over
31⁄3 Stops Under 5 Stops Over
4 Stops Under
5 Stops Under

The reason for the uneven increments of exposure is based on experience. I

know that the first shadow detail will fall somewhere in the range of 2 and 3
stops underexposed and that the last highlight detail will fall between 4 and 5
stops over. I also know from experience that the increments between 1 and 2 are
very useful shadow densities to have as a visual reference.
Print these tests again at the benchmark densities. View the work print to
make sure the color ratios are correct. At this point, if possible, an interpositive,
dupe negative and final print should be produced using any special printing
techniques or digital manipulation intended for the final release (such as ENR,
flashing the interpositive, or scanning). This will allow you to view the results as
they would be viewed in the theater. If this is not possible, enough useful
information can be gleaned by viewing the work print.
When you view the results projected, either in motion or on strip projectors,
you will begin to see the effects of exposure on different tones and colors. If you
are comparing different emulsions or processing techniques, the results should
be viewed side by side for proper comparison.
The exposure difference between first shadow detail and last highlight detail
and their relation to midgray will determine the empirical dynamic range of the
negative, processing and printing combination.
CONCLUSION:
TRUST YOUR EYE MORE THAN YOUR METER
It is important to remember that these tests are not scientific but empirical.
They are meant to train your eye to the dynamic range of your emulsion under
working conditions. The tests should be a good working reference. In fact, I have
often taken frames of each exposure and mounted them in slide mounts for
viewing on the set if I want to know exactly where to place a specific tone on the
scale so that it will be represented exactly as I want in the final print. To do this,
you will need a small light box properly color-corrected and with an illumination
of 425 FC ±10%.
It is most important to learn to trust your eye rather than relying upon too
many exposure readings. These tests should give you a better understanding of
the results of exposing, processing and printing your original camera negative so
that you can predict exactly what the images you make will look like. With this
knowledge, you should be able to make more consistent, dramatic images that
will help tell the story of your motion picture.

Steven Poster, ASC is President of the International Cinematographers Guild

and a vice chair of the ASC’s Technology Committee. He is a current member of
the committee for the Nicholl Fellowship of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts
and Sciences and a former member of the Executive Board of the International
Documentary Association.
Finding Your Own Printer Light

by Richard Crudo, ASC

A mong the numerous tests to be performed before starting a project destined

for theatrical presentation, perhaps the most valuable one is the test that
establishes a single printer light setting to be used in dailies printing. Although
not connected to lighting in the literal sense, a direct relation does exist in that a
consistent printer light precisely determines how lighting will be rendered on
screen, and by extension influences the final release print’s texture. The use of a
single, predetermined set of numbers takes the guesswork out of the laboratory’s
dailies printing protocol and places total control of the film’s look where it
belongs—in the hands of the cinematographer.
Each night, dailies timers scroll an incredible amount of negative through their
color analyzers. These tens of thousands of feet are culled from a wide range of
productions shot under a variety of circumstances. Very often, their only
guidance in determining what information gets sent to the printer is an
unintelligible scrawl at the bottom of a camera report—print cool, print warm,
day-for-night, dawn effect and so on. While lab technicians are pretty good at
drawing meaning from the indefinable, when using a single printer light setting
—arrived at through one’s own choosing—the problems caused by relying on
vague, highly personal and subjective written or verbal descriptions are
eliminated. In addition, working in this manner allows the cinematographer to
introduce any amount of variation in color and density to the image in a
quantifiable and repeatable way. Whether these changes are effected through
filtration used on the lens, gels over the lamps or by ordering a measured shift in
the printer light itself is a matter of taste and experience. Then, when a deviation
from the norm occurs or a new batch of raw stock brings a shift in the film’s
look, the anomaly becomes easy to isolate and correct. Assuming the lab’s
chemistry is up to code, the immediate payoff is day-to-day image consistency
on par with the still photographer’s vaunted “previsualization.” For the long
term, answer and release printing are much simpler affairs, since making
corrections is a matter of fine-tuning rather than a complete rebalancing of the
entire film.
PREPARATIONS FOR AN EMULSION TEST TO ESTABLISH
A SINGLE PRINTER LIGHT (TUNGSTEN)
First, understand that the one-light print enabled by this test is markedly
different in concept from what dailies personnel commonly refer to in the same
words. Left to its own devices, any lab can deliver a one-light print every day.
The difference is that since the dailies timer is making color and density choices
on his or her own, the lab’s version will inevitably change its R-G-B Hazletine
values from negative roll to negative roll or even among different shots and
setups within each roll. The printer light that ultimately results from the
following procedure is something chosen by the cinematographer, and is meant
for use in all situations matching the lighting conditions under which the test is
performed. Thus, it is possible—indeed preferable—to shoot an entire feature
film on the same printer light. That said, it is also viable to establish printer
lights for defined situations, (i.e., day/exterior, day/interior, night/exterior,
night/interior, etc.).

Preliminaries
A. Make sure that camera body and lens tests are already completed and
approved.
B. Secure a pair of showcards flat against a wall, end-to-end in a horizontal
fashion. The black side of one of the cards should be placed on the left, the
white side of the second card on the right.
C. Recruit a model with a representative fleshtone. The term “representative” is
somewhat ambiguous in its use here, but that is part of what this test is trying
to determine. Avoid extreme complexions or coloring of any kind unless you
anticipate dealing with them during principal photography. Also, make sure
that your model dresses in neutral shades rather than solid blacks or whites or
any heavily saturated colors.
D. Using a lens from your tested, matched production set, compose the shot so
that the two showcards completely fill the frame. Place your model directly
facing the lens, just slightly in front of the center seam where the two
showcards meet. In 1.85 format, a 40mm lens works well at a distance of
about eight feet and renders a pleasingly medium close-up of the model.
E. Create a series of individual flash cards that the model will hold within the
frame to clearly indicate the exposure information relevant to each take:
NORMAL +11⁄2 -1⁄2 -2
+2 -1 NORMAL
+1⁄2
+1 NORMAL -11⁄2

F. In addition to a gray card, the following information should be mounted in a

plainly readable fashion somewhere within the frame but not in such a way as
to impede sight of the model:
• emulsion type and batch/cut numbers
• ASA/Exposure Index
• lens focal length
• T-stop
• development information (normal, push, pull, ENR, CCE, etc.)
• print stock type
• optional: color temperature of the light source you’re using

Lighting
A 2K fresnel is an ideal unit to use with this test. Placed at an angle of about
20 degrees off camera right, make sure the light is evenly spread at full flood
across both the model and the two showcards—with no hot spots or dropoff of
any kind. From this position, the lamp serves a dual purpose by not only
properly illuminating the model but by throwing the model’s shadow onto the
black-sided showcard that covers the left half of frame. The deep, rich, velvety
darkness this provides will serve as an important point of reference when
judging the projected print.
Do not use any diffusion on the lamp and do not add any light to the fill side.

ASA/Exposure Index
Since film speed is a relative concept, the best starting point is to rate the
negative at the manufacturer’s suggested value. Besides providing the
information necessary to choose a single printer light for the run of the show, this
test will also allow the setting of an effective ASA/EI rating for the manner in
which the film is to be exposed.

T-Stop
In the interest of contrast uniformity and the elimination of as many variables
as possible, lock the iris ring at a predetermined T-stop and leave it alone for the
length of the test. It should rest precisely at or close to the primary setting
intended for use across much of the shoot. Measured exposure shifts will be
carried out through adjustments in lighting intensity and a combination of
neutral-density filters and shutter-angle changes. (For the purpose of this article,
the working stop for the test will be T2.8.)

Filters
If plans for principal photography include the use of filters in front of or
behind the lens, slip the appropriate grade into the matte box or filter slot before
you begin the test.

Laboratory Instructions
The camera report should prominently display the following orders:

Develop—(normal, push, pull, ENR, CCE, etc.)

Print this negative roll two times.

First pass: print on best light for gray card/normal exposure only.

Second pass: correct each take back to normal in 1⁄2 stop (4 points each)*
increments.

Note well: normal exposures should all print at the same light in all cases.

Do not join these rolls together or to any other roll.

By keeping the two test rolls separate, you will be able to view them in rapid
succession without having to deal with any other distracting material.
Basically, the one-light printing of the gray card and normal takes—and thus
the timing of the entire first roll—allows the dailies timer a fighting chance at
showing his or her interpretation of what will look best onscreen with respect
to the lab’s processing standards and the conditions set up by the
cinematographer. The second uncorrected printing pass insures that you will
see the effect over- and underexposure will have on the emulsion in its purest
state—without any assistance or augmentation from the lab. Examining both
rolls together essentially defines a place from which the lab timer and
cinematographer can begin to deviate.
Note: For purposes of this test, it is given that the laboratory’s system is calibrated so that 8 printer
points equal one T-stop on the lens.
Miscellaneous

Beware of ambient light or anything else that might compromise the test’s
integrity.

Be meticulous with meter readings. If you choose an iris setting of T2.8, your
normal exposure should read precisely T2.8 at the model’s face. Measuring
the increase in light level needed to support the overexposure parts of the test
should be handled with equal care.

Do a separate test for each emulsion you plan to use and each lighting
condition you plan on encountering.

Be sure the model clearly displays the placards indicating the proper exposure
for the take being photographed.

Don’t rush.

The Test
First, fill the frame with a gray card. Light it to T2.8 and expose 20 feet at the
same value.
Next, recompose to fill the frame with the black and white showcards,
featuring the model at the center seam.
Following the notations in each column, expose 30 feet for each step as noted:
(Note that after the first normal exposure the light level increases from T2.8 to
T5.6. This is done to facilitate the overexposure takes. The standard iris setting
here is T2.8, so before starting the test, simply light the model to T5.6 and then
use two double scrims on the 2K Fresnel to knock down the intensity to T2.8
when needed.)
If overexposure is to be carried as far as +3 stops, the basic light level must be
increased to T8 to accommodate that portion of the test. Proportional changes
should then be made to the scrims and shutter angle/neutral density filter
combinations.

The Results
When viewing the projected film, refer to the lab’s printer-light notation sheet
that corresponds to the test exposures.
You should speak to your lab contact as to what is considered a “normal”
printing light for the lab you are using; however, we will assume for this article
that a “normal” printer light would read 25-25-25. Roll 1 will now obviously
play all the way through at light 25-25-25. Any exposure changes noted on
screen will thus be a direct result of what was done at the lens. This pass is
especially helpful in gauging color drift as it relates to exposure. It is also a good
indicator of the emulsion’s ability to hold detail at the noted extremes.
Roll 2 is merely a second printing pass of the same negative but with the
identical series of exposures corrected back to normal in measured increments
by the Hazletine timer. Based on the concept of 25 across being normal, refer to
the following boxed chart for the progression of printer lights (assuming a
laboratory printing scale of 8 points = 1 stop).
In this instance, the dailies timer has “helped out” by correcting “mistakes” in
exposure. The second pass thus provides an idea of how far the emulsion can be
stretched before it falls apart. Special attention should be paid to the white and
black showcards that make up the background behind the model. Grain, color
shift and variation in detail will be most readily apparent in these areas. This
pass can also provide information about contrast. If necessary, it may be
requested that the laboratory print “over scale” in order to achieve correction on
an overexposure.

Conclusion
Now that the data needed to decide all critical concerns has been revealed,
decisions that will directly affect the film’s look can be made in an informed
manner. Subjective judgement once again comes into play, but the difference is
that the cinematographer is the one doing the judging.
Usually, the model’s fleshtone will need some tweaking regardless of which
test exposure is most pleasing. Let’s say that Eastman 5213 was used at its
recommended ASA/EI rating of 200. While viewing results of the corrected Roll
2 on screen, it is decided that the grain structure and shadow detail of the take
indicating 1⁄2 stop overexposure (printed back to normal) looks best. By
referencing the lab’s printer light notation sheet, this would render a printer light
of 29-29-29 to start and therefore an effective ASA/EI rating of 160. A desire for
a different sort of fleshtone might lead the cinematographer to order a small
adjustment in the addition of perhaps 1 point red and 2 points yellow. The
resulting printer light of 28-29-31 would then be the one to use during principal
photography. To verify the effect, it would be advisable to shoot an additional
test under identical conditions with the same model, while printing it at these
new numbers.
Hereafter, by having the assistant cameraperson stamp 28-29-31 in the camera
report’s printing instructions box, the cinematographer can be certain of two
things. Besides meeting a specific standard that depends solely on the effort put
into each shot, such items as silhouette effects will indeed come back from the
lab as silhouettes—each and every time. Instead of communicating with such
agonizing vagaries as “print for highlights,” this simple set of numbers conveys
to the dailies timer exactly what is needed in a way that will stand up in court.
This isn’t to say, however, that the printer lights are by any means sacrosanct.
Over the long haul of shooting a feature, modifications are inevitable.
Ultimately, however, what is most important is that the cinematographer is
always the one who chooses how and when to do the modifying.

Richard Crudo, ASC currently serves on the Academy of Motion Picture Arts
and Sciences Board of Governors, and is a former ASC President and current
ASC Vice President. He has photographed the feature films Federal Hill,
American Buffalo, American Pie and Down to Earth.
Adjusting Printer Lightsto Match a Sample Clip

by Bill Taylor, ASC

H ere’s a low-tech but usefully accurate method for modifying printer lights
“in the field” to match the color of a film clip, using CC Wratten filters.
You’ll need a light box with a color temperature around 5400°K, a cardboard
mask with two closely-spaced, side-by-side frame-size holes cut into it and a set
of color correction filters of .05, .10, .20, .30, .40, and .50 values in Yellow,
Cyan, Magenta, and Neutral Density. (Kodak Wratten CC filters are expensive
and fragile to use as viewing filters, however they will last a long time if handled
carefully. PC filters retired from darkroom or still photo use are just fine. You
may be able to find less-expensive plastic substitutes.) You’ll also need a loupe
with a field big enough to see at least part of both frames.
Put the mask on the light box, put the sample print film clip (the one to match)
over the left-hand mask aperture. Put the target print (to be reprinted) over the
right-hand aperture. (The mask keeps your eyes from being dazzled by white
light leaking around the film frame.)
It’s a two-step process.
MATCH OVERALL BRIGHTNESS
Looking at the midtones of the two prints, add ND filters under one clip or the
other until the brightness is an approximate match. It’s much easier if there’s a
similar subject in both frames!
COLOR ADJUSTMENT
Estimate the color shift needed to bring the color of the target clip around to
match the sample. For example if the sample is a too blue, add yellow filters. If
it’s too cyan, add yellow and magenta. If the target clip now looks too dark with
the color filters added, remove some ND from the target (or add it to the
sample). With practice, you’ll be able to get a reasonable match. From time to
time, look away for a moment at a neutral color so your eyes will not get tired.
Now add up the color filters (ignore the ND’s for now). Let’s say you added a
total CC .15 magenta and .30 yellow to the target print. Consult the table below
for the correction needed in printer points.
ADJUSTING THE PRINTER LIGHTS
Make the first correction of the printing lights, adjusting color only. The
printer lights are usually listed in Cyan, Magenta, Yellow order on the light card,
or the corresponding printer filters Red, Green and Blue, respectively. But don’t
think about Red, Green and Blue when you’re dealing with color print! The
layers in color print produce Cyan, Magenta and Yellow dye, so if you think in
those terms, you can’t get confused.
Let’s say the hypothetical target print, which needs 2 printer points of
Magenta and 4 points of Yellow to bring it around, originally printed on C 25, M
22 and Y 34.
Adding 2 points of Magenta and 4 points of yellow yields an adjusted printer
light of C 25, M 24 and Y 38.
Now let’s get back to the ND’s. Assume you wound up with .30 ND over the
target print, which was too light as well as needing the color correction. Per the
table, you should add 4 printer points across. So the new, final printing light is C
29, M 28, and Y 42.
If you had to lay the ND filters over the sample print instead, that meant that
the target print was too dark. So subtract the neutral printer point adjustment
instead of adding. If it needs to be .30 daarker, subtract 4 printer points across,
and so forth.
This method requires mid-tones in both clips. If the target clip is mostly
highlights (on the “toe” of the print curve), it will take more correction to
“move” them to where you want. Obviously a burned-out specular highlight on
the print will not change at all from a modest printer light correction.
A very dark scene is also hard to correct. Adjust the lightest detail you can
find, preferably a skin tone.
With experience the filter adjustments will become second nature easy and the
arithmetic automatic; you’ll be calling lights like a film lab timer.
Cinemagic of the Optical Printer

by Linwood G. Dunn, ASC

Lin Dunn, the author of this article, is one of the motion-picture industry’s
most accomplished pioneers. Involved with the design and origins of the first
optical printers, Dunn remained vibrantly active in the industry throughout his
life and applauded the introduction of CGI techniques that, in many ways,
obviated many of the needs for his optical printer. Dunn is responsible for the
effects you can and can’t see in Citizen Kane, and literally hundreds of film
projects after that. He was always on the cutting edge, and in his nineties
founded of one of the first companies to develop digital cinema, Real Image
Digital. Dunn’s passing in May 1998 was a loss to all who were fortunate
enough to be on the receiving end of his generous knowledge and skill; his was
also the loss of one of our remaining links to Hollywood’s earliest days. Winner
of the Gordon E. Sawyer Academy Award from the Motion Picture Academy of
Arts and Sciences, and a past President of the ASC, Dunn penned an article that
is as relevant today as when he first wrote it. — Editor

T he earliest optical printers were custom-built by the major studios and film
laboratories, and were usually designed and made in their own shops to fit
their particular requirements. Modern standardized optical printing equipment,
capable of creating the innumerable effects heretofore possible only in the major
studios, became available to the entire motion picture industry in 1943 with the
introduction of the Acme-Dunn Optical Printer, designed and built for the United
States Armed Forces Photographic Units. Later the Oxberry, Producers Service,
Research Products and other optical printers appeared on the market.
Commercial availability of this type of equipment greatly stimulated and
widened the scope of the special-effects field. Even the smallest film producers
could now make motion pictures with special effects limited only by their
imagination and budgets, utilizing the services of growing numbers of
independent special-effects laboratories which could now operate competitively
using equipment available to all.
Developments over the years of more sophisticated equipment, new
duplicating films, special-purpose lenses and improved film-processing
techniques, as well as skilled technicians, have increased the use of the optical
printer to a point where its great creative and economic value is common
knowledge in the motion-picture industry. In more recent years, the adaptation of
computer technology to the optical-effects printer has basically simplified the
control and accuracy of some of its important functions, thus making it much
easier to produce certain complex visual effects at lower cost, as well as to
greatly expand its creative scope. This has made it possible to program, record
and repeat the movement of certain of its devices with such a degree of accuracy
that area-blocking functions can now produce traveling matte composite scenes
heretofore highly impractical, if not impossible. One can truly say that the
creative capability of the modern visual-effects optical printer is only limited by
the creative talent and technical skills of the operator. In recent years, such major
film productions as Star Wars, The Black Hole, The Empire Strikes Back and
Cocoon have all utilized the full capabilities of the modern optical printer to
create a whole new world of imaginative creativity through their extensive use of
very sophisticated motion-picture visual effects. The following list of some of
the work that is done on the modern optical printer will illustrate its vast scope
and tremendous importance to modern filmmaking.
TRANSITIONAL EFFECTS
Employed to create a definite change in time or location between scenes. The
fade, lap dissolve, wipe-off, push-off, ripple dissolve, out-of-focus or diffusion
dissolve, flip-over, page turn, zoom dissolve, spin-in and out, and an unlimited
variety of film matte wipe effects are all typical examples of the many optical
transitional effects possible.
CHANGE OF SIZE OR POSITION
May be used to eliminate unwanted areas, obtain closer angles for extra
editing cuts, reposition action for multiple-exposure framing, including
montages and backgrounds for titles.
FRAME SEQUENCE MODIFICATION
Screen action may be sped up or slowed down in order to: convert old 16 fps
silent films to standard 24 fps sound speed; change speed of action and length of
certain scenes or sections of scenes; provide spot frame modification to give
realism to specific action in fights, falls, chases, etc.; hold a specific frame for
freeze effects and for title backgrounds; add footage for comedy effects; reverse
direction of printing to lengthen action and for special effects use; extend scenes
through multiple-frame printing for action analysis in instrumentation, training
and educational films.
OPTICAL ZOOM
Optical zoom is used to change frame-area coverage and image size during
forward and reverse zooming action in order to: produce a dramatic or impact
effect (according to speed of the move); counteract or add to the speed and
motion of camera zooms or dolly shots; reframe by enlargement and/or add
footage to either end of camera zooms or dolly shots by extending the range of
moves; momentarily eliminate unwanted areas or objects by zooming forward
and back at specific footage points (such as when a microphone or lamp is
accidentally framed in during part of a scene); add optical zoom to static scene to
match camera zoom or dolly in a superimposure. The out-of-focus zoom also is
effective to depict delirium, blindness, retrospect, transition, etc.
SUPERIMPOSURE
Superimposure is the capability used to print an image from one or more films
overlaid on one film. This is commonly done in positioning title lettering over
backgrounds. Also used for montages, visionary effects, bas relief; adding snow,
rain, fog, fire, clouds, lightning flashes, sparks, water reflections and a myriad of
other light effects.
SPLIT SCREEN
Employed for multiple image, montage effects, dual roles played by one actor,
for dangerous animals shown appearing in the same scene with people (as in
Bringing Up Baby, which shows Katharine Hepburn working with a leopard
throughout the picture), where such split screens move with the action. Matte
paintings often utilize this technique when live-action areas require manipulation
within an involved composite scene.
QUALITY MANIPULATION
The quality of a scene, or an area within a scene, may be altered in order to
create an entirely new scene or special effect or to match it in with other scenes.
There are innumerable ways to accomplish this, such as adding or reducing
diffusion, filtering, matting and dodging areas, and altering contrast. Often
library stock material must be modified to fill certain needs, such as creating
night scenes from day; reproducing black-and-white on color film through
filtering, printed masks or appropriately coloring certain areas through localized
filtering; and the combining of certain areas of two or more scenes to obtain a
new scene, such as the water from one scene and the terrain or clouded sky of
another.
ADDING MOTION
Employed to create the effect of spinning or rotating, as in plane and auto
interiors and in certain montage effects; rocking motion for boat action, sudden
jarring or shaking the scene for explosion and earthquake effects; distortion in
motion through special lenses for drunk, delirious and visionary effects.
GENERAL USES OF THE OPTICAL PRINTER
The preceding represent some of the special categories of effects that can be
produced on the optical printer. The following are a few of the more important
general uses employing this useful cinematic tool.

Traveling Mattes
Used to matte a foreground action into a background film made at another
time. The various matte systems in use today require the optical printer in order
to properly manipulate the separate films to obtain a realistic-quality matching
balance between them when combined into a composite. Use of this process has
greatly increased as modern techniques produce improved results at reduced
costs. Motion control, referred to earlier, has greatly widened the scope of this
visual-effects category.

Blow-Ups and Reductions

The fixed set-up optical printer is used for 16mm reduction negatives and
prints, and for certain limited release printing from 35mm originals. This is
utilized when small volume makes this procedure more economical than through
a converted negative, and when maximum quality is of greatest importance.
Enlarging from 16mm to 35mm color or black-and-white is a very important
function of the optical printer. Many fine theatrical films, such as the Academy
Award-winning The Sea Around Us, The Living Desert and Scenes From a
Marriage, have been photographed in 16mm, and have enjoyed great financial
success through 35mm release prints made from 35mm blow-up internegatives.
Special new lenses, raw stocks and immersed-movement printing have
enhanced the overall quality to a point where the 16mm–35mm blow-up medium
is presently enjoying very successful commercial usage. Conversions between
65mm and 35mm are also an important function of the optical printer.
Productions made in almost any film format are being release-printed in different
types to meet certain theatrical distribution requirements. The Concert for
Bangladesh was the first feature-length film to be enlarged from 16mm color
internegative directly to 70mm theater prints.

Anamorphic Conversions
The standard optical printer equipped with a specially designed “squeeze” or
“unsqueeze” lens can be used to produce anamorphic prints from “flat” images,
or the function reversed. The possibility of the “flat” or spherical film being
converted for anamorphic projection without serious loss of quality has greatly
widened this field of theatrical exhibition. The manipulations available on the
optical printer also make it possible to scan and reposition any scenes that
require reframing when converted to or from widescreen proportion.
DOCTORING, MODIFYING AND SALVAGING
Some of the important uses of the optical printer are not recognized as special
effects in the finished film, and often are not apparent as such even to skilled
motion-picture technicians. One of these applications is the field of “doctoring”
by modifying scenes that, for a variety of reasons, may not be acceptable for use.
This includes salvaging scenes that are completely unusable due to some
mechanical failure or human error during photography; and also the modification
of stock film material through the various methods noted to fit specific
requirements. Many expensive retakes have been avoided by the ingenious
application of such optical-printing reclamation techniques. The liquid, or
immersion, film gate produces dramatic results in the removal of scratches.
Citizen Kane is an excellent example of scene modifications created on the
optical printer during the postproduction period. New ideas were applied to
existing production scenes for which new supplementary scenes were
photographed and integrated to enhance and create various new concepts.
In It’s A Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, an important scene was photographed in
which a truck was supposed to back into a shack and knock it over. The
breakaway shack was rigged to collapse when wires were pulled on cue. Signals
became crossed, and the shack was pulled down well before the truck touched it.
A very costly retake was indicated, so the optical printer was called to the rescue.
The task of correcting the error through a split screen seemed relatively simple
until it was discovered that the camera panned with the falling shack. It then
became necessary to plot and move the split matching point frame-by-frame on
the optical printer to follow the pan. Through this traveling split-screen
technique, the progress of the shack’s falling action was delayed until the truck
had reached the point of impact. Perhaps the entire cost of the optical printer was
saved by this salvaging job alone. Such clever techniques have been used many
times to bring explosions close to people working in a scene, such as in One
Minute to Zero, where a line of so-called refugees were “blown to bits” by
artillery shelling. Split screens in motion and trick cuts, with superimposed
smoke and flame, did the job in a most effective manner.
NEW SYSTEMS
The optical printer is being used to develop new horizons in the creation of
special camera moves within an oversized aperture. This is particularly effective
in the creation of camera movement in a composite scene, such as one involving
a matte painting, thereby giving a greater illusion of reality. VistaVision and
various 65mm negative formats, including 15-perforation IMAX and 8-
perforation Dynavision as well as standard 5-perforation frames, lend themselves
to this technique.
Copying onto 4-perforation 35mm makes possible spectacular pans, zooms,
dolly shots, etc., without sacrificing screen quality, and with full control over
such movements, all of which are created on the optical printer in the
internegative stage and made during the postproduction period. Use of this
technique makes it possible to avoid time-consuming and complicated setups
during production, with the added advantage of flexibility in later change of
ideas.
Probably the most exciting new optical-printing development has been in the
field of electronics. The adaptation of video image transfer through sophisticated
high-resolution scanning systems, in conjunction with the new developments in
cathode-ray tubes, lenses, film-moving mechanisms, special-purpose film stocks
and the latest research in electronic image compositing, have opened up exciting
new vistas in special visual effects. The modification of filmed color motion-
picture images through computerized electronic transfer back to film is making it
possible to create photographic effects on film or tape faster, more economically,
and with a scope of creativity heretofore not possible. The ability to easily and
quickly transfer areas or moving objects from one film to another through their
instantaneous electronic isolation and self-matting will be of tremendous
economic benefit in this area of film production, as well as in stimulating
creativity in the wider use of special effects.
Motion-Control Cinematography

by Richard Edlund, ASC

I n the 1970s the modern technique of motion-control liberated the long

locked-off effects camera from its tripod, giving it freedom to move,
becoming an inseparable part of film grammar. Digital image tracking has pulled
out the remaining stops, giving complete freedom to the director of photography
who wants no restriction of camera movement.
Prior to the advent of digital technology, repetitve control of motion had been
attempted with various degrees of success by using analog wire recorders,
Selsyn motors and gears, even by hand-cranking mechanisms using a
metronome for synchronization. Finally, solid-state digital electronics made it
possible to accurately record and play back motion with sufficient reliability to
achieve the robotic camera systems necessary to produce the dog-fight and space
sequences in Star Wars. How appropriate that this technology was born of the
space race in the late 1960s. The phenomenal success of Star Wars brought on
the modern renaissance of motion-picture visual effects, and since that time, a
clear majority of the top boxoffice grossers are “effects films” that have relied on
motion-control and image tracking for crucial scenes.
To define it, motion control comprises an electromechanical system that
allows for the physical motions of a camera and/or other objects—such as
models mounted on motorized gimbals, tracks, etc., to be digitally recorded,
enabling successive passes to be photographed “on the fly” with the
corresponding motion blur characteristics of normal motion picture cameras.
Thus, in combination with traveling matte systems of varying kinds,
foregrounds and backgrounds of differing scales can be combined using a
moving camera. Composites became possible that could combine separately
photographed actors, miniatures, lighting effects, background paintings,
pyrotechnics, and myriad other creative possibilities. With the use of
synchronized video playback systems, actors could perform within virtual or
separately photographed sets and locations, or can interact with themselves,
other performers, creatures or miniatures shot previously or subsequently.
Several companies have developed hybrid field motion-control systems.
These incorporate specially built or modified gearheads and dollies, which have
differing and various facilities, such as panning, tilting, booming, follow-focus,
remote operation, preprogrammability, ease of set-up, quietness of operation for
sound, high tracking speed, long distance of travel, and adaptability to various
production cameras and visual effects cameras.
A visual effects supervisor who is familiar with this paraphernalia should be
available to collaborate with the director, director of photography, first assistant
director, production designer, and other appropriate crew members to achieve the
proper set-up for any given plate. Of course there is responsibility to achieve any
given plate within reasonable and predictable set-up time, and for this reason
careful preproduction planning is necessary between the contracted visual effects
facility and the unit production manager. When shooting bluescreen or
greenscreen scenes involving actors within the principal production schedule, the
wardrobe should be discussed with the visual effects supervisor to make an
attempt to avoid certain colors that might cause matting problems in
postproduction.
MOTION-CONTROL EXTENDS
Cinematic Capabilities
Motion-control systems are useful in many ways for visual effects. The
following list is certainly not exhaustive:
1. The ability to program model shots so that the motion of objects in an effects
scene is believable, and to preview these moves and modify them as needed
for approval.
2. The ability to repeat these scenes for front-light/back-light or front-
light/front-light matte passes if needed.
3. The ability to repeat these scenes for enhancement effects such as engine
passes, running lights, smoke-room effects, filtration, etc.
4. Precision flyby and extremely close approaches to objects can be
accomplished smoothly and in perfect (programmable) focus.
5. Stop-motion and other forms of animation can be subsequently included in
live-action scenes that have field recorded moving camera data.
6. Massive rig removals on stage or on location can be easily accomplished with
moving split-screen techniques by shooting a clean pass of the background
once the director is satisfied with any given take.

Motion Tracking Further Extends Cinematic Capabilities

Modern digital tracking systems have emerged which enable the use of a
normal (nonmotion-control) production camera on set, and even Steadicam,
which enable the precise camera moves to be mathematically recaptured in a
digital post production environment. This technique, while not inexpensive,
offers much greater creative freedom on set and saves the production time cost
of setting up motion-control cameras, gearheads, dollies, etc. It is also a
technique which is in constant development by various effects houses and
equipment and software vendors, and that continues to advance. When this
technique is to be deployed, it is necessary to shoot geometrically perfect grids,
noting focus setting and object to camera distances to aid the computer graphics
technicians in discovering the precise distortion characteristics and actual focal
length of the particular taking lens that was used.
In most cases, the prospect of using such techniques requires a survey of the
set, and/or the use of precisely spaced witness points placed in the set. On long
shots, for example, red tennis balls are placed within the shot, and will be
painted out during the composite process. The exact positional relationship of
these markers must be recorded for use in the mathematically intensive move
regeneration process during post-production.
There are production cranes and gearheads available which have encoders on
the movement axes which enable the recording of move and position data only
for scenes that will have subsequent computer graphic enhancements.
In practice, the production company is best advised to contract with a visual
effects supervisor and/or visual effects company to aid production in the carrying
out of specific shots and sequences that require these approaches.

Motion-Control Equipment: Visual-Effects Studio

An ideal motion-control system for photographing miniatures consists of a
steady pin-registered camera with a motorized follow-focus system mounted on
a pan-tilt-roll gearhead (wherein the nodal point of the lens can be situated at the
vertex of all three axes) attached to a rotatable boom arm that rides on a track of
at least 50 feet in length.
Various model movers, rotators, or pylons are usually mounted on another
track of 20 feet or so set perpendicular to the camera track. There are many
variations on this basic theme incorporating various levels of engineering
prowess within the industry and the precision and reliability of such systems
provide the operators with different levels of creative freedom. An electronic
control system runs the motors, then stores the motion files created by the
operator. Usually stepping motors are used unless considerable speed or power is
needed, in which case DC closed-loop servo motors are used.
Studio motion-control equipment often has provisions to control the camera
shutter angle over a wide range in order to control the motion blur of objects
being photographed. The exposure range is from about 1⁄4 second to extremely
long. Most systems have several ways to program moves and any or all of the
following methods may be used.
Joysticks (usually potentiometers or rotary optical shaft encoders) are often
used to manually program the motors that operate the various parts of the
system. The joystick might be used to program one motion-controllable
motorized function at a time, (i.e., pan, tilt, track, model rotator, etc.), and as the
programming proceeds, these motion files are recorded one at a time and played
back in concert until all of the functions necessary to the particular shot are
completed. The result is similar to remote controlling a model airplane or car and
making an exact record of what happened.
Using another programming technique, the joystick can be used to move the
components of the system to a series of start and end positions while a record is
made of these key positions, then subsequently commanding the system to
generate a mathematically smooth path through these points. Much more
complex methods of move generation are available using computer graphics.
There are many bells and whistles available which include move-smoothing
programs, even the use of a digital graphics tablet which enables visual
modification of graphically displayed motion curves; and other specialized
software ad infinitum.
The move files can be edited and modified in as many ways as there are
motion-control systems. A few commercial electronic motion-control systems
are available, as well as mechanical systems, the most ubiquitous being the
Kuper system which recently received a Scientific and Engineering Oscar®.

Motion-Control Equipment: Field

If it is necessary to use motion-control in the field (defined here as outside the
walls of a visual effects studio, with the camera operating at sound speed), there
are different requirements. The director will almost always need a moving
camera, and if this is to be done, much of the following will be required:
1. A steady camera, which is slavable to the motion-control electronics, which
will provide frame/shutter position accuracy in successive passes. Though
not always imperative, the camera should be silent so dialogue can be
recorded. It should have a synchronized videotap and playback system that
can be slaved to the motion-control electronics.
2. A reliable motion-controlled follow-focus system. Double-pass shots must
exactly repeat.
3. A pan-tilt motion-control gearhead, which by any of a variety of techniques
can provide scaleable lens entrance-pupil positions for postproduction use on
less than full-scale props or miniatures. This pan-tilt head must have a
remote operating console with hand-wheels and video monitor, and in
practice it is little different than using a remote head. Usually such a head
will use DC servo motors to provide a normal to high-speed pan-tilt range.
Again, silence of operation is often important.
4. A dolly with track, having a powerful tracking motor, and a motorized boom,
with positional encoders on both axes which enable dolly grip control as in
normal shots, or remote operation, or pre-programmed moves. Ideally, the
above equipment should be as standard as possible in appearance and
operational characteristics, and operate on quickly deployable dolly track.
5. A motion-control electronics console, operated by a technician who can
efficiently log and store motion files shot-by-shot, and do this as invisibly as
possible to the rest of the production crew.
6. A videotap flicker-free system, which can store shots as they are made, and
play them back instantly for directorial scrutiny. It is often necessary that this
system be able to provide on-the-spot video composites for comparisons of A
to B scene action, and the ability to playback A while recording B, etc. The
video requirements will vary with the shot requirements.
7. A bookkeeping detail which can log actors’ positions, distances, etc.; camera
and track positions within the set; and other mathematical and geographical
information for use in postproduction. Again, this should happen
systematically and invisibly to the rest of the production crew.

Motion-Control Technique
When working on Star Wars, we started with an empty building and had to
amass, modify and build our motion-control equipment before we could produce
any images. We had created visual “violins” and had to learn to play them.
Fortunately, the picture hit and a large audience showed up for our motion-
control recitals. Since then, many innovations have come about in the equipment
and many excellent motion-control cinematographers have appeared, and with
many specialty techniques. In the studio there are two main techniques for
programming motion files: one is to use start and end positions for each axis of
motion and have the computer generate the moves; the other allows the
cameraperson to generate the move by joystick. It is my opinion that the
computer-generated method is superior for graphics and animation purposes, and
the human interface is best for most miniature and model photography. If shots
are created using a computer, the moves will have mathematically perfect
curves, slow-ins, slow-outs, etc., and will have no heartbeat or verve, especially
in action sequences, therefore becoming subliminally predictable and less
interesting to the audience. The human operator is not interested in mathematical
perfection, rather, they tailor the camera move moment by moment to what is
interesting in their viewfinder. This human sense of curiosity is present in the
work of a talented operator, and it transfers to the audience.
Richard Edlund, ASC currently serves on the Academy of Motion Picture Arts
and Sciences Board of Governors and is a chairman of the Academy’s Scientific
and Technical Awards Committee as well as the Academy’s Visual Effects
Branch. He has been awarded Oscars® for visual effects in Star Wars, The
Empire Strikes Back, Raiders of the Lost Ark and Return of the Jedi.
Greenscreen and Bluescreen Photography

by Bill Taylor ASC and Petro Vlahos

OVERVIEW

G reenscreen and bluescreen composites begin with foreground action

photographed against a plain backing of a single primary color. In a digital
postproduction process, the foreground action is combined with a new
background. The new background can be live action, digital or traditional
models, artwork or animation, or any combination.
For the sake of simplicity, we’ll refer to “greenscreen” shots, with the
understanding that the “screen” or “backing” can instead be blue or even red.
These composites (and others using related technology) are also called
“traveling matte” shots because they depend on creating an Alpha-channel
silhouette “mask” or “matte” image of the foreground action that changes and
travels within the frame.
The final composite is usually created in postproduction, although real-time,
full resolution on-set compositing1 is possible in HD video.
FIX IT IN POST
Production and post-production are not only separated in the budget, they are
too often separated by a huge cultural gulf. The driving force of production is
time, and in the name of speed it’s very easy to take shortcuts that have a
disastrous downstream impact. “Fixing in post” can cost hundreds of thousands
over the scope of a film and jam up an already tight post schedule. Furthermore
there is no “post fix” possible for some on-set mistakes. We describe here what
have proven to be the best practices, materials and equipment available for this
work.
For ease of reference, we’ll deal with the most-requested topic first:
HOW TO EXPOSE A GREENSCREEN SHOT, AND WHY
Balancing Screen (Backing) Brightness to the Shooting Stop
Let’s assume that the camera choices are optimal, screen materials and
lighting are ideal, and the foreground lighting matches the background lighting
perfectly. (All these topics are dealt with later in this chapter.)

Figure 1. Schematic H&D curve

A common misconception is that backing brightness should be adjusted to

match the level of foreground illumination. In fact, the optimum backing
brightness depends only on the f-stop at which the scene is shot. Thus, normally
lit day scenes and low-key night scenes require the same backing brightness if
the appropriate f-stop is the same for both scenes. The goal is to achieve the
same blue or green density on the negative, or at the sensor, in the backing area
for every shot at any f-stop.
The ideal blue or green density is toward the upper end of the straight-line
portion of the H and D curve, but not on the shoulder of this curve, where the
values are compressed. Figure 1 shows an idealized H&D curve, a graph which
shows how the color negative responds to increasing exposure. In film, each
color record has a linear section, where density increases in direct proportion to
exposure, and a “toe” and a “shoulder” where shadows and highlights
respectively can still be distinguished but are compressed. Eight stops of
exposure range can comfortably fit on the H&D curve, a range only recently
achieved by digital cameras. The “white point” is shown for all three records: the
density of a fully exposed white shirt which still has detail.
Imagine a plume of black smoke shot against a white background. It’s a
perfect white: the measured brightness is the same in red, green, and blue
records.
The density of the smoke in the left-hand image ranges from dead black to just
a whisper. What exposure of that white backing will capture the full range of
transparencies of that smoke plume?
Obviously, it’s the best-compromise exposure that lands the white backing at
the white point toward the top of the straight line portion of the H&D curve in
film (a white-shirt white) or a level of 90% in video, and brings most of the dark
values in the smoke up off the toe. If the backing was overexposed, the thin
wisps would be pushed onto the shoulder and compressed (or clipped in video)
and pinched out by lens flare. If the backing was underexposed (reproduced as a
shade of grey), detail in the darkest areas would fall on the toe to be compressed
or lost entirely.
Figure 2. Normal and underexposed smoke plumes

You could make up for underexposure by boosting the image contrast or

making a levels adjustment (remapping the brightness range to a wider gamut).
As the right hand image in Figure 2 shows, boosting contrast makes the backing
white (clear) again, but tonal range is lost (the dark tones block up), the edges of
the smoke become harder, and noise is exaggerated. The effect of a levels
adjustment is subtler, (and preferable), though extreme levels adjustments betray
the missing tonal values with banding or blocking.
Now imagine that instead of a white screen, we’re shooting the smoke plume
against a greenscreen and that the measured green brightness is the same as
before. What’s the best exposure for the greenscreen? Obviously, it’s the same as
before. The only difference is that the red and blue-sensitive layers aren’t
exposed.
Just like the smoke plume, greenscreen foregrounds potentially contain a full
range of transparencies, ranging from completely opaque to barely there.
Transparent subject matter can include motion blur, smoke, glassware,
reflections in glass windows, wispy hair, gauzy cloth, and shadows.
To reproduce the full range of transparency, the greenscreen should be fully
but not overexposed. In other words, its brightness should match the green
component of a well-exposed white object like a white shirt; roughly defined as
the whitest white in the foreground that still has detail. (We don’t want to expose
that white shirt as top white, because we want to leave some headroom for
specular reflections, on the shoulder in film, 100% and over in video.)

Figure 3. White card in set, lit to shooting stop (incident reading)

SETTING SCREEN BRIGHTNESS
Meter readings of blue- and greenscreens can be misleading. Some exposure
meters respond inconsistently to monochrome color, especially blue, and some
are affected by the high levels of UV coming from green and blue tubes. A
waveform monitor on a digital camera is the most accurate and informative
source of exposure information available. For film shoots, or if a waveform
monitor is not available, the most reliable method for balancing a blue or green
screen is still by eye, with the White Card Method:

White Card Method for Screen Balancing

1. Choose the f-stop at which the scene is to be shot. Let’s say it is f4. Position a
90% reflectance white card in the acting area and light it to an incident light
reading2 of f4, keeping the spill light off the backing. The white card is now
lit to the brightest tone that still has detail (white shirt white) even though the
actual set lighting may not reach that level.
2. View the white card against the screen through a Wratten No. 99 green filter.
(Use a Wratten No. 98 blue filter for a blue backing.) In a pinch, Primary
Green or Primary Blue lighting gels, folded to several thicknesses, will serve.
3. Adjust the backing brightness so that the white card blends into the backing.
The circle overlay in Figure 3 shows the view through the filter. When the
edges of the card are invisible or nearly invisible, the green light coming
from the screen is now the same brightness as the green light component
coming from the f4 white card. (If you were to photograph the white card
now, the red, blue and green components coming from the card would
reproduce near the top of the straight line portion of the curve. Since the
greenscreen matches the brightness of the green component coming from the
white card, the green layer will also be exposed near the top of the straight
line portion of the curve, without overexposure.) The backing will now
expose properly at f4.
If it is easier to adjust set lighting than backing brightness, the procedure can
be reversed. Adjust the white card’s light until the card blends in, then take an
incident reading. Light the set to that f-stop.
The white card procedure needs to be done only once for a given screen and
illuminator setup. For the rest of the shoot, a quick spotmeter reading will
confirm the brightness and exposure needed. Once the backing brightness is set,
the spot meter may be calibrated for use with the appropriate color filter to read
f-stops directly: Wratten No. 99 + 2B for green; Wratten No. 98 (or 47B + 2B)
for blue. (The UV filters—built into the No. 98—ensure that UV from the tubes
does not affect the reading.) Simply adjust the meter’s ISO speed setting until the
reading from the screen yields the target f-stop (f4 in the example above). It’s
advisable to use the same individual meters (not just the same models) for the
shoot as was used for testing.
Just as in the smoke plume example, more exposure is counterproductive; it
pinches out fine detail due to image spread and pushes the backing values into
the nonlinear range of the film or video sensor. Slight underexposure is
preferable to overexposure, but more than a stop of underexposure is also
counterproductive; the software will have to make up matte density by boosting
contrast or a levels adjustment.
LEVELS FOR DIGITAL ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Most of the same considerations apply as in film photography. It’s particularly
important that none of the color channels be driven into highlight nonlinearity or
“clip”, allowing some headroom for specular highlights. If the screen lighting
can be adjusted independently of the set, light the screen to an IRE video level of
about 90% in the appropriate channel, as shown on the waveform monitor.

Figure 4. Waveform display showing Green at 90%

Figure 5. Greenscreen with white strip in same light

The waveform display Figure 4 show the 4 channels of the image of a

greenscreen displayed in “parade mode”: Y or Luminance (brightness), Red,
Green and Blue. The display tells us a lot about the subject, which is a
greenscreen filling the width of the frame and exposed to a level of 90% IRE.
(Note that 100% IRE represents the full scale of brightness from black to white.
IRE values are expressed as a relative percentage because a video signal can be
any amplitude.) The traces are flat in all channels, showing that the screen was
evenly illuminated across its width. Since this screen was lit with white light,
there is a substantial level of Red and Green contamination present, and the
relative amount is shown clearly. (Had it been lit with Kino Green fluorescents,
the Red and Blue values would be close to 0.)
The difference in level between Green and Blue (indicated by the white
double-headed arrow in Figure 4) is the headroom that the software exploits to
create the Alpha channel. The greater the difference, the less the software will
need to boost the contrast of the Alpha channel. The waveform monitor makes it
a simple matter to compare paints and materials,
However If the screen and the action must be lit together, a value of about 80
IRE on the waveform monitor is the maximum level at which the screen can be
exposed without clipping the whites in the foreground. Including a strip of white
card lit to the same level as the green screen, as in Figure 5, and the
corresponding waveform display Figure 6 shows why. With Green at 80, the
white card (indicated by the three white arrows in Figure 6) is at 90; more
exposure would push the white into clip. In practice a slight underexposure is
preferable to overexposure.
Too much underexposure is undesirable. In Figure 7, the Green level has been
set to IRE 45. There is now significantly less difference between Green and Blue
levels available to create the matte image in the Alpha channel.
Digital cameras like Arri Alexa and Sony F65 have even greater dynamic
range than film, with more latitude for exposure in the linear (nonclipping)
range. In these cameras the waveform monitor can be set to read the “log C”
transform (preferable to Rec. 709) of the camera’s “Raw” or data mode. Lacking
a waveform monitor, it’s a safe bet to set exposure for these cameras as you
would a film negative.

Figure 6. Waveform display showing Green at 80%, White at 90%

Figure 7. Waveform display showing Green at 45%
FUNCTION OF THE BACKING – GREEN, BLUE OR RED
The purpose of the blue or green backing is to give the software an
unambiguous distinction between the color hues and values in the foreground
and the monochromatic backing. White and black backgrounds are used in
special circumstances to create “luminance masks” or “luma keys” but since it is
likely that similar luminance values will be found in the foreground, these
backings have limited use.
The degree to which the compositing software “sees” the backing determines
the degree of transparency of the foreground in the final composite. That
transparency can be expressed as a percentage: Where the backing value is zero
in the Alpha channel image, the foreground is completely opaque; where the
backing value is 50% the foreground will be partly transparent, and so forth for
all values to 100%, the areas of the frame where the foreground image is either
not present or completely transparent. The goal is to retain the foreground
subjects’ edge transitions (including motion blur), color and transparency in the
final composite.
HOW THE SOFTWARE CREATES THE COMPOSITE
The software uses the difference between the backing color and the colors
found in the foreground to accomplish four tasks:
1. Optimally it will correct nonuniformity in the backing (the screen correction
function, not available in all software packages).
2. It must create a silhouette matte (the alpha channel) of the foreground action.
3. It must create a processed foreground in which all traces of the backing color
are suppressed (turned black or neutralized), while the foreground color is
carried through unchanged.
4. Finally, it must bring all the elements together into a believable composite.

Figure 8a & b. Orignal photography, silhouette (Alpha) matte

THE ALPHA CHANNEL
The alpha or matte channel (the channel which carries transparency
information) is a gray scale image in which the foreground image is a silhouette.
The silhouette may be imagined as black against clear (and all the values in
between) (Figure 9b) or with its values inverted, clear against black.
The alpha channel represents the difference in color between the backing color
and the colors in the foreground subject. The matte’s numerical level at any pixel
is proportional to the visibility of the backing.

The Processed Foreground

The original image contains the green backing and the foreground subject.
Green is limited so that it cannot exceed red or blue, which has the effect of
turning the screen into a dark, near-neutral tone. The green backing is further
reduced to a black backing by subtracting a proportion of the Alpha (matte)
signal equal to the RGB content in each channel where the green backing shows.
All of the screen color seen through transparent and translucent subjects likewise
disappears. The subject appears to have been photographed against a perfectly
black backing. This is the processed foreground image (see Figure 10a).
If the foreground subject (actor) is close to the backing or standing on a green
floor, the subject will have a green color cast due to reflected (bounce) light from
the floor and from lens flare. (This reflected light from the screen is sometimes
called “spill,” but it should not be confused with the spill light from the subject’s
lighting falling on the screen.) No attempt should be made to remove this color
with filters on the lights or camera, or with color correction in transfer. All
backing contamination is removed from the subject by the compositing
software’s white, gray and black balance controls.
Blue bounce is much harder to see on the set than green, but just as
troublesome in the composite. There is no difference between greenscreens and
bluescreens of the same brightness as far as bounce is concerned. A dark blue or
green will bounce less, but dark colors have too little color saturation to make a
high-quality matte.
Figure 9a & b. Background image, background image multiplied by
silhouette matte

The order in which the foreground is processed is important. Noise reduction

to the foreground should be applied when the processed foreground is made,
before the Alpha is created, while color correction should wait until the final
composite.
THE COMPOSITE
Once the Processed Foreground and the Alpha Channel are made, the final
composite is a straightforward two-step operation. First the values in the Alpha
Channel image are multiplied pixel-by-pixel with the background image. The
result is a silhouette of the foreground combined with the background image (see
Figure 9b).
Then the processed foreground is added pixel-by-pixel to the combined Alpha
and background. If good practices have been followed, the final result is a
seamless combination of foreground and background images (see Figure 10b).

Figure 10a & b. Processed foreground, final composite

DISTINCTIONS FROM OTHER COMPOSITING METHODS
Projection Composites
Rear projection or front projection creates a projected background on-set
behind a live action foreground. No postproduction work is needed. Creating a
high quality background image with projection is challenging. (Incidentally, a
green or blue backing can be created by front-projecting the appropriate color.)
All the issues of projection such as shadow lines and screen uniformity apply.

Rotoscoping
“Rotoscoping” or “roto” is another method for making alpha-channel
composites. The alpha-channel masks are created by hand-tracing the outline of
the foreground action frame-by-frame. This technique of tracing live action
(named by its inventor, the pioneer cartoonist Max Fleischer) is now more
refined and widely used than ever, because 3-D conversion depends on it. It is
extremely labor intensive but very flexible, since no special backing or lighting
is required.
Present-day computer-assisted rotoscoping can produce excellent composites.
Nearly all the composites of foreground actors in Flags of Our Fathers (2006)
were created by rotoscoping. Good planning was the key to avoiding difficult
foreground subjects. It helped a lot that many of the actors wore helmets,
simplifying their silhouettes.
Some foregrounds are poor candidates for rotoscoping. For example if the
foreground has a bright, burned-out sky behind it, it will flare into and even
destroy the edge of the foreground. Flare can be very difficult to deal with
(unless of course the final background is also a bright, burned out sky.) Fine
detail and blurred motion are also difficult or impossible to roto, often requiring
paintwork replacement. The skill of the artists is the single most important
factor.
Rough roto masks (“G mattes”) are often used with green screen compositing,
to clean up contaminated areas of the backing, remove unwanted supports, and
so forth.
SCREEN CHOICES: FABRIC, PAINT AND PLASTIC
MATERIALS
The best materials currently available are the result of years of research to
create optimal combinations of lamps. dyes and pigments.

Fabrics
Even an indifferent backing can give good results if it is lit evenly with
narrow-band tubes or LEDs to the proper level (within plus or minus 1⁄3 f-stop)
Spill from set lighting remains a concern.
Composite Components Co.3 offers a fabric that is highly efficient, very light,
stretchy and easy to hang. It must be backed by opaque material when there is
light behind it. The green fabric is fluorescent, so it is even more efficient under
UV-rich sources like skylight. CCC also make a darker material for direct sun
use,.
Following Composite Components’ lead, many suppliers now provide
“digital-type” backings of similar colors. While similar in appearance, some of
these materials are substantially less efficient, which can have a great cost
impact when lighting large screens. Dazian Tempo fabric, a fuzzy, stretchy
material, has a low green or blue saturation when lit with white light, so it isn’t
recommended for that application. Dazian’s Lakota Green Matte material is a
better choice for white-light applications like floor covering; it is resistant to
fading and creasing, and can be laundered. Another major supplier, The Rag
Place in North Hollywood, CA, supplies Optic Green Tempo Fabric, which has a
built-in opaque backing. Its reflective value is between that of Digital Green©
and chroma-key green.
Measured reflective values relative to an 18% gray car (N) are: chroma-key
Green = N, Optic Green =N+2⁄3, Digital Green© +12⁄3 EV.
When using fabric backings, minimize the seams and avoid folds. Stretch the
fabric to minimize wrinkles All green materials will sun-fade with time. If a day-
lit screen must be kept up for several days it should be protected when not in
use.

Paint
Composite Components’ Digital Green© or Digital Blue© paint is the
preferred choice for large painted backings. As with fabrics, there are other paint
brands with similar names that may not have the same efficiency. Equivalent
paints made specifically for this purpose are also available from Rosco. Paints
intended for video use, such as Ultimatte chroma-key paints, can also be used
with good illuminators (lights). A test of a small swatch is worthwhile with
materials whose performance is unknown.

Plastic Materials
Plastic materials are a good alternative to fabric or paint for floor covering.
Fabric can be hazardous if loose underfoot. Painted floors scuff easily and
quickly show shoe marks and dusty footprints.
ProCyc’s Pro Matte plastic material is a good choice for floors or for entire
limbo sets. The material is a good match to Digital Green© and Digital Blue©
paint and fabric. It is tough, scuff-resistant and washable. It is available in sheets,
preformed coves and vertical corners in several radii. It is relatively costly, but
the cost is at least partly offset by time and materials saved in shooting.

Figure 11a & b. Unevenly lit Blue set, actor in the set with shadows
and reflections

Great American Market in Hollywood, CA supplies GAMFloor, a self-

adhesive vinyl which is more durable than paint and easily cleaned and repaired.
BACKING UNIFORMITY AND SCREEN CORRECTION
Since the luminance level and saturation of the backing determines the level
of the background scene, it is important to light the backing as uniformly as is
practical, ideally within plus or minus 1⁄3 f-stop.
While a perfectly uniform backing is desirable, it may not be achievable in the
real world. (Please refer to screen lighting section.) If the backing itself is
irregular in brightness, the background image seen “through” the irregularities
will become equally irregular in the composite.
In Figure 11b, an actor appears in a “Virtual Set” reclining on unevenly lit
blue steps. She casts shadows on three of the surfaces and is reflected in the
bottom plane. In the final composite, the actor, her shadow and her reflection
will appear on some marble stairs; for demonstration purposes, we will substitute
a gray limbo for the background stairs that the blue set was built to match.
In Figure 12a, the software has faithfully reproduced the actor shadows and
reflections, along with the unevenly lit set. It is possible to clean up the Alpha
channel by increasing the contrast (gamma) in the nonuniform areas until those
values are pushed (clipped) to 1.0 (see Figure 12b). Although clipping the alpha
values eliminates the nonuniformity in the backing, the same values on the
subject and her shadows are clipped, too, resulting in hard edges and lost
shadows, reflections and transparencies.
Virtual sets like these often contain set pieces that correspond to objects in the
final background, so that the actor can climb stairs, lean against a doorway, and
so forth. The props all cast shadows on themselves and the blue or green floor,
and the actor casts shadows on everything. With lighting alone it’s impossible to
eliminate set piece shadows without washing out the actor’s shadow.
Figure 12a & 12b. Straight composite, composition with clipped
Alpha

Several software packages have features to cope with nonuniform backings.

Ultimatte Screen Correction software can compensate for backing luminance
variations as great as two stops.
Screen correction is easy to use: After lighting the set, shoot a few seconds
before the actors enter. This footage is called the “clean plate” or “reference
plate”. All the backing and lighting imperfections are recorded on those few
frames. Now shoot the actors as usual.
When making the composite, the artist selects a well-lit reference point near
the subject. Software derives a correction value by comparison with the clean
plate and corrects the rest of the backing to the measured level. Software
compares the clean frames pixel by pixel with the action frames, and inhibits the
correction process in the subject area (the actor) and proportionately inhibits the
correction in transparencies. Even though the set had a wide variation in color
and brightness, the fine hair detail, the actor’s shadows, her reflections and the
full range of transparencies in the shawl have been retained in the Alpha (Figure
13a) and in the composite (Figure 13b).
Figure 13a & b. Alpha with screen correction, composite

Backing defects such as scuffed floors, set piece shadows, and color variations
in the backing as well as minor lens vignetting all disappear. Note that the actor’s
shadows reproduce normally, even where they cross over shadows already on the
backing.
There is a significant limitation: if the camera moves during the shot, the
identical camera move must be photographed on the empty set for the length of
the scene. While it is reasonably quick and simple to repeat pan-tilt-focus
camera moves with small, portable motion control equipment, that equipment is
not always available. Fortunately top camera operators have an almost uncanny
skill at repeating previous moves. Skilled match movers can bring a “wild” clean
pass into useful conformance around the actor, and remove discrepancies with
rotoscoping. Some matchmovers prefer the clean footage to be shot at a slower
tempo to improve the chances that more wild frames will closely match the takes
with the actors.
When it’s not possible to shoot a clean plate, Ultimatte AdvantEdge software
can semiautomatically generate synthetic clean frames. The software can detect
the edges of the foreground image, interpolate screen values inward to cover the
foreground, and then create an alpha using that synthetic clean frame. There are
some limitations; it’s always best to shoot a clean plate if possible.
ILLUMINATORS
The best screen illuminators are banks of narrow-band green or green
fluorescent tubes driven by high-frequency flickerless electronic ballasts.4 These
tubes can be filmed at any camera speed. The tube phosphors are formulated to
produce sharply cut wavelengths that will expose only the desired negative layer
while not exposing the other two layers to a harmful degree. These nearly perfect
sources allow the use of the lowest possible matte contrast (gamma) for best
results in reproducing smoke, transparencies, blowing hair, reflections, and so
forth.
Kino Flo four-tube and eight-tube units are the most widely used lamps. They
are available for rent with “Super Green” or “Super Blue” tubes from Kino Flo
in Sun Valley, CA, and lighting suppliers worldwide. The originators of narrow-
band tubes, Composite Components still supplies Digital Green© and Digital
Blue© tubes tailored specifically to film response. Mac Tech and others have
introduced extremely efficient LED sources with similar characteristics to
narrow-band fluorescent globes.
All these lamps have very high output and can be set up quickly. The light
from these tubes is nearly perfectly monochromatic; there is almost no
contamination. Flickerless power supplies run these units. Some high frequency
fluorescent ballasts and all the LED sources can be dimmed, a great convenience
in adjusting backing brightness.
Large lightweight fixtures like Kino Flo make it easy to evenly illuminate
large backings, and the doors built into most units simplify cutting the colored
light off the acting area.
A good scheme for front-lit backings is to place arrays of green fluorescents
above and below the backing at a distance in front equal to approximately 1⁄2 the
backing height. The units may be separated by the length of the tubes, or brought
together as needed to build brightness. The lamps must overlap the outer margins
of the screen. Keep the subjects at least 15 feet from the screen. The goal is to
eliminate direct green light falling on the actor. Figure 14b shows side and top
views of an actor standing on a platform that serves to hide the bottom row of
lights. If the actor’s feet and shadow are to be in the shot, the platform may be
painted green or covered with green cloth or plastic material.
Note that if a platform is not practical, mirror Plexiglas or Mylar on the floor
behind the actor can bridge the gap from the acting area to the screen, extending
the screen downward by reflection.
A backing can be evenly lit entirely from above by placing a second row of
lamps about 30% further away from the screen and below the top row. The
advantage of lighting from above is that the floor is clear of green lamps.
Lighting from above requires careful adjustment to achieve even illumination.
The overhead-only rig requires about 50% more tubes and spills substantial
green or green light onto the foreground in front of the screen. To film 180-
degree pan-around shots on Universal’s The Fast and the Furious (2001), the ace
rigging crew lit a three-sided backing 30 feet high and more than 180 feet long
entirely from above.
The number of tubes required depends on backing efficiency, the film speed
and the desired f-stop. As an example, six four-tube green lamps are sufficient to
light a 20 by 20 foot Composite Components Digital Green© backing to a level
of f4 at ISO 200. Eight four-tube blue lamps yield f4 with a 20 by 20 foot blue
backing from the same maker.
ALTERNATIVE LIGHT SOURCES
In a pinch, commercial daylight fluorescent tubes or Kino Flo white tubes
wrapped with primary green or primary blue filter sheets can produce good
results. The Rosco CalColor line of primaries works best. Balance to the desired
brightness in the screen color as described below. The downside is great loss of
efficiency; it takes about four filtered daylight tubes to equal the output from one
special-purpose tube.
Figure 14a & b. Side view and top views of screen lit with 6
light banks

Regular 60Hz ballasts can be used with commercial tubes at the cost of weight
and power efficiency. As with any 60Hz fluorescent lamps, 24 fps filming must
be speed-locked (nonlocked cameras are fortunately rare) to avoid pulsating
brightness changes, and any high-speed work must be at crystal-controlled
multiples of 30 fps. These tubes are somewhat forgiving of off-speed filming
because of the “lag” of the phosphors.
Backings can also be front-lit with Primary Green or Primary Blue-filtered
HMI lamps. The only advantage is that the equipment is usually already “on the
truck” when a shot must be improvised. Getting even illumination over a large
area is time-consuming, and filters must be carefully watched for fading. Heat
Shield filter material is helpful. Because of high levels of the two unwanted
colors, HMI is not an ideal source, but it is better than incandescent.
In an emergency, filtered incandescent lamps can do the job. They are an
inefficient source of green light and much worse for blue (less than 10% the
output of fluorescents) so they are a poor choice for lighting large screens. Watch
for filter fading as above.
A green or green surface illuminated with white light is the most challenging,
least desirable backing from a compositing standpoint. White light, however, is
required for floor shots and virtual sets when the full figure of the actor and his
shadow must appear to merge in the background scene. Advanced software can
get good results from white-lit backings with the aid of Screen Correction and a
“clean plate” as described above. Difficult subjects may require assistance with
hand paintwork.
EYE PROTECTION
A word about eye protection: Many high-output tubes produce enough
ultraviolet light to be uncomfortable and even damaging to the eyes. Crew
members should not work around lit banks of these fixtures without UV eye
protection. It is good practice to turn the tubes off when they are not in use. The
past practice of using commercial blueprint tubes was dangerous because of their
sunburn-level UV output.
CHOOSING THE BACKING COLOR
The choice of backing color is determined by the wardrobe or subject color.
The range of permissible foreground colors is wider when the backing can be lit
separately from the actor, rather than when the actor must be photographed in a
white-lit green set (a “floor shot”) for example.
A blue backing is satisfactory for most colors except saturated blue. Pastel
blues (blue eyes, faded blue jeans, etc.) reproduce well. The color threshold can
be adjusted to allow some colors containing more blue than green (such as
magenta/purple) into the foreground. If too much blue is allowed back into the
foreground, some of the blue bounce light will return. Therefore, if magenta
wardrobe must be reproduced, it is prudent to take extra care to avoid blue
bounce and flare. Keep the actors away from the backing, and mask off as much
of the backing as possible with neutral flats or curtains. Saturated yellows on the
subject’s edge may produce a dark outline that requires an additional post step to
eliminate. Pastel yellows cause no problems.
A green backing is satisfactory for most colors except saturated green. Pastel
greens are acceptable. Saturated yellow will turn red in the composite unless
green is allowed back into the subject, along with some of the green bounce or
flare from the original photography. The same precautions as above should be
taken to minimize bounce and flare. Pastel yellow is acceptable. Figure 15 shows
a test of green car paint swatches against green screen. The hue and saturation of
the “hero” swatch was sufficiently distinct from the screen color to pose no
difficulties in matting or reproduction. Bounce light from the screen was
carefully flagged off in the actual shot. Note that none of the colors in the
MacBeth chart are affected except for two saturated green patches, which have
become semi-transparent.
High bounce levels are unavoidable where the actor is surrounded by a green
floor or virtual set: one should not expect to reproduce saturated magenta or
saturated yellow on a green floor without assistance in post.
If the foreground subject contains neither saturated green nor saturated blue,
then either backing color may be used. However, the grain noise of the green
emulsion layer on color negative and the green sensor in a digital camera is
generally much lower than the grain noise of the blue layer. Using a green
backing will therefore result in less noise in shadows and in semi-transparent
subjects. Black smoke in particular reproduces better against a green backing.
Obviously, it is important for the cinematographer and his ally the vfx
supervisor to be aware of wardrobe and props to be used in green screen and
blue screen scenes. Sometimes a difficult color can be slightly changed without
losing visual impact, and save much trouble and expense in post. If in doubt, a
test is always worthwhile. Video Ultimatte Preview (see below) can be
invaluable.
Some visual effects experts prefer blue backings for scenes with Caucasian
and Asian actors, finding it somewhat easier to achieve a pleasing flesh tone
without allowing the backing color into the foreground. Those skin tones reflect
mostly red and green and relatively little blue. For dark-skinned actors, either
backing color seems to work equally well.

Figure 15. Green paint swatch test against greenscreen, composite

In extreme cases (for example if the foreground contains both a saturated

green and a saturated blue, troublesome foreground colors can be isolated (with
rotoscoping if necessary) and color corrected separately.
BACKING TYPES AND LIGHTING
The color and illumination of the backing are crucial to a good result. A
perfect green backing would expose only the green-sensitive element of the
color negative or digital sensor. Cross-color sensitivity in the negative or sensor,
imperfect illuminators and spill light from the set all compromise this ideal. It’s
no surprise that the best combinations of backing, illuminators and camera type
yield the best quality composites.

Back-lit Backings
Backings can be backlit (translucent) or front-lit. Big translucent backings are
almost extinct due to their high cost, limited size and relative fragility.
Translucent Stewart blue backings gave nearly ideal results and required no
foreground stage space for lighting. Due to lack of demand, Stewart has never
made translucent greenscreens. Front-lit backings are more susceptible to spill
light, but with careful flagging they can produce a result every bit as good as
back-lit screens.
Translucent cloth screens can be back-lit effectively but when back-lit, seams
limit the usable size.
Fluorescent fixtures with UV (black light) tubes will cause Digital Green© and
Digital Red© fabrics and paint to fluoresce without affecting adjacent sets. The
fabric can be lit from the front or the back, seams permitting. Actors and crew
should not be exposed to high levels of UV light.

Front-lit Backings
If the actor’s feet and/or shadow do not enter the background scene, then a
simple vertical green or green surface is all that is needed. The screen can be
either a painted surface or colored fabric. Any smooth surface that can be
painted, including flats, a canvas backing, and so forth, can be used. Fabrics are
easy to hang, tie to frames, spread over stunt air bags, and so on. Please see the
section on Illuminators in this chapter for spacing and positioning of lamps.

Day-Lit Green and Blue Backings

For big exterior scenes, authentic sunlight makes a very believable composite
that can only be approximated with stage lighting.
Daylight is the ultimate challenge, requiring the best quality backings and
Screen Correction compositing for good results. Thanks to those advances, there
are no limits to the size of a traveling matte foreground aside from the size of the
backing.
Figures 16a and 16b show the first daylight green screen shot made for a
feature film. Every trick in the book including Ultimatte Screen Correction was
used to achieve this result. Original photography was on 8-perf VistaVision. The
two reflector boards shown plus a third out of frame on the right foreground are
the only supplementary lighting.
Coves are to be avoided; as seen in Figure 16a, there is usually a wide band of
overexposed, desaturated glare in the cove. Later experience has shown that a
clean, straight line is much easier to deal with in post. A raised platform, painted
or covered with backing material, with a separate vertical backing well behind it
is ideal.
If a platform is not practical, the cinematographer of Journey to the Center of
the Earth, Chuck Schuman, recommends a flat 45-degree join between green
floors and walls.
When the screen is to be lit by direct sunlight, using the darker of the Digital
Green© fabrics or chromakey green fabric or paint makes it easier to avoid
overexposure. When the actors are in backlight and the screen is lit by skylight,
the lighter, standard Digital Green© fabrics (which fluoresce in UV light
scattered from the sky) are the best choice. Tipping the screen back about 15°
will help catch skylight. In some cases the screen must be used in both front light
and back light. In that instance the more reflective Digital Green© material is the
best compromise, with exposure controlled carefully to avoid overexposure.

Figure 16a & b. Daylight greenscreen shot from Greedy (1993)

Limits of Day-Lit Backings

Because the green backing set must be oriented to achieve the sun direction
matching the background plates, one can shoot relatively few set-ups in a day. At
some times of year, the sun on the set may never get high enough to match the
background sun, thus requiring a replacement source.
FLOOR SHOTS, VIRTUAL SETS
If the actor must be composited head-to-toe into the background scene, then
the floor must also be the color of the backing. (Green is preferred for floor
shooting since the shadows will be less noisy.) The same type of white light and
lighting fixtures that light the actor are also used to light the floor and backing. A
shadow cast on a green-painted wall or floor by the subject can be transferred
(when desired) into the background scene together with the subject.
Floors may be painted or covered with fabric. Fabric can be hazardous if loose
underfoot. Painted floors scuff easily and quickly show shoe marks and dusty
footprints.
Pro-Cyc’s Pro Matte plastic material is a good alternative for floors. The
material is a good match to Digital Green© and Digital Green© paint and fabric.
It is tough, scuff-resistant and washable. It is available in sheets, pre-formed
coves and vertical corners in several radii. Permanent sets are good candidates
for this material, due to cost.
Lighting uniformity problems (within plus or minus one f-stop), color
contamination of the floor, scuff marks and green set piece shadows can be dealt
with in compositing when Screen Correction frames are available.
Sheets of 4′ x 8′ mirrored Mylar or mirrored Plexiglas may also be used as a
walking surface. (Please see Illumination and Reflections from the Backing
section). Of course no shadow is cast on a mirror surface, and the reflection must
be dealt with.
The choice of fabric and paint affects not only the quality of the composite,
but also lighting cost. Some screen materials are much more efficient than
others, and require many fewer lamps to light to the correct level. In general,
green screens and tubes are more efficient than blue screens and tubes. Savings
on lamp rentals can amount to tens of thousands of dollars per week on large
backings.

Limitations of Floor Shots and Virtual Sets

Floor shots and virtual sets are both difficult and rewarding, because the actor
can walk or sit upon objects in the background, climb stairs, and walk through
doorways, even when the background scene is a digital model or a miniature.
When the actor’s shadow appears in the background scene, it adds believability
to the shot. To help tie in foreground action to the plate, screen-colored shapes
can be used to either cast a shadow of something in the plate, or to catch an
actor’s shadow so that it conforms appropriately to a shape in the plate.
Alpha channel (matte) contrast must be high in a floor shot to achieve
separation from the contaminated color of the floor. Even the finest green
pigment or dye reflects significant quantities of red and blue The problem is
often compounded by glare from backlighting. Since the matte is created by the
difference between the backing color and the colors in the subject, and since
there is inherently less difference because of red and blue contamination, the
alpha values must be multiplied by some factor to yield an opaque matte that
will prevent the background from showing through. This multiplication raises
the gamma (contrast) of the matte image.
If the real shadow can’t be reproduced, it can sometimes be simulated within
limits with a distorted copy of the alpha channel. If necessary, the shadow can be
hand animated.
UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY
In addition to underwater diving or swimming shots, underwater greenscreen
photography creates a zero-G environment for actors with an all-axis freedom of
motion impossible on wire rigs.
The biggest challenge is keeping the water clear of sediment and particulates.
Underwater diffusion causes the screen to flare into the foreground and vice-
versa; It’s ruinous to the matte edges. High capacity pumps, good water
circulation and a multistage filter are necessary to keep the water clear. It’s also
important that all personnel have clean feet when they enter the tank.
Composite Components’ green material stretched on a frame works well under
water in a swimming pool or a tank. Tip the screen back to catch light from
above, with Rosco diffusion material floating on the water surface to kill caustic
patterns on the screen. Build up the screen lighting level with green fluorescent
units above the water. Underwater Kino Flo lamps are also available.
High chlorine levels common in swimming pools bleach out the screen
quickly; pull the screen out of the tank daily and rinse it off with tap water.
FOREGROUND LIGHTING ON THE STAGE
Creating the Illusion: Lighting to Match the Background
Inappropriate lighting compromises a shot the instant it appears on screen,
while imperfect compositing technique may be noticeable only to experts.
Obviously, the foreground photography must match the background lens and
camera positions, but lighting considerations are just as important. This is why it
is generally preferable to shoot live action backgrounds first. (If the background
hasn’t been shot yet, the job depends on everything from careful map-reading to
educated guesswork. Even the best guesses can be defeated by unexpected
weather.)
Foreground lighting must match the background in direction, shadow hardness
and key-to fill ratio. True sunlight has nearly parallel rays coming from a single
point at a distance that’s optically equivalent to infinity. To simulate the sun, use
the hardest source available, as far away as the shooting space will allow.
Multiple sources cast multiple shadows—an instant give-away. Sometimes
folding the light path with a mirror will allow the hard source to be further away,
and a better representation of the parallel rays of the sun. Skylight fill and
environmental bounce light must be shadowless. Therefore surrounding the
actors with the biggest, broadest sources of light available is preferable. The
perfect skylight source would be a dome like the real sky, which can be
approximated on stage with big silks or white bounces.
To help in lighting the foreground subject while the screen is lit, a contrast
viewing glass of the complementary color can be used to “black out” the screen
area. The viewing glass also reveals spill light on the screen.
ENVIRONMENTAL BOUNCE LIGHT
Since the software drops out the backing and the backing reflections from the
foreground object, the subject is “virtually” surrounded by black. The black
surroundings cause no problem if the composite background is an essentially
dark night scene.
However, if the eventual background is a light day scene, and if the subject
had really been in that day environment, the environmental light would light up
the hair and provide the normal edge brightness along arms, sides of the face,
and so forth. The cinematographer must restore the light that the environment
would have provided from the sun, the sky, the ground and so forth. Large, white
bounces are useful in creating back cross reflection sources just outside the
frame. Otherwise, edges of arms, legs and faces will go dark causing the
foreground to look like a cutout.
Simulated light from the environment can be added digitally to replace the
suppressed screen color with color derived from the background. It’s a slight
glow around the edges that can look good when tastefully applied. The real thing
is to be preferred.
High levels of fill light in wide day exteriors while sometimes desirable for
esthetic reasons, hurt the believability of day exterior composites. Movie
audiences are accustomed to seeing more fill in close-ups, a common practice in
daylight photography.

Local Color
Of course, skylight is intensely blue, so fill light supposedly coming from the
sky should be blue relative to the key. Likewise, if actors and buildings in the
background are standing on grass, much green light is reflected upward into their
shadows. If the actor matted into the shot does not have a similar greenish fill, he
will not look like he belongs in the shot. Careful observation is the key. In a
greenscreen shot, the bounce light from grass is low in both brightness and
saturation compared to the screen color, so that color cast can be allowed in the
composite foreground while still suppressing the screen. The same is true of sky
bounce in a bluescreen shot.
A day exterior shot will often shoot in the f5.6 to f11 range or even deeper.
Fortunately, efficient lighting and high ASA ratings on films and sensors permit
matching these deep f-stops on the stage. In a day car shot, for example, holding
focus in depth from the front to the rear of the car contributes to the illusion.
Figure 17 shows a 28′-wide screen lit with 16 four-tube Kino Flo lamps, plus
two HMI “helper” lamps with green filters on the sides. This combination made
it possible to film at f11 with 200 ASA Vision 2 negative. Curtains at left, right,
and top made it easy to mask off portions of the screen outside the frame.
Of course, when it’s possible to film foregrounds like this one in daylight, so
much the better.

Color Bias in Foreground Lighting

In the past, some cinematographers used an overall yellow or magenta color
bias in foreground lighting to “help” the composite, with the intent that the bias
be timed out later. This practice is counterproductive, resulting in false color in
blurs and transparencies. If an overall bias is desired, it’s easy to achieve in post.

Illumination and Reflections from the Backing

Colored illumination and reflections from the backing on the subject must be
minimized for top-quality results. Illumination and reflection are separate issues!
Figure 17. Greenscreen lit to f 11

Green illumination from the backing can be made negligible by keeping the
actors away from the backing (at least 15 feet, 25 feet is better) and by masking
off all the backing area at the backing that is not actually needed behind the
actors. Use black or neutral flags and curtains (The rest of the frame can be filled
in with window mattes in compositing.) Any remaining color cast is eliminated
by the software.
Screen reflections are best controlled by reducing the backing size and by
tenting the subject with flats or fabric of a color appropriate to the background.
In a common worst case, a wet actor in a black wetsuit, the best one can do is to
shoot the actor as far from the screen as possible, mask the screen off as tightly
as possible, and bring the environmental bounce sources fully around to the
actor’s off-camera side, without, of course, blocking the screen. A back cross
light will of course wipe out any screen reflection on the actor but it will look
false if it’s not justified by the background lighting.

Figure 18. Water tank diagram

Big chrome props and costumes present similar challenges. Since they present
the whole crew with a huge headache (every light shows, and sometimes the
camera crew as well) it is usually not too difficult to arrange modifications to
these items. When the visual effects team is brought in early on, problems like
these can be headed off in the design stage.
A common reflection challenge is a Plexiglas aircraft canopy or a compound-
curve spacesuit helmet which, depending on the lighting angle and camera
position, can show every lamp and bounce source. A bounce source for a canopy
shot must be uniform and surround the canopy 180 degrees on the camera side.
Sometimes the best solution is to shoot without the Plexiglas and track a CG
model back in, in the composite. An advantage to CG Plexiglas is that it can
reflect the composited background.
Reflections can be disguised with dulling spray, but sometimes they cannot be
eliminated. In the worst case, reflections make “holes” in the matte that must be
filled in digitally in post. Pay particular attention to the faces of perspiring
actors, which can be very reflective. Of course, when the actor must stand in the
middle of a green-painted virtual set, some green contamination is unavoidable;
it will be removed by the compositing software.
Sometimes reflections are desirable: Sheets of mirror Mylar or Plexiglas can
extend a screen by reflection, even below the stage floor. Actors can walk on
mirror Plexiglas to be surrounded by the screen’s reflection. (Of course their
own reflection must be dealt with.)

Figure 19. Water tank in use

In a scheme devised by the late Disney effects wizard Art Cruickshank, ASC,
an actor on a raft in a water tank was shot against a Sodium matte backing. The
backing and the actor reflected strongly in the water. This enabled the Disney
optical department to matte the actor and his reflection into ocean backgrounds.
Cruickshank’s method was revived and used effectively in blue screen shots in
Daylight (1996) and more recently in greenscreen shots in Bruce Almighty
(2003) where Jim Carrey and Morgan Freeman seem to be walking on Lake
Erie, while actually standing in a shallow water tank on the back lot.
The spillway at the back of both tanks ensure a seamless transition between
the screen and its reflection in the water.

Controlling Spill Light

Attentive use of flags and teasers on set lighting and black cloth on bright
surfaces outside the frame will eliminate most spill light on the backing. (To see
spill light when the backing is lit, look through a red filter.) A small amount of
white spill light from the set inevitably hits the backing. It usually comes from
the large, nearly unflaggable soft sources that simulate skylight. Since the
skylight is typically two or three stops down from the key light, the spill has
little effect on the backing. Realistic lighting should be the paramount concern.
If there is white light contaminating an area of the backing, a higher level of
the alpha channel can be applied in post to darken it. Since there is no difference
in color between, say, transparent white smoke or mist, and white light of the
same brightness falling on the backing, it’s clear that the less white light
contamination there is to be cleaned up, the better. Otherwise, as the
contamination disappears, so do all the transparent foreground pixels of the same
color. Screen Correction is invaluable in extracting the maximum detail from
smoke and spray shot against white-lit backings.

Figure 20. Bruce Almighty water tank composite

If the foreground must be flat-lit to simulate overcast, a good approach is to

bring most of the light in from overhead through a large, translucent silk. On
stage, much of the overhead soft light may be kept off the backing with a series
of horizontal black teasers hung directly beneath the silk, running its entire width
parallel to the backing. The teasers are progressively longer top to bottom as
they get near the backing, preventing the backing from “seeing” the silk (see
Figure 18 above).
LIGHTING VIRTUAL SETS
Inescapably, if one is lighting an actor and the surrounding floor with white
light, there is no way to control the floor brightness independently of the actor,
other than changing the floor paint or floor fabric. The only control available is
the balance between the actor’s shadow and the rest of the floor and backing.

Lighting Procedure for Holding the Shadow (Petro Vlahos Technique)

1. Turn on the key light so as to cast the desired shadow.
2. Measure the brightness on the floor just outside the shadow (use a spot
brightness meter and green filter assuming that it’s a green floor).
3. Light all the rest of the green floor to this measured brightness while adding
as little light as possible to the shadow area.
4. Light the green walls to achieve the same brightness as the floor.
5. Shadow density may be increased by blocking fill light from the shadow area,
or lightened by adding fill light to the shadow area.
Shadow density is controlled by adjusting the fill light, not by adjusting the
key light. Outside the shadow, the entire green set should appear to have equal
and uniform intensity as seen from the camera position. Strive to stay within ±1⁄3
f-stop; Screen Correction can deal with brightness variations as great as plus or
minus one f-stop.

Figure 21. Blue virtual set lit to retain shadow

The human eye quickly compensates for small light changes; it is not a good
absolute measuring device. (It is however superb at comparisons.) It is necessary
to use a spot brightness meter and green filter to check for uniform brightness. A
digital camera with a computer display is also useful for making a quick check
of lighting uniformity in the three color channels.
In backlight, because of the shallow angle between the camera and floor, the
floor will not appear as green as the back wall. A diffused, polarized white-light
“glare” component is reflected by the floor because of the shallow angle. For
holding good shadows in backlight it is essential to use a polarizing filter over
the camera lens. The HN38 is recommended. Rotate the filter until the floor
glare is canceled. Ideally, the backlights should be polarized too, but it is rarely
done. Large sheets of polarizing plastic are available up to about 19″ wide; they
can be protected against heat with Heat Shield reflecting filter material. Of
course, HMIs emit less heat than tungsten lamps to begin with.
The composite in Figure 21 might be improved by adding a slight greenish
density and image shift to the background where it is seen through the thick
glass table top
LIGHTING TO ELIMINATE THE SHADOW (VLAHOS
TECHNIQUE)
1. Light the entire green set uniformly with large area diffused light sources.
2. Check uniformity as noted above.
3. Place the actor in position. If he casts a shadow, add additional low-level
lighting to return the light level in the shadow to its original level.
4. Add a modest key light to create the desired modeling, and ignore the shadow
it casts. The added key light will cause a shadow to be visible to the eye, but
because the key light did not affect the green intensity of the floor in the
shadow it has created, the shadow can be made to drop out in compositing.

Tracking Markers
When the foreground camera moves, the background must move
appropriately. Unless foreground and/or background can be photographed with a
motion-control camera, tracking data must be extracted from the foreground
image and applied to the background during compositing. This process is called
Matchmoving.

Figure 22. Three frames from “Bruce Almighty” Steadicam shot

Tracking marks applied to the otherwise featureless screen give the

matchmovers fixed points to track. These marks must obviously show in the
photographed scene, but ideally they should clear the foreground actors, or at
least avoid their heads, since they must be removed in the composite. Marks are
typically laid out in a rectangular pattern, with about 3′ to 5′ between them—
depending on the lens used, the action and the distance to the backing. Black or
white tape crosses will usually suffice, though uniquely identifiable markers are
very helpful if there is much tracking to do.
Figures 22 shows the continuation of the elaborate Steadicam shot that begins
in Figures 8 through 10 earlier in this chapter that includes a pan of about 140
degrees The black tape marks on the screen provided the data to track in the
panoramic background (Figure 23), which was seamed together from three static
BeauCam VistaVision plates shot from a tugboat with a gyro-stabilized head. In
the process the American Falls and the Canadian Falls were moved closer
together.
If camera shake or other sudden motion is required in the foreground
photography, motion blur can obliterate the tracking marks. The Aerocrane
Strobe Tracking System created by Alvah Miller provides target arrays of LED
lamps which strobe in sync with the camera shutter, giving well-defined marks
on every frame even if they are not in focus. Cylindrical LEDs have uniform
brightness even when viewed off axis.
Sometimes it is desirable to light the tracking LEDs continuously, allowing
them to blur in motion. Valuable tracking information can be derived from the
length of the blur. Consult the tracking team for their preference.
ON-SET PREVIEW
On-set preview composites made with a still camera and calibrated monitor,
like the Kodak/Panavision Preview System, or a live composite made with a
hardware Ultimatte device will alert the crew to problems before they are
committed to film. A few video assist companies provide this specialized
service.
Using the digital Ultimatte previewer (hardware device or software on a
computer) on the motion picture set eliminates much guesswork and uncertainty.
It’s a great assist in photographing actors who must be realistically integrated
with people and objects in the background scene. Previewing with Ultimatte also
immediately identifies the acceptable limits in lighting irregularities and
wardrobe color.

Figure 23. Panoramic background from three VistaVision plates

If it’s a digital shoot, an output video stream must be available that’s

compatible with the Ultimatte. An outboard processor may be needed. This
yields the best preview available with all the foreground-background
relationships visible at full quality.
For film shoots, a small, outboard color camera feeds the previewer. (Film
camera color taps, even when they can be switched to 100% video, are so
starved for light that they usually cannot make good composites, although if
their geometry is properly adjusted, they are fine for alignment purposes.)
Playback from disk or tape provides the background scene.

TV Monitors
It’s often necessary to matte TV images into monitors when the desired on-
screen material is not available before shooting. When the monitor is live, the
best approach overall is to feed it a pure green signal and adjust its brightness to
match the shooting stop. With this approach the room reflections in the monitor
surface can carry over believeably into the composite, the camera can operate
freely, and actors can cross over the screen without difficulties in post. Watch for
reflections of the screen on actors. Where the monitor is just a prop, it’s often
possible to rig a backlit green fabric screen in or behind the monitor. If set
lighting permits the monitor to be front-lit to a sufficiently high level, the
monitor can be painted green or covered with green fabric behind the glass face
plate. The edges of the monitor usually provide all the tracking data needed in
operated shots; no on-screen markers required.
COSTS AND CONSEQUENCES
Film Photography: Choosing a Camera Negative
Some camera negatives are better suited to composite work than others.
Ideally, one would choose the finest grained, sharpest film available. It is also
important to have low cross-sensitivity between the color layers. Foreground and
background film stocks do not have to match, but of course it’s helpful if they
have similar grain and color characteristics.
Kodak Vision 2, 100T and 200T (tungsten balance), films are ideal for green
and blue backing work. The dye clouds are very tight and well defined. Vision 3,
500T, the latest in a series of remarkably fine-grain high-speed films, as one
would expect is still grainier than the lower speed films. While the 500T film is
not ideal, a well-exposed 500T negative is much better than a marginally
exposed 200T negative!
An interlayer effect in these films produces a dark line around bright
foreground objects (such as white shirts) when they are photographed against a
green screen. Software can deal with this effect.
Kodak Vision 2, 50-speed daylight film produces superb results in sunlight,
with very low shadow noise, but require high light levels on stage.
If these 100T and 200T films cannot be used for aesthetic reasons, one should
still pick the finest grain emulsion compatible with lighting requirements. Be
aware that additional image processing (and cost) may be required. A few
negative emulsions have so much cross-sensitivity between the color layers that
they should not be used.
Film emulsions are constantly evolving. As an example, recent improvements
in red sensitivity in some emulsions have been accompanied by more sensitivity
to infra-red reflected from costumes, altering their color noticeably. This effect is
easily dealt with by filtration—if you know it’s there. A quick test of actors and
costumes is always worthwhile.

Digital Photography: Choosing a Camera

Since all three color channels are used in creating the composite, an ideal
camera would have high resolution and uncompressed color (bandwidth) in each
channel.
There are there are thee major factors affecting color recording:
1. Spatial resolution
2. Captured bit depth
3. Recorded bit depth and compression

Spatial resolution
Spatial resolution is broadly related to the number of photosites (light-
sensitive elements) available for each color. In single-chip cameras, the green,
red, and blue photosites are on a single plane in a mosaic geometry. Depending
on the camera, groups of four to six adjacent photosites are sampled and
interpolated to create each full-color pixel. (The variation in sampling methods is
the reason that there is not necessarily a relationship between pixel count and
actual resolution of a given camera.) Most digital cameras use a mosaic called a
Bayer Array on which there are half as many blue photosites as there are green
photosites. Likewise there are half as many red photosites as green photosites.
The “missing” values are derived through interpolation from adjacent pixels in
the “de-Bayering” operation. Since human visual acuity is greatest in the green
wavelengths, Bayer’s array gives excellent visual results from an optimally small
number of photosites.
Even in the best high-resolution Bayer arrays the blue and red image is still
half the resolution of the green image, which limits the resolution and fine detail
of the mask image.5 To address this and other image quality issues, a few high-
end single-sensor cameras (Panavision’s Genesis, Sony F35) have a 35mm-film-
sized sensor with full resolution in all three colors. (Although the sensors in the
two cameras are nearly identical, at this writing the F35 has the edge in dynamic
range.)
In three-chip cameras like Sony F23, the color image is split into green, red,
and blue images by a beam-splitter behind the lens. Each component color is
imaged on one of three full-resolution chips, so there is no resolution loss in the
red and blue channels, and no need to interpolate color values. The F23 uses 2⁄3
HD resolution sensors, smaller than 35mm film, which results in greater depth of
field (similar to that of 16mm), which some filmmakers love and others find
undesirable. F23’s native output is a 4:4:4 pixel-for-pixel uncompressed image,
which when correctly processed yields first-class composites.
“4:4:4” does not refer directly to RGB bandwidth, but rather to “YUV”. The Y
channel carries the luma or brightness information while U and V are the
channels from which the color information is derived (similar to Lab color space
in Photoshop). In a 4:4:4 recording, every channel is recorded at the full color
depth. “4-4-4” is actually a misnomer, carried over from standard definition D1
digital video. Because it’s well understood to mean full bandwidth in all three
channels, its use has continued into the high-definition-and-higher digital cinema
world.)
Arri Alexa, with a 35mm-film-sized Bayer Array sensor, on paper isn’t the
winner of the Pixel Count contest. Nevertheless Alexa has produced some of the
best composite results to date, thanks to dynamic range at least the equal of
present-day film negative and extremely high quality on-board image
processing.
RED Epic and Sony F65, examples of a new generation of 4K-and-higher
Bayer Array cameras, have produced state-of-the-art composite work. F65’s
huge dynamic range is particularly useful. At 4K and above, detail loss due to
de-Bayering is less of a factor. Any untried camera should of course be tested
with the actual subject matter.

Color Bandwidth and Compression

Assuming your camera can produce a full-bandwidth, uncompressed RGB
signal, much information can be lost when that signal is compressed and
recorded. Many HD VCRs are limited to 4:2:2 recording, which includes rolling
off the green channel’s high frequencies and applying half-bandwidth MPEG
compression to blue and red.
Just as the classic Bayer array has a negligible effect on images intended for
viewing but can adversely affect composite quality, well-compressed images
designed to look good on screen can have serious limitations when composited.
Good software engineering can recover some of the lost bandwidth, but edge
detail (fine hair and so forth) and shadow noise still suffer from compression
artifacts. A laundry list of compression artifacts includes dark or light lines
trailing or leading moving objects, banding in dark areas, and so forth. These
problems are even more pronounced in DV and SD cameras. With new cameras
constantly coming on line, testing on the actual subject matter is always
worthwhile.

Edge Enhancement/Sharpening/Detail Settings

Camera edge enhancement/sharpening should be turned off. The artificial
edges that sharpening produces will otherwise carry into the composite. If
sharpening is needed, it can be done during compositing.

Recording
Recording in “data mode” gives maximum flexibility and best quality in post.
“Data mode” records the uncompressed data (as directly off the camera sensor as
the camera’s design allows) to a hard disk. This is often called “Raw” mode, but
beware: at least one camera’s (RED) “Raw” mode is in fact compressed. Since
Raw data cannot be viewed directly, a separate viewing conversion path is
required to feed on-set monitors.
If recording in data mode is not possible, shoot material intended for
postcompositing as uncompressed 4:4:4 full-bandwidth HD (or better) video
onto a hard drive or a full-bandwidth VCR, such as Sony’s 4:4:4 SR format
machines. While Arri Raw is the preferred output from Alexa cameras, Alexa
can also record in Apple ProRes 4444, a remarkably high quality compressed
format that has produced good composite results.
To sum up, resolution numbers are not the whole story, since some cameras
trade off resolution for color depth. Test your available camera and recorder
choices.

An Imperfect World
You may have no choice but to shoot or record with 4:2:2 equipment. While
4:2:2 is not ideal, don’t forget that the last two Star Wars films were shot with
2
⁄3″ 4:2:2 cameras, cropping a 2.40 slice from the center, including thousands of
green screen composites. Test the camera on the subject matter. 4:2:2 can
produce a satisfactory result in greenscreen (since the green channel has the
highest resolution in these cameras), but one should not expect the ultimate in
fine edge detail. (Consumer cameras typically record 4:1:1, and are not
recommended for pro visual effects use.)
Whatever the camera, it can’t be overemphasized that any edge enhancement
or sharpening should be turned off. The artificial edges that sharpening produces
will otherwise carry into the composite and cannot be removed. If sharpening is
needed, it can be added during compositing.
FILTRATION
In general no color or diffusion filters other than color-temperature correction
should be used on the camera when shooting green or blue screen work.
Compositing can be called “the struggle to hold edge detail”; obviously low-con,
soft effects or diffusion filtering that affects the edge or allows screen
illumination to leak into the foreground will have an adverse effect. For that
reason, smoke in the atmosphere is not recommended; it can be simulated
convincingly in the composite.
To ensure that the filter effect you desire will be duplicated in the composite,
shoot a short burst of the subject with the chosen filter, making sure it is slated as
“Filter Effect Reference”.

Negative Scanning and Digital Conversion

The film frames, data recording, or video recording must be converted into
frame-based digital files the software can use. It’s important not to lose
information at this step.
The three layers of the color negative are sensitive exclusively to the red,
green and blue portions of the color spectrum. When the negative is scanned, the
RGB densities of each pixel in the image are translated into red, green and blue
numerical levels in a digital memory. The three color records of each frame are
referred to as the red, green and blue channels. They are usually recorded as
Cineon or DPX frames, which are uncompressed formats.
Video and data must be similarly converted into frames. This step is
sometimes called “digitization”, really a misnomer since the source is already
digital. These frames are usually recorded in the DPX format. The Academy
ACES format, a universal format which is coming on line at post facilities
around the world, can accommodate DPX and any future wider-gamut color
space.
COLOR CORRECTION
Color correction at the scanning/conversion stage can be a major source of
data loss. It should not be built-in to image files intended for compositing. On
the other hand, a few frames recorded with the desired color and filtration will
be invaluable reference in the composite step.
WORKING WITH THE VISUAL EFFECTS SUPERVISOR
The vfx supervisor is the cinematographer’s ally on the greenscreen set. So
much depends on the quality of the original photography. Befriend that person
early in the game, and keep him or her in the loop!
The supervisor will help you achieve the photographic result you desire. Be
sure he or she understands the final look required, if (for example) you need to
shoot without diffusion on the lens. Be sure to shoot properly slated reference
with the desired diffusion, filtration and so forth, so that it can be matched in the
composite stage.
For more information, refer to the Visual Effects Society Handbook, which has
a similar chapter on this topic, with an expanded sections dealing with setting up
large greenscreens on location.
APPENDIX: COMPOSITING SOFTWARE
While it’s rarely necessary for cinematographers to create composites
themselves, it’s very useful to be aware of the tools in common use.
The software described below is in wide use. All save Nuke IBK are available
as “plug-ins” for most of the leading digital compositing packages, including
After Effects, Nuke, Flame/Inferno, Shake, and so on. All contain filters to deal
with less-than-ideal video like DV.
Each package has individual strong points; all are capable of first class results
with well-shot photography. Sometimes the best results come when two
programs are used on a single shot. This list is by no means inclusive.

Keylight
At this writing, Keylight is the most-used package, thanks to its bundling into
After Effects Professional and Nuke. A straightforward interface makes it very
easy to use.
Keylight was developed originally at London’s pioneering Computer Film
Company by Wolfgang Lempp and Oliver James. It is marketed worldwide by
The Foundry.

Ultimatte
Ultimatte and Ultimatte AdvantEdge, are still the tools of choice for difficult
shots. AdvantEdge borrows from Ultimatte’s knockout concept by processing
the edge transitions separately from the core of the foreground image, blending
them seamlessly into the background without loss of detail.
The deep and rich user controls require an experienced operator to get the
most from the software. The interface works as a “black box” within the
compositing package, which can complicate workflow. One benefit of this
architecture is that the interface is identical in the wide range of supported
software packages. In 2010, Ultimatte AdvantEdge software was bundled into
Nuke, the first implementation in 32-bit color depth.
Ultimatte software was the first of its kind; it was derived from the original
film Color Difference logic created by Petro Vlahos. The digital implementation
won multiple Academy Awards. Ultimatte real time video hardware compositing
devices are also available from the company.

Primatte
Primatte was orginally developed at Imagica Japan by Kaz Mishima. The
unique polyhedral color analysis allows fine-tuned color selections between
foreground and background. The user interface is intuitive and uncomplicated
while offering many options.

Nuke IBK (Image Based Keyer)

The Nuke IBK was developed by Paul Lambert at Digital Domain. It employs
Ultimatte code carried over from earlier Cineon and Rays compositing software
packages. Like Ultimatte, it can deal with a wide variance in backing color by
creating a synthetic clean plate
DEDICATED WITH GRATITUDE TO PETRO VLAHOS
This document draws heavily on the Traveling Matte chapter that Petro
Vlahos and I wrote for previous editions of the ASC manual. Mr. Vlahos, a
multiple Oscar® winner, perfected traveling matte systems for film with several
revolutionary inventions, including the Color Difference blue screen technique
in 1958. In the years that followed, he created analog and then digital hardware
and software versions of Ultimatte, the first high- quality electronic compositing
tools. At their core, all digital bluescreen and greenscreen compositing software
employs variants of the original Vlahos algorithms.

With thanks to:

Chuck Schuman, Cinematographer of “Journey to the Center of the Earth”,
whose detailed notes on the previous version have been incorporated into this
article.
Paul Vlahos for images from Ultimatte Corp.
Jon and Kay Erland of Composite Components Corp. for decades of
friendship, advice and their tireless efforts to improve visual effects composites.
Petro Vlahos is the inventor of the film Color Difference Travelling Matte
System, and both video and film Ultimatte compositing. He has won three
Oscars® for his work.
Bill Taylor ASC is a cinematographer specializing in visual effects and co-
owner of Illusion Arts, Inc.
Persons interested in details of the purely photographic travelling matte
process should consult the 7th edition of the American Cinematographer
Manual.
1. In live composites, full-bandwidth HD video is fed to an HD Ultimatte hardware device with a second
camera, an HD deck or a digital wor kstation providing the background.
2. Incident Light Reading is usually measured with an incident light meter. The meter measures the light
that is illuminating or falling on the subject. Incident light meters typically add up all the sources falling on
the surface of a white hemisphere, which must therefore be shielded from the lights one does not want to
include in the measurement. Using the flat disk on the meter held parallel to a flat surface will give a more
accurate reading of the light falling on that surface than the meter’s sphere. takes into account the angle, or
geometry, of the light—what direction it is coming from—and averages these two things together into a
single reading.
3. A noted researcher and pioneer in the field, Jonathan Erland of Composite Components Co. in Los
Angeles, won an Academy Award for CCC’s line of patented Digital Green© and Digital Green© lamps,
fabric and paint.
4. Flickerless electronic ballasts prevent the light from being unevenly exposed on film at speeds that are
faster or slower than 24 frames per second. If one does not use them and shots at any other speed than 24
frames per second the image will appear to flicker. At 180° shutter, other frame rates which are evenly
divisible into 120 will be flicker free with standard balasts, assuming 60 Hz AC power. For 50 Hz, divide
fps into 100. For frame rates that are not evenly divisble, other shutter angles that eliminate lighting flicker
can be confirmed by testing.
5. It should be noted that film builders use a roughly equivalent compromise: green- and red-sensitive
negative layers have more grain and less resolution than the green layer.
Photographing Miniatures

by Dennis Muren, ASC

T he recent increase in the use of miniatures in motion pictures means that

live-action cinematographers may now be called upon to photograph
miniatures, an area usually handled by specialists. Today’s pinpoint-sharp lenses,
very fine-grain color negatives and crystal-clear film stocks can reveal flaws,
and the solutions require the utmost attention to detail by every member of the
effects team. The effects cinematographer should talk to the director, the live-
action director of photography and the effects crew. He or she should look at as
much footage from the job as possible, especially immediately preceding and
following the miniature shot. Based on this material, he should then visualize
how the shot would have been photographed had it been built full size and apply
that information to the following:
1. The notion that miniatures look big when photographed with wide-angle
lenses from a low viewpoint is somewhat true. But when cut into a sequence
filmed from above or with long lenses, the shot may look out of place.
2. A small f-stop is usually necessary to hold the depth of field needed to keep
the model in focus.
3. The entire model and set must appear to be in focus, as it probably would
have been if the scene had been built full size.
4. When shooting a fully miniature shot, a diffusion filter on the camera can
give an artificial atmosphere that enhances the sense of reality.
5. Match the preceding and following live-action photography as closely as
possible. Lighting units should be placed at the scaled distance from the
model to duplicate natural light falloff. Small units help the scale.
6. Artificial smoke can be used to slightly cloud the atmosphere in a miniature
and give a realistic aerial haze. In instances where more control is needed,
bridal veil material can be tightly stretched within a set and separately lit.
7. Panning, tilting, trucking, and even jolts and shakes can add greatly to a shot
if they are appropriate to that moment.
8. High-speed film stocks allow for extra stopping down. Perforation size and
location can be checked on each roll to help ensure rock-steady images, if
necessary.
9. For high-speed shooting, rental cameras should be loaded and tested by the
assistant who will use them. Registration steady tests should be made at the
chosen speeds, if necessary.
MODEL SIZE
Water, fire and exploding models should be as large as the budget and safety
allow, even half size if possible and shot high-speed. Intense wind can help break
up out-of-scale water droplets and, in some cases, fire. Exploding models should
be prebroken, reassembled and exploded within slow-moving, low-powered and
colorful pyrotechnics, preferably with two or more blasts. Other types of models
can be built just big enough to be adequately detailed and still carry depth of
field.
Miniature explosions and fire can be dangerous because the camera may need
to be in close proximity to the miniature. Plan accordingly.
SHOOTING SPEEDS
If there is no motion on the miniature, it can be photographed at any speed.
Water, fire, explosions and falling effects are usually done with large models and
camera speeds of up to 360 fps. The exact speed depends upon the scale of the
model and the effect desired. The chart on page 896 is a starting point, but for
the best results, tests should be made.
High-speed shots can often be expensive and unpredictable events because of
the uncertainty of required camera speeds, pyrotechnics, winds, mechanical
equipment, human error and the need to sequence events in much faster
succession than they will be viewed. It is not unusual to shoot miniature
explosions at 300 fps to achieve a huge scale. One second of shooting time will
be seen as 12.5 seconds of screen time (300⁄24). If the pyrotechnician wants to
sequence many explosions, he may ignite the charges using a computer and be
able to specify each timing by the millisecond. Movements of the camera and
any objects in the shot will need to move 12.5 times faster than in real time. This
can make for some very fast-moving riggings. Be sure to work closely with the
rigging crew so that they will understand your problems (reaching speed,
operating, event timings, aborting, etc.). Achieving an adequate level of good-
looking lighting can be very difficult if shooting high-speed at a small f-stop. If
using HMIs, make sure that there will be no flicker at the filming speeds. Scenes
which are supposed to take place outdoors should be shoot outdoors if weather
permits.
With stop motion, shooting is accomplished at one frame at a time with the
object being slightly moved by hand between each frame. One fourth-second
exposures or more per frame allow for great depth of field in low light levels.
Stop-motion photography is used to give a freedom of movement and expression
to an object or figure.
Motion-control photography is used when the camera or an object or figure is
moved by computer-controlled motors at very slow speeds. Long exposure times
per frame allow for very small f-stops. The computer can repeat the movements
of the motors, which allows for multiple exposures. Any facet of a shot can be
isolated and wedged for intensity, color, filtration and atmosphere. The image
can be built up through multiple exposures made from the chosen wedge frames,
while the computer repeats the same motions each time.
Go-motion shooting is used when shooting animal or creature models. The
major body parts are attached to rods that are moved by computer-controlled
motors. Detail movements are animated by hand each frame. Single-frame
shooting allows for small f-stops at long exposure times. Coverage at various
angles and camera speeds is especially useful to help cushion the risks on high-
speed shots.
CALCULATING CAMERA SPEED
Explanation of table (Page 896)
The scale of the model may be stated as “inches per foot,” or as a fraction of
full size. In photographing a miniature, portraying any motion when the speed of
that motion depends on gravity, the frame rate of the camera is governed by the
scale. This includes falling objects or water, wave action, fire or smoke,
explosions in which objects are thrown into the air, etc. On the other hand, any
object (for instance, an automobile) moving at a controllable speed can be
related to the selected camera speed; the camera frame rate is increased as the
inverse square root of the scale fraction (the square root of the relation of full
size to miniature). For instance, for a miniature 1⁄16 full size (3⁄4 inch = 1 foot),
the inverse of the fraction is 16. The square root of 16 is 4 and the frame rate
should be: 4 x normal = 96 fps.
In the same set, an automobile portrayed as traveling 60 mph should move
1
⁄16th that speed because of the scale, but increased four times because of the
frame rate.

Dennis Muren, ASC is the senior visual-effects supervisor at Industrial Light

& Magic. Recipient of eight Academy Awards for Best Achievement in Visual
Effects, Muren is actively involved in the design and development of new
techniques and equipment.
In-Camera Compositing of Miniatures with Full-Scale
Live-Action Actors

by Dan Curry ASC Associate Member

anging” or “Foreground” miniatures have been a valuable method of

“H creating production value since the earliest days of filmmaking. In-camera
compositing makes the use of miniatures an attractive alternative when
postproduction compositing may not be possible. These techniques may be of
special interest to student filmmakers working with microbudgets.
With the exception of 3-D, photographed images are two-dimensional. The
camera, and the audience, cannot tell how far or near an object may actually be.
The only clues are linear perspective, aerial perspective (caused by natural
atmospheric haze) and focus. Filmmakers can take advantage of this by placing a
miniature within the frame to create the illusion that it is part of the full-scale
world being photographed. There are many ingenious ways to incorporate live
actors into foreground miniatures using platforms, ladders, and devices to cast
shadows. Once the basic principles of photographing miniatures are understood,
filmmakers can expand upon them to suit their specific needs.

Some advantages of hanging miniatures

In-camera compositing eliminates postproduction costs.
One miniature can be photographed from many different angles, and therefore
used for different shots.
Good miniature builders are easier to find than matte painters.
When shot in daylight, light on the miniature will naturally match the light in
the scene.
Nodal pan/tilts can be utilized.
When carefully aligned, people can be positioned “inside” or “on” the
miniature.

Important considerations when photographing hanging miniatures

Scout and shoot reference photos of location in advance and prepare miniature
for specific location requirements.
Adequate depth of field must be established.

Figure 1.
The actual height of the lens above ground level should be the
same as the height in scale above the ground level miniature.
E.g., If the actual lens height is 8 feet, and the scale of the model
E.g., If the actual lens height is 8 feet, and the scale of the model
is 1⁄2 inch equals 1 foot, then the lens height above the
miniature’s ground level should be 8 feet in the scale of the
miniature: (1⁄2″ x 8 = 4″).
Depth of field must be sufficient to carry focus from the nearest
point on the miniature to infinity. Use the Depth of Field Chart
in this manual to determine the aperture needed.

Figure 1a. Approaching distant structures

Plan proper set-up for accurate perspective and miniature stability.

Make sure that light angles and cast shadows work with the illusion. A backlit
structure that would naturally cast a shadow on the ground in front of it
(which it cannot do unless the ground is built into the miniature set) will
shatter the illusion of reality. Key light should be forward of the miniature.
When scouting locations note time of day for the best light angle.
If actors are to appear “inside” or “on” the miniature, provisions must be made
to cast shadows on them where needed.
Short focal length lenses offer the greatest depth of field.
Aerial perspective (natural atmospheric haze) can be simulated with diffusion
sprayed onto a foreground glass in the appropriate areas. Clear Krylon spray
works well.
It is impossible to predict every situation that may arise, but the following
examples may provide useful guidelines:
Example 1: Actors approach a distant city or structure.
If the actual height of the lens is 10′, the ground level on the miniature must be
set below the lens an equal distance in scale. If the scale of the miniature is
1
⁄2″ = 1′, then ground level on the miniature should be 5 below the lens.
Depth of field must be determined (use the chart elsewhere in this manual) to
carry focus to include the miniature. If the nearest point on the model is 4′
from the camera and an 18 mm lens (on a 35 mm camera) an f-stop of 5.6
with focus set at 61⁄2 will carry focus from 3′ 6″ to infinity.
Example 2: Using a miniature as a foreground cutting piece.
Example 3: Perspective from a tall structure.
Figure 3. Floor level of the miniature should be the same elevation it
would have if full scale. E.g., If the set was full sized and the floor
was supposed to be 25′ above ground level, the floor of the miniature
should also be 25′ in elevation to keep the people on the ground scale
with the miniature. The lens should be the correct scale height above
the model’s floor.
Figure 4. The same guidelines apply as in Figure 3

Example 4: Hanging miniature as a ceiling extension.

This can be useful on soundstages where lighting grids must be used to
illuminate set and there is no room for a practical ceiling.
NODAL PANS AND TILTS
Pans and tilts are possible if the camera is mounted so that the pivot point is
set at the nodal point of the lens. A simple way to confirm that the camera is
properly mounted at the nodal point is to set two objects (c-stands, stakes,
human stand-ins, etc.) directly in line with one another in front of the camera.
Try a test pan. If the foreground object appears to move in the opposite direction
of the pan, then the camera is mounted in front of the nodal point, slide it back
on the head until the two objects remain in alignment when the camera pans.
FORCED PERSPECTIVE
Situations may arise where forced perspective or constantly changing scales
may provide the best solution to production needs. If this is the case, close
coordination between director, director of photography, visual effects supervisor,
production designer, and a highly skilled model maker is required, as there is no
room for error.
MIXED SCALES
To gain a greater illusion of distance, elements within a miniature scene can
be built, working from larger scale in the foreground to smaller scale the farther
away objects are intended to appear.
ADJUSTING SPEEDS OF MOVING OBJECTS
Useful for situations such as moving miniature trains to be photographed as an
in-camera composite with full-scale elements at 24 fps.
Example:
A miniature elevated train, scale 1⁄4″ = 1′, is to pass through frame as part of a
live-action scene.
At 4 (1⁄4″ units) per foot 4 x 12″ = 48 (1⁄4″ per second)
The fractional equivalent of this scale is 1⁄48. (scale expressed as a fraction) x
(depicted speed) = scale speed
If the speed depicted is 30 mph, then 1⁄48 x 30mph = .625mph
The speed of the miniature must be 1⁄48 of the desired speed or .625 mph.
It is more practical to calculate in feet per second. (5280′/3600 sec) x .625 =
.92 ft/sec
In a practical situation, mark off as many .92 ft increments as is convenient,
and adjust the speed of the miniature train to match. If you mark off four .92
increments, then it should take 4 seconds for your train to cover the distance.
Figure 4.
The actual elevation of the lens below the level of the top of the
set wall should be the same as the distance in scale below the
level of the equivalent part (bottom) of the miniature.
The actual distance to the back wall of the set should equal the
scale distance to the back of the miniature.
E.g., If the actual lens height is set 6 below the top of the set
wall, and the scale of the model is 1⁄2″ equals 1, then the bottom
of the miniature shoudl be set 6 in scale above the lens height
(1⁄2” x 6 = 3”).
Depth of field must be sufficient to carry focus from the nearest
point on the miniature to the back wall. Use the Depth of Field
Chart in this manual to determine the aperture needed. Set
lighting and lighting within the miniature must be matched to
create a successful illusion. The miniature can be suspended by
any means invisible to the camera.

(Please refer to “Calculating Camera Speed” on pages 365, 682-683 and

896.)

Dan Curry is an Emmy-winning master of visual effects. Working as an art

director, matte painter, effects supervisor and producer on more than sixty
television productions. He has many classic shows under his belt, including Star
Trek, Deep Space Nine and Star Trek Voyager. He holds a MFA in film and
theater.

Drawing photographic perspective

Light Sources, Luminaires and Lighting Filters

COLOR TEMPERATURE
Color temperature describes the “true” temperature of a “black-body radiator”
and thereby completely defines the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the
object. When the object becomes luminous and radiates energy in the visible
portion of the spectrum, it is said to be incandescent. Simply stated, this means
that when an object is heated to an appropriate temperature, some of its radiated
energy is visible.
The color temperature is usually described in terms of degrees Kelvin (°K).
The first visible color when an object is heated is usually described as “dull
cherry red”. As the temperature is increased, it visually becomes “orange,” then
“yellow,” and finally “white” hot.
One of the most important features of incandescent radiators is that they have
a continuous spectrum. This means that energy is being radiated at all the
wavelengths in its spectrum. The term “color temperature” can only be properly
applied to radiating sources that can meet this requirement. When the term
“color temperature” is applied to fluorescent lamps (or other sources that do not
meet the criteria for incandescence), it really refers to “correlated color
temperature.”
CORRELATED COLOR TEMPERATURE
The term correlated color temperature is used to indicate a visual match where
the source being described is not a black body radiator. The term is often abused,
an example being its application to such light sources as mercury-vapor lamps.
From a photographic standpoint, the correlated color temperature can be
extremely misleading. It is important to keep in mind that its connotations are
visual. It is a number to be approached with extreme caution by the
cinematographer.
See the Correlated Color Temperature chart on page 821.
THE MIRED SYSTEM
When dealing with sunlight and incandescent sources, the MIRED system
offers a convenient means for dealing with the problems of measurement when
adjusting from one color temperature to another. This system is only for sources
that can truly be described as having a color temperature. The term MIRED is an
acronym for Micro Reciprocal Degrees. The MIRED number for a given color
temperature is determined by using the following relationship:
Sunlight should not be confused with daylight. Sunlight is the light of the sun
only. Daylight is a combination of sunlight and skylight. These values are
approximate since many factors affect the correlated color temperature. For
consistency, 5500°K is considered to be Nominal Photographic Daylight. The
difference between 5000°K and 6000°K is only 33 MIREDs, the same
photographic or visual difference as that between household tungsten lights and
3200°K photo lamps (the approximate equivalent of 1⁄4 Blue or 1⁄8 Orange
lighting filters).

As a convenience, refer to page 835 to determine the MIRED values for color
temperatures between 2000°K and 10,000°K in 100-degree steps.
Filters which change the effective color temperature of a source by a definite
amount can be characterized by a “MIRED shift value.” This value is computed
as follows:
MIRED shift values can be positive (yellowish or minus blue filters) or
negative (blue or minus red/green filters). The same filter (representing a single
MIRED shift value) applied on light sources with different color temperatures
will produce significantly different color-temperature shifts. Occasionally, the
term “decamireds” will be used to describe color temperature and filter effects.
Decamireds are simply MIREDs divided by 10.
COLOR RENDERING INDEX
The Color Rendering Index (CRI) is used to specify the stated characteristic of
a light source as it might be used for critical visual color examinations, such as
in color matching or inspection of objects. The CRI is established by a standard
procedure involving the calculated visual appearance of standard colors viewed
under the test source and under a standard illuminant. The CRI is not an absolute
number, and there is no relative merit to be determined by comparing the CRIs
of several sources.
The CRI is of importance photographically only when it is between 90 and
100. This is accepted to mean that such a source has color-rendering properties
that are a commercial match to the reference source. For example: the HMI
lamps have a CRI of 90 to 93, referred to the D55 standard illuminant (D55 is
the artificial match to standard daylight of 5500°K).
DEALING WITH ILLUMINATION DATA
1. Lighting Quantities — Intensity
There are two ways that intensity information is normally shown. Most
lighting manufacturers supplying instruments to the motion-picture industry tend
to present their data in a rectangular format. The polar presentation is more
likely to be encountered with commercial/industrial-type fixtures.
Where the intensity distribution of a lighting source is known, the illumination
produced by the unit can be calculated using the inverse square law. This is
expressed as follows:

Example: A fixture is described as having a center intensity (or center beam

candlepower) of 50,000 Candelas. What is the illumination at 25 feet? (What is
the illumination at 10 meters?)

2. Lighting Quantities — Coverage

Beam Coverage: This is described as the limit of the area covered to within
50% of the maximum intensity.
Field Coverage: This is described as the area covered to within 10% of the
maximum intensity.
Of the two areas described above, the beam coverage is the more important
photographically. It describes the area that is illuminated at a level that is not
lower than one stop down from the center intensity. The assumption is made,
where a single distribution is shown, that the distribution pattern is essentially
circular.
Calculating Coverage from Beam Angle: The following expression allows
the computation of the coverage diameter (W) for any distance (D) and a given
beam angle. (See tangent function table on page 679.) The expression is:

Example: For a distance of 50 feet and a known beam angle of 26 degrees, what
is the coverage diameter of the beam (50% of the center)?

Fig. 1. Lamp Beam

3. General Comments on Calculations

In the event that it is necessary to convert from footcandles to Lux, the value
of footcandles should be multiplied by 10.76. To convert Lux to footcandles,
divide Lux by 10.76. Lux is the metric measurement of illumination, whereas
footcandles is the English method.
PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHT SOURCES
The sources covered in this section include the more familiar types, such as
incandescent, and the AC and DC types of discharge lamps. The initial section
deals with the properties and characteristics of natural daylight.
The general characteristics of each type are delineated in moderate detail,
including spectral energy distributions and electrical characteristics. In addition,
any special considerations for the cinematographer are noted. (See the chart on
page 837 for characteristics of typical photographic light sources.)
NATURAL DAYLIGHT
Daylight conditions are highly varied from a photographic viewpoint and are
based on the local atmospheric conditions, location on the earth, altitude, time of
year, hour of the day and the amount of atmospheric pollutants that may be
present. A brief summary of some of the possibilities are presented in the
Correlated Color Temperature chart on page 821.
Least Diffuse – In clear cloudless sunlight, the sun as the main lighting source
(key) is truly a point. This produces the hardest, most distinct shadows. The
incident light level from the sun on such a day can be as much as 10,000
footcandles. The skylight contribution (fill) is about 1,500 footcandles. This
produces a lighting ratio of about 7:1 (key to fill). Lighting control in these
situations may require booster lighting or the use of certain grip devices such as
large overhead scrims.
Most Diffuse – A completely overcast day is essentially shadowless lighting.
The entire sky, horizon to horizon, becomes the light source. The incident level
may be as low as 200 footcandles.
FILTERS FOR CONTROL OF NATURAL DAYLIGHT
A family of materials supplied as deep-dyed polyester films are made in a
variety of subfamilies for application in a number of different lighting situations.
One of these subfamilies is designed to deal with natural daylight situations. The
materials are supplied in rolls ranging from 48 (122cm) to 60 (152cm) wide, and
in rigid acrylic panels 1⁄8″ (3mm) thick and in the same widths as noted and 8
(244cm) to 10 (305cm) high.
When properly applied, image clarity is maintained through windows treated
with either the plastic film or rigid panel filters. The panels are particularly
useful where wind or strong air movement may cause the plastic film to move
and produce visible highlights.
There are three kinds of filters available in these materials: neutral density
filters, color-correction filters, and combination filters. (See the filters for
daylight correction on page 829.)
INCANDESCENT LIGHT SOURCES
All incandescent light sources consist of a tungsten filament in a sealed bulb
which is designed so that the terminals of the filament are accessible. By
applying a voltage across these terminals, a current flows through the filament
and raises its temperature to a level that results in the production of visible light.
For many years, the standard incandescent globe has been replaced in motion-
picture photography with tungsten halogen incandescent lamps that have a
longer life and more consistent color temperature.
INCANDESCENT LAMP OPERATIONAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Filters for Incandescent Lamps
These filters are placed in front of incandescent sources to change the color
temperature to an approximation of daylight. The filters may be plastic film
types, or dichroic filters. The dichroics are usually only utilized as filters which
fully convert 3200°K sources to an approximation of daylight (approximately
5500°K). Where the conversion is to be used for fill lighting, the final color
temperature would usually be 5000°K, which permits a higher light transmission
level.
Care must be exercised in the use of dichroic filters because they do not have
uniform filtering characteristics. When used on some types of focusing lights
(particularly some of the open reflector tungsten halogen types) as well as wide
beam floodlights, there may be color shifts at the outer edges of the field. There
also may be sufficient difference between dichroics so that if used on multiple
keys in the same scene, there could be significant differences in the various areas
being lit. A color-temperature meter should be applied in these situations.
A broad range of very good conversion filters are available. The blue filters
(CTB) are used to convert 3200°K sources to higher color temperatures. There is
a range of conversion levels. The 1⁄8, 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and full CTBs will allow for
adjustment in light sources due to voltage variations and to correct the standard
incandescent source to an approximation of 3200°K. The full CTB correct
3200°K to daylight (5500°K). The orange filters (CTO) are used to lower the
color temperature. The full CTO will convert daylight (5500°K) to 3200°K. The
1
⁄8, 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and 3⁄4 complete this set of filters. However, the primary reason for
their existence is to permit the cinematographer to achieve artistic effects.
In order to maintain these artistic effects, the importance of testing any filter
conversion system, cannot be over emphasized. There are many small variations
that can add up to disappointment. The use of a carefully calibrated three-color
color temperature meter is essential. Variations that could cause trouble include:
incorrect voltage, lamp globe, lamp reflector, lamp lens, lamp filters, bounce
surfaces, atmospheric conditions (open shade, overcast, sunset, sunrise), camera
lens, camera filters, negative and positive processing, and finally poor exposure.

DC Carbon Arc Sources

The open carbon arc remains in use, in particular the 225 ampere “Brute”
Fresnel lens spotlight. The tables on pages 833 and 838 summarize the various
carbon arc units, as well as the type of carbons necessary for each type. There is
also a summary of the electrical characteristics of these arcs when properly
operated.

Boosted Voltage Operation

It is possible to overvoltage a wide range of standard 120-volt, 2800°–2900°K
lamp types and convert them effectively to photographic lamp types. This
system (“Colortran” boosting) was widely used in many places around the world
until the advent of the tungsten-halogen lamp. Little used in the United States
now, it is still in wide use in other parts of the world and offers some interesting
advantages. There are many situations in which this system may be both cost-
effective and functionally desirable.
Typically, when 120-volt lamps are operated at 165 volts, the color
temperature should be approximately 3100–3200°K. It is possible to continue
the boosting operation, and some lamp types will actually yield 3300–3400°K
when operated at approximately 185 volts. Due to the low pressure in the
standard incandescent, long-life lamps, this is a safe type of operation.
A further advantage of this system is that the standard incandescent types
utilized in it tend to be much less expensive than the photographic lamp types
rated at 3200°K at the operating voltage. Further, the expected life of many of
these lamps at 3200°K operation is directly comparable to the life that can be
expected from 3200°K-type photographic lamps operated at their rated voltages.

Fluorescent Lighting
There is now a considerable selection of professional lighting fixtures, some
of which are very portable and compact, that utilize a range of fluorescent lamps
which closely approximate 3200°K and 5500°K lighting. These utilize high
frequency (25,000Hz) electronic ballasts which completely eliminate any
concerns regarding possible “flicker” problems from operation at usual line
frequencies. This system was perfected by Kino Flo. The fluorescent tubes used
in these systems have a typical life of 10,000 hours.
Noncolor-correct fluorescents may be corrected by using a series of either
minus green (magenta) or plus green filters on the lamps or camera. Some color-
correct fluorescent tubes still may have some green spikes in their output when
they get too hot. This can be easily taken care of with these filters. (See charts
pages 832 and 839.)
Enclosed AC Arc Lamps
Most of these lamps are operated from alternating current sources only and
require the use of a high-voltage ignition device to start and restrike them when
hot, as well as a ballasting device to limit the current.

AC Arc Lamp Flicker Problem

The potential for a flicker problem exists when simple inductive or reactive-
type ballasting is used at line frequency, and where there is no provision for
modifying the modulation characteristics of the light source. In such cases, it is
necessary to be sure the power source is precisely at 50Hz or 60Hz, and the
frame rate and shutter angle of the camera are held in certain specific
relationships.
Lamps that can exhibit flicker problems include: fluorescents, mercury-vapor,
metal-halide additive types and high-pressure sodium, as well as photographic
types such as HMI, CID or low-pressure AC Xenon arcs.
All of the lamps listed require the use of a ballasting system to provide current
limiting after the arc is struck. In the past few years, an increasing number of
reliable, electronic “flicker-free” ballasts have become available for all HMI
wattages. However, a significant number of inductive (magnetic) ballasts are still
in rental.
The time-related factors involved in ensuring a uniform exposure from frame
to frame using these types of light sources (i.e., flicker-free) are the following:
1. Stability of the power frequency to the lamp ballast
2. Camera frame rate
3. Stability of camera speed
4. Camera shutter angle
5. Phase of shutter relative to light (particularly at high camera speed)
Simply stated, it is necessary to be sure that the same number of light
pulsations are present during each exposure interval of the film. The amount of
variation permitted is different for different values of the parameters noted
above.
The light output of an HMI lamp modulates 83%. This means that the light
output is pulsing from 100% to 17% at two times the line power frequency. The
result is that there are two light pulsations for each full cycle of the power line
fundamental frequency (for 60Hz systems there are 120 pulses per second; for a
50Hz system there are 100 light pulses per second). For 60Hz power, the only
valid shutter speeds are any that can divide into 120 evenly (e.g.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8,
10, 12, 15, 20, 24, 30, 40, 60, 120). For 50Hz power, the shutter speed must
divide into 100 evenly (e.g.1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100).

HMI™ Lamps
The most widely used of the new types of photographic enclosed AC
discharge lamps are known as HMIs. They are made in wattages ranging from
125–18,000. The chart on page 836 illustrates the various versions of this light
source.
These are considered medium-length arc types and are fundamentally mercury
arcs with rare earth halide additives. The color-temperature range is normally
quoted as being between 5600°K and 6000°K with a tolerance of ±400°K. The
CRI of all these types is 90 or more, and they are dimmable and capable of being
restruck hot.
As the power to the lamp is reduced further, color temperature increases and
the CRI decreases. Where the light output needs to be reduced, it is preferable to
use neutral density filters on the luminaire in order to avoid any possibility of a
shift in color characteristics.

CalColor™ Filters
Rosco Laboratories in conjunction with Eastman Kodak has recently created a
family of filters for motion-picture lighting for which they were jointly awarded
an Academy Award for Scientific and Technical Achievement. This is Rosco
CalColor™, the first system of lighting filters specifically related to the spectral
sensitivity of color negative film.
These filters are very precise equivalents to the established range of the very
familiar “CC” filters. The Series I colors include the primaries blue, green and
red, along with the secondaries yellow, magenta and cyan. The Series II will
include six intermediaries, two of which are available at this writing, pink and
lavender. All colors are produced in the familiar 15, 30, 60 and 90 designations
(1⁄2, 1, 2 and 3 stops).
All of the colors are produced on a heat-resistant base. During manufacture
the CIE references are continuously monitored by online computerized
colormetric equipment, which ensures the consistency of product from run to
run. The CalColor™ products are available in sheets (20″ x 24″) and rolls (48″ x
25′) .
The principle of this system is that each color enhances the individual color
elements at each light source to which they are applied. For example,
CalColor™ 90 Green selectively enhances green transmission by reducing the
blue and red transmission by three stops. A CalColor™90 Magenta enhances the
blue and red transmission by reducing the effective green transmission by three
stops. See CalColor chart on page 834.
Another feature of the CalColor™ system relates to the colorant, selections
that were made with concern for the purity of each color. The colors finally
presented are so “clean” that they can be combined with fully predictable results
(i.e., combining 30 Cyan (-30R) and 15 Blue (-14G, -16R) results in a Light
Steel Blue filter (-14G, -46R)).

High-Pressure DC Short Arc Xenon Light Sources

These are the best commercially available light sources for use in projection
systems. The excellent color-rendering properties of this nominal 6000°K source
(CRI = 98), its very compact source size and very high luminance (often referred
to as “brightness” or “brilliance”), and the stability of the arc location due to the
DC operation make it the light source of choice for motion-picture projection.
Xenon has recently found application in spotlights for motion-picture
photography due to its long throw capability.
A feature of these lamps is that the color temperature is virtually independent
of lamp type, lamp current, wattage, dimming or boosting, lamp voltage or the
age of the lamp.

OF NOTE…

The SMPTE standard for motion picture projection is 5600°K at 16

Footlamberts, ±2Fl. Unless you are using a dedicated Footlambert
meter to measure the screen brightness, you should use an analog
reflective spotmeter (digital meters will be fooled by the flickering
display). Set the meter to 100ASA for 1⁄50 of a second.
32Fl = f/4.8 or EV 10 16Fl = f/3.2 or EV 9 12Fl = f/2.8 or EV 8 ⅔
10Fl = f/2.5 or EV 8 ⅓ 4Fl = f/1.5 or EV 7

Low-Pressure AC/DC Xenon Arc Lamps

These are low-pressure long arc light sources. DC units are available in
fixtures at power levels of 1.1K, 2.2K, 3.3K and 10K.
The AC Lamps represent the highest-powered modules available in the arc
discharge field (AC or DC operated), with modules ranging from 10K to 50K.
It is claimed the DC units do not have any flicker problems, while the AC
units require the same caution as with AC discharge lamps.
SPECIAL PURPOSE PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING
EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS
Lightning and Other Flashing-Type Lighting Effects
Several companies now supply electronically controlled Xenon flash tubes for
simulating lightning and other types of flashing effects.
The lightning-effect fixtures range from a handheld unit (20K) used to
simulate strobe flashes associated with still photography, up to a 2,000,000 watt
unit. These sources all produce light at 5600°K, which is dimmable from 100%
to approximately 20%. An attractive feature of this equipment is that it is not
necessary to synchronize the flashes because the shortest flash duration of any of
the heads is 1⁄24 of a second.
A broad range of functions can be accomplished with the control devices that
are available. The simplest and most often used is one that will vary the light
intensity of a unit down to 20% of maximum and control the flash duration up to
1.5 seconds per flash. This unit also permits random intensity changes of up to 3
f-stops in level as many as 24 times per second to approximate the look of
natural lightning. Another unit with the same functional controls manages up to
four lighting units.
A number of other specialized controllers are available. These include a
precision fader that allows programming of flash time and intensity frame by
frame up to 99 frames, and has four stored programs, “Photoflash,” “Explosion,”
“Machine Gun” and “Undulate”. Custom programs can be created and stored in
memory. Optical and acoustic triggers initiate the flash effect by sensing a bright
light or by a loud sound. Another device allows timing flashes by triggering
from standard SMPTE time code. There is yet another that can be programmed
to chase up to sixteen lights and can be preset for each light for number of
frames on and frames off.

OF NOTE…

CAUTIONS: Xenon lamps have high internal pressure, even when

cold (cold, the internal pressure can be up to approximately 150 psi,
and in operation this pressure can be as high as 450 psi). The lamps
are supplied with a protective jacket over the bulb, and this should
not be removed until the lamp is fully installed. It is required that
suitable face shield, body jacket and gauntlets be used any time that
the protective jacket is removed. The protective jacket should be
installed before steps are taken to disconnect and remove a lamp.
A further caution must be considered relative to the
characteristically high luminance of the arc in these sources. Direct
viewing of the arc can result in serious damage to the retina.
Xenon lamps produce a considerable ultraviolet component (up
to about 6% of the total lamp energy output). This can result in the
production of ozone which is harmful to health if breathed for
extended periods or in poorly ventilated spaces. This caution should
be observed even when using “ozone-free” versions of these
sources.

Synchronized Stroboscopic Lighting

These typically utilize Xenon flashtubes, which produce a good
approximation of daylight (about 6000°K) and a relatively stable color
temperature throughout life.
The strobes must be synchronized to the camera shutter. It is imperative that
the units flash when the shutter is fully clear of the gate; otherwise a partially
exposed frame will result. To check camera synchronization, the lens should be
removed and the cavity illuminated with the strobe with the camera turned on.
The shutter should appear to be frozen in one position.

OF NOTE…

CAUTION: People with photosensitive epilepsy should be

informed that strobe lighting will be in use.

The control equipment for these strobes permits the addition of delay to the
pulse in degree increments. The position of the shutter will move either forward
or backward in relationship to the gate until it is in the proper position. For reflex
cameras the strobe fires twice for each frame, once to illuminate the subject and
a second time to illuminate the viewfinder.
COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL LIGHT SOURCES
With today’s readily available color-corrected light sources, it is much more
cost-effective to change out the globes at a location rather than struggle with
correcting the existing sources with gels and filters.
However, most filmed television shows transferred and corrected
electronically require only that the location illumination is the same color
temperature; correction to “normal” can happen in the telecine suite.
LUMINAIRES
Fresnel Lens Spotlights
Fresnel spotlights are made for standard incandescent and tungsten halogen
incandescent sources, and also for the range of HMI, CID and CSI arc discharge
lamps. The range of wattages, taking into account all types, is from 100–24,000.

Fig. 2. Optical system of standard Fresnel spot light when in full

flood position

These luminaires represent the most widely used motion-picture lighting units.
They provide the means for changing the beam diameter and center intensity
through a relatively broad range. Using standard incandescent lamps, the spot-to-
flood ratio may be 6 to 1 or so, and with a tungsten-halogen lamp it may be
possible to extend this ratio to 8 or even 9 to 1 under some circumstances.
The optical system of these luminaires is the same for all the variations that
may be presented. The light source and a spherical reflector are located in a
fixed relationship to one another. This combination of light source and back
reflector is designed so that the spherical reflector reflects the energy being
radiated toward the back of the housing through the filament and toward the
lens. The effect intended is that the energy radiated to the lens appears to come
from a single source. The combination of reflector and light source is moved in
relation to the lens to accomplish the focusing.

Fig. 3. Optical system of standard Fresnel spot light when in spot

position

One of the most important features of the Fresnel lens spotlight is its ability to
barndoor sharply in the wide flood focus position. This property is less apparent
as the focus is moved toward a spot (at spot focus it is not effective at all). The
barndoor accessory used with this spotlight provides the cinematographer with
the means for convenient light control. The sharp cutoff at the wide flood is, of
course, due to the fact that the single-source effect produces a totally divergent
light beam. The action of the barndoor, then, is to create a relatively distinct
shadow line.
Occasionally it may be desirable to optimize the spot performance of these
units, and for this situation “hot” lenses are available. These tend to produce a
very narrow beam with very high intensity. It is important to remember that the
flood focus is also narrowed when these lenses are used.
Open Reflector Variable-Beam Spotlights
These are typically the tungsten-halogen open reflector spotlights. There are
also some low-wattage HMI-types available. These nonlens systems provide
“focusing” action, and therefore a variable diameter beam, by moving the light
source in relationship to the reflector (or vice versa). These types of units are
available for sources ranging from 400–2,000 watts. One of the drawbacks of
this system, when compared with the Fresnel lens spotlights, is that there are
always two light sources operative. The illumination field produced by these
systems is the sum of the light output directly from the bulb and the energy
reaching the field from the reflector. The use of the barndoor accessory with
these lights does not produced a single shadow due to this double-source
characteristic. Typically a double shadow is cast from the edge of the barndoor.

Fig. 4. Non lens, variable beam spotlights

The great attraction of these luminaires is that they are substantially more
efficient than the Fresnel lens spotlights. Typical spot-to-flood intensity ratios for
these types of units is between 3:1 and 6:1.

Tungsten-Halogen Floodlights
A variety of tungsten-halogen floodlighting fixtures take advantage of these
compact sources. Two of the more typical forms are treated here. These fixtures
are available in wattages from about 400–2,000.
There are types of “mini” floodlights using the coiled-coil, short-filament,
tungsten-halogen lamps, which provide very even, flat coverage with extremely
sharp barndoor control in both directions. Due to the design of the reflector in
this system, the light output from this fixed-focus floodlight appears to have a
single source. This accounts for the improved barndoor characteristics.

Cyclorama Luminaires
These lighting fixtures were originally developed for lighting backings in
theater but have broad application in similar situations in film. Because of the
design of the reflector system, it is possible to utilize these fixtures very close to
the backing that is being lit and accomplish a very uniform distribution for a
considerable vertical distance. Typically these units are made for tungsten-
halogen linear sources ranging from 500–1,500 watts.
Based on the variations in design, some of these may be used as close as 3 to 6
from the backing being illuminated. The spacing of the luminaires along the
length of the backing is in part determined by the distance of these fixtures from
the backing itself.

Soft Lights
Soft lights, which attempt to produce essentially shadowless illumination, are
made in wattages from 500 up to about 8,000 and typically utilize multiple
1000w linear tube tungsten-halogen lamps. The degree of softness is determined
by the effective area of the source.
The Aurasoft™ is unique, in that it produces a greater area of coverage than a
comparable conventional unit, at a full stop advantage in light level and with
comparable “shadow-casting” character. These units can be quickly converted in
the field between tungsten-halogen and HMI light sources.
Also available is a plastic tubular diffuser with a reflector at the closed end
which is fitted at the open end, with a tungsten-halogen spotlight. The
configuration allows for the unit to be easily hidden or placed in a corner to
provide soft light that can be used very close to the actors.
The helium filled balloons are designed to contain either tungsten-halogen or
HMI sources in various combinations. These balloons are tethered and can be
used up to an altitude of about 150 feet (45 meters). They range in size from
approximately 4 feet in diameter (1.2 meters) to tubular shapes as much as 22
feet long (6.6 meters) by 10 feet in diameter (3 meters). There is a range of
power levels, with tungsten halogen lights up to 16,000 watts and HMI lights up
to 32,000 watts.
Fig 5. Reflector systems of various “soft” lights

“Par” Fixtures and Lamps

The most popular of these are the Par64 and Par36 configurations. These
lamps have a parabolic reflector that has a high-reflectance aluminized coating
and a prismatic type of front lens. Typically they are supplied in VNSP (very
narrow spot), NSP (narrow spot), MFL (medium flood) and WFL (wide flood)
lens systems. They are extremely efficient optical systems.
Fixtures are available which assemble multiples of these types of lamps for
daylight fill applications or for long-throw stadium and arena lighting
requirements. Both 3200°K and dichroic coated versions (approximately
5000°K) are available.

Beam Projectors
A luminaire consisting of a large parabolic mirror with the globe filiment
placed at the focal point of the mirror, so as to produce a parallel beam of light.
Sizes are described by the diameter of the mirror: 18″, 24″, 36″. The lamp source
is either HMI or tungsten. In by gone years the source was the carbon arc, thus
the old name “sun arc”. The beam width can be varied a small amount. A series
of baffle rings are placed to cover the filament area to eliminate nonparallel rays
of light.

Fig. 6. Beam projector

Fig. 7. Dedolight

Fig. 8. Ellipsoidal Spotlight

Optical Lens System Lights

The most commonly used is the ellipsoidal spotlight. It consists of an
ellipsoidal reflector and two plano convex lenses of various focal lengths that
project very sharp shadows. Various shadow-making devices can be introduced
on the focal plane in the interior of this light to create sharp shadows (e.g.,
variable iris, cutter blades, and pattern holder).
A variant of this design is the Dedo light and the Focal spot attachment, which
can be placed in the barndoor holder of Fresnel spotlights.
The biggest option is the theatrical follow spot. The size and intensity of the
beam can be varied by an internal lens and reflector system. Sources for shorter
throws are either tungsten or low wattage HMIs. For stadium use HMI, Xenon or
Carbon arc source are used. Many types of internal and external accessories are
available: color changers, pattern holders, irises and motorized wheels for
moving effects.

LED (Light Emitting Diodes)

Flat panels consisting of colored or white LEDs that simulate tungsten or
daylight color temperature. They may be programmed via computer to produce
most colors in constant or chasing mode.
LIGHT-CONTROL ACCESSORIES
Barndoors
The purpose of this accessory is to prevent the illumination beam from the
fixture from reaching certain portions of the set. A relatively well-defined edge
can be established that delineates the end of an illuminated area and the
beginning of an unilluminated zone.
Barndoors are most effective when used on Fresnel spotlights when the
spotlight is in the wide flood position. The effectiveness of the barndoor is
reduced as the focus is moved toward spot and is totally without effect at the
spot focus.
The effectiveness of the barndoor as an accessory on other types of luminaires
varies sharply with the design of the specific item. In a number of the open
reflector tungsten-halogen systems (particularly floodlights), barndoor
effectiveness is limited to the edge of the barndoor that is parallel to the source.

Snoots
This is a funnel-shaped device used to limit the beam of a Fresnel spotlight.
Available in various diameters.

Scrim
The type of scrim referred to here is placed directly in the accessory-mounting
clips on a luminaire. This type of scrim is normally wire netting, sometimes
stainless-steel wire, which is used as a mechanical dimmer.
The advantage of the scrim is that it permits a reduction in light intensity in
several steps (single and double scrims) without changing the color temperature
or the focus of the luminaire. Contrary to popular belief, it is not a diffuser.
The half-scrim permits the placement of scrim material in only half of the
beam and is widely used on Fresnel spotlights. It overcomes the problem
encountered when the Fresnel is used at fairly high angles. The portion of the
beam striking the floor or objects near the floor closest to the luminaire produces
intensities that are too high to match the desired level at the distance associated
with the center of the beam. The reason for this, of course, is the substantial
variation in the distances that the illumination energy travels. The half-scrim
applied on the portion of the beam impinging on the nearest objects can
overcome this problem.
Gel Frames
Different forms of these holders are made and designed to fit into the
accessory clips on the front of most luminaires. They permit the use of various
types of plastic filter materials to modify the characteristics of the beam. Color
media may be put in these holders to affect color, and a wide range of diffusion
products are available.

Electrical Dimmers
The old-fashioned resistance and autotransformer dimmers have given way to
the solid state SCR dimmer systems. Computer management DMX controllers
cannot only control the intensity of each luminaire, but can switch cues, replug
circuits, precisely control the duration of a dim, and control many other
accessories (color wheels, lamp movement and focus). All of these cues can be
recorded and stored in the computer for replayability. With arcs, mechanical
shutters are motorized to execute the dim.
GRIP ACCESSORIES FOR LIGHT CONTROL
Diffusers
There are various diffusion materials sewn on wire frames of different types
and size which permit the diffusion of both artificial and natural sources.
They are translucent materials (various textiles) that truly act as diffusion.
When supplied in very large sizes and supported from a single point, they are
called butterflies; when the frame becomes extremely large and is supported
from two or more points, it is called an overhead.

Solids, Gobos, Flags or Cutters

These all come in the same form as the various scrims, dots, fingers,
butterflies and overheads but are opaque. They are utilized to keep light from
falling in a given area and permit very fine adjustment of the lighting in a large
area.
The cucoloris is a cutout pattern placed in the path of the spotlight in order to
cast a shadow that might be comparable to the light coming through the leaves
on a tree.

Reflectors
Reflector boards are widely used for redirecting sunlight and modifying its
characteristics so that it is suitable for use as set illumination and fill light. These
boards have been surfaced with various reflecting media, usually sign-painter’s
leaf, either silver or gold.
Most reflectors have two sides, a soft side and a more mirror-like surface,
commonly referred to as the “hard” side.

Egg Crates
Large, fabric egg crates can be stretched in front of soft diffusion material to
control spill light.
Fig. 9. Visible Light Spectrum
Violet: 380-430nm; Indigo: 430-450nm; Blue:450-480nm;
Green: 510-550nm; Orange: 590-610nm; Red: 610-760nm
LED Lighting for Motion Picture Production

by Frieder Hocheim
ASC Associate Member

O ver the last four years LED lighting fixtures have been working their way
into the motion picture industry. Lead by companies such as Litepanels
Inc., products have been introduced that effectively exploit the inherent
characteristics of LED technology: low DC power and amperage draw, low heat,
and dimmable without color shift. LEDs are primarily powered by low-voltage
DC with low-energy demands. This has enabled the design of some innovative
battery-operated fixtures. Untethered from a power cable, the instruments have
provided a handy, easy-to-rig fixture well suited to the fast-paced shooting styles
of today’s production environments. The use of multicolored LEDs based on
RGB principles or the newer multicolored LED mixing allow for products that
expand the potential for accurate spectral displays.

LEDs display a number of advantages over conventional lighting technology:

Low power requirements, allowing for battery operation
High Lumens per watt efficiency
Color mixing
Video Imaging display capability
Full range dimming without shift in color

A number of companies have emerged over the past few years that are
providing innovative LED products: Color Kinetics, Litepanels, Mole-
Richardson, Gekko Technologies, Element Labs, Kino Flo, Zylite, Nila, LEDz
among others.
Challenges however remain in this new technology. For a cinematographer it
is all about the light. If a fixture’s light characteristics aren’t correct for the
scene, it will be passed over. Cinematographers strive for clean edge shadows or
soft light sources that display diffuse shadow lines. The LED will have to deliver
light as good as or better than existing tools provide. Energy savings alone will
not be the reason to embrace the LED.
The introduction of the LED has presented lighting designers with somewhat
of a predicament as it pertains to motion picture lighting. The LED is a point
source much like Thomas Edison started with back in the 1880s. Edison’s source
was wrapped in a clear glass envelope. One bulb alone provided little light.
Numerous light bulbs needed to be combined to provide adequate light levels.
The same challenges that the early designers of lighting instruments dealt with
are now being addressed again in the twenty-first century. Given the number of
patent filings the U.S. patent office has seen over the LED, you would think that
Thomas Edison had never existed. We are essentially reinventing the light bulb.

LED design challenges can be broken down to a number of issues:

Glare
Multiple shadows
Loss of efficiency when diffused
Color rendering
Heat management
GLARE
As a bright point source the LED is very glaring when viewed on axis. Large
quantities have to be assembled to provide adequate levels of illumination.
When an LED fixture is in the direct eyeline of an actor they tend to complain
of discomfort.
There is not much you can do to reduce glare if you need the light output.
Adding a diffuser to the fixture will reduce the glare but leads us into the next
problem: substantial light loss and loss of efficiency.
DIFFUSION AND LIGHT LOSS
In order to soften the light and reduce the glare from an LED, it needs to be
diffused. Diffusion breaks down the optical characteristics of the LED and
dramatically reduces its light output. Most of the heralded advantages of lumens-
per-watt efficiency are gone, along with any advantage over existing
technologies.
MULTIPLE SHADOWS
Depending on the spacing of the LEDs, the light characteristics can display
multiple shadow lines. Much like the number of pixels per inch determines the
resolution in a digital image the density of LEDs in a fixture will define the
shadow line characteristics of an LED fixture. The tighter the spacing of the
LED, the more homogenous and clean the shadow. Open faced fixtures without
diffusion can give off very distracting multiple shadows from a barn door.
COLOR
Early adoption of LEDs was hampered by their spectral output. LED
manufacturers specified their color space as dictated by the demands of general
lighting applications or a larger customer such as the automotive industry.
Lumen-per-watt efficiencies dictated the color point targets. This inevitably
resulted in light that resembled that of early fluorescents. They were green and
did not render images on film or digital accurately. The introduction of color
binning or measuring and sorting LEDS according to their specific color
performance enabled fixture manufacturers to provide a better color more suited
for the imaging industry. This is an approach that adds more cost and reduces the
yields of each manufacturing run.
HEAT MANAGEMENT
Although the lamps are highly efficient it comes at the cost of heat. Put a few
2 watt or 5 watt LEDs on a matrix and heat builds up rapidly. The lightweight
LED now has to be linked to a much heavier and bulkier heat management
system or heat sink. This gives the designers challenges as to how to exploit the
LED’s advantages of size and light output against the weight and size of the
heat-sink requirements. So if it ends up as hot and bulky as a 1 K Fresnel and the
color is not as good as an incandescent, will the industry care to work with it?
The challenges are being addressed in innovative ways and are resulting in
new and useful lighting tools. Together with the inherent advantages of the LED,
we can expect it to play a major role in providing lighting solutions to the
motion-picture industry.
TYPES OF LED FIXTURES AVAILABLE TO THE
CINEMATOGRAPHER
A number of companies are offering LED products that have found acceptance
by cinematographers. Some of the companies are designing fixtures specifically
for the imaging industries and some are hybrid offerings that have been designed
primarily for event lighting or architectural applications. Architectural and event
products for the most part do not display color correct or high CRI illumination.
Companies such as Litepanels, Gekko Technologies, Kino Flo, Nila and
Zylight are marketing directly to the motion picture and TV industry. Color
Kinetics and Element Labs come from a strong architectural and event lighting
market.

Litepanels – www.litepanels.com
Product names: Micro Series, Mini-Plus Series,
1 x 1, 2 x 2, 4 x 4, Ringlite Series, SeaSun
One of the first successful companies to exploit the advantages of LEDs was
Litepanels. Founded by industry gaffers, they have provided innovative lighting
tools for on camera lighting as well as more general set lighting applications.
Their battery operated Micro, Mini-Plus and Ringlite products are designed to
mount onto the camera as eye-lights or fill light. Their 1 x 1 fixtures provide a
lightweight lighting tool that can operate on battery power or AC. By carefully
binning their LEDs they have been able to provide a high CRI light quality
essential for good imaging.

Color Kinetics – www.colorkinetics.com

Products: ColorBlast, iColor Cove, ColorBlaze, Intelliwhite Lighting systems
Color Kinetics has had great success in the architectural markets and has a
substantial intellectual property portfolio relating to LED color controls.
Products such as the Blast series and Cove fixtures have found applications
incorporated into motion picture set lighting. RGB color mixing does not
provide high color rendering light but is widely used in color changing
applications such as backgrounds or effects lighting. Color Kinetics also features
a white light product range. These systems incorporate special binning
techniques in selecting their LED components to ensure high color rendering
white light.
Gekko Technology Ltd. – www.gekkotechnology.com
Product names: K-lite, Kicklite, kuelite lenslite, kisslite, george, Kelvin Tile,
karesslite
Founded by cinematographer David Amphlett, Gekko Technology has
introduced a very successful line of high color rendering LED lighting
instruments. Taking advantage of the low DC power requirements and the
lightweight nature of the LED, Gekko produces a range of portable lighting
instruments that can be mounted to the camera or used for small area set lighting
applications.

Element Labs – www.elementlabs.com

Product names: Stealth Display, Versa Tile, Versa Ray, Versa Tube, Helix
Screen, Versa Tile T100, Helix P1 Screen, Cobra
Element Labs comes from a strong background in large area video displays
for concert/event lighting and architectural applications.
The Stealth Display, Helix Screen, Versa Tile, Versa Ray and Cobra are all
variations on a means of creating large area architectural displays that
incorporate video images and patterned color changes.
The Versa Tube looks like a color changing fluorescent tube that can be
assembled into a large video wall. Individual tubes can be rigged into set designs
and controlled through a standard DMX512 protocol from a dimmer board.
The Versa Bank is a portable panel of LEDs designed for motion picture and
TV production. It has been effectively used in rendering sophisticated color
changing light effects for process shots. The Versa Bank can simulate the ever
changing source light in synchronization with a process background plate.

Nila – www.nila.tv
Product names: Nila JNH series
Founded by gaffer/grip Jim Sanfilippo, Nila offers a high powered LED
lighting system consisting of a module that interconnects to form larger fixtures.
Interchangeable lenses vary the beam angles in 10-, 25-, 45- and 90-degree
increments as well as vertical and horizontal Elliptical beam options. Other
accessories such as yokes and gels flesh out the system. The module is dimmable
through a DMX protocol and is available in either daylight or tungsten
equivalents. The units operate on a universal 90-240 AC/DC power supply.

Zylight – www.zylight.com
Product names: Zylight IS3, Z90 & Z50, Remote using Zylink protocol.
Founded by Charlie Collias a veteran of video and documentary production
and his brother Jim from an electrical engineering background, Zylight produces
a range of color-changing RGB portable lights well suited for on-camera and
general studio lighting applications. An innovative wireless remote-control
system, ZyLink offers control over numerous fixtures at one time. The units
operate on AC or DC power. Given the high density of LEDs on the light
emitting surface the shadow characteristics are very clean not multiples of
shadow lines.

LEDz – www.led-z.com
Product names: Mini-Par, Brute 9, 16, and 30.
Founded by veteran HMI designer Karl Schulz, LEDz offers a range of small
portable lighting instruments.
The Mini-Par is a 12VDC on-camera light that offers various beam angles
using a set of accessory lenses. The Brute fixture family consists of fixtures from
30 watts, 50 watts, and 90 watts. The fixtures are available in Daylight, 5500°K
or Tungsten 3000°K.
An Introduction to Digital Terminology

by Marty Ollstein and Levie Isaacks, ASC

W hat follows is much more than a simple glossary of terms. This is a

comprehensive overview of the science behind motion imaging and a
cornerstone in forming a working knowledge of digital technology and how it
relates to analog image capture.

ANALOG – The natural world is analog. Light and sound are described as
waves whose shape varies with their amplitude and frequency in a
continuously variable signal. An analog signal is understood to be formed by
an infinite number of points. Analog human vision perceives light as a
continuous gradient and spectrum from black to white. Film is an analog
medium and can record a continuous spectrum. Digital video cameras
capture a scene as analog voltage and then digitize it with an A/D (analog-to-
digital) converter to create linear digital code values.
A/D CONVERSION – Analog-to-digital conversion transforms analog data
(such as light intensity or voltage) into a digital binary format of discrete
values. Referred to as digitization or quantization.
ANAMORPHIC – An optical process in which a widescreen (wide aspect ratio)
image is recorded onto a narrower target (film or sensor) using an
anamorphic lens to squeeze the image horizontally. An anamorphic lens will
squeeze a 2.40:1 ’Scope scene onto a 1.33:1 negative frame or 4 x 3 camera
chip. The format uses almost the entire image area with no waste (of pixels
or negative area), resulting in a higher-resolution image. For display, an
anamorphic projector lens is needed to unsqueeze the image.
ARTIFACT – A flaw or distortion in an image—a result of technical limitation,
incompatibility or error. An artifact can be introduced at any step in which
an image is altered or converted to another format.
ASPECT RATIO – Ratio of screen width to height.
Common ratios:
1.33:1 (4 x 3) Standard TV—or
35mm Full Aperture (Silent)
1.37:1 Academy Aperture—or
Regular 16mm Full Aperture
1.66:1 European Theatrical Standard
1.66:1 Super-16mm Full Aperture
1.78:1 (16 x 9) HDTV
1.85:1 American Theatrical Standard
2.40:1 Anamorphic or ’Scope
BAKED IN – Changing or re-recording recorded images to integrate a
particular look. This action limits options in postproduction but insures that
the look is preserved.
BANDING – A digital artifact caused by digital processing in which lines or
bands appear in an image that previously displayed a smooth unbroken
gradient between light and dark or two different color values. Banding can
be caused by the down-conversion of the bit-depth or sampling ratio of an
image that results in a loss of data.
BANDWIDTH – Literally, the range between the lowest and highest limiting
frequencies of an electronic system. Commonly used to refer to the size of
the “pipeline” employed to transmit data, quantified by the amount of data
that can be transmitted over a given period of time, such as megabits per
second. Compression techniques are used to reduce the size of image files to
facilitate real-time display of high-quality images in systems with limited
bandwidth.
BAYER PATTERN – A chip design that allows a camera to record full color
using a single chip. The pixel array employs a pattern of 2 x 2 matrices of
filtered photoreceptor sites—two green, one red and one blue. Three-chip
cameras record red, green and blue on three separate chips. (See Figure 7.)
BINARY CODE – The mathematical base of digital systems that uses
combinations of only 0 and 1 to represent all values. A mathematical
representation of a number to base 2.
BIT – The smallest increment of digital information. A bit is a digit of binary
code which can define only two states—0 or 1, on or off, black or white.
BIT DEPTH – Bit depth determines the number of steps available to describe
the brightness of a color. In a 1-bit system, there is only 0 and 1, black and
white. An 8-bit system has 256 steps, or numbers from 0–255 (255 shades of
gray). Until recently, 8-bit was standard for video and all monitors. Most
monitors still have only 8-bit drivers, but many HD video systems support
10-bit signals through their image-processing pipelines.
A 10-bit system has 1024 steps, allowing more steps to portray subtle tones.
A linear representation of light values, however, would assign a
disproportionate number of steps to the highlight values—the top range of
512–1024 would define only one f-stop, while leaving 0–512 to define all
the rest. A logarithmic representation of code numbers, however, gives equal
representation across the full dynamic range of film negative—in 10-bit
space, 90 code values for each f-stop. This allows for more precision to
define shadow detail. For this reason, 10-bit log is the standard for recording
digital images back to film. Some publishing color applications use a 16-bit
system for even more control and detail. The cost of the additional bits is
disk space, memory, bandwidth and processing time.
The consequence of too few bits can be artifacts—flaws in the image
introduced by some image processing. Some artifacts include banding,
where a smooth gradient is interrupted by artificial lines, and quantization,
where a region of an image is distorted. If image data is recorded or scanned
in 10-bit color, converted to an 8-bit format for postprocessing, then
converted back to 10-bits for film recording, image information (and usually
quality) is lost and cannot be retrieved. Whenever possible, it is preferable to
maintain all of the image data and not discard information through
conversion to a more limited format.
BLACK STRETCH – Flattens the curve of the toe to put more steps or values
in the lower part of the tone scale. Reveals more shadow detail.
BYTE (B) – A digital “word” composed of 8 bits which can describe 256
discrete values.
• KB = Kilobyte (100 bytes)
• MB = Megabyte (1,000 bytes)
• GB = Gigabyte (1 million bytes)
• TB = Terabyte (1 billion bytes)
CALIBRATION – The adjustment of a display device, such as a monitor or
projector, that prepares a device to produce accurate, predictable and
consistent results in accordance with a standard. Calibration is an essential
factor in color canagement and look management. It enables two people, in
two different locations, to look at the same digital image and see the same
look.
CCD – (charge-coupled device) A type of light-sensitive chip used in cameras
for image gathering, either as a single chip or in a three-chip array. Basically
a grayscale device that measures light intensity, a CCD records color in a
single-chip camera by using color filters on each photoreceptor site (see
Bayer pattern). CCDs are analog sensors that convert light intensity into
voltage. An A/D converter then transforms the analog voltage value to
digital data.
CHIP – A device aligned behind the lens that contains an array of photoreceptor
sites, or light-sensitive sensors, for capturing image data. The sensors
convert light intensity into voltage levels, an electrical charge proportional to
the intensity of the light striking it. The voltage is then sampled and
converted to a digital code value—one for each pixel of the image.
CHROMATICITY DIAGRAM – The two-dimensional plot of visible light,
commonly used to represent the three-dimensional 1931 CIE XYZ
colorspace standard. It is effectively a 2-D “slice” out of a 3-D model. The
horseshoe-shaped plot defines the range of human color vision, independent
of brightness. More limited color gamuts (ranges) of media (such as film or
HD video) or display devices can be clearly portrayed in the diagram.
Individual colors are defined as points in the diagram with chromaticity
coordinates (x, y). Color saturation is greatest at the outer rim of the color
plot; the neutal white point area is near the center of the plot.
CHROMATICITY COORDINATES – (x, y) Chromaticity coordinates define
specific color values in the CIE XYZ color space. They describe a color
quality (hue and saturation only) independent of luminance (brightness
value).
CIE XYZ COLOR SPACE – The color space originally defined in 1931 by the
Commission Internationale de L’Eclairage. (The CIE standard has been
updated, and is currently being re-evaluated.) CIE XYZ uses a three-
dimensional model to contain all visible colors. It defines a set of three
primaries (specific red, green and blue colors) and a color gamut to describe
the range of human vision.
Figure 1. Triangles within CIE chromaticity chart define
limits of color gamuts

CINEON FILE – a 10-bit log image file format based on film density.
Designed to capture the full dynamic range of the motion picture negative, it
is an industry standard for film scanning and recording.
CLIPPING – The total loss of image detail at either end of the scale—highlight
or shadow. Clipping occurs when the exposure moves beyond the threshold
determined by the capability of a camera or recording device. On a
waveform monitor the exposure thresholds for clipping are usually 0 and 100
IRE.
CMOS (Complementary High-density Metal Oxide Semiconductor) – A
category of chip with an array of photoreceptor sites. Its integrated circuitry
has both digital and analog circuits. Unlike CCDs, where the charge is
actually transported across the chip and read at one corner of the array,
CMOS chips have transistors at each pixel that amplify and move the charge
using traditional wires. This approach is more flexible because each pixel
can be read individually; however, CMOS chips are less sensitive to light
because many of the photons hit the transistors instead of the photodiode.
The distinguishing characteristic of the CMOS chip is that it allows a large
number of camera processing functions while using less power and
generating less heat than other types of chips. It can perform at various
frame rates and perform either progressive or interlaced scans. The Arri D-
20 uses a CMOS chip, while the Panavison Genesis uses a CCD chip.
CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow) —The additive secondary colors. Combining two
additive primary colors (R, G, B) produces an Additive Secondary color.
CODEC – A compression/decompression algorithm. The software that executes
the compression and decompression of an image.
CODE VALUE – The digital representation of the brightness and color of a
pixel.
COLOR DECISION LIST (ASC-CDL) – Designed by the ASC as the
beginning of a universal color-grading language, the CDL is a standardized
limited expression of how an original image has been graded in digital post.
Currently addressing only lift, gamma and gain parameters, the CDL can
facilitate working in multiple facilities on the same production, and allow
basic color-correction data to be interchanged between color-correction
systems from different manufacturers. Within the areas addressed, using
color-correction systems that accommodate the CDL code, the CDL will
process an original image and produce the same results on different systems
and in different facilities. It is a useful tool for the cinematographer in look
management.
COLOR GAMUT – The range of colors a system can display or record. When
a specific color cannot be accurately displayed in a system, the color is
considered “out of gamut” for that system. The standard HD video color
space, defined by ITU-R BT.709 (aka. Rec. 709), is an example of a device-
dependent color space. It uses a YCrCb space, which separates luminance
(Y) and chrominance (color – described by Cr and Cb), and allows for color
subsampling, another means of compression.
One method to compare media and devices is to plot their color gamuts on
the chromaticity diagram. The CIE XYZ color space is the standard device-
independent reference. Although the color space uses a three-dimensional
model to represent its colors, it plots the visible colors on a flat chromaticity
diagram, actually a 2-D “slice” taken of the 3-D model, usually represented
as a colored horseshoe-shaped area, leaning left on a 2-dimensional x-y axis.
All colors visible to human perception are plotted on the graph. The colors
of the spectrum lie along the horseshoe curve, left to right, blue to red. Red,
green and blue primaries are specified. The white point is nominally located
where the three primaries are equal in contribution, but to accommodate
different color temperatures, their respective white points are plotted along a
curve across the center area of the model. Specific colors are identified in the
2-D space by a set of two numbers, called chromaticity coordinates (x, y),
which specify their position on the diagram.
COLOR MANAGEMENT – Maintaining the accuracy and consistency of
color throughout the digital workflow from capture to final release.
COLOR SAMPLING – Describes the precision of the measurement of light
and color by a camera system. It is represented by three numbers, separated
by colons, and refers to the relative frequency of measurement (sampling) of
color values. The first number represents luminance (Y, commonly
associated with green) and the second two numbers represent chroma or
color as red and blue difference values (Cr, Cb).
4:4:4 captures the most information, sampling color at the same frequency as
luminance. 4:2:2 is the current standard on HD production cameras. The
color information is sampled at half the frequency of the luminance
information. The color precision is lower, but is adequate in most production
situations. (Human vision is more sensitive to brightness changes than it is to
color variation.) Problems can arise, however, in postprocessing, such as in
the compositing of greenscreen scenes, where color precision is important. It
is recommended that any visual effects shots that require image processing
be recorded in a 4:4:4 format.
Sampling can also be understood as a type of compression of image data:
4:4:4 sampling is uncompressed, 4:2:2 sampling compresses color values by
a factor of 2, 4:1:1 compresses color 4:1.
Figure 2. 4:2:2 color sampling

Figure 3. 4:4:4 color sampling

Figure 4. Color sampling as a compression of image data

COLOR SPACE – A color space is a structure that defines colors and the
relationships between colors. Most color-space systems use a three-
dimensional model to describe these relationships. Each color space
designates unique primary colors—usually three (a defined red, green and
blue)—on which the system is based. The system can be device-dependent
or device-independent. A device-dependent system is limited to the color
representation of a particular device or process, such as film. The RGB color
space that describes film is representative of the range of colors created by
the color dyes used in film. A device-independent color space defines colors
universally, which through a conversion process using a profile, can be used
to define colors in any medium on any device.
The color space designated as the standard for digital-cinema distribution is
XYZ, a gamma-encoded version of the CIE XYZ space. A device-
independent space, XYZ has a larger color gamut than other color spaces,
going beyond the limits of human perception. All other physically realizable
gamuts fit into this space.
COMPONENT VIDEO SIGNAL – A video format in which luminance and
chrominance remain as separate entities and have separate values.
COMPOSITE IMAGE – An image created by the combination of two or more
source images. Compositing tools include matte-creation software, and
chroma-key hardware.
COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL – A video format in which luminance and
chrominance are combined.
COMPRESSION – Compression is the process used to reduce the size of an
image file with the least sacrifice in quality or usable information. One
method used by compression schemes is to analyze image material, and find
and remove any redundancy, such as blue sky with a consistent color.
Compression reduces the size of the image file and as a result lowers the
data rate (and hardware) required to display the file in real time.
Compression can be interframe or intraframe.
In some compression schemes, the original image can be fully reconstituted.
Such a scheme uses “lossless” compression. However, a danger exists with
certain compression codecs that claim to be “visually lossless.” The claim
may be true for the direct display of an original image that requires no
manipulation in postproduction, but if it later needs to be processed for
significant color grading or visual effects, disturbing artifacts may appear
that significantly reduce the quality of the image. Other codecs discard
image information, which cannot be subsequently retrieved. This is
considered “lossey” compression.
COMPRESSION RATIO (uncompressed to compressed) – The ratio that
compares the image file size of the original noncompressed image to the
compressed version. The lower the ratio, the lower the compression, and
usually the higher the quality of the resulting image. A format that uses a 2:1
compression ratio preserves more image information than one that uses a 4:1
compression ratio.
CRT (cathode-ray tube) – The traditional TV monitor. Cathode rays are streams
of electrons produced by the heating of cathode inside a vacuum tube. The
electrons form a beam within the cathode-ray tube due to the voltage
difference created by two electrodes. The image on the screen is formed by
the manipulation of the direction of this beam by an electro-magnetic field
that sweeps across the surface of the phosphorescent screen. Light is emitted
as the electrons strike the surface of the screen.
CRUSHING THE BLACKS – Raises the slope of the toe, which reduces the
number of steps or values in the lower part of the scale. Darker shadow
details are lost in black.
DATA – Information stored in a digital file format. Digital image data is
assumed to be raw, unprocessed and uncompressed, retaining all original
information, as opposed to video, which has been processed and
compressed, thereby losing some information.
DCDM (digital cinema distribution master) – The distribution standard
proposed by DCI: uncompressed and unencrypted files that represent
moving image content optimized for direct electronic playback on a
projector and sound system in a theater. The DCDM’s files contain the
master set of raw files that produce high-resolution images, audio, timed text
(subtitles or captions) and metadata—auxiliary data that can include data to
control room lights and curtains.
DCI (Digital Cinema Initiative) – DCI was founded in March 2002 as a joint
venture of Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony, Universal and Warner
Bros. DCI’s purpose was to create uniform specifications for digital cinema
projection, and establish voluntary specifications for an open architecture for
digital cinema to insure a uniform and high level of technical performance,
reliability and quality control.
Some of the specs in the standard: 12-bit, 4K or 2K, JPEG 2000. The DCI
system specification defines a life cycle in which content exists in a
succession of states:
• DSM – Content originates as a digital source master; format not
specified.
• DCDM – Content is encoded into a digital cinema distribution master,
according to the specification (12 bit, 4K or 2K, XYZ color space).
• DCP – Content is compressed and encrypted for transport to the theater
as a digital cinema package, covered by the specification (JPEG 2000).
• DCDM (again) – Content is unpackaged, decrypted and decompressed
at the theater for exhibition.
DCP (digital cinema package) – The compressed, encrypted DCDM (digital
cinema distribution master) When the DCP arrives at the theater it is
unpackaged or decoded—decrypted and decompressed—to make a DCDM
ready for display or projection.
DEAD (dark or bright) PIXEL – A pixel that is either permanently bright (either
white, red, blue or green) or dark (black) on the screen. It can occur in either
recording devices (as cameras) or display devices (as monitors or
projectors). Some cameras have systems to correct for dead pixels, filling in
the space with values from adjacent sensors.
DEVICE-DEPENDENT COLOR SPACE – A color space that is limited by
the performance of a particular device or process, such as film. Film
reproduces a particular range of color (color gamut). The RGB color space
that describes film is representative of the gamut of the color dyes used in
film. It is only accurate for describing colors in the film medium.
DEVICE INDEPENDENT COLOR SPACE – A color space that defines
colors universally. Through a process of conversion or translation specific to
the application, medium or device being used, its values can be used to
specify colors in any medium on any display device.
DIGITAL CONFORM – The process of editing the full-resolution digital
image material to match the EDL (edit decision list) which was created in
the editorial process.
DIGITAL INTERMEDIATE – The conversion of a film image into digital
media for all postproduction processes, including the final color grading, as
an intermediate step for distribution, whether by film or digital media.
Common usages of the term:
• The entire digital postproduction process that comes between principal
photography and the production of the final distribution master.
• The digital version (image files) of the production, used during
postproduction.
• The final color-grading process (which may take weeks for a feature)
that integrates all visual elements and determines the final look of the
production.
• The product or result of the final color-grading process (digital master).
DIGITAL MASTER – The completed output or result of the final color-grading
process, subsequently used to create the distribution masters. Or, the full
digital version of the camera-original production.
DIGITAL SIGNAL – A signal represented by discrete units (code values),
measured by a sampling process. A digital signal is defined by a finite code
value in accordance with a predetermined scale.
Figure 5a. Camera Original

Figure 5b. Graded Master

DISCRETE – Discrete values use a finite scale of whole integers.

DLP (Digital Light Processing) – Texas Instruments’ micromirror technology is
a display solution that manipulates light digitally. It uses rectangular arrays
of up to two million hinge-mounted microscopic mirrors that reflect light
onto the screen. In a three-chip DLP system, light generated by the lamp
passes through a prism, which divides it into red, green and blue streams,
each aimed at a DLP mirror chip assigned to that color. The digital signal
operates the hinges of the mirrors, controlling the degree of reflection of
each mirror. The colored light reflects selectively off the micromirrors,
combines into a single stream, and passes through the projection lens to
project an image.
DPX FILE – A 10-bit log image file format. The current standard format for
recording digital image data back to film, it is the digital input format
required by the ARRI laser recorder. It is a versatile file format used for the
processing and storage of resolution-independent, pixel-based (bitmapped)
images.
DYNAMIC RANGE – The range of light values from black to white that a
medium or device can record or display.
EDIT DECISION LIST (EDL) – A frame-accurate description of every cut in a
production, including digital effects and titles.
ENCODING – The recording of information into a particular digital format, or
conversion of digital data from one format to another.
FIELD – An image composed of either the even or odd scan lines of an
interlaced video frame. Two fields displayed sequentially make up a video
frame.
FILE FORMAT – The software structure that records digital data. The file
format determines the organization of data within the file. File formats often
determine the spacial resolution and color depth of an image.
FILE-FORMAT CONVERSION – The transformation of an image file from
one format to another. A conversion may be required at various steps in the
workflow, depending on the devices and processes used. Conversion is
usually required for distribution on different media. Depending upon the
resolution and color parameters of a particular format, resolution and color
information can be lost in a file-format conversion. Referred to as
downconverting, image information is lost when converting to a smaller,
more limited format.
FLASH MEMORY – A storage scheme that records data on a chip and retains
that data when the host system has been shut off. Secure digital and compact
flash memory cards use flash memory. The Panasonic P2 system uses flash
memory.
FLOATING POINT – A numbering system that uses “real” numbers, rather
than integers. The decimal point of a real number floats, or moves, according
to its exponent component. A floating-point number consists of two parts:
the mantissa, which is a decimal value between 0 and 1, and a multiplier of
10n. For example, <.123456 x 103> is a floating point number with a value
of 123.456.
This system is capable of defining a much wider range of values than a
fixed-point integer with the same number of bits. When used to create digital
image files, the greater range afforded by floating-point numbers allows for
finer shadow detail (small values) while still accommodating the many stops
(large values) required to display highlight detail. It creates the capability to
store, process and display images closer to a continuous tone scale, reduce
artifacts, and produce a more faithful rendition of the original photographed
scene.
FRINGING (COLOR) – A digital artifact resulting from errors in compositing
one image into another. An imperfect matte can cause a foreground element
to acquire an exaggerated (usually bright) color outline.
FTP – (file transfer protocol) A language used for file transfer from computer to
computer on the Internet.
GAIN – The process of manipulating a digital image by holding the black value
constant and raising or lowering the value that creates white, affecting the
apparent brightness of an image. On a video camera, the gain control adjusts
the CCD sensor’s sensitivity to light.
GAMMA – The slope or contrast of an image. In color-correction terms gamma
refers to the contrast affecting only the midtones of an image. Adjusting the
gamma changes the brightness of an image without dramatically changing
the shadows and highlights. Film dyes have a logarithmic response to
exposure. This is why the traditional sensitometric curve, used to describe
the behavior of film stocks, plots density as the y coordinate and log
exposure as the x coordinate. The resulting S curve, with a lower slope in
both the toe and shoulder, provides more information about shadow and
highlight detail. A logarithmic representation of light values is typically used
when working with scanned film material for digital intermediate or visual-
effects work. Logarithmic code values are an important characteristic of
what is considered film color space.
GAMMA CORRECTION – The gamma adjustment applied to a video
camera’s signal to allow correct display of the video image on a CRT
monitor. This is necessary because of the nonlinear response, or power
function, of the CRT monitor. Cameras that can record raw data do not apply
this gamma correction, and avoid the loss of information caused by a gamma
correction.
GRADING – The process of color correction, enhancement and manipulation
used to alter a recorded image. A tool in look management, a key objective
of grading is to maintain a consistent look throughout the entire workflow of
a production.
HDRI (high dynamic range image) – An image that records pixel values
spanning the full dynamic tonal range of a real-world scene. An HDRI can
encode the high contrast ratios that occur in nature—a 100,000:1 ratio is
common in the natural world. The values of an HDRI image are linear and
remain proportional to actual light values. An HDR image must be encoded
in a format that allows a large range of values, such as one that uses floating-
point values stored with 32 bits per color channel.
HEADER – The location in a digital image file where metadata (any relevant
information, such as frame number and image size) can be recorded.
HIGH DEFINITION (HD) – A video format consisting of either 720 active
lines of progressive video or 1080 active lines of either progressive or
interlaced video.
The standard HD frame is 1920 x 1080 or 1280 x 720. The aspect ratio is
16:9, or 1.78:1.
HISTOGRAM – A graph that displays the distribution of light values in a
scene. Basically a bar chart, a histogram indicates the proportion of image
area (y axis) occupied by each level of brightness from 0–100 IRE, black to
white (x axis). With a clear indicator of clipping at either end of the scale, it
is useful for determining whether the values in a scene fit within the camera
system’s dynamic range.
HUE – A specific color in the spectrum, independent of saturation or luminance.
HYBRID FILM/DIGITAL WORKFLOW – A production workflow that
integrates digital technology into the traditional film workflow. A system
that mixes traditional silver-halide technologies with digital imaging
technologies.
IMAGE FILE – A recording of a single image frame in a particular file format.
IMAGE PROCESSING – The process of altering a digital image with software
and hardware. Examples include color grading, compression and color-space
conversion.
INTERFRAME CODEC – The interframe codec uses series of frames, or
groups of pictures (GOP), to compress the image information. Interframe
compression compares consecutive frames to remove redundancy or
common elements and arrive at “difference” information. Although it’s
much more efficient and can achieve greater compression, this scheme
creates significant challenges in editing and postprocessing due to the
interframe dependency.
INTERLACE SCANNING – Since the beginning of television broadcasting,
interlaced scanning has been used. Two vertical sweeps are made for each
frame—one to scan the odd lines and the other to scan the even lines. Each
individual sweep is called a field.
The downside of interlaced scanning is a loss of resolution and steadiness
when shooting movement. With subject or camera movement, the image
changes from one field to the next. Two consecutive fields must be
perceptually merged to create each complete frame, even though the moving
subject has changed position. Therefore, any movement will appear blurred,
and detail will be substantially reduced in areas of the frame that contain
movement. This factor also creates difficulty for any image processing that
involves spatial manipulation of the image.
A film release of interlaced material requires the creation of progressive
frames from pairs of fields, so as to convert the interlaced video fields back
to progressive film frames. There are various methods of doing this video-
field-to-film-frame conversion. Some involve the interpolation of pixel
values between the different fields. This merging of field pairs into frames
reduces resolution wherever there is movement. For this reason, the
progressive format is preferable for recording back to film.
INTERPOLATION – Connecting the dots or estimating in-between values. A
process of creating new data based on a set of existing data, such as inserting
new material between existing material; estimating missing values by taking
an average of known values at neighboring points; an estimation of a value
between two known values in a sequence of values. Interpolation can be
used by software to increase apparent resolution by adding pixels based on
the value of surrounding pixels.
INTRAFRAME CODEC – A compression scheme that processes each frame
individually. It is limited to removing redundant information from within
each frame. Generally the result is higher quality, but less-compressed than
interframe compression.
ITU (International Telecommunications Union) – An international broadcast-
standards committee that replaced the CCIR.
ITU-R BT. 601.5 – Commonly referred to as Rec. 601. The standard for
standard-definition television. The international standard for component
digital television from which the SMPTE 125 M standard was derived. This
ITU recommendation defines the sampling systems, matrix values and filter
characteristics for both Y/ B-Y/R-Y and RGB component digital television.
LASER RECORDER – A device used to record digital image data onto
motion-picture film. It uses red, green and blue lasers to write directly to
each color layer of the film. The brightness of the lasers allow the use of fine
grain, low sensitivity intermediate stock.
LCD (liquid crystal display) – Used for the viewfinder of most digital cameras.
LIFT – The process of altering an image by holding the white point constant
and raising or lowering the value that creates full black, affecting shadow
detail. The slope of the transfer function is changed, affecting the contrast of
the image.
LINEAR CODE VALUES – A linear representation of light assigns code
values directly proportionate to the intensity of the light. Double the light
intensity (as from 100 to 200 foot candles) and the linear code value doubles.
The ISO/ASA measurement scale is linear. The disadvantage of using a
linear scale in digital photography is that a disproportionate number of code
values end up assigned to the highlight values. In a 10-bit linear scale of 0–
1023, the top range of 512–1023 defines only one f-stop, leaving 0–512 for
all the rest of the f-stops.
LINEARITY – The degree to which the input of a signal is proportional to the
output.
LOGARITHMIC CODE VALUES – The system that uses a logarithmic
formula (log2) to encode light values. The logarithmic representation of light
assigns an equal number of code values to each f-stop. This scale allows
more precision in defining values, particularly in the toe region, and is
consistent with the photographic f-stop scale, zone system and human visual
perception.
LOOK – The look expresses the visual tone of a project, supports the director’s
vision and integrates the contributions of the creative members of the team.
The cinematographer develops and maintains the look throughout the
production.
LOOK MANAGEMENT – The process of creating, communicating,
protecting and maintaining the agreed-upon look of the picture throughout
the digital workflow.
LOSSLESS COMPRESSION – A compression scheme in which all image
information can be reconstituted when the image is decompressed.
LOSSY COMPRESSION – A compression scheme in which discarded image
information is lost, and cannot be retrieved.
LUMINANCE – Lightness or brightness. Measured as the average of the
brightest and darkest of the three individual RGB channels that define the
value of a pixel.
LUT (look-up table) – A software tool for manipulating the color of an image; a
method of mapping input colors to output colors. Used in color management
and look management to create a particular look or convert an image to be
read or display properly on a device.
MPEG (Motion Pictures Expert Group) – A digital compression standard.
METADATA – All data associated with a specific image, recorded in the digital
image file header (or alternatively, in an external database), to facilitate some
aspect of the processing the image to realize the project.
MOIRÉ PATTERN – Usually seen as a wavy, vibrating pattern in an image, a
moiré pattern is an artifact that appears when one repeating pattern interferes
with another repeating pattern. It often occurs in scenes with fine repetitive
detail, such as on a herringbone fabric design or an old screen door. The
moiré pattern appears when the level of detail (frequency) in the scene
exceeds the recording capability (resolution) of the recording device (camera
or scanner).
MOTION-CONTROL DATA – Metadata documenting camera placement and
movement, including lens height, position, pan and tilt data, and all pertinent
camera information.
NOISE – Noise appears like randomly placed “snow” or film grain in an
electronic image. Caused by electronic error or signal interference in a
camera, noise can represent irregular level fluctuations of a low order of
magnitude. Some noise is present in all analog video signals. The level of
noise is a function of the efficiency of the sensors (such as CCD or CMOS)
and signal processing of the camera. Noise levels can vary by color channel
when sensors are more sensitive to particular colors.
Digital signal compression is another common source of noise, where it can
appear as high-frequency signal fluctuation.
NONLINEAR EDITING – A system that allows random access to all images
in a database. An edited sequence can be rearranged without re-recording the
images from the beginning of the sequence, as a linear system requires.
NTSC (National Television Systems Committee) – The color television standard
format that uses 525 lines, 30 interlaced frames (60 fields) per second.
OPEN EXR – An image file format capable of recording extremely high
dynamic range images (HDRI) far beyond the capability of human
perception. Developed by ILM, it stores data as 16- or 32-bit floating-point
values. It is also capable of recording metadata, such as camera position and
color balance information. It supports several lossless compression schemes
and is extensible, capable of integrating new compression schemes. Open
EXR files record images as scene-referred data, documenting the actual light
values in the physical scene that was photographed. It is a good candidate for
archival image storage.
OVERSAMPLING – The process of using multiple measurements of a
particular value to arrive at a more accurate, higher quality result. An
example is the use on a chip of multiple photoreceptors to define each
individual pixel.
PANALOG – A transfer curve used in software developed by Panavision that
extends the dynamic range of their Genesis camera by up to 3 stops. The
curve transforms the camera’s internal 14-bit linear digital signal (with a
range of 0–16,383) to a 10-bit “quasi-log” signal (with a range of 64–1,019).
Designed to capture and preserve the entire range of the camera’s signal, the
Panalog scale creates a perceptually equal grayscale in which each stop
increment is expressed by the same number of code values, providing more
values in the darker regions of an image than the linear scale provides. The
white point is placed at 680 on the log scale (about 70% up the 10-bit scale),
allowing for more highlight detail, and helping to avoid clipping.
PERSISTENCE OF VISION – The perceptual process of the brain or the
retina that retains an image for a period of time. Motion blur in each image
helps create the illusion of motion which results when a series of images are
displayed in quick succession.
PEDESTAL – The light level at which a pixel turns black. The pedestal can be
raised or lowered to change the level at which an area of an image turns
black, thereby crushing to black or increasing shadow detail.
PHOTOSHOP – A software program that can be used to grade and manipulate
digital images.
PIXEL – Short for “picture element,” a pixel is the building block of the digital
image. It represents one sample of picture information. Pixels are grouped
into fixed arrays of straight rows and columns. The pixels remain in the
same position frame to frame. All pixels in an array are the same size,
usually square, but in some cases, rectangular.
POWER FUNCTION – The nonlinear gamma of a CRT. In order to properly
view video on a CRT, a nonlinear gamma correction has to be applied to the
video.
PRIMARIES – The specific colors that define a color space or are specified to
calibrate a display device. Most systems today use three primaries—a
specified red, green and blue. But some systems are now experimenting with
the use of more than three primaries in order to improve color display.
PRIMARY COLOR CORRECTION – Independently adjusting the lift, gain
and gamma of the three additive color channels (red, green and blue).
PROGRESSIVE – The method of sequentially scanning all lines of a pixel
array to create a frame in one vertical sweep. There are no fields as there are
in interlaced scanning—only complete frames. Computer screens use
progressive scans.
QUANTIZATION ARTIFACT – Where a region of an image is distorted as a
result of some form of image processing. Loss of image information can
result from reduction in color space, bit depth, color sampling or spatial
resolution. A common example: downconverting an image from 10-bit color
to 8-bit color.
RAID ARRAY (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) – A group of hard-disk
drives, linked by a system that enhances speed, increases storage capacity
and performs automatic backup of data. A RAID array writes to multiple
disks simultaneously and backs up data in the process. Often used in film
production, the benefits of the RAID system include increases in data
integrity, fault tolerance, throughput, speed and storage capacity. There are
different RAID levels, including 0 (no redundancy or backup capability) and
5 (most common, with redundancy) through level 10 and “RAID S.”
RAW FILES – The digital recording of images without applying the gamma
correction of video. This unprocessed data retains more information and can
potentially produce a higher-quality image. Instead of applying the video
gamma correction, they convert the linear code values it captures into
logarithmic code values which approximate a film gamma and color space,
resulting in a wider dynamic range and greater shadow detail.
REDUNDANCY – Values that are repeated in an image.
Compression codecs find and compress redundant values in an image in
order to reduce the size of the file. An example of visual redundancy is a
blue sky with consistent color.
REGION-OF-INTEREST CORRECTION – Using “windows” or articulated
mattes to isolate specific areas of the frame to make alterations.
REGISTRATION (COLOR) – The alignment of the three-color sensors or
sources (red, green, blue) on a three-chip recording or display device. Poor
alignment can create color ringing artifacts. Registration charts can be used
to insure that the camera is in precise registration.
RENDER – The process of re-recording a digital image in accordance with
certain specifications or adjustments.
RESOLUTION – The measure of the finest detail visible in an image. The
resolution of an image is measured by the number of pixels in the image
display, not by the number of sensors in the camera chip.
Camera resolution is commonly referred to by the number of lines of pixels
(scan lines) it records. An increase in the pixel line count will produce a
proportional increase in resolution and representation of fine detail.
Image resolution is expressed by two numbers: (pixels per line) x (number of
lines). A doubling of pixel lines and pixels per line (as the change from 2K
to 4K), increases the total pixel count by a factor of 4, requiring four times
the memory to store the image data. However, the MTF (an optical measure
of line pair resolution) only doubles.
Some of the most common resolution standards:
Standard Definition Analog NTSC = 640 x 480
(1.33:1)
High Definition = 1920x1080 or 1280x720
(1.78:1)
2K = 2048 pixels per line
(line count varies with aspect ratio)
4K = 4096 pixels per line
Pixel count is not the only element in the imaging chain that affects picture
resolution. Lens quality, registration of multiple chips in a three-chip
camera and image scaling conversions also affect image resolution.
RGB (Red, Green, Blue) – The additive primary colors. Combining all three
primary lights in equal intensities produces white. The RGB color space is
widely used to encode scanned film material.
RINGING – An artifact that appears like an outline or halo on the edge between
bright and dark areas of an image. An exaggerated transition often caused by
excessive sharpening.
SCAN – The process of reading and converting an analog image into a digital
file.
SCENE-REFERRED DATA – Device-independent data that documents the
light values in the physical scene that is photographed. Most image data is
output-referred data that depends on the limited dynamic range and gamut of
a particular output device or display. Scene-referred data does not have these
limits, but can be tone-mapped or converted for display on any output
system or device—including systems yet invented.
SECONDARY COLOR CORRECTION – Isolating specific colors in the
spectrum, then modifying their hue, saturation and brightness.
SENSOR – A photoreceptor site on a chip. The two most common types are
known as CCD (charge coupled device) and CMOS (complementary metal
oxide semiconductor).
SOFT CLIP – Software functions used to compress values as they approach the
top of the scale. This effect keeps some detail in the bright areas, or at least
softens the edge where the clipping begins.
SPACIAL CORRECTIONS – Examples include: frame repositioning, digital
filter blur, flaring, sharpening and adding grain or noise.
SPACIAL RESOLUTION – Actual detail recorded. Sharpness and contrast,
dynamic range of exposure, highlight detail and shadow detail; the accuracy,
subtlety and character of color; the smooth portrayal of motion including the
capability to alter speed or frame rate and the degree to which you will be
able to manipulate the image in post.
Figure 6. Single-chip camera – A chip design in which an
array of filtered photoreceptor sites on a single chip record a
full-color image. Proprietary chip designs have different
designs of color-filtered sensors.

STANDARD DEFINITION – Refers to an NTSC, PAL or SECAM video

format. NTSC uses of 480 active lines of interlaced video.
SUBTRACTIVE COLOR – Primaries: cyan, magenta, yellow—the
complements of the additive primaries: red, green and blue. Used as filters
that absorb discrete color values, the three subtractive colors will absorb all
color, resulting in black.
TC – Time code.
TIFF FILE (tagged image file format) – An industry standard raster file format
developed for universal transfer between many digital imaging applications
and devices.
TONAL MAPPING – Converting the tonal (brightness and color) values of an
image from one system to another with a different dynamic range and color
gamut. For example, converting a high dynamic range 12-bit image to a
much more limited 8-bit format that can be displayed on a standard CRT
monitor. The challenge of tonal mapping is to preserve the quality and
character of the original image on the more limited system.

Figure 7. Single-chip systems using a color filer array mosaic

VECTORSCOPE – A vectorscope is an oscilloscope that measures the

accuracy of color recorded by a camera and facilitates the adjustment of the
camera to record accurate color. It does not measure the brightness or
luminance of a signal. The vectorscope screen has a marked scale (graticule)
inscribed with a circle marked in degrees (0–360), a center crosshair, and six
individual boxes distributed around the circle (one for each primary and
secondary color).
The direction of the “vector” (measured by degrees) pointing from the center
to a point on the circle, indicates the hue (phase) of a color in the scene. The
length of the vector, starting at the center and extending toward the circle,
indicates the saturation (amplitude) of the color. The center point is
considered 0 saturation or neutral (as gray, black or white).
The color boxes correspond to the SMPTE/NTSC specifications for the hue
and saturation of that particular color in the standard color-bar test signal. 0
degrees is at the 9 o’clock position. The color boxes, clockwise from 0
degrees, are labeled YL (yellow), R (red), MG (magenta), B (blue), CY
(cyan) and G (green).
VFX (Visual-effects material) – Plates, composites, CGI, etc.
VISUALLY LOSSLESS – A compression scheme that claims to be lossless and
may appear to be lossless without manipulation (or color correction).
However, when it must be manipulated for color grading or visual effects,
artifacts often appear.
WATERMARK – A security scheme in which bits are altered within an image
to create a pattern, which constitutes proof of ownership.
WAVEFORM MONITOR – An oscilloscope adapted to display luminance or
brightness light levels across a scene, from left to right, as recorded by a
camera, as well as other video signal levels. It measures voltage levels from
the camera and displays them on a screen in a scale of 0–100 IRE (black to
white). If the levels flatten out at either end of the scale (at 0 or 100, with
some exceptions), the image will clip and record no detail in those areas.
WHITE POINT – The white reference, expressed in chromaticity coordinates,
that determines the white balance, or color temperature, of a system. An
important parameter in color management and device calibration.
Devices such as monitors and projectors can be calibrated to a given white
point, usually designated by color temperature, such as D65 (6500°K).
WYSIWYG (Wizee-wig: “What You See Is What You Get”) – An acronym
describing the situation in which the image displayed on a monitor closely
resembles the final image output for display.
XYZ COLOR SPACE (and XYZ) – A color space using a linear representation
of light values in a scene. The values can be output-referred (based on the
capability of a particular display system) or scene-referred (based on the
values measured in the physical scene). The <′> indicates that the values are
encoded with a 1/2.6 gamma function. The XYZ color space has been
designated by DCI as the standard for digital cinema.
YCrCb – the standard HD video color space that converts RGB by encoding
luminance (Y) and color-difference signals (Cr, Cb) separately. One reason
for this separation is that the human eye is less sensitive to chrominance than
luminance. Compression algorithms take advantage of this phenomenon.
YCM (yellow, cyan, magenta: the subtractive colors) – Refers to the black-and-
white separation film negatives that are created to archive a color motion
picture. Three monochrome negatives are made from the original color
negative, separating out the contribution of each color layer in the negative.
This process was developed to take advantage of the much longer lifespan of
black-and-white film.
Safety on the Set

by Kent H. Jorgensen and Vincent Matta

S afety plays a prominent role on any film and television set. It can be front
and center, influencing decisions or a nagging annoyance, getting in the way
of the creative process. Many people forget that the film and television industry
is in fact, an industry. While it takes the artistic input of many different
participants to make a film, the filmmaking process can place the cast and crew
in situations that pose varying degrees of risk.
A production company’s attitude is the starting place for dealing with the
risks. Whether a union or a nonunion production, all the companies involved
have a responsibility to see that their workers are trained and qualified to
perform their specific job. Workers need to have their production’s Code of Safe
Practices communicated to them (sometimes also called Polices and
Procedures), but many production people have little or no experience with issues
of safety, or their productions may not operate with a Code of Safe Practices.
How can you help make a production safer?
Safety is an attitude. Make the conscious decision to not get hurt or sick or let
anyone else get hurt or sick at work.
USE COMMON SENSE
Don’t do things just to save time. If the camera is set up in the parking lane of
a road and there are a number of people crowded into the lane, don’t walk into
traffic to get a lens or something to the camera. Drivers are not worried about
you, and “cinematic immunity” doesn’t protect you from their vehicles. Get the
equipment to the camera as quickly but as safely as possible. (It’s also part of the
AD’s job to help everyone get their jobs done quickly and safely on set.)
PLAN FOR THE JOB
During preproduction, on scouts, and any time shots are being discussed,
make safety a part of the planning. Give qualified people all of the necessary
parameters and listen to suggestions. Consider alternatives based on common
sense, budget, schedule, and personal safety.
LEARN HOW TO DO YOUR JOB
Training to do a job safely and correctly is important. Simple things like
learning to lift and carry equipment properly can save you from pain. Camera
cases and other camera equipment are often heavy and can cause back and leg
problems. Proper lifting techniques and carts will make your job easier, and will
help you reach retirement without any lasting injuries.
LISTEN TO QUALIFIED PEOPLE
Sometimes a camera or lamp position has to be made safe before it can be
used. If the setup wasn’t planned for, it may take more time than is available.
The qualified person should be able to say what it will take to do safely what
was asked for. If the time or money isn’t available, an alternative setup is
needed.
INFORM EMPLOYER OF RISKS
Safety in the workplace is everyone’s responsibility. Inform your employer of
potential risks. It’s okay to question the safety of doing something if there’s the
possibility of an imminent risk to the cast or crew. Have the employer address
the issue so you can return to work.
MICROWAVE TRANSMITTERS
Many film and television productions use microwave transmitters to send
video signals from the camera to remote monitors for viewing. A microwave
transmitter is basically a radio at a high-frequency spectrum, and not a
microwave oven. Even so, this equipment will pose a radiation hazard if
improperly handled.
The average microwave transmitter is rated at 0.25W (+24dBm) nominal RF
power output and is designated an intentional radiator. It can deliver video and
audio signals over short ranges when used with a receiver and appropriate
antennas in either fixed or mobile applications. When the transmitter is operating
as an antenna, the system is emitting radio frequency energy, so safe operating
procedures must be observed. On set, your microwave technician is the go-to
individual for this information.
The microwave tech should know and be able to answer the following:
1. How much power is the system radiating?
2. What frequency is being transmitted?
3. How close of proximity is the system to your person?
EXPOSURE
Exposure is based upon the average amount of time spent within an
electromagnetic field (RF energy) with a given intensity (field intensity in
mW/cm2). There are two categories of exposure situations;
occupational/controlled and general population/uncontrolled.

Occupational/controlled
These are situations in which persons are exposed as a consequence of their
employment, provided those persons are fully aware of the potential for
exposure and can exercise control over their exposure. These limits apply in
situations when an individual is transient through a location where
occupational/controlled limits apply provided the individual is made aware of
the potential for exposure.

General population/uncontrolled
These are situations in which the general public may be exposed, or in which
persons that are exposed as a consequence of their employment may not be fully
aware of the potential for exposure or cannot exercise control over their
exposure.
Exposure may be controlled by observing the FCC-compliant safe distances
and remaining beyond those distances from the antenna at all times when the
transmitter is operational. At no time should the user remain within a distance
less than the indicated safe distance for a period greater than 30 minutes.
When setting cameras in an urban environment like New York City, Chicago,
or Los Angeles, care should be taken in the placement of microwave transmitters
and antennas. Many large cities use their rooftops to stage their repeaters for data
and voice over IPs. Therefore, cameras should not be placed next to an active
antenna stationed on these roofs. The production location manager should have
this indicated on their surveys. Also, many rooftops will have warning signs
posted.
Common sense should be factored into the use of microwave transmitters and
antennas. FCC guidelines addressing a variety of frequencies can be accessed on
the Internet at http://www.fcc.gov.
The industry has come a long way when it comes to safety. Today’s training
and procedures are changing to protect workers more than ever. The continuation
of this trend takes a safe attitude. The work you’re doing may be important, but
is it worth getting hurt for?
Industrywide labor management safety bulletins may be found and
downloaded from the Contract Services Administration Trust Fund at
www.csatf.org.

Kent H. Jorgensen is the Safety Representative for IATSE Local 80 Grips Union
Vincent Matta is a Business Representative for the IATSE Local 600
Cinematographer’s Guild
Preparation of Motion Picture Film Camera
Equipment

by Marty Ollstein, Michael Hofstein and Tom “Frisby” Fraser

A ll motion picture camera equipment must be periodically inspected and

maintained to ensure proper performance. Camera-rental facilities employ
skilled technicians to service and repair equipment after each use. Once the
equipment leaves the rental house, however, the camera crew must service that
equipment throughout the production. The camera assistant must be prepared
with the right knowledge, skills, tools and reference materials to properly
maintain all equipment in the camera package.
The following is a list of procedures for the preparation of camera equipment
needed to photograph a motion picture. It is the responsibility of the camera
assistant to ascertain that all equipment and supplies needed and requested by the
director of photography are present and in working order at the start of
production.
INVENTORY
1. Basic equipment, from the ground up: spreader, hi-hat, tripods, tripod heads,
camera bodies, batteries, all necessary cables, magazines (small and large),
lenses and housings, zoom motor and control, follow-focus unit, matte
boxes, filters and holders, changing tent or bag.
2. Additional accessories often requested by the director of photography:
adapter plates (quick-release, dovetail/balance, riser, tilt), external speed and
sync control (for use with monitors, computers, projectors or other required
devices), specialty lenses, remote controls (for aperture, shutter angle and
ramping), electronic focus tool or rangefinder, set of hard mattes, eyebrow,
French flag, handheld accessories (matte box, follow-focus, shoulder pad,
viewfinder, smaller magazines), viewfinder extender and leveler, barneys,
rain shields, obie light, ‘assistant’ light, video tap, monitors (onboard picture,
lens data display and free-standing), video recorder, time-code device.
3. Supplies to be purchased by the production company: raw stock, camera
reports, film cores, empty film cans, black labpack bags, labels, cloth camera
tape, paper tape, lens-cleaning cloths, tissues and fluid, cleaning swabs,
orangewood sticks, camera oil, slate, spare camera fuses, rags, air cans, felt
markers, grease pencils, pens and pencils, chamois, chalk, disposable
batteries, flash memory sticks.
4. Maintenance, measurement and repair tools, such as a device that tests
steadiness (Steady Tester), back focus (Sharp Max or HD Collimator), flange
gauge, crystal strobe gun.
5. For emergency service or replacement of equipment, keep the 24-hour phone
number of the rental house available at all times. On remote locations where
prompt service or replacement of defective or broken equipment is
impractical, carry a backup camera body and set of cables.
INVOICE CHECK
When the equipment is first received, carefully examine the rental invoice to
confirm that all equipment and supplies ordered by the director of photography
and production company have indeed been delivered. Confirm that the serial
numbers listed on the invoice match those engraved on the equipment. Make
sure that all support accessories and supplies needed by the camera crew to
perform their tasks are included.
Examine the rental invoice or work order and confirm that all equipment
ordered by the director of photography is included. Make sure that all support
accessories and supplies needed by the assistants to properly perform their tasks
are also included. If items will not be needed until later in the production
schedule, such as a high-speed camera or specialty lenses, notify and make
arrangements with the rental house, camera crew and production company. This
equipment should be prepped and picked up at least one day before it is needed
in production. In an emergency, such as when a camera breaks down, a
replacement camera body may be needed immediately. The new camera body
will still need to be prepped prior to use in production, to insure it is technically
sound.When the equipment is first received, and before removing the equipment
from the rental facility, use the rental invoice to check that all equipment and
supplies that have been ordered and billed for have indeed been delivered.
Confirm that the serial numbers listed on the invoice match those engraved on
the equipment.
Label each case with cloth tape and marker, or better, plastic tape printed by a
handheld dispenser. List the contents of each case on its spine to facilitate
finding an item during production. On a multiple-camera shoot, color code each
camera and its respective accessories with colored electrical tape—Camera
A/red, Camera B/blue, etc. When a case is in use, keep at least one latch locked
after the needed items have been removed. This precaution indicates that an item
is in use, and prevents the case from accidentally opening and spilling its
contents, were it lifted or moved.
EQUIPMENT CHECKOUT
Set up and test each piece of equipment to determine it is in working order.
Label each case with cloth tape and marker, or better, plastic tape printed by a
handheld dispenser. When a case is being used, keep at least one latch locked to
prevent accidentally spilling the contents.
Start from the ground up and build the camera system. Thoroughly check the
entire package for completeness, compatibility and proper functioning. The
equipment should be clean, free of dust and properly lubricated. Immediately
return any piece of equipment that does not perform to your satisfaction.
The following list suggests standards by which to judge each piece of
equipment.
The list describes the proper operating condition, position or setting required
for each item, and suggests procedures to use in confirming its status. This guide
is to be used in conjunction with the appropriate operation manual.
Some of the procedures described, such as measuring the flange focal depth,
or testing the magazine clutch and brake tension, require specialized test equ
ipment. If the required equipment is not available, or if you encounter any other
problems or questions, speak to the camera technician who prepared the package
at the rental house. It is likely that the technician has performed the tests himself
and can give you the results.

1. Spreader
a. Runners slide smoothly and lock in all positions.
b. End receptacles accommodate the tripod points and spurs, and hold
them securely.

2. Tripods
a. Each leg extends smoothly and locks in all positions.
b. Top casting accommodates the base of the tripod head (flat Mitchell,
ball or other).
c. Hinge bolts that attach each leg to the top casting are adjusted to
proper tension. Each leg swings easily away from top casting and remains
at selected angle.
d. Wooden Tripods (baby, sawed-off, standard). Legs are solid and have
no splits or breaks.
e. Metal or Fiber Tripods (baby, standard, two-stage). Legs are straight
and have no burrs or dents.

3. Tripod Head
a. Base (Mitchell, ball or other) fits and locks into tripod top casting.
b. Ball base (only) adjusts smoothly and locks securely in any position.
c. Camera lockdown screw fits into camera body, dovetail base with
balance plate, riser or tilt plate.
d. Top plate of head includes a quick-release (touch-and-go) base, which
accommodates a quick-release plate that bolts to camera body or any of the
adapter plates.
e. Eyepiece-leveler bracket and frontbox tripod head adapter on the head
accommodates the leveler rod and frontbox being used.
f. Friction or fluid head:
1. Head balances to neutral position with camera attached. Balance
springs engage and adjust properly.
2. Pan and tilt movement is smooth.
3. Both brake levers lock securely in all positions.
4. Both drag knobs easily adjust the tension of movement from free
movement to the tension required by the operator.
g. Gear head:
1. Head balances to neutral position with camera attached.
2. Pan-and-tilt movement is smooth.
3. Both brake levers engage properly. (Gears may move under stress.)
4. Gears shift smoothly between each speed.
h. Remote head:
1. Head balances to neutral position with camera attached.
2. Head responds immediately and smoothly to pan, tilt and roll
operations.
3. All camera functions are properly driven by remote controls
provided, which may operate focus, iris, zoom, camera motor and
ramping operations. Test that speed, direction and lag adjustments are
accurate.
4. Calibration of all controls is correct or can be adjusted properly. If
not, calibrate as necessary,.
5. Gears mesh properly (on certain heads).
6. All required cables and connectors are present and operate properly.
7. Wireless transmitter and receiver (on certain heads) operate
properly.
8. Head operation does not interfere with video tap signal or add video
noise.
i. Dutch head with third axis: Check all controls, drag knobs, locks,
plates and attachments as with two-axis head.
j. When transporting any type of tripod head, release all locks, and
reduce the pan and tilt tension to 0 (no tension).
k. Carry extra utlilty base plate to adapt to workbench in camera room or
truck.

4. Camera Body
a. Accommodates and locks securely with camera lockdown screw to
tripod head, balance plate, riser, tilt plate and shoulder pad.
b. All rollers in the film path move freely.
c. Camera interior is clean—no emulsion buildup, dust or film chips.
d. Camera oil and grease have been applied to lubrication points as
recommended by camera manufacturer. Clean off any excess. (Frequency
and amount of lubrication vary greatly with cameras. For 35mm, common
practice is to lubricate every 15,000 feet or sooner if squeaking or rubbing
noise is detected. High-speed cameras may require lubrication after each
1,000 feet.)
e. Flange focal depth is set to manufacturer’s specifications. Confirm by
measurement with depth gauge. (See next section.)
f. All fuses are intact and properly seated. Carry spare fuses.
g. Movement of the shutter, mirror, pull-down claw and registration pins
are synchronized. Two tests for shutter sync:
1. Carefully scribe a frame in the gate, then inch the motor back and
forth manually. The film should remain stationary as long as the shutter
stays open.
2. Place a piece of film under the registration pin and inch the motor
movement so that the pin presses against the film. Then inch the motor
movement forward—the shutter should remain closed until the pin
releases the film.
h. The “glow” that illuminates the ground glass is synchronized with the
shutter—the light turns off before the shutter opens the gate. (Check only
on certain cameras).
i. Camera speed holds a crystal speed at all speeds required for the
production. Thoroughly test all external speed-control accessories being
used in the camera package.
j. Shutter speed remains constant. Check by viewing shutter with crystal
strobe gun.
k. External sync control device maintains camera sync with the external
device(s) being used (monitor, computer, projector, or other camera).
l. Pitch and loop adjustments operate properly (certain cameras).
m. Buckle trip (certain cameras) stops camera movement.
n. Camera is quiet (except on MOS cameras). Decibel level is
appropriate to camera used. Listen for abnormal noise while rolling test
film through camera. Test with barney or blimp, if applicable.
o. Heating system operates properly; eyepiece does not fog.
p. All power ports operate and provide appropriate power.
q. Camera has correct configuration for chosen format (such as 3-perf,
Super 35mm, etc.). If the camera was adapted from another format (as from
standard 35mm to Super 35mm), inquire how camera was modified. Some
Arri cameras need only rotate the faceplate and mount; Panavision cameras
require changing the face plate and lens mount, gate, and position of the
movement.
Check the following on any body that has been adapted:
1. Lens covers full frame and aligns to proper center line.
2. Aperture plate or gate.
3. Camera movement.
4. Ground-glass markings—frame lines, center line.
5. Film-counter operation.
6. Zoom-lens tracking—lens coverage and alignment covers full frame
and aligns to proper center line. For alignment, inquire how camera
was adapted—whether by moving lens board (or mount) or adjusting
zoom lens. Confirm by checking tracking.

5. Flange Focal Depth (Flange to Aperture-Plane Depth)

a. Flange depth can be sensitive to temperature variation.
b. Before measuring, rotate mirror and clear it entirely from aperture.
c. Measure with proper depth gauge and aperture-gauge plate.
d. If flange depth is outside tolerance, return to rental house technician.

6. Format—Movement, Aperture Plate, Lens Position, and Assist Monitor

(Also see 4.q. above.)
a. It once was a simple choice between three formats or aspect ratios:
1.33:1, 1.85:1 and 2.40.1. Currently there are many more alternatives, and
the choice of equipment must be precisely coordinated to produce the
intended result. (For options see chapter on Cinematographic Systems.)
b. Movement: The 4-perforation frame is standard for 35mm. If a 3-perf
or 2-perf format is selected, the movement must have been modified by the
rental facility for the chosen perforation advancement (2 or 3).
c. Correct gate/aperture plate is installed. Gate is clean and properly
seated. Gate/aperture plate may include an aperture mask (format mask)
and filter holder. Critical in determining regular or super formats.Regular
formats use an ‘Academy’ or sound aperture that masks the analog sound
area; super formats use a full (camera) or ‘silent’ aperture that exposes the
soundtrack area. Variations of these two categories may be used to further
define other aspect ratios, by masking off more of the image. Gate is clean
and properly seated.
d. Lens position: Lens should be positioned in the center of the frame,
requiring different placement for regular and super formats. Some cameras
can adjust position by simply rotating the lens mount—others require
moving the entire lens board. Incorrect placement may cause vignetting and
will affect the tracking of the zoom lenses. Alternate placement of lens may
be requested.
e. Video assist: Generated frame lines must align with ground-glass
markings.

7. Ground Glass
a. Choice must accommodate the chosen aspect ratio and may include a
combination (as 1.85/TV), and creative preferences of the cinematographer
(as ‘common top’ or shaded areas). Custom ground-glass markings may be
ordered.
b. Seated properly, focuses through viewfinder on grain or texture of
glass. There is a ‘ground’ (textured) side and a smooth side. When correctly
installed, the smooth surface faces the operator. (Remember: ‘smooth
operator.’)
c. Viewfinder glow properly displays ground-glass markings. On some
cameras, the glow mask must be aligned to the ground-glass frame lines.
Check brightness adjustment. If available, select desired color of glow.
d. Test accuracy of framing and center lines. These tests insure that the
lens plane, film plane and ground glass are properly installed, marked and
aligned. Place SMPTE framing test film (RP40 for 35mm) in gate, then
view through a 50mm lens or custom microscope attached mounted in lens
port, and turn mirror back and forth to compare the frame lines and
crosshairs on the film with those on the ground glass.
e. Then shoot a film test of an accurate framing chart or rack leader chart.
A useful rack-leader chart is 11″ x 17, displays the frame lines with arrows
pointing to the corners, Siemens stars (for focus), and the name of the
production, producer, director and cinematographer. (It can be ordered,
purchased or created.)
f. Project film tests of framing to confirm framing accuracy. Compare test
footage of rack-leader chart with SMPTE test film by superimposing or
bipacking the two. Judge accuracy of framing and centering.

8. Batteries and Cables

a. All batteries and cables in package are compatible—male pairs with
female, the number of pins in connectors match. Connections are solid.
Jiggle gently to confirm a snug fit.
b. Batteries hold charge and cables conduct properly. Check with volt
meter.
c. Camera motor maintains desired speed while under the load of all
other current-drawing accessories required for the production. These may
include a zoom motor, assistant light, video tap, eyepiece heater and
viewfinder glow. Check with each battery.

9. Lamps and LEDs

Lamps that require bulbs and LEDs may include an out-of-sync lamp, running
lamp, flashing lamp, start-marking lamps (older cameras), time-code exposure
LEDs, viewfinder glow LEDs, and others. All lamps must light at the proper
time. Replace all defective bulbs and LEDs. Carry spares.

10. Variable Shutter

Mechanism operates through the full range of shutter-degree openings and
locks in each position (certain cameras). Electronic adjustment (certain cameras)
operates properly and locks at each angle required.
Set shutter at opening selected by the director of photography.

11. Viewfinder
a. Ground glass is properly seated. Ground surface faces lens.
Groundglass focus is sharp. Check on focus chart at 2 with 25mm lens. If
focus is soft, have it checked with portable collimator.
b. The image is clear and clean. If necessary, remove ground glass and
carefully clean with proper solvent and lint-free lens tissue. Then reseat
properly (usually with audible ‘click’).
c. Ground glass is marked for the aspect ratios requested by the director
of photography.
d. Eyepiece focuses easily to the eye of the operator. (Adjust diopter until
the grains of the ground glass appear sharp.) Eyepiece focus for average
vision should fall near the center of travel of the focus adjustment, leaving a
range in either direction.
e. Viewfinder extender fits properly between camera body and eyepiece.
Magnifier and ND filter operate properly.
f. Viewfinder extender leveling rod attaches securely to extender and to
bracket on tripod head. Rod extends smoothly and locks in all positions.
g. Viewfinder illumination, or glow, is synchronized with the shutter
(certain cameras).
h. Eyepiece heater warms to comfortable temperature.

12. Lenses
a. Each lens and lens housing is compatible with—and seats securely in
—the mount in the camera body.
b. Front and rear elements are clear and clean, free of large chips and
scratches, or any fingerprints or dirt. Blow off loose material with a blower
bulb. Clean off grease with lint-free lens cloth or tissue moistened with
proper lens-cleaning fluid.
c. Iris leaves fall properly in place as they are closed from the full open
position. Iris operates smoothly through the full range from wide open to
the smallest aperture.
d. Follow-focus assembly mounts properly. Focus gears align and mesh
properly, easily and snugly to the lens gears. There is no delay, ‘lost motion’
or ‘slop’ when starting or changing direction of adjustment of focus or iris
setting. Check both directions of adjustment. (Particularly important with
standard geared or remote servo operation).
e. Lens focus-distance markings are accurate. (See Lens Focus
Calibration Test below.)
f. Telephoto extenders and wide-angle adapters are adjusted to match and
fit the lens intended for their use. If used with a zoom lens, check zoom
back focus with the extender and/or adapter attached.
g. Specialty lenses: Each lens properly performs the effect for which it
was designed. Includes fisheye, periscope, swing/shift, slant focus,
Lensbaby, and other lenses designed for specific uses.
h. Remote focus and iris control:
1. Gears mesh between lens barrel and motor.
2. Focus and iris adjustment operate smoothly through their full range
of motion.
3. There is no ‘lost motion’ when starting or changing direction of
focus or iris adjustment.
4. Remote control maintains accurate calibration with lens barrel
markings.
5. All cables operate properly. Carry set of backup cables.
6. ‘Smart’ lenses, such as the Arri LDS system and the Cooke/i system
(send aperture, zoom and focus data to an onboard display and external
devices and recorders): Confirm that the system precisely calibrates all
devices to which it is connected and preserves all generated metadata.

13. Zoom Lens

a. Zoom mechanism is aligned properly and tracks smoothly.
b. Tracking test: The crosshairs on the ground glass remain centered on a
point throughout the zoom.
c. Lens focus-distance markings are accurate at all focal lengths. Focus is
maintained throughout travel of zoom. Check at 7 and 12. (See Lens Focus
Calibration Test.)
d. Back focus is sharp. Focus at full telephoto, then check focus at full
wide.

14. Zoom Motor and Control

a. Zoom Motor mounts securely and threads properly on the lens.
b. Gears mesh properly between lens barrel and motor.
c. Zoom control unit operates motor smoothly at all speeds in both
directions. There is no ‘lost motion’ when starting or changing direction of
zoom.
d. Control unit maintains calibration with lens-barrel markings.
e. All cables connecting the camera, zoom control, and zoom motor and
camera operate properly.

15. Blimp Housing

a. Housing fits snugly on lens and camera body.
b. Distance and f-stop strips fit properly and match the markings on lens.
c. Camera noise is adequately reduced.

16. Filters
a. Both surfaces of each filter are clear, clean and free of major flaws.
b. Filters are the proper size for lenses in package:
1. Filters cover entire image area of each lens being used without
vignetting.
2. Filters cover entire front element of lens and allows the use of the
full aperture of the lens.
3. Filters fit properly into filter holders on lens, lens housing, matte
box, filter tray or separate holder.
c. Filter-mounting accessories accommodate all lenses used, and mount
the number of filters on each lens required by director of photography
without vignetting.
d. The rotating filter stage used for polarizing filters turns smoothly and
locks in any position.
e. Sliding mount for graduated filters moves smoothly and locks in any
position.
f. Prepare labels for each filter (tape or Velcro) for display on the side of
the matte box.
g. Use a circular polarizer for cameras in which polarization can interfere
with or darkens the viewing system or videotap. Ask technician and test
viewing system with filter.

17. Matte Box

a. Mounts securely to camera body (or lens), and when mounted on rods,
extends smoothly along the supporting rods.
b. Test each lens with the correct matte box (4″ x 4″ 4″ x 5.6″, 6″ x 6″,
etc.) to confirm there is no vignetting. If the lens barrel travels (extends)
when focusing, the matte box must accommodate the extending lens.
c. No light passes between the matte box and the lens. If necessary,
acquire additional rings, filter trays, rubber ‘doughnuts’ or an elastic ‘skirt’
to block light leaks.

18. Magazine
a. Fits snugly into the camera body.
b. Magazine doors fit and lock securely.
c. On coaxial magazines, label each ‘Feed’ and ‘Take-up’ door with tape.
d. Throat, film channels and interior are clean, clear of dust and film
chips.
e. Loop adjustment operates properly (certain cameras).
f. Magazine gear timing is properly adjusted—film runs smoothly and
quietly through the magazine.
g. Clutch tension and friction-brake tension have been measured with the
proper tools and are correct.
h. Inspect magazine port seals (top and rear).
i. Magazine operation is quiet (except on MOS cameras). Use a barney to
dampen sound if necessary.

19. Video Assist: Video Camera, Monitor and Recording Device

a. Video camera (or tap) mounts securely on the camera body.
b. All cables are compatible and operate the tap, monitor and recorder.
c. The iris, focus and gain controls adjust smoothly and produce a correct
image on the monitor.
d. The image can be centered and sized properly on the monitor so that
the entire film frame is visible and level.
e. The frame-line generator produces the proper aspect ratio on the
monitor. The generated frame lines align with the ground-glass frame lines.
f. Color saturation and hue are acceptable. White-balance adjustment
functions properly.
g. Confirm the tap is matched to and compatible with the camera. For
instance, Arri has different HD-IVS taps for their respective camera
models.

20. Time Code

a. Some systems currently in use include SMPTE code, Aaton code and
the Arri in-camera slate. Confirm with the production company that the
time code system ordered and installed is compatible with the
postproduction plans (equipment and facilities).
b. LEDs light properly. Set film ASA for proper exposure on device.
Carry spare bulbs.
c. LED and LCD displays read clearly.
d. Code maintains sync with each device being used.
e. Code records properly on film and can be used as needed in post.(See
Film Tests section.)

21. Ramping
a. Frame-rate variation affects exposure. Ramping therefore requires
exposure compensation. Determine whether exposure compensation will be
accomplished by adjusting aperture, shutter angle or a combination of the
two.
b. Confirm that the camera and ramping accessories provide the required
functions. Fully test all ramping operations planned for the production.
c. Shoot film to insure consistent density exposure during ramping.(See
Film Tests section.)

22. Accessories
a. Each accessory properly performs the function for which it was
designed. All cables, power supplies and auxiliary support equipment are
present and operational. Test and operate each device.
b. External speed control holds a crystal speed at all speeds required for
the production.
c. External sync control maintains sync, or is properly driven by external
device (monitor, computer, projector or another camera).
d. Rain gear protects camera from moisture.
e. Underwater housing seals properly and allows operation of all camera
functions.
f. Camera heater takes proper period of time to warm up camera.
LENS FOCUS CALIBRATION
Methods to evaluate lens focus calibration:
1. Use camera to view charts directly through the lens. Use test procedure
described below to evaluate lenses by checking focus through a range of
distance.
2. Shoot film test of chart using suggested procedure, then process and project
film.
For more precise evaluation, when the equipment is available, the following
two methods are recommended (camera rental facilities should have
performed these tests on all their lenses):
3. Mount lens on projector and project reticle (transparency).
4. Examine lens on MTF machine.
TEST PROCEDURE
1. Prime Lenses
a. 40mm or wider: Set camera lens at 3′, 5′ and 7′ from focus chart. At
each distance, check focus by eye through lens and focus lens visually;
compare with lens-barrel distance markings. For more critical testing, shoot
film tests of each lens.
b. Longer than 40mm: Set camera lens at 7′, 10′ and 15′ from focus chart.
Focus lens lens visually, compare with lens distance markings.
c. All lenses: Focus on distant object to test sharpness at infinity.
2. Zoom Lenses: Use calibration procedure (described for Prime Lenses) at
minimum focus distance, 7′, 12′, and a distant object to test infinity. Test for
several focal lengths, including full wide and full telephoto.
3. Note: Other lens-to-chart distances may be used, as long as the selected
distance is engraved on the lens barrel. The chart should fill the frame as
much as possible.
4. When the eye focus differs from the measured distance:
a. If consistent from lens to lens:
1. Check ground-glass seating. Reseat if necessary.
2. Check lens mount.
3. Check distance measurement technique and measuring device for
accuracy.
4. Have flange focal depth and ground-glass collimation checked.
b. Single discrepancy:
1. Return lens for collimation.
2. If needed immediately, encircle lens barrel with chart tape, focus by
eye, and mark the correct distances.
SCRATCH TEST
Run a scratch test for the camera and each magazine to determine whether
there are any obstructions in the camera or magazine mechanism that might
damage the film. Load a short end of virgin raw stock in the magazine and
thread it through the camera. Turn on the camera motor and run the film through
for several seconds. Turn off the motor. Remove the film from the take-up
compartment of the magazine without unthreading the film from the camera.
Examine the film with a bright light and magnifying glass. If any scratches or oil
spots appear on the emulsion or base, mark the film (still threaded in the camera
body) with a felt pen at the following points:
1. where it exits the magazine feed rollers
2. just before it enters the gate
3. just after it exits the gate
4. where it enters the magazine take-up rollers
Then carefully unthread the film and examine it to determine where the
damage originates. Once the problem area has been identified, check that area
for dust, film chips, emulsion buildup or burrs. Remove smooth burrs with
emery paper, and remove obstructions with an orangewood stick.
Make periodic scratch tests on magazines and camera during production to
avoid damage to the negative.
STEADINESS TEST
Test steadiness of camera movement by double-exposing a test image.
Test at each speed required by the production.
1. Prepare chart, such as: Select a Target pattern to photograph:
a. A simple grid or cross of narrow white tape on a black card.
b. A target device, designed for this test. It mounts securely on a wall and
can be rotated or shifted in place to create the desired offset.
c. A ‘steady tester’ which mounts in the lens mount and provides an
illuminated target locked to the camera body. A rotation of the unit creates
the required offset.
2. Mark start frame in film gate with pen or paper punch. (Only necessary with
cameras that do not run in reverse.)
3. Roll at least 30 seconds of the chart at 50% exposure.
4. Cap lens and rewind film in camera, or rewind film manually in dark room,
and position the marked ‘start’ frame back in the film gate (so as to thread on
the same perforation).
5. Offset chart by the width of the tape (a), rotate the dedicated target (b) or
rotate the steady tester, and proceed to roll for another 30 seconds at 50%
exposure (double-exposing the target).
6. Process and project the film to evaluate steadiness.
7. It is essential that both the camera and the chart target be rock-steady during
exposure of the test.
8. With some cameras, an accessory is available to simplify this test. Called a
‘steady tester,’ it mounts in the lens mount and provides an illuminated target
locked to the camera body. A rotation of the unit creates the offset needed.
DAILY PREPARATION FOR SHOOTING
1. Clean the aperture. Suggested methods:
a. Pull aperture plate and pressure pad.
b. Clean both with chamois, and if necessary, proper solvent.
c. Remove hairs and dust from gate, channels and holes with an
orangewood stick.
d. Remove gels from filter holders and slots.
e. Sight through lens to check gate. (Possible only with 40mm or longer.)
2. Clean dust and chips from film chamber. Avoid blowing material back into
gate or into camera movement.
3. Warm up the camera:
a. Run the camera for several minutes without film.
b. In cold situations, run the camera for the amount of time it would take
to run one full magazine through the camera at standard speed.
c. Load proper film stock in magazines. Panavision offers a heater
accessory that will warm up the camera in a few minutes.
4. Load correct film stock in magazine and label magazine with tape.
5. Prepare slate and camera reports.
6. Record and communicate instructions for telecine transfer regarding both
format and ‘look.’
FILM TESTS
(See pages 289–304).
Film tests are requested by the director of photography. Following is a list of
tests that may be useful in preparation for a production. A standard gray scale
and color chip chart are often used for such tests, as well as models that resemble
the actors in the film to be photographed.
1. Lens sharpness and color: (This is particularly important if older lenses or
lenses of different manufacturers are used on the same production.) Test each
lens to insure consistent sharpness and color from lens to lens. Photograph
the identical subject with each lens and compare on a one-light print.
2. Film stock and emulsion batch: Test each different film stock and emulsion
batch to be used on the production for color balance, actual exposure index
and exposure latitude.
3. Laboratory processing: normal, forced, flashed, bleach-bypass, etc. Test
processing at same film laboratory selected to be used during the production.
This is particularly important for determining the degree of forced
processing, flashing or bleach-bypass effect that is desired.
4. Flashing in-camera: Evaluate levels of flashing for desired effect.
5. Filters: Test the effects of various filters on chosen representative subjects to
facilitate the selection of filter types and grades for the production. For
proper evaluation, use lenses and exposure values anticipated for the
particular effect.
6. Lighting: Test the look of new lighting instruments, color gels and diffusion
materials on selected subjects.
7. Makeup: Test makeup on actors under the lighting conditions planned for the
production.
8. Time-code sync: Test sync with sound and any other other cameras planned
to be used on the production. Process picture and sound, shoot a film test,
and have the production company process the picture and sound and send the
footage through the entire planned postproduction workflow. Screen the
result. This will insure that the time code used in production is compatible
with all procedures, equipment and facilities used in post.
9. External sync box: Test sync with external device driving camera (monitor,
computer, projector or other camera).
10. Ramping: Test ramping precision by shooting a solid even field (such as a
cloudless sky or full-frame gray card) and performing all ramping
operations. View test to evaluate consistency of film density—any shifts
indicate exposure variation.
11. Framing: Shoot framing chart or rack-leader chart. Project test to evaluate
framing accuracy.
TOOLS
A proper set of tools and supplies is essential to the preparation and
maintenance of motion-picture equipment. Although the production company
should provide the expendable supplies, a camera assistant’s personal set of tools
should include most of the following items:

Useful fluids:
Panchro Lens Fluid – cleans lenses
Denatured alcohol – cleans film path
Acetone – cleans metal parts, lenses (does not streak or leave residue), but
damages plastic and paint
Naptha or Lighter fluid – removes adhesive residue
Camera oil – acquire from respective camera manufacturer

Standard Tools:
blower bulb – large (6″)
lens brush – camel’s hair or soft sable (1″) (use only for lenses, keep capped)
magazine brush – stiff bristles (1″-2″)
microfiber lens cloth
lens tissue – lint free
cotton swabs
lens-cleaning solvent
50 flexible cloth measuring tape
lighter fluid
scissors – straight blade, blunt tip (2″)
tweezers forceps – curved dissecting forceps or hemostat
ground glass puller
Arri SW2 – 2mm hex (for variable shutters)
magnifying glass
small flashlight
orangewood sticks
tape – cloth (1″) black, white and colors; paper (1⁄2″) white and colors; chart
(1⁄16) white – for lens barrel markings; Velcro – (1″) white, male and female
chalk – thick, dustless
felt marking pens
‘write-on/wipe-off’ pens – for dry-erase plastic slates
powder puffs – to clean rub-off slates
grease pencils – black and white
pens and pencils
film cores
camera fuses
multimeter
soldering iron
16-gauge solder
solder wick de-soldering spool
folding knife
emery paper – 600 grit – ferric-oxide coated
razor blades – single-edge industrial
rope – nylon line (1⁄8″-10″ long)
camera oil – per manufacturer
“camera grease”
oil syringe and needle – one fine, one wide
bubble level – small, circular
ATG-924 (snot tape)
black cloth – 2 square
set of jewelers screwdrivers
set of hex wrenches (1⁄32″ -3⁄16″ and metric)
combination pliers (6″)
needlenose pliers (6″), miniature (1″)
crescent wrench (6″)
vice-grip pliers (4″)
diagonal cutters (4″)
wire strippers (4″)
screwdrivers (1⁄8, 3⁄16″, 1⁄4″, 5⁄16″)
Phillips screwdrivers (#0, #1, #2)
Arri screwdrivers (#1, #2, #3)

Optional Items
Additional tools are often useful—each assistant collects his or her own
personal set. Following is a list of optional items that many have found to be
valuable:
insert slate
color lily (gray scale and color chip chart)
gray card
electronic range finder
angle finder
electronic tablet or PDA with camera-assistant software
electrical adapters
U-ground plug adapter
screw-in socket adapter
WD-40 oil
assistant light
compass
depth-of-field charts
depth-of-field calculator
footage calculator
circle template – for cutting gels
extra power cables
magnetic screwdriver
variable-width screwdriver
wooden wedges – to level camera
small mirror – to create a highlight
dentist’s mirror – aid in cleaning
alligator clips
graphite lubricant
3⁄8″ x 16 bolt – short and long
2 one-inch C-clamps
black automotive weather stripping
small wooden plank – for mounting camera
THE CAMERA ASSISTANT
The position of camera assistant requires a person with a wide range of skills.
The assistant must have technical knowledge of the camera, lenses and a myriad
of support equipment. Production conditions have become more demanding,
with tighter schedules, less rehearsal, faster lenses and smaller depths-of-field.
He or she must be physically fit, capable of total concentration and able to retain
a sense of humor under stressful conditions.

A feature cinematographer and director, Marty Ollstein conceived and

developed Crystal Image software, which precisely emulates optical camera
filter effects. He is a member of the ASC Technolgy Technology Committee, a
SMPTE Fellow, and participated as a cinematographer in the ASC-PGA Camera
Assessment Series (CAS) and Image Control Assessment Series (ICAS).

Michael Hofstein is a director of photography. He is a member of the

International Cinematographers Guild and the Directors Guild of America.

A camera operator for 24 years, Tom Fraser is an active member of the Society
of Camera Operators and a past member of their Board.
Preparation of Digital Camera Equipment

by Marty Ollstein

T he “Preparation of Motion Picture Film Camera Equipment” chapter in this

manual (page 427) has been used by generations of camera crews to guide
and assist them in preparing equipment for production. As more productions
elect to shoot with digital camera systems, camera crews accustomed to film
cameras must learn to use the new equipment. Although some prep procedures
are similar, digital cameras require new procedures and tools to properly prepare
them for production. The following text will delineate the steps and alternatives
involved in preparing a digital camera system for production.
PREP CREW RESPONSIBILITIES
This prep guide is intended for use by any member of the camera crew, from
the cinematographer to the second assistant, as well as to those in new digital
positions such as the digital-imaging technician (DIT). Each crewmember
performs a different role in the preparation of the equipment, as they do on set
during production, although some activities overlap.
The cinematographer has the responsibility for making the critical decisions—
both creative and technical—that shape the camera preparation. The decisions
determine what equipment is ordered, how the image is recorded, and how the
look is achieved in production.
The cinematographer may participate in the prep, particularly on a smaller
production, but it is usually the camera assistants and digital-imaging technician
that actually do most of the work. As the position of digital-imaging technician
is relatively new, the division of labor between the camera assistant and DIT
may vary. The size of the production will also influence the allocation of tasks.
Some crews may not include a DIT. The cinematographer should indicate his or
her preferences as to how the work will be done.
The objective of this chapter is to support the camera crew in organizing and
structuring the complex preparation process, so as to make sure that every
critical issue is addressed. To this end, the workflow of digital-camera
preparation is described in detail below in the chronological order of production:
A. Choices and Working Styles
B. Checkout
C. Testing
D. Daily Prep and Maintenance
E. Delivery of Elements
A. CHOICES AND WORKING STYLE
Every apsect of camera preparation depends upon the decsions made at the
beginning of preproduction. When shooting film, the main decisions include
gauge (16mm, 35mm, 65mm), film stock and camera. When shooting digital,
there are many more questions to be answered and decisions to be made. For
example, besides camera system, the cinematographer may have to choose the
recording medium (tape, hard drive or solid state), the format (video or data,
compressed or raw) and the color-sampling ratio (4:4:4 or 4:2:2). These
decisions should be based on careful consideration of a series of factors
associated with the production.
Another variable that affects the nature of the prep, as well as the workflow
during production, is the choice of shooting style. This can range from a lean
“film-style” shoot—with few, if any, large monitors and rare playback takes—to
a full video-village setup, with a camera-control center and sophisticated color-
correction capabilities. The shooting style can also eschew color correction of
the recorded image while still using a look-management system—such as the
ASC CDL (color decision list), display LUTs (look-up tables) and other
metadata that can accompany the recorded image through post—to support the
cinematographer’s intent. The shooting style is usually determined by the
cinematographer in conjunction with the director and producer.
In the video-village-style shoot, there may be a camera-control station that
allows the DIT to carefully monitor many aspects of the digital recording and
adjust levels as necessary. a typical system may include a small workstation
dedicated to look management, equipped with image-processing software
compatible with the ASC CDL, an additional device that records and transmits
looks and display LUTs (such as Panavision’s GDP or Technicolor’s LUTher or
DP LIghts), and a calibrated monitor. The role of the DIT in this working style is
critical—the changes made can have a permanent effect on the recorded image.

Factors to Consider
The first and most universal factor to consider is the primary distribution
venue intended for the production at the end of the process. If the production
will be released theatrically and projected on large screens, certain standards and
requirements should be met. The resolution of the image will be an important
factor. However, if the release will be limited to a television broadcast, DVD or
Blu-ray, or online distribution, the requirements are very different.
The postproduction workflow must also be considered. Each post facility has
certain capabilities and preferences. Some cater to higher-resolution data
workflows designed for digital cinema; others work with HD video workflows.
This choice of workflow will influence camera, acessory and format selection. If
the post workflow limits the production image to HD resolution, there may be no
need to consider higher-resolution cameras or formats.
The physical parameters of a production have a natural effect on the operation
of the camera department. Digital-camera studio rigs can be as imposing and
heavy as studio film-camera rigs, yet other camera configurations can fit in the
palm of your hand. Will the production be shot on studio stages or remote
locations? If on location, is there ground floor/elevator roll-in access, or must the
equipment be brought manually up narrow stairways? Will the set be well
secured, or will the shooting be done on uncontrolled, crowded city streets? All
of these issues inform the choices of camera, equipment and shooting style.
Of course, the creative look of the production should be a significant factor
influencing all camera decisions. The look is decided by the cinematographer, in
support of the director’s vision, and in collaboration with the other creative
department heads, including the production designer and visual-effects
supervisor.
Last but not least, budget affects everything on a production, and camera is no
exception. If the budget is modest but the director’s vision is ambitious, the
cinematographer must find a way to get the look the director wants without the
equipment it might normally require. If the cinematographer understands the
concepts and devices involved—what they do and how they do it—he or she will
be better equipped to devise shortcuts, cut corners and improvise solutions
without sacrificing quality or substance.

Look-Management Prep
The consistent use of a comphrehensive look-management system can keep
the production process organized and insure that the look of the resulting image
preseves the creative intent of the cinematographer and director. Defining the
intended look is the first step, and a good strategy can be to create a series of
“hero” frames based on scouting footage, screen tests of actors, or photography
shot specifically for this purpose. Once converted into format compatible with
the production’s look-management system, the gathered images can be
manipulated with the image-processing software to achieve the desired look; the
resulting hero frames are then saved (along with the software recipe used to
create them) in a format that can be shared with predictable quality. Calibrated
displays and proper viewing environments are necessary for this process to
work.
The choice of camera system may determine many issues associated with the
look, but many other choices may remain, including the recording medium (tape,
hard drive or solid state), color space and format, and recording bit depth and
sampling ratio. Choices of aspect ratio, frame rate and shutter angle must also
still be made. Each decsion narrows the selection of available equipment, and
provides the crew with the information needed to do a thorough preparation.
B. CHECKOUT
Inventory - Master Production Equipment List
Once the decisions have all been made, the cinematographer develops the
master list of equipment with the camera crew. Part of this list mirrors a film-
shoot list, including items such as camera support (tripod, head, etc.), lenses, and
many of the accessories and expendables. This makes sense, since some digital
cameras (such as the Arri Alexa) are designed to be identical to a film camera on
the front end—up to the sensor.
A generic digital camera inventory checklist:
1. Camera system: Camera body, videotape “magazines,” onboard disk drives,
onboard solid-state drives, all types of cables, EVF (electronic viewfinder),
optical viewfinder (when available).
2. Camera support: Hi-hat, spreader, tripods, tripod heads, adapter plates,
handheld rig.
3. Lenses: Lenses to cover (expose) the full area of the camera’s sensor size.
4. Camera accessories: Matte boxes, follow-focus unit, “smart-lens”
accessories, zoom motor, rods and adapters, filters, all remote controls.
5. Power: A/C adapter, batteries, power cables.
6. Digital Support: Monitors (onboard, handheld, viewing, reference,
wireless), recorders (digital videotape, disk drive or solid state), backup
systems (appropriate to medium), look-management tools (LUT box, color-
correction console, workstation and software).
7. Scopes: Waveform, vectorscope, histogram, combination scopes.
8. Media: Enough digital tape cassettes of correct format (as HDCAM-SR),
onboard hard-disk drives, onboard solid-state drives, flash memory cards or
sticks.
9. Expendables: Supplies for assistant (varieties of adhesive tape, markers,
camera reports, USB flash drives, etc.).
10. Tools: Portable collimator, Sharp Max, multimeter, monitor probe, light
meter.
11. Test charts: Color chip chart (digital), gray scale, framing, resolution.
12. Balls: White ball with black hole (the “Stump” meter), set of balls for
modeling lighting (mirrored, gray, white).
In-House Preparation
The staff at a rental house maintains, services, repairs and tests all equipment
that passes through the facility. When a package is prepared for checkout, the
items on the production’s order are assembled, and final adjustments and settings
are made before presenting the equipment to the client. All equipment delivered
to a checkout bay should be in working order and perform according to technical
specifications.
In the course of servicing equipment to prepare it for production, many
measurements and tests are made by the engineers and prep techs. Some rental
houses log the results of these tests and make them available to their clients.
Otherwise, the camera crew may ask the prep tech about any measurement,
setting, test or modification to confirm that it has been done, and if it has, request
the exact results.
If a test needs to be made or repeated, the crew may ask the prep tech to have
the rental house do it, or to assist them in performing the test in the prep area.
Some diagnostic and preparation procedures require specialized test equipment.
Although many of the preparation steps listed below may have been
performed by a rental-house technician, it is good practice for the crew to cover
each step themselves, so as to thoroughly check and test the camera firsthand.

Crew Preparation
There are many aspects involved in a thorough prep of a digital camera
system. This guide organizes the procedures into the following categories:
1. Universal Prep Procedures
2. Digital Camera Prep Steps
3. Setting up the Menu
a. Format Settings
b. Image and Color Settings—Scene Files and Looks

1. Universal Prep Procedures

Although there are many prep procedures exclusive to digital cameras, quite a
few basic steps are the same as for film camera prep. Since the chapter
“Preparation of Motion Picture Film Camera Equipment” (page 427) describes
these steps in detail, they are listed here with only a brief summary description.
As mentioned earlier, some digital cameras work just like a film camera on the
front end.
Sections of “Preparation of Motion Picture Film Camera Equipment” that
apply to digital prep:
Invoice and serial number check, scheduling, labeling cases, color-coding
multiple cameras (page 428)
Equipment checkout procedure (pages 428-437)
1. Spreader: Arms open, hinge, slide and lock in all positions.
2. Tripods: Legs hinge, slide and lock in all positions.
3. Tripod head: All locks fully release and firmly lock, each spring
tension position engages, pan and tilt tension adjustment operates smoothly
and locks in detent positions).
4. Camera mount, plates: All plates are compatible, attach and lock
snugly, release easily (quick-release), adjust and slide smoothly (for balance
or tilt-angle adjustments).
5. Flange focal depth*: Depth is within recommended tolerance.
7. Ground glass*: Properly seated, focuses on grain, frame-line markings
as ordered.
8. Batteries and cables: All supply full voltage, accept charge, cables
connect firmly in ports and conduct current.
9. Lamps and LEDs: All light as expected; carry spares.
11. Optical viewfinder*: Check diopter, frame lines, glow and all other
functions (magnification, ND, heater, etc.).
12. Lenses: Confirm collimation with focus tests, check color, calibrate
remote controls.
a. Follow-focus unit: Gears mesh snugly, have no play or delay.
13. Zoom lens: Confirm collimation, all rings operate smoothly, tracking
stays centered.
14. Zoom motor and control: Smooth operation, adjusts through full
range of speeds, no play or delay in gears.
16. Filters: Clean, correct size, fit holders and matte box.
17. Matte boxes: Mount properly, fit filters, do not vignette.
Lens focus calibration test: Check lenses for proper collimation and correct
witness marks (page 438).

2. Digital Camera Prep Steps

A. Physical camera check: Clean all surfaces, check all screws, switches, latches,
locks, displays, lights.
B. Pixel check: Check for lit (white) or dead (black) pixels on the camera sensor,
as well as on any monitors used for critical viewing.
Although most camera sensors and pixel arrays have some bad pixels, it is
important to assess their number and confirm that they can be “covered”
electronically. If there are too many, the image can be affected.
1. Pixel check steps:
a. Fully warm up camera to normal operating temperature. 30 minutes
is usually adequate. (Shooting in extreme temperatures may reveal more
bad pixels.)
b. Set gain at 6db. Gain makes it easier to spot bad pixels.
c. Warm up reference monitor. It must display the full resolution of the
camera sensor, pixel for pixel.
d. For lit (white) pixels:
1. Cap lens.
2. Reduce or eliminate ambient light in viewing environment.
3. Examine displayed monitor image for a bright pixel.
e. For dead (black) pixels:
1. Frame an even bright field through the lens, such as the sky or a
light.
2. Search monitor display for a dark pixel.
f. If lit or dead pixels are found, use the Auto Black Balance (ABB) of
the camera to cover the problem pixels. The black balance function may
need to be activated several times to cover all problem pixels—six times
for sensors with RGB stripe patterns, such as the Genesis or F35.
g. If ABB does not cover the problem pixels, return the camera to a
rental-house technician. The rental house has the means to manually
cover pixels, or it might choose to replace the camera.
h. Once the camera has been checked, pixel check all monitors being
used for critical viewing (including eyepiece viewfinder, onboard monitor
and camera control reference monitor).
1. Adjust, repair, or replace as necessary, or:
2. Note exactly where bad pixels are located, so as to avoid concerns
during production.
C. Clean “gate”: Sensor, pre-filter or IR filter (filters may cover sensor) is
clean, clear of any dust, hair, oil or smudge.
Take extreme care. Use methods in the order listed below, as needed. Start
with the safest. If unsuccessful, proceed to the slightly more aggressive
methods described, then, if necessary, call in a technician.
2. Sensor cleaning steps:
a. Puff air with blower bulb (avoid canned air—it may spray propellant
or force dust behind the filter onto sensor).
b. Use clean, soft, fine brush to remove dust or hair (may use fine
watercolor brush, washed in dishwashing fluid and thoroughly dried).
c. Use cleaning swab (designed for sensors).
d. Apply a drop of approved lens-cleaning fluid on swab (nonstreaking,
residue-free, such as Panchro).
D. Equipment check:
1. Lens mount: Lens mount accommodates all lenses, releases and locks
smoothly and firmly.
2. Follow-focus unit: Gears mesh easily and snugly. There is no lag or delay in
operation.
3. Back focus: (See “Back Focus Steps” below in “Daily Prep and
Maintenance” section.) Check back focus on each lens. Use portable
collimator or focus chart and tape measure. Check each zoom throughout full
focal range.
Back focus rarely changes on single-chip production cameras, whereas it
does vary with temperature on many 2⁄3 three-chip cameras. These cameras
should be checked for back focus several times a day, and on each lens
change.
4. Filtration (wheels, matte box):
1. Filter wheels (ND and CC) rotate smoothly, set securely at each filter
position, are clean, and match their label on the wheel.
2. Matte boxes accommodate the appropriate lenses and filters (if
multiple filter sizes), and do not vignette.
3. Each filter is clean, unscratched, and matches the label on its pouch
or slot in case.
5. Power: Cables, ports, connections, A/C adapter, onboard battery adapter and
batteries produce expected voltage (12V or 24V), batteries accept charge,
ports and cables all seat properly and conduct current.
6. Display functions: All displays (camera operation, smart lens, rangefinder)
operate properly, are clear and easily read, have working back-light, and
display running time code.
7. Camera switches and buttons
a. All switches and buttons work properly – check each function with
camera operation: on/off, gain, AWB, menu. (List varies with camera
system.)
b. Load assignable buttons as requested.
c. Check record review function: It should play back a few seconds of
the last take, then precisely reset camera to begin recording with no break
in time code.
8. Auto black balance (ABB): auto black balance functions properly. Perform
full black balance for all channels (may need to repeat several times to cover
all pixels, depending on camera).
9. Remote-control functions – Remote control operates all necessary functions,
smoothly and accurately.
10. Recording functions (make test recordings):
a. Check on/off, record and playback switches.
b. Confirm frame-rate display matches menu setting. Record at each
frame rate to be used.
c. Test each recording configuration: onboard tape magazine or solid-
state deck (mounted both top and rear), as well as tethered remotely to a
processor-recorder.
11. Viewfinder functions – EVF (electronic viewfinder):
a. Eyepiece diopter adjusts smoothly and locks through full range.
b. Optical path is clear and as bright as expected.
c. Controls (contrast, brightness and chroma) adjust properly to make
balanced image.
d. Peaking adjusts smoothly and precisely. Set as requested by operator.
(Peaking boosts the contrast of an edge or detail where lens is focused.)
e. Zebra pattern turns on and off; activate levels adjust properly. Set
levels as requested. (The zebra function provides a diagonal striped
pattern that appears in the area of the frame where the light level reaches
a specific, defined level. Many cameras offer two zebra patterns—one
slanting left, the other right—to measure two different light levels. Levels
can be selected within a range; common useful defaults are 70% and
100%.)
f. Frameline markings are correct as ordered:
1. Framelines are in the correct aspect ratio (aligned with the ground
glass lines).
2. Glow, shading and center lines are correct.
12. Camera accessories: All accessories, including remote controls, zoom motor
and lights function properly. Test each device with operating camera.
13. Monitor check and calibration (See “Field Calibration Steps” below in
“Daily Maintenance” section)
a. Carefully test and adjust each monitor. Check all cables, ports and
routing switcher. May include: EVF, onboard HD monitor, camera control
reference monitor, video village viewing monitor
b. Confirm frame lines have proper aspect ratio.
c. Check image with superimposed menu text.
d. Check calibration with SMPTE color bars; adjust as needed.
e. Check color and density with color chip chart and waveform
monitor.
f. Match color and density of all monitors used on the set, as close as is
practical.
There are two types of calibration: technical calibration, which requires
specialized equipment, and field calibration, which can be done on the set
with standard monitor controls.
Some rental facilities place a label on each monitor, stating the date it
was calibrated in-house.
A CRT monitor requires a dedicated ‘probe’ to perform proper
calibration. High-end LCD monitors are calibrated with probes; others
have internal circuits that perform calibration.
14. Scope calibration: Waveform, vectorscope, histogram. Confirm calibration
of scopes (waveform, vectorscope, histogram, combination scopes). Use
SMPTE bars and digital color chip chart.
15. Look-management hardware workstation, LUT boxes (GDP, LUTher, DP
Lights), still camera.:
a. All devices connect and operate properly.
b. Fully test system:
1. Record live test image.
2. Ingest it into the system.
3. Apply a look to the image with either an ASC CDL recipe or a saved
LUT provided by the cinematographer.
4. Check the image on a calibrated monitor to confirm transformation is
appropriate to the look applied.
5. Repeat with each ASC CDL and LUT provided by the
cinematographer.

3. Setting up the Menus

The embedded menus play an integral part in digital-camera preparation.
Check operation of all menus, and all buttons, wheels and switches that
operate them.
Confirm with prep tech that all menus are reset to the rental house reference
standard. Backup standard setting to external flash memory card or stick.
Upload any scene files provided by cinematographer on memory stick or flash
drive.

A. Format Settings
As discussed above, many choices must be made prior to equipment checkout.
Based on the factors discussed, including distribution venue, post workflow,
creative look, budget and physical conditions of the shooting, the key decisions
are made. These decisions include the selection of the camera system and all
other key choices that define how the camera will record the image.
Some cameras record in only one mode (one format). Others offer choices of
modes, formats and settings. When there are choices, the camera menus must be
set up to record in the chosen format. Setting up the menus is a fundamental part
of the preparation for production.
Step through the menus, make the selections and adjust the settings as ordered
by the cinematographer. The menus and options vary widely by camera system.
The following list offers a brief description of each parameter that may need to
be set.

1-2-3.: Select the color space, bit depth, and sampling ratio.
1. Color space (RGB, YUV or YCrCb):
a. RGB provides full three-channel (red, green and blue) color
information, comparable to three-layer emulsion film.
b. YUV or YCrCb separates luminance (Y = light intensity or
brightness) from chrominance (U and V = color information). This
separation allows for color subsampling, in which luminance can be
measured at a different frequency (more often) than chrominance. A color
space is often associated with a particular bit-depth and sampling ratio.
2. Bit depth(8-bit, 10-bit, 12-bit): 10-bit depth provides more code values than
8-bit depth to use in representing light values. The 10-bit scale is 0–1023; the
8-bit scale is 0–255. The difference shows in tone subtlety. Higher bit depth
comes at a cost—the additional tape, drive space or digital memory required
to record and store the bits, and time in post to process them.
3. Sampling ratio (4:4:4, 4:2:2): The ratio of the frequency of the sampling
(measurement) of luminance (the first integer) to chrominance (the second
two integers) on odd and even scan lines. “4” represents full bandwidth—the
maximum information that can be sampled.

4-5-6.: Set the frame rate, scan type, and resolution.

4. Frame Rate (23.976, 24, 25, 29.97, 30, 50, 59.94 and 60 the standard camera
speeds): The choice of available frame rates varies among camera systems.
Some provide a limited list, others allow a range of variable speed options.
In the United States, the most common frame rates used in production are
23.976, 24, 29.97 and 30.
Most current post facilities use the “fractional” rates (as 23.976, 29.97 and
59.94) for their workflows. For production footage shot in “integer” rates
(24, 30, 60), a conversion is necessary. Opinions are split.
a. Integer frame-rate advocates consider the conversion to be simple
and to have little effect on the image. They shoot at 24 fps and convert in
post.
b. Fractional frame-rate advocates state that image quality is affected
by the conversion. They shoot at 23.976, which can be used in video post
without conversion.
c. Productions that must record back to film for a theatrical release (at
24 fps in the United States) often use a 24P frame rate.
5. Scan type—Progressive (P), Interlace (I)
a. Progressive scans all lines of pixels for each frame.
b. Interlace scans every other line for each “field”—the odd lines for
one field, then the even lines for the next field. Two consecutive fields
together make up one full frame. Interlace scanning results in a higher
shutter speed, which reduces motion blur.
6. Resolution (720 lines, 1080 lines, or 2K, 4K): High definition has been
generally defined at 720 lines or greater. Most HD camera systems record
1080 lines. Some record raw data at 2K or 4K, recording more lines and
greater definition. Frame rate, scan type (P or I) and resolution are often
associated. The most common production frame rates are 23.976P, 24P, 25P,
29.97P, 30P, 50I and 59.94I.
7. Test record on medium selected:
To accommodate the medium selected for the production, select an
appropriate recording device and the configurations in which it will be used
during the production. For instance, on the Genesis, HDCam-SR, tape
recording can be accomplished either onboard or tethered by cable to a
remote recorder.
a. Recording medium (digital tape, hard drive, solid state):
Depending upon the camera system and the format selected, different
media are available for recording. Recording devices are available in
different configurations for each medium, either onboard or tethered to a
remote processor-recorder.
8. Set up time code parameters in camera menu:
Set starting code according to selected time-code management strategy.
Shoot tests with all devices involved in recording the time code (clockit,
smart slate, time-code generator, sound recorder and camera).
In cases where the image is recorded remotely from the camera by cable,
check sync for processing latency—the image recording may be delayed and
cause a sync problem.

Time code: Record run, continuous run, time of day, jam sync, genlock
There are several different strategies for recording time code on a digital
camera. It is important to consult the post house and sound mixer to insure that
the method selected is compatible with all systems that will be used on the
production. To fully test the time-code system selected and confirm
synchronization between camera and sound, the sound mixer should participate
in a test using all sound and time-code hardware that will be used for the
production. This may include a sound recorder, a clockit-type time-code
generator and a smart slate that displays time code.

Some popular time-code strategies:

a. Use the sound-recorder generator as the “master clock.”
1. Jam sync the clockit generator from the sound recorder.
2. Jam sync the camera from the clockit.
3. Mount the clockit on the camera, and feed continuous time code and
genlock (tri-level sync) from the Clockit to the camera.
b. Jam sync the smart slate from the sound recorder (with audio time code).
Record the image of the smart slate, running time code, at the head of each
take. Sync the picture manually.
c. Record time code from the sound recorder onto one of the camera’s audio
tracks and a scratch production soundtrack onto another.
d. Generate code at the camera control station.
1. Jam sync and feed time code to the camera through the fiber-optic
master cable.
Timecode Types
Record run—starts and stops at each roll of the camera.
Time of day—runs continuously—is usually set for the time of day.
Genlock—driven by an external source.
The external time-code source driving the camera must be running code at the
same frame rate as the camera.

B. Image and Color Settings: Looks and Scene Files

Some cameras feature extensive menus that allow a knowledgeable
cinematographer or DIT to manipulate many digital parameters of the image.
Looks can be by adjusting these settings, then saved for use as numbered scene
files. These looks, however, will be “baked in” to the recorded image, so they
should be made with care. Consultation with the post house and colorist is
recommended.
Some cameras allow a limited number of scene files to be saved on the camera
and recalled by number in scene-file slots; the saved scene files should also be
saved to a flash memory card compatible with the camera. (The cinematographer
may also provide the assistant with additional scene files on a flash card and ask
to have them uploaded into the numbered slots on the camera.) Carefully log the
location of each scene file, whether it is in a slot on the camera or on a numbered
flash memory stick.
On the other hand, some cinematographers prefer to treat a digital camera
more like a film camera, and just shoot with the standard menu setup provided
by the rental house. This is often done with cameras that record raw data. When
recording raw, settings made in camera menus are attached to the image as
metadata, but are not baked in’ to the recorded image. When the raw image data
is later de-Bayered and rendered for viewing and processing, the attached
metadata settings can be applied to create the look intended. But the metadata
settings can also be ignored, or adjusted so as to achieve a completely different
look. This workflow offers both flexibility and safety, but it requires good
communication with the post house.
All cameras come from their manufacturer with factory presets for all menu
items. For most cameras that offer a raw recording option, rental houses may
make changes to the factory presets to optimize the recording for local
production requirements. These settings then are considered the rental house’s
“standard” setup for the camera. The cinematographer may change these settings
or use an in-camera function to reset to factory standard. The rental house may
provide a backup copy of their rental house standard.
Some HD cameras offer extensive choices for “painting,” or adjusting image
characteristics such as gamma curves, knee point and slope, and sharpening and
detail. These settings may determine what shadow and highlight detail is
recorded or lost, what high frequency detail is included or obscured, and at what
cost to image quality. The choice of a gamma curve can have a significant effect
on the look of the image produced. A recommended strategy is to avoid any
adjustment that will lend to the loss of image information that cannot be
recaptured in post.
The cinematographer can set up different looks on the camera by making
adjustments in the menu, then saving them to a scene file. Some cameras allow a
limited number of scene files to be saved on the camera in scene file ‘slots’,
which can be easily recalled by number. The saved scene files should also be
saved to a flash memory card compatible with the camera. The cinematographer
may provide the assistant with additional scene files on a flash card, and ask to
have them loaded into numbered slots on the camera.
Carefully log which scene file (and the look it represents) is loaded into each
numbered scene file slot on the camera. Also, keep a master log of scene file
looks being used, and where to find them—such as, on which numbered flash
memory stick they are saved.
A good way to keep track of all the different parameters in the menu is to use
a spreadsheet that lists each menu page and the settings selected for each line
item. If multiple scene files will be used on the production, the spreadsheet
becomes even more useful. Each different scene file can have a column, or be
assigned a unique color to identify its settings.
C. TESTING
Shooting tests with a digital camera is as necessary as it is with a film camera.
However, the nature of digital video facilitates convenient monitoring and
playback of any recorded test.

Useful targets:
Color-chip chart designed for digital video.
Focus chart with Siemens star, resolution line pairs.
Rack-framing chart.
Middle-gray card.
Grayscale steps.
Human models that resemble principal cast.

Useful tools:
Waveform monitor.
Vectorscope
Histogram
Light meter
Test balls/spheres (middle gray, white, mirror, white with black hole).

1. Workflow
The most important test to perform in preproduction is a practical image test
of the entire workflow—end to end, “scene to screen.”
a. Record images representative of the planned production
photography. Include charts (color, focus, framing), models, motion, and
lighting setups approximating the dynamic range anticipated.
b. Use the same equipment (camera, lenses) and media ordered for
production.
c. Set up the camera and all supporting devices exactly as they will be
set for production. If multiple configurations or settings are anticipated,
shoot takes with each variation, clearly slating each one. This may
include frame rates, scene files, recording configurations and any
alternate looks achieved by changing menu settings.
d. Record time code and audio as planned for production.
e. Send the recorded material through the same workflow planned for
the production. This may include transfers, conversions, processing by
different software applications, and recording out to the final release
medium. If the project is destined for a theatrical film release, this will
require recording the material back to film.
This test requires the full cooperation of the post facility. Most will
welcome the opportunity to test and confirm a production’s workflow
before production begins. Just as the camera settings must be the same as
planned for production, all settings, selections, devices and media used in
the postproduction process must be the same as planned for the
production.
f. If the result of the test is unsatisfactory, the cause must be identified
before proceeding to production.

2. Exposure/dynamic range
Just as a cinematographer tests a new film stock—or even a new batch
number—for dynamic range, he or she should test a digital camera for its
response to light. The result of this test can inform the cinematographer’s
lighting style. Knowing what happens to the image at certain levels of under- or
overexposure allows the cinematographer to take full advantage of the camera’s
capabilities and push them to their limit.
a. Use charts and a human model (the eye is most sensitive to exposure
changes on a person’s face).
b. Shoot identical takes at 1-stop intervals, up to 5 stops under and 5
stops over the “normal” (middle gray) exposure setting. Add 1⁄2-stop
intervals within 2 stops of normal, for more critical evaluation.
c. Clearly slate and log each take.
3. Framing
Shoot a rack-leader framing chart, with arrows pointing out to each corner of
the frame. Align the eyepiece and ground-glass frame lines with the frame
lines on the framing chart.
4. Time code
Record time code with all the same hardware planned for production—smart
slate, Clockit, any other time-code generator, sound recorder (when
available), and additional cameras. Confirm time code records properly, and
all picture and sound stays in sync.
5. Frame rates
Record takes at each frame rate anticipated for production. For off-standard
frame rates (slow or fast motion), send the footage through post processing,
then view to evaluate the motion effects.
6. Look management
a. Load each of the shoot’s planned looks into the system.
b. Record an appropriate scene for each of the respective looks.
c. Apply each look to the particular scene recorded for its use.
d. Evaluate the transformed scene on a calibrated monitor.
e. Create new scene files, ASC CDL recipes and LUTs as requested,
using camera menus, image-processing software and LUT boxes,
respectively.
7. Traditional Visual Tests
As for a film camera prep, shoot tests of all elements that require visual
evaluation. (See “Film Camera Prep,” page 441.)
a. All lenses and filters
b. Specialized lighting effects.
c. New lighting color gels and diffusion.
d. Makeup, sets and wardrobe as requested by production.
D) DAILY PREP AND MAINTENANCE
1. Set up camera package on the set for the first shot.
2. Power and warm-up camera and all hardware to proper operating
temperature. If available and needed, use camera body and eyepiece heaters.
3. Examine sensor and clean as necessary.
(See “Sensor Cleaning Steps” section, page 451)
4. Clean all lenses and filters as necessary.
5. Check for any lit or dead pixels.
(See “Pixel Check Steps” section, page 450)
6. Run auto black balance (ABB) enough times to process all pixels on sensor.
7. Check for adequate supply of media (tapes, drives, cards) for the day’s
shooting. Prepare backup devices and media for use.
8. Check calibration on all monitors and adjust as necessary using field
calibration procedures. (See below.)
The calibration of a CRT is affected by the earth’s magnetic field—it must be
checked each time it is moved to a different location.

Field Calibration Setup Steps with SMPTE Bars

1. Place the monitor in the anticipated viewing environment on the set. (See
“Viewing Environment Guidelines.”)
2. Feed standard SMPTE bars to monitor.
3. Set monitor to display blue channel only.
4. Adjust chroma and hue controls to make the density of the four brighter
vertical bars match the rectangular bar segments directly below each one,
and match each other. Chroma will affect the outside bars; hue, the inner
bars.
5. Reset monitor to view all three color channels.
6. Locate the three dark gray picture lineup generating equipment (PLUGE)
bars below the sixth (red) bar.
7. Raise the brightness control until all 3 PLUGE bars are visible.
8. Reduce the brightness control until the middle bar blends into the darkest bar
on the left.
9. Adjust contrast control so that the white reference square on the lower left is
bright white, but not glowing into adjacent squares.
10. The contrast adjustment may affect the brightness adjustment. Adjust both
so that the PLUGE bars and white reference square appear correct.
11. Set up a proper viewing environment on the set for the monitor(s) used for
critical evaluation of the camera image. Human perception is very sensitive
to ambient light. The color and intensity of the light surrounding a display
will significantly affect any judgment made regarding density, contrast or
color.

Viewing Environment Guidelines

SMPTE publishes recommended practices to create a viewing environment
for the evaluation of color television images (SMPTE RP-166). It specifies
standards for monitor setup, screen size, viewing distance, the color and
brightness of surrounding surfaces, and the color and intensity of ambient light.
The most critical factor is the color and brightness of the area immediately
surrounding the monitor—what appears in the viewer’s field of view.
It may be difficult to meet these standards on a practical set. A shaded corner
(created with flags or a black “easy-up” with sides) and a gray cloth draped
behind the monitor from a C-stand (illuminated by a light—approximately
6500°K—to set a neutral reference source) may be adequate. The surrounding
ambient light should be substantially darker than the gray background—no more
than 30% of the level of the background.

Check Back Focus on Lenses

Back focus must be carefully monitored, particularly on many 2⁄3 three-chip
cameras.
Check back focus often: At beginning of the day, after shipping or changing
locations, at each lens change, and whenever the temperature changes enough
so that you need to remove or add clothing to stay comfortable.
The adjustment is done on each lens by adjusting a ring at the back end of the
lens. This ring brings the rear-element group mechanism farther or closer to
the sensor.
Incorrect back focus does not affect focusing the lens by eye through the
viewfinder—except at infinity. When the back focus is out of adjustment, the
lens cannot be focused at infinity, and the distance witness marks on the lens
cannot be used—they will not correspond to either eye or tape focus.

Back Focus Adjustment Steps

There are two methods to adjusting back focus:
1. Using a handheld collimator, such as a Sharp Max or HD collimator (both
designed for this purpose).
2. Using a focus chart and tape measure.
A high-definition monitor is useful for both methods.
The camera should be at normal operating temperature—fully warmed up.
1. Using handheld collimator (Sharp Max, HD collimator):
a. Set lens distance ring at infinity.
b. Set aperture wide open.
c. If zoom lens, zoom in to maximum focal length.
d. Adjust eyepiece diopter.
e. Lower peaking circuit in viewfinder monitor.
f. Mount collimator: Slide its lens flange onto front of lens. Secure with
locking screw.
g. Switch on the collimator’s internal light.
h. View through camera eyepiece or on HD monitor.
i. Adjust collimator light fader for optimum viewing. If necessary, use
camera ND filter to reduce brightness. Adjust light so that the circle of
confusion at the center of the Siemens star stands out and is clearly
defined from the surrounding star.
j. Loosen locking screw on lens back-focus ring.
k. Adjust the back-focus ring, racking back and forth through focus
until the circle of confusion at the star’s center is minimized both
horizontally and vertically.
l. Tighten the back-focus locking screw.
m. On zoom lens, zoom out to widest focal length. Check back focus
again—if off, adjust back focus ring. Then zoom back in to check. Repeat
if necessary.
The back focus should now be correct. The lens will focus at infinity, and
all witness marks should be accurate.
n. Remove the collimator.
o. Using a focus chart and tape measure, confirm back-focus
adjustment. Check at infinity and a near distance by comparing eye focus
with measured distance using lens witness marks. With zoom lenses,
check focus at full telephoto, full wide, and in between. Confirm that the
focus does not shift through the range of the zoom.

2. Using Focus chart (with Siemens star) or Pituro chart and tape measure
a. Set camera at such a distance that the chart fills (or nearly fills) the
frame and the lens being checked has a witness mark for that distance.
c. If zoom lens, zoom in to maximum focal length.
d. Adjust eyepiece diopter.
e. Raise peaking circuit in viewfinder.
f. Set light intensity on chart for optimum viewing.
g. Adjust back focus with back-focus ring on lens (using steps j, k, l, m
above).
E. DELIVERY OF ELEMENTS TO POST DAILIES,
EDITORIAL, VFX AND DI
1. After consultation with production and postproduction personnel, decide
which elements will be delivered to which location at the end of each
production day.
2. Plan and schedule the daily delivery method, paying particular attention to
the integrity and safety of the image media (avoiding unnecessary heat and
movement).
3. Establish a clear labeling method, recognized by the postproduction
personnel, that organizes the media and facilitates easy finding of requested
items.
Have a happy prep!
A feature cinematographer and director, Marty Ollstein conceived and
developed Crystal Image software, which precisely emulates optical camera
filter effects. He is a member of the ASC Technology Committee, a SMPTE
Fellow, and participated as a cinematographer in the ASC-PGA Camera
Assessment Series (CAS) and Image Control Assessment Series (ICAS).
* Some differences from film camera prep.
Camera-Support Systems

by Andy Romanoff, ASC Associate Member Frank Kay, ASC Associate Member
and Kent H. Jorgensen

N ew technologies offer the cinematographer more choices for moving the

camera today. There are studio and location dollies, person-carrying
cranes, remote-head-only cranes and telescopic cranes. The selection of remote
heads includes two- three- and four-axis versions stabilized and unstabilized,
heads and mounts qualified for helicopters and airplanes and a variety of body
mounted stabilizers like the Steadicam.
DOLLIES WITH LIFTING ARMS
These dollies are characterized by lifting arms that swing up and down to raise
and lower the camera. The design allows a significant amount of vertical travel
(up to 48), permitting most shots to be accomplished without reconfiguring the
dolly. The design also makes it easy to place the camera next to walls and to
arrange shots that look straight down. There are platforms and seats for the
Steadicam operator to step off of which gives the cinematographer more options.
These dollies come in different sizes and can support various weights including
3-D rigs.
DOLLIES WITH LIFTING CENTER POSTS
Post dollies raise and lower the camera using a column located directly under
the camera. This design makes it easier for the operator to move around the dolly
to follow action on shots that require long sweeping pans. Center-post dollies
feature articulated legs which can be configured to allow the dolly to work in
very constricted spaces. They can be either electric or hydraulic. The hydraulic
lift is often referred to as a ped, pedestal, or single operator ped.
LOCATION/DOORWAY DOLLIES
A variety of dollies have been developed for operating in narrow spaces or to
facilitate high speed or rough ground handheld chase work. These include both
hydraulic or electric lift beams dollies along with no beam dollies.
TELESCOPIC CRANES
Telescopic cranes offer the ability to instantly adjust the size of the crane to
the needs of the shot. They also offer the ability to change size during the shot,
giving the director of photography great flexibility. The telescopic design
permits a 30-foot crane to be moved around the set with the ease of a much
smaller crane. Finally telescopic cranes can reach greater heights in smaller
spaces than equivalent fixed length cranes.
REMOTE-HEAD-ONLY CRANES
These cranes feature modular construction which permits them to be built in
various lengths. Many different models exist covering a range of 4 feet to 100
feet. The individual sections can usually be carried by two or three people,
making it possible to bring the crane into a difficult location and then to build it
on site.
REMOTE-HEAD OR PLATFORM CRANES
These cranes do double duty by carrying one or two people at lengths up to 30
feet and remote heads out to 50 feet. They are generally a little more bulky than
remote-head-only cranes for a given length.
PLATFORM CRANES
Although a great deal of crane work is now done with remote heads, there are
still advantages to the traditional person-carrying crane. Chief among them is the
ability of the operator to see through the lens, as well as the uncomplicated setup
of the camera.
REMOTE HEADS
Remote heads have revolutionized crane design as well as the shots that are
made with them. The development of lightweight remote heads meant that crane
arms could be built with a fraction of their original bulk, freeing the camera to
move in space with great speed and freedom. The current generation of remote
heads offers a wide variety of features and options, including three-axis
operation, camera stabilization and automatic backpan compensation.
AIRPLANE AND HELICOPTER MOUNTS/HEADS
Aerial photography requires specialized mounts for optimum results. Mounts
in this category have been certified for safe operation in various aircraft, and
offer the ability to photograph scenes using extremely long lenses without shake
or vibration.
REMOTE HAND WHEELS
Remote hand wheels are motor units that are attached to the pan and tilt shafts
of gear heads so that the head may be operated at a distance. Although these
units do not provide all the functionality of remote heads, they are quick and
simple to set up and use.
CABLE RIGGED CAMERA SYSTEMS
These systems use a wire suspension rig to hang a remotely operated camera.
The setup can be as simple as moving the camera between two points along a
line, or as complicated as using a combination of trusses, I-beams, and winches
to move the camera in three dimensional space. Many of these systems are
computer operated, and can even be used for motion-controlled vfx work.
REMOTELY OPERATED TRACK SYSTEMS
Track systems, or “rail cameras” are capable of movements at high speeds
over long distances. They can be rigged as a stand-alone system or be rigged to
other support systems. Typically the dollies are fixed to the track, which allows
them to be rigged right side up, upside down, horizontally, vertically, and
diagonally. The versatility and speed of track systems allow them to do jobs
which would be difficult or dangerous for a live crew member.
REMOTELY OPERATED ARMS
Borrowing from military stabilization technology, remotely operated arms
allow for camera crane-like movement, but on a smaller scale. Like track
systems, the arms can be used in situations where operation would be difficult or
dangerous for a live crew member.
ELECTRIC OR GAS-POWERED DOLLIES
For years grips have used motors to speed up and reduce the effort needed to
get a dolly shot. This has led to some dollies being custom-made from
everything from gas-powered quad runners to electric utility carts. They can be
rigged for cameras with operators, remote heads, or body-mounted stabilizers.
Whether track-mounted or wheeled, these special-purpose dollies allow for
camera movement with few restrictions.
SMALL JIBS AND SLIDERS
These pieces of equipment can cut a great deal of setup time. Their compact
size allows for placement on a dolly or camera platform, and enables the
operator to easily make small adjustments and moves. A dolly grip or operator
who understands the equipment can maneuver big budget-looking shots using
these small-budget solutions.
RADIO CONTROLLED VEHICLES
Radio controlled vehicles and aircraft are usually small in size and can create
great opportunities for filmmakers. Their diminutive stature permits them access
to places inaccessible by a human operator or by any other means (for instance,
beneath cars).
Many of the above systems rely on radio technology to control the dolly,
camera platform, and camera operation. As long as this technology—and the
imagination of the filmmakers who use it—continues to mature, the movement
of the camera will have no limits.

Andy Romanoff is president of Panavision Remote Systems

Frank Kay is marketing director, J.L. Fisher, Inc.
Kent H. Jorgensen is the safety representative for IATSE Local 80 Grips Union

Camera Section

compiled by Jon Fauer ASC and M. David Mullen ASC

FILM CAMERAS

I nformation in this section is correct to the best of our knowledge. Including

or omitting products does not signify endorsement or disapproval by the
ASC. The ASC is not responsible for mistakes.
Listings are based on information supplied by manufacturers or distributors.
As always, confirm doubts with film tests. Where possible, we tried to keep
categories consistent, and tried to describe each camera with the following
specifications:
Notes, Models: Facts, tidbits, iterations and modifications
Weight: English and Metric
Movement: Film transport—single or double pull-down claw, registration pins,
adjustable pitch, 4-perforation, 3-perforation
FPS: Frame rate—fwd, reverse, speeds, sync.
Aperture: The “gate” in which each frame of film is exposed. The opening may
be fixed or removable. Masks may define additional sizes and cropping.
Information here includes format size and position, format masks, in-gate
filters and gel slots. Among the aperture sizes are:
Full Silent Aperture (variously called Full Aperture, Super 35, Full Frame,
Full Frame Centered for TV, ANSI, Big TV) is .980′ x .735″ (24.89mm x
18.67mm).
European Silent Aperture is 24mm x 18mm (.945″ x .709″)
Academy Aperture (sometimes called Standard or Normal 35) is 22mm x
16mm (.868 x .630).
3-Perf Panaflex Camera Aperture is .981″ x .546″ (style D) per SMPTE
59-1998.
dB: Operating Noise Level as measured by manufacturer, for sound cameras
only.
Displays: Indicators/Readout
Lens: Lens Mount—things like PL, Panavision, BNC or bayonet. Also, how the
mount is centered: Academy (Standard) or full-frame centered for TV (Super
35).
Shutter: fixed, variable (change while camera is running) or adjustable (change
when camera is stopped). Mirror (reflex) shutter or beamsplitter.
Viewfinder: Eyepieces, finder extenders, levelers
Video: Video Assist
Viewing Screen: Ground glasses, fiber optic viewing screens, rangefinders. In
addition to the ones offered by manufacturers, there are many permutations
supplied by rental houses and custom suppliers. Note that there are two
different SMPTE accepted Super 35 sizes: Panavision’s is .945″ wide x
.394″ height and ARRI/Clairmont/etc is .925″ wide x .394″ height.
Mags or Loads: Magazines and/or internal film loading. Core or daylight
spools.
Accessories: Mechanical, mounting, matteboxes, rods, lens controls, follow
focus, wireless, barneys, covers, and after-market add-ons.
Connections: Electrical and electronic accessories, inputs, outputs and
connectors; time code.
Motors and Power: Power pin-out, operating voltage, camera motors, batteries
Misc: More information
Thanks to the following for additions, suggestions and proofing: Peter Abel,
Bill Bennett, Denny Clairmont, Ron Dexter, Dave Kenig, Oli Laperal, Al Mayer,
Jr., Tak Miyagishima, Nolan Murdock, George Schmidt, Juergen Schwinzer,
Douglas Underdahl.
Credit really should go to all the people who have compiled past editions,
upon which this is based.
35MM
Aaton 35-3P, 35-III, 35-II

Models: 35-3P (newest, optimized for quiet operation in 3-perf.); 35-III, 35-II
(original)
Weight: 16 lbs/7 kg with 400′ (122m) load and 12V DC onboard battery.
Movement: Single pull-down claw which is also the registration pin (steady to
1
⁄2000th of image height). Spring-loaded side pressure guides. Adjustable
pitch. 3 or 4 perf.
FPS: 35-3P: Sync speeds: 24, 25, 29.97, 30 fps. Built-in var crystal control to 2
to 40 fps in 0.001 increments.
35-III: 3–32 fps crystal-controlled adjustable in .001 fps increments via
mini-jog wheel. 24, 25, 29.97, 30 fps sync speeds. Internal phase shift
control for TV bar elimination
35-II: 24, 25, and 29.97 or 30 fps. Variable speeds 6–32 fps. Maximum
speed with external speed control is 32 fps, with 180° shutter only.
Aperture: .732″ x .980″ (18.59mm x 24.89mm).
dB: 4-perf 30dB. 3-perf 30dB. 26dB with barney. 35-3P: 3-Perf: 26dB. 4-Perf:
30/33dB
Aaton Magazine Diagrams
Figure 1a & 1b. Top: Position of film before exposure form
24-25 hole loop by placing a 2 core between front of
magazine and film while lacing and make equal top and
bottom loops. Bottom: Position of film after exposure. Film
takes up emulsion side in
Displays: LCD Display, speed selection, remaining footage, ISO selection,
battery voltage, time and date, full AatonCode readout via a single rotating
jog wheel. Warning for speed discrepancy, misloading and low battery.
Camera shutoff is automatic at end of roll.
Lens: Interchangeable Lens Mounts: Arri PL, Panavision, Nikon. User
adjustable for Standard or Super 35.
Shutter: Mechanically adjustable mirror using shutter tool: 180°; 172.8°; 150°;
144°.
Viewfinder: Reflex Viewfinder. Eyepiece heater. Optional anamorphic viewing
system.
Video: Integrated CCD Color Video Assist: NTSC or PAL; flicker-free at all
camera speeds. Also black-and-white model with manual iris. Film camera
time code, footage, on/off camera status are inserted in both windows and
VITC lines. Built-in frameline generator.
Viewing Screen: Over 16 stock groundglasses; custom markings available.
Aatonlite illuminated markings.
Mags: 400′ (122m) active displacement mag (core spindles shift left to right)
with LCD counter in feet or meters. Mag attaches by clipping onto rear of
camera. Uses 2 plastic film cores.
Accessories: 15mm screw-in front rods below lens. 15mm and 19mm
bridgeplate compatible. Chrosziel and Arri 4 x 5 matteboxes and follow
focus.
Connections: Inputs: Amph9 (video sync), Lemo6 (power zoom), Lemo8
(phase controllers), Lemo5 (SMPTE and ASCII time code). Time recording
with AatonCode II: Man-readable figures and SMPTE time code embedded
in rugged dot matrices. 1⁄2 frame accuracy over 8 hours. Compatible with
film-video synchronizer and precision speed control.
Power: 12 V DC (operates from 10-15v).
Motor: brushless, draws 1.4A with film at 25°C (77°F) Batteries: onboard 3.0
Ah NiMH and 2.5 Ah NiCd.
ARRICAM Lite

Weight: Body: 8.8 lbs/4 kg. Body + Finder: 11.7 lbs/5.3 kg. Body + Finder +
400 (122m) Shoulder Mag: 17.5 lbs/7.95 kg.
Movement: Dual-pin registration and dual pull-down claws, 4- or 3-Perf, low
maintainance 5-link movement with pitch adjustment for optimizing camera
quietness.
FPS: Forward 1–40 fps. Reverse 1–32 fps. All speeds crystal and can be set
with 1⁄1000th precision
Aperture: Full frame with exchangeable format masks in gate. Gel holder in
gate, very close to film plane. Aperture plate and spacer plate removable for
cleaning.
dB: Less than 24dB(A). 3-Perf slightly noisier than 4.
Displays: (On camera left side) main display with adjustable brightness red
LEDs for fps, shutter angle, footage exposed, or remaining raw stock.
run/not ready LED. Extra display camera left and right (studio readout) with
studio viewfinders.
Push-button controls for setting fps, shutter angle, display brightness,
electronic inching, phase, footage counter reset.
Lens: 54mm stainless steel PL mount, switchable for standard or Super 35, with
two sets of lens data system (LDS) contacts. LDS, when used with lens data
box, provides lens data readout as text on video assist or shown on dedicated
lens data display. Also simplifies ramps and wired and wireless lens control.
Shutter: 180° mirror shutter, electronically adjustable from 0°–180° in 0.1°
increments. Closes fully (0°) for in-camera slating. Tiny motor in shaft
controls shutter opening. Ramps range is 11.2°-180°.

Arricam Lite Threading and Magazine Diagrams

Figure 2a & 2b. Top: LT shoulder. Bottom: LT/ST magazine. Film
takes up emulsion side in.
Viewfinder: Four reflex viewfinders fit both cameras: Lite, Universal Lite,
Studio, and Universal Studio. Universal finders can switch between spherical
and anamorphic viewing. All swing to either side of camera and have
contrast viewing filter, automatic or manual image orientation. Also
available are Frameglows, various eyepiece extenders (with optical
magnifier for critical focusing), 100 percent video tops, heated eyecup.
Video: ARRICAM Integrated Video System (IVS), color, flicker-free at all
camera speeds, mechanical iris and electronic gain for exposure control, with
frameline, camera status and lens (LDS) status inserter, image freeze and
compare, color balance settings (auto, standard presets or manual),
composite or S-VHS outputs. Video capture rate can be synchronized to film
shutter for motion blur preview. Studio IVS fits on Studio viewfinders, Lite
IVS fits on Lite viewfinders. 2″ and 6″ flat-panel onboard minimonitors.
Viewing Screen: Over 60 stock regular and Super 35 ground glasses. Custom
rush ground glass design service via web.
Mags: 400′ (122m) Lite Steadicam mag. 400′ (122m) Lite shoulder magazine.
Both mags are active displacement: they are smaller than standard
displacement mags because the feed and take-up cores move left and right to
stay out of the way of the film. The mags use torque motors, have
mechanical and LCD footage counters, and. ARRICAM 400′(122m) and
1000′ (300m) Studio magazines can also be used on the Lite camera with the
Studio Mag to Lite Camera Adapter. All mags attach to the rear of the
ARRICAM Lite. Accept standard Kodak cores. Wind emulsion in.
Accessories: Accepts the whole range of Arriflex matte boxes, 15mm or 19mm
rod systems. Steadicam low-mode bracket, shoulder set, lens light and power
bridge plate. Wired and wireless lens and camera control system, wired and
wireless speed/shutter/iris ramping controls. Electronic accessories (see
below) attached to Lite via cable or Remote Control Station, LDS Ultra and
Variable Primes.
Connections: Speed control box (with built-in sync functions to shoot monitors,
displays, rear-projection, etc. and master/slave function for phase accurate
multiple camera shoots), manual control box, lens data box, lens data
display, in-camera slate box, timing shift box, accessory power box, remote
control station.
Power: 24V DC. (operates from 21 to 35 V DC). Two motors for movement and
shutter; linked electronically.
ARRICAM Studio

Weight: Body: 12.3 lbs/5.6 kg.

Body+Finder: 17.8 lbs/8.1 kg. Body + Finder + 400 (122m) Studio Mag: 25.1
lbs/11.4 kg.
Movement: Low maintainance 5-link movement with dual pin registration and
dual pull down claws, 4- or 3-perf, pitch adjustment for optimizing camera
quietness.
Fps: 1–40 fps forward, 1–32 fps reverse, all speeds crystal and can be set with
1
⁄1000th precision.
Aperture: Full frame with exchangeable format masks in gate. Gel holder in
gate, very close to film plane. Aperture plate and spacer plate removable for
cleaning.
dB: Less than 20dB(A).
Displays: (On camera left side) main display with adjustable brightness red
LEDs for fps, shutter angle, footage exposed, or remaining raw stock.
run/not ready LED. Extra display camera left and right (Studio readout) with
Studio viewfinders.
Push-button controls for setting fps, shutter angle, display brightness,
electronic inching, phase, footage counter reset.
Arricam Studio Threading and Magazine Diagrams
Figures 3a & 3b. Top: St back load. Bottom: ST top load.
Film takes up emulsion side in.
Lens: 54mm stainless steel PL mount, switchable for standard or Super 35, with
two sets of lens data system (LDS) contacts. LDS, when used with lens data
box, provides lens data readout as text on video assist or shown on dedicated
lens data display. Also simplifies ramps and wired and wireless lens control.
Shutter: 180° miror shutter, electronically adjustable from 0°–180° in 0.1°
increments. Closes fully (0°) for in-camera slating. For ramps, range is
11.2°–180°.
Viewfinder: Four reflex viewfinders fit both cameras: Lite, Universal Lite,
Studio, and Universal Studio. Universal finders can switch between spherical
and anamorphic viewing. All swing to either side of camera and have a
contrast viewing filter, automatic or manual image orientation. Also
available are Frameglows, various eyepiece extenders (with an optical
magnifier for critical focusing), 100 percent video tops, heated eyecup.

Video: ARRICAM Integrated Video System (IVS), color, flicker-free at all

camera speeds, mechanical iris and electronic gain for exposure control, with
frameline, camera status and lens (LDS) status inserter, image freeze and
compare, color balance settings (auto, standard presets or manual),
composite or S-VHS outputs. Video capture rate can be synchronized to film
shutter for motion blur preview. Studio IVS fits on Studio viewfinders, Lite
IVS fits on Lite viewfinders. 2 and 6 flat-panel onboard minimonitors.
Viewing Screen: Over 60 stock Regular and Super 35 ground glasses. Custom
rush ground glass design service via web.
Mags: 400 (122m) and 1,000 (300m) Studio displacement magazines. Both
mags use torque motors, have mechanical and LCD footage counters, and
are standard displacement.
Lite 400 (122m) Steadicam and Lite 400 (122m) shoulder mags can be used
with a Lite mag to studio camera adapter.
Studio mags attach to the top or rear of the camera with one of three mounts:
top load adapter, dual port adapter, or back load adapter. Accept standard
Kodak cores. Wind emulsion in.
Accessories: Accepts the whole range of Arriflex matte boxes, 15mm or 19mm
rod systems. Steadicam low-mode bracket, shoulder set, lens light and power
bridge plate. Wired and wireless lens and camera control system, wired and
wireless speed/shutter/iris ramping controls. Electronic accessories (see
below) can attached to Studio directly, via cable or remote control station.
LDS ultra and variable primes.
Connections: Speed control box (with built-in sync functions to shoot monitors,
displays, rear-projection, etc. and master/slave function for phase accurate
multiple camera shoots), manual control box, lens data box, lens data
display, in-camera slate box, timing shift box, accessory power box, remote
control station.
Power: 24V DC. (operates from 21 to 35 V DC). Two motors for movement and
shutter; linked electronically.
Arriflex 35-2C

Models: Over 17,000 were made, in various iterations; many still in use with
numerous modifications—especially conversions from original 3 lens turret
to PL mount and updated motors. The 35-2C/B has a three-lens turret, and an
interchangeable motor drive system.
Weight: 5.3 lbs/2.5 kg (body only, no motor, PL mount)
12 lbs./5.5 kg (camera w/200 (61m) mag, without film and lens.)
Movement: Single pull-down claw with extended dwell time to ensure accurate
film positioning during exposure. Academy aperture is standard, with other
formats available.
FPS: The most widely used motor is the Cinematography Electronics Crystal
Base: 1–80 fps in 1-frame increments via push-buttons (1–36 fps with 12V
battery; 1–80 with 2 12V batteries). It puts camera at standard lens height for
rods.
With ARRI handgrip motors: 20–80 fps with ARRI 32V DC high-speed
handgrip motor (over 60 fps may be unsteady or may jam) 24/25 fps with
16V DC governor motor, 20–64 fps with 24–28V DC variable speed motor
8–32 fps with 16V DC variable speed motor Arri Sync Motors (120V)
(240V) for blimps. (120S, 1000) (50/60 Hz)
Aperture: .866″ x .630″ (22mm x 16mm).
Displays: Dial tachometer on camera shows fps; footage indicated by analog
gauge on magazines.
Lens: Originally made with three-lens turret with three Arri standard mounts
(squeeze the tabs, push lens straight in). Later followed by turret with two
standard mounts and one Arri bayonet mount (insert and twist). Hard-front
PL mount modifications widely available.

Arriflex 35-2C Threading Diagram

Figure 4. Film takes up emulsion side in
Shutter: This is the camera that introduced the spinning mirror shutter with
reflex viewing. Two segment (butterfly) mirror shutter, mechanically
adjustable in 15° increments from 0°–165° when camera not running. Model
2C-BV fixed shutter of 165°. Exposure is 1⁄52nd of a second at 24 fps with a
165-degree shutter.
Viewfinder: 6.5X wide-angle eyepiece. Various camera doors with fixed, video,
anamorphic and pivoting finders available.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable for all aspect ratios.
Video: Aftermarket video assist with Jurgens Video Door among other
companies.
Mags: Mags attach on top of camera. Accepts gear-driven, friction take-up, 2C,
35-3 and 435 magazines. 200″ (61m) forward operation only, 400″ (122m)
forward or reverse, 1,000 (300m) not recommended. Mags are displacement
and wind emulsion in. Some have collapsible cores. Others use 2 plastic
cores .
Accessories: Matte Boxes, Bellows, clip-on, and lightweight versions. periscope
finder; finder extender; and flat motor bases to mount on flat surface or
inside blimp housing. Sound blimp: Model 120S for 400 (122m) magazines
and model 1000 for 1,000 (300m) magazines. Aftermarket rain covers,
splash housings, rain deflectors and underwater housings.
Connections: Cinematography Electronics 2C Crystal Motor Base. Norris
intervalometer.
Power: 12, 16, 24, 32 V DC depending on motor.
Arriflex 35 II Models
Arriflex 35 II: 1946.
Arriflex 35 IIA: 1953. 180º shutter
Arriflex 35 IIB: 1960. New claw design, fixed 180º shutter
Arriflex 35 II BV: 1960. Variable shutter 0º–165º
Arriflex 35 II HS: 1960 high speed version (to 80fps)
Arriflex 35 II C: 1964. Improved viewing system; larger viewfinder optics to
view full frame (anamorphic). Introduction of interchangeable ground glass
system. Viewfinder door with de-anamorphoser. Interchangeable eyepieces.
Arriflex 35 II C/B: Three-port lens turret with one stainless steel bayonet
mount and two ARRI standard mounts.
Arriflex 35 II CGS/B: Pilotone output and start marking
Arriflex 35 II CHS/B: High-speed model, 80fps maximum, specially prepared
movement and 80fps tachometer. Uses 32V DC motor.
Arriflex 35 II CT/B: Techniscope™ format model. Uses 2-perf pull-down and
half-height gate for widescreen aspect ratio of 2.35:1 with normal (not
anamorphic) lenses, reducing film use by half.
ARRI 35IIC Medical Camera: 1964. Medical version of the 35-II used to
shoot black and white 35mm film of moving X-ray images (used to diagnose
heart problems, for example). Medical cameras are usually gray, beige or
light green. No lens turret; no viewfinder system. Sometimes equipped with
ARRI standard lens mounts.
ARRITECHNO: 1970. Medical camera mounts to X-ray. No viewfinder or lens
mount. Quick-change magazines snap on like a 16SR. These cameras require
major modification to use for cinematography.
(courtesy of Jorge Diaz-Amador, Cinetechnic; Larry Barton, Cinematography
Electronics)
Arriflex/SL-35 Mark III
Notes: A superlightweight camera for Steadicam, remote mounting, underwater
and sports. Uses an Arri Medical 2C modified in a lightweight magnesium
and delrin plastic body with custom camera electronics for Steadicam,
handheld and rigging. Uses Arri 2C doors; 35-3 groundglasses; Super 35
gate. Stops with mirror in viewing position

Weight: 5.7 lbs/2.6kg without magazine.

Movement: Remanufactured Medical 2C high speed
FPS: 1–80 fps, forward and reverse; extra 50Hz speeds 33.333 and 16.666.
Aperture: Full aperture. Aperture plate: non-removable.
Power: Quartz-controlled DC motor, 24V; 5-pin #0 Lemo connector; camera
on/off toggle and remote.
Displays: Red LED digital tach; red LED feet/meters digital footage/meters; red
LED with reset and memory.
Lens: PL mount Standard or Super 35, Panavision and Panavision Super 35.
Shutter: 165º reflex mirror shutter.
Viewfinder: Works with Arri eyepiece and extender; also works with Jurgens
door.
Video: Video only doors and finder/video doors
Viewing Screen: uses 35-3 groundglasses. Super 35 holder for Super 35
groundglass.
Mags: Accepts Arri 2-C and 35-3 style magazines. SL Cine makes lightweight
magnesium low-profile (extended horizontal) and Steadicam (vertical) mags
in 200″ (61m) and 400″ (122m) loads—to fit Arriflex 435, III series (35-3),
II series (2-C) and SL-35 cameras.
Accessories: Low mode mount for Steadicam. Uses many existing 2C type
accessories such as external speed controls, Arri- or Jurgens-2C doors and,
with SL Cine lightweight riser, standard matte boxes and focus iris controls.
Connections: Two 11-pin Fisher connectors on back: 8.5 amp output at 12V
DC. Two 24V Lemo connectors on front. Fischer 3-pin combi video and 12V
power out; 5-pin Fischer remote on/off 12V.
Dimensions of body: 6L″ x 5.5H″ x 6″W
Arriflex 35-3C

Notes: A single PL mount evolution of the 2C design. About two dozen made.
Weight: 5.8 lbs/2.6 kg. (body only) 11.7 lbs/5.3 kg. (body, handgrip, 200 (61m)
mag; no lens or film) 13.5 lbs/6.1 kg (body, handgrip, 400″ (122m) mag, no
lens or film.)
Movement: Same as 2C: single pin pulldown claw with extended dwell time to
ensure accurate film positioning during exposure.
FPS: 24/25 fps crystal; 5–50 fps variable.
Aperture: .862″ x .630″ (22mm x 16mm).
Lens: 54mm diameter PL mount. Arri bayonet and standard mount lenses
(41mm diameter) can be used with PL adapter. Flange focal distance of
52mm stays the same.) All zoom and telephoto lenses should be used with a
special 3C bridge plate support system.
Shutter: Like the 2C, spinning reflex mirror shutter, adjustable from 0°–165° in
15-degree increments while camera is stopped. Exposure is 1⁄52nd of a
second at 24 fps with a 165-degree shutter.
Viewfinder: Three doors: fixed viewfinder, offset for handheld, pivoting finder.
Three choices for fixed viewfinder door: regular, anamorphic and video tap.
6.5x super-wide-angle eyepiece.
Viewing Screen: 2C groundglasses.
Video: On fixed door.
Mags: Uses 2C, 35-3 and 435 mags. Some have collapsible cores. Others use 2″
plastic cores .
Accessories: 2C, 35-3 and 435 accessories.
Power: Power input through a 4-pin connector. Pin 1 is negative; Pin 4 is +12V
DC.
Arriflex/SL 35 Mark II
Notes: Earlier lightweight model, uses 2C groundglasses
Weight: 5.3 lbs/2.4kg without magazine.
Movement: Re-manufactured Arriflex Medical 2C
FPS: 1–80 fps, forward and reverse; extra 50Hz speeds 33.333 and 16.666.
Aperture: .862″ x .630″ (22mm x 16mm). Full aperture. Aperture Plate: Non-
removable.
Power: Quartz-controlled DC motor, 24V; 3 pin #1 Lemo B connector; camera
on/off toggle and remote.
Displays: Digital footage/meters; red LED with reset and memory.
Arriflex 35-3

Models: 3 generations of 35-3

Weight: 14.8 lbs./6.71 kg camera with 400″ (122m) magazine (without film and
lens).
Movement: One registration pin and dual-pin pulldown claw. Film channel
incorporates a pressure pad at the back of aperture area. 3-perf available.
Camera can run in reverse.
FPS: Quartz-controlled sync at 24/25/30 fps, 50/60Hz. An onboard variable-
speed dial may be used to adjust camera speed from 4–50 fps at 12V DC.
The camera is continuously variable from 4–100 fps (130 fps on the 35-3
130 fps camera) at 24V DC with a variable speed unit.
Arriflex 35-3 Shoulder and Steadicam Magazines
Figure 5a, 5b & 5c.Top: Shoulder magazine, feed side. Center:
Shoulder magazine, take-up side. Bottom: Steadicam magazine.
Film takes up emulsion side in.
Arriflex 35-3 High Speed MOS Threading Diagram
Figure 5d. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Aperture: .862 x .630 (22mm x 16mm) full aperture, custom sizes available.
Aperture plate removable for cleaning.
Motors, Power: 12/24V DC motor. Operating temperature range is -13°F to
+122°F (-25°C to +50°C).
Displays: An electronic tachometer and footage counter. An external red LED
located below the counter indicates when a low memory battery condition
exists. A red LED to indicate an out-of-sync condition and a green LED to
indicate variable speed mode are visible in the viewfinder.
Lens: 54mm diameter PL mount. Flange focal distance is 52mm. Super Speed
and Standard lenses with PL mount, those with Arri Bayonet (41mm
diameter) and Arri Standard lens mounts with PL adapter may be used.
Aftermarket Nikon mounts.
Shutter: Rotating mirror shutter—three generations: first generation: 180° fixed
shutter; second generation: 180°, 172.8°, 144° and 135°; third generation:
15°–135° in 15° increments, 144°, 172.8°, 180°
Second and third generations are mechanically adjustable with 2mm hex
driver.
Viewfinder: Reflex Viewfinder: Four interchangeable doors with viewfinders
are available: standard door with fixed viewfinder and mount for video tap;
offset finder door for use with 400″ (122m) coaxial shoulder magazine;
pivoting finder door, pivots 210°; new pivoting finder door with optical
adapter to attach video camera. All have adjustable super-wide-angle
eyepiece with manual iris closure. Finder extenders available are 9″
standard, 9″ anamorphic, and 12.2 standard with ND.6 contrast viewing
glass.
Video: Arri pivoting video door, Jurgens, Denz, P&S, JC&C, Boltersdorf, and
other aftermarket video doors as well as CEI, Phillips and Sony taps.
Viewing Screen: Ground glasses for all aspect ratios are easily interchangeable.
Mags: Displacement type. 2C, 3C and 435 400″ (122m) mags will fit. Top-
mounted 200″ (61m), 400″ (122m), and 1,000″ (300m) mags; 400″ (122m)
low-profile coaxial shoulder magazine for handholding. Aftermarket
Steadicam mags available.
Cores: Collapsible cores on some. May require a 2 plastic core on other mags.
Accessories: external speed control
Connections: The 50/60Hz EXB-2 External Sync Control may be used to
interlock the 35-3 with a video source, projector or another camera. A 4-pin
power connector is located in the rear of the electronics housing. Pin 1 is (-);
Pin 4 is 12V (+). Cinematography Electronics Precision Speed Control I and
II, accessory block w/lens light, film/video synchronizing control, and 35-3
crystal high-speed control, intervalometer. Norris intervalometer, Preston’s
Speed Aperture Computer.
Power: 12V DC. Two batteries for high speed.
Arriflex 235

Notes: Small, lightweight MOS camera for handheld, rigs, underwater and crash
housings. About half the weight and size of a 435.
Weight: 3.5 kg/7.7 lbs. (body, viewfinder and eyepiece, without magazine)
Movement: Single pull down claw with two prongs; single registration pin.
Registration pin in optical printer position (like 435). Camera available with
3- or 4-perf movements.
Frame Rate: 1–60 fps forward. 23.976, 24, 25, 29.97, 30 fps reverse (quartz
accurate to .001 fps.).
Aperture: Super 35 (24.9 x 18.7mm) 0.98″ x 0.74″, same as ARRICAM ANSI
S35 Silent 1.33 format mask). Fixed gap film gate.
Display: Operating buttons with an adjustable backlight
Lens: 54mm PL mount, adjustable for Normal or Super 35. Flange focal depth
51.98mm -0.01.
Shutter: Spinning, manually adjustable reflex mirror shutter. Mechanically
adjustable with a 2mm hex driver at: 11.2°, 22.5°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, 90°,
105°, 120°, 135°, 144°, 150°, 172.8° and 180°.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, can be rotated and extended like the 435.
Automatic or manual image orientation in the viewfinder. Viewfinder and
video assist are independent of each other, so switching to Steadicam or
remote operation is done by simply removing the finder, leaving video assist
on board. No need for a 100% video top. Optional medium finder extender.
Video: IVS color Integrated Video System

Arrilfex 235 Threading Diagram

Figure 6. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable, uses 435 ground glasses.
Mags: New 200″ (60m) shoulder magazine. Uses all existing 200″ (60m) and
400″ (122m) 2C, 3C, 35-3 and 435 displacement mags. Winds emulsion in.
Cannot use 1000″ (300m) magazines.
Connections: Power, mini monitor, remote accessory, 2x RS Remote Start. Uses
most ARRI electronic accessories: RCU, WRC, ICU, ESU
Power: 24V DC (runs from 21V to 35V DC)
Misc.: Extra attachment points for rigging, reversible camera handle, extra low
mode handle.
435 Advanced, 435 Extreme

Weight: 14.3 lbs/6.5kg without magazine.

Models: Usually called 435, it is probably the 435 ES model, (ES=Electronic
Shutter). The basic 435 uses a mechanically adjustable shutter, but only a
handful have been made. The newest model is the 435 Advanced, which has
a more powerful shutter motor to enable shutter ramps 2.5 times faster. The
Advanced does time lapse, motion control, the LCD is easier to read, LDS
lens data contacts are built in. Extreme has many updated electronics.
Movement: Dual-pin registration conforming to optical printer standards, and
dual pulldown claws. Can be replaced with a 3-perforation movement.
Adjustable pitch control.
Frame Rate: 1–150 fps, forward or reverse (quartz accurate to .001 fps.).
Arriflex 435 Threading Diagram
Figure 7. Film takes up emulsion side in.
435 Advanced Model: 0.1–150fps (1⁄10 fps–150 fps)
Aperture: Interchangeable masks with full range of aspect ratios. Aperture Plate
removable for cleaning.
Power: Quartz-controlled DC motors.
Display: Fps, forward and reverse run, film counter in feet and meters, shutter
angle, time code (user bit and TC sensitivity). Warnings include incorrect
movement position, asynchronous film speed, low battery voltage and film
end.
Lens: 54mm PL mount, adjustable for Normal or Super 35.
Shutter: Spinning, adjustable reflex mirror shutter. The 435ES (Electronic
Shutter) can be adjusted continuously from 11.2°–180° while camera is
running. The plain 435 (non-ES) reflex mirror shutter is mechanically
adjustable with a 2mm hex driver at: 11.2°, 15°, 22.5°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°,
90°, 105°, 120°, 135°, 144°, 172.8° and 180°. Both 435ES and 435
Advanced have these mechanical shutter angles as well; be sure not to
activate electronic shutter at same time.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, the standard finder, which covers full aperture
(Super 35), pivots to either side of the camera, with an adjustment knob to
orient the image upright in any position. Adjustable in/out for left- or right-
eyed viewing. ND.6 contrast filter flips in. The 435 uses 535 extension
finders, eyepieces, ground glasses, field lenses and gate masks. An optional
anamorphic viewfinder is also available for de-squeezing anamorphic lenses.
An optical tap with interchangeable beamsplitter ratio is integrated into the
standard viewfinder, enabling the adaptation of the 1⁄2″ video camera CCD-2.
The entire viewfinder module can be removed and replaced with a
lightweight 100 percent video tap for Steadicam or remote filming.
Video: 435 Integrated Video System (IVS), color, flicker-free at all camera
speeds, mechanical iris and electronic gain for exposure control, with
frameline and camera status inserter, image freeze and compare, color
balance settings (auto and standard presets), composite or S-VHS outputs.
Video capture rate can by synchronized to film shutter for motion blur
preview. IVS2 has additional features: ablility to turn flicker free off, manual
color balancing, enhanced data display, etc.
Very early 435 cameras had a C mount for 1⁄2″ CCD camera.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable. ARRIGLOW.
Mags: Displacement, winds emulsion in. Uses all 2C, 3C, 35-3, as well as 435
magazines. Top-mounted 400″ (122m) and 1000″ (300m) magazine (435)
1000″ (300m) mag torque motor driven. Also, a 400(122m) Steadicam mag.
Arri 35-3 and older magazines can be used but without time code.
Accessories: Accepts the whole range of Arriflex matte boxes, 15mm or 19mm
rod systems. Steadicam low-mode bracket, shoulder set, lens light. Wired
and wireless lens and camera control system, wired and wireless
speed/shutter/iris ramping controls. Single-frame system, motion-control
interfaces. For 435 Advanced: LDS Ultra and Variable Primes.
Connections: 24V DC, 3/5 amps and 12V, 3/5 amps. Most camera functions can
be controlled via the remote-control unit (RCU-1) or Wireless Remote
Control (WRC-1).
Electronic Sync Unit (ESU) provides synchronization with an external PAL
or NTSC video signal (50/60Hz), another camera or a projector, or computer
or video monitor via a monitor pick-up. It also contains a phase shifter, pilt
tone generator, and selectable division ratio between an external source and
the camera’s frame rate.
Power: 28V to 30V “nominal” DC . The camera will start and run at speeds up
to 129 fps as long as the battery voltage does not drop below 20.6V, high-
speed running at speeds of 130 fps–150 fps requires that the camera voltage
remain above 24V during camera startup. 35V is the absolute maximum,
above which, the camera will not start.
Arriflex 535

Notes: The 535 came first, followed by the lighter 535B. There is no 535A—
just the 535. Main difference is the viewfinder: the 535B is simpler and
lighter. 535 has electronically controlled mirror shutter; 535B shutter is
manual. 535 has 3-position beamsplitter.
Weight: Body only 21.6 lbs/9.82 kg. body + finder 29.4 lbs/14.19 kg., body +
finder + mag (no film or lens) 36.4 lbs/16.55 kg.
Movement: Dual-pin registration conforming to optical printer standards, and
dual pull-down claws. Can be replaced with a 3-perforation movement.
Adjustable pitch control.
FPS: Quartz controlled 24/25/29.97/30 fps onboard; and
3–50 fps with external control such as Remote Unit (RU) or Variable Speed
Unit (VSU). With external control, makes speed changes while camera is
running, and runs at 24/25 fps in reverse. Pushing the phase button runs
camera at 1 fps—but precise exposure not ensured at 1 fps.
Aperture: Universal aperture plate with interchangeable format masks provides
full range of aspect ratios. Has a behind-the-lens gel filter holder. Gels are
positioned very close to image plane, so they must be scrupulously clean and
free of dust. Gate is easily removed for cleaning.
dB: 19dB.
Displays: In-finder displays use LEDs to allow the operator to monitor various
camera functions, battery status, and programmable film-end warning.
Digital LCD tachometer and footage displays: camera left/right; audible and
visible out-of-sync warning; visible film jam; film end; error codes;
improper movement position; improper magazine mounting; disengaged rear
film guide indicators.
Lens: PL lens mount, 54mm diameter, with relocatable optical center for easy
conversion to Super 35. Flange focal distance is 52mm.
Shutter: Microprocessor-controlled variable mirror shutter (535 only; the B is
manual). Continuously adjustable from 11°–180° while running, in .01°
increments, at any camera speed. The Arriflex 535 permits shutter angle
changes while running at the camera or remotely. The 535’s program also
permits simultaneous frame rate/shutter angle effects, such as programmed
speed changes with precise exposure compensation.
Viewfinder: Swing-over viewfinder enables viewing from either camera left or
camera right, with constant image correction side to side and upright. A
selectable beam splitter provides 80% viewfinder-20% video, 50-50 or video
only. Programmable Arriglow for low-light filming. Nine preprogrammed
illuminated formats, an optional customized format module, and fiber-optic
focus screens. Switchable ND.3 and ND.6 contrast viewing glasses, a variety
of in-finder information LEDs, and a 12″-15″ variable finder.
Viewing Screen: Ground glasses and fiber-optic focus screens for all aspect
ratios.
Video: Video Optics Module (VOM): provides flicker reduction and iris control.
Mags: Rear-mounted 400″ (122m) and 1,000″ (300m) coaxial, each with two
microprocessor-controlled torque motors. Feed and take-up tension and all
other functions are continuously adjusted by microprocessors. Mechanical
and digital LCD footage counters built in.
Accessories: Variable Speed Unit (VSU) can attach to the 535 and permits
camera speed changes between 3 and 50 fps, noncrystal.
Shutter Control Unit (SCU): mounts directly to the camera and permits camera
shutter angle changes between 11° and 180° (535 only).
Remote Unit (RU): operational remotely from up to 60″, provides a VSU/SCU
(variable shutter/variable speed) combination. The RU links the SCU and
VSU to permit manual adjustment of the frame rate while the 535″s
microprocessor varies the shutter angle—all to ensure a constant depth of
field and exposure.
SMPTE time code module plugs in to utilize onboard time code generator,
and provides full SMPTE 80-bit time code capability.
Electronic Sync Unit (ESU): Operational remotely from up to 60; provides
synchronization with an external PAL or NTSC video signal (50/60Hz),
another camera or a projector, or computer or video monitor via a monitor
pick-up. It also contains a phase shifter, Pilotone generator, and selectable
division ratio between an external source and the camera’s frame rate.
Camera Control Unit (CCU): provides integrated control over all electronic
functions. External Sync Unit is designed for multicamera, video or
projector interlock.
Laptop Camera Controller is software to control the camera via a serial
cable.
Power: 24VDC. 3-pin XLR connector: Pin 1 is (-), and Pin 2 is +24V.
Arriflex 535 B

Notes: 535B is lighter than the 535.

Fps: same as 535—runs at crystal-controlled speeds from 3–60 fps. Has a
manually adjustable mirror shutter, variable from 11° to 180° in 15-degree
steps, and 144° and 172.8°. The 535B has a lightweight swing-over
viewfinder. The entire finder is easily removed without tools and accepts a
100 percent video module for Steadicam use.
Arriflex 535 and 535B Magazine and Threading Diagrams
Figure 8a, 8b & 8c. Top: Magazine supply side. Center: Magazine
take-up side.
Bottom: Threading diagram. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Weight: Body only 17 lbs/7.7 kg.; body + finder 22 lbs/10 kg.; body + finder +
lightweight 400″ (122m) mag; (no film or lens) 27.8 lbs/12.6 kg.
Movement: Same as 535. Same adjustable pitch control.
FPS: Crystal controlled onboard 24/25/29.97/30 fps forward and reverse ; and
3–60 fps with external control such as remote unit (RU) or Variable Speed
Unit (VSU).
Aperture: Same as 535—Universal aperture plate with interchangeable format
masks. Behind-the-lens gel filter holder.
dB: 19dB.
Displays: LEDs in viewfinder displays ASY (out of sync), BAT (low battery),
END (out of film). Digital LCD tachometer and footage displays: camera
left/right; audible and visible out-of-sync warning; visible film jam; film
end; error codes; improper movement position; improper magazine
mounting; disengaged rear film guide indicators.
Lens: PL lens mount, 54mm diameter, converts from Standard to Super35.
Shutter: Mechanically adjustable from 15°–180° in 15° increments, along with
144° and 172.8° while camera is stopped
Viewfinder: Finder block with swing-over viewfinder enables viewing from
either camera left or camera right, with constant image correction side to
side and upright. Choice of beam splitters: 80% viewfinder-20% video or
50-50. Programmable Arriglow for low-light filming. Nine preprogrammed
illuminated formats, an optional customized format module, and fiber-optic
focus screens. ND.6 contrast viewing glass, a variety of in-finder
information LEDs, and a 12–15 variable finder. 535B finder block fits on
535. variously called a 535 A/B, 535B+ or 535A-.
Viewing Screens: Same as 535
Video: Video Optics Module (VOM): provides flicker reduction and iris control.
Video only top or video only.
Mags: Same as 535. A lightweight displacement 400″ (122m) mag was made
for the 535B—it will fit the 535 as well.
Power and Accessories are same as 535.
535B threads the same as 535.
Arriflex 35BL

Notes: The Arriflex 35BL was conceived in 1966 as the first portable, dual pin
registered, handheld, silent reflex motion picture camera. Its first significant
production use was at the 1972 Olympic Games, where it was employed for
sync-sound, cinéma vérité and slow-motion filming at speeds to 100 fps. At
the same time, its theatrical and television use began, especially for location
work.
The camera evolved. The analog footage and frame rate indicators of the
35BL-1 were replaced by a digital readout on the 35BL-2. With the 35BL-3,
the lens blimp was eliminated. The Arri 41mm bayonet mount was soon
replaced by the larger 54mm diameter PL lens mount.
The 35BL-4 introduced a brighter eyepiece and illuminated groundglass.
The 35BL-4s came out with a new, quieter, adjustable-pitch multilink
compensating movement, new footage/meters counter, redesigned internal
construction, and magazines with an external timing adjustment.
Arriflex BL-4s Threading and Magazine Diagram
Figure 9. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Movement: Industry standard dual pin registration. Two double pronged pull-
down claws on early 35BL-1 cameras for high speed to 100 fps with special
magazine roller arms. Two single prong pull-down claws on all other 35BL
cameras.
35BL-4s movement has an adjustable pitch control.
Aperture: .862″ x .630 (22mm x 16mm), custom sizes available. Aperture Plate
is removable for cleaning.
35BL-3, 4 and 4s gates will fit 35BL-1 and 2 cameras, but not vice versa.
Displays: LED digital fps and footage readout on camera left. Audible out-of-
sync warning. A red LED near the footage counter indicates low footage,
memory, battery. BL-1 has mechanical readout.
Lens: 54mm diameter PL mount. Newer cameras switch from Normal to Super
35.
Early 35BL cameras had Arri bayonet mount. Some cameras were converted
to BNC mount.
35BL-2 and BL-1 cameras require lens blimps for silent operation.
Shutter: Rotating mirror shutter. See table.
Viewfinder: Reflex Viewfinder. 35BL-4s and BL-4 viewfinders are a stop
brighter than earlier 35BL cameras and feature a larger exit pupil. The finder
rotates 90° above and 90° below level with the image upright. Super Wide
Angle eyepiece with manual leaf closure and 6.5X magnification standard on
35BL-4s and BL-4 cameras. Adjustable eyecup allows the operator to select
the optimum eye-to-exit pupil distance. Finder extenders available for the
35BL-4s and 35BL-4 include a 12.5″ standard with switchable contrast
viewing filter, and variable magnification up to 2X. For the 35BL-3, 35BL-2
and 35BL-1: 9″ standard and 9″ anamorphic finder extenders.
Video: Video elbow with Arri and aftermarket video taps from CEI, Jurgens,
Denz, Philips, Sony and many others.
Viewing Screens: pullout with Hirschmann forceps to clean and interchange.
ArriGlow illuminated frame lines.
Mags: 400″ (122m) and 1,000″ (300m) coaxial. The 35BL can be handheld with
either magazine. Mechanical footage counters are integral.
Accessories: Sound Barney and heated barney.
Connections: Electronic Accessories: Multicamera interlock is achieved with
the EXS-2 50/60Hz External Sync Unit. SMPTE time code available for
later models.
Motors, Power: 12V DC. Power input through a 4-pin XLR connector on
camera. Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is +12V. Although most of the industry settled on
4 pin connectors on both ends, some cables have 5-pin XLR male connectors
on the battery end.
Arri Accessories
Arri accessories common to most cameras with flat bases—(many 2C cameras
still have with handgrip motors, not flat bottoms):
Rods: There are two diameters of lens support/accessory rods in use: 15mm and
19mm. The 19mm rods are centered below the lens; 15mm rods are off-
center.
Environmental Protection Equipment: Aftermarket rain covers, splash
housings, rain deflectors and underwater housings available.
Camera Support Equipment: Arri Head; Arri Head 2 (newer, lighter, smaller).
Arrimotion (small and lightweight moco).
Lens Controls: Arri FF2 or FF3 follow focus. Preston Microforce or Arri
LCS/wireless lens control. Lens Control: Arri FF3 follow focus. Preston
Microforce zoom control. Iris gears available for remote iris.
Arri Matte Boxes
MB-16 (4 x 4 Studio): two 4″ x 4″ filters and one 41⁄2″ round filter (maximum
of four 4″ x 4″ and one 41⁄2″ round). Swing-away mechanism for fast lens
changes. Can be equipped with top and side eyebrows.
MB-17B (4 x 4 LW): A lightweight matte box holding two 4″ x 4″ filters and
one 41⁄2″ round filter. Swing-away mechanism; can easily be adapted to
15mm or 19mm support rods via the BA bracket adapters. It can also be used
on the SR lightweight rods. It can be equipped with a top eyebrow.
MB-16A (4 x 5.6 Studio): A studio matte box holding two 4″ x 5.650″ filters
and one 41⁄2″ round filter (maximum of four 4″ x 5.6″ and one 41⁄2″ round).
Swing-away mechanism. Can be equipped with top and side eyebrows.
MB-18 (4 x 5.6 Studio): A studio matte box holding three 4″ x 5.650″ filters
and one 138mm filter (maximum of four 4″ x 5.650″ and one 138mm).
Swing-away mechanism for fast lens changes. Can be equipped with top and
side eyebrows. Covers Super 16mm.
MB-19 (4 x 5.6 LW): A lightweight matte box holding two 4 x 5.650 filters and
one 138mm or 41⁄2″ round filter (maximum of three 4 x 5.650 and one
138mm or 41⁄2″ round). Swing away mechanism for fast lens changes and
can easily be adapted to 15mm or 19mm support rods via the BA bracket
adapters. Can also be used on SR lightweight rods. Can be equipped with top
and side eyebrows. Covers Super 16mm.
MB-15 (5 x 6 Studio): A studio matte box holding two 5″ x 6″ filters and one
6″, 138mm or 41⁄2″ round filter. A rotating stage can be attached, adding two
4″ x 4″ filters. Swing-away mechanism for fast lens changes. Can be
equipped with top and side eyebrows. Covers fixed lenses 14mm and up, as
well as most zooms. Geared filter frame.
MB-14 (6.6 x 6.6 Studio): A studio matte box holding four 6.6″ x 6.6″ filters
and one 6″, 138″mm or 41⁄2″ round filter (maximum of six 6.6″ x 6.6″ and
one 6″, 138mm or 41⁄2″ round). The four 6.6″ x 6.6″ filter trays are grouped
in two stages with two filter trays each. The two stages can be rotated
independently of each other, and each stage contains one filter tray with a
geared moving mechanism allowing for very precise setting of grad filters.
Swing-away mechanism. Can be equipped with top and side eyebrows.
6.6x6.6 Production Matte Box: Covers lenses 12mm and up, as well as most
zooms. Interchangeable two, four or six filter stages, rotatable 360°, swing-
away for changing lenses. Geared filter frames.
MB-14W: same as MB-14, but with a wider front piece for 9.8mm lenses or
longer.
MB-14C: same as MB-14, but with a shorter front piece for close-up lenses.
LMB-3 (4x4 clip-on): A very lightweight matte box that clips to the front of
87mm or 80mm lenses, holding two 4″x4″ filters. When using prime lenses
with a 80mm front diameter (most Arri/Zeiss prime lenses), a Series 9 filter
can be added with an adapter ring. Shade part can be easily removed from
the filter stages if only the filter stages are needed. Can be used for 16mm
prime lenses 8mm–180mm and 35mm prime lenses 16mm–180mm. It also
attaches to the 16mm Vario-Sonar 10–100mm or 11–110mm zoom lens.
LMB-5 (4x5.650 clip-on): A matte box that clips onto the front of the lens,
holding two 4″x5.6″ filters. Can be attached to lens front using clamp
adapters of the following diameters: 80mm, 87mm, 95mm and 114mm. Can
be equipped with a top eyebrow.
LMB-4 (6.6x6.6 clip-on): A matte box that clips onto the front of the lens,
holding two 6.6″x6.6″ filters. Can be used on 156mm front diameter lenses
(like the Zeiss T2.1/10mm) or, with an adapter, on 144mm front diameter
lenses (like the Zeiss T2.1/12mm).
Additional Accessories: Bridge plate support system for CG balance and mount
for matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and heavy lenses; handheld
rig for shoulder operation of the camera.
Many good aftermarket matteboxes and accessories from Chrosziel,
Cinetech and many others.
Bell & Howell 35mm Eyemo Model 71

Eyemo K

Notes, Models: “Beats the Other Fellow to the Pictures” (from original 1926 ad)

Eyemo Q

71 M–Compact 3 lens turret

71 Q–wide “Spider” three-lens turret.
71 K–single Eyemo mount.
Weight: 11 lbs/4.9 kg, size: 4″ x 6″ x 8″
Movement: No registration pins. Pull-down claw on soundtrack side only. Cam-
operated single claw. Spring-loaded edge guide and pressure plate.
FPS: 8, 12, 16, 24, 32, 48 fps. Governor controlled
Aperture: Full, Academy centered or full centered. Filter slot behind lens
Displays: Read out/indicators dial on side for 100 body. Veeder root counter, for
Q with magazines.
Lens: Eyemo Bell & Howell Mount, many conversions to Nikon, PL, Panavison
and Canon.
Shutter: 160°. Replacement shutters of different degrees available.
Viewfinder: Nonreflex viewfinder: external with parallex correction and
matching objective lenses. Reflex shift over plate for Q model only with full
frame viewing and focusing. Taking lens rotate 180° to reflex eye piece.
Loads: 100″ (30.5m) daylight spools.
Motors, Power: Spring wind-up, 55″ (16.8M) per wind. 6V DC, 12V DC, 24V
DC, 110V AC.
Bell & Howell 35mm Eyemo Threading Diagram
Figure 10. Film takes up emulsion side in. (Daylight load only.)
Mags: 200 (61m) 400 (122m) Some models don’t accept magazines.
Misc: Reprinted Instructions Manuals at www.photobooksonline.com
Bell & Howell 35mm Steve’s Cine Service Conversion
Movement: No registration pins. Pull-down claw on soundtrack side only.
FPS: 4–50 fps.
Aperture: Full: optically centered or full centered
Displays: LED footage and fps.
Lens: Nikon, PL, Panavison and Canon mounts. Since this is often used as a
“crash” camera, be sure your lenses are expendable. That’s why Nikon or
Canon still lenses are often used. Some of Steve’s conversions have a neutral
mount, with adapters for various mounts.
Shutter: 160°. Replacement shutters of different degrees available.
Viewfinder: Reflex Viewfinder: cube beamsplitter reflex system
(-1⁄2 stop loss due to cube beamsplitter and 160° shutter). Viewing optics use
Arriflex eyepieces. Other models have parallax finders (not reflex).
Video: Black-and-white CCD.
Viewing Screen: Arri III type. All Academy and Super 35 formats.
Loads: Uses 100 (30.5m) daylight spools in camera body.
Accessories: Remote start cables, Crash housing, underwater housings and
Clairmont Camera fire housings.
Motors, Power: 12V DC only
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm

Notes: Darling camera of the new wave.

Movement: Easily converts from 35mm to 16mm with two sets of ratchet-type
pull-down claws: one on each side for 35mm and a single, smaller claw for
16mm. Adjusting the claw stroke adapts camera to either normal 4-perf pull-
down or 2-perf pull-down for Techniscope, or single-perf pull-down for
16mm operation. Pull-down claws mounted on sliding cam-driven plate,
which is reached through opening in aperture plate. No disassembly or
special tools required. Registration and steadiness achieved by double rear
pressure plate and very long side rails. Top plate keeps film flat in focal
plane, bottom plate holds film at edges only to keep it properly aligned for
pulldown claws.
FPS: 50 fps maximum.
Aperture: Optically centered and Academy centered on some models. Aperture
plate made of one piece of steel, hand-polished and undercut to prevent
scratching. Aperture plate is part of camera body proper, pressure plates are
built into magazine. Raised area in center of aperture portion of pressure
plate eliminates breathing. Sliding mattes for film aperture and viewfinder
for 16mm. Techniscope or other widescreen ratios. Gel filter behind the lens.
Displays: Built-in tachometer.
Lens: Three-lens divergent cam-lock turret with Camerette CA-1 lens mounts.
CA-1 lens mount is large-diameter brass bayonet type. Divergent turret
permits mounting 5.7mm focal length and longest telephoto lenses without
optical or physical interference.
Shutter: 200° variable front-surfaced mirror reflex shutter; may be varied to 35°
by turning knob on left side of camera body.
Viewfinder: Reflex, 360° rotating eyepiece for right or left eye. Adjustable
mattes for various aspect ratios.
Viewing Screen: Fixed. Various markings available.
Mags: Quick change (snap-on) 200 (61m) and 400 (122m) displacement type
mags. Fixed loop (which may be set from outside at any time). Automatic
footage counter. Removal of magazine allows inspection and cleaning of
aperture plate and film channel. For Techniscope operation, T-Type
magazine operates at either 45 per minute or 90 per minute by merely
changing gears. Plastic film cores.

Eclair CM3 400’ Magazine

Figure 11. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Accessories: Dovetail adapter to mount to tripod has twin matte box rods.
Mattebox with two 3″x3″ filter stages, one rotatable and removable, for use
with extra-wide-angle lenses.
Sound Blimp has one door to allow sliding camera out on rails for instant
magazine change and automatically connects follow focus, lens diaphragm
and external eyepiece. Camera may be used with all anamorphic and zoom
lenses, in or out of blimp. Full instrumentation capabilities available with
single-frame pulse and intervalometer operation.
Aquaflex underwater housing for 35mm Techniscope and 16mm.
Lightweight magnesium tripod. Entire tripod bowl and movements can be
lifted from legs and clamped to table edges, doors, ladders, etc.
Motors, Power: Motors mounted on side of camera can be changed in a few
seconds.
Basic motor: 6-8V DC rheostat-controlled variable-speed type (also available
for 24V power).
Other motors: 6, 12 and 24V DC transistor-controlled regulated motors with
variable-speed or constant-speed operation with 50 or 60Hz sync pulse
outputs, crystal plus variable also. Stops in viewing position. 115V 60Hz and
220V three-phase, 60Hz AC motors for synchronous sound shooting.
Hand-crank drive also available for 1, 8 or 16 pictures per turn.

Fries 435 Threading Diagram

Figure 12. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Fries 435

Weight: 26 lbs./11.8 kg body only.

Movement: Mitchell movement
FPS: 2–150 fps. in one-frame increments, crystal controlled.
Aperture: .980″ x .735″ (24.89mm x 18.67mm), removable aperture plate:
Displays: Panel
Lens: BNCR, Panavision, Arri PL mounts
Shutter: Spinning mirror reflex with 170° shutter.
Viewfinder: A light valve allows the operator to direct all the light to the
viewfinder, the video-assist, or combo which splits between the two.
Mags: 400″ (122m) and 1,000″ (300m) displacement
Motors, Power: 30V DC. Equipped with take-up and supply torque motors.
Moviecam Compact

Weight: 13 lbs 10 oz/6.3kg.

Movement: Dual pin registration and double pull-down pins. The movement
slides back for easy threading. Loop adjustment.
FPS: 12–32 fps forward or reverse. 2–50 fps forward with moviespeed control.
Frame rate speed preset buttons.
Aperture: .980″ x .735″ (24.89mm x 18.67mm). Aperture plates available in all
35mm aspect ratios and easily interchanged. Mattes and masks only at
Clairmont by special order.
Moviecam Compact Magazine Diagram
Figure 13a. Moviecam standard type magazine. Film takes up
emulsion side in.
dB: Under 20dBA.
Displays: Footage and frame rate. Digital counters for frame rate. Flashing
control display which indicates incorrect operation or buckle trips. Digital
display for forward and reverse. Shutter angles are displayed only on the
shutter.
Lens: BNCR and PL mounts. Regular and Super 35mm. Iris gears are available
and necessary for speed/iris ramps. Electronic dust check (gate check)
button.
Shutter: 180° variable to 45°. Calibrated in segments with positive locks at 45°,
90°, 120°, 144° and 172.8°. Mirror stops automatically in viewing position.
22.5° available on newer cameras.
Viewfinder: Reflex 6.1X magnification viewfinder. Three-position filter wheel
(clear, blocked and ND.6). Reflex viewfinder is rotatable 360° while
maintaining an erect image. 12 viewfinder extension with built-in 2.4X
magnification zoom. 9.22mm eyepiece exit pupil has heated rear element to
prevent condensation. The eyepiece diopter is adjustable. Anamorphic
viewing system available.
Video: Several flicker-reduced CCD video pick-ups may be attached. 100
percent color or black-and-white, 80/20 optical black-and-white video, 80/20
optical/color video. On board 1.5 monitor and 6.5 color LCD monitors
available. All video-assist cameras have built-in iris controls.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable, available in all aspect ratios. Movielite
projects the aspect ratio of the ground glass in selectable combinations of all
standard formats. Custom Movielite module for Super 35mm and HDTV
formats.

Moviecam Compact Threading Diagrams

Figure 13b & 13c. Top:Slant loading. Bottom: Top Loading. Film
takes up emulsion side in.
Mags: Top- or rear-mounted 500″ (152m) and 1,000″ (300m). Lightweight
composite 400″(122m) and 1,000″(300m) mags. Lightweight 400″ (122m)
Steadicam mags. All mags have built-in heaters and torque motors. No gear
or belt connection to the camera. Each mag has its own mechanical and
electronic footage counter with digital display of raw stock with memory.
Displacement type mag loading. 2 plastic film cores.
Accessories: Uses Moviecam and Arri baseplates, rods and matte boxes.
Arriflex, Chrosziel or Willie Tec follow focus.
Electronic Accessories: Moviespeed attachment plugs into camera right side,
and allows speeds to be changed during the shot at programmed rates from
1–50 fps forward and 12–32 fps reverse over user-defined time intervals (set
with push-button switches). Fully automatic exposure corrections are made
with the iris control servo motor coupled to the lens iris ring.
Running speed can be preset in three-digit accuracy for filming computer
screens.
Connections: Synchronization attachment slaves the camera motor to an
external pulse for flicker-free generator-powered HMI shooting, filming
monitors, or process photography.
Time code plug-in TC-Module for recording AatonCode on specially
equipped cameras.
Illuminated on/off switch. TV line phase shifter for synchronizing film with
any TV monitor. Sync in and sync out. Cinematography Electronics makes
the Compact Precision Speed Plus for the Moviecam Compact. Allows Arri
accessory ports. Expands frame rate range from 2–50.999 fps. Also single
frame feature.
Motors, Power: Microprocessor-controlled (quartz crystal accuracy) motor with
variable speed from 12–32 fps in one-frame increments. 24V DC.
Moviecam SL

Weight: 8.25 lbs/3.7kg.

Movement: Dual pin registration and double pull-down pins. The movement
slides back for easy threading. Loop adjustment.
FPS: Variable speed from 12–40 fps in one-frame increments. All speeds
operate with quartz crystal accuracy. Setting camera to 43 fps causes camera
to run 23 fps. Setting camera to run at 49 fps causes camera to run at 29 fps.
Aperture: Full aperture .980″ x .735″ (24.89mm x 18.67mm).
Aperture Plates available in all 35mm aspect ratios and easily
interchangeable. PL lens mount can be oriented for Academy center or full
aperture center. Mattes and masks available by special order at Clairmont
Cameras.
Displays: Illuminated on/off switch. Frame speed preset buttons. Digital
counters for frame rate. Sync in and sync out. Dust check knob. Footage
counters on magazines. Shutter angles indicated on shutter.
Lens: PL mount. Regular and Super 35mm.
Shutter: 180°, variable to 22.5°. Calibrated in segments with positive locks at
45°, 90°, 120°, 144° and 172.8°. Mirror stops automatically in viewing
position.
Viewfinder: Reflex Viewfinder, 6.1X magnification. 3-position filter wheel
(clear, blocked and ND.6). Reflex viewfinder rotates 360° while maintaining
an upright image. A 12″ viewfinder extension with built-in 2.4X
magnification zoom available only at Clairmont. 9.22mm exit pupil has
heated rear element to prevent condensation. Eyepiece diopter is adjustable.
Anamorphic viewing system also available only at Clairmont.

Moviecam SL Magazine Diagrams

Figure 14a & 14b. Active displacement magazines in shoulder-hold
and Steadicam configurations. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Video: Flicker-free CCD video pick-ups. 100 percent color or black-and-white,
80/20 optical black-and-white video. CEI color video.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable ground glasses in all aspect ratios.
Mags: 400″ (122m) lightweight. Rear mounted. All magazines have built-in
heaters and torque motors. Electronic footage counter. 400″ (122m)
lightweight Steadimag with vertical displacement to maintain center of
gravity. Moviecam SL is designed to accept magazines from the Moviecam
Compact with a special adapter. Specialized magazines for Steadicam.
Magazine Loading: Displacement type. 2 plastic film cores.
Accessories: Uses Moviecam Compact and Arri bridge plates and follow focus
units.

Moviecam SL Threading Diagram

Figure 14c. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Optical Accessories: With of a special adapter plate, all viewfinder systems of
the Moviecam Compact may be used with the Moviecam SL, including
video systems and the Movielite system.
Motors, Power: Camera is powered by a microprocessor-controlled motor. 24V
DC.
Moviecam Super America MK 2

Weight: 29 lbs./13.2 kg with 500 (152 m) of film and 50mm lens.

Movement: Same as Moviecam SL.
FPS: Variable speed from 12–32 fps in one-frame increments. All speeds
operate with quartz crystal accuracy.
Aperture: .980x.735 (24.89mm x 18.67mm). Aperture plate adjustable for full
aperture or Academy centered. Easily interchangeable. Mattes and masks
available at Clairmont by special order.
dB: 20dB(A).
Displays: Footage and frame rate digital display forward and reverse.
Illuminated on/off switch. Frame speed preset buttons. Digital counters for
frame rate. Flashing control display indicates incorrect operation or buckle
trips. Digital display for forward and reverse. Shutter angle is displayed
directly on the shutter via engraved marks. TV line phase shifter for
synchronizing film with any TV monitor. Sync in and sync out. Dust check
button.
Lens: BNCR and PL mounts.
Shutter: 180°, variable to 45°. Calibrated in segments with positive locks at
45°, 90°, 120°, 144° and 172.8 °. Mirror stops automatically in viewing
position.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder (same as SL.)
Video: CCD black-and-white or color video pick-ups, flicker reduced at 24/25
fps, which can easily be plugged into the camera. 1.5 black-and-white
onboard monitor or 6.50 CCD color onboard monitor. Iris control for the
video system.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable ground glasses available in all aspect ratios.
Mags: Displacement, rear mounted 500″ (152m) and 1,000″ (300m) feet. Can
be top mounted by using an adapter. All magazines have built-in heaters and
torque motors for FWD and REV operation. Each magazine has its own
mechanical and electronic footage counter with digital display of raw stock
with memory. Additional manual take-up controls. 2″ plastic cores.
Moviecam Super America MK2 Threading Diagram
Figure 15a & 15b. Top: Slant loading loop adjustment. Bottom: Top
loading.
Film takes up emulsion side in.
Accessories: Uses Arriflex bridge plates and follow focus units. Right- and left-
hand grips. Carry handles.
Electronic Accessories: Moviespeed and Synchronization attachments — see
Movicam Compact.
Connections: Computer diagnosis digitally displays by number any
malfunctioning circuit boards. Plug-in boards easily interchangeable in the
field. Digiclapper: Built-in automatic slate optically prints dialed scene and
take number onto the film.
Power: 24V DC.
Panavision GII Golden Panaflex (PFX-GII)

Notes: Very similar to the Platinum Panaflex. Incorporates most of the features
and operates with most of the accessories listed for that camera.
Weight: 24.4 lbs/11.08 kg (body with short eyepiece).
Movement: Dual pin registration, double pulldown claws. Pitch and stroke
controls for optimizing camera quietness. 4-perf movement standard, 3-perf
available. Movement may be removed for servicing.
FPS: 4–34 fps (forward only), crystal controlled at 24, 25, 29.97, and 30 fps.
Aperture: .980″ x .735″ (24.89mm x 18.67mm) Style C (SMPTE 59-1998).
Aperture Plate removable for cleaning. Full-frame aperture is standard,
aperture mattes used for all other frame sizes. A special perforation-locating
pin above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film threading.
Interchangeable aperture mattes are available for academy, anamorphic,
Super 35mm, 1.85:1, 1.66:1, and any other.
dB: Under 24dB with film and lens, measured 3 from the image plane.
Displays: Camera-left LED display readout with footage, film speed and low
battery.
Lens: Panavision mount. All lenses are pinned to ensure proper rotational
orientation. (Note: This is particularly important with anamorphic lenses.)
Super 35mm conversion upon request.
Behind-the-lens gel filter holder.
Iris-rod support on camera right side. A lightweight modular follow focus
control works on either side of the camera; optional electronic remote focus
and aperture controls.
Shutter: Reflex rotating mirror standard—independent of the focal-pane shutter.
Interchangeable, semisilvered, fixed (not spinning) reflex mirror (pellicle)
for flicker-free viewing upon request. Focal-plane shutter, infinitely variable
and adjustable in-shot. Maximum opening 200°, minimum 50°, with
adjustable maximum and minimum opening stops. Adjustable for
synchronization with monitors, etc. Manual and electronic remote-control
units.

Panavision GII Golden Panaflex Threading Diagram

Figure 16. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Viewfinder: High-magnification, orientable viewfinder tube gives a constantly
upright image through 360°. Short, intermediate and long viewfinder tubes
available. Optical magnifier for critical focusing, de-anamorphoser, contrast
viewing filter and lightproof shutter. Ocular adjustment with marker bezel to
note individual settings. A built-in “Panaclear” eyepiece heater ensures mist-
free viewing. Entire optical viewfinder system may be removed and replaced
with a video viewfinder display for lightweight camera configuration (e.g.,
for Steadicam, crane, and remote camera usage). An eyepiece diopter to suit
the operator’s eyesight can be provided on request.
Video: CCD video systems available in black-and-white or color.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable ground glasses with any marking or
combination of markings. “Panaglow” illuminated reticle system with
brightness control is standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser texture
available on request. Provision for a cut frame to be placed in the viewfinder
system for optical image matching. Frame cutters available to suit negative
or positive perforations.
Mags: Top or rear mounted displacement magazines. 250″ (76.2m), 500″
(152m), 1,000″ (300m), and 2,000″ (610m) magazines all available. All can
be used on the top of the camera or at the rear (for good balance when
handholding). 2,000″ (610mm) magazines can be used in the top position
only. 3 plastic core required. All others 2.
Electronic Accessories: Special sync boxes available to synchronize the camera
with computers, video signals and process projectors in shutter phase
synchronization.
Connections: AatonCode time code system (on request) encodes every frame
with a SMPTE time code, which is readable by both computer and human.
Camera will accept external drive signals via the 10-pin accessory connector.
Motors, Power: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories all operate off a
single 24V DC battery. A crystal-controlled motor drives the system.
Misc: Hand-Holdability: Handles and a shoulder rest provided. When handheld,
the camera is best used with a 500″ (152m) or 250″ (76.2m) magazine fitted
at the rear.
Panavision Millenium XL (PFXMXL), XL2

Weight: 11.8 lbs/5.36kg. (body only) 23.6 lbs/10.76 kg (Steadicam

configuration: body, 400 (122m) mag w/film, Steadicam plates, 4x5 matte
box, lightweight zoom lens).
27.8 lbs/12.6 kg (handheld configuration, all of above plus handheld
viewfinder, shoulder pad and right handgrip).
Movement: Dual pin registration, double pull-down claws. Pitch and stroke
controls for optimizing camera quietness. 4-perf movement standard, 3-perf
available. Movement may be removed for servicing. Special coatings allow
for less frequent lubrication.
FPS: XL: 3–40 fps. Forward only Crystal speeds selected in 1⁄1000th of a frame
increments
XL2: 3–50 fps. Forward only. Crystal speeds selected in 1⁄1000th of a frame
increments.
Aperture: .980″ x .735″ (24.89mm x 18.67mm) Style C (SMPTE 59-1998).
Aperture Plate removable for cleaning. Full-frame aperture standard,
aperture mattes used for all other frame sizes. A special perforation-locating
pin above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film threading.
dB: Under 23dB(A) with film and lens, measured 3″ from the image plane.
Displays: Pivoting and removable dual-sided LED digital display showing
speed, film footage, shutter angle. Rear control panel for speed and shutter
setting with full display and connector for included remote speed/shutter
controller.
Lens: Panavision titanium positive clamp lens mount. Super 35mm conversion
upon request. Camera right iris-rod support supplied.
Behind-the-lens gel filter holder.

Panavision Millenium XL Threading Diagram

Figure 17. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Shutter: Reflex spinning mirror. Focal plane shutter, infinitely variable and
adjustable in-shot, 11.2°–180°; with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. Digital display confirms adjustments in 1⁄10th-degree
increments. System is adjustable for synchronization with monitors, etc.
Manual and electronic remote control units.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder detaches for quick conversion to handheld,
Steadicam or studio mode. A 5″ LCD video monitor can replace the optical
viewfinder, often used for handheld. Left- or right-eyed handheld eyepiece.
Utilizes Millennium studio viewfinder system, including the telescoping
extension eyepiece. Panaglow.
Viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a constantly upright image through
360°. Short and modular-length viewfinder tubes are available. Modular tube
can telescope over 3 for optimum viewing position. System incorporates an
optical magnifier for critical focusing, a de-anamorphoser, a contrast
viewing filter and a lightproof shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustment with
marker bezel to note individual settings. A built-in “Panaclear” eyepiece
heater ensures mist-free viewing. Entire optical viewfinder system may be
easily removed without tools for video viewfinder display for lightweight
camera configuration (e.g., for Panaglide, Steadicam, Louma or remote
camera usage). An eyepiece diopter to suit the operator’s eyesight can be
provided on request.
Video: Integrated Color Video Assist, flicker-free at all camera speeds. Internal
iris for exposure control. Selectable neutral density filter. Freeze and
compare picture modes. Auto color balance or two preset color temperatures.
Multiple gain settings. Frameline and character generator. Film camera speed
and footage display output in video display.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable ground glasses available with any marking or
combination of markings. “Panaglow” illuminated reticle system with
brightness control is standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser texture
available on request. Provision for a cut frame to be placed in the viewfinder
system for optical image matching. Frame cutters available to suit negative
or positive perforations. Clear format screen can replace ground glass in first
viewing plane for better video image.
Mags: Top or rear mounted displacement magazines. Brushless motor driven
200 (76.2m), 400 (122m) and 1,000″ (300m) magazines. Traditional 250
(83m), 500 (152m), 1,000 (300m), 2,000 (610m) magazines available. All
can be used on the top of the camera,or at the rear for minimum camera
height and for good balance when handholding (2,000 magazines can be
used in the top position only). 2 plastic cores required, 3 for 2,000 (610m).
Accessories: Internal servo motor controls electronics for focus, T-stop and
zoom. Wired or wireless remote control. Iris rod bracket with 24V DC power
connectors. Separate remote control for timed speed shutter compensated
shots. Digital Link Smart Shutter controller for speed-iris and/or shutter
ramps, also depth of field shift. Sync box to synchronize the camera with
computers, video signals and projectors for shutter phase synchronization.
Environmental Protection Equipment: Same as Panavision GII.
Camera Support Equipment: Same as Panavision GII.
Hand-Holdability: Handles and a shoulder rest provided for handholding the
camera. In this configuration, camera is best used with a 200″, 250″, 400″ or
500″ magazine fitted at the rear.
Motors, Power: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories all operate off a
single 24V battery. Separate (dual) brushless drive motors for shutter and
movement, easily retimed for effects. Single variable shutter motor for ramp
functions.
Panavision Millenium (PFX-M)

Weight: 17.5 lbs/7.95 kg. (body only). 29.12 lbs/13.23 kg (Steadicam

configuration: body, 400″ (122m) mag w/film, Steadicam plates, 4″x5.650″
clip on matte box, lightweight zoom lens).
34.2 lbs/15.5 kg (handheld configuration, all of above plus: focus tube, short
eyepiece).
Movement: Same as Milleninium XL.
FPS: 3–50 fps (forward and reverse), crystal controlled at all speeds in 1⁄1000th
of a second increments.
Aperture: .980″ x .735″ (24.89mm x 18.67mm) Style C (SMPTE 59-1998).
Aperture Plate removable for cleaning. Full-frame aperture is standard;
aperture mattes used for all other frame sizes. A special perforation-locating
pin above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film threading.
dB: Under 19dB(A) with film and lens, measured 3″ from the image plane.
Displays: Pivoting and removable dual-sided LED digital display showing
speed, film footage, shutter angle. Additional status indicator and
speed/footage display on operator side. Rear control panel for speed and
shutter setting with full display and connector for included remote
speed/shutter controller.
Lens: Panavision positive clamp lens mount. Super 35mm conversion upon
request. Iris-rod support supplied. Lens Controls same as Millenium XL.
Behind-the-lens gel filter holder.
Shutter: Same as Millennium XL.
Viewfinder: Same as Millennium XL.
Video: Color video, flicker-free at all camera speeds. Internal iris for exposure
control. Clear format replaces the traditional ground glass. Approximately
2000ASA. Freeze and compare picture modes. Electronic de-anamorphoser.
RGB output for on-set compositing. Auto color balance or two preset color
temperatures. Multiple gain settings. Frameline and character generator. Film
camera speed and footage display. Outputs to video display. Two composite
video outputs, one RGB output.

Panavision Millenium Threading Diagram

Figure 18. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Viewing Screen: Same as Millennium XL.
Mags: Same as Millennium XL.
Accessories: Same as Millennium XL. Matte Boxes same as GII.
Electronic Accessories: Special sync boxes available to synchronize the camera
with computers, video signals and process projectors in shutter phase
synchronization.
Additional Accessories: A shutter/speed compensation box comes standard.
Environmental Protection Equipment: Same as GII.
Camera Support Equipment: Same as GII.
Hand-Holdability: Handles and a shoulder-rest are provided for hand-holding
the camera. In this configuration camera is best used with a 250 (76.2m),
400,(122m) or 500 (152m) magazine fitted at the rear.
Power: Brushless crystal motor drive. 24V DC.
Panavision Panaflex-X (PFX-X)

Notes: Similar to the GII Golden Panaflex but has a fixed viewfinder system and
is not hand-holdable.
Weight: 20.5 lbs/9.31 kg (body only).
Movement: same as GII
FPS: Same as GII: 4–34 fps (forward only), xtal 24, 25, and 29.97.
Aperture: same as GII
dB: Under 24dB(A) with film and lens, measured 3 from the image plane.
Displays: Single-sided LED display readout with footage and film speed. Same
as GII
Lens: Same as GII. Same behind-the-lens gel filter holder.
Shutter: Same as GII. 200°–50°
Viewfinder: Nonorientable.
Video: CCD video systems in black-and-white or color.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable, same as GII
Mags: Same as GII
Accessories: Matte boxes: Same as GII.
Electronic Accessories: Same as GII.
Optical Accessories: Same as GII.
Environmental Protection Equipment: Same as GII.
Camera Support Equipment: Same as GII.
Motors, Power: same as GII (24V DC) and Millenium.
Misc: Camera cannot be handheld.

Panavision Panaflex-X Threading Diagram

Figure 19. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Panavision Panaflex Panastar II High-Speed

Weight: 24.4 lbs/11.08 kg (body with short eyepiece).

Movement: Dual pin registration. Four pulldown claws. Entire movement may
be removed for servicing.
FPS: Camera runs at any speed from 4–120 fps, crystal-controlled at all speeds,
and may be adjusted in 1 fps increments. Fwd and rev.
Aperture: .980″ x .735″ (24.89mm x 18.67mm) Style C (SMPTE 59-1998).
Aperture Plate same as Platinum Panaflex.
Displays: Dual-sided LCD display readout with footage, film speed, shutter
angle, and time code bits. LED indicators for low battery/film jam/film
out/MVMT SW/Mag/RVS.
Lens: Lens mount and lens control information the same as Panavision GII.
Behind the lens filter holder.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with infinitely variable opening and adjustable in-
shot. Maximum opening 180°, minimum 45°, with adjustable maximum and
minimum opening stops. Digital display allows adjustments in 1⁄10th-degree
increments. Adjustable for synchronization with monitors, etc. Manual and
electronic remote-control units available.
Viewfinder: Reflex. Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Panavision Panaflex Panastar II High-Speed Threading Diagram
Figure 20a. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Video: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Viewing Screen: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Mags: 250″(76.2m) (Note: 250″ mag up to 34fps only), 500″ (152m) and 1,000″
(300m) magazines. Either can be used on the top of the camera or at the rear.
1,000″(300m) reverse-running magazines—film takes up emulsion side in.
Film Cores: 2 plastic core required. Note Panastar reverse running-type
magazine threading.
Accessories Matte Boxes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Optical Accessories: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Camera Support Equipment: Same as Platinum Panaflex. Handles and a
shoulder rest provided.
Connections: The camera will accept external drive signals via the 10-pin
accessory connector.
Motors, Power: 24V DC. Batteries same as Platinum Panaflex
Panavision Platinum Panaflex 35mm (PFX-P)

Weight: 24 lbs/10.9 kg (body with short eyepiece).

Movement: Dual pin registration; Double pulldown cIaws. Pitch and stroke
controls for optimizing camera quietness. 4-perf movement standard, 3-perf
available. Movement may be removed for servicing.

Panastar reverse running type magazine threading

Figure 20b. Film takes up emulsion side in.
FPS: 4–36 fps (forward and reverse), crystal-controlled at all speeds and
adjusted in 1⁄10th fps increments.
Aperture: .980″ x .735″ (24.89mm x 18.67mm) Style C (SMPTE 59-1998).
Aperture Plate: Removable for cleaning. Full-frame aperture is standard,
aperture mattes are used for all other frame sizes. A special perforation-
locating pin above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film threading.
dB: Under 22dB with film and lens, measured 3″ from the image plane.
Displays: Dual-sided LCD display readout with footage, film speed, shutter
angle, and time code bits. LED indicators for low battery / low film / film
jam/ illegal speed.
Lens: same as Panavision GII. Behind-the-lens gel filter holder.
Shutter: Reflex mirror. Focal plane shutter, infinitely variable and adjustable in-
shot. Maximum opening 200°, minimum 50°, with adjustable maximum and
minimum opening stops. Digital display allows adjustments in 1⁄10th-degree
increments. Adjustable for synchronization with monitors. Manual and
electronic remote-control units.
Viewfinder: Reflex Viewfinder. Same as GII.
Video: Same as GII.
Viewing Screen: Same as GII.
Mags: Same as GII.
Accessories: Matte Boxes same as GII.
Electronic Accessories: Same as GII.
Optical Accessories: Same as GII.
Environmental Protection Equipment: Same as GII.
Camera Support Equipment: Same as GII. Handles and shoulder rest provided
for handheld use.
Connections: The camera will accept external drive signals via the 10-pin
accessory connector. AatonCode can be provided on request.
Panavision Platinum Panaflex Threading Diagram
Figure 21a. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Motors, Power: 24V DC. A crystal-controlled brushless motor drives the
system. Batteries: Same as Millennium.
Panavision 35mm Camera Models, Panavision Notes and Accessories
Most cameras in the Panavision system share the following accessories and
attributes.
Movement: Dual Pilot pins register in the same perforation holes (immediately
below the bottom frameline) as optical printers. This ensures process-plate
image steadiness. Entire movement may be removed for servicing.
Lenses: All lenses are pinned to ensure proper rotational orientation. (Note: This
is particularly important with anamorphic lenses.)
Panavision supplies a wide range of spherical, anamorphic and specialty
lenses, all checked and calibrated by MTF. Primo lenses are all color
matched and range from a distortion-free 10mm to 150mm. Primo zoom
lenses are equal to Primo lenses in image look and optical performance. All
Primo lenses have widely spaced lens focus calibrations and have been
especially designed for low veiling glare. Physically long lenses are supplied
with adequate-length iris rods for matte box and filter support, ultra-wide-
angle lenses are supplied with a suitable sunshade and matte box.
Zoom lenses are supplied with a motor-driven zoom control unit as standard.
Iris gears are incorporated into most prime and zoom lenses.
Physically long lenses are supplied with adequate-length iris rods for matte
box and filter support, ultra-wide-angle lenses are supplied with a suitable
sunshade and matte box.
Lens Control: A lightweight modular follow focus control which can be used
from either side of the camera is standard; optional electronic remote focus
and aperture controls also available. Zoom lenses supplied with a
motordriven zoom control unit as standard. Iris gears incorporated into most
prime and zoom lenses.
An eyepiece leveler is supplied with every Panahead to keep the eyepiece
position constant while tilting the camera.
Optical Accessories: Front-of-lens optical accessories incIude an exceptionally
wide range of color-control filters, diffusion filters, fog filters, low-contrast
filters, black, white and colored nets, full-cover and split diopters, low/high
angle inclining prisms.
Matte Boxes: Standard matte box incorporates a sunshade and two 4x5″.650″
filters which can be individually slid up and down.
Optional matte box incorporates a sunshade, and two 4x5″.650″ filters which
can be individually slid up and down.
Special matte boxes incorporating more filter stages, with provision for
sliding (motorized if required), rotating and/or tilting and for taking 6.6″
square filters optional. Panavision can also supply special sliding diffusers,
diopters and image-control filters, to use in matte boxes.
Image Contrast Control: “Panaflasher” light overlay unit is an optional
accessory.
Environmental Protection Equipment: All Panaflex cameras and magazines
have built-in heaters. Heated covers available to give additional protection to
lenses, especially zoom lenses, to keep their operation smooth in intensely
cold conditions. Other covers available to protect camera, magazines and
lenses from heat, dust, rain and water. Spinning-glass rain deflectors
available for use in storm conditions. Autobase available to secure the
camera in conditions of vibration, high “g-forces” and other stressful and
dangerous conditions. Water box available to protect the camera in shallow
water conditions, a hazard box to protect the camera from explosions,
collisions and other dangerous situations.
Panavision Film Magazine
Figure 21b. Film takes up emulsion side out.

Camera Support Equipment: “Panahead” geared head incorporates a 60° tilt

range with a built-in wedge system to allow the operator to select where that
range is, anywhere between the camera pointing directly up or directly
down, and three gear ratios in both the pan and tilt movements. A sliding
base unit enables camera to be attached and detached and to be slid
backwards and forwards on the head for optimum balance. “Panatate” turn-
over mount allows 360° camera rotation about the lens axis while permitting
nodal pan and tilt movements. Nodal adapter available to mount a Panaflex
on a Panahead. The normal battery complement is two cased units with built-
in chargers. Belt batteries and a newly designed onboard battery for
handholding optional.
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4CR

Notes: Reflex rotary prism camera 125–2,500 fps. This is a rotary prism camera
and is not pin-registered.
Film Specifications: 35mm B&H perforation .1866″ pitch. 1,000″ (300m) loads
preferable.
Weight: 125 lbs./56.81 kg. with loaded 1,000 (300m) mag, without lens.
Movement: Rotary prism. Continuous film transport. Rotary imaging prism.
FPS: High-speed system: 500–2500 fps in 500-frame intervals. Low-speed
system: 250–1,250 fps in 250-frame increments. Special low-speed motor,
125–625 fps available on request.
Aperture: Full-frame 35mm.
Displays: Mechanical footage indicator. Camera ready and power indicators.
Lens: Pentax 6x7 lens mount. 17mm through 165mm Pentax lenses, in addition
to zooms and Probe II lenses.
Shutter: Rotary disc, 4C has 72-degree fixed shutter. 36°, 18° or 9° available
upon request.
Viewfinder: The 4C utilizes a Jurgens orientable reflex viewfinder system with
a behind-the-lens beamsplitter to achieve flickerless reflex viewing.
Extension eyepiece with leveling rod.
Video: CEI Color V or III available in NTSC version only.
Viewing Screen: Standard ground glass formats available. Specify when
ordering camera package to ensure availability.
Mags: 1000″ (300m). Double chamber. 35mm B&H perforation .1866 pitch.
Film must be rewound onto dynamically balanced aluminum cores. Twelve
cores with each 4CR rental package.
Accessories: Follow Focus: Arri follow focus.
Matte Boxes: 6.6.x6.6 Arri matte box. Heavy-duty tilt plate, high and low hat,
flicker meter, 90° angle plate. Raincovers are included with camera package.

Photo-Sonics 35mm 35-4B/4C magazine

Figure 22a. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Motors, Power: High-speed 208V AC, three phase, 60Hz, Y-connected
synchronous speed motor. Surge at maximum frame rate 60 amps (each
phase); running 30 amps (each phase). Low-speed 115V AC, single phase,
60Hz, synchronous speed motor. Surge at maximum frame rate: 40 amps;
running 20 amps. Power: 208V AC, three phase, Y-connected.
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4CR Threading Diagrams
Figure 22b & 22c. Top: 35 4B. Bottom: 35 4C
Misc: Standard 3⁄8-16 thread fits most large tripods and heads and may require
extension plates on some remote heads.
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4ER

Notes: The 4ER pin registered camera produces solid registration at frame rates
from 6–360 fps. Camera is compatible with Unilux strobes (mid-shutter
pulse).
Film Specifications: Standard 35mm B&H perforation with .1866″ (4.74mm)
pitch. 1,000″ (300m) loads preferable).
Weight: 125 lbs./56.81 kg with loaded 1,000″ (300m) magazine, without lens.
Movement: Intermittent, pin registered. Intermittent with four registration pins,
twelve pull-down arms and a vacuum pressure plate to hold the film
absolutely stationary and registered during exposure.
FPS: 6–360 fps.
Aperture: Full-frame 35mm. Removable aperture plate.
Displays: Mechanical footage indicator.
Lens: BNCR or Panavision. (Academy centered.)
Shutter: 5° to 120°, adjustable with mechanical indicator.
Viewfinder: The 4ER utilizes a Jurgens/Arriflex reflex, orientable viewfinder
system with a behind-the-lens beamsplitter to achieve flickerless reflex
viewing. Optional external boresight tool available.
Video: CEI Color V or III availabe in NTSC version only.
Viewing Screen: Most standard ground glasses are available. Specify when
ordering camera package to ensure availability.
Mags: 1,000″ (300m). Double chamber. Standard plastic 35mm 2″ film cores.
35mm B&H perforation .1866″ pitch.
Accessories: Environmental Protection Equipment: Same as 4C.
Camera Support Equipment: Same as 4C. Arri follow focus unit with right-
hand knob. Zoom Control and Iris Gears available on request.
Electronic Accessories: Optional remote cables, 75′ (23m) and 150″ (45.7m);
remote speed indicator.
Additional Accessories: Extension eyepiece with leveling rod, heavy duty tilt
plate, high and low hat, flicker meter, 90-degree angle plate, Panavision lens
mount and “L” bracket support adapter with 5⁄8 support rods, extension
eyepiece, follow focus.
Optical Accessories: Various Zeiss T1.3and Nikkor primes, in addition to
macro and zoom and Probe II lenses.
Motors, Power: 208V AC, single phase (200V to 250V AC is acceptable). 35
amps surge at 360 fps and 20 amps running. Cannot use batteries. Requires
AC power 208V AC single phase.
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4E and 4ER Diagrams
Figure 23a & 23b. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4ML (Reflex and Nonreflex)

Notes: The 4ML reflex is a compact, rugged, pin registered, high-speed camera
capable of crystal-controlled filming speeds from 10-200 fps. The 4ML
reflex can be configured at only 9″ total height with prime lenses and a 400″
(122m) magazine. Only 51⁄2″ with a 200″ (61m) magazine. Compatible with
Unilux strobe lighting (midshutter pulse).
Standard B&H perforation .1866″ (4.74mm) pitch.
Weight: 28lbs./12.72kg with loaded 400″ (122m) mag, without lens.
Movement: Intermittent with two registrations pins and four pulldown arms.
FPS: 10–200 fps.
Aperture: .745 x .995 (18.92mm x 25.27mm). Academy centered.
Displays: Digital readout plate w/accessory port.
Lens: Lens Mount: BNCR, Panavision, Nikon, PL (Warning: Depth restriction
with certain lenses—restricted to certain zooms and longer primes.) Various
Nikkor lenses (extension tube set for close-focus available), Probe II lens
Shutter: 144° maximum, adjustable to 72°, 36°, 18°, and 9°.
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4ML Magazine Diagram
Figure 24. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Viewfinder: A behind-the-lens beamsplitter block provides flickerless reflex
viewing. Extension eyepiece. External Viewfinder: Nonreflex model utilizes
a boresight tool.
Video: CEI Color V or III available in NTSC version only.
Viewing Screen: TV/Academy/1:1.85 combo standard. Specify ahead for
different ground glass.
Mags: 200″ (61m) and 400″ (122m) displacement, snap-on magazines for quick
reloading. Single chamber with daylight cover. 2″ film cores.
Accessories: Clamp-on 4x4 two-stage Arri Studio matte box.
Follow Focus: Arri follow focus unit with right-hand knob.
Electronic Accessories: Digital readout plate with accessory port, crystal-
controlled filming speeds from 10–200 fps, Unilux strobe lighting
(midshutter pulse).
Additional Accessories: Compatible with Panavision and Arri lens accessories.
Environmental Protection Equipment: Splash housings depth-rated 12″
(3.6m)–15″ (4.6m), rain covers.
Power: 28V DC. 12 amps surge, 7 amps running.
Ultracam

Weight: 31 lbs./14.06 kg with 400″ (122m) of film and 50mm lens.

Movement: Single claw, dual registration pin. Automatic film location by
spring-loaded pin. Pitch adjustment compensated for 3X more change in
stroke length at end of stroke than at start. Entire movement can be removed
for cleaning; coupling is keyed for correct alignment on replacement.
FPS: 8, 12, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25, 30 and 32 fps and by a 10V P-P external pulse of
60X frame rate.
Ultracam Magazine and Threading Diagrams
Figure 25a & 25b. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Aperture: Full aperture .985″ x .736″ (25.02mm x 18.69mm). Aperture plate
removes easily for cleaning and lubrication.
dB: Sound level 20 +1dB at 3 with film and 50mm lens.
Displays: Built-in follow focus. LED counter feet/meters may be preset to any
reading; battery-operated memory.
Lens: Lens Mount: SBNCR.
Shutter: Focal plane 175° on same shaft with mirror. Rotating, two-blade, half-
speed mirror. 41°30 to permit short back-focus lenses.
Viewfinder: Reflex finder, eyepiece rotates 360° using prism to provide upright
image. Exit pupil 10mm. 6X to 9X true zoom magnification. Anamorphic
correction available. Internal diopter accommodation. Right- or left-eye
operation. Video assist on bayonet mount.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable.
Mags: 500″ (152m) and 1,000″ (300m) displacement. Built-in torque motor and
electric brake. Either size mounts on camera top or rear.
Accessories: Quick-release balance plate. Swing-away matte box; rotating
feature accepts various size filters with two stationary stages and two
rotating stages.
Motors, Power: Internal 28V DC optically encoded. Crystal sync +15 ppm over
0° to 130° F. range 50/60Hz and frame rate output pulse.
16MM
Aaton A Minima (Super 16 only)

Weight: 5 lbs./2kg with onboard battery and film.

Movement: single coplanar claw movement and lateral pressure plate ensure
vertical and lateral steadiness to 1⁄2000th of image dimensions. Hair-free gate.
FPS: 1–32 fps crystal speed control, on internal lithium batteries. Runs 50 fps
with external NiMH or NiCd battery.
Aperture: 1.66 (7.44mm x 12.4mm).
Aperture Plate: Super 16 only. Super 16-centered lens port and viewfinder.
dB: 29dB ±1⁄2dB.
Displays: Illuminated readout displays speed, footage (in feet and meters), ASA,
time code, video sync speed, intervalometer setting program.
Lens: Nikon and PL, mount
Shutter: 172.8° spinning reflex mirror shutter.
Viewfinder: DistantEye viewfinder. Removing eye from eyecup doesn’t fog the
running film.
Video: Black-and-white LCD video-assist.
Viewing Screen: Fiber optic 9X magnification (fixed). Aspect ratio markings:
1.66:1 Super16/1.78:1 16x9 (HDTV) 14x9/1.85:1 and 4:3/1.33:1 (Standard
16 frame indicator). Standard 16 (1.33:1) extraction possible at telecine or
printing, centered on Super or Standard frame.
Mags: 200″ (61m) coaxial quick-change magazines, “A” wound rolls in Aaton’s
“flexible” daylight spools. Requires Kodak A-Minima spools. Magazine can
be loaded in subdued light without edge fogging using custom Kodak film
loads. Requires Kodak A-Minima spools. Cannot use standard metallic 200″
(61m) spools or 400″ (122m) rolls.
Accessories: Time recording by XTRprod-compatible AatonCode-II matrices,
accurate to 1⁄4 of a frame. The camera can be used as a master clock to other
Aaton/ASCII devices. Uses 15mm minirods. Chrosziel sunshades and matte
boxes.
Sound Blimp: Leather sound barney.
Connections: Lemo6 (accessories), Lemo6 (in base to accept powerbase),
Lemo5 (time code). Powerbase provides film/video sync, two Lemo6
connectors, one Lemo2 and one XLR 4.
Motors, Power: Batteries, onboard lithium battery. Four disposable 3V cells
(CR17345). Also accepts 10-14V NiMH or NiCd batteries, or any 12V
power source with cable.
Tri-phase brushless motor. 400mA with film, 550mA with film and video
assist. Built-in intervalometer.
Misc: Built-In incident light meter: via rear dome (not TTL) T-stop and speed
differential T-stop. Works with DV-size tripods, Steadicam mini.
Aaton XTRprod

Weight: 13 lbs./6kg with 400″ (122m) load, 18 lbs/8.5 kg with 800″ (244m)
load, and 12V onboard battery.
Movement: Coplanar single claw movement with lateral pressure plate that
ensures vertical and lateral steadiness to 1⁄2000th of image dimensions. Hair-
free gate.
FPS: 18 sync speeds including 23.98, 24, 29.97, 30, 48 and 75 fps and crystal-
controlled adjustable speeds from 3–75 fps in 0.001 increments via a
minijog. Internal phase shift control for TV bar elimination.
Aperture: 1.66. Optical center is switchable for Super 16 and standard 16mm
operation.
dB: 20dB -1/+2.
Displays: Illuminated LCD display, speed selection, elapsed footage, remaining
footage, ISO selection, battery voltage timer and date. Pre-end and end of
film warning, mag ID, full time code readout. Memo-mag allows magnetic
recognition by the camera body of seven different magazines. Counter
provides LCD display of remaining footage for short-end load or multi-
emulsion shoot.
Lens: Interchangeable hard fronts: Arri PL as standard, Aaton, Panavision.
Quick centering of lens axis for 16mm to Super 16 conversion formats.
Field-convertible quick centering of lens axis, viewfinder and CCD target
between formats.
Shutter: Reflex mirror shutter is user adjustable: 180°, 172.8°, 150° for 25 fps
under 60Hz lighting, 144°, 135°, 90°, 60°, 45°, 30°, 15°.
Viewfinder: Reflex from shutter. Fiber-optic imaging finder field is 120 percent
of standard 16mm frame. Swiveling auto-erect image eyepiece with 10X
magnification. 20cm or 40cm extensions and left-eye extender available.
Field interchangeable standard 16mm/Super16 ground glass with Aatonite
markings available. Built-in light meter display in viewfinder, also indicates
low battery, out of sync and pre-end and end of film warnings.

Aaton XTRprod Magazine Diagram

Figure 26. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Video: Integrated high-definition CCD color video assist. NTSC flicker-free at
all camera speeds. Black-and-white video tap available. Film camera time
code, footage, camera run status are inserted in both windows and VITC
lines. Built-in frameline generator.
Viewing Screen: Quick-release, interchangeable fiber-optic screen available in
1.37, 1.66, 1.78 (16:9) and 1.85 aspect ratios and combinations thereof.
Aatonite illuminated markings.
Mags: 400″ (122m) and 800″ (244m) Coaxial instant preloaded magazine,
magnetic drive, feed chamber loaded in dark and loop threaded in daylight.
14- to 15-perf loop length. Twistless film threading and hair-free gate
eliminates pressure marks and emulsion pile-up. No time code-related parts
to clean. Reads in feet and meters. Magnetically driven take-up with
electronic and mechanical counters. Memo-mag indices for magazine ID
recognition. Standard 2 plastic core for 400″ (122m) mag, 3″ plastic core
required for 800″ (244m) mag.
Accessories: Chrosziel follow focus and matteboxes. Leather sound barney.
15mm screw-in front rods. 15mm and 19mm bridgeplate compatible.
Lightweight wide-format, swing-away matte box: two 4″ x 5.6″ and one
138mm rotating stages. Also accommodates Panavision mattes. Lightweight
follow-focus system.
HydroFlex deepwater housing, ScubaCam splashbag.
Eshot intervalometer, CE F/V synchronizer and speed control, and Preston
speed aperture computer.
Connections: Electronic Accessories: Inputs; Amph9 (video sync), Lemo6
(power zoom), Lemo8 (phase controllers), Lemo5 (SMPTE and ASCII time
code). Time recording with AatonCode: Man-readable figures and SMPTE
time code imbedded in rugged dot matrixes 1⁄2-frame accuracy over eight
hours. Key-code compatible.
Motors, Power: Batteries: 10–14V DC. 12V DC NiMH onboard or external
source via cable.
Tri-phase brushless motor. 600 mA, with film at 25°C/77°F under standard
12V power supply (10–12V). Temperature range: -20°C / +4°F to +40°C /
+10°F.
Models: XTRplus (BiPhase)
24, 25, 30 fps plus 6–54 fps in 12 steps, no built-in TV bar eliminator on
XTRplus. No backlight or elapsed time on XTRplus display. Memo-mag
allows magnetic recognition by camera of three different magazines. Bottom
of camera to lens optical axis distance is 109.2mm to make XTRplus
compatible with 35mm camera accessories.
Shutter: True 180-degree front surface mirror essential for 60Hz HMI and
video-monitor roll-bar elimination. Stops in viewing position. May be inched
for aperture inspection.
LTR Model
Superceded by the XTRs, LTRs are differentiated by the magazine
mechanical drive, no LCD counter and no CCD video-assist compatibility.
Ikonoskop A-Cam SP-16

Notes: Possibly the smallest, lightest MOS Super 16 camera, for the price of a
DV camera: About the size of the old GSAP, much lighter, and uses readily
available 100″ daylight spools.
Weight: 3.3 lbs/1.5kg with lens, internal battery and film.
Movement: Single transport claw
FPS: 6, 10, 12.5, 18, 20, 24, 25, 30, 36, 37, 37.5; timelapse from 1 fps to 1
frame in 24 hours.
Aperture: Super 16
Aperture Plate: Super 16 only. Super 16-centered lens port and viewfinder.
Displays: Backlit LCD main readout with three control buttons shows battery
status, film exposed, frame rate and time-lapse mode.
Lens: C mount. Comes with Kinoptik 9mm f/1.5.
Shutter: 160°
Viewfinder: Nonreflex, magnetically-attached, parallel-mounted ocular.
Loads: 100″ (30.5 m) daylight spools.
Accessories: 1⁄4″ x 20″ and 3⁄8 x 16″ tripod mounting threads.
Ikonoskop A-Cam SP-16 Magazine Diagram
Figure 27. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Connections: Main power switch. Start/stop button. Connector for charger and
external 12V DC power (runs on 10.8-15 V DC). Requires external power
for speeds of 30 and 37.5 fps. Remote on/off connector.
Power: Batteries: Camera comes with single-use lithium battery pack. 1400
mAh, 70 g. Runs 25 rolls at 25 fps at 20°C. A charger or an external power
supply must never be connected to the camera when using a single-use
lithium battery pack.
Optional internal rechargeable Li-Ion battery, 480mAh, 46g, Runs 25 rolls at
25 fps at 20°C. Battery is located under the battery compartment cover on
the left side of the camera.
Arriflex 16 BL

Weight: 16.3 lbs./7.39 kg, camera, 400 (122m) magazine and lens
Movement: Pin registered.
FPS: 5–50 fps, forward or reverse, when used with appropriate motor and speed
controls.
Aperture: .405 x.295 (10.3mm x 7.5mm). Standard 16mm.
dB: 30dB.
Displays: Tachometer and footage counter.
Lens: Lens Mount: Steel Arri Bayonet mount (lens housings required to
maintain minimal camera operating sound levels). All Arriflex Standard or
bayonet-mount lenses that cover the 16mm format can be used with lens
housings. Standard zoom and telephoto lenses should be used with the
bridgeplate support system. Lenses: Fixed focal length Standard and Zeiss
Superspeed lenses. Zeiss, Angenieux and Cooke zoom lenses. Some wide-
angle lenses may hit shutter.
Shutter: Rotating mirror-shutter system with fixed 180-degree opening (1⁄48th of
a second at 24 fps).
Arriflex 16BL Single System Threading Diagram
Figure 28a. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Viewfinder: Reflex Viewfinder: High-aperture/parallax-free viewing, 10X
magnification at the eyepiece. Offset finder accessory available for handheld
camera applications for additional operator comfort. Finder extender also
available. APEC (Arri Precision Exposure Control): Exposure control
system meters behind the lens and displays continuous exposure information
(match-needle mode) in the viewfinder.
Video: May be attached to eyepeiece.
Viewing Screen: Noninterchangeable ground glass. Requires trained tech to
change, using special tools.
Mags: 200″ (61m), 400″ (122m) forward and reverse, and 1200 (366m)
forward-only magazines. Magazine loading: displacement.
Film Cores: 2 plastic cores. Film core adapter removable to adapt 100″ (30.5m)
daylight spools.
Accessories: Universal lens housing for use with fixed focal-length lenses when
minimal camera operating sound level is required (accepts 3x3 or a 94mm
diameter filter).
Arriflex 16BL Double System Threading Diagram
Figure 28b. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Electronic Accessories: Variable speed controls. Jensen, CPT, Tobin.
Additional Accessories: Plug-in single-system sound module and single-system
record amplifier. Handholdable.
Optical Accessories: Periscope finder orients image.
Batteries: 12V DC. Accepts blocks and belts.
Camera Support Equipment: Offset finder, assorted lens blimps, speed
control, bellows matte box, sound module.
Matte Boxes: Bellows type available for all 16BL lens housings.
Motors, Power: Two motor drive systems available. The 12V DC quartz-
controlled motor provides cordless sync-control and automatically stops
shutter in viewing position. Speed range is 6, 12, 24 (quartz-controlled) and
48 fps. The Universal motor is transistorized and governor-controlled. A
variable speed control accessory will drive the universal motor from 10 fps
to 40 fps.
Arriflex 16S; 16M

Arriflex M

Models: About 20,000 S (for Standard) cameras made, and 1,500 M (for
Magazine) cameras. 16S/B; 16S/B-GS; 16M/B. Main difference—you can
use 100″ daylight spools in the Arri S body without magazines; Arri M only
uses magazines.
Arriflex 16S/B: accepts 100″ (30.5m) daylight spools in body as well as top-
mounting torque-motor driven 200″ (61m) and 400″ (122m) magazines.

Arriflex S

Arriflex 16 S/B-GS: (Generator-Start) Pilotone sync generator with built-in

start-mark light.
Arriflex 16M/B: No internal daylight film spool load capacity, takes gear-
driven mags—200′ (61m), 400′ (122m) and 1,200′ (366m) coaxial. Accepts
all of the accessories in the 16S system except the magazines and power
cables.
Weight: 5.8 lbs./2.63 kg
Movement: Pin registered. 16S, 16M and 16BL movements are identical.
FPS: Variable speed range to 75 fps with appropriate motor, forward or reverse.
Aperture: .405″ x .295″ (10.3mm x 7.5mm). Standard 16mm.
Displays: Tachometer, footage and frame counter.
Lens: divergent three-lens mount turret with two standard and one steel
bayonet-lock. Any Arriflex Standard or bayonet mount lens that covers the
full 16mm format may be used. Zoom and telephoto lenses require use of the
bridgeplate support system.
Shutter: Rotating 180° mirror-shutter.

Arriflex 16 S/B Series Threading Diagram

Figure 29a. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Viewfinder: Reflex, parallax-free viewing, 10X image magnification at the
eyepiece. An interchangeable ground glass or fiber-optic screen, and an
optional APEC exposure control indicator are located within the viewfinder
system. APEC: Exposure control system meters behind the lens and displays
continuous exposure information (match-needle mode in viewfinder, 16S
only).
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable.
Mags: 16S: Accepts 100″ (30.5m) daylight spools in body or in mags (core
adapter releases from spindle). 200′ (61m) and 400′ (122m) torque motor-
driven magazines. The torque motor drive is essential with 16S magazines
and is interchangeable with all 16S magazines of the same film capacity.
Lever for forward or reverse.

Arriflex 16M Magazine and Threading Diagram

Figure 29b. Film takes up emulsion side in.
16M: 200″ (61m), 400′ (122m) and 1,200′ (366m). Magazines are gear-driven
and do not use torque motor drives. The 1,200″ (366m) magazine operates in
forward only.
Accessories: Bridgeplate support system, adapter for microscope stand and
microscope optical link. Fiber-optic screen, periscope viewfinder, finder
extender. Norris intervalometer. Sound barney and blimp housings. Standard
matte box (16 S/M) with adjustable bellows, a rotary and stationary filter
stage. Accepts 2″x2″ glass or gelatin filters, and 60mmx100mm glass filters.
Universal matte box (16 S/M) with adjustable bellows, a rotary and
stationary filter stage. Accepts 3x3″, 3x4″, and 4x4″ glass filters. A 94mm
round Pola screen can also be used. Lightweight sunshade and filter holder
(Rubber) for 16 S/M accepts 3x3″ filters. Bridge plate support system.
Adapter for microscope stand and microscope connector.
Motors, Power: Quartz-regulated, governor-controlled, synchronous and
variable-speed motors.
12V DC quartz-motor for 24/25 fps 50/60Hz, variable speeds 5–75 fps, and
single-frame forward and reverse capability and Pilotone output.
8V and 12V DC governor motor for 24 fps forward operation only.
8V or 12V DC variable motor for 5–40 fps forward or reverse operation.
110V AC/60Hz synchronous motor and inline power supply for 12V DC, 24
fps operation.
Arriflex 16SR-1, 16SR2

Notes: Over 6,000 still in use. Many conversions and aftermarket adaptations.
Weight: 11–12 lbs./5–5.5 kg, body and magazine, without film and lens.
Movement: Single pull-down claw; single registration pin, with fixed-gap film
channel.
FPS: 16SR-1 and 16SR-2 from 5-75 fps with external variable speed control.
16HSR-1 and -2 High-Speed from 10–150 fps with external variable speed
control.
Switches located in the camera base of early versions lock in crystal speeds
of 24 and 25 fps, 50 and 60Hz and, in later SR cameras, 30 fps. All 16SRs
can be modified with a 30 fps kit.
Aperture: Aperture plate is fixed. Standard cameras can be modified to Super
16. Aperture of regular 16SR camera is .295″ x .405″ (7.5mm x 10.3mm);
aperture of Super16 camera is .295″ x .484″ (7.5mm x 12.3mm).
Super16 conversion cannot be done in the field—requires repositioning of
the optical center axis of lens mount, viewfinder, tripod thread and accessory
holder by 1mm to the left. Height of Super 16 aperture is identical to
Standard 16, but the aperture is 2mm wider, pushing into the left perf area on
the negative—which is why you use single-perforation film stock.
Arriflex 16 SR 1, 2 and 3 Magazine Diagram
Figure 30. Film takes up emulsion side in.
dB: 22dB–28dB (±2dB)
Displays: Footage remaining on back of magazine, and footage shot on take-up
side of magazine (dial settable).
Lens: Bayonet on earlier models and PL on later models and conversions.
Lens Control: Arri Follow Focus 2 or FF3. Preston Microforce or Arri
LCS/wireless zoom control.
Shutter: Rotating mirror-shutter.
Viewfinder: Reflex, swing-over viewfinder with parallax-free viewing and 10X
magnification at the eyepiece. Swings 190° to either side of the camera for
left- and right-side operation. The finder also rotates 360° parallel to camera
on either side and swings out 25°. Red out-of-sync LED, and APEC
exposure indicator. APEC through-the-lens system provides continuous
exposure information (match-needle mode) on four-stop indicator displayed
in viewfinder. For film speeds ASA 16–1000. Optional servo-operated
automatic exposure control system (with manual override) for complete
automatic exposure control with auto-iris lenses available. Super 16 SRs
have same exposure meter system in regular 16SRs, but automatic exposure
control feature cannot be installed.
Video: OEM removable video “T-bar” viewfinder assembly. optional and
necessary for video assist.Aftermarket video assists from Denz, P&S, CEI,
others.

Viewing Screen: Interchangeable fiber-optic viewing screen.

Mags: Rear-mounted coaxial snap-on 400′ (122m) mags. Black mags are for the
regular speed cameras (up to 75 fps). Gray and black (marked highspeed) are
for the high speed cameras (up to 150 fps.) You should not interchange them.
Loop formed during loading for quick magazine change. White loop index
line on bottom of mag.
2″ plastic and collapsible cores, removable to accept 100″ (30.5m) and 200″
(61m) daylight loads. NASA used 400″ (122m) daylight spools by milling
off 1⁄8″ of spool’s edge.
Accessories: External speed control for operation of standard 16SRs up to 75
fps or 16HSR High-Speed up to 150 fps. 16SR-2 Super 16 cameras time
code compatible. Cinematography Electronics 16SR Frameline Glow and
Speed Control and intervalometer. Norris intervalometer.
Bridgeplate, lightweight support rods, left and right grips for handheld
operation, finder extender, lightweight follow focus, shoulder set.
Connections: Variable speed control, precision speed controls, external monitor
synchronizer, multicamera interlock achieved with FSZ-II sync-control
accessory. Modular plug-in electronics boards contain circuitry controlling
all electronic functions, including a built-in start-marking system, out-of-
sync light, Pilotone output and prewiring for SMPTE 80-bit time code.
Motors, Power: 12V DC . Four-pin connector. Pin 1 is (-); pin 4 is +12V. 12V
onboard batteries with onboard battery adapter. Many aftermarket onboard
batteries, including adapters for power-tool batteries. Accepts blocks and
belts with power cable.
Arriflex 16SR3, 16HSR3, 16SR Adv., 16HSR3 Adv.

Models: 16SR3 (5–75 fps)

16HSR3 High-Speed (5–150 fps)
16SR3 Advanced and HSR-3 Advanced (updated electronics, brighter finder,
no APEC exposure meter)
All models thread the same as 16SR-1 and 16SR-2.
Weight: 13.5 lbs/6.1kg. (body + mag). 15.4 lbs/7kg. (body + loaded 400″ mag +
onboard battery)
Movement: Single pull-down claw; single registration pin, with fixed-gap film
channel. 16SR-3 Advanced: Film guide has sapphire rollers on one side, for
reduced film dust and improved image steadiness.
FPS: 5–75 fps standard; 5-150 fps high speed. Onboard programmable speeds
of 24, 25, 29.97 and 30 fps, and variable crystal speeds from 5–75 fps in the
Standard camera, or 5-150 fps in the high-speed 16SR-3, variable in 0.001
increments at crystal accuracy. Speeds continuously variable when the
remote unit (RU-1), remote control unit (RCU-1), or wireless remote control
unit (WRC-1) is used. Speeds can be programmed from the 16SR-3’s
onboard LCD with the RU-1 or with the camera control unit (CCU), Arri’s
standard off-camera programming unit.
Aperture: .405″ x .295″ (10.3mm x 7.5mm). Easily converts from normal
16mm to Super 16. 16SR-3 Super 16 aperture can be masked for standard
16mm frame. No additional aperture is needed. Universal film gate needs
only slight adjustment on Advanced models.
dB: Standard 20dB(A) + 2dB(A).
Displays: LCD Display—set/display frame rates, set/display film counter,
display mirror shutter opening (during electronic inching mode), set/display
time code and user bits, display TC sensitivity readout, battery voltage and
low-battery warning, film end and asynchronous camera speed.
Lens: Standard Arri PL mount will take most 16mm and 35mm format PL
mount lenses. Adapters available for 41mm diameter bayonet and standard
mount lenses.
Shutter: rotating mirror shutter; manually adjustable when camera is switched.
Shutter openings of 90°, 135°, 144°, 172.8°, 180°. Shutter opening indicated
on LCD display during electronic inching mode. SR-3 Advanced: Variable
(manually) rotating mirror shutter with shutter openings of 45°, 90°, 135°,
144°, 172.8°, 180°.
Viewfinder: Reflex Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder swings 190° to camera left
or camera right, with fully upright image in any position. Finder rotates 360°
parallel to the body and can be swung away by 25°. Viewfinder provides
automatic upright images at all times. Image can also be manually oriented.
With CCD video assist and flicker-reduction electronics attached, viewfinder
swings in a 120° arc. Finder equipped with Arriglow continuously adjustable
illuminated framelines for standard 16mm and Super 16. Finder also has
warning indications for asynchronous camera speed, film end and low
battery.
Finder center can be adjusted to either normal 16mm or Super 16.
Switchable magnification built into viewfinder extension. With integrated
video system attached, viewfinder can pivot from left to right camera side.
SR3 Advanced: Leaving out the exposure meter and utilizing a specifically
designed mirror for the Arriglow results in gain in viewfinder brightness of
3
⁄4 of an f-stop.
Video: Takes Arri 1⁄2″ black-and-white or color CCD video assist, and Arri
AFP-2 flicker reduction electronics for bright, flicker-reduced images.
Adjustable for standard 16mm and Super 16, with full image of either format
on monitor. Changing ratio for color or black-and-white is easy and requires
no adjustment. LCD display.
SR-3 Advanced: Video-assist system, IVS-Integrated Video System (can be
used on 16SR-3). High-speed, high-resolution and flicker-free from 5 frames
on. The IVS has two components: a video electronic module and a CCD
module available in PAL and NTSC. Equipped with interchangeable optics
with Super and normal 16mm formats. Effective ASA is 4000. Format
markings can be electronically inserted into video image for low lighting
conditions. Area outside format marking can be darkened electronically to
better emphasize viewing area. Time code and camera status indicators such
as “standby/run” can be directly inserted into video image.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable fiber optic viewing screens. ArriGlow.
Mags: Rear mounted coaxial snap-on 400″ (122m) and 800″ (244m) mags.
Loop formed during loading for quick magazine change. 2″ plastic and
collapsible cores, removable to accept 100″ (30.5m) and 200″ (61m)
daylight loads. Standard 80-bit SMPTE time code module built in. Existing
16SR-2 magazines can be used. 16SR-3 magazines without time code
available. Black 16SR mags work on regular speed 16SR-3 cameras. Gray
and black 16HSR (marked highspeed) work on 16HSR-3 high-speed
cameras.
Do not use regular mags on high-speed cameras; do not use high-speed mags
on regular cameras.
Accessories: camera handgrip, finder extender, heated eyecup, lightweight
support rods, lightweight follow focus, shoulder set, low-mode support,
handgrips, matte boxes.
The 16SR-3 uses Arri 19mm rod camera support system. Bridgeplates and
lens supports. 15mm rod adapters. Handheld accessories. A wide variety of
Arriflex 35mm accessories can be used with the 16SR3.
Matte Boxes: 4x4 production matte box ideal for 16SR-3. Its swing-away
design covers lenses 16mm and up, has interchangeable two- and four-frame
geared filter stages, is fully rotatable and accepts most support system
accessories. Support system includes a full range of matte boxes in 6.6x6.6,
5x5, and a variety of 4x4. See pages 525–528 for a complete list.
Connections: Many 435 and 535 accessories can be used: external
synchronizing unit (ESU), remote unit (RU-1), remote switch (RS); RCU,
ICU, CCU and laptop computer controller to control or set most functions
(speed, footage counters, shutter angles, etc.) 24V-to-12V power converter,
multi-accessory connector. Integral 80-bit SMPTE time code. Recording
module built into 16SR-3 magazines. Fully complies with SMPTE RP 114
standard.
Motors, Power: 24V DC. Onboard batteries. Accepts blocks and belts. Built-in
crystal-controlled 24V DC motor.
Bolex H-16mm

Movement: Single-claw pull-down. No registration pin. Gate has automatic

threading device that loops film and inserts it into gate and around sprockets.
Rear pressure plate can be removed for cleaning gate. Automatic loop
former prevents loss of loop.
FPS: single frame, 8–64 fps
Aperture: Standard. Super 16 on certain models. Fixed aperture plate.
Displays: Footage and frame counters add and subtract. Audible scene-length
signal clicks every 28 frames. Single-frame exposure button for
instantaneous or time exposures.
Lens: H-16 Rex 5 has three-lens turret for C-mount lenses, other models have
large Bolex bayonet mount suitable for heavy zoom and telephoto lenses.
Adapter for C-mount lenses and accessories available. Full line of Switar,
Vario Switar and Angenieux zoom and standard lenses, matte box, extension
tubes. Aspheron wide-angle adapters.
Shutter: Bolex spring-driven cameras (H-16 Rex 5 and H-16 SBM) have 135°
variable shutter (some earlier models do not have this feature), which can be
opened or closed while camera is running. It can be locked at 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and can
be opened and closed automatically with Rexofader accessory. Bolex
electrically driven cameras (H-16 EBM and H-16 EL) have fixed 170-degree
shutter. Shutter speeds electronically controlled 10–50 fps.
Bolex 16mm Threading Diagram
Figure 31. Film takes up emulsion side in (Daylight spool load only)
Viewfinder: Flickerless and parallax-free reflex viewfinder via prism reflex
finder. Image magnified 14X in eye-level finder and may be continuously
viewed in filming or stopped position. H-l6 EL has built-in, through-the-lens
silicon light meter with shockproof LED indicators in the VF. All cameras
have filter slot behind the lens.
External Viewfinder: External sidefinder on some models.
Film, Mags: All cameras accept 100″ (30.5m) daylight loading spools, which
can be ejected with built-in lever device.
Optional 400″ (122m) magazine with self-contained take-up motor available.
Accessories: Automatic Rexofader device for H-16 REX and SBM available for
40-frame fades. Camera grip, extension tubes for macrocinematography.
Cable releases, shoulder brace. Note: Many other accessories, such as
animation motors, microscope attachments and time-lapse units, are
available from other firms. Norris makes intervalometer for REX 4 and 5,
EBM, SBM. Sound blimp. Underwater housing for EL and EB.
Motors, Power: Spring-driven cameras will expose 161⁄2′ of film on one
winding. Variable-speed motor and electronically stabilized motor suitable
for sync pulse, and crystal sync available for spring-driven cameras. H-16
EBM and H-16 EL have 10–50 fps electronically regulated motors built in.
H-l6 EL has single frame and electric rewind, instant start and stop. All
models accept 400″ (122m) magazine with take-up motor. Spring motor may
be disengaged. Full 100 (30.5m) film rewind.
Panaflex 16mm – “Elaine”

Notes: Named after a lady who works at Panavision (still does).

Weight: 16.6 lbs/7.54 kg (body with short eyepiece)
Movement: Dual pilot pin registration. Entire movement may be removed for
servicing.
FPS: 4–50 fps, crystal-controlled at all speeds; may be adjusted in 1⁄10-fps
increments.
Aperture: .486″ x .295″ (12.34mm x 7.49mm) SMPTE 201M—1996. Aperture
Plate removable for checking and cleaning. Super l6 aperture plate is
standard.
dB: Less than 20dB with film and lens, measured 3 from the image plane.
Displays: Camera speed and footage, LED indicators for low battery/low
film/film jam/illegal speed.
Lens: Panavision 16 positive clamp lens mount with index pin. Super 16 lens
mount is standard, regular 16 upon request.
Lenses: Panavision/Zeiss Superspeeds and other 16mm image format lenses.
6mm to 135mm (see separate lens list). Wide range of Panavision-
engineered zoom lenses by other manufacturers also available. All lenses
have widely spaced lens focus calibrations and T-stop marks. Most prime
and zoom lenses will cover Super 16.
Lens Control: Lightweight modular follow-focus control that can be used from
either side of the camera is standard; optional electronic remote focus and
aperture controls also available. Zoom lenses supplied with a motor-driven
zoom control unit as standard. Iris gears are incorporated into most prime
and zoom lenses.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with infinitely variable opening, adjustable in shot.
Maximum opening 200°, minimum 50°, with adjustable maximum and
minimum opening stops; adjustable for critical synchronization with
computers, TV monitors and HMI lighting at unusual frame rates. Manual
and electronic remote control units available.

Panavision 16mm Film Magazine

Figure 32a. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, reflex rotating mirror is standard and
independent of camera shutter. Viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a
constantly upright image through 360°. Short viewfinder provided for
handheld operation. Viewfinders may be swung out to suit left- or right-eye
viewing. System incorporates optical magnifier for critical focusing and
picture composition, contrast viewing filter and lightproof shutter. Wide-
range ocular adjustment with marker bezel to note individual settings. Built-
in “Panaclear” eyepiece heater ensures mist-free viewing. Eyepiece leveler
supplied to keep eyepiece position constant while tilting the camera up or
down. Eyepiece diopter to suit operator’s eyesight can be provided on
request.

Panaflex 16mm Camera System (The Elaine) Threading Diagram

Figure 32b. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Video: Flicker-free at 24 fps and 30 fps. Auto color balance, normal and boost
gain, ND filter, wide sensitivity range.
Viewing Screen: “Panaglow” illuminated reticle system with brightness control
is standard.
Mags: 400″ (122m) and 1,200″ (366m) film magazines available. The 400″
(122m) can be rear mounted for good balance when handholding. Magazine
loading: displacement, top or rear mount. 2″ plastic core required for 400″
(122m), 3″ for 1,200″ (366m) magazine.
Accessories: Heated covers available to give additional protection to lenses,
especially zoom lenses, for smooth operation in intensely cold conditions.
Other covers available to protect the camera, magazines and lenses from
heat, dust, rain and water. Spinning-glass rain deflectors available for use in
storm conditions. Autobase available to secure camera in conditions of
vibration, high g-forces and other stressful and dangerous forces. Water box
available to protect camera in shallow water conditions, and hazard box can
be used to protect camera from explosions, collisions and other dangerous
situations.
Camera Support Equipment: Standard Panahead. Sliding base unit enables
camera to be quickly attached and detached and to be slid backwards and
forwards on the head for optimum balance. “Panatate” turnover mount
allows 360° camera rotation about the lens axis while permitting nodal pan-
and-tilt movements.
Handheld handles and shoulder rest for handholding the camera. In this
configuration, camera is best used with 400″ (122m) magazine fitted on the
rear.
Standard matte box incorporating a sunshade, provision for two 4x5″.650″
filters. Special matte boxes incorporating more filter stages, with provision
for sliding (motorized if required), rotating and tilting to take 6.6 square
filters optional.
Connections: Sync box to synchronize the camera with computers, video
signals and projectors for shutter phase synchronization. Camera will accept
external drive signals via the 10-pin accessory connector.
Motors, Power: 24V DC. Crystal-controlled brushed motor drives system.
Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories operate off a single 24V battery.
Belt batteries for handholding optional.
Misc: All Panaflex-16 cameras and magazines have built-in heaters.
SUPER 8MM
Beaulieu 4008

FPS: 2–70 fps (speed select for either 18, 24 or 25 fps). Mechanical single
frame.
Aperture: .166″x .224″ (4.22mm x 5.69mm).
Displays: Footage.
Lens: C mount with power lens contacts. Power Zoom Lenses available are
Schneider 6–66mm or 16–70mm and Angenieux 8–64mm or 6–8mm.
Macrocinematography mode
Focusing ring. Built-in electric zoom control. On-lens variable speed. Iris
gears on lens governed by camera meter.
Built-in 85 filter, through-the-lens internal meter ISO 12–400 ASA.
Shutter: Guillotine 1⁄90th second at 24 fps and 1⁄60th at 24 fps variable with
frame rate closed lock position.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder.
Viewing Screen: Focusing-screen. Retractable.
Mags: 50″ (15m) silent Super 8 or Pro8mm cartridges.
Accessories: Remote cable release.
Power: Onboard 250Ma. 7.2V/3.6V combined.
Beaulieu 6008 Pro

Weight: 2 lbs. 3 oz./1kg. body only.

FPS: 4, 9, 18, 24/25, 36 and 80 fps. Electronic single frame and three time-lapse
speeds. Optional crystal control at 24 or 25 fps.
Aperture: .166″ x .224″ (4.22mm x 5.69mm).
Displays: Some with footage, others with frames.
Lens: Schneider 6-70mm f/1.4 zoom or Beaulieu 7mm-56mm f/1.4 power zoom
lens.
Center-weighted TTL metering. ISO 12-400.
Zoom Control: Electric or manual. Iris Gears: Electric.
Shutter: Guillotine, two-position; 1⁄90th at 24 and 1⁄60th at 24 variable with
frame rate speed in closed position.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder
Viewing Screen: Matte focusing screen.
Mags: 50″ (15m) sound or silent Super 8 and Pro8mm cartridges, 200″ (61m)
sound. (Sound ctg. no longer available.)
Accessories: Electromagnetic trigger, remote control, external power supply.
Power: 7.2V AA battery pack.
Beaulieu 7008 Pro
Weight: 2.82 lbs/1.28kg, body only.
Movement: Forward and limited reverse.
FPS: 4, 9, 18, 24/25 (optional 24 or 25 fps crystal), 36, 80 fps. Single-frame
capabilities and three time-lapse filming speeds.
Aperture: .166″ x .224″ (4.22mm x 5.69mm).
Displays: Digital readouts for frames and centimeters.
Lens: C mount and Beaulieu power mounts. Automatic control sets lens to
minimum depth of field. Zoom Control: Electric or manual.
Shutter: Guillotine, two-position; 1⁄90th at 24 and 1⁄60th at 24 variable with
frame rate speed in closed position.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder
Viewing Screen: Fine-grain focusing screen.
Mags: 50 (15m) sound or silent Super 8 and Pro8mm cartridges. 200 (61m)
sound ctg. (sound ctg. no longer available).
Accessories: Center-weighted TTL metering. ISO 12-400. Output sockets, flash
synchronization, electromagnetic trigger, remote control. Remote cable
release. Fader (in and out.)
Power: Six 1.2VC-Cell NiCd battery packs. Power cable adapter. Quick
charger.
Canon 814 XL-S, 1014 XL-S
FPS: 9, 18, 24 and 36 fps.
Aperture: .228″ x .165″ (5.8mm x 4.2mm).
Displays: Battery check, film end, film transport, sound recording levels, correct
exposure, manual aperture indicator, footage indicator.
Lens: 814XL-S has 7–56mm (8:1) f/1.4 with built-in wide angle and telephoto
macro mechanisms. 1014XL-S has 6.5–65mm (10:1) f/1.4 with wide angle
and telephoto macro mechanisms. Zoom control: two-speed electric or
manual. 85 filter switch, filter rings, 4.3mm wide-angle attachment for
1014XL-S and 4.5mm wide-angle attachment for the 814XL-S, 1.4x 67
teleconverter, close-up lens attachment,
Shutter: Semi-disc rotating, automatic or manual 150° and 250°.
Viewfinder: Single-lens reflex viewfinder with split image rangefinder.
Mags: 50 (15m) sound or silent Super 8 and Pro8mm cartridges.
Accessories: Film Mode Dial allows lap-dissolves (1014XL-S only), fade-
in/fade-out, timed interval filming, single-frame filming, light meter,
microphones, earphones, intervalometer, self-timer, remote control, flash
socket. Chest Pod II, extension cord.
Power: Six AA-size 1.5V alkaline manganese, carbon zinc, or NiCd. 9V power
pack available.
Nautica
Notes: Underwater camera, no housing required. Watertight to 30 (9.1m).
FPS: Single frame and 18 fps.
Displays: Depth indicator, footage counter.
Lens: Fixed 9–30mm Panorama-Viennon f/1.9 zoom. Exposure is automatic.
Aspheric wide-angle attachment needed for underwater. Focus is automatic.
Zoom lever.
Mags: 50 (15m) sound or silent Super 8 and Pro8mm cartridges.
Accessories: Cable release.
Power: Two AA batteries.
Nikon R8, R10
FPS: 18, 24, 54 fps. Single frame.
Displays: F-numbers, exposure warning, film end, shutter opening, footage,
battery.
Lens: Fixed Cine-Nikkor zoom lens. 7–70mm (10:1) f/1.4 macro. 67mm front
attachment size. Two-speed power zoom with manual override.
Shutter: Variable shutter from 160° to 0°.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, SLR with split-image rangefinder.
Mags: 50 (15m) sound or silent Super 8 and Pro8mm cartridges.
Accessories: Exposure meter, 100 frame rewind, automatic fade-in/fade-out
with manual override, double exposure, reverse filming, remote control,
flash sync.
Power: Six AA 1.5V.
Pro8mm Pro II

FPS: 23.97, 24, 25, 29.97 and 30 fps crystal controlled. 4, 9, 18, 24, 36 and 80
fps noncrystal. New crystal also features built-in phase control so TV
monitors can be shot without video bar. Single frame function with variable
shutter rate for animation effects. Intervalometer for timed exposures.
Aperture: .166″ x .224″ (4.22mm x 5.69mm). Optional mask for 1.85
Academy.
Displays: Visual display in viewfinder indicating an absolute crystal lock.
Liquid crystal display frame and centimeter counters keep track of exact
footage transported in forward and reverse. Two-stage LED informs user
when camera service is required.
Lens: C mount and custom Beaulieu power mount. Lenses: Angenieux 6-90mm
T1.6. Schneider 6-70mm. 3mm superwide prime. Superwide elements can be
removed from lens to obtain 6mm focal length. Nikon compatible 60–
300mm telephoto. Anamorphic Lens System. Aspect ratio is 2.35:1 (1.75X
squeeze) and lens is mounted with custom brackets. Same lens can also be
used with any standard projector to permit widescreen projection. C-mount
adapters allow various non-C-mount lenses to be used.
Lens Control Unit for variable power zoom and aperture control. These
features include manual override.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder
Viewing Screen: Focusing screen.
Mags: 50 (15m) sound or silent Super 8 and Pro8mm cartridges. 200 (61m)
sound ctg. (Sound ctg. no longer available.)
Accessories: Additional Accessories: Motor-driven rewind is included to
perform dissolves and double exposures. Hard-shell sound blimp made from
industrial-grade aluminum and sound-absorbing foam (-22dB effective).
Rental only.
Motors, Power: 12V DC input. Regulated and fused for 12V DC battery belt.
Microprocessor crystal-controlled 1.5 amp motor.
65MM
Arriflex 765

Movement: Microprocessor control technology to link two quartz-controlled

DC motors in a direct drive configuration to control shutter and film
transport. No belts or mechanical couplings used in drive system. Dual
registration pins, triple-pin pull-down claws and user-adjustable pitch control
to optical printer standards.
FPS: Quartz-accurate sync at 15/24/25/29.97/30/60/75 fps onboard; 2–100 fps
with the CCU; 24 fps reverse; and 1 fps with the 765’s remote control unit.
Run-up time is less than 1 second at 24 fps.
Aperture: 2.17″ x 1.004″ (55mm x 25.5mm).
dB: 25dB at 24 fps; 28.5dB(A) at 30 fps.
Displays: LCD tachometer and footage displays: digital camera left/right;
audible and visible out-of-sync; low battery; feet/meters footage display.
Lens: 64mm diameter Maxi-PL lens mount; flange focal distance of 63.5mm;
designed for Arri Maxi-PL prime and RTH Cooke zoom, wide-angle and
telephoto lenses. Lenses: Arri/Zeiss 65mm format lenses include 30mm,
40mm, 50mm, 60mm, 80mm, 100mm, 110mm, 120mm, 150mm, 250mm,
350mm, 2x Mutar Extender, and a 38–210mm zoom.
Shutter: Rotating, microprocessor-controlled silicon mirror shutter,
mechanically variable from 15° to 165°, including 144°, 172.8°, and 180°.

Arriflex 765 Magazine

Figure 33a. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder has built-in optical turret that permits on-the-fly
selection of either 80:20 or 100:0 video/viewing ratios, and has switchable
ND.6 contrast viewing glass, ArriGlow illuminated frame lines, and finder
extender with built-in 2X image magnification. Short finder (for portable
operation) and video finder are also available. Wide-angle eyepiece with
manual iris closure, 8X magnification, and +2 diopter adjustment standard.
In-finder displays: out-of-sync and film-end.
Arriflex 765 Threading Diagram
Figure 33b. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Video: Video Optics Module: Color and black-and-white CCD video tap
cameras with flicker reduction and iris control.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable with full range of aspect ratios.
Mags: 400′ (122m) and 1,000 (300m) displacement with microprocessor-
controlled torque motors. Microprocessor samples and adjusts feed/take-up
tension and all other functions continuously. Automatic connection and data
transfer to camera via multiplug pin plug. Mechanical and digital LCD
counters.
Accessories: 6.6″x6.6″ swing-away production matte box covers all 65mm
format lenses. Has two fully rotatable two-filter stages. Geared filter frames.
Bridgeplate support system for balance and mount for matte box, follow
focus, servo zoom drive and heavy lenses. Finder extender and leveling rod.
Camera Control Unit (CCU) remotely turns 765 on and off, and activates
speed change from up to 100′ (30.5m) away.
Variable Speed and Sync Unit: VSSU module allows remote speed changes
between 6 and 100 fps noncrystal; provides synchronization with external
PAL or NTSC video signal (50/60Hz) via up to 100 BNC cable.
Barney and heated barney.
Motors, Power: Power input via a three-pin connector:
pin 1 is (-), pin 2 is + 24V.
Fries Model 865 65mm/8-perf.

Notes: A large-format 65mm 8-perf camera for special venue productions.

Weight: Camera body 45 lbs/20.45kg, 1000′ (300m) mag 13.5 lbs/6.13kg.
Movement: Dual registration pins and six pull-down claws. A cam and
eccentric mounted on a single shaft actuate pull down and operate register
pins.
Film specifications: 65mm KS-1866.
FPS: 2–72 fps forward or 2–30 fps reverse. All speeds crystal controlled.
Aperture: Photographed aperture is 2.072″ x 1.450″ (52.63mm x 36.83mm).
Removable aperture and pressure plates for ease of cleaning. Aperture plate:
optically centered.
Displays: Footage counters.
Lens: Universal bayonet type with large port diameter. Special mounts
available. Complete series of Hasselblad lenses available.
Fries 865 65mm/8-perf. Threading Diagram
Figure 34. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Shutter: 170-degree fixed opening blanking shutter.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, rotating mirror reflex image. Viewfinder is
orientable through a full 360° and self-corrected through approximately
180°. Lightvalve allows operator to direct to viewing system, to video assist,
or to combo, which splits light between both viewing and video assist.
Video: Video tap with 1⁄2″ CCD chip camera, color or black-and-white.
Mags: Displacement magazines with torque motor take-up and hold-back.
Standard 65mm 3″ plastic cores.
Accessories: Remote on/off. Standard Arri matte box.
Motors, Power: 30V DC. Internal 30V DC crystal-controlled motor.
Mitchell FC, BFC (65mm)
Notes, Models: Scaled up design of 35mm rackover Mitchell NC and BNC. B
models are blimped.
Movement: Dual register pins, four-prong pulldown; adjustable stroke. Timing
marks on shutter and movement facilitate removal and reassembly.
FPS: Single frame to 32 fps.
Aperture: Removable aperture plate with built-in matte slot. Slot for dual gel
filters.
Displays: Mechanical. Footage and frames.
Shutter: Focal plane 175° maximum, variable to 0° in 10-degree increments.
Phase and opening indicator on back of camera. Some models have
automatic 4′ fade in or out.
Viewfinder: Non-reflex models-external large screen erecting finder with
parallax correction coupled by camera-to-lens focus knob
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable.
Mags: 400 (122m), 1,000 (300m), 1,200 (366m) double compartment sound
insulated. Plastic film cores (that come with film) on feed side, collapsible
and removable on take-up side.
See Mitchell 35mm for threading diagram
Accessories: Film matte punch
Motors, Power: Detachable motors. Synchronous motors are sound insulated.
Crystal sync 30V DC with 50/60Hz signal, mirror-positioning circuit and
audible offspeed indicator. Power requirements vary with motor.
MSM Model 8870 65mm/8-perf.

Movement: MSM Monoblock high-speed, dual register pins, claw engages six
perfs. Shrinkage adjustment changes stroke and entry position. Indexable
loop-setting sprockets have independent locking keeper rollers. Vacuum
backplate ensures filmplane accuracy, removes without tools for cleaning.
Removable for cleaning and lubrication.
FPS: From time-lapse to 60 fps forward, also to 30 fps reverse. Crystal sync
from 5–60 fps in .001 increments.
Aperture: 2.072″ x 1.485″ (52.63mm x 37.72mm). Aperture plate removable
for cleaning and lubrication.
Displays: Status LEDs for power, heat, low battery, mag ready, buckle and
speed sync. Two illuminated LCD footage counters. Digital battery volt/amp
meter. Circuit breakers for camera, mag, heat and accessories. Control port
allows operation from handheld remote or interface with computers and
external accessories.
Lens: MSM 75mm diameter x 80mm flange depth. BNC-style lens mount is
vertically adjustable 7mm for flat or dome screen composition. Mount
accepts modified Zeiss (Hasselblad), Pentax, Mamiya and other large-format
lenses.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, manually variable from 172.8° to 55° with stops at
144° and 108°.
MSM 8870 65mm/8 perf. Threading Diagram
Figure 35.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, spinning mirror reflex. Finder rotates 360° with
upright image, which can be manually rotated for unusual setups. Finder
shows 105 percent of frame, magnifier allows critical focusing at center of
interest. Single lever controls internal filter and douser. Heated eyepiece has
large exit pupil and long eye relief. High resolution black-and-white or
optional color CCD video tap is built into camera door with swing-away
50/50 beamsplitter. Viewfinder removes completely for aerial or underwater
housing use.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable ground glasses with register pins for film
clips.
Mags: 1,000 (300m) displacement magazines use MSM TiltLock mount.
Magazines lock to camera with pair of 8mm hardened pins and can tilt away
from operator to allow easier camera threading. Optional minimum profile
1,000 (300m) coaxial magazines use same mount without tilt feature. Both
magazines operate bidirectionally at all camera speeds. Positive camlock
secures mag in running position and switches power to motor and heater
contacts in mag foot. Expanding core hubs have integral DC servo motors
controlled by film tension in both directions, with soft startup to eliminate
slack. Tightwind rollers guide film winding for smooth solid rolls at any
camera angle. Noncontact light traps feature infrared end-of-film sensors.
Accessories: 15mm matte rods are on Arri BL centers for accessory
compatibility and use standard Arri accessories.
Motors, Power: Integrated.
Panavision System-65 65mm

Movement: Four pull-down claws. Pitch adjustment to optimize camera

quietness. Entire movement may be removed for servicing. Dual pilot pin
registration ensures FPS: 4-30 fps.
Aperture: .906″ x 2.072″ (23.01mm x 52.63mm).
Aperture plate removable for checking and cleaning. Full-frame aperture is
standard, aperture mattes used for all other frame sizes. A special
perforation-locating pin above aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film
threading.
Interchangeable aperture mattes available. Anamorphic, Super 35, 1.85:1,
l.66:l and any other as required. Special hard mattes available on request.
Behind-the-lens gel filter holder.
dB: 24 Db(A)
Lens: Panavision positive clamp lens mount for maintaining critical flange focal
depth setting. All lenses pinned to ensure proper rotational orientation.
(Note: This is particularly important with anamorphic lenses.) Iris-rod
support supplied. Lenses: Exceptionally wide range of spherical,
anamorphic, speciality, and primo lenses available.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with infinitely variable opening and adjustable in
shot. Maximum opening: 180°; minimum: 40° with adjustable maximum and
minimum opening stops. Digital display allows adjustments in 1⁄10°
increments. Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchronization with
computers, TV monitors and HMI lighting at unusual frame rates. Manual
and electronic remote-control units available.

Panavision 65mm AC/SPC Magazine and Threading Diagram

Figure 36. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, reflex rotating mirror standard and independent
of light shutter system. Interchangeable semisilvered fixed reflex mirror for
flicker-free viewing optional.
Viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a constantly upright image through
360°. Short, intermediate and long viewfinder tubes available. System
incorporates an optical magnifier for critical focusing and picture
composition, a de-anamorphoser, a contrast viewing filter and a lightproof
shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustment with marker bezel to note individual
settings. Built-in “Panaclear” eyepiece heater ensures mist-free viewing.
Adjustable eyepiece leveling link-arm. Entire optical viewfinder system may
be removed and replaced with video viewfinder display for lightweight
camera configuration. An eyepiece diopter to suit operator’s eyesight can be
provided.
Video: State-of-the-art CCD video systems available in black-and-white or
color.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable ground glasses available with any marking or
combination of markings. “Panaglow” illuminated reticle system with
brightness control standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser texture
available. Provision for a cut frame to be placed in viewfinder system for
optical image matching. Frame cutters available to suit negative or positive
perforations.
Mags: 500′ (152m) and 1000 (300m) magazines available. Both can be used on
top of the camera for minimum camera length, or at rear for minimum
camera height.
Accessories: Almost all Panaflex 35mm front-of-lens optical accessories and
filters can be used on System-65 cameras.
All System-65 cameras and magazines have built-in heaters for operation in
any temperature. Heated covers available to give additional protection to
lenses, especially zoom lenses. Other covers available to protect camera,
magazines and lenses. Spinning-glass rain deflectors available. Autobase
available to secure the camera in conditions of vibration, high g-forces and
other stressful and dangerous conditions. Water box available to protect
camera in shallow water conditions, a hazard box to protect camera from
explosions, collisions and other dangerous situations.
Camera Support Equipment: “Super Panahead” geared head incorporates a
60° tilt range with a built-in wedge system to allow operator to select where
that range is, anywhere between the camera pointing directly up or directly
down, and three gear ratios in both the pan and tilt movements. A sliding
base unit enables camera to be quickly attached and detached and to be slid
backwards and forwards on the head for optimum balance. “Panapod”
tripods with carbon fiber legs are available in a range of sizes.
Power: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories operate off a single 24V
DC battery.
Panavision System 65mm Hand-Holdable

Weight: 35 lbs/15.88kg with 500′ (152m) magazine and film

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures process-plate image steadiness.
Pilot pins register in same perforation holes (immediately below the bottom
frame line) as optical printers. Four pull-down claws. Entire movement may
be removed for servicing.
FPS: Camera runs at any speed from 4–72 fps. Motor is crystal-controlled at all
speeds and may be adjusted in 1-fps increments.
Aperture: .906″ x 2.072″ (23.01mm x 52.63mm). Aperture Plate optically
centered. Removable for checking and cleaning.
Displays: Single-sided display fps/footage/ low battery.
Lens: Panavision positive clamp lens mount for maintaining critical flange focal
depth setting. All lenses pinned to ensure proper rotational orientation.
Lenses are interchangeable with the System-65 Studio Camera.
Shutter: 172.8° fixed-opening focal plane shutter.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder. Two models available; one has rotating mirror,
the other a semisilvered, fixed reflex mirror for flicker-free viewing and is
especially suitable for Panaglide, Steadicam, Louma and remote camera
operation.
Viewfinder tube is orientatable and gives a constantly upright image through
180°. Short and long viewfinder tubes available for handheld and tripod
usage. System incorporates optical magnifier for critical focusing and picture
composition, contrast viewing filter and lightproof shutter. Wide-range
ocular adjustment with marker bezel to note individual settings. A built-in
“Panaclear” eyepiece heater ensures mist-free viewing. Adjustable leveler
link arm supplied with every Panahead to keep eyepiece position constant
while tilting camera up or down. An eyepiece diopter to suit operator’s
eyesight can be provided on request.
Video: State-of-the-art CCD video systems available in black-and-white or
color. Flicker-free images possible with the pellicle reflex system.
Viewing Screen: Interchangeable ground glasses available with any marking or
combination of markings. “Panaglow” illuminated reticle system with
brightness control standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser texture
available.

Panavision 65mm HH Threading Diagram

Figure 37. Note: The extension unit is used only for top-magazine
configurations.
Film takes up emulsion side out.
Mags: 250′ (76m), 500′ (152m), and 1000′ (300m) magazines are available.
1000 (300m) reverse-running magazines available on request.
Same as Panavision PSR 200°.
Accessories: Interchangeable with System-65 Studio camera. Focus control can
be used from either side of the camera. Zoom lenses are supplied with an
electronic zoom control unit as standard.
Standard matte box incorporating a sunshade, provision for two 4″x5.650″
filters which can be individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes
incorporating more filter stages with provision for sliding (motorized if
required), rotating and/or tilting and for taking 6.6″ square filters optional.
Panavision can also supply special sliding diffusers, diopters and image-
control filters, etc., to use in matte boxes.
Lightweight System-65 hand-holdable cameras are ideal for use with
Panaglide and Steadicam floating camera rigs and on remotely controlled
camera cranes. They can also be used with “Panatate” 360° turnover rig.
Connections: Special sync boxes available to synchronize the camera with a
main power supply, computers, video signals and process projectors in
shutter phase synchronization. Internal heaters.
Motors, Power: 24V DC. Camera, heaters and accessories operate off a single
24V Ni-Cad battery. Belt batteries available for handholding.
VISTAVISION 35MM
MSM Model 8812 35mm/8-perf. VistaVision

Movement: MSM Monoblock high-speed, triple-register pins, claw engages

four perfs. Shrinkage adjustment changes stroke and entry position.
Indexable loop-setting sprockets have independent locking keeper rollers.
Movement removes easily for cleaning and lubrication. Vacuum backplate
ensures film plane accuracy, removes without tools for cleaning.
FPS: Frame rates from time-lapse to 72 fps forward, to 30 fps reverse. Crystal
sync from 5–72 fps in .001 increments.
Aperture: 1.485″ x .992″ (37.72mm x 25.2mm). Aperture removes easily for
cleaning and lubrication.
Displays: Status LEDs for power, heat, low battery, mag ready, buckle and
speed sync. Two illuminated LCD footage counters. Digital battery volt/amp
meter. Circuit breakers for camera, mag, heat and accessories. Control port
allows operation from handheld remote or interface with computers and
external accessories.
Lens: BNC lens mount. 15mm matte rods are on Arri BL centers for accessory
compatibility.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, manually variable from 172.8° to 55° with stops at
144° and 108°.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, spinning mirror reflex. Inter-changeable ground
glasses with register pins for film clips. Finder rotates 360° with upright
image, image can be manually rotated for unusual setups. Finder shows 105
percent of frame, magnifier allows critical focusing at center of interest.
Single lever controls internal filter and douser. Heated eyepiece has large
exit pupil and long eye relief. High-resolution black-and-white CCD
videotap built into camera door with swing-away 50/50 beamsplitter.
Viewfinder removes completely for aerial or underwater housing use.

MSM 8812 Threading Diagram

Figure 38.
Wilcam W-7 Threading Diagram
Figure 39. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Mags: 400′ (122m) and 1,000 (300m) displacement magazines operate bi-
directionally at all camera speeds. Positive camlock secures the mag in
running position and switches power to motor and heater contacts in mag
foot. Expanding core hubs have integral DC servo motors controlled by film
tension in both directions, with soft startup to eliminate slack. Tightwind
rollers guide film winding for smooth solid rolls at any camera angle.
Noncontact light traps feature infrared end-of-film sensors.
Wilcam W-7 VistaVision High Speed (pic, one diagram)

Notes: VistaVision 35mm/8-perf. Designed for operation at 200 fps.

Weight: 110 lbs/50kg with 50mm lens and film.
Movement: Three dual-register pins. Two claw pins. Transport claws never
enter registration pin perforations.
FPS: 200 fps.
Aperture: VistaVision. Aperture plate optically centered full.
Wilcam 2-9 Threading Diagram
Figure 40. Film takes up emulsion side in.
Lens: BNCR. Lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon, 19mm f/2.8 Leitz, 25mm T2.8 Zeiss,
28mm T1.8 Zeiss, 35mm T1.4 Zeiss, 50mm T1.4 Zeiss, 85mm T1.4 Zeiss,
135mm T1.8 Zeiss, 35-140mm f/1.4 Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm, 400mm
and 600mm.
Shutter: Beryllium mirror with tungsten counterweights.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, Rotating mirror. Uses servo motors for constant
upright image while eyepiece is rotated.
Mags: 1,000′ (300m). Coaxial. 2″ plastic cores. Magazine drive gear-driven
through torque motors permanently mounted on camera body.
Accessories: Wilcam 4″x5.65″, also standard Arriflex 6.6″x6.6″ matte boxes
Power: 48V DC required.
Wilcam W-9 VistaVision Lightweight

Notes: VistaVision 35mm/8 perf. Designed for general-purpose use. Maximum

speed 100 fps.
Weight: 37 lbs/16.81 kg with 50mm lens and film.
Movement: Three dual-register pins. Two claw pins. Transport claws never
enter registration pin perforations
FPS: 100 fps.
Aperture: VistaVision.
Lens: BNCR Lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon, 19mm f/2.8 Leitz, 25mm T2.8 Zeiss,
28mm T1.8 Zeiss, 35mm T1.4 Zeiss, 50mm T1.4 Zeiss, 85mm T1.4 Zeiss,
135mm T1.8 Zeiss, 35-140mm f/1.4 Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm, 400mm
and 600mm.
Wilcam W-11 Threading Diagram
Figure 41. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Shutter: 180-degree Beryllium mirror with tungsten counterweights.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, Rotating mirror. Uses servo motors for constant
upright image while eyepiece is rotated.
Mags: 1,000′ (300m). Coaxial. 2″ plastic cores. Magazine drive torque motors
mounted on each magazine.
Accessories: Wilcam 4″x5.65″, also standard Arriflex 6.6″x6.6″ matte boxes
Wilcam W-11 VistaVision Sound Camera

Notes: VistaVision 35mm 8-perf. Designed for soundstage shooting.

Weight: 60lbs/27.27kg with 50mm lens and 1,000 (300m) of film.
Movement: Three dual-register pins. Two pairs in conventional location, one
pair .050-wide perforations trailing. Two claw pins. Transport claws never
enter registration pin perforations.
FPS: Crystal sync at 24, 25 and 30 fps.
Aperture: VistaVision. Aperture plate optically centered and full centered.
dB: Noise level in operating condition with a prime lens is 25dB(A) at 3 in front
of camera.
Lens: BNCR lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon, 19mm f/2.8, Leitz, 25mm T2.8 Zeiss,
28mm T1.8 Zeiss, 35mm T1.4 Zeiss, 50mm T1.4 Zeiss, 85mm T1.4 Zeiss,
135mm T1.8 Zeiss, 35-140mm f/1.4 Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm, 400mm
and 600mm.
Lens Control: Follow focus on left side of camera. Detachable.
Shutter: Half-speed, 144°. Beryllium mirror driven by second motor, phase-
locked to camera motor.
Viewfinder: Reflex viewfinder, automatic image erection with manual override
for odd angle viewing. 10X magnifier for critical focusing.
Video: Built-in Sony CCD video camera.
Viewing Screen: Ground glass with locating pins for film clip.
Mags: 1,000 (300m). Coaxial. 2 plastic cores. Supply on right side of camera,
take-up on rear. Magazine Drive: Hysteresis clutch with sensing arms in
camera body for correct film tension.
Accessories: Wilcam 4x5.65, also standard Arriflex 6.6x6.6 matte boxes
Motors, Power: 36V. Current: 3 Amperes.
IMAX
IMAX 3-D

Notes: Dual-strip camera comprised of two separate movements and film-

handling systems all contained in single camera body. To properly record 3-
D images, lenses are separated by the same interocular as the average human
eye interocular of 2.85″. Behind each of the taking lenses are beamsplitter
mirrors that reflect right eye image up to right eye movement, and left eye
image is reflected down to left eye movement. The beamsplitter mirrors also
allow some light to pass through to provide for through-the-lens viewing.
Weight: 215 lbs/97.52 kg (camera, lens and 1,000′ (300m) magazine); 329
lbs/149.23 kg (camera, lens and 2,500′ (762m) magazine)
Movement: Two separate movements, with pull-down driven by
counterbalanced crankshaft; has six claw pins and six register pins. Uses a
vacuum backplate in the aperture to hold film flat for steadier images and
more uniform focus.
FPS: Variable crystal speed from 1–36 fps. Camera speed can be synchronized
to external reference signal. Draws 9 amps at 36V DC running at 24 fps.
Aperture: Shoots two images simultaneously on separate film strips where each
negative is 15 perf x 65mm—film travels horizontally.
Lens: Custom-design IMAX lens carriage that holds pair of lenses mounted in
single-lens block.
Lens Control: Remote focus and iris controller, wireless remote focus and iris
controller, clip-on 3.3″x6.6″ filters.
Lenses: Lens pairs mounted in single-lens block with optics supplied by Zeiss,
except where noted. Include integrated iris drive and convergence motors
where applicable. Fixed interocular at 2.85″: 30mm T3.1 (Hughes Leitz),
40mm T4.3, 60mm T3.8, 80mm T3.1. Adjustable convergence: 50mm f/4,
60mm T3.8, 80mm T3.1, 105mm f/4 macro (Rodenstock), 250mm f/5.6.
Imax 3-D Threading Diagram
Figure 42. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, manually variable from 172.8° to 55° with stops at
144° and 108°.
Viewfinder: Beamsplitter reflex viewfinding (70/30 split) with Imax 3-D and
Imax 3-D dome reticle markings on ground glass. Viewfinder is orientable
and has 10X magnifier.
Mags: Normally equipped with (four) 1,000 (300m) single-chamber magazines
(3 minutes at 24 fps). Or (four) 2,500 (762m) magazines (7.5 minutes at 24
fps).
Accessories: 3-D underwater housing (depth rated to 120′ (36.6m)), weather
barney, matte box (with one 14″ x 14″ filter stage), sunshade (with mattes),
3-D microscope, viewfinder monitors, environmental box, motorized remote
head, Vinten fluid head, Cartoni fluid head, parallax-corrected video assist
(mounted above taking lenses).
IW5, IW5A
Notes: IW5 and IW5A are general-purpose mirrored-shutter reflex cameras. The
quietest of all IMAX cameras, although not suitable for sync sound without a
blimp. Very durable and robust cameras, ideal for rough environments.
IW5A is a slightly later version of IW5. IW5A uses many aluminum, parts in
place of magnesium making for a more robust camera body but at the
expense of a little more weight (10 lbs difference). IW5A uses an upgraded
set of electronics, but the camera operational features remain the same.
Weight: IW5 88 lbs/39.91 kg (camera plus lens and 1,000′ (300m) magazine
with film). IW5A, 98 lbs/ 44.45 kg (camera plus lens and 1,000′ (300m)
magazine with film). IW5A, 155 lbs/ 70.3 kg (camera plus lens and 2,500
(762m) magazine with film).
Movement: Pull-down is a combination cam and pin-driven system. Has four
register pins and four claws with adjustable pitch control. Movement is
removable for easy cleaning and lubrication. Uses vacuum backplate in
aperture to hold film flat for steadier images and more uniform focus.
FPS: Variable frame rate from 1–36 fps, crystal speed at 24 and 25 fps. Camera
speed can be synchronized to an external reference signal. Current draw is 9
amps at 30V DC running at 24 fps.
Aperture: Negative is 15 perf x 65mm, film travels horizontally.
Lens: Custom-design IMAX bayonet lens mount.
BNC lens mount. 15mm matte rods on Arri BL centers for accessory
compatibility.
Lenses: Custom-packaged for the IW5/IW5A camera with optics supplied by
Zeiss (except where noted): Wide-angle 30mm f/3.5 (fisheye), 40mm f/4;
medium 50mm f/2.8, 60mm f/3.5, 80mm f/2.8; long 110mm f/2, 120mm f/4,
150mm f/2.8, 250mm f/4, 350mm f/5.6, 500mm f/8, 800mm f/4 (Pentax),
1000mm f/8 catadioptic (Pentax); zoom 75–150mm f/4.5 (Schneider), 300–
1200mm f/11 (Canon/Century).
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with fixed 155° opening. Wings can be added to
close down to 10° opening for intervalometer shooting.
Viewfinder: Spinning mirror reflex viewfinding with IMAX and IMAX Dome
reticle markings on ground glass. Finder rotates 360° with manual upright
image correction. Footage and camera speed displayed in viewfinder.
IW5 Threading Diagram
Figure 43. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Video: Video tap is modular in design, using color CCD camera.
Mags: Normally equipped with (two) 1000′ (300m) dual coaxially stacked
magazines (3 minutes at 24 fps). IW5A also uses 2500′ (762m) magazine
(7.5 minutes at 24 fps).
Accessories: Norris intervalometer, spinning disc, video assist, video lid and
extension eyepiece.
Follow focus with Arri whip extension. Pentax director’s finder (shoots still
photos using camera lenses listed below), Preston FIZ controller and
Microforce zoom controller, Preston Radio transmitter, 2X Pentax extender
(for 800mm and 1000mm Pentax lenses only), extension tubes (10mm,
20mm and 40mm lengths), diopter lenses 0.5, 1 and 2.
Arri 6.6″x6.6″ three stage mattebox. Sound Blimp. HydroFlex underwater
housing (depth rating 150′ (45.7m)), rain barney and heater barney.
MKII L/W and H/S
Notes: MKII-L/W and MKII-H/S are based on same MKII camera design and
are identical in appearance and features, with one optimized for weight and
the other for higher speeds.
MKII-L/W and MKII-H/S are beamsplitter reflex cameras intended for
special applications where a light or high-speed camera is required in very
rough or remote environments. MKII-H/S contains beryllium movement
parts, and camera body was allowed to remain slightly heavier than MKII-
L/W for improved image resolution when running at higher speeds.
Weight: MKII-L/W 59 lbs/26.8 kg (camera plus lens and 1,000 (300m)
magazine with film), 46 lbs/20.9 kg. (camera plus lens and 500 (152m)
magazine with film). MKII-H/S 68 lbs/30.84 kg (camera plus lens and 1,000′
(300m) magazine with film), 55 lbs/24.95 kg (camera plus lens and 500′
(152m) magazine with film).
Movement: Pull-down is a cam-driven claw arm. Four register pins and four
claw pins. Uses vacuum backplate in aperture to hold film flat for steadier
images and more uniform focus.
FPS: MKII-L/W has variable frame rate from 1–36 fps, crystal speed at 24 and
25 fps. MKII-H/S has variable frame rate from 1–4 fps, crystal speed at 24
and 25 fps. Camera speed can be synchronized to external reference signal.
Both cameras draw 9 amps at 30V DC running at 24 fps.
Aperture: Negative is 15 perf x 65mm, film travels horizontally.
Lens: Custom-design IMAX bayonet lens mount.
Lenses: Custom-packaged for MKII-L/W and MKII-H/S with optics supplied
by Zeiss (except where noted). Uses same lenses as IW5 and IW5A.
MKII L/W and H/S Threading Diagram
Figure 44. Film takes up emulsion side out.
Shutter: Flat-blade shutter with fixed 155° opening interchangeable with
shutters with smaller openings for intervalometer use or shooting with HMIs.
Viewfinder: Beamsplitter reflex viewfinding (50/50 split) with IMAX and
IMAX Dome reticle markings on ground glass. Finder is fixed straight to
back of camera with 8X magnifier.
Video: No video tap due to beamsplitter light levels, but has video lid for 100-
percent video in remote environments.
Mags: Normally equipped with 1,000′ (300m) Mitchell dual-chamber magazine
(3 minutes at 24 fps) or Mitchell 500′ (152m)magazine (1.5 minutes at 24
fps).
Accessories: Norris intervalometer, spinning disc and video assist.
Pentax director’s finder (shoots still photos using camera lenses listed
below), Preston FIZ controller and Microforce zoom controller, Preston
Radio transmitter, 2X Pentax extender (for 800mm and 1000mm Pentax
lenses only), extension tubes (10mm, 20mm and 40mm lengths), diopter
lenses 0.5, 1 and 2.
Arri 6.6″x6.6″ three-stage matte box. Sound Blimp. MKII underwater
housing (depth rating 120′ (36.6m)), rain barney and heater barney.
MSM 9801
Notes: Latest addition to IMAX inventory with all the features of a normal 435
production camera. Designed and built by MSM Design of Hayden Lake,
Idaho, lightweight camera can be configured for handheld, Steadicam or
powered-head applications. Special adapter allows it to fly in Spacecam
gyrostabilized aerial mount.
Weight: 56 lbs/25.4 kg (camera, lens and 1,000 (300m) magazine with film). 38
lbs/17.24 kg Steadicam configuration (camera without viewfinder, lens and
500 (152m) displaced magazine with film).
Movement: MSM five-bar link, four register pins and eight claws with
adjustable pitch control. Movement is removable for easy cleaning and
lubrication. Uses vacuum backplate in aperture to hold film flat for steadier
images and more uniform focus.
FPS: Crystal speed from 1–36 fps. Camera speed can be synchronized to
external reference signal. Draws 6 amps at 30V DC running 24 fps.
Aperture: Negative is 15 perf x 65mm, film travels horizontally.
Lens: Custom-designed MSM rectangular lens mount. Makes for quick lens
changes with very positive lens locating.
Lenses: Custom-packaged for MSM 9801 with optics supplied by Zeiss (except
where noted): Wide-angle 30mm f/3.5 (fisheye), 40mm f/4; medium 50mm
f/2.8, 60mm f/3.5, 80mm f/2.8; long 110mm f/2, 120mm f/4, 150mm f/2.8,
250mm f/4, 350mm f/4, 500mm f/8, 800mm f/6.7 (Pentax); zoom 75–
150mm f/4.5 (Schneider), 300–1200mm f/11 (Canon/Century); macro
120mm slant focus (Nikon).
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with fixed 180-degree opening.
MSM 9801 Threading Diagram
Figure 45. On 1000 magazine film takes up emulsion side in.
500 magazine takes up emulsion side out.
Viewfinder: Spinning mirror reflex viewfinding. IMAX and IMA
Dome reticle markings on ground glass with register pins for film clips.
Finder rotates 360° with constant upright image.
Video: Integrated color CCD video tap. Viewfinder is detachable to reduce
weight for aerial shooting or Steadicam applications.
Mags: Normally equipped with 1,000′ (300m) dual-chamber, coaxially stacked
magazine (3 minutes at 24 fps). Also uses 500′ (152m) displacement
magazine (1.5 minutes at 24 fps) with automatic compensation for center of
gravity shift of film roll.
Accessories: Norris intervalometer, Hi-G plate, Spacecam adapter.
Built-in follow focus. Preston FIZ controller (focus, iris, zoom), Preston
radio transmitter, 1.4X Pentax extender (for 800mm Pentax only).
Arri 6.6″x6.6″ three-stage matte box. Sound blimp. MKII underwater
housing (depth rating 120′ (36.6m)), rain barney and heater barney.
HydroFlex shallow water housing (depth rated to 15′ (4.6m)), weather
barney.

2012 DIGITAL CAMERA SECTION

Note: There are too many digital cameras and recorders being used today,
with the technology in constant flux, to create an all-inclusive list; these entries
represent a selection of professional cameras and recorders commonly being
used for cinema applications. Specifications can change due to updating of
firmware and software over time.

Cameras
ARRI ALEXA
ARRI ALEXA M
ARRI ALEXA Plus
ARRI ALEXA Studio
ARRI D-21
Canon C300
Panasonic AJ-HDC27H VariCam
Panasonic AJ-HPX3700 VariCam
Panavision Genesis
RED EPIC
RED ONE
RED Scarlet-X
Silicon Imaging SI-2K
Sony F23 CineAlta
Sony F35 CineAlta
Sony F65 CineAlta
Sony HDC-F950 CineAlta
Sony HDW-F900 CineAlta
Sony HDW-F900R CineAlta
Sony PMW-F3 CineAlta
Vision Research Phantom Flex
Vision Research Phantom HD Gold
Vision Research Phantom Miro M320S
Vision Research Phantom 65 Gold

Recorders
Cinedeck EX
Codex ARRIRAW
Codex Onboard M
Codex Onboard S
Convergent Design Gemini
Panavision SSR-1
Sony SR-R1
Sony SR-R4
Sony SRW-1
S.Two OB-1
Vision Research Phantom CineMag-II

CAMERAS

ARRI ALEXA

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor digital camera with an electronic shutter

and viewfinder. Integrated shoulder arch and receptacles for 15mm
lightweight rods. Internal HD recording to memory cards using Apple
ProRes 422/4444 codec family (Avid DNxHD codecs possible with license
key). Onboard HD/certified data recorder devices can be attached. Data
mode output delivers uncompressed 12-bit 2.88K ARRIRAW data in 16:9
aspect ratio. HD mode output delivers standard 10-bit (or 12-bit for
ProRes4444) 1080P HD images in 16:9 aspect ratio.
Weight: Body only: 6.3 kg (13.8 lb) / body + EVF w/mounting bracket and
handle: 7.7 kg (16.9 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 33.92 x 15.3 x 15.8cm (12.95″ x 6.02″ x 6.22″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA; Dual Gain Architecture (DGA). 3392
x 2200 pixels: 3168 x 1782 active photosites used for Surround
View/recorded area is 2880 x 1620 pixels.
Active sensor dimensions: Surround View for EVF is 26.14 x 14.70mm (1.029″
x 0.579″). Recorded area is 23.76 x 13.37mm (.935 x .526)/image circle is
27.26mm (1.073″).
Quantization: Dual 14-bit A/D data combined into 16-bits.
Lens mount: ARRI Exchangeable Mount (ELM); ships with PL mount.
Sound level: Less than 20dB(A) at 24 fps w/lens attached and fan set to
“regular”.
Sensitivity: At 24 fps/180° shutter, suggested rating of ISO 800.
Frame rates: ProRes 422 HQ: 0.75-60 fps (0.75–120 fps w/high-speed license
key/64 GB SxS card required for frame rates over 60 fps). ProRes 4444:
0.75–40 fps (0.75–60 fps on 64 GB cards). HD-SDI: 0.75–60 fps.
ARRIRAW: 0.75–60 fps. All speeds can be set with 0.001 fps precision.
Electronic shutter: 5º to 358º with 1⁄10th degree precision.
White balance: Separate red/blue and green/magenta balance available through
Auto White Balance or manual setting. Red/blue: 2000–11000°K, adjustable
in 100°K steps, with presets of 3200°K (tungsten), 4300°K (fluorescent),
5600°K (daylight), 7000°K (cool daylight). Green/magenta: -8 to +8 CC,
1CC = 035 Kodak CC values or 1⁄8 Rosco values.
On-set monitoring: 1080P 4:2:2 YUV HD monitor output (single-link 422
1.5G HD-SDI) with frame rates of 23.976, 24, 25, 29.97, or 30 fps. Signal
format can be changed in camera menu. Monitor signal can use either
Rec.709, P3 or Log-C gamma independent of gamma selected for recording.
Recording device: Integrated SxS memory card recorder for compressed HD or
external recorder for uncompressed HD or 2.88K ARRIRAW (proprietary)
data. Two SxS card slots.
Recording format: Using SxS recorder: Apple ProRes codecs (10-bit: 422
Proxy, 422 LT, 422, 422 HQ; 12-bit: 4444). DNxHD 145 (8-bit 4:2:2) and
DNxHD 220x (10-bit 4:2:2) codecs are available with license key. DNxHD
4:4:4 available by end of 2012. Uncompressed 10-bit 1080P 4:4:4 RGB or
4:2:2 YCbCr or 12-bit 2.88K ARRIRAW data can be sent to external
recorder. Can record Rec.709, P3 or Log-C gamma.
Recording time: On 32 GB SxS card, using ProRes 422 at 30 fps, 25 mins.;
using ProRes 4444 at 30 fps, 11 mins.
Menu display/controls: Main control is a 3″ LCD screen on the camera right
side w/buttons and jogwheel to make selections. Three assignable buttons
plus three function buttons on left (operator) side. More controls on EVF for
viewfinder adjustments and other image parameters.
Indicators: Warnings appear on main display, EVF, and monitor-out.
Operating temperature: -20°C to +45C (-4°F to +113°F) at 95% max.
humidity.
Video connectors: HD-SDI/1.5G/3G/T-Link out (BNC x2), monitor out (BNC).
Power connectors: 24V DC in (2-pin Fischer), 12V DC out (2-pin LEMO), RS
24V DC out (3-pin Fischer x2).
Other connectors: Ethernet (10-pin LEMO), audio in (5-pin XLR), TC (5-pin
LEMO), EVF (16-pin custom LEMO), RET/Sync-In (BNC), EXT (16-pin
LEMO), stereo headphone (3.5mm minijack).
Power: 24V DC (10.5V to 34V).
Power consumption: 85W for camera + EVF w/o accessories.
Accessories: Accepts the whole range of ARRI matte boxes, 15mm or 19mm
rod systems, follow focus and ARRI electronic accessories, including remote
control unit (RCU-1), lens control system (LCS), lens data system (LDS),
wireless remote system (WRS), remote control on/off switch (RS-4).
Misc: Extra attachment points for rigging. SD card slot for importing ARRI
Look Files, camera set-up files, frame line files, feature license keys and
custom lens tables for Lens Data Archive (LDA). Stores capture stills from
rec. out image path. Also used for software updates.
ARRI ALEXA M

Overview: Based on the ALEXA Plus 4:3, but with the camera head containing
the sensor and lens mount is separate from the body containing the image
processing and recording. Ideal for dual-camera 3-D rigs and other situations
where a small and lightweight camera body is needed (Steadicams, aerial
and underwater photography, etc.) See ALEXA and ALEXA Plus 4:3 specs
for anything not listed below.
Weight: Camera head: 2.9 kg (6.4 lb)/body: 5.5 kg (12.1 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): Camera head: 21.1cm x 12.9cm x 14.9cm (8.31″ x
5.08″ x 5.87″)/body: 32.3cm x 15.3cm x 15.8cm (12.72″ x 6.02″ x 6.22″).
Additional connectors: SMPTE 304M hybrid fiber optical link (LEMO / one
each on camera head and body). Camera head also has its own 24V DC in
(2-pin Fischer) and 24V DC remote start/accessory power out (3-pin Fischer
x2).
Power: Minimum 15V DC input to body is required to power camera head
through SMPTE hybrid fiber cable up to 50m, w/o accessories. Camera head
has one 10.5V to 34V DC power input used to power the head independently
from the camera body.
Power consumption: 40W for camera head; 85W for body.
ARRI ALEXA Plus

Overview: Shares most of the same technical data as the ALEXA, but with
built-in support for the ARRI wireless remote system,cmotion cvolution lens
control system, and ARRI LDS (lens data system) including lens data mount
and lens data archive for lenses without built-in LDS. Also has one
additional monitor out, one additional RS (remote start), two LCS (lens
control system), one LDD (lens data display) and three lens motor
connectors, built-in motion sensors and Quick Switch BNC connectors.
Assistive displays on EVF-1 and monitor out: electronic level (horizontal
gauge). Automated sync of lens settings for 3-D applications in master/slave
mode. SD card for importing custom lens tables for the lens data archive.
ALEXA Plus 4:3 model allows a taller 4:3 area of the sensor to be used,
which is ideal for anamorphic photography. Anamorphic desqueeze
w/licence key. Only specs which differ from the standard ALEXA are listed:
Weight: Body only: 7.0 kg (15.4 lb)/body + EVF w/mounting bracket and
handle: 8.4 kg (18.5 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 33.2cm x 17.5cm x 15.8cm (12.95″ x 6.89″ x
6.22″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA; dual gain architecture (DGA). 3392 x
2200 pixels. 4:3 model: 3168 x 2160 active photosites for Surround
View/recorded area is 2880 x 2160 pixels. 16:9 model: 3168 x 1940 for
Surround View/recorded area is 2880 x 1620 pixels.
Active sensor dimensions: 4:3 model: Surround View for EVF is 26.14mm x
17.82mm (1.029″ x .702)/recorded area is 23.76mm x 17.82mm (.935″ x
.702″)/image circle is 29.70mm (1.169″). 16:9 model: Surround View for
EVF is 26.14mm x 16.00mm (1.029″ x 0.630″). Recorded area is 23.76mm x
13.37mm (.935″ x .526″)/image circle is 27.26mm (1.073).
Video connectors: HD-SDI/1.5G/3G/T-Link out (BNC x2), monitor out (BNC
x2).
Power connectors: 24V DC in (2-pin Fischer), 12V DC out (2-pin LEMO), RS
24V DC out (3-pin Fischer x3).
Other connectors: Ethernet (10-pin LEMO), audio in (5-pin XLR), time code
(5-pin LEMO), EVF (16-pin custom LEMO), RET/Sync-In (BNC), EXT
(16-pin LEMO), stereo headphone (3.5mm TRS), lens control system (5-pin
Fischer x2), lens data display (5-pin Fischer), iris (12-pin Fischer), zoom
(12-pin Fischer), focus (12-pin Fischer).
Power: 24V DC (10.5V to 34V).
Power consumption: 85W for camera + EVF w/o accessories.
ARRI ALEXA Studio

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor digital camera with a rotating mirror

shutter and an optical viewfinder. Also has internal ND filters and built-in
support for ARRI wireless remote system (WRS),cmotion evolution lens
control system, and ARRI lens data system (LDS). Integrated shoulder arch
and receptacles for 15mm lightweight rods. Internal 16:9 HD recording to
memory cards using Apple ProRes 422/4444 codec family (Avid DNxHD
codecs possible with license key). Onboard HD/certified data recorder
devices can be attached. Data mode output delivers uncompressed 12-bit
2.88K ARRIRAW data using 4:3 or 16:9 area of the sensor. HD mode output
delivers standard 10-bit (or 12-bit for ProRes4444) 1080P HD images in
16:9 aspect ratio. 4:3 sensor mode is ideal for 2X anamorphic photography;
the optical viewfinder can be modified for unsqueezing anamorphic images.
Weight: Body only: 8 kg (17.6 lb)/body + optical viewfinder and handle: 10.2
kg (22.5 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 40.2cm x 26.8cm x 24.1cm (15.85″ x 10.55 x
9.49″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA; Dual Gain Architecture (DGA). 3392
x 2200 pixels: 3168 x 2160 active photosites for EVF Surround View.
Recorded area in 4:3 mode is 2880 x 2160 pixels; in 16:9 mode, 2880 x 1620
pixels (downsampled to 1920 x 1080 for HD recording).
Active sensor dimensions: Surround View for OVF is 26.14 x 19mm (1.029″ x
.748″)/Surround View for EVF is 26.14mm x 17.82mm (1.029″ x .702″).
Recorded area in 4:3 mode is 23.76mm x 17.82mm (.935″ x .702″); in 16:9
mode, 23.76mm x 13.37mm (0.935″ x 0.526″). Image circle in 4:3 mode is
29.70mm (1.169″); in 16:9 mode, 27.26mm/1.073″.
Quantization: Dual 14-bit A/D data combined into 16-bits.
Lens mount: ARRI Exchangeable Mount (ELM); ships with PL mount with
dual Lens Data System (LDS) contacts.
Sound level: Less than 20dB(A) at 24 fps w/mirror shutter on, lens attached,
and fan set to “regular”.
Sensitivity: At 24 fps/180° shutter, suggested rating of ISO 800.
Frame rates: 4:3 raw, mirror shutter on or off: 0.75–48 fps. 16:9 raw, mirror
shutter off: 0.75–120 fps. 16:9 raw, mirror shutter on: 0.75–60 fps. ProRes
422: 0.75–60 fps. ProRes 4444: 0.75–40 fps. HD-SDI: 0.75–60 fps (4:2:2
dual-link 1.5G or single-link 3G). 4:4:4 RGB: 0.75–60 fps (dual-link 3G).
All speeds can be set with 0.001 fps precision.
Shutter: Mirror shutter: 11.2° to 180°/electronic shutter: 5º to 358º. Shutter
angle setting precision: 1⁄10th degree. At some frame rates, mirror shutter
needs to be less than 180°.
White balance: Separate red/blue and green/magenta balance available through
auto white balance or manual setting. Red/blue: 2000-11000°K, adjustable in
100°K steps, with presets of 3200°K (tungsten), 4300°K (fluorescent),
5600°K (daylight), 7000°K (cool daylight). Green/magenta: -8 to +8 CC,
1CC = 035 Kodak CC values or 1⁄8 Rosco values.
On-set monitoring: 1080P 4:2:2 YUV HD monitor output (single-link 422
1.5G HD-SDI) with frame rates of 23.976, 24, 25, 29.97, or 30 fps. Signal
format can be changed in camera menu. Monitor signal can use either
Rec.709, P3 or Log-C gamma independent of gamma selected for recording.
Recording device: Attached SxS memory card recorder for compressed HD (16
x 9) or external recorder for uncompressed HD or 2.88K raw data (4 x 3 or
16 x 9). SxS recorder has two card slots.
Recording formats: Using SxS recorder: Apple ProRes codecs (10-bit: 422
Proxy, 422 LT, 422, 422 HQ, 12-bit: 4444). DNxHD 145 (8-bit 4:2:2) and
DNxHD 220x (10-bit 4:2:2) codecs are available with license key. DNxHD
4:4:4 available by end of 2012. Uncompressed 10-bit 1080P 4:4:4 RGB or
4:2:2 YCbCr (16:9) or 12-bit 2.88K ARRIRAW data (4:3 or 16:9) can be
sent to external recorder. Can record Rec.709, P3 or Log-C gamma.
Recording time: On 32 GB SxS card, using ProRes 422 at 30 fps, 25 mins.;
using ProRes 4444 at 30 fps, 11 mins. For data recorder time limits, see
manufacturer specs.
Menu display/controls: Main control is a 3″ LCD screen on the camera right
side w/buttons and jogwheel to make selections. Three assignable buttons
plus three function buttons on left (operator) side.
Indicators: Warnings appear on main display, EVF, and monitor-out.
Operating temperature: -10°C to +45°C (+14°F to +113°F) at 95% max.
humidity.
Video/data connectors: HD-SDI / 1.5G/3G / T-Link out (BNC x2), monitor out
(BNC x2).
Power connectors: 24V DC in (2-pin Fischer), 12V DC out (2-pin LEMO), RS
24V DC out (3-pin Fischer x3).
Other connectors: Ethernet (10-pin LEMO), audio in (5-pin XLR), time code
(5-pin LEMO), EVF (16-pin custom LEMO), RET/Sync-In (BNC), EXT
(16-pin LEMO), headphone jack (3.5mm TRS), lens control system (5-pin
Fischer x2), lens data display (5-pin Fischer), iris (12-pin Fischer), zoom
(12-pin Fischer), focus (12-pin Fischer).
Power: 24V DC (10.5V to 34V).
Power consumption: 90W for camera + OVF w/o accessories. When running
over 30 fps with mirror shutter on, supply voltage of 18V or more is
recommended.
Accessories: Accepts the whole range of ARRI matte boxes, 15mm or 19mm
rod systems, follow focus and ARRI electronic accessories, including remote
control unit (RCU-1), lens control system (LCS), lens data system (LDS),
wireless remote system (WRS), remote control on/off switch (RS-4).
Misc: Extra attachment points for rigging. SD card slot for importing ARRI
Look Files, camera set-up files, frame line files, feature license keys and
custom lens tables for lens data archive (LDA). Stores capture stills from rec
out image path. Also used for software updates.
ARRI D-21

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor digital camera with an optical

viewfinder/spinning mirror shutter. No internal recorder; however, an HD or
data recorder can be attached to the camera. Using a 4:3 sensor, data mode
output delivers uncompressed 12-bit ARRIRAW data in 4:3 or 16:9 aspect
ratio. HD mode output delivers standard 10-bit 1080P HD images in 16:9
aspect ratio.
Mscope anamorphic mode outputs a 4:3 1920 x 1440 RGB image (with a 2X
optical squeeze) split into two 1920x720 frames (within a 1920x1080 HD
signal each); this can be recombined in post. Single-link HD-SDI preview
out displays a desqueezed 2.66:1 letterboxed HD signal. Image can be
resized and cropped in post to standard 2.40 : 1 aspect ratio.
Weight: Body only: 9.3 kg (20.5 lb)/body + viewfinder: 11.6 kg (25.5 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): With viewfinder + handle: 39cm x 27cm x 30cm
(15.35″ x 10.83″ x 11.81″); w/o handle, height is 23cm (9.06).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA. 2880 x 2160 active photosites.
Recorded area in 4:3 data mode is 2880 x 2160 pixels; in 16:9 data mode,
2880 x 1620. In HD mode: 2880 x 1620 pixels are downsampled to 1920 x
1080 pixels.
Active sensor dimensions: Data mode: 23.76mm x 17.82mm (0.935″ x 0.702″).
HD mode: 23.76mm x 13.36mm (.935″ x .526″).
Quantization: 12-bit A/D.
Lens mount: PL with dual lens data system (LDS) contacts.
Sound level: Less than 20dB(A) at 24 fps.
Sensitivity: At 24 fps/180° shutter, suggested base sensitivity of ISO 200.
Frame rates: 16:9 data mode: 1–30 fps. 4:3 data mode: 1–25 fps. HD mode: 1–
60 fps. Does not run in reverse. All speeds can be set with 0.001 fps
precision.
Mechanical shutter: Spinning reflex mirror shutter, electronically adjustable in
0.1° steps from 11.2° to 180° using electronic accessories such as RCU or
WRC. Adjustable through camera menu at: 11.2°, 22.5°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°,
90°, 105°, 120°, 135°, 144°, 172.8°, and 180°.
Optical viewfinder: Two models: spherical or one switchable between spherical
and anamorphic. Both have following features: adjustable in two axes with
automatic or manual image compensation, laterally extendable for left-eye
operation, illuminated framelines (ARRIGLOW, adjustable in brightness).
Optional medium or long finder extender. Long extender includes magnifier.
Optional heated eyecup or auto-closing heated eyecup.
Viewing screen: Interchangeable, uses digital ground glasses for 23.76mm
(0.9354) image width.
On-set monitoring: 1080P 4:2:2 YUV HD output (single-link HD-SDI) and SD
(PAL or NTSC) output (downscaled from captured image) or optional
optical video tap, showing view of ground glass including area surrounding
captured area, using integrated video system (IVS) optional.
Recording device: External HD or data recorder connected to single or dual-
link HD-SDI.
Recording format: HD mode: up to 30 fps for 1080PsF 10-bit 4:2:2 YCbCr
(single-link HD-SDI) or 1080PsF 10-bit 4:4:4 RGB (dual-link HD-SDI) and
up to 60 fps for 1080PsF 10-bit 4:2:2 YCbCr (dual-link HD-SDI). Data
mode: 2880 x 2160 uncompressed 12-bit raw data at 24 and 25 fps or 2880 x
1620 uncompressed 12-bit raw data at 30 fps using proprietary transmission
protocol mapped into RGBA HD-SDI stream according to SMPTE 372M.
Can output images using Rec.709, Extended Range Rec.709, and Log-C
gamma.
Menu display/controls: To set basic camera parameters, use display on left
side, similar to 435 display. Individual buttons for: run, phase (electronic
inching), norm, ps/ccu, display lock. Use mode, sel and set buttons for
setting: fps, beeper volume, beeper at start and/or stop, enable/disable mirror
shutter, mirror shutter angle, frame counter reset. To set digital imaging
parameters, use menus available on SD video monitoring output.
Indicators: Async operation and digital systems diagnostics, temperature, and
power supply.
Operating temperature: 0°C to 40°C (+32°F to +104°F) at 95% max.
humidity.
Video/data connectors: Dual-link HD-SDI out (BNC x2), composite video out
(BNC x2), Y/C (S-Video/4-pin mini-DIN).
Power connectors: 24V DC in (BAT, 2-pin Fischer), 12V DC accessory out
(11-pin Fischer), RS 24V DC out (3-pin Fischer).
Other connectors: HD clock pulse out/v-sync (BNC x2), lens control system
(5-pin Fischer x2), lens data display (5-pin Fischer), camera control unit
(RS232), ACC, iris (12-pin Fischer), zoom (12-pin Fischer), focus (12-pin
Fischer), URM-3 radio receiver port.
Power: 24V DC (20.5V to 36V).
Power consumption: Camera w/o accessories: 1.9A (standby w/mirror shutter
not rotating)/at 24 fps w/mirror shutter rotating: 21A.
Accessories: Accepts the whole range of ARRI matte boxes, 15mm or 19mm
rod systems, follow focus and ARRI electronic accessories, including remote
control unit (RCU-1), lens control system (LCS), lens data system (LDS),
wireless remote system (WRS), remote control on/off switch (RS-4),
integrated video system (IVS), external synchronization unit (ESU-1). Note
that the FEM-2 or UMC-3 is needed for operation of WRC-1. Specifically
for D-20: low mode support set for Steadicam operation or underslung use
and top-mounting of accessories without bridge plate. Flash Mag Mounting
Bracket (FMB-1), Sony Fibre Interface (SFI-1).
Misc: Extra attachment points for rigging.
Canon C300

Overview: A small Super 35 single-sensor digital camera. C300PL model

comes with PL lens mount. Records to Compact Flash (CF) cards.
Weight: Body only: 1.4 kg (3.2 lb)/body w/grip unit and belt, monitor unit, BP-
955 battery and two CF cards: 2.52 kg (5.6 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): Minimal configuration C300: 17.1cm x 13.3cm x
17.9cm (6.73″ x 5.2″ x 7.05″) / C300PL: 17.7cm x 13.1cm x 17.9cm (6.97″
x 5.2″ x 7.05″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA, 3840 x 2160 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 24.4mm x 13.5mm (.961″ x .532″).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Lens mount: Canon EF or PL.
Behind-the-lens ND filters: Off, ND.60, ND1.2, ND2.4.
Sensitivity: Recommended ISO 640 (0dB). Can be set in 1-stop increments:
ISO 320, ISO 400 to ISO 12800, then 20000; 1⁄3-stop increments: ISO 320 to
ISO 20000. Gain in 3dB increments: -6dB to 30dB; 0.5dB increments: 0dB
to 24dB. 54dB S/N ratio (at ISO 850 using Canon Log gamma.)
Frame rates: 23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 50, 59.94. 1080P max. rate is 29.97. 1080i
max rate is 59.94. 720P max rate is 59.94.
Electronic shutter: Selectable as speed (1⁄3-stop increments, 1⁄4-stop
increments) or shutter angle (11.5° to 360°). Clear Scan, slow, off.
White balance: Custom white balance (A and B), color temperature setting
(2,000°K to 15,000°K); two presets (daylight 5400°K and tungsten 3200°K)
that can be adjusted.
Viewfinder: Attached 4″ LCD and 1⁄2″ EVF.
On-set monitoring: HDMI out or HD-SDI out.
Recording device: Internal recorder using removable Compact Flash (CF)
memory cards (two slots). Can send uncompressed 8-bit 4:2:2 HD signal via
HD-SDI to external recorder.
Recording format: MPEG-2 Long GOP codec stored as MXF files. 8-bit 4:2:2
at 50 Mbps: 1920 x 1080 (23.98P, 24P, 25P, 29.97P, 50i, 59.94i)/1280 x 720
(23.98P, 24P, 25P, 29.97P, 50P, 59.94P). 8-bit 4:2:0 at 35 Mbps: 1920 x 1080
(23.98P, 25P, 29.97P, 50i, 59.94i)/1280 x 720 (23.98P, 25P, 29.97P, 50P,
59.94P). 8-bit 4:2:0 at 25 Mbps: 1440 x 1080 (23.98P, 25P, 29.97P, 50i,
59.94i). Can record customizable Rec.709 or Canon Log gamma. 2-channel
linear PCM audio (16-bit / 48 kHz). Metadata. Also captures still images as
JPEGs.
Recording time: 16 GB card: 40 min. (50 Mbps)/55 min. (35 Mbps)/80 min.
(25 Mbps).
Menu display/controls: Menu button and joystick/set button at rear and side,
plus operation controls on side; info displayed on LCD/EVF.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Video connectors: HDMI out, single-link HD-SDI out (BNC),
Audio connectors: Ch1/Ch2 audio in (3-pin XLR x2), mic in (3.5mm
minijack), stereo headphone (3.5mm minijack).
Power connectors: Powered through battery pack or with adaptor to DC in.
Other connectors: Wireless file transmitter (WFT) terminal, EXT (x2), remote
(2.5mm minijack), sync out (BNC), genlock in (BNC), time code I/O
(BNC), grip connection terminal.
Power: 7.4V DC (battery pack), 8.4V DC (dc in).
Power consumption: LCD + EVF at 24 fps: approx. 11.7W. EVF only: approx.
10.7W. 20.9W max rated power consumption.
Panasonic AJ-HDC27H VariCam

Overview: A 2⁄3″ three-sensor 720P camcorder that allows shooting at variable

frame rates, recording always at 60P to an internal DVCPRO HD VTR.
Frame rates may be changed during recording.
Weight: Body only: approx. 4.5 kg (9.9 lb)/typical configuration w/ ENG lens:
7.0 kg (15.4 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 13.2cm x 20.4cm x 31.3cm (5.25 x 8 x 12.31).
Sensor: Three 2⁄3 CCD (IT type), 1280 x 720 active photosites per sensor.
Active sensor dimensions: 9.58mm x 5.39mm (.3772″ x .2122″).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D (model HDC27F is 10-bit).
Lens mount: 2⁄3 bayonet type (B4).
Sensitivity: f/12.0 at 2000 lux.
Frame rates: 4–60P (in single increments), interval recording.
Electronic shutter: 1⁄60, 1⁄100, 1⁄120, 1⁄250, 1⁄500, 1⁄1000, 1⁄2000. 45°, 90°, 120°, 144°,
172.8°, 180°/0.8–97.2% variable.
Built-in filters: Dual-stage: A: Cross, B: 3200°K (clear), C: 4300°K, D:
6300°K, 1: clear, 2: 1⁄4ND, 3: 1⁄16ND, 4: 1⁄64ND.
Electronic viewfinder: Standard 2 black-and-white 720P CRT viewfinder (AJ-
HVF27); color viewfinders available from third-party vendors.
On-set monitoring: 720P HD output (single-link HD-SDI).
Recording device: Internal DVCPRO HD VTR or external HD recording
system.
Recording format: 720P (59.94 or 60Hz) 10-bit 4:2:2 YCbCr (single-link HD-
SDI). DVCPRO HD recording reduces this to compressed 8-bit 4:2:2 960 x
720 pixel signal at 100 Mbps.
Menu display/controls: Thru viewfinder or external monitor. Side LCD panel
displays TC, audio levels, battery level, tape length, etc. Also switches for:
recording start/stop, two user assignable switches, power on/off, gain
(L,M,H), save/standby, bars/camera, WB preset/A/B, audio levels, setting
TC, switching shutter speed, white/black balance
Indicators: Tally, error.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: Less than 85%.
Tape: 1⁄4″ DVCPRO HD “L size” cassette. Recommended: Panasonic AJ-
HP46LP.
Recoding time: Max. 46 min. with AJ-HP46LP.
Fast-forward/rewind time: Approx. 3 min. with AJ-HP46LP.
Video connectors: Single-link HD-SDI out (BNC x2), tri-level sync (BNC),
time code in (BNC), time code out (BNC).
Audio connectors: Audio in (Ch1/Ch2, female 3-pin XLR), audio out (male 5-
pin XLR), mic in (phantom +48V female 3-pin XLR), stereo headphone
(3.5mm minijack).
Power connectors: 12V DC in (male 4-pin XLR), 12V DC out (female 4-pin,
11 to 17V DC, max 100mA).
Other connectors: Lens (12-pin), remote (8-pin), ECU (6-pin), EVF (20-pin).
Power: 12V DC (11V to 17V).
Power consumption: 33W (w/o VF, save rec mode) / 39W (typical set-up and
conditions).
Panasonic AJ-HPX3700 VariCam

Overview: A 2⁄3 three-sensor 1080P camcorder that records onto P2 cards using
AVC-Intra 100 (10-bit 4:2:2 full raster sampling), AVC-Intra 50 and
DVCPRO HD codecs. Dual-link HD-SDI output allows external recorder to
capture 10-bit 4:4:4 Log. Scan reverse (image flip) function can be used to
correct image inversion from certain lens adaptors. Seven gamma modes
including film-rec. Gamma corrected for monitor and viewfinder display can
be selected separately from recorded gamma.
Weight: Body only: approx. 4.5 kg (9.9 lb)/typical configuration w/ENG lens:
7.0 kg (15.4 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 13.2cm x 20.4cm x 31.3cm (5.25″ x 8″ x 12.31″).
Sensor: Three 2⁄3 CCD (IT type), 1920 x 1080 active photosites per sensor.
Active sensor dimensions: 9.58mm x 5.39mm (.3772″ x .2122″).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Lens mount: 2⁄3 bayonet type (B4).
Sensitivity: f/10.0 at 2000 lux.
Frame rates: 1–30P (in single increments), interval recording.
Electronic shutter: 1⁄60, 1⁄100, 1⁄120, 1⁄250, 1⁄500, 1⁄1000, 1⁄2000. Shutter angles can be
selected. Synchro scan function.
Built-in filters: Dual-stage: A: Cross, B: 3200K (clear), C: 4300K, D: 6300K,
1: clear, 2: 1⁄4ND, 3: 1⁄16ND, 4: 1⁄64ND.
Electronic viewfinder: Standard 2 black-and-white 720P CRT viewfinder (AJ-
HVF27); color viewfinders available from third-party vendors.
On-set monitoring: 1080P HD output (single-link HD-SDI).
Recording device: Internal AVC-Intra 100/50 and DVCPRO HD to P2 cards
(16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB). SD/SDHC memory card slot allows metadata files
to be recorded; also allows scene files and firmware updates to be loaded.
Recording format: 1080P (59.94 or 60Hz) 10-bit 4:2:2 (single-link HD-SDI) or
4:4:4 (dual-link HD-SDI). DVCPRO HD recording reduces this to
compressed 8-bit 4:2:2 1440 x 1080 pixel signal at 100 Mbps.
Menu display/controls: Thru viewfinder or external monitor. Side LCD panel
displays TC, audio levels, battery level, tape length, etc. Also switches for:
recording start/stop, two user assignable switches, power on/off, gain
(L,M,H), save/standby, bars/camera, WB preset/A/B, audio levels, setting
TC, switching shutter speed, white/black balance.
Indicators: Tally, error.
Operating temperature: 0°C to + 40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: Less than 85%.
Recoding time: Five P2 card slots, 64 GB per card, allows 800 minutes of
24P/1080 content.
Video connectors: Single-link HD-SDI out (BNC x2), tri-level sync (BNC),
time code in (BNC), time code out (BNC).
Audio connectors: Audio in (Ch1/Ch2, female 3-pin XLR), audio out (male 5-
pin XLR), mic in (phantom +48V female 3-pin XLR), stereo headphone
(3.5mm minijack).
Power connectors: 12V DC in (male 4-pin XLR), 12V DC out (female 4-pin,
11 to 17V DC, max 100mA).
Other connectors: Lens (12-pin), remote (8-pin), ECU (6-pin), EVF (20-pin).
Power: 12V DC (11V to 17V).
Power consumption: 33W (w/o VF, SAVE REC MODE) / 39W (typical set-up
and conditions).
Panavision Genesis

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor digital camera. Sensor delivers full 1920 x

1080 pixel resolution for each color channel. Multiple progressive-scan
frame rates possible as well as 1080/50i and 1080/60i. Electronic viewfinder
only. Sony SRW-1 VTR, Panavision SSR, or Sony SR-R1 can be positioned
either in top or rear position, like a Panaflex magazine. Camera can also be
used without the SRW-1, connected to a separate recorder via single or dual-
link HD-SDI cables.
Weight: Body + top handle: 6.83 kg (15.5 lb), viewfinder + bracket: 1.75 kg
(3.85 lb), VTR: 5.72 kg (12.6 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 22.1cm x 22.86cm x 20.32cm (8.7″ x 9″ x 8″).
Sensor: S35mm CCD with RGB-striped CFA, 5760 x 2160 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 23.622mm x 13.2842mm (.930″ x .523″).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Lens mount: PV.
Sound level: Camera only (tethered VTR): 22.5dB(A). Camera with VTR rear-
mounted: 26dB(A). Camera with VTR top-mounted: 26dB(A). Camera
w/SSR rear-mounted: 25 db(A). Camera with SSR top-mounted: 25.5 db(A).
(All values 3 feet from film plane).
Sensitivity: At 24 fps with a 1⁄48-sec. shutter speed, suggested rating of ISO 400.
Frame rates: Fixed speeds are 23.98P, 24P, 25P, 29.97P, 30P, 59.94P, 60P, and
59.94i and 60i. Variable rate can be set between 1–30 fps (4:4:4) or 1–50 fps
(4:2:2).
Electronic shutter: Adjustable from 3.8° to 360°.
Electronic viewfinder: Sony HD color viewfinder with diopter. Option for two
viewfinders at once. Programmable frame lines and transparent mask.
On-set monitoring: 1080P HD output (single-link HD-SDI).
Recording device: Attached Sony SRW-1 HDCAM SR VTR or Panavision
SSR-1 flash memory device, or cabled to external HD recorder, via single or
dual-link HD-SDI. Video is fed automatically to SRW-1 or SSR through top
or rear connector. See separate Sony SRW-1and Panavision SSR entries for
details.
Recording format: Up to 30 fps for 1080P 10-bit 4:4:4 RGB (SMPTE 372M
dual-link HD-SDI) or 1080P 10-bit 4:2:2 YCbCr (SMPTE 292M single-link
HD-SDI); up to 50 fps for 1080P 10-bit 4:2:2 YCbCr (dual-link HD-SDI).
Output uses “Panalog” transfer curve to create Log signal. SQ mode is 440
Mbps, for recording 4:2:2 (2.7:1 compression)/4:4:4 (4:1 compression); HQ
mode is 880 Mbps (double-speed) for recording 4:4:4 with only 2:1
compression.
Menu display/controls: Viewfinder or side LCD panel. Programmable LCD
menu gives fast access to frequently used camera settings. Also: recording
start/stop, three assignable switches, on/off.
Indicators: Tally/error.
Operating temperature: -20°C to +40°C (-4°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: Less than 85%.
Tape: 1⁄2″ HDCAM SR cassette. Recommended: Sony BCT-40SR.
Tape speed: Approx. 77.4mm/s (at 24P).
Recording time: SQ mode: 50 min. (at 24P). HQ mode: 25 min. (at 24P).
Fast-forward/rewind time: Approx. 5 min.
Video connectors: Single-link HD-SDI (BNC), dual-link HD-SDI w/optional
GADC adaptor (BNC x2), gen lock (BNC), reference out (BNC).
Power connectors: 24V/12V DC in (8-pin LEMO), 12V DC out (3-pin LEMO),
24V DC out (2-pin LEMO).
Other connectors: Sony RS232 (multipin x1), metadata, analog and digital
zoom motor, 24V iris rod bracket, focus and T-stop motors.
NOTE: SRW-1 only has Ch1/Ch2 audio input, time code in/out, and an
earphone jack. All other inputs and outputs are on the SRPC-1. For this
reason, when separating the SRW-1 unit from the Panavision Genesis, you
need to attach an interface box to the camera and use the SRPC-1 with the
SRW-1. Then you can connect the camera to the separate recorder through
HD-SDI cables for picture.
Accessories: Accepts the entire range of Panaflex accessories including matte
boxes, follow focus, etc. Panavision base plate.
Power: 12V DC (camera) and 24V DC (accessories).
Power consumption: 30 fps or less: 5A, 30 to 50 fps: 7.5A, Sony EVF: 0.5A,
VTR: 5A, Astro onboard monitor: 1.1A.
RED EPIC

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor digital camera. Electronic shutter and

viewfinder. Records 16-bit raw data up to 5.1K using REDCODE RAW
wavelet compression. HDRx™ feature can extend dynamic range. Lower
resolution modes involve cropping the sensor to smaller dimensions,
allowing frame rates above 120 fps. Can also be used as a 14MP still camera.
Optional Pro I/O Module is available for increased video and audio
connections (see below).
Weight: Body only: 2.27 kg (5 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 14.8cm x 9.8cm x 14.67cm (5.83″ x 3.86″ x
5.78″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA, 5120 x 2700 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 27.7mm x 14.6mm (1.09 x .575).
Quantization: 16-bit A/D.
Lens mount: PL. Other mounts available incl. Canon EF and Nikkor.
Sensitivity: Suggested rating of ISO 800. 66 db S/N ratio.
Frame rates: Project rates: 23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 47.96, 48, 50, 59.94 fps /
varispeed rates: 1–120 fps (5K, 4.5K), 1–150 fps (4K), 1–200 fps (3K), 1–
300 fps (2K).
Electronic shutter: Variable speed shutter with pre-programmed presets at 1⁄24
to 1⁄2000 seconds.
Viewfinder: Attachable BOMB EVF (OLED), 5 REDtouch-LCD (5 or 9), or
RED-LCD (7″).
On-set monitoring: Preview HD-SDI or HDMI output in 1080P or 720P 10-bit
4:2:2 up to 60Hz.
Recording device: Mounted RED-MAG SSD module (64, 128, 256, 512 GB
media).
Recording format: Using selectable levels (18:1 to 3:1) of REDCODE RAW
compression: 5K raw (full frame, 2:1, 2.40 : 1, and 1.20 for 2X anamorphic
photography), 4.5K raw (2.40 : 1), 4K raw (16:9, HD, 2:1, and 1.20), 3K and
2K raw (16:9, HD, 2:1, and 1.20). 1.20 mode unsqueezes 2X anamorphic
image for letterboxed 2.40 display on monitors and in viewfinder. Clean HD-
SDI signal (10-bit 4:2:2 720P or 1080P) can be sent to external recorders.
Two channels audio (24-bit, 48 kHz). Optional four-channel analog audio
and AES/EBU digital audio input via Pro I/O module.
Menu display/controls: Menu accessible through attachable BOMB EVF
(when used with side handle), REDtouch-LCD, or detachable wireless
REDMOTE controller.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Video connectors: EVF-LCD, HD-SDI (BNC), HDMI, Video Sync (4-pin
LEMO).
Audio connectors: Audio in (3.5mm minijack x2/+48V phantom power), stereo
headphones (3.5mm minijack).
Power connectors: 12V DC in (6-pin LEMO).
Other connectors: RS232 control (4-pin LEMO), Ethernet GIG-E (9-pin
LEMO).
Power: 12V DC (11.5V to 17V).
Power consumption: 60W.
Misc: Remote control through wireless device (REDMOTE), Ethernet, RS232,
or GPI trigger using video sync connector or via optional Pro I/O module.
User assignable buttons.
Pro I/O Module
Attaches to the rear of the camera for increased I/O connections.
Weight: 1.09 kg (2.4 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 9.76cm x 9.8cm x 10.9cm (3.84 x 3.86 x 4.29).
Video connectors: EVF/LCD, genlock (BNC), program HD-SDI (BNC),
preview HD-SDI (BNC).
Audio connectors: Audio in (3-pin XLR x2 / +48V phantom power), audio out
(5-pin XLR), AES input (7-pin LEMO) allows two to four channels of 24-bit
48 KHz digital audio ingest.
Power connectors: 12V DC out (4-pin LEMO) supplies unregulated 11.5V to
17V battery pass-through power. GPIO trigger/tally function (4-pin LEMO)
also supplies unregulated 11.5V to 17V battery pass-through power.
Other connectors: RS232 control (10-pin LEMO), time code (5-pin LEMO).
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Power consumption: 25W (excluding power draw of attached devices).
RED ONE

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor digital camera. Electronic viewfinder with

SurroundView™ feature, which shows a 10% area outside the picture
composition. Delivers 12-bit raw data (4.5K and below) using REDCODE
RAW wavelet compression. Later units will have the larger 5K Mysterium-X
sensor, which is 30 x 15mm, and can use its higher ISO rating, but are
restricted to recording the same 4.5K area of the original Mysterium sensor.
Weight: Body only: approx. 4.54 kg (10 lb).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA, 4520 x 2540 active photosites. Max.
recorded area is 4480 x 2304 pixels, the rest is used for overscan area for
monitoring.
Active sensor dimensions: 24.4mm x 13.7mm (.961″ x .539″). Max. recorded
area is 24.2mm x 12.5mm.
Quantization: 12-bit A/D.
Lens mount: PL. Other mounts available.
Sensitivity: Suggested rating of ISO 800 w/Mysterium-X sensor (ISO 320 with
original Mysterium sensor). 66 db S/N ratio.
Frame rates: Project rates: 23.98, 24, 25, 29.97 fps (4.5K, 4K); also 50, 59.94
fps (3K, 2K). Varispeed rates: 1–30 fps (4.5K, 4K); 1–60 fps (3K); 1–120
fps (2K).
Electronic shutter: Variable speed shutter with pre-programmed presets at 1⁄24
to 1⁄2000 seconds.
Viewfinder: Color LCD RED-EVF (1280 x 848 pixels, progressive-scan,
w/SurroundView, framelines, exposure meter).
On-set monitoring: Preview HD-SDI or HDMI output in 720P 10-bit 4:2:2 at
50/60 Hz, to RED-EVF, RED-LCD, or other monitors.
Recording device: Attached RED-FLASH (16 GB CF card) or RED SSD (64,
128, 256 GB) module.
Recording format: 12-bit REDCODE RAW files (using compression in
selectable levels).
Menu display/controls: Embedded interactive menu visible through EVF and
onboard LCD, plus rear black-and-white LCD display panel w/joystick
control. Display info includes media capacity remaining, battery capacity
remaining, selected ASA, shutter speed, frame rate, color temp, clip name,
time code, exposure histogram, Focus Assist, waveform, audio levels.
Indicators: Tally.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Video connectors: RED-EVF, RED-LCD (custom 16-pin data + power), remote
(USB-2), digital magazine (custom 16-pin LEMO w/ e-SATA + power), time
code (5-pin LEMO), genlock (DIN 1.0/2.3).
Audio connectors: Audio in (3-pin mini-XLR x4), audio out (5-pin mini-XLR),
stereo headphones (3.5mm minijack).
Power connectors: 12V DC in (6-pin LEMO), aux. power out/GPI/O (4-pin
LEMO).
Other connectors: AUX 232, lens remote, USB-2 Peripheral, SDIO.
Power: 12V DC (11.5V to 17V).
Power consumption: Approx. 65W (depending on configuration and mode).
Misc: Metadata, 4-channel audio (24-bit / 48kHz), FCP and QuickTime Player
compatibility, RED-ALERT and REDCINE processing, DPX/TIFF export
and alternate codec transcoding applications.
RED Scarlet-X

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor digital camera. Electronic shutter and

viewfinder. Delivers 16-bit raw data up to 5.1K using REDCODE RAW
wavelet compression. HDRx™ feature can extend dynamic range. Lower
resolution modes involve cropping the sensor to smaller dimensions,
allowing frame rates up to 120 fps. Can also be used as a 14MP still camera.
Optional Pro I/O Module is available for increased video and audio
connections (see Red EPIC entry for details).
Weight: Body only: 2.27 kg (5 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 14.8cm x 9.8cm x 14.67cm (5.83″ x 3.86″ x
5.78″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA, 5120 x 2700 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 27.7mm x 14.6mm (1.09″ x .575″).
Quantization: 16-bit A/D.
Lens mount: Nikkor or Canon EF. PL mount optional.
Sensitivity: Suggested rating of ISO 800. 66 db S/N ratio.
Frame rates: Project rates: 23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 47.96, 48, 50, 59.94
fps/varispeed rates: 1–12 fps (5K full-frame), 1–30 fps (4K HD), 1–48 fps
(3K HD), 1-60 fps (1080P), 1-120 fps (1K).
Electronic shutter: Variable speed shutter with pre-programmed presets at 1⁄24
to 1⁄2000 seconds.
Viewfinder: Attachable BOMB EVF (OLED), REDtouch-LCD (5″ or 9″), or
RED-LCD (7″).
On-set monitoring: Preview HD-SDI or HDMI output in 1080P or 720P 10-bit
4:2:2 up to 60 Hz.
Recording device: Mounted RED-MAG SSD module (64, 128, 256, 512 GB
media).
Recording format: Using selectable levels (18:1 to 3:1) of REDCODE RAW
compression: 5K raw (full frame), 4K raw (HD), 3K (HD), 1080P, 1K. Clean
HD-SDI signal (10-bit 4:2:2 720P or 1080P) can be sent to external
recorders. Two channels audio (24-bit, 48 kHz). Optional four-channel
analog audio and AES/EBU digital audio input via the Pro I/O module.
Menu display/controls: Menu accessible through attachable BOMB EVF
(when used with side handle), REDtouch-LCD, or detachable wireless
REDMOTE device.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Video connectors: EVF-LCD, HD-SDI (BNC), HDMI, Video Sync (4-pin
LEMO).
Audio connectors: Audio in (3.5mm minijack x2 / +48V phantom power),
stereo headphones (3.5mm minijack).
Power connectors: 12V DC in (6-pin LEMO).
Other connectors: RS232 control (4-pin LEMO), Ethernet GIG-E (9-pin
LEMO).
Power: 12V DC (11.5V to 17V).
Power consumption: 60W.
Misc: remote control through wireless device (REDMOTE), Ethernet, RS232,
or GPI trigger using video sync connector or via optional Pro I/O module.
User assignable buttons.
Silicon Imaging SI-2K

Overview: A 2⁄3 single-sensor digital camera. The SI-2K is composed of two

components, the removable sensor head (also called the SI-2K MINI) which
is then connected via network interface to an embedded Intel Core 2 Duo
cPCI boardset running a customized version of Windows XP designed
specifically for running the camera control software. Because the control
software runs on a PC OS platform, it can also be installed on a generic PC
such as a laptop, and the MINI head tethered up to 100 meters away via
gigabit Ethernet. Raw sensor data from the camera head can be transmitted
at up to 100 Mbps over the network interface. An optical viewfinder version
of the SI-2K MINI head is also available, and can be swapped out with the
non-optical viewfinder SI-2K MINI sensor block in the SI-2K.
Weight: Sensor head (SI-2K MINI) only: approx. .454 kg (1 lb); camera +
sensor head: 4.99 kg (11 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 26.6cm x 14.9cm x 16.5cm (10.47″ x 5.87″ x 6.5″).
Sensor: 2⁄3 CMOS sensor with Bayer CFA, 2048 x 1152 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 10.2mm x 5.76mm (.402″ x .227″).
Quantization: 12-bit A/D.
Lens mount: Universal lens mount system with adapters for PL, B4, c-mount,
and F-mount.
Sound level: High fan mode: 35 db(A)/low fan mode: 21 db(A).
Sensitivity: At 24 fps with 1⁄48-sec. shutter speed, suggested rating of ISO 250.
Frame rates: Possible frame rates vary at each resolution. At 2K and 1080P:
23.98P, 24P, 25P, 29.97P, 30P. Higher rates up to 85 and 150 fps possible
through windowing of the sensor either at 1280 x 720 or 960 x 540 pixels.
720/60P provided for 60 fps smooth-motion broadcast work.
Electronic shutter: Selectable shutter angles/shutter speeds of 1⁄48, 1⁄50, 1⁄60, 1⁄72,
1
⁄100, 1⁄120, 1⁄250, 1⁄500, 1⁄1000. Additional long exposure shutter modes
available up to 5 seconds (suggested limit—longer times available but create
too much dark current noise).
On-set monitoring: 720P output (HDMI or VGA) at 1280 x 720 pixels via
GPU video card output.
Recording device: Onto either 2.5 hard drives or flash discs compatible with
SATA specification. Also any USB compatible device able to sustain 20
Mbps.
Recording format: 2048 x 1152 compressed (CineForm) 10-bit raw data or
uncompressed 12-bit raw data. 720P via HDMI or VGA for monitoring
purposes only.
Menu display/controls: Touchscreen interface with control over all camera
functions such as shutter, gain, frame rates, resolution, as well as integrated
IRIDAS 3D LUT color correction system, and frame-store system.
Accessories: P+S Technik supplied MINI-rig system for camera-head only
operation, record trigger controls, optical viewfinder option, OLED
electronic viewfinder via VGA interface, and shoulder-mount system.
Video connectors: Gigabit Ethernet (x2), USB 2.0 (x2), VGA, HDMI, genlock
input, camera control input, record trigger input.
Power connectors: 12V DC power out (x2), lens power out (12-pin Hirose).
Power: 12V DC (12V to 17V); Anton Bauer mount included.
Power consumption: 5A average power consumption; 8A peak consumption
(during record).
Sony F23 CineAlta

Overview: A 1080/60P 4:4:4 camera with three Power HAD EX 2⁄3 (RGB)
CCDs. With a wide color gamut prism block and digital signal processing up
to 36 bits, color space is not limited to broadcast ITU-709 standards
(television color palette). Electronic viewfinder only. The F23 records to an
attached SRW-1 tape recorder or SR-R1 memory recorder; the camera signal
can also be sent to an external recorder. With attached SRW-1 or SR-R1, the
F23 can record 1–60 fps for overcranking, undercranking, speed ramp
effects, time lapse and interval recording. Results can be reviewed
immediately on the set without any additional gear. Camera operates in
either cine mode using S-Log gamma setting allowing 700% dynamic range
or in custom mode with full engineering control available including
hypergamma. Reinforced steel B4 lens mount.
Weight: Approx. 5.0 kg (11 lb); with attached SRW-1 approx. 9.5 kg (21 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): body only: 21.6cm x 19.9cm x 20.4cm (85⁄8″ x
77
⁄8″ x 81⁄8″); w/top-mounted SRW-1 VTR (LxH): 29.4cm x 41.2cm (115⁄8″ x
161⁄4″); w/rear-mounted SRW-1 VTR (LxH): 38.8cm x 30.7cm (153⁄8″ x
121⁄8″).
Sensor: Three 2⁄3 CCD (Hyper HAD EX), 1920 x 1080 active photosites per
sensor.
Active sensor dimensions: 9.58mm x 5.39mm (.3772″ x .2122″).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Lens mount: 2⁄3 bayonet type (B4).
Built-in filters: Dual-stage: A: 3200°K (clear), B: 4300°K, C: 5600°K, D:
6300°K, E: 1⁄2ND ND1: CLEAR, ND2: 1⁄4ND, ND3: 1⁄16ND, ND4: 1⁄64ND,
ND5: CAP.
Sound level: Camera only (tethered VTR): 22.5dB(A). Camera with VTR rear-
mounted: 26dB(A). Camera with VTR top-mounted: 26dB(A). Camera
w/SSR rear-mounted: 25 db(A). Camera with SSR top-mounted: 25.5 db(A).
(All values 3 feet from film plane).
Sensitivity: f/10.0 at 2000 lux, 89.9% reflective. At 24 fps with a 1⁄48-sec.
shutter speed, the exposure index is approx. equivalent to ISO 400.
Frame rates: Fixed speeds are 23.98P, 24P, 25P, 29.97P, 30P, 59.94P, 60P, and
59.94i and 60i. Variable rates: 1–60 fps (4:4:4 or 4:2:2)/interval recording,
time lapse and speed ramps possible.
Electronic shutter: Variable mode shutter angles from 4.2° to 360° are
achievable. Settings are either OFF, or VARIABLE (4.2°–360°) or STEP
(eight user-defined settings chosen from 4.2°–360°).
Electronic viewfinder: Sony HDVF-C30W LCD color viewfinder (w/ 3.5 LCD
screen).
On-set monitoring: 1080P/1080i (single or dual link HD-SDI) / SD
(NTSC/PAL).
Recording device: Attached Sony SRW-1 HDCAM SR VTR or SR-R1 memory
recorder, or cabled to an external recorder via single or dual-link HD-SDI.
Video is fed automatically to SRW-1 / SR-R1 through top or rear connector.
See separate Sony SRW-1 and SR-R1 entries for additional details.
Recording format: 1080P or 1080i, 10-bit 4:4:4 (RGB) or 4:2:2 (YCbCr) using
HDCAM-SR compression. SR-Lite (220 Mbps) and SR-SQ (440 Mbps) are
supported as standard; SR-HQ (880 Mbps) is supported on SRW-1. SR-HQ
and uncompressed recording are supported on SR-R1 as an option with the
SRK-R311. S-Log, Hypergamma, and Rec.709 gamma options.
Menu display/controls: LCD viewfinder, monitor out or side blue EL display
panel. Programmable LCD and EL panel menu gives fast access to
frequently used camera settings. Also: recording start/stop, three assignable
switches, on/off. Separate assistant panel (wired remote control device) with
blue EL display also available.
Indicators: Tally/error/assignable.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: Less than 85%.
Video connectors: Genlock in (BNC), test out/VBS/HD Y (BNC), monitor
out/single-link HD-SDI out (BNC x2), dual-link HD-SDI out or two HD-
SDI 4:2:2 via Interface Box (BNC x2).
Audio connectors: audio in (3-pin XLR x2).
Power connectors: 12V/24V DC in (8-pin male LEMO), DC in (4-pin male
XLR, camera only via interface module), 12V DC out (11-pin Fischer, max
4A), 24V DC out (3-pin Fischer, max 5.5A).
Other connectors: Lens (12-pin Hirose), RMB/MSU remote (8-pin Hirose),
viewfinder (20-pin Sony x2), external I/O (5-pin female LEMO), network
(RJ-45, 10Base-T/100Base-TX).
NOTE: SRW-1 only has Ch1/Ch2 audio input, time code in/out, and an
earphone jack. All other inputs and outputs are on the SRPC-1. For this
reason, when separating the SRW-1 unit from the Sony F23 camera, you
need to attach an interface box to the camera and use the SRPC-1 with the
SRW-1. Then you can connect the camera to the separate recorder through
HD-SDI cables for picture.
Power: 12V DC (10.5V to 17V) / 24V DC (pass-thru for accessory out only).
150W power supply recommended.
Power consumption: 56W (w/o lens, viewfinder, at 24P).
Sony F35 CineAlta

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor (RGB-striped CCD) digital camera. Sensor

delivers full 1920 x 1080 pixel resolution for each color channel. The F35
records to an attached SRW-1 tape recorder or SR-R1 memory recorder;
camera signal can also be sent to an external recorder. With attached SRW-1
or SR-R1, the F35 can record 1 - 60 fps for overcranking, undercranking,
speed ramp effects, time lapse and interval recording. Results can be
reviewed immediately on the set without any additional gear. Camera
operates in either Cine Mode using S-Log Gamma setting allowing 800%
dynamic range or in Custom Mode with full engineering control available
including Hypergamma. Electronic viewfinder only.
Weight: Body + top handle: 6.83 kg (15.5 lb), viewfinder 850g (1.13 lb), VTR:
5.72 kg (12.6 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): Body only: 21.6cm x 19.9cm x 20.4cm (85⁄8″ x
77
⁄8″ x 81⁄8″); w/top-mounted SRW-1 VTR (LxH): 29.4cm x 41.2cm (115⁄8″ x
161⁄4″); w/rear-mounted SRW-1 VTR (LxH): 38.8cm x 30.7cm (153⁄8″ x
121⁄8″).
Sensor: S35mm CCD with RGB-striped filter, 5760 x 2160 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 23.622mm x 13.2842mm (.930″ x .523″).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Lens mount: PL or PV.
Sound level: Camera only (tethered VTR): 22.5dB(A)/camera with VTR rear-
mounted: 26dB(A)/camera with VTR top-mounted: 26dB(A)/camera w/SSR
rear-mounted: 25 db(A)/camera with SSR top-mounted: 25.5 db(A). (All
values 3 feet from film plane).
Sensitivity: At 24 fps with a 1⁄48-sec. shutter speed, suggested rating of 400
ASA.
Frame rates: Fixed speeds are 23.98P, 24P, 25P, 29.97P, 30P, 59.94P, 60P, and
59.94i and 60i. Variable rate can be set between 1–60 fps (4:4:4 or 4:2:2).
Electronic shutter: Adjustable from 3.8° to 360°.
Electronic viewfinder: Sony HD color viewfinder with diopter. Option for two
viewfinders at once. Programmable frame lines and transparent mask.
On-set monitoring: 1080P HD output (single-link HD-SDI).
Recording device: Attached Sony SRW-1 HDCAM SR VTR or SR-R1 memory
recorder, or cabled to external recorder, via single or dual-link HD-SDI.
Video is fed automatically to SRW-1/SR-R1 through top or rear connector.
See separate Sony SRW-1 and SR-R1 entries for additional details.
Recording format: 1080P 10-bit or 12 bit 4:4:4 RGB or 1080P 10-bit 4:2:2
YCbCr using HDCAM-SR compression. SR-Lite (220 Mbps) and SR-SQ
(440 Mbps) are supported as standard; SR-HQ (880 Mbps) is supported on
SRW-1. SR-HQ and uncompressed recording are supported on SR-R1 as an
option with the SRK-R311. S-Log, Hypergamma, and Rec.709 gamma
options.
Menu display/controls: viewfinder or side LCD panel. Programmable LCD
menu gives fast access to frequently used camera settings. Also: recording
start/stop, three assignable switches, on/off.
Indicators: Tally, error, assignable.
Operating temperature: -20°C to +40°C (-4°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: Less than 85%.
Video connectors: Single-link HD-SDI (BNC), genlock in (BNC), reference out
(BNC), sync out (BNC).
Power connectors: 24V/12V DC in (11-pin Fisher), 12V DC out (3-pin Fisher),
24V DC out.
Other connectors: Sony RS232 (multipin), metadata, record trigger on 3-pin
Fisher.
NOTE: SRW-1 only has Ch1/Ch2 audio input, time code in/out, and an
earphone jack. All other inputs and outputs are on the SRPC-1. For this
reason, when separating the SRW-1 unit from the F35, you need to attach an
interface box to the camera and use the SRPC-1 with the SRW-1.
Accessories: Accepts the entire range of ARRI or Panaflex accessories
including matte boxes, follow focus, etc.
Power: 12V DC (10.5V to 17V); 24V DC (pass thru for accessory out only).
150W power supply recommended.
Power consumption: 30 fps or less: 5A, 30 to 50 fps: 7.5A, Sony viewfinder:
0.5A, VTR: 5A.
Sony F65 CineAlta

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor CMOS digital camera. 8K (20MP) sensor

with 17:9 aspect ratio delivers full 4K resolution. Electronic viewfinder. F65
has a mechanical rotating shutter to eliminate rolling shutter effect. Uses a
dockable memory recorder (SR-R4) for 16-bit raw data.
Weight: Body only: 5 kg (11 lb)/body + top handle, viewfinder bracket,
viewfinder: 7.3 kg (16 lb)/body + top handle, viewfinder bracket, viewfinder,
SR-R4 Memory Recorder: 9.3 kg (20.5 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 25.4cm x 22.9cm x 20.3cm (10″ x 9″ x 8″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS w/ Q67-style CFA (Bayer pattern rotated 45 degrees),
8192 x 2160 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 24.7mm x 13.1mm (.972″ x .516″).
Quantization: 16-bit A/D.
Lens mount: PL or PV.
Behind-the-lens ND filters: ND.9, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8 (3, 4, 5, 6 stops).
Sensitivity: Suggested rating of ISO 800.
Frame rates: 1–120 fps.
Shutter: 4.2° to 360° (electronic shutter)/11.2° to 180° (mechanical rotary
shutter).
Electronic viewfinder: Color LCD viewfinder (HDVF-C30W) with diopter;
other viewfinders available.
On-set monitoring: 1080P HD output (single-link HD-SDI).
Recording device: Dockable Sony SR-S4 recorder using SRMemory cards.
Recording format: 16-bit linear raw or MPEG-4 SStP files (HDCAM-SR
native.) RAW options: F65RAW-SQ, F65RAW-Lite, and F65RAW-HFR.
The F65RAW-SQ mode uses a mild compression for highest possible image
quality is the priority. The F65RAW-Lite mode uses a higher compression
which extends the recording time by reducing the image file size. F65RAW-
HFR mode allows the F65, with the SR-R4, to record over 24 minutes of
120P content on a single SR-1TS55 (1 TB) card. HD SStP options: RGB HD
files (1920 x 1080) recorded as 10-bit 4:4:4 or 12-bit 4:4:4 and 10-bit 4:2:2
MPEG-4 SStP files.
Recording time: Raw mode to SR-R4 using 1TB card: 60 min. (at 24P).
Menu display/controls: Viewfinder or side LCD panel. Four assignable
buttons. Wired or wireless to iPad or Android tablets.
Indicators: Recording (hideable), diagnosis, docking.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Video connectors: HD-SDI out (BNC x2), HD-Y out (BNC), genlock in
(BNC).
Power connectors: 12V/24V DC in (8-pin male LEMO) / 12V DC out (11-pin),
24V DC out (3-pin).
Other connectors: Viewfinder (20-pin), lens (12-pin), remote (8-pin) external
input/output (5-pin female LEMO), Ethernet (RJ-45 type), 10BASE-T,
100BASE-TX lens mount hot shoe (4-pin x2), conforming to ARRI LDS
(Lens Data System) and Cooke /i.
Power: 12 DC (10.5V to 17V) for camera, 24V DC (20V to 30V) for
accessories.
Power consumption: Approx. 65W at 24 fps (mechanical rotary shutter
operating, without lens, viewfinder); 102W w/ SR-R4 onboard.
Sony HDC-F950 CineAlta

Overview: A 1080/60P 4:4:4 camera with three 2⁄3 (RGB) CCDs. Requires
external HD recorder. Electronic viewfinder only. The HDC-F950 provides
full-bandwidth digital 4:4:4 RGB signal processing and output capability.
4:4:4 HD can be sent via dual-link HD-SDI to recorder, or via single optical
fiber cable to HDCU-F950 Camera Control Unit or to SRPC-1 processor
unit (w/ HKSR-101 option installed) for SRW-1 HDCAM SR recorder. The
HDC-F950 has the ability to do time exposures (slow shutter). The HKC-
T950 HD CCD block adaptor is a small unit containing just the lens mount
and imaging block, separated from the DSP inside the main camera body by
up to 10 meters, or 50 meters with an optional cable. This has been adapted
for 3-D systems (using two “T-blocks” side by side), plus unique shooting
situations that require a small camera unit.
Weight: Body only: approx. 5.1 kg (11.24 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 36.0cm x 13.3cm x 27.6cm (14.17″ x 5.24″ x
10.87″).
Sensor: Three 2⁄3″ CCD (FIT type), 1920 x 1080 active photosites per sensor.
Active sensor dimensions: 9.58mm x 5.39mm (.3772″ x .2122″).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Lens mount: 2⁄3 bayonet type (B4).
Sensitivity: f/10.0 at 2000 lux, 89.9% reflective. At 24 fps, 1⁄48-second shutter
speed, the exposure index is approx. equivalent to ISO 320.
Frame/field rates: 23.98P, 24P, 25P, 29.97P, 30P, 50i, 59.94i, 60i
Electronic shutter: (24P mode): off, 1⁄32, 1⁄48, 1⁄60, 1⁄96, 1⁄125, 1⁄250, 1⁄500, 1⁄1000.
ECS (ClearScan) 24–2200Hz (minimum setting depends on frame rate
selected).
Built-in filters: dual-stage: A: Cross (or 5600°K on later versions), B: 3200°K,
C: 4300°K, D: 6300°K, 1: clear, 2: 1⁄4ND, 3: 1⁄16ND, 4: 1⁄64ND.
Electronic viewfinder: 2″ black-and-white CRT viewfinder (HDVF-20A) or
color LCD viewfinder (HDVF-C30W); other viewfinders available.
On-set monitoring: 1080P/1080i HD (single-link HD-SDI).
Recording device: Any external HD recorder.
Recording format: 1080P or 1080i 10-bit 4:2:2 YCbCr (thru single-link HD-
SDI) or 10-bit 4:4:4 RGB (thru dual-link HD-SDI or optical fiber cable).
Menu display/controls: Viewfinder (for access to menu using thumbwheel) or
side LCD panel (for TC, audio, etc.) Also switches for: record start/stop, two
assignable switches, power on/off. white balance, etc.
Indicators: Tally/error.
Operating temperature: -20°C to +45°C (-4°F to +113°F).
Operating humidity: 25% to 80% relative humidity.
Video connectors: Dual-link HD-SDI out (BNC x2), single-link HD-SDI out
(BNC), test out (BNC), genlock in (BNC), optical fiber out.
Audio connectors: Ch1/Ch2 audio in (3-pin female XLR x2), mic in (3-pin
female XLR), stereo headphone (3.5mm minijack).
Power connectors: 12V DC in (4-pin male XLR, 11 to 17V DC), 12V DC out
(4-pin male, 10.5 to 17V).
Other connectors: Lens (12-pin), remote (8-pin), EVF (20-pin), external I/O
(20-pin).
Power: 12V DC (11V to 17V).
Power consumption: 33W.
Sony HDW-F900 CineAlta

Overview: A 2⁄3 3-CCD camcorder capable of capturing images at

23.98/24/25/29.97/30P (progressive-scan) or 50/59.94/60i (interlace-scan) at
1920 x 1080 pixel resolution, recording to an internal HDCAM VTR.
Weight: Body w/ ENG lens, tape, and battery: approx. 8 kg (17 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): With handle: 34.0cm x 14.0cm x 26.5cm (13.39″
x 5.51″ x 10.43″).
Sensor: Three 2⁄3 CCD (FIT type), 1920 x 1080 active photosites per sensor.
Active sensor dimensions: 9.58mm x 5.39mm (.3772 x .2122).
Quantization: 10-bit A/D.
Lens mount: 2⁄3 bayonet type (B4).
Sensitivity: f/10.0 at 2000 lux, 89.9% reflective. At 24 fps, 1⁄48-second shutter
speed, the exposure index is approx. equivalent to ISO 320.
Frame/field rates: 23.98P, 24P, 25P, 29.97P, 30P, 50i, 59.94i, 60i.
Electronic shutter: (24P mode): 1⁄32, 1⁄48, 1⁄60, 1⁄96, 1⁄125, 1⁄250, 1⁄500, 1⁄1000. ECS
(ClearScan) 24 to 7000 Hz (minimum setting depends on frame rate
selected).
Built-in filters: Dual-stage: A: Cross (or 5600°K on later versions), B: 3200°K,
C: 4300°K, D: 6300°K, 1: clear, 2: 1⁄4ND, 3: 1⁄16ND, 4: 1⁄64ND.
Electronic viewfinder: 2 black-and-white CRT viewfinder (HDVF-20A) or
color LCD viewfinder (HDVF-C30W); other viewfinders available.
On-set monitoring: 1080P/1080i HD (three analog HD connectors); single-link
HD-SDI output possible w/ HDCA-901 adaptor.
Recording device: Internal HDCAM VTR or external HD recorder.
Recording format: 1080P/1080i 10-bit 4:2:2 YCbCr (thru single-link HD-SDI).
HDCAM recording reduces this to compressed 8-bit 3:1:1 1440 x 1080 pixel
signal.
Menu display/controls: Viewfinder (for access to menu using thumbwheel) or
side LCD panel (for TC, audio, etc.) Also switches for: record start/stop, two
assignable switches, power on/off. white balance, etc.
Indicators: Tally/error.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: 25% to 80% relative humidity.
Tape: 1⁄2″ HDCAM cassette. Recommended: Sony BCT-40HD/22HD.
Tape speed: Approx. 77.4mm/s (24P mode).
Recording time: Max. 50 min. with BCT-40HD (24P mode).
Fast-forward/Rewind time: Approx. 6 min. with BCT-40HD.
Video connectors: Analog YPbPr video output (BNC x3), genlock video in
(BNC), time code in (BNC), time code out (BNC).
Audio connectors: Ch1/Ch2 audio in (3-pin female XLR x2), mic in (3-pin
female XLR), audio out (5-pin male XLR), stereo headphone (3.5mm
minijack).
Power connectors: 12V DC in (4-pin male XLR, 11 to 17V DC), 12V DC out
(4-pin male XLR, 11 to 17V DC).
Other connectors: Lens (12-pin), remote (8-pin), ECU (6-pin), EVF (20-pin).
Power: 12V DC (11V to 17V).
Power consumption: 42W (with 12V power supply, REC mode, with HDVF-
20A).
Misc.: Sony HDCA-901 is a commonly used adaptor that allows HD-SDI output
(BNC x2), as well as audio recording to Ch3/Ch4 (female 3-pin XLR x2),
audio monitor output (4-pin male XLR) and stereo headphone (3.5mm
minijack). Panavision and Clairmont Cameras made various revisions to the
F900; as a result, the menu access button on the front was moved onto a
separate control unit. Panavised F900 has a dedicated Panavision lens mount
to accept Panavision Digital Lens.
Sony HDW-F900R CineAlta

Overview: A major revision of the Sony F900 with many physical

improvements, not just an updated version. The F900R records images in
accordance with the CIF (Common Image Format) standard, which specifies
a sampling structure of 1920 x 1080 pixels, rather than reducing 1920 to
1440 horizontal pixels as the HDCAM recorder does in the earlier F900.
There is also a picture cache board, a 2:3 pull-down option for monitoring
24P as 60i to reduce flicker, a downconverter for SD monitoring purposes, a
slow-shutter board, and two HD-SDI outputs. 12-bit A/D conversion rather
than 10-bit. The body is 20% shorter and 2.6 kg lighter than the previous
model. The size is also smaller because the commonly-used HDCA-901
adaptor is no longer needed to get HD-SDI outputs. The B4 lens mount has
been reinforced. Enhanced image controls such as HyperGamma provided.
Stop motion and time-lapse photography now possible with HKDW-703
picture cache board. Image inversion possible with HKDW-905R board.
Only the specifications that differ from the F900 are listed below.
Weight: Body w/ ENG lens, tape, and battery: approx. 5.4 kg (11.91 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): Without handle: 30.8cm x 12.7cm x 20.6cm
(12.13″ x 5″ x 8.11″); w/ handle, height is 26.9cm (10.59).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Frame/field rates: Same as F900, plus interval recording w/ HKDW-703 board.
Electronic shutter: Same as F900, plus slow-shutter w/ HKDW-905R board.
Electronic viewfinder: 2″ black-and-white CRT viewfinder (HDVF-20A) or
color LCD viewfinder (HDVF-C30W); other viewfinders available.
On-set monitoring: 1080P/1080i HD (single-link HD-SDI), SD (NTSC/PAL).
Operating humidity: 25% to 85% relative humidity.
Video connectors: Single-link HD-SDI out (BNC x2), test/SD out (BNC),
genlock video in (BNC), time code in (BNC), time code out (BNC).
Power consumption: 38W (with 12V power supply, REC mode, with HDVF-
20A).
Sony PMW-F3 CineAlta

Overview: A small, affordable Super 35 single-sensor digital camera with

electronic shutter, viewfinder, and 3.5 LCD. Records 1920 x 1080 HD to
internal SxS cards using 8-bit 4:2:0 XDCAM codec. Can send out 10-bit
4:2:2/4:4:4 HD in S-Log gamma to external recorders. 3D-LINK option for
controlling two bodies in a stereoscopic rig with a single remote controller.
Interval recording function. PMW-F3K model comes with a T/2.0 35mm,
50mm, and 85mm lens.
Weight: 2.4 kg (5.29 lb).
Body dimension (LxWxH): 21.0cm x 15.1cm x 18.9cm (8.27″ x 5.94″ x 7.44″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS (Exmor) with Bayer CFA. 2468 x 1398 active
photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 23.6mm x 13.3mm (.929″ x .524″). 27.1mm
diagonal.
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Lens mount: PL (with supplied lens mount adapter).
Built-in filters: Off: Clear, 1: 1⁄8ND, 2: 1⁄64ND.
Sensitivity: Recommended ISO 400 (video gamma mode) or ISO 800 (S-Log
gamma mode). 63dB (Y) signal-to-noise ratio.
Gain: -3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18dB, AGC.
White balance: Preset, Memory A, Memory B/ATW.
Frame rates: 720P: 1–60 fps selectable (17–60 fps when HD-SDI Dual Link is
active); 1080P: 1–30 fps selectable (17–30 fps when HD-SDI Dual Link is
active).
Electronic shutter: 1⁄32–1⁄2000 sec./slow shutter: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 frame
accumulation.
Electronic viewfinder: 0.45-inch, 16 x 9, 852 x 480 pixels.
Onboard LCD: 3.5-inch, 16 x 9, hybrid (semi-transmissive) type, 640 x 480
pixels.
On-set monitoring: HD-SDI out or HDMI out to monitor.
Recording device: Internal SxS Express Card34 recorder, 2-slots. 16GB, 32GB,
64GB cards.
Recording format: 8-bit 4:2:0 XDCAM codec using internal recorder. HD HQ
mode (35 Mbps): 1920 x 1080/59.94i, 50i, 29.97P, 25P, 23.98P; 1440 x
1080/59.94P, 50P, 29.97P, 25P, 23.98P; 1280 x 720/59.94P, 50P, 29.97P, 25P,
23.98P. HD SP mode (25 Mbps): 1440 x 1080/59.94i, 50i (23.98P is
recorded as 59.94i w/2-3 pull-down). SD mode (DVCAM): 720 x
480/59.94i, 29.97P or 720 x 576/50i, 25P. 10-bit 4:2:2 or 4:4:4 out to
external recorder using HD-SDI single or dual-link. Gamma modes:
Standard (x6), Cine (x4), S-Log (with RGB and S-LOG option).
Recording time: In HQ mode, 16GB card: approx. 50 min./32GB card: approx.
100 min./64GB card: approx. 200 min.
Menu display/controls: External switches on camera body plus through LCD
and EVF. Also can use IR Remote Commander.
Indicators: Tally/battery/error.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Video connectors: SDI out (BNC), HD-SDI dual-link out (BNC x2), HD-Y or
composite video out (BNC), HDMI out (Type A).
Audio connectors: Ch.1/Ch.1 audio in (3-pin XLR x2), Ch.1/Ch.2 audio out
(RCA phono jacks x2), stereo headphone (3.5mm minijack).
Power connectors: DC in (4-pin XLR).
Other connectors: Genlock in (BNC), time code in (BNC), time code out
(BNC), i.Link HDV/DV (4-pin), remote (8-pin), USB (Mini-B/USB2.0),
option (USB Type A), spare (10-pin round).
Power requirements: 12V DC (10.5V to 17.0V).
Power consumption: Approx. 18W (HD-SDI dual-link off, EVF on, LCD
monitor off); max. 24W (HD-SDI dual-link on, EVF On, LCD monitor on).
Accessories: PL lens mount adapter, stereo mic, windscreen, IR remote,
shoulder strap, CD-ROM (XDCAM browser, SxS device driver software,
PDF version operation manual), operational manual, warranty card, PL lens
kit (PMW-F3K only).
Vision Research Phantom Flex

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor digital camera. The camera has a limited

internal memory buffer and an attachable flash memory CineMag. Electronic
viewfinder only. The camera captures and outputs uncompressed 12-bit raw
2.5K data at frame rates in excess of 2500 fps. The full sensor is slightly
larger than that of Super 35 (25.6mm instead of Super 35’s 24mm width)
which means that some lenses may vignette when using the full sensor. The
sensor can be cropped in any resolution or frame shape desired.
Weight: Basic camera w/o CineMag or viewfinder: 5.33 kg (11.75 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 29.21cm x 12.70cm x 13.97cm (11.5″ x 5.0″ x
5.5″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA, 2560 x 1600 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 25.6 x 16mm (1″ x .63″).
Quantization: 12-bit A/D.
Lens Mount: PL standard, also PV, Nikon F, Canon EOS (powered).
Sound level: Less than 20dB at all speeds.
Sensitivity: At 24 fps/180° shutter, suggested rating of ISO 1200 for minimal
noise level.
Frame rates: Dependent on chosen vertical resolution. At the full height of
1600, maximum speed is 1455 fps. At 1080 height, 2570 fps. At 720 height,
5350 fps. An HQ mode eliminates the need for Black Referencing but cuts
available frame rates approximately in half. The camera can shoot at any
frame rate from 1 fps to the maximum available speed in single digit
intervals. Does not run in reverse.
Electronic shutter: Adjustable from 2 microseconds (0.017° at 24 fps) to 360°.
Electronic viewfinder: HD color viewfinder with diopter and flip-out panel.
On-set monitoring: Dual HD-SDI outputs can either be two separate 4:2:2
feeds (one with optional menu display) or a single dual-link 4:4:4 feed for
recording alternative.
Recording device: High-speed internal RAM memory buffer (8 GB, 16 GB, 32
GB) and CineMag (128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB); also 4:2:2 / 4:4:4 HD can be
sent to external recorder.
Recording format: Uncompressed 12-bit raw data at various resolutions (2560
x 1600 pixels is max.). Raw data can be translated into other file formats or
read directly in post. Two BNC video connectors can be set to output all the
common HD-SDI 4:2:2 formats or dual-link 4:4:4 formats. At 1080P
resolution, the 512 GB CineMag can hold 132 minutes of material when
played back at 24 fps.
Menu display/controls: Basic parameters controlled via a rotary dial and three
buttons on operator side. Simple menu in viewfinder and/or video output for
video monitoring settings (gain, color, gamma, matrix), black balance,
resolution, frame rate, shutter angle and trigger setting. All other controls via
a computer interface (Gigabit Ethernet connection) or by accessory RCU or
PCU controllers.
Video connectors: HD-SDI out (BNC x2).
Power connectors: 24V DC in (3-pin Fischer x2), 12V DC accessory power out
(4-pin Fischer x2).
Other connectors: Viewfinder out (Fischer-7, w/12V accessory out), record
trigger (BNC), time code in (BNC), time code out (BNC), frame sync
(BNC), genlock (BNC), remote port (5-pin Fischer).
Power: 24V DC (operates up to 36V DC).
Power consumption: 4A draw in capture mode, 2.5A in standby or playback
modes, viewfinder 0.5A, CineMag 0.8A, accessory outputs rated up to 1.5A
at 12V DC.
Accessories: Compatible with ARRI 15mm or 19mm sliding baseplates, as well
as ARRI lightweight 15mm front rods (60mm center-to-center) for handheld
use. Compatible with all matteboxes, follow focuses, zoom controls, etc.
designed for these systems.
Vision Research Phantom HD Gold

Overview: A Super 35 single-sensor digital camera. The camera has a limited

internal memory buffer and an attachable flash memory CineMag. Electronic
viewfinder only. The camera captures and outputs uncompressed 14-bit 2K
raw data at frame rates in excess of 1000 fps. The full sensor is a large
square that slightly exceeds the size of Super 35 (25.6mm instead of Super-
35’s 24mm width) which means that some lenses may vignette when using
the full sensor. When windowed to 1920 x 1080 pixels, the image width is
the same 24mm width as Super 35. The square sensor can be cropped in any
resolution desired, allowing a 2.40 frame or even the use of standard 2X
anamorphic optics.
Weight: Basic camera w/o CineMag or viewfinder: 5.44 kg (12 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 29.21cm x 13.97cm x 19.05cm (11.5″ x 5.5″ x
7.5″).
Sensor: S35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA, 2048 x 2048 active photosites.
Active sensor dimension: 25.6mm x 25.6mm (1″ x 1″).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Lens mount: PL standard, PV, Nikon F, Hasselblad large format and Mamiya
medium format mounts also available.
Sound level: Less than 20dB at all speeds.
Sensitivity: At 24 fps/180° shutter, suggested rating of ISO 600 for minimal
noise level.
Frame rates: Dependent on chosen vertical resolution. At the full height of
2048, maximum speed is 560 fps. At 1080 height, 1052 fps. At 720 height,
1576 fps. At the anamorphic image area height of 1488, 760 fps. The camera
can shoot at any frame rate from 1 fps to the maximum available speed in
single digit intervals. Does not run in reverse.
Electronic shutter: Adjustable from 2 microseconds (0.017° at 24 fps) to 360°.
Electronic viewfinder: HD color viewfinder with diopter and flip-out panel.
On-set monitoring: HD-SDI output is typically looped through onboard HD
monitor to other HD set monitors and downconverters.
Recording device: High-speed internal RAM memory buffer (8 GB, 16 GB, 32
GB) and CineMag (128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB); also 4:2:2 HD can be sent to
external recorder.
Recording format: Uncompressed 14-bit raw data (8-bit, 10-bit, and 12-bit are
also selectable) at various resolutions; 2048 x 2048 is max. resolution. Data
can be translated into other file formats or read directly in post. HD-SDI can
send 4:2:2 HD formats to external recorder. At 1080P resolution, the 512 GB
CineMag can hold 132 minutes of material when played back at 24 fps.
Menu display/controls: Basic parameters controlled via a rotary dial and two
buttons on operator side. Simple menu in viewfinder and/or video output for
video monitoring settings (gain, color, gamma, matrix), black balance,
resolution, frame rate shutter, angle and trigger setting. All other controls via
a computer interface (Gigabit Ethernet connection) or by accessory RCU or
PCU controllers.
Video connectors: HD-SDI out (BNC).
Power connectors: 24V DC in (3-pin Fischer).
Other connectors: Viewfinder out (7-pin Fischer, w/12V accessory out),
capture port [8-pin Fischer. with breakout cable to BNCs for record trigger,
time code in, time code out, frame sync (sychronization in/out port) and
strobe (for syncing a strobe light)], remote port (5-pin Fischer).
Power: 24V DC (operates up to 36V DC).
Power consumption: 4A draw in Capture mode, 2.5A in standby or playback
modes, viewfinder 0.5A, CineMag 0.8A, accessory output rated up to 1.5A
at 12V DC.
Accessories: Compatible with ARRI 15mm or 19mm sliding baseplates, as well
as ARRI lightweight 15mm front rods (60mm center-to-center) for handheld
use. Compatible with all matte boxes, follow focuses, zoom controls, etc.
designed for these systems. Accessory breakout box available for additional
12V and 24V power outputs and 12V onboard battery power for camera.
Shares all accessories designed for the Phantom 65.
Vision Research Phantom Miro M320S

Overview: A compact, lightweight 35mm single-sensor digital camera. The

camera has an internal memory buffer and an interchangeable flash memory
CineFlash module mounted in the camera. Electronic viewfinder only. The
camera captures and outputs uncompressed 12-bit raw 2K data at frame rates
in excess of 1450 fps. The full sensor is slightly smaller than that of Super
35 (19.6mm instead of Super 35’s 24mm width) which means that lenses
will appear more telephoto than on a Super 35 camera. The sensor can be
cropped in any resolution or frame shape desired.
Weight: Basic camera without CineFlash or viewfinder: 1.36 kg (3.0 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 19.05cm x 10.16cm x 8.89cm (7.5″ x 4.0″ x 3.5″).
Sensor: 35mm CMOS with Bayer CFA, 1920 x 1200 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 19.6mm x 12mm (.772″ x .472″).
Quantization: 12-bit A/D.
Lens mount: PL standard, also PV, Nikon F, Canon EOS (powered.)
Sound level: Less than 20dB all speeds.
Sensitivity: At 24fps/180° shutter, suggested rating of ISO 1200 for minimal
noise level.
Frame rates: Dependent on chosen vertical resolution. At the full height of
1200, maximum speed is 1380 fps. At 1080 height, 1540 fps. At 720 height,
32800 fps. The camera can shoot at any frame rate from 24 fps to the
maximum available speed in single digit intervals. Does not run in reverse.
Electronic shutter: Adjustable from 2 microseconds (0.017° at 24 fps) to 360°.
Electronic viewfinder: HD color viewfinder with diopter and flip-out panel.
On-set monitoring: Full HD-SDI 4:2:2 output in all standard formats.
Recording device: High-speed internal RAM memory buffer (3 GB, 6 GB, 12
GB) and CineFlash (60 GB, 120 GB, 240 GB); also 4:2:2 HD can be sent to
external recorder.
Recording format: Uncompressed 12-bit raw data at various resolutions (1920
x 1200 is max). This can be translated into other file formats or read directly
in post. HD-SDI out can send all common HD 4:2:2 formats to external
recorder. At 1080P resolution, the 240G CineFlash can hold 66 minutes of
material when played back at 24 fps.
Menu display/controls: To save in size and weight, only a record trigger and a
reset button are located on the front of the camera; all other controls via a
computer interface via Gigabit Ethernet connection or by accessory RCU or
PCU controllers.
Video connectors: HD-SDI (BNC).
Power connectors: DC in (Sony BP-U battery mount).
Other connectors: Ethernet (8-pin Fischer), capture (12-pin Fischer with
breakout to BNCs for record trigger, time code in, time code out, strobe
sync), Power/RS-232 (remote control, 6-pin Fischer), frame sync (BNC).
Power: 12V to 28V DC (accepts Sony BP-U series onboard battery).
Power consumption: 65W.
Accessories: compatible with ARRI 15mm or 19mm sliding baseplates, as well
as ARRI lightweight 15mm front rods (60mm center to center) for handheld
use. Compatible with all matte boxes, follow focuses, zoom controls, etc.
designed for these systems.
Vision Research Phantom 65 Gold

Overview: A 65mm single-sensor digital camera. The camera has a limited

internal memory buffer and an attachable flash memory CineMag. Electronic
viewfinder only. The camera captures and outputs uncompressed 14-bit 4K
raw data at frame rates in excess of 140 fps.
Weight: basic camera w/o CineMag or viewfinder: 5.44 kg (12 lb).
Body dimensions (LxWxH): 30.8cm x 13.9cm x 19.4cm (12.3″ x 5.47″ x
7.62″).
Sensor: 65mm CMOS with Bayer CFA, 4096 x 2440 active photosites.
Active sensor dimensions: 51.2mm x 30.5mm (2.02″ x 1.2″).
Quantization: 14-bit A/D.
Lens mount: Arriflex Super-PL (aka Mega-PL) standard, Panavision Super-PV,
Hasselblad large format and Mamiya medium format mounts also available.
Standard PL, PV and Nikon F mounts can also be used but lenses designed
for these mounts may not cover the sensor’s image area.
Sound level: Less than 20dB at all speeds.
Sensitivity: At 24 fps/180° shutter, suggested rating of ISO 600 for minimal
noise level.
Frame rates: 1fps to 145 fps in single digit intervals. Windowed for 1.85
aspect, 162 fps. Windowed for 2.40 aspect ratio, 220 fps. Does not run in
reverse.
Electronic shutter: Adjustable from 2 microseconds (0.017° @ 24 fps) to 360°.
Electronic viewfinder: HD color viewfinder with diopter and flip-out panel.
On-set monitoring: HD-SDI output is typically looped through onboard HD
monitor to other HD set monitors and downconverters.
Recording device: High-speed internal RAM memory buffer (8 GB, 16 GB, 32
GB) and CineMag (128 GB, 256 GB, 512 GB); also 4:2:2 HD can be sent to
external recorder.
Recording format: Uncompressed 14-bit raw data at various resolutions (4096
x 2440 is max.). This can be translated into other file formats or read directly
in post. HD-SDI out can all common HD 4:2:2 formats to external recorder.
At full sensor resolution, the 512 GB CineMag can hold more than 32
minutes of material when played back at 24 fps.
Menu display/controls: Basic parameters controlled via a rotary dial and two
buttons on operator side. Simple menu in viewfinder and/or video output for
video monitoring settings (gain, color, gamma, matrix), black balance,
resolution, frame rate shutter angle and trigger setting. All other controls via
a computer interface via Gigabit Ethernet connection or RCU or PCU
controllers.
Video connectors: HD-SDI (BNC).
Power connectors: 24V DC in (3-pin Fischer).
Other connectors: Viewfinder out (7-pin Fischer w/12V accessory out), capture
port [8-pin Fischer. with breakout cable to BNCs for record trigger, time
code in, time code out, frame sync (sychronization in/out port) and strobe
(for syncing a strobe light)], remote port (5-pin Fischer).
Power: 24V DC (operates up to 36V DC).
Power consumption: 4A draw in capture mode, 2.5A in standby or playback
modes, viewfinder 0.5A, CineMag 0.8A, accessory output rated up to 1.5A
at 12V DC.
Accessories: Compatible with ARRI 15mm or 19mm sliding baseplates, as well
as ARRI lightweight 15mm frontrods (60mm center-to-center) for handheld
use. Compatible with all matteboxes, followfocuses, zoom controls, etc.
designed for these systems. Accessory breakout box available for additional
12V and 24V power outputs and 12V onboard battery power for camera.
Shares all accessories designed for the Phantom HD.
ONBOARD RECORDERS

Cinedeck EX

Overview: This onboard recorder is compatible with HDMI/HD-SDI/LAN

cameras and records to a wide choice of codecs in .MOV, MXF, MP4 and
other wrappers via HDMI and single/dual-link 3G/HD-SDI. It also records to
popular camera and playback formats including AVC-Intra, XDCAM HD,
and H.264. It has a 7 high-res preview/focus/playback monitor with
touchscreen user interface. Brighter screen option (Hi-Brite) for improved
visibility in daylight shooting. Can mount an onboard battery.
Weight: 1.8 kg (4 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 20.3cm x 8.9cm x 12.7cm (8″ x 3.5″ x 5″).
Menu display/controls: Touchscreen interface on 7 screen. Real-tme composite
and per-channel waveform and histogram, onscreen reticle overlays. Remote
operation via Ethernet or WiFi.
Recording media: 2.5 SSD.
Recording format: Uncompressed 10-bit HD, uncompressed 8-bit or 10-bit
4:2:2 HD, all Apple Pro-Res codecs including 4444, all Avid DNxHD
codecs (MFX or .MOV), Avid Meridien JFIF, CineForm, AVC-Intra,
XDCAM HD, XDCAM EX, H.264 or DPX/C. Supports 1080i (50, 60i),
1080P or PsF (23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30), 1080 P or PsF (50, 59.94, 60
CineForm only), 720P (50, 59.94, 60), PAL/NTSC, SI-2K uncompressed 12-
bit raw 2K (w/ SI-2K option).
Connectors: DC in (2-pin), 12V DC accessories out (4-pin), RS232/422 COM
port, HDMI in, HDMI out, VGA out, analog audio in (XLR), analog audio in
(3-pin), tethered remote record (4-pin), time code sync port (5-pin), HD-SDI
in (BNC x2), HD-SDI out (BNC x2), stereo headphone, USB (x2), ESATA,
LAN Port, digital/analog audio, component and composite video.
Power: 12-28V DC.
Power consumption: 50–60W (Hi-Brite model draws 60-70W).
Codex ARRIRAW
Overview: A solid-state flash memory recorder designed to be mounted onto the
camera. Can record two channels of ARRIRAW (ideal for 3-D work) up to
30 fps, or single channel of ARRIRAW up to 60 fps, plus audio and
metadata, to removable datapacks. LUT’s can be loaded for monitor-out
preview.
Weight: 2.5 kg (5.7 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 19.87cm x 10.95cm x 11.5cm (7.8″ x 4.3″ x 4.5″).
Menu display/controls: Touch-based control surface unit; interface can be run
locally or remotely on a computer. GPI trigger.
Recording media: Solid-state datapacks (256 GB, 480 GB, 512 GB) plus HS
(high-speed) and LW (lightweight) datapacks.
Recording format: 12-bit ARRIRAW/0–60 fps Variframe. 16/24-bit audio at 48
kHz, AES or HD-SDI embedded.
Operating temperature: 5°C to +40°C (+23°F to +104°F).
Connectors: HD-SDI or T-Link/1.5G or 3G (BNC x4); in 1.5G mode, can
record up to two cameras single or dual-link (ARRIRAW or HD); in 3G
mode, can record up tp two cameras single-link and one camera dual-link
(ARRIRAW or HD), 4:2:2 out (BNC x2), 4:4:4 out (BNC), genlock (BNC),
LTC time code (5-pin LEMO), GPI record trigger (7-pin LEMO), RS422
interface (6-pin LEMO), network interface (Gigabit Ethernet), two channels
analog audio I/O (Mini XLR x2), stereo headphone (3.5mm jack), DC power
in (5-pin LEMO).
Power: 12–34V DC.
Power consumption: Approx. 30W (w/ standard datapack at 30 fps); peaks
around 40W (when recording ARRIRAW 4:3 at 48 fps w/ high-speed
datapack). 18W in standby.
Codex Onboard M
Overview: A solid-state flash memory recorder designed to be mounted onto the
camera. Can record ARRIRAW, uncompressed or wavelet encoded HD, plus
audio and metadata, to removable datapacks. A Codex media station can
offload material faster than real-time. LUT’s can be loaded for monitor-out
preview.
Weight: 2.5 kg (5.7 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 19.87cm x 10.95cm x 11.5cm (7.8″ x 4.3″ x 4.5″).
Menu display/controls: Touch-based control surface unit that can be mounted
or used handheld; interface can be run locally or remotely on a computer.
GPI trigger.
Recording media: Solid-state datapacks (256 GB, 480 GB, 512 GB) plus HS
(high-speed) and LW (lightweight) datapacks.
Recording format: 8-bit or 10-bit 1080PsF or 4:4:4 RGB or 4:2:2 YCbCr
(23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30 fps)/8-bit or 10-bit 1080PsF 4:2:2 YCbCr using
dual-link HD-SDI (47.96, 48, 50, 59.94, 60 fps)/8-bit or 10-bit 720P 4:4:4
RGB or 4:2:2 YCbCr (59.94, 60 fps)/12-bit ARRIRAW/0–60 fps Variframe.
Uncompressed, or can use wavelet compression. 16/24-bit audio at 48 kHz,
AES or HD-SDI embedded.
Operating temperature: 5°C to +40°C (+23°F to +104°F).
Connectors: HD-SDI or T-Link/1.5G or 3G (BNC x4); in 1.5G mode, can
record up to two cameras single or dual-link (ARRIRAW or HD); in 3G
mode, can record up tp two cameras single-link and one camera dual-link
(ARRIRAW or HD), 4:2:2 out (BNC x2), 4:4:4 out (BNC), genlock (BNC),
LTC time code (5-pin LEMO), GPI record trigger (7-pin LEMO), RS422
interface (6-pin LEMO), network interface (Gigabit Ethernet), two channels
analog audio I/O (Mini XLR x2), stereo headphone (3.5mm jack), DC power
in (5-pin LEMO).
Power: 12–34V DC.
Power consumption: Approx. 30W (w/standard datapack at 30 fps); peaks
around 40W (when recording ARRIRAW 4:3 at 48 fps w/high-speed
datapack). 18W in standby.
Codex Onboard S
Overview: A solid-state flash memory recorder designed for use with compact
HD cameras (such as the Canon C300, Sony F3). Can record uncompressed
or wavelet encoded HD, plus audio and metadata, to removable capture
drive. A Codex media station or Codex Vault can offload material faster than
real time. Audio is recorded through embedded video stream. LUT’s can be
loaded for monitor-out preview.
Weight: 1.2 kg (2.7 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 18.75cm x 8.29cm x 13.9cm (7.38″ x 3.26″ x 5.47″).
Menu display/controls: Touch-based control surface; interface can be run
locally or remotely on a computer. GPI trigger.
Recording media: Solid-state 240-480 GB capture drive.
Recording format: 8-bit or 10-bit 1080PsF 4:4:4 RGB or 4:2:2 YCbCr (23.98,
24, 25, 29.97, 30 fps)/8-bit or 10-bit 1080PsF 4:2:2 YCbCr using dual-link
HD-SDI (47.96, 48, 50, 59.94, 60 fps)/8-bit or 10-bit 720P 4:4:4 RGB or
4:2:2 YCbCr (59.94, 60 fps)/0–60 fps Variframe. Uncompressed, or can use
wavelet compression. 16/24-bit audio at 48 kHz, HD-SDI embedded.
Operating temperature: 5°C to +40°C (+23°F to +104°F).
Connectors: HD-SDI for dual-link 4:4:4 or two single-link 4:2:2 in (BNC 2x),
3G-SDI in (BNC x2), 4:4:4 out (BNC), 4:2:2 out (BNC x2), LTC time code
(5-pin LEMO), GPI record trigger (7-pin LEMO), RS422 interface (6-pin
LEMO), network interface (Gigabit Ethernet), stereo headphone (3.5mm
jack), DC power in (5-pin LEMO).
Power: 12–34V DC.
Power consumption: Approx. 30W at 30 fps. 18W in standby.
Convergent Design Gemini
Overview: A small solid-state recorder with a built-in 5″ LCD monitor using
removable SSD media. There are two models, the Gemini 4:4:4 and the
Gemini RAW; both can record uncompressed ARRIRAW data (16:9 and 4:3)
with full metadata, but the Gemini Raw has greater processing power, more
inputs and outputs, can record up to four cameras simultaneously (in certain
modes), and can record 4K raw data from the Canon C500. Both models also
record to compressed formats such as Avid DNxHD. Real-time
decompression and de-Bayering for playback, with or without a LUT. Stereo
3-D support. Gemini RAW also capable of 4K monitoring using 4-SDI from
de-Bayered 4K raw input, as well as multistream (x4) playback and live
switcher.
Weight: .612 kg (1.35 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 13.8cm x 3.7cm x 12.0cm (5.4″ x 1.45″ x 4.7″).
Menu display/controls: Touch-sensitive LCD w/intuitive menu system.
Recording media: 1.8″ SSD (two slots). 256 GB or 512 GB. Automatic
spanning from one SSD to the next and Dual master recording option.
Recording format: Gemini 4:4:4: 10-bit 4:4:4 (uncompressed DPX) or 4:2:2
(compressed Avid DNxHD) 1080P (up to 60 fps)/12-bit ARRIRAW 16:9 (up
to 60 fps) and 4:3 (up to 48 fps)/ARRIRAW and Stereo 3D are extra options.
Gemini RAW: adds QuadHD/4K Canon raw (up to 60 fps)/HD/2K raw
(from Weisscam, P+S Technik, IndieCam, IO Industries, Lux Media Plan
cameras, up to 60 fps)/can record raw data to CinemaDNG files / Avid
DNxHD supported for 1080P YCbCr up to 120 fps (60 fps support for 1080P
4:4:4 RGB planned). Parallel recording up to two (Gemini 4:4:4) or four
(Gemini RAW) 1080/30P streams (DNxHD-220) or four 30P HD/raw
streams provided cameras are genlocked.
Operating temperature: -10°C to +40°C (+14°F to +104°F).
Connectors: Gemini RAW: six programmable HD/3G-SDI ports (BNC x6),
configurable as: (4-in/2-out) or (2-in/4-out). Gemini 4:4:4: HD/3G-SDI
single or dual-link in (BNC x2), HD-SDI out (BNC x2), HDMI out. Both
devices: DC power in (4-pin Hirose), audio in (3.5mm jack), audio
out/stereo headphone (3.5mm jack).
Power: Gemini RAW: 6-25V DC / Gemini 4:4:4: 6-19V DC.
Power consumption: 8-15W.
Panavision SSR-1
Overview: A small, dockable, solid-state flash memory recorder. It is about half
the weight and size of the SRW-1 VTR (2.7 kg vs. 5.72 kg) on the Panavison
Genesis, making it well-suited for Steadicam and handheld work, or tight
shooting spaces.
Weight: 2.7 kg (6 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 24.0cm x 13.5cm x 12.0cm (9.5″ x 5.3″ x 4.7″).
Menu display/controls: 3.5″ color LCD display w/thumbwheel for access.
SSR-1 controls: standard VTR controls, cue clips, jog frame, display rotate,
brightness, keyboard lock. Dedicated record buttons for quick start.
Functions controlled by Genesis camera: record on/off, record review, frame
rate selection, format (4:2:2 or 4:4:4) selection, tally light control, PB/EE
control.
Recording media: No separate media.
Recording format: Fully uncompressed 10-bit 4:4:4 RGB or 4:2:2 YCbCr, or
dual 4:2:2, plus 16 audio channels from HD-SDI, 2 from analog inputs. Also
4:4:4:4 RGB + Alpha Channel when SSRD docking station is used with
SSR-1.
Recording time: 21 min. of uncompressed 10-bit 4:4:4 at 24P; 17 min. at
30P/43 min. of uncompressed 10-bit 4:2:2 at 24P; 34 min. at 30P.
Indicators: Tally/error.
Operating temperature: -20°C to +40°C (-4°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: 5–95%.
Connectors: Docking (multipin), dual-link HD-SDI in (BNC x2), dual-link HD-
SDI out (BNC x2), single-link HD-SDI (BNC), NTSC/PAL composite video
(BNC), genlock in (BNC), time code in (BNC), network interface
(100BaseT Ethernet), audio in (line level x2), accessory (8-pin LEMO
software definable functions: 2 GPI in, 2 GPO out), 12V DC in (male 4-pin
XLR).
SSRD docking station: Provides HD-SDI out w/embedded audio from SSR-1.
SSR-1 can record when mounted to SSRD. Docking station acts as VTR
when connected via 9-pin remote connector. It has a 12V DC in and dual-
link HD-SDI in and out.
Power: 12V DC (11V to 17V).
Power consumption: Low power standby: 0.5A, record: 3.3A.
Sony SR-R1
Overview: The SR-R1 is mountable memory recorder for any camera with HD-
SDI interface. Dual-link HD-SDI/3G-SDI is supported. Dual-stream
capability for 3-D recording. Uses MPEG4 SStP format (HDCAM SR
native); SR-Lite and SR-SQ are standard; optional SR-HQ and
uncompressed HD are supported. Removable SSD memory media. 16
channels of 24-bit audio. Operating with the Sony PMW-F3 camera, the SR-
R1 is able to make frame accurate recordings on both the camera’s internal
SxS card and the SRMemory media. Also can be mounted directly to the
Sony F23 and F35 with a third-party adapter.
Weight: Without SRMemory card + control panel: 1.9 kg (4.2 lb).
Dimenions (LxWxH): 19.0cm x 14.1cm x 9.7cm (7.4″ x 5.6″ x 3.82″).
Menu display/controls: Detachable control panel (SRK-CP1). RS422 remote
control.
Recording media: SRMemory SSD (256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB).
Recording format: 10-bit 4:4:4 RGB and 4:2:2 YCbCr using MPEG4 SStP
compression/SR-Lite (220 Mbps), SR-SQ (440 Mbps). 1–30 fps (4:4:4) or 1-
60 fps (4:2:2). Up to 16 channels of 24-bit audio recording. Dual-stream 3D
4:2:2 HD mode (with SRK-R301 option, dual 3G-SDI for RGB 3D). SR-HQ
(880 Mbps) and uncompressed 10-bit or 12-bit HD supported as option with
SRK-R311 (as DPX files).
Recording time: Example: 311 min. of 1080/23.98PsF SR-SQ onto a 1 TB
SRMemory card.
Indicators: Tally/error, power, lid lock.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: 10% to 95%.
Connectors: HD-SDI in (BNC x2), HD-SDI out (BNC x2), time code in (BNC),
time code out (BNC), aux in, SDI embedded digital audio (BNC), Ch 1/2
audio in (3-pin XLR x2), stereo headphone (3.5mm jack), control panel,
remote control (14-pin female), DC in (4-pin XLR).
Power: 11-17V DC.
Power consumption: 4:2:2 SR-Lite at 23.98PsF: 30W.
Sony SR-R4
Overview: The SR-R4 is the companion dockable recorder for the Sony F65. It
records uncompressed 16-bit raw (linear) data at a data rate up to 5.5 Gbps,
as well as 2K raw high-speed footage. HD recording in the MPEG-4 SStP
format (HDCAM-SR native). Removable SSD memory media. Docks
directly to the F65 camera; no external cable required. 16 channels of 24-bit
audio.
Weight: Without SRMemory card + control panel: 1.8 kg (3.97 lb).
Dimenions (LxWxH): 19.0cm x 14.1cm x 8.9cm (7.4″ x 5.6″ x 3.5″).
Menu display/controls: Through camera or with detachable control panel
(SRK-CP1).
Recording media: SRMemory SSD (256 GB, 512 GB, 1 TB).
Recording format: Uncompressed 16-bit F65RAW, HD MPEG-4 SStP.
Variable-frame rate image capturing from 1 fps to 60 fps (4K); 1 fps to 120
fps (2K). Up to 16 channels of 24-bit audio recording.
Recording time: 60 min. of raw recording onto a 1 TB SRMemory card at 24
fps.
Indicators: Tally/error, power, lid lock.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: 10% to 95%.
Connectors: Camera connector (multipin D-sub optical), time code in (BNC),
time code out (BNC), Ch 1/2 audio in (3-pin XLR x2), stereo headphone
(3.5mm jack), control panel.
Power: 11-17V DC.
Power consumption: 37W/total F65 + SR-R4 onboard: 102W.
Sony SRW-1
Overview: This is actually a two-part unit, the tape recorder (SRW-1) and the
processor (SRPC-1). In a Panavision Genesis or Sony F23, F35, many of the
SRPC-1 processor functions are built into the camera, allowing the VTR
portion, the SRW-1, to be attached to either top or back of camera like a film
magazine, or detached but cable-connected. The SRW-1/SRPC-1 offers
1080-line HD recordings with minimal compression at multiple frame rates
onto HDCAM SR videotape. The SRW-1/SRPC-1 connects to HD cameras
via HD-SDI (single-link or dual-link) or optional optical fiber cable to create
a convenient, portable full-bandwidth 4:4:4 RGB image capturing system.
The SRPC-1 processing functions include 2:3 pull-down insertion for 525-
line downconversion, and RGB (4:4:4) to YCbCr (4:2:2) color space
conversion. The system has three recording modes: SQ (Standard Quality) at
440 Mbps, HQ (High Quality) at 880 Mbps with a 2:1 compression ratio for
RGB 4:4:4, and 3D mode where two separate 4:2:2 HD-SDI inputs can be
recorded simultaneously to the same tape. The deck can also record 720P.
The control panel is detachable for remote use using a cable. With the
HKSR-102 option installed, recording 4:4:4 1080P HD at frame rates from
1-30P is possible and 4:2:2 at frame rates, 1-60P. With both the HKSR 102
and HKSR 103 option installed 4:4:4 at frame rates from 1-60P is possible.
Weight: SRPC-1 + SRW-1: 8.5 kg (18.74 lb). SRW-1 only: 5.72 kg (12.6 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): When viewed with the SRW-1 on top of the SRPC-1:
27.9cm x 13.9cm x 39.9cm (10.98″ x 5.47″ x 15.71″). The SRW-1 portion is
about half that height.
Menu display/controls: VTR LCD menu panel (SRWC) plugs into VTR CTRL
PANEL via multipin cable. Panel latches on to VTR top. Menu system
enables many settings, including time code hour and audio levels. Control
panel is detachable for remote use with a cable.
Recording media: 1⁄2″ HDCAM SR videotape cassette. Recommended: Sony
BCT-40SR.
Recording format: SQ mode: compressed 10-bit 4:4:4 RGB or 4:2:2 YCbCr at
440 Mbps. HQ mode: mildly-compressed 10-bit 4:4:4 or uncompressed
4:2:2 at 880 Mbps. 3-D mode: dual 4:2:2 at 440 Mbps per signal. 12
channels of 24-bit audio at 48 kHz.
Tape speed: Approx. 77.4mm/s (24P mode).
Fast-forward/rewind time: Approx. 5 min. with BCT-40SR.
Recording time: SQ mode: max. 50 min. with BCT-40SR (at 24P). HQ mode:
25 min. (at 24P).
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (32°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: 25–80%.
Video/data connectors: Dual-link HD-SDI in (BNC x2), dual-link HD-SDI out
(BNC x2), HD reference video in (BNC x1), SD reference video in (BNC
x1), SDI video out (BNC x1), single-link HD-SDI out (BNC x1), time code
in (BNC x1).With optional HKSR-1, fiber cable for 4:4:4 RGB HD-SDI in
for SRPC-1.
Audio connectors: Digital audio in (BNC x2), analog audio in (female 3-pin
XLR x4), digital audio out (ch1/ch2, D-sub multi connector), earphones
(stereo minijack).
Other connectors: Remote input (D-sub 9-pin female, Sony 9-pin remote
interface).
NOTE: SRW-1 only has Ch1/Ch2 audio input, time code in/out, and an
earphone jack. All other inputs and outputs are on the SRPC-1. For this
reason, when separating the SRW-1 unit from a Panavision Genesis or Sony
F23 camera, you need to attach an interface box to the camera and use the
SRPC-1 with the SRW-1. Then you can connect the camera to the separate
recorder through HD-SDI cables for picture.
Power connectors: 12V DC in (male 4-pin XLR x1).
Power: 12V DC (11V to 17V).
Power consumption: SRW-1: 60W. SRPC-1: 35W.
S.Two OB-1
Overview: A solid-state flash memory recorder designed to be mounted onto the
camera. Can record ARRIRAW (4:3 or 16:9) or uncompressed HD, plus
audio and metadata, to removable FlashMag. FlashMag can be downloaded
using FlashDock or FlashPort, a high-speed playback, transfer, and archive
device that can be used on location. Viewing LUTs can be loaded for
preview output.
Weight: With FlashMag, under 3 kg (6.6 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 20.3cm x 10.8cm x 12.7cm (8″ x 4.25″ x 5″).
Menu display/controls: Menu keypad w/LCD screen info. GPI trigger.
Recording media: 500 GB FlashMag (holds 42 min. of uncompressed data).
Recording format: 4:4:4 RGB 1080PsF (23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30, 48, 50,
59.94, 60PsF); 2x 4:4:4 RGB 1080PsF for 3D (23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30PsF);
4:2:2 YCbCr 1080PsF (23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30, 48, 50, 59.94, 60PsF); 2x
4:2:2 YCbCr 1080PsF for 3D (23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30PsF); 4:2:2 720P (50,
59.94, 60 fps); 4:4:4 RGB 1080P (23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30P); 4:2:2 YCbCr
1080P (23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30, 48, 50, 59.94, 60P); 2x 4:2:2 YCbCr 1080P
for 3D (23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30P); 12-bit ARRIRAW (4:3 or 16:9) as DPX
or .ARI files (23.98, 24, 25, 29.97, 30 fps), 12-bit ARRIRAW anamorphic as
DPX or .ARI files, with desqueeze output to monitors.
Operating temperature: -5°C to +55°C (+23°F to +131°F).
Connectors: HD-SDI dual-link in (BNC x2), 4:2:2 HD-SDI in (BNC x2), HD-
SDI dual-link out (BNC x2), 4:2:2 HD-SDI out (BNC x2), network interface
(Gigabit Ethernet), USB 2.0, RS422/Remote Port/GPI trigger (12-pin
Hirose), LTC I/O (5-pin LEMO), two-channel audio in (5-pin Mini XLR),
DC power in (3-pin Fischer).
Power: 12/24V DC (10V to 36V).
Power consumption: under 20W at 12/24V DC.
Vision Research Phantom CineMag-II
Overview: A compact, rugged, high-speed, uncompressed, camera-mountable
solid state recorder. Ideal for all shooting applications involving the Phantom
cameras. Available in 128 GB, 256 GB and 512 GB versions. In order to
increase capacity, increase download speeds, and use of footage shot at
different bit-depths, all raw images are log-encoded 10-bit. When the clips
are downloaded from the CineMag to a computer, they are relinearized and
once again stored as 14-bit (or whatever they started as). The lighter and
thinner CineMag-II superceded the original CineMag in 2010, but they are
cross-compatible.
Weight: 0.9 kg (2 lb).
Dimensions (LxWxH): 19.2cm x 12.6cm x 4.0cm (5.5″ x 4.9″ x 1.5″).
Menu display/controls: Controlled by camera and/or Phantom application,
onboard display includes memory remaining, write activity, write protect,
magazine enabled, and power LED’s.
Recording format: Uncompressed raw data (8–14 bit accepting), saved
internally as 10-bit log raw but converts back to original linear upon export.
Recording times: examples given, frame rate and overall resolution can vary.
256G CineMag: 2048 x 1080 at 24fps: 66 min.; 2048 x 1080 at 450fps (max.
write speed at given resolution): 3 min. 32 sec.; 4096 x 2440 at 24fps: 15
min. 15 sec.; 4096 x 2440 at 90fps (max. write speed at given resolution): 4
min.
512G CineMag: 2048 x 1080 at 24fps: 132 min.; 2048 x 1080 at 450fps (max.
write speed at given resolution): 7 min. 4 sec.; 4096 x 2440 at 24fps: 30 min.
30 sec.; 4096 x 2440 at 90fps (max. write speed at given resolution): 8 min.
Operating temperature: 0°C to +40°C (+32°F to +104°F).
Operating humidity: 80%, noncondensing at +5°C (+41°F).
Connector: proprietary 96-pin pogo-pin data bus.
Power consumption: 1.5A.

Jon Fauer, ASC is an award-winning director of photography and director

who often writes and lectures about cameras, equipment, techniques, technology,
film history and the future of film. He is the author of eight best-selling books on
cinematography and digital imaging. These publications are available at
www.theasc.com.
M. David Mullen, ASC is a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts
and Sciences. He has photographed more than thirty independent feature films
and two television series. He has received two IFP Independent Spirit Award
nominations for Best Cinematography, the first for Twin Falls Idaho (2000) and
the second for Northfork (2004).
Table Reference

Cine Lens list

Formulas
LENSES
Introduction to Depth of Field and Field of View
All Formats Depth of Field—5.9mm–400mm
35/65mm Field of View—8mm–400mm
16mm, Super 16mm Field of View
Super 8mm Depth of Field and Field of View
Vertical Angle vs. Effective Focal Length
EXTREME CLOSE-UP
35mm Depth of Field and Exposure Factor vs. Magnification or Field of
View
16mm Depth of Field and Exposure Factor vs. Magnification or Field of
View
Aperture Compensator for Extreme Close-Ups 2″ Lens
Plus Diopter Lenses Focal Length Conversion Table
Exposure Compensation for Extreme Close-Up
Extreme Close-Up Focusing Chart
Lens Focal Length Conversion Table
Plus Diopter Lenses Focus Conversion Table
FILTERS
Selected Color Filters for B&W Cinematography Daylight Exteriors
Color Filters for Altering B&W Contrast of Colored Subjects
Correlated Color Temperature of Typical Light Sources
Kodak Conversion Filters for Color Films
Kodak Light Balancing Filters
Compensating Filters for Color Films
Kodak Ultraviolet and Haze Cutting Filters
ND Filter Selector Chart
Filter Compensator
Color Filter Selection for Underwater
Comparison of Filter System Names
Most Common Filter Sizes for Motion Pictures
Typical Commercial/Industrial Light Source Characteristics
Characteristics of Photographic Light Sources
Filters for Daylight Correction
Lighting Filters for Color Temperature Adjustment
Filters for Arc Discharge and Fluorescent Lamps
Color Correction for Carbon Arcs
CalColor and Tiffen Decamired Filters
MIRED SHIFT VALUES
Examples of Mired Shift Value (Filter) Effects
LIGHT SOURCE
HMI Lamps – Summary of Electrical and Physical Characteristics
Characteristics of Typical Photographic Light Sources
National Carbons for Studio Lighting
COLOR BALANCING
Color Balancing for Existing Nonphotographic Lighting
Balancing to Match Daylight or Ambient Light on Location Interiors
Color Balancing for Existing Flourescent Lighting
SUNPATH
SunPath Computer Software
Maximum Height of the Sun
Hours of Daylight
Sunrise / Sunset at Sea Level
FILM STOCKS
Eastman Kodak – Color Negative Films
Eastman Kodak – Black-and-White Negative Films
Eastman Kodak – Black-and-White Reversal Films
Eastman Kodak – Super 8 Films
Eastman Kodak – Laboratory Films
INCIDENT LIGHT
Incident Key Light/T-Stop
EI REDUCTION
EI/ASA Exposure Index Reduction Table
T-STOP COMPENSATION
T-Stop Compensation for Camera Speed
SHUTTER COMPENSATION
Shutter Angle/f.p.s./T-Stop Change
Shutter Angle Compensator for Constant Exposure
Camera Speed Compensator
Reduced Shutter Angle Exposure Compensator
SHUTTER SPEEDS
Exposure at Various Speeds and Shutter Openings
FOOTAGE TABLES
Super 8mm Footage Table
Super 8mm Footage/Time Table
16mm Footage Table 24 fps
16mm Footage Table 25 fps
16mm Footage Table 29.97 fps
35mm Footage Table 24 fps
35mm Footage Table 25 fps
35mm Footage Table 29.97 fps
65/70mm Footage Table 24 fps
16mm Footage Obtained at Various Camera Speeds
35mm Footage Obtained at Various Camera Speeds
65mm Footage Obtained at Various Camera Speeds
16MM/35MM FRAME TOTALIZERS
16mm Frame Totalizer
35mm Frame Totalizer
PANNING SPEEDS
35mm Camera Recommended Panning Speeds at Various Frame Rates
35mm Camera Recommended Panning Speeds in Degrees Per Second
35mm Camera Recommended Panning Speeds
TIME/SPEED EFFECTS
Camera Speed To Auto
Time-Lapse
Miniatures: Camera Speed, Model Speed, Exposure Factors vs. Miniature
Scale
PROJECTION/PROCESS
Projection Chart for Process Backgrounds
LIGHTING FIXTURE INTENSITY
Open Face and Softlights
Tungsten Fresnels
HMI Fresnels
HMI and Quartz Beam Projectors
HMI PAR
225A Brute Arc
1000 W PAR 64 Single 1000 W Globe
6000 W PAR 64 Six 1000 W Globe
9000 W PAR 64 Nine 1000 W Globe
12000 W PAR 64 Twelve 1000 W Globe
24000 W PAR 64 Twenty-four 1000 W Globe
36000 W PAR 64 Thirty-six 1000 W Globe
Illumination Data for Source Four Ellipsoidal Spotlights
Kino Flo Fixtures
Softsun 5400°K
Cine Lens List

T he Cine Lens List includes most of the current lenses available for rental or
purchase. Many of these lenses are no longer made, but are available used
or remounted. Many “House” brands exist that are reworked versions of still
camera lenses and older cine lenses. For complete data, see your local rental
house or lens manufacturer.
SPECIAL PURPOSE LENSES
Swing Shift Lens
The Clairmont Swing Shift Lens System consists of a multi axis moveable
lens board receiver attached to a Arriflex style PL lens mount by a rubber
bellows. Specially modified lenses are attached to the receiver board by two
captive screws. The assembly is able to move the entire lens in the following
directions: tilt up and down, swing side to side, shift position and focus right to
left, or up and down. Tilting/swinging the lens plane alters the focus;
tilting/swinging the film plane alters the shape. By combining the various
parameters of movement, different and unusual effects can be accomplished such
as increased or decreased depth of field, selective planes of focus, repositioning
of image without changing placement of the camera, correction or addition of
image distortion. The focal lengths available are, 20mm, 24mm, 28mm, 35mm,
50mm, 60mm, and 80mm.

Panavision 24mm T3.5 or 45mm T2.8 Slant Focus Lens

The plane of focus of this lens can be tilted in any direction (including vertical
and diagonal) as well as horizontal by adjusting the rear lens rotating mount.
If the lens focus is set on an object near the center of the field of view, the
plane of focus can be tilted so that objects (left side of frame and/or right side of
frame) located along this tilted plane of focus will also be sharp.
If there is not an object near the center of the field of view, measure the
distance to the near and far object and set the focus at an average between the
two distances. The plane of focus can now be tilted so that the two objects will
be brought into focus. In all situations, an object near the center of the field of
view should still be in focus after tilting the lens.
Due to the tilting nature of this lens, it cannot be used with a Panaflex follow
focus. For the initial focus and any change in focus, eye focusing is necessary.
This lens accepts a 1.4X Primo extender with negligible change in performance
and no change in operation. The focal length becomes 63mm with a maximum
aperture of T4.0. If filters are used with this lens they should (when ever
possible) be glass filters in front of the lens. If needed, the lens does accept a
40.5mm rear filter.
CONTINENTAL CAMERA SYSTEMS REMOTELY-
CONTROLLED
“Pitching Lens” f/3.9 Optical Relay
Concept: A system to remotely control a prime lens that is mounted at the end
of an optical relay tube. In normal configuration the 18″ tube extends downward
from the camera. The prime lens is mounted at right angles to the tube and can
tilt 15° up to 90° down. The entire system rotates 380°. This allows lenses such
as Nikkor or Arriflex to get into very small areas. Use of an anamorphic element
between the end of relay tube and camera allows a spherical lens to produce an
anamorphic image on film. Because focus is controlled in the relay tube, it is
possible to continuously follow focus from 1⁄2 inch to infinity thus greatly
extending the normal focus range of most prime lenses. The system may also be
mounted vertically (as in a submarine)or extended straight out in a horizontal
position.
Clear length of relay: 18″ Maximum diameter: 3″
Control of Lens: Control console with built-in video monitor. Pressure
sensitive joystick for pan and tilt operation. System power requirements 110V,
220V or 24V DC.
Cameras: Arriflex IIC, Norelco PCP90 (video), Mitchell R35, Lightweight
Technicolor VistaVision equipped with Nikon mount.
Focus: Remotely controlled from hand-held unit. Focus speed is proportional
to focus command.
Taking Formats: 16mm, 35mm anamorphic, VistaVision.
Optics: Nikon mount through adapter rings can use a wide assortment of
Nikkor and Arriflex lenses from 7.2 mm to 100mm. Speed of system is f/3.9 to
f/32. Prime lens is set wide open and aperture controlled in the relay system.
Suspension: Standard dolly with small jib arm and C.C.S. balanced cross arm
at camera end of jib. Large telescopic billboard cranes and Chapman “Titan”
cranes can be used.

Kenworthy Snorkel Camera Systems

A remote image taking system with operator and camera components removed
from shooting area. The camera looks into a periscope-like optical relay tube
that extends downward below the camera and ends with a small front-surfaced
mirror. Since the mass of the camera with operator is removed from the shooting
area, considerations of scene staging are concerned only with the small end
(11⁄4″x 11⁄4″ at the mirror) of the tube. The tilting mirror is remotely controlled,
as are other functions such as pan, focus, roll, zoom and iris. The mirror system
permits more intimate shooting (due to its small size) than do add-on right-
angled lens periscopes. It also permits tilting up in constricted situations because
the mirror, rather than the tube/camera combination, does the tilting. The system
allows viewpoints in tight quarters reachable from overhead, or from very low
viewpoints or in miniature sets. Pans and tilts are on system nodal point. An
added waterproof tube permits underwater or transition shots.
There are two systems available:
The Kenworthy Nettman Snorkel features fast optics and lightweight,
interchangeable formats, and carries a shorter tube for use on light weight
dollies. The cameras are butterfly VistaVision, 65mm, and 16mm film and 2⁄3″
video cameras. Camera lenses are used.
Type B Kenworthy Snorkel is designed for shooting actors with dialogue at
moderate lighting levels. It carries a longer tube (48″ or 66″) which permits more
overhead clearance for deeper penetration into four-walled sets or water tanks.
This system uses 35mm only: Arriflex, Mitchell Mark II, Panaflex or other
similar cameras. The Panacam is used for video. System lenses are used on the
Type B; 28 mm & 50mm T8 for film 13mm T5.6 for video. Both systems can
use anamorphic lenses. Type B requires a camera crane.
With both systems a console is used with a video monitor and pan, tilt and
lens controls.

Dynalens
An optical stabilizing device mounted on the camera optical axis for
compensating for image motion due to vibration of the camera.
A pair of gyro sensors detect rapid motion and drive two gimbal-mounted
glass plates, between which is a liquid filled cell. One plate moves around a
vertical axis and the other around a horizontal axis in a manner which deviates
the light path opposite to the vibratory movement, causing the image to stay still
relative to the image receptor (film or video).
A low-frequency-response, manually operated potentiometer on the control
module adjusts the frequency sensitivity of the unit so controlled panning or
tilting may be done.
The Dynalens is available in 2.3 diameter for 16mm film or small video
cameras and 3.8 and 8 for larger format cameras. The maximum useful angular
deviation is +6°.
EXTREME CLOSE-UP CINEMATOGRAPHY
There are two basic methods for focusing a lens on very close objects: 1) by
adding extension tubes or extension bellows and 2) by employing plus diopter
supplementary lenses in front of the normal lens.

Extension Tubes or Bellows

Generally speaking, extension tubes or bellows produce the best overall
results since the lens itself is not altered- it is simply placed further away from
the film plane so that it can produce a sharp image of an object at very close
distances.
Extension tubes should not be employed with wide-angle or zoom lenses.
They work best with normal or semi-telephoto lenses. For practical purposes the
diaphragm of a normal focal length lens may be considered the point at which
the light rays cross (the rear nodal point). For simplicity the close-up tables on
page 810–818 show measurements from the diaphragm (not necessarily the
diaphragm actuating the ring.) to the object being filmed and from the
diaphragm to the film plane.
Conventional lenses of moderate focal length usually will develop a better
quality image if reversed in their mounts when the distance from the lens to the
film plane is greater than the distance from the lens to the object. Specially
designed close working lenses should be used if a great deal of ultraclose filming
is required.
Since depth of field is shallow at close distances, even when the lens is
stopped down, try to keep the object or the area being filmed in as compact as a
space, from front to back, as possible. Camera, lens tube, or bellows, and object
must be held as rigid and vibrationless as possible during filming.
When a lens is focused closer than ten times its focal length its effective
aperture, rather than its marked aperture, must be taken into consideration. Long
extension tubes decrease lens speed considerably since the farther the lens is
moved from the film plane the more its speed is proportionately reduced.
Image to Object manifestation, or reduction, ratios are based on the size of the
actual film frame compared to the size of the object being photographed. Close-
up tables can thus be used with either 16mm or 35mm cameras because
comparisons are “area for area” since similar focal length lenses with similar
extension will deliver the same ratio- with a smaller portion of the object being
filmed on 16mm than on 35mm. The first number of the ratio is the film image-
the second is the object. Thus 1:1 means that the size of the image on the film
equals the size of the object being filmed. (Note: Any lens at twice its normal
focal length will be an equal distance from the object being photographed, and
shoot its actual size. Thus a 2-inch lens at 4 inches from the film will also be 4
inches from the object and record an object area the same size as the film area. A
3-inch lens will perform the same way at 6 inches from the film and the object.
A 4-inch lens at 8 inches, etc.)
1 to 1 is a good starting point to compute ratios, exposures, etc. With a 16mm
camera an object area the size of the full frame (.404″ x .295″) can thus be
filmed with any lens at twice its focal length. The same holds true for a 35mm
camera except that a larger object area (.866″ x .630″ say 1 to 5 (film area is 1⁄5
the size of object area), would require much less extension. Greater
magnification, say 5 to 1 (film area is five times the size of the object area)
would require much longer extension.
Depth of field is identical at the same magnification (not lens extension!) and
same f-stop for any focal length lens. Nothing is gained as far as depth of field is
concerned by using a shorter focal length lens for the same size image. Since the
f-stop is the only factor to consider any convenient focal length lens may be
used.
The simplest method for finding the exposure factor is to add “1” to the scale
of reproduction and multiply the result by itself. Thus for a scale of 1:2 (film
area is 1⁄2 the size of object area), 1⁄2 + 1 or 1.5 x 1.5 equals 2.25. Similarly, for
same-size reproduction or 1:1, 1 + 1 equals 2. 2 x 2 equals 4 (or 2 stops
increase). 3:1 would be 3 + 1 equals 4. 4 x 4 equals 16 (or 4 stops increase).
Exposure for extreme close-ups can best be determined by an incident light
meter. The effective aperture should be used for determining the light.

Diopter Lenses
Extreme close-ups may be filmed by employing positive supplementary
lenses, generally of a weak meniscus form, called diopter lenses, in front of the
normal lens.
The power of these positive supplementary lenses is commonly expressed in
diopters. The power in diopters is the reciprocal of the focal length in meters.
The plus sign indicates a positive, or converging lens. Thus, a +3 diopter lens
has a focal length of 1⁄3 meter, or 39.3 inches divided by 3 or approximately 13
inches. A +2 diopter lens would have a focal length of approximately 20 inches.
A +1 would be one meter or roughly 40 inches. In other words, the positive
diopter lens alone will form an image of a distant object when held at its
respective focal length. When two such lenses are used together, their combined
power is practically equal to the sum of both powers. A +2 and a +3, for
instance, would equal a +5 and possess a focal length of approximately 8 inches
(39.3 divided by 5 equals approximately 8 ).
When two diopter lenses are combined, the highest power should be closest to
the prime lens. Plus diopters should be placed in front of the prime lens with
their convex (outward curve) side toward the subject. If an arrow is engraved on
the rim of the diopter lens mount, it should point toward the subject.
High power plus diopter lenses, such as +8 or +10, are not practical to
manufacture for large diameter prime lenses because their optical performance
would be inferior. Best screen quality results with lower power diopters. It is
better to use a longer focal length lens and a less powerful plus diopter lens, then
to employ a high power diopter on a short focal length lens.
A plus diopter lens placed in front of a conventional lens set at infinity all
form a sharp image at its particular focal length. Thus a cine lens may be focused
for extreme close-ups, without the necessity of racking it out with the extension
tubes or bellows, simply by placing a plus diopter lens, of the required focal
length, in front of it. The distance at which a diopter lens can be focused is
decreased, however, by racking the normal lens out to its nearest focusing
distance. Cine lens may be focused much closer, therefore, with the same power
diopter lens, by simply utilizing closer focus settings on the lens.
Diopter lenses may be focused at the same distance with any focal length lens,
since their power remains the same. The magnification will vary, however,
depending on the focal length of the actual camera lens employed.
The longer the focal length of the prime lens, the smaller the area covered by
the same power diopter lens. The shorter the focal length of the prime lens, the
closer the camera will have to be positioned to the subject and the more powerful
the diopter lens required- to cover the same area as a longer focal length lens.
There are several advantages in employing longer focal length lenses; a less
powerful plus diopter lens is required and results are better; more space is
available between camera and subject for lighting; the same area may be panned
with a shorter arc so the subject is not distorted.
Diopter lenses alter the basic lens design and therefore require stopping the
lens down for reasonable sharpness. Since illuminating a small area generally
presents no problem (except heat) it is a simple matter to close down to f/8 or
f/11. Diopter lenses on the order of +1⁄2, +1, +2 or +3 will give satisfactorily
sharp results with normal focal length or semi-telephoto lenses.
Plus diopter lenses shorten the focal length of the prime lens. (See: Plus
Diopter Lenses Focal Length Conversion Table page 747.) A 100mm prime lens
with a +3 diopter lens, for instance, becomes 76.91mm in focal length. The
indicated f-number, therefore, should be divided by
approximately 1.4 to get its true value. In practice, however, the use of close-
up diopter lenses does not require any change in exposure setting; because the
change in effective f-number exactly compensates for the exposure change
caused by increased image size.
Split-Field Diopter Lenses
Split-field diopter lenses are partial lenses, cut so that they cover only a
portion of the prime lens. They are generally cut in half, although they may be
positioned in front of the prime lens so that more or less than half is covered.
They may be compared with bi-focals for human vision, in which the eye may
focus near and far. They have an advantage over bifocals, however, in that they
may be focused sharply on both near and far subjects simultaneously.
The depth of field of the prime lens is not extended. The split-field diopter
lens simply permits focusing on a very close subject on one side of the frame,
while a distant subject is photographed normally through the uncovered portion
of the prime lens. Generally, the area in between will not be in focus. There are
instances, such as using a zoom lens with a small aperture at the wide-angle
position, when sharpness may extend all the way from the ultra-close-up to the
distant subject. The split-diopter equipped lens possesses two distinct depths of
field: one for the close subject (which may be very shallow or possess no depth
whatsoever) and another for the distant subject (which will be the normal depth
of field for the particular focal length lens and f-stop in use). It is important,
therefore, to exclude subject matter from the middle distance because it will
create a situation where the foreground is sharp, the middle distance out of focus
and the distant subject sharp.
Split-field diopter lenses require ground glass focusing to precisely line-up
both foreground and background subjects and visually check focus on each. This
is particularly important with zoom lenses, which may require camera movement
during the zoom.
Very unusual effects are possible, which would otherwise require two separate
shots, which would be later combined in an optical printer via a matting process.
Making such split shots in the camera permits viewing the scene as it will
appear, rather than waiting for both shots to be optically printed onto one film.
The proper power split-field diopter lens is positioned in front of the taking
lens on the same side as the near object- so that it is sharply focused on one side
of the frame. The uncovered portion of the conventional or zoom lens is focused
in the usual manner on the distant subject. (Note: Use the Plus Diopter Lenses
Focus Conversion Table on page 818 to find near and far focusing distances with
various power diopter lenses.)
The edge of the split-diopter lens should be positioned, if possible, so that it
lines up with a straight edge in the background- such as the corner of a room, the
edge of a column or a bookcase. Eliminating the edge may prove difficult under
certain conditions, particularly with a zoom lens because the edge will shift
across the frame slightly when the lens is zoomed. It is wise to leave space
between the foreground and background subjects so that they do not overlap and
each is removed from the lens edge. This will minimize “blending”. The split-
diopter need not be lined up vertically- it may be used horizontally or at any
angle to cover a foreground subject on top, bottom, either side or at an angle
across the frame.
The split may sometimes be “covered” by filming both foreground and
background against a distant neutral background for a “limbo” effect. The can of
wax, for instance, may be placed on a table so that it appears against the same
distant neutral background as the housewife.
Lighting may be employed to lighten or darken the background area where the
split occurs, to make it less noticeable. Lighting should generally be balanced so
that both near and far subjects may be varied, of course, for pictorial effects.
Either foreground or background may be filmed in silhouette, or kept in darkness
so that one or the other may be fully illuminated during the scene. Since the
diopter lens requires no increase in exposure, balancing the lights is a simple
matter.
Formulas

By R. Evans Wetmore. P. E.
ASC Associate Member
1 LENS FORMULAS
The formulas given in this section are sufficiently accurate to solve most
practical problems encountered in cinematography. Many of the equations,
however, are approximations or simplifications of very complex optical
relationships. Therefore, shooting tests should always be considered when using
these formulas, especially in critical situations.

1.1 Hyperfocal distance

The hyperfocal distance (H) is the focus distance setting of a lens where all
objects from half the focus distance setting through infinity are in acceptable
focus. Acceptable focus is characterized by a parameter called the circle of
confusion (Cc). The lens aperture setting and the circle of confusion affect the
hyperfocal distance. The formula for hyperfocal distance is:

All values in this and the following equations must be in the same units, e.g.,
millimeters, inches, etc. For instance, when using a circle of confusion value
measured in inches, the lens focal length must be in inches, and the resulting
answer will be in inches. (Note: f-stop has no dimensions and so is not affected
by the type of units used.)
As mentioned above, the circle of confusion characterizes the degree of
acceptable focus. The smaller the circle of confusion is the higher the resulting
image sharpness. For practical purposes the following values have been used in
computing depth of field and hyperfocal distances in this manual:

35mm photography = 0.001 inch (1⁄1000 inch) or 0.0025mm

16mm photography = 0.005 inch (5⁄10,000 inch) or 0.0013mm

1.2 Depth of field

For a discussion on the concept of depth of field, please see the introduction to
the depth of field tables. It should be understood that the detemination of depth
of field involves a subjective judgement that requires taking into account the
conditions under which the final projected image will be viewed.
The following two formulas are for calculating the depth of field. To use these
equations one must first calculate the hyperfocal distance from Equation 1.

The following shows how the above equations can be used to make hyperfocal
and depth of field calculations:

Example: A 35mm camera lens of 50mm focal length is focused at 20 feet and
is set to f/2.8. Over what range of distances will objects be in acceptable focus?
First convert all the units to the same system. In this example inches will be
used. Therefore, the 50mm focal length will be converted to 2 inches. (This is an
approximation as 50mm is exactly 1.969 inches, but 2 inches is close enough for
normal work.) Also the 20 feet converts to 240 inches (20 × 12). The circle of
confusion is 0.001 inches for 35mm photography.
Using Equation 1 and filling in the converted values yields:

Using the hyperfocal distance just calculated and equations 2 and 3, we can
now calculate the near and far distances that will be in acceptable focus.
Therefore, when a 50mm lens at f/2.8 is focused at 20 feet, everything from
17.1 feet to 24.0 feet will be in acceptable focus. The total depth of field for this
example is:

If a more approximate answer is all that is needed, equations 2 and 3 may be

simplified to
1.2.1 Finding lens settings when Dn and Df are known
When the near and far focus requirements are known, equations 4, 5 and 1 can
be rearranged as follows:

Example: A scene is being photographed on 35mm using a 75mm lens.

Everything in the scene from 15 to 27 feet must be in acceptable focus. How
must the lens f-stop and focus be set?
First convert all distances and focal lengths to inches. Focal length is 2.953
inches (75 ÷ 25.40). Dn is 180 inches (15 × 12), and Df is 324 inches (27 × 12).

Therefore, focus the lens to 19.3 feet, and set the f-stop to f/11.

1.3 Depth of focus

Depth of focus should not be confused with depth of field as they are very
different and do not refer to the same thing.
Depth of focus is the range of distance between the lens and the film plane
where acceptable focus is maintained. This range is quite small and is measured
usually in very small units such as thousandths of an inch.
For an image to be in sharp focus, the distance from the lens to the film must
be held to very tight tolerances, hence the design of motion-picture cameras
which holds the film very securely during exposure. Any buckling of the film or
anything that shifts the film’s postition in the aperture can cause a deterioration
of focus.

The following equation provides a good approximation of the depth of focus of a

lens:

Example: A 50mm f/2.8 lens has the following depth of focus:

As this is the total depth of focus, the film must stay within plus or minus half
that value which is about ±0.00275 inch or ±0.07mm. This dimension is equal to
the approximate value of a single strand of human hair. This is a very small
value indeed which further amplifies the statement above about the need for
precision in the gate and aperture area of the camera.

1.4 Lens viewing angles

The angle, either horizonal or vertical, that a lens images onto the film frame
may be calculated using the following equation:

The inverse tangent (written as atan, arctan, or tan-1) can be found with many
pocket calculators. Alternately Table 1 relates atan to θ
Example: What are horizontal and vertical viewing angles for a 75mm Scope
lens?
A typical Scope camera aperture is 0.868″ wide by 0.735″ high. Converting
75mm to inches yields 2.953 inches (75÷25.4 = 2.953)
1.5 Lens, subject, distance, and image size relationships
Using the simple drawing on the previous page, the relationships between
camera distance, object size, image size, and lens focal length for spherical
lenses may easily be calculated in the following equation:
Equation 11 may be rewritten in any of the following ways depending on the
problem being solved:

1.6 Lens apertures – T- versus f-stops

The f number of a lens is its focal length divided by the diameter of its lens
pupil. Stated mathematically
The T-stop of a lens controls the transmission of light through a lens. The
same logarithmic progression of numbers is used for T-stops as for f-stops. If a
lens lost no light passing through it, the f- and T-stops would be equal, but as no
lens passes light through it without loss, the f- and T-stops for lenses are not the
same. (See ANSI PH22.90 for more information.)
The rule is: Use f-stops for computing depth of field, and use T-stops for
setting exposure.
When setting the f/T-stop on a lens, first always open the lens to its widest
aperture, and then set the desired f/T-stop value. This practice removes the
effects of backlash in the lens mechanism and insures repeatable results.

1.7 Lens displacement for focusing

When a lens is focused at infinity, the distance from the film plane to the lens
nodal point is nominally equal to the focal length of the lens. For instance, a
50mm lens, when focused at infinity, has 50mm between the film plane and the
nodal point of the lens. However, when a lens is focused closer than infinity, the
lens must be moved away from the film plane to maintain focus. The following
equation computes the amount of displacement from the infinity position needed
to focus on an object not at infinity.

Example: The displacement from the infinity position of a 50mm (2 inch) lens
focused at 10 feet is as follows:
Converting all distances to inches and applying Equation 17 yields
2 SHOOTING PRACTICES
2.1 Running times, feet, and frames
The Table 2 shows the linear sound speed of common theatrical film gages
and the number of frames per foot.

2.1.1 Footage-versus-time relationship

Example: How many feet of 35 mm film run through a sound camera in 4 and a
half minutes?

2.1.2 Footage in feet and frames

Example: How much film goes through a 16mm sound camera in 8 seconds?
To convert the decimal to frames, multiply the decimal part by number of
frames per foot:

Therefore, the answer is 4 feet 32 frames.

2.2 Computing exposure times

The following equations relate frame rate, shutter angle, and exposure time:

Example: What is the exposure time when shooting at 24 frames per second
with a 180° shutter?

2.3 Frame rates for miniatures

To make the action in minatures look convincing, it is often necessary to shoot
at frame rates faster than 24 fps. The exact frame rate for a given miniature shot
must be determined by shooting test footage. Even skilled minature
cinematographers will shoot tests to confirm proper effect on film.

HIGH SPEED FOLUMAS

Times Normal Speed = frame rate ÷ normal frame rate (24 or

30 fps)
Example: 360 ÷ 24 = 15 times normal speed

Frames Exposed = frame rate x event duration

Example: 360 x .5 second = 180 frames exposed
Screen Time = frame rate x event duration ÷ normal frame rate
(24 or 30 fps)
Example: 360 x .5 ÷ 24 = 7.5 seconds screen time

Frame Rate Required = screen time ÷ event duration x transfer

rate
Example: 7.5 seconds ÷ .5 x 24 = 360 fps required

Running Time = frames per foot x footage ÷ frame rate

Example: 16 x 1000 ÷ 360 = 44.4 seconds running time

Screen Time for Moving Objects = field of view ÷ 20 per second

x 360 fps ÷24 = 1.5 seconds screen time
Example: 2 field of view ÷ 20 per second x 360 fps ÷ 24 = 1.5
seconds screen time

Notes:
Field of view and object velocity must be in same type
measurement (inches, feet) Falling objects will increase in
velocity (use velocity charts to determine event time)

Shooting frame rate depends on, among other things, subject matter, direction
of movement in relation to the camera position, and minature scale. Generally,
however, the smaller the minature, the faster the required frame rate. Also as
magnification decreases, the necessary frame rate drops.
The following may be used as a guide and a starting point:

Example: What frame rate should be used to shoot a 1:4 (quarter scale)
miniature?
2.4 Image blur
When shooting high speed photography, the question often comes up: what
frame rate is needed to reduce the image blur to an acceptable amount. This
question is especially important to cinematographers shooting fast moving
subject such as missile tests, horse races, airplanes, etc.
The following equations may be used to calculate the blur of an image caused
by the movment of an object during exposure:

Example: What is the image blur of a thin vertical line painted on the side of a
racing car moving at 153 miles per hour when shot from 33.3 feet away with a 2
inch lens at 48 fps with a shuter angle of 180°?
First, all of the units have to be brought to common units; in this case inches
and seconds are a good choice. Therefore, D is 400 inches (12 × 33.3) and v is
2693 in/sec (153 × 5280 3 12 ÷ 3600)
3 LIGHT AND EXPOSURE
3.1 Units for measuring light
The terms used to measure light can often be confusing. The three main
measures of light are intensity, illumination, and brightness. Each refers to a very
different characteristic.

3.2 Intensity (I)

The unit of intensity is the candle or candela. The name, not surprisingly,
comes from the fact that a standard wax candle was used for many years as the
standard source of light. The luminous inensity from one candle was, therefore,
one candle power.
Another unit which is also encountered in discussions about luminous
intensity is the lumen. One candle power emits one lumen in a standard three
dimensional cone called a steradian.

3.3 Illumination (E)

The unit of illumination is the foot candle which is one lumen falling onto one
square foot. (In the SI system, the unit is the lux which is 1 lumen/m2.) In simple
terms the foot candle measures the amount of light falling on a surface, hence
the term illumination.

3.4 Brightness (B)

When light falls upon a surface some of that light is reflected. The unit of
brightness is the foot-lambert which is 1/π candles being relfected from a one
square foot area. The reflected light give the surface a “bright” appearance,
hence the term brightness.

3.5 Exposure using incident light

The following equation may be used to find the required number of foot
candles required for a given film speed, f-stop, and exposure time:
Example: How many foot candles are required to expose an ASA 100 film for
1
⁄50 second at f/2.0?

Equation 26 may be simplified for shooting at 24 fps with a shutter angle of

172.8° which gives an effective exposure of 1⁄50 second.

Example: How many foot candles are required to expose an ASA 200 film
shooting at 24 fps at f/4.0?

3.6 Exposure using extention tubes or bellows

When using a bellows or extension tube to move the lens further than normal
from the film plane, use the following formula to calculate the required increase
in exposure:

Example: A 3 inch lens is moved 150mm further from the film plane by a
bellows. The exposure time before the lens was moved was 1⁄48 of a second.
What is the new exposure time?
First the units must be made the same. A 3 inch lens has a focal length of
76.2mm (3 × 25.4). Then using the above equation

Then multiply the old exposure time of 1⁄48 by ∆ to get the new exposure time
of

0.184 seconds is approximately 1⁄5 second which is the new, corrected

exposure time. Alternately, if depth of field is not an issue, the exposure could
also be corrected by a three stop increase in aperture. (Remember that each stop
doubles the exposure, so for a roughly nine-fold increase, 3+ stops are needed.)
Also, the esposure could be corrected by increasing the illumination
approximately ninefold.
It should also be noted that vignetting may occur when using extention tubes
or bellows. It is good practice, therefore, to check the corners of the image for
proper exposure prior to production shooting when using extension tubes or
bellows.

3.7 Shooting close-ups with diopters

Often in shooting extreme close-ups supplemental lens called “diopters”1 are
affixed to the front of a prime lens. These “diopters” allow very close focusing.
Diopters for all practical purposes do not affect many of the characteristics of
the prime lens. For instance, the f-stop of lens is not affected by a positive
diopter.2 Also the depth of field calculations are unaffected. Principally, the
diopter allows for much closer than normal focusing by the prime lens.
When using diopters it is a good idea to stop the prime lens down to at least
f/8 as diopters do add lens abberations which degrade the image quality. By
stopping down, these degradations may be minimized.
1. A diopter is actually a unit that measures the focal length of a lens. A diopter is 1/focal length where the
focal length is expressed in meters. For example, a lens with a focal length of 500 mm(0.5 meters) has a
strength of 2 diopters (1/0.5 = 2.0).
2. Negative diopters are rarely, if ever, used in motion picture work.


1. A diopter is actually a unit that measures the focal length of a lens. A diopter is 1/focal length where the
focal length is expressed in meters. For example, a lens with a focal length of 500 mm(0.5 meters) has a
strength of 2 diopters (1/0.5 = 2.0).
2. Negative diopters are rarely, if ever, used in motion picture work.
Depth of Field Tables Introduction

T hese comprehensive “All Formats Depth of Field Tables” will provide you
with depth of field information for virtually all of the currently used 16, 35,
and 65mm lenses. You will also find tables for Super 8mm and additional 16mm
tables beginning on page 800.
Please see the chapter on lenses for a more thorough discussion of this subject.
These tables are computed mathematically, and should be used as a guide
only. Depth of field is a useful concept within limits. Technically speaking, an
object is only in focus at one precise point in space. Depth of field determines
the range in front of and behind a designated focusing distance, where an object
still appears to be acceptably in focus. A low resolving film stock or lens may
appear to have greater depth of field, because the “in focus” image is already so
soft, it is more difficult to determine when it goes further out of focus.
Conversely, a very sharp, high contrast lens may appear to have shallow depth of
field, because the “in focus” image has such clarity, it is much easier to notice
when it slips out of a range of acceptable focus.
These tables can be nothing other than generic in their information. They will
give you a very close approximation of any given focal length’s depth of field
characteristics. Truly precise Depth of Field calculations cannot be performed
without knowing the size of a specific lens’ entrance pupil.
That being said, these charts should be very helpful, unless you are trying to
measure down to an accuracy of less than a couple of inches. If you are
demanding that level of precision, then you must shoot a test of the lens in
question, because no calculation can provide the empirical data a visual
evaluation can.
These tables are calculated based on a circle of confusion of 0.001 (1⁄1000). To
calculate a depth of field based upon a more critical circle of confusion of half
that size (0.0005 or 5⁄10,000), find your chosen f-stop at the distance desired, then
read the depth of field data two columns to the left. The 0.0005 circle of
confusion can be used for lenses of greater sharpness or contrast, or for a more
traditional method of determining 16mm depth of field.
One more note: you will see some lenses at certain distances that indicate a
depth of field of effectively nothing (e.g.: 10 0 to 10 0). This means the depth of
field is less than an inch, and we recommend that a test is shot to determine such
a critical depth of field. Charts should never be relied upon when exploring such
narrow fields of focus.
For further discussion on this subject see pages 136 and 140.

These tables were compiled with the invaluable help of Evans Wetmore, P.E.
Evans is Vice-President of Advanced Engineering in the News Technology
Group, of Fox NewsCorp. A fellow of SMPTE; his feature film credits include the
special effects engineering for Star Trek, the Motion Picture, Blade Runner, and
Brainstorm.
Handheld Apps For Production Use

by Taz Goldstein

A s smart phone and portable computer technology has grown more

sophisticated, the use of apps either designed or adapted for motion
imaging use has expanded at a rapid rate. In production, these tools have become
a standard part of the cinematographer’s kit, as valuable as a light meter or a
reference book. Below are some of the most prominent apps currently in use.
ACCESSORY
fStop Wireless WiFi Receiver

PLC Electronic Solutions Ltd.

http://www.plcelectronicsolutions.com/
The fStop Wireless Receiver and Wireless iris iOS application allows users to
move around the set without any additional hardware, and wirelessly control the
focus, iris or zoom of each camera from an iPhone, iPod Touch or iPad. The
receiver creates its own WiFi access point, and has an approximate range of 150
meters/492 feet (depending on the site).
Cube
Teradek
http://www.teradek.com/
A camera-top encoder, capable of streaming HD video over WiFi or wired
ethernet. As the camera records to it’s primary medium, the Cube can record
proxy movies (dailies) directly to a wirelessly networked computer. These proxy
movies can then be viewed instantly on a wirelessly connected iPad running Air
Video (or a similar application). This translates into instant wireless dailies.
ANDROID
Film Utility

ADibu
http://www.fatslimmer.com/
Helps filmmakers convert frames, feet, and time code and see the result of all
three simultaneously. The film counter calculator can be used as a stopwatch that
counts time (precision milliseconds), length in feet and total frames.
Photo Tools
ADibu
http://www.fatslimmer.com/
The app contains 15 calculators, good for any format, digital or film SLR
camera. Calculations include exposure, circle of confusion, depth of field,
magnification, angle of view, field of view, flash guide number and aperture,
camera pixels, aperture average, stops difference, and an exposure unit
converter.
Acacia
Ephemerald Creative Arts
http://www.ephemerald.com/
Provides a depth of field calculator, equipment management, shot logging and a
rudimentary slate.
CamCalc
Go Visual, Inc.
http://www.govisualinc.com/
Multifunction app that provides calculator for depth of field, field of view, focal
length equivalents, flash exposure calculations, color temperature conversion,
miniature photography, and solar calculations (including sun path).
Depth of Field Calculator
Allen Zhong
Photographer’s depth of field calculator.
On The Level 4
Stephen Lebed
http://apps.mechnology.com/my-apps/
A combination digital inclinometer and bubble level. Measurements are
calibrated to a hundredths of a degree accuracy.
SL DigiSlate
Stephen Lebed
http://apps.mechnology.com/my-apps/
A digital movie slate (clapper board) with integrated shot logging. Logs can be
edited and emailed. Slate information can be entered manually, and advanced
with simple controls.
SL Director’s Viewfinder
Stephen Lebed
http://apps.mechnology.com/my-apps/
A virtual director’s viewfinder that uses the Android’s built-in camera to
simulate multiple cameras, formats and lenses.
IOS
LightMeter

Ambertation
http://iphone.ambertation.de/lightmeter/
Turns an iPhone’s camera into a exposure meter. The app allows you to change
the f-stop, shutter or iOS values after you’ve measured the scene without altering
the exposure. Also allows users to include filter parameters.
Panascout
Panavision
http://www.panascout.com
Allows filmmakers to capture images of a given location, while recording GPS
data, compass heading, the current date, and sunrise/sunset times. You can then
share the images and data in a variety of ways.
Catchlight
Ben Syverson
http://bensyverson.com/software/catchlight/
Turns your mobile iOS device into a color programmable light source. It can be
used as a catchlight/eye light, or as a mini softbox for low-light photography.
Cinemek Storyboard Composer HD
Cinemek Inc.
http://www.cinemek.com/storyboard/
A mobile storyboarding and previsualization app that allows users to acquire
photos with their phones, and then add traditional storyboarding markups such as
dolly, track, zoom and pan. Users can reorder panels, add stand-ins, set panel
durations, enter text notes, record audio, and then play it all back to get real time
feedback on pacing and framing. Storyboards can be exported as animated
movies or as PDF files.
Clinometer
Peter Breitling
http://www.plaincode.com/
A professional angle/slope measurement app for mobile iOS devices. This
virtual clinometer offers many manual and automatic features as well as a
variety of informational displays.
Focalware
Spiral Development Inc.
http://spiraldev.com/focalware/
Focalware calculates sun and moon position for a given location and date. Use
the interactive compass to determine the path and height of the sun or moon.
Gel Swatch Library
Wybron, Inc.
http://www.wybron.com
Lets lighting production personnel browse, search, and compare more than 1,000
gel color filters made by the following manufacturers: Apollo, GAM, Lee, and
Rosco. Users can compare similar and complementary colors, as well as
examine each color’s detailed Spectral Energy Distribution graphs.
Helios Sun Position Calculator
Chemical Wedding
http://www.chemicalwedding.tv/helios.html
Helios is a sun position calculator and compass that graphically represents the
position of the sun from dusk to dawn, on any given day, in any given place,
without the need for complex tables or graphs. Four modes of operation allow
users to view graphical representations of the sun’s predicted position, elevation,
and path in the sky. It can also calculate the proportional lengths of the shadows
being cast.
Light Calc
D!HV Lighting
http://www.dhvproductions.com/
Light Calc is a photometric calculation tool featuring a database of commonly
used theatrical lighting fixtures. Users can select a type of lighting fixture,
choose one of several lamp types, and set a throw distance. The calculator will
then return a beam diameter and field diameter, in feet, as well as center field
illumination, in footcandles.
MatchLens
Indelible Pictures, Inc.
http://web.me.com/donmatthewsmith/Site/MatchLens.html
This calculator computes the equivalent lens focal length to produce the same
field of view between two cameras with different aperture/sensor sizes. It will do
a “Match Lens” calculation, and produce the closest equivalent angle of view
lens, in millimeters, for both vertical and horizontal frames, between the original
camera’s focal length and the current camera’s focal length.
pCAM Film/Digital Calculator
David Eubank
http://www.davideubank.com
A well-known film and video tool that performs a wide variety of calculations
including: depth of field, hyperfocal, splits/aperture finder, field of view, field of
view preview, angle of view, focal length matching, exposure, running time to
length, shooting to screen time, HMI flicker-free, color correction (choosing
filters), diopter, macro, time lapse, underwater distance, scene illumination
(beam intensity), light coverage (width/distance), mired shift (with suggested
color correction gels), and more.
Photo fx
The Tiffen Company
http://www.tiffen.com/photofx_homepage.html
Lets users apply multiple effects to still photos. Filters include simulations of
many popular Tiffen glass filters, specialized lenses, optical lab processes, film
grain, color corrections, natural light and photographic effects.
Pocket DIT
Clifton Production Services
http://www.cliftonpost.com
A multifunction app that provides a RED ONE virtual menu navigator, a depth
of field calculator (with near focus, far focus, and hyperfocal distances for
16mm, 35mm, and RED formats), a transfer time calculator, a storage calculator,
a time calculator that lets users determine the maximum frame-rate/timebase that
can be recorded given a particular RED configuration,and a maximum fps
indicator that helps users determine the maximum frame rate/time base that can
be recorded given a particular RED configuration.
PocketLD
Michael Zinman
http://www.lightingiphoneapps.com
Pocket LD is a photometric database and calculation tool for lighting
professionals. It’s large, searchable, user-expandable fixture database can be
referenced while organizing easy-to-manage lists of commonly used items.
Additionally, users can enter any throw distance to determine beam/field
diameter and footcandles/lux for any selected fixture and lamp.
PowerCalc
West Side Systems
http://westsidesystems.com/iphone/
PowerCalc performs basic electrical power calculations with watts, volts, amps,
and motor power factor. It has three modes: DC mode, AC Resistive mode, and
AC Inductive mode. It works for any voltage, in any country.
Wrap Time Lite
RedPipe Media
http://redpipemedia.com
Can help crew members keep track of hours, pay, and job information. Users can
save their call, meal, and wrap times. The app will then calculate a users pay,
overtime, and meal penalties according to the provided job information. Various
options allow users to customize the experience, and include additional expenses
and discounts.
mRelease
being MEdia, LLC
http://www.mReleaseApp.com/
mRelease helps users obtain appearance releases, property releases, location
release, and crew releases. After setting up the app, users can add details about
their subject, import an image from the built-in camera or photo library, and
capture a signatures via their device’s touch screen. The app creates, stores, and
emails PDF files of the signed releases.
Toland ASC Digital Assistant
Chemical Wedding in Partnership with the ASC
http://www.chemicalwedding.tv
A full featured, multi-tasking, photographic and camera calculation system.
Unlike single-function calculators that answer specific questions, Toland is
designed to track your photographic choices as you make them. It serves as a
reflection of your entire photographic system. As you change the camera speed,
you get feedback on how it affects running time and exposure; when you change
lenses, depth of field and field of view automatically updates. The app will also
log information and build comprehensive camera reports.
Camera Order
Practical Applications
http://www.practical-applications.com/
This app offers cinematographers and camera assistants the ability to create
complete camera package lists and email them straight from the app to
production or the rental house. It features a complete list of cameras, lenses,
accessories, filters, support, film and media.
Bento
FileMaker, Inc.
http://www.filemaker.com/products/bento/
A simple database application that easily syncs with its Mac-based counterpart.
Since most databases are user generated, the app can be used to track just about
anything (i.e., equipment, supplies, crew, locations, camera logs, etc.). Since all
user data lives on the device (and possibly on a synched Mac computer), and not
in the cloud, no Internet connection is required to view or edit a database.
GoodReader for iPhone
Good.iWare Ltd.
http://www.goodreader.net/goodreader.html
A very popular document reader for iOS devices that allows for easy reviewing,
bookmarking, and annotating of PDF files (i.e., scripts, call sheets, camera logs,
etc.). Documents can be imported and exported in a wide variety of ways.
TechScout Touch
LiteGear Inc.
http://www.litegear.com/techscout
This app helps lighting professionals create rental orders intended to be
submitted to rental houses or to studio set lighting departments. Users enter basic
info about the job, and then being adding items to their list. The app includes
over 1000 lighting equipment items separated into categories and sorted by type
and wattage. New items can also be entered manually. The resulting equipment
list can be e-mailed directly from the app.
Movie*Slate
PureBlend Software
http://www.pureblendsoftware.com/movieslate
A powerful, multifunction digital slate (clapper board) that can sync to camera
time code, generate new time code, playback synced music, log shots with
extensive notes, and export those logs to editing systems like Final Cut Pro and
Avid. The app can also wirelessly sync with other iOS devices running
Movie*Slate.The base price does not include certain time-code features.
Easy Release
ApplicationGap
http://www.applicationgap.com
Easy Release helps users obtain a variety of releases (i.e., talent, location, etc.)
using customizable forms. After setting up the app, users can add details about
their subject, import an image from the built-in camera or photo library, and
capture a signatures via their device’s touch screen. Model and witness
information can be imported directly from your device’s contact list. The app
creates, stores, and e-mails PDF files of the signed releases.
PDF Expert for iPad
Readdle
http://readdle.com
A very popular document reader for iOS devices that allows for easy reviewing,
bookmarking, and annotating of PDF files (i.e., scripts, call sheets, camera logs,
etc.). Documents can be imported and exported in a wide variety of ways.
Artemis Remote for iPad
Chemical Wedding
http://www.chemicalwedding.tv/artemis.hml
Artemis Remote for iPad can wirelessly receive streaming video from an iPhone
(or iPod Touch) running Artemis Director’s Viewfinder. This allows many
people to remotely view whatever the iPhone (or iPod Touch) user is seeing.
Artemis Remote users can also change lenses, and capture pictures to their
iPad’s image gallery.
OmniGraffle
The Omni Group
http://www.omnigroup.com/products/omnigraffle-ipad/
Helps people create diagrams and charts using pre-existing or original graphic
elements. There are collections of film and video related elements available for
free online. Omnigraffle is very useful when blocking camera and actor
movements, designing lighting grids, or creating wiring diagrams.
TouchDraw
Elevenworks, LLC
http://elevenworks.com/touchdraw
TouchDraw is a powerful, easy to use, illustration and drawing application for
iPad that can help users create diagrams for camera blocking, actor blocking, and
lighting setups. Like Omnigraffle but with fewer features at a lower cost.
AJA DataCalc
AJA Video Systems, Inc.
http://www.aja.com/
Computes storage requirements for professional video and audio media. The app
works with all the most popular industry video formats and compression
methods, including Apple ProRes, DVCProHD, HDV, XDCAM, DV, CineForm,
REDCODE, Avid DNxHD, Apple Intermediate, 16-bit RGB and RGBA,
uncompressed, and more. Video standards supported include NTSC, PAL, 1080i,
1080p, 720p, 2K and 4K.
Almost DSLR
Rainbow Silo
http://www.rainbowsilo.com/
Gives more control to users shooting HD video with their iPhone or iPod Touch.
Unlike the built-in camera app, almost DSLR lets users lock focus, lock iris, and
lock white balance. Users can also monitor audio levels, show/hide grids, and
control the built-in camera light.
BigStopWatch & BigStopWatch HD
Objective-Audio
http://objective-audio.jp/apps/
A large, graphic stopwatch that features an easy to control and read interface.
The app also provides a lap timer and countdown timer.
Electrical Toolkit
Niranjan Kumar
http://iappsworld.com/site/iApps.html
Calculates circuit values, and instantly updates when users edit data.
Sun Seeker: 3D Augmented Reality Viewer
ozPDA
http://www.ozpda.com/
Reports the sun’s position and path on a flat compass view, and on an augmented
reality view which displays the app’s data over a live view from the device’s
camera (as a user moves the device, the app updates the overlaid information).
WeatherBug for iPad
WeatherBug
http://weather.weatherbug.com/
Displays current local weather conditions, as well as extended forecasts, severe
weather alerts, an animated Doppler radar, and live weather camera images.
IOS & ANDROID
Artemis Directors Viewfinder

Chemical Wedding
http://www.chemicalwedding.tv/artemis.html
Artemis is a digital director’s viewfinder that works much the same way as a
traditional director’s viewfinder, though much more accurately. Users can select
camera format, aspect ratio, and lens types. Using your device’s built-in camera,
Artemis will simulate the lens views you can expect when ready to shoot. Users
can switch between virtual lenses, save shots, and wirelessly transmit video to
Artemis Remote for iPad (wireless transmission not available on Android).
KODAK Cinema Tools
Eastman Kodak Co.
http://motion.kodak.com/US/en/motion/Tools/Mobile/index.html
The app features a Depth of Field Calculator (works any film format, including
Super 8, 16mm, 35mm and 65mm), a film calculator that helps with footage
computations, and broad film/video glossary. The included contact tool lets users
quickly contact a Kodak representative online to get their technical questions
answered.
WEB APP
Video Storage Calculator

Digital Rebellion LLC

http://www.digitalrebellion.com
http://www.digitalrebellion.com/webapps/video_calc_mobile.html
Calculates the hard-drive space necessary for a given video format and duration.
The actual space taken up may differ slightly due to embedded audio, differing
frame sizes and aspect ratios, and interframe compression/pull-down.
Film Rate Calculator
Digital Rebellion LLC
http://www.digitalrebellion.com
http://www.digitalrebellion.com/webapps/film_calc_mobile.html
Gives an indication of the number of film rolls needed to shoot a given amount
of footage. The actual results may differ slightly due to the rounding system used
for this tool.
Lens Angle Calculator
Digital Rebellion LLC
http://www.digitalrebellion.com
http://www.digitalrebellion.com/webapps/lens_calc_mobile.html
Helps you calculate the lens angle for a given sensor size and focal length.
Power Load Calculator
Digital Rebellion LLC
http://www.digitalrebellion.com
http://www.digitalrebellion.com/webapps/power_calc_mobile.html
Helps users calculate the load on a circuit to see if it is excessive. You can also
calculate the minimum circuit breaker size for the given load. This is very useful
when you are in preproduction as you will easily be able to calculate in advance
whether or not you will need an external generator, and how many.
Arri Alexa Camera Simulator
ARRI Digital Camera Systems
http://www.arridigital.com/technical/simulator
http://www.arridigital.com/technical/simulator
An interactive training tool to familiarize yourself with the menu navigation of
the new ARRI ALEXA digital camera. The ACS-1 Main User Interface shows
an identical simulation of the ALEXA with software version 2.0.
Depth of Field Calculator
Digital Rebellion LLC
http://www.digitalrebellion.com
http://www.digitalrebellion.com/webapps/dof_calc_mobile.html
Lets users calculate the depth of field for a given sensor or film type, aperture,
focal length and subject distance.
Sunrise & Sunset
Piet Jonas
http://www.speedymarks.com/
http://sun.speedymarks.com/
Helps to calculate the sunrise and sunset times for any location on any day of the
year.
VideoSpace
Digital Heaven Ltd
http://www.digital-heaven.co.uk/
http://www.videospaceonline.com/
Disk space calculator for Final Cut Pro editors. Users can choose their codec,
frame rate, audio settings, and duration. The app will then calculate the required
disk space. VideoSpace can also calculate how much footage users can store by
choosing the same settings, but entering their available drive space instead of a
duration.
Weather Underground
Weather Underground
http://www.wund.com/
http://i.wund.com/
View current weather conditions, animated radar, forecasts, and severe weather
alerts.
WINDOWS & ANDROID
Filmcalculator

Zebra Films
http://www.zebrafilm.com/products/filmcalculator/
filmcalculator-for-windows-mobile
Contains over thirty-two calculations, as well as a film stock and camera
database. The app also contains a large lamp database with full details and
calculations.



Quick Picture Monitor Set-Up

by Lou Levinson
ASC Associate Member

S ometimes it is necessary to do a quick “eyeball” setup of a television

monitor in the field. The only tool necessary is a SMPTE color bar feed,
either from a live source or from tape. SMPTE bars can be differentiated from
other types of color bars by the small “reverse” patches of color under some of
the main vertical color bars, and a “plunge” signal in the lower right-hand corner
of the test pattern for setting brightness/black level.
The reverse patches should appear as follows: blue under white, magenta
under cyan, cyan under magenta and white under blue. Having a signal that is
known to be truly monochromatic is a plus, as is having a waveform monitor and
vectorscope to verify the SMPTE bars are at the correct levels.
In a given operating environment, only one person should set up all the
monitors. As no two people will see things exactly alike, this will help achieve
consistency.
BRIGHTNESS AND CONTRAST
Locate the brightness and contrast controls on the monitor. In this context,
brightness refers to black level and contrast refers to white level. Put the contrast
control about 2⁄3 of the way up. Look for the plunge signal in the lower right
corner to adjust brightness. The plunge signal is a series of three vertical gray
bars whose brightness increases from left to right. The brightness may have to be
turned up to see the signal at all. Brightness is correctly set when the two left-
hand bars are black and the right-hand bar is just visible above black.
It should be noted that the brightness adjustment is very sensitive to ambient
viewing conditions and should be done in lighting conditions that will be the
actual conditions used for monitoring. After setting the brightness, check the
brightest white square (bottom, left of center) to be sure it appears white enough
or that it is free from blooming or flare. If it seems gray, turn the contrast up, and
if there is blooming or flare, turn it down until it seems there is a clean, white
square. As brightness and contrast interact, it may take a number of passes
through setting the brightness and contrast adjustments to get both ends correct.
If you have access to a light meter that can make reasonably accurate
measurements of flickering light sources, the white square should be 30 and 35
foot-lamberts.
If there is a monochrome signal available, put it up on the monitor. If it does
not look reasonably black and white, call for help, because a more sophisticated
setup is required. If the monitors are not needed to match exactly or needed for
critical color decisions, proceed at your own risk.
HUE AND CHROMA
In this context, hue is the overall hue of the picture and chroma is the color-
saturation level. With SMPTE bars going into the monitor, locate the switches
that turn the red, green and blue components of the picture on and off. They may
be hidden behind a door or panel. There may also be a switch labeled “blue
only,” which can also be used for setting chroma and hue. Turn off the red and
green components of the picture, or turn on the blue only switch. Either way, you
should see the second, fourth and sixth bars (from left) disappear. If green and
red have been shut down, there will only be blue bars showing. If blue only has
been used, the bars may be monochrome.
At the bottom of each vertical bar will be a small segment. The object of this
setup is to make all the small bottom segments match the bigger counterparts
above. The hue control will mainly affect the two inside bar pairs, and the
chroma control will affect the two outside pairs. Because the adjustments
interact it may take several passes to get both right at the same time.
Try not to take more than 30 seconds to match the bar pairs, because your
brain tries to “normalize” things after a bit. If necessary look away at a
reasonably neutral area for a minute or so, then return to the setup. When you
have all four bar pairs matched, put the monitor back into operating mode (turn
green and red back on). Note that monitors getting digital input signals may not
let hue be adjusted. If this is so, and hue is not correct, call for help.
The above setup procedure will yield reasonably matched monitors, and if the
monochrome pictures look black-and-white, reasonably accurate pictures.

Lou Levinson has spent more than a quarter century as a top feature-film
colorist. Levinson is the chair of the DI subcommittee of the ASC Technology
Committee. He took four years off to do HD research for MLA/MEI at Universal
Studios. Since 1998, he has been the senior colorist for feature masters and
digital intermediates at Post Logic. He holds a MFA from the Art Institute of
Chicago.
Further References

3-D
Spottiswood, Raymond, Theory of Stereoscopic Transmission, Berkeley, CA; University of
California Press, 1953.

Aerial Cinematography
Wagtendonk, W.J., Principles of Helicopter Flight, Aviation Supplies & Academics, Newcastle,
WA, 1996.
Crane, Dale, Dictionary of Aeronatical Terms, Aviation Supplies & Academics, Newcastle, WA,
1997.
Spence, Charles, Aeronautical Information Manual and Federal Aviation Regulations,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 2000.
Padfield, R., Learning to Fly Helicopters, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1992.
Industry-Wide Labor-Management Safety Bulletins at: http://www.csatf.org/bulletintro.shtml

Arctic Cinematography
Eastman Kodak Publication: Photography Under Artic Conditions.
Fisher, Bob, “Cliffhanger’s Effects were a Mountainous Task,” American Cinematographer,
Vol. 74, No. 6, pp. 66-74, 1993.
Miles, Hugh, “Filming in Extreme Climactic Conditions,” BKSTS Journal Image Technology,
February 1988.
Moritsugu, Louise, “Crew’s Peak Performance Enhanced Alive,” American Cinematographer,
Vol. 74, No. 6, pp. 78-84, 1993.

Biographies and Interviews

Almendros, ASC, Nestor, A Man With a Camera, New York, Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1984.
Bitzer, ASC, Billy, Billy Bitzer – His Story: The Autobioagraphy of D.W. Griffith’s Master
Cameraman, New York, Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1973.
Brown, ASC, Karl, with Brownlow, Kevin, Adventures With D.W. Griffith, New York, Farrar,
Straus, Giroux, 1973.
Cardiff, BSC, Jack, Magic Hour, London, Faber and Faber, 1996.
Challis, BSC, Christopher, Are They Really So Awful?: A Cameraman’s Chronicle, Paul & Co.
Publishing Consortium, 1995.
Clarke, ASC, Charles G., Highlights and Shadows: The Memoirs of a Hollywood Cameraman,
Metuchen, NJ; Scarecrow Press, 1989.
Eyman, Scott, Five American Cinematographers: Interviews with Karl Struss, Joseph
Ruttenberg, James Wong Howe, Linwood Dunn and William H. Clothier, Metuchen, NJ;
Scarecrow Press, 1987.
Higham, Charles, Hollywood Cameramen: Sources of Light, Indiana University Press, 1970.
Kalmus, Herbert T. and Eleanor King, Mr. Technicolor, Abescon, NJ; Magic Image Filmbooks,
1993.
Lassally, BSC, Walter, Itinerant Cameraman, London, Murray, 1987.
Laszlo, ASC, Andrew, Every Frame a Rembrandt: Art and Practice of Cinematography,
Boston, MA; Focal Press, 2000.
Laszlo, ASC, Andrew, It’s A Wrap!, Hollywood, CA; ASC Press, 2004.
LoBrutto, Vincent, Principal Photography: Interviews with Feature Film Cinematographers,
Westport, CT; Praeger, 1999.
Maltin, Leonard, The Art of the Cinematographer: A Survey and Interviews with Five Masters,
New York, Dover Publications, 1978.
McCandless, Barbara, New York to Hollywood: The Photography of Karl Struss, ASC,
Albuquerque, NM; University of New Mexico, 1995.
Miller, ASC, Virgil E., Splinters From Hollywood Tripods: Memoirs of a Cameraman, New
York, Exposition Press, 1964.
Rainsberger, Todd, James Wong Howe Cinematographer, San Diego, CA; A.S. Barnes, 1981.
Rogers, Pauline B., More Contemporary Cinematographers on Their Art, Boston, MA; Focal
Press, 2000.
Schaefer, Dennis and Salvato, Larry, Masters of Light: Conversations with Contemporary
Cinematographers, Berkeley, CA; University of California Press, 1985.
Sterling, Anna Kate, Cinematographers on the Art and Craft of Cinematography, Metuchen,
NJ; Scarecrow Press, 1987.
Walker, ASC, Joseph, The Light On Her Face, Hollywood, CA; ASC Press, 1984.
Young, BSC, Freddie, Seventy Light Years: An Autobiography as told to Peter Busby, London,
Faber and Faber, 1999.

Camera
Adams, Ansel, The Camera, New York, Morgan and Morgan, Inc., 1975.
Fauer, ASC, Jon, Arricam Book, Hollywood, CA; ASC Press, 2002.
Fauer, ASC, Jon, Arriflex 16 SR Book, Boston, MA; Focal Press, 1999.
Fauer, ASC, Jon, Arriflex 16 SR3 the Book, Arriflex Corp., 1996.
Fauer, ASC, Jon, Arriflex 35 Book, Boston, MA; Focal Press, 1999.
Fauer, ASC, Jon, Arriflex 435 Book, Arriflex Corp., 2000.
Samuelson, David W., Panaflex Users’ Manual, Boston, MA; Focal Press, 1990

Camera Manufacturers
Canon www.canon.com
Aaton, +33 47642 9550, www.aaton.com
ARRI, (818) 841-7070, www.arri.com
Fries Engineering, (818) 252-7700
Ikonoskop AB, +46 8673 6288, [email protected]
Panasonic, www.panasonic.com
Panavision, (818) 316-1000, www.panavision.com
Photo-Sonics, (818) 842-2141, www.photosonics.com
Pro8mm, (818) 848-5522, www.pro8mm.com
Red, +1-949-206-7900, www.red.com
Silicon Imaging, www.siliconimaging.com
SONY, pro.sony.com
Vision Research, www.visionresearch.com

Camera Supports
A + C Ltd., +44 (0) 208-427 5168, www.powerpod.co.uk
Aerocrane, (818) 785-5681, www.aerocrane.com
Akela: Shotmaker, (818) 623-1700, www.shotmaker.com
Aquapod, (818) 999-1411
Chapman/Leonard Studio Equipment, (888) 883-6559, www.chapman-leonard.com
Egripment B.V., +31 (0)2944-253.988, Egripment USA, (818) 787-4295, www.egripment.com
Fx-Motion, +32 (0)24.12.10.12, www.fx-motion.com
Grip Factory Munich (GFM), +49 (0)89 31901 29-0, www.g-f-m.net
Hot Gears, (818) 780-2708, www.hotgears.com
Hydroflex, (310) 301-8187, www.hydroflex.com
Company, (818) 752-3104, www.isaia.com
J.L. Fisher, Inc., (818) 846-8366, www.jlfisher.com
Jimmy Fisher Co., (818) 769-2631
Libra, (310) 966-9089
Louma, +33 (0)1 48 13 25 60, www.loumasystems.biz
Megamount, +44 (0)1 932 592 348, www.mega3.tv
Movie Tech A.G., +49 0 89-43 68 913, Movie Tech L.P., (678) 417-6352, www.movietech.de
Nettman Systems International, (818) 623-1661, www.camerasystems.com
Orion Technocrane, +49 171-710-1834, www.technocrane.de
Pace Technologies, (818) 759-7322, www.pacetech.com
Panavision Remote Systems, (818) 316-1080, www.panavision.com
Panther, +49 89 61 39 00 01, www.panther-gmbh.de
Pictorvision, (818) 785-9282, www.pictorvision.com
Spacecam, (818) 889-6060, www.spacecam.com
Strada, (541) 549-4229, www.stradacranes.com
Straight Shoot’r, (818) 340-9376, www.straightshootr.com
Technovision, (818) 782-9051, www.technovision-global.com

Cinematography
Brown, Blain, Cinematography, Boston, MA; Focal Press, 2002.
Campbell, Russell, Photographic Theory for the Motion Picture Cameraman, London, Tantivy
Press, 1970.
Campbell, Russell, Practical Motion Picture Photography, London, Tantivy Press, 1970.
Carlson, Verne and Sylvia, Professional Cameraman’s Handbook, 4th edition, Boston, MA;
Focal Press, 1994.
Clarke, ASC, Charles G., Professional Cinematography, Hollywood, CA; ASC Press, 2002.
Cornwell-Clyne, Major Adrian, Color Cinematography, 3rd edition, Chapman Hall LTD 1951.
Malkiewicz, Kris J.and Mullen, M. David, Cinematography: A Guide for Filmmakers and Film
Teachers, New York, Fireside, 2005.
Mascelli, ASC, Joseph V., The 5 C’s of Cinematography, Beverly Hills, CA, Silman-James
Press, 1998 (c1965).
Wilson, Anton, Anton Wilson’s Cinema Workshop, Hollywood, CA; ASC Press, 1983, 1994.

Color
Albers, J., Interaction of Color, New Haven and London; Yale University Press, 1963.
Eastman Kodak Publication H-12, An Introduction to Color, Rochester, 1972.
Eastman Kodak Publication E-74, Color As Seen and Photographed, Rochester, 1972.
Eastman Kodak Publication H-188, Exploring the Color Image, Rochester.
Evans, R. M., An Introduction to Color, New York, NY; John Wiley & Sons, 1948.
Evans, R. M., Eye, Film, and Camera Color Photography, New York, NY; John Wiley & Sons,
1959.
Evans, R. M., The Perception of Color, New York, NY; John Wiley & Sons, 1974.
Friedman, J. S., History of Color Photography, Boston, MA; American Photographic
Publishing Company, 1944.
Hardy, A. C., Handbook of Colorimetry, MIT, Cambridge, MA; Technology Press, 1936.
Hunt, R. W. G., The Reproduction of Colour, Surrey, UK, Fountain Press, 1995.
Itten, J., The Art of Color, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1973.
National Bureau of Standards Circular 553, The ISCC-NBS Method of Designating Colors and
A Dictionary of Color Names, Washington D. C., 1955.
Optical Society of America, The Science of Color, New York, NY; Thomas Y. Crowell
Company, 1953.
Society of Motion Picture and Teclevision Engineers, Elements of Color in Professional Motion
Pictures, New York, NY, 1957.
Wall, E. J., History of Three-Color Photography, New York and London, Boston, MA;
American Photographic Publishing Company, 1925.

Film
Adams, Ansel, The Negative, New York, Little Brown, 1989.
Adams, Ansel, The Print, New York, Little Brown,1989.
Eastman Kodak Publication H-1: Eastman Professional Motion Picture Films.
Eastman Kodak Publication H-23: The Book of Film Care.
Eastman Kodak Publication H-188: Exploring the Color Image.
Eastman Kodak Publication N-17: Infrared Films.
Eastman Kodak Publication: ISO vs EI Speed Ratings.
Eastman Kodak Publication: Ultraviolet and Fluorescence Photography.
Hayball, Laurie White, Advanced Infrared Photography Handbook, Amherst Media, 2001.
Hayball, Laurie White, Infrared Photography Handbook, Amherst Media, 1997.
Film Design
Affron, Charles and Affron, Mirella Jona, Sets in Motion, Rutgers University Press, 1995.
Carrick, Edward, Designing for Films, The Studio LTD and the Studio Publications Inc, 1941,
1947.
Carter, Paul, Backstage Handbook, 3rd edition., Broadway Press, 1994.
Cruickshank, Dan, Sir Banister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture, 20th edition, New York,
NY, Architectural Press, 1996.
Edwards, Betty, Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, revised edition, Jeremy P. Tarcher,
1989.
de Vries, Jan Vredeman, Perspective, Dover Publications, 1968.
Heisner, Beverly, Studios, McFarland and Co., 1990.
Katz, Stephen D., Shot by Shot – Visualizing from Concept to Screen, Boston, MA; Focal Press,
1991, pp. 337-356.
Preston, Ward, What an Art Director Does, Silman-James Press, 1994.
Raoul, Bill, Stock Scenery Construction Handbook, 2nd edition, Broadway Press, 1999.
St John Marner, Terrance, Film Design, The Tantivy Press, 1974.

Film History
The American Film Institute Catalog: Feature Films 1911–1920, Berkeley and Los Angeles,
University of California Press, 1989.
The American Film Institute Catalog: Feature Films 1931–1940, Berkeley and Los Angeles,
University of California Press, 1993.
The American Film Institute Catalog: Feature Films 1921–1930, Berkeley and Los Angeles,
University of California Press, 1997.
The American Film Institute Catalog: Feature Films 1961–1970, Berkeley and Los Angeles,
University of California Press, 1997.
The American Film Institute Catalog: Within Our Gates: Ethnicity in American Feature Films
1911–1960, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1989.
The American Film Institute Catalog: Feature Films 1941–1950, Berkeley and Los Angeles,
University of California Press, 1999.
Belton, John, Widescreen Cinema, Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press, 1992.
Brownlow, Kevin, Hollywood the Pioneers, New York, NY; Alfred A. Knopf, 1979.
Brownlow, Kevin, The Parade’s Gone By, New York, Knopf, 1968.
Coe, Brian, The History of Movie Photography, New York, Zoetrope, 1982.
Fielding, Raymond, A Technological History of Motion Pictures and Television, University of
California Press, 1967.
Finler, Joel W., The Hollywood Story, New York, Crown, 1988.
Ryan, R.T., A History of Motion Picture Color Technology, London, Focal Press, 1977.
MacGowan, Kenneth, Behind the Screen: the History and Techniques of the Motion Picture,
New York, Delacorte Press, 1965.
Rotha, Paul and Griffith, Richard, The Film Till Now: A Survey of World Cinema, London,
Spring Books, 1967. (New York, Funk & Wagnalls, 1951.) Schatz, Thomas, The Genius of the
System: Hollywood Filmmaking in the Studio Era, New York, Pantheon, 1988.
Turner, George E., The Cinema of Adventure, Romance and Terror, Hollywood, CA; ASC
Press, 1989

Film Processing
ACVL Handbook, Association of Cinema and Video Laboratories.
Case, Dominic, Motion Picture Film Processing, London, Butterworth and Co. Ltd. (Focal
Press), 1985.
Eastman Kodak publications: H-1, H-2, H-7, H-17, H-21, H-23, H-24.07, H-26, H-36, H-37,
H-37A, H-44, H-61, H-61A, H-61B, H-61C, H-61D, H-61E, H-61F, H-807 and H-822.
Happe, L. Bernard, Your Film and the Lab, London, Focal Press, 1974.
Kisner, W.I., Control Techniques in Film Processing, New York, SMPTE, 1960.
Ryan, R.T., Principles of Color Sensitometry, New York, SMPTE, 1974.

Filters
Eastman Kodak Publication B-3: Filters.
Harrison, H.K., Mystery of Filters-II, Porterville, CA; Harrison & Harrison, 1981.
Hirschfeld, ASC, Gerald, Image Control, Boston, MA; Focal Press, 1993.
Hypia, Jorma, The Complete Tiffen Filter Manual, AmPhoto, New York, 1981.
Smith, Robb, Tiffen Practical Filter Manual.
Tiffen Manufacturing Corporation Publication T179: Tiffen Photar Filter Glass

Journals, Magazines and Associations

ANSI Standards, American National Standards Institute, www.ansi.org.
American Cinematographer, ASC Holding Corp., www.theasc.com
BKSTS Journal, “Image Technology,” British Kinematograph, Sound and Television Society,
www.bksts.com.
SMPTE Journal, Society Of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, www.smpte.org.

Lenses
Angenieux, P., “Variable focal length objectives,” U.S. Patent No. 2,847,907, 1958.
Bergstein, L., “General theory of optically compensated varifocal systems,” JOSA Vol. 48, No.
9, pp. 154-171, 1958.
Cook, G.H.,”Recent developments in television optics,” Royal Television Society Journal, pp.
158-167, 1973.
Cox, Arthur, Photographic Optics, A Modern Approach to the Technique of Definition,
expanded edition, London, Focal Press, 1971.
Kingslake, R. “The development of the zoom lens,” SMPTE Vol. 69, pp. 534-544, 1960.
Mann, A., Ed., “Zoom lenses,” SPIE Milestone Series Vol. MS 85, 1993.
Neil, I.A. and Betensky, E.I, “High performence, wide angle, macro focus, zoom lens for
35mm cinematography,” SPIE Vol. 3482, pp. 213-228, Kona, Hawaii, U.S.A., 1998.
Neil, I.A., “First order principles of zoom optics explained via macro focus conditions of fixed
focal length lenses,” SPIE Vol. 2539, San Diego, California, U.S.A., 1995.
Neil, I.A., “Liquid optics create high performance zoom lens,” Laser Focus World, Vol. 31, No.
11, 1995.
Neil, I.A., “Uses of special glasses in visual objective lenses,” SPIE Vol. 766, pp. 69-74, Los
Angeles, California, U.S. A., 1987.
Zuegge, H. and Moellr, B., “A complete set of cinematographic zoom lenses and their
fundamental design considerations,” Proceedings of the 22nd Optical Symposium, pp. 13-16,
Tokyo, Japan, 1997.

Lighting
Adams, Ansel, Artificial Light Photography, New York, Morgan and Morgan, Inc., 1956.
Alton, John, Painting With Light, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press,
1995.
Bergery, Benjamin, Reflections – 21 Cinematographers at Work, Hollywood, CA; ASC Press,
2002.
Box, Harry, Set Lighting Technician’s Handbook, Boston, MA, Focal Press, 2003.
Malkiewicz, Kris J., Film Lighting: Talk with Hollywood’s Cinematographers and Gaffers,
New York, Touchstone, a Division of Simon & Schuster, 2012.
Millerson, Gerald, The Technique of Lighting for Television and Film, Boston, Focal Press,
1991

Miscellaneous
Arnheim, Rudolf, Art and Visual Perception, Berkley, CA, University of California Press,
1974.
Darby, William, Masters of Lens and Light: A Checklist of Major Cinematographers and Their
Feature Films, Metuchen, NJ, Scarecrow Press, 1991.
Houghton, Buck, What a Producer Does, Silman-James Press, 1991.
Kehoe, Vincent J. R., The Technique of the Professional Makeup Artist, Boston, MA, Focal
Press, 1995.
Kepes, Gyorgy, Language of Vision, New York, MA, Dover Publications, 1995.
Moholy-Nagy, L., Vision in Motion, Wisconsin; Cuneo Press, 1997.
Nilsen, Vladimir, The Cinema as a Graphic Art, New York; Garland Pub., 1985.
Waner, John, Hollywood’s Conversion of All Production to Color Using Eastman Color
Professional Motion Picture Films, Newcastle, ME; Tobey Publishing, 2000.

Photography
Evans, R.M., W.T. Hanson Jr., and W.L. Brewer, Principles of Color Photography, New York,
John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1953.
Mees, C.E.K., The Theory of the Photographic Process, New York, Macmillan, 1977.
Thomas Jr., Woodlief, SPSE Handbook of Photographic Science and Engineering, New York,
John Wiley & Sons, 1973.
Woodbury, Walter E., The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Photography, New York, The Scovill
and Adams Company, 1898.

Traveling Matte Composites

Composite Components Corp. (323) 257-1163, www.digitalgreenscreen.com
Curious Software (gFx roto)
UK: Tel: +44 (0)20 7428 0288 Fax: +44 (0)20 7428 5811
US: Tel: +1 505 988 7243, Fax: +1 505 988 1654
Dazian Theatrical Fabrics: East Coast (877) 232-9426 or East Coast Design Studio (212) 206-
3515, West Coast (877) 432-9426 or West Coast Design Studio (818) 841-6500.
Flo Co (818) 780-0039 or (661) 269-2065
Keylight (650) 326-2656, www.thefoundry.co.uk
Kino Flo (818) 767-6528, www.kinoflo.com
Pinnacle Systems, (Commotion, Primatte) www.pinnaclesys.com
Primatte: Phototron USA, Inc. (530) 677 9980, www.primatte.com or www.photron.com
Red*D*Mix [Ray McMillan, Flo Co Distributor] (416) 879-3761 email:
[email protected]
RFX (compositing software and hardware) (323) 962-7400, www.rfx.com
The Science and Technology Council of the Motion Picture Acadamy (310) 247 3000,
www.oscars.org/council/index.html
Stewart Filmscreen Corp. (310) 784-5300, www.stewartfilm.com
Ultimatte Corp. (818) 993-8007, www.ultimatte.com

Underwater Cinematography
Mertens, Lawrence, In Water Photography: Theory and Practice, Wiley Interscience, New
York, John Wiley & Sons, 1970.
Ryan, R.T., Underwater Photographic Applications – Introduction, SMPTE Journal, Vol. 82,
No. 12, December 1973.
Industry-Wide Labor-Management Safety Bulletins at: http://www.csatf.org/bulletintro.shtml

Visual Effects
Abbott, ASC, L.B., Special Effects with Wire, Tape and Rubber Bands, Hollywood, CA; ASC
Press, 1984.
Bulleid, H.A.V. (Henry Anthony Vaughan), Special Effects in Cinematography, London,
Fountain Press, 1960.
Clark, Frank P., Special Effects in Motion Pictures Some Methods for Producing Mechanical
Effects, New York, SMPTE, 1966.
Dunn, ASC, Linwood, and Turner, George E., ASC Treasury of Visual Effects, Hollywood, CA;
ASC Press,1983.
Fielding, Raymond, The Technique of Special Effects Cinematography, Boston, MA; Focal
Press, 1985.
Glover, Thomas J., Pocket Ref, Littleton, CO, Sequoia Publishing, 1997.
Harryhausen, Ray, Ray Harryhausen: An Animated Life, New York, NY, Billboards Books,
2004.
Rogers, Pauline B., The Art of Visual Effects: Interviews on the Tools of the Trade, Boston,
MA; Focal Press, 1999.
The Nautical Almanac, commercial edition, Arcata, CA, Paradise Cay Publications (yearly).
Vaz, Matt Cotta and Barron, Craig, The Invisible Art: The Legends of Movie Matte Painting,
San Francisco, CA; Chronicle Books, 2002.
INDEX

Page numbers followed by an “f” refer to a figure or illustration

Nos.
1.85 aspect ratio advantages and disadvantages
2 x 2 matrix
2 x 3 matrix
2K
definition
digital cinema mastering and distribution question
2.40 aspect ratio advantages and disadvantages
3-D
polarization filters and
stereoscopic cinematography
4K
definition
digital cinema mastering and distribution question
16mm cameras
Aaton A-Minima (Super 16 only)
Aaton XTRprod
aperture specifications
Arri fuses for
Arriflex 16BL
Arriflex 16S; 16M
Arriflex 16SR-1; 16SR-2
Arriflex 16SR3, HSR3, SR advanced, HSR3 advanced
arctic cinematography and
Bell & Howell 16mm Film
Bolex H16mm
Glidecam V-20
Ikonoskop A-Cam SP-16
Panaflex “Elaine,”
16mm extreme close-up depth of field and exposure factor versus magnification or field of view chart
16mm film apertures
16mm film format tables footage
footage and frames obtained at various camera speeds
frame totalizer
16mm/Super 16 field of view tables
35mm cameras
Aaton 35-3P, 35III, 35II
aperture specifications
Arri accessories
Arri matte boxes
ArriCam Lite
ArriCam Studio
Arriflex 35-2C
Arriflex 35II models
Arriflex 35-3
Arriflex 35-3C
Arriflex 35BL
Arriflex
Arriflex 435 Advanced, 435 Extreme
Arriflex
Arriflex 535B
Arriflex/SL-35 Mark II
Arriflex/SL-35 Mark III
Bell & Howell Eyemo Model
Bell & Howell 35mm Steve’s Cine Service conversion
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm
Fries
Moviecam Comp0act
Moviecam SL
Moviecam Super America MK2
Panavision Gil Golden Panaflex (PFX-GII)
Panavision Millenium (PFX-M)
Panavision Millenium XL (PFXMXL), XL2
Panavision models list, notes, and accessories
Panavision Panaflex Panastar II High-Speed
Panavision Panaflex-X (PFX-X)
Panavision Platinum Panaflex (PFX-P)
panning speeds at various frame rates chart, recommended
panning speeds in degrees per second chart, recommended
Photo-Sonics 4CR
Photo-Sonics 4ER
Photo-Sonics 4ML (reflex and nonreflex)
Ultracam
35mm extreme close-up depth of field and exposure factor versus magnification or field of view chart
35mm film format
footage and frames obtained at various camera speeds chart
footage table
frame totalizer chart
35mm film master creation
65mm 5-Perf TODD-AO/Panavision 65mm spherical imaged negative aperture specifications
65mm-15 Perf IMAX/OMNIMAX aperture specifications
65mm cameras
Arriflex
Fries Model 865 65mm/8-perf.
Mitchell FC, BFC
MSM Model 8870 65mm/8-perf.
Panavision System-65
Panavision System 65mm handholdable
65mm film footage obtained at various camera speeds chart
65/70mm film format footage table
70mm and aspect ratios of 1.85, anamorphic 2.40, and Super formats
A
Aaton 35-3P
Aaton A Minima (Super 16) camera
Aaton XTRprod 16mm camera
Above Ground Level (AGL) altitude
Academy aperture
1.85 aspect ratio and
definition
Academy Color Encoding Systems (ACE)
ASC CDL and
benefits
block diagram
chromaticity diagram
components and features, key
definition
digital basic concepts and
DPX and
input device transforms (IDT)
linear definition
log definition
look modification transforms (LMT)
output device transform (ODT)
overview
reference device transform
Reference Input Capture Device (RICD)
reference rendering transform (RRT)
reference signal chain
scene-referred linear floating-point format
technical description
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
Academy Color Encoding System. See Academy Color Encoding Systems (ACE)
Science and Technology Council
Acme-Dunn Optical printer
Active matrix
Advanced Camera Systems, Inc.
Advanced video coding high definition (AVCHD) format
Aerial camera stabilizing systems, miniature
Aerial cinematography
aesthetics
aircraft selection considerations
aviation basics
camera mounts and dedicated gyro systems
camera mounts types
choice of sides for mounting
common fixed-wing aircraft
communications: radio and pilot jargon
customized Lear jets
dynamic action creation
FAA regulations for camera mounts
film stocks/T-stops, choice of
flight envelope definition
fuel trucks
glossary of flight physics
ground effect definition
helicopters, common
losing tail-rotor authority definition
max speed
metering
miniaturized radio-controlled helicopters
mounts/heads
onboard
pilots
protocol, planning, and nonessential payload
radios and pilot jargon
rudder pedals definition
safety
settling with power definition
skydiving
speeds, filming
stabilizers in the air, alternate
time of day
“Velocity Not to Exceed” (VNE)
Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
weather basics
yoke/control stick definition
Aerocrane Strobe Tracking System
Aerospatiale A-Star/Twin Star (AS350 and AS355 twin) helicopter
Aerospatiale Llama helicopter
AG-DVX Panasonic
AG-HVX200, Panasonic
Alpha (matte) channel
American Society of Cinematographers (ASC)
clubhouse photograph
color decision list (CDL)
digital assistant handheld app
magazine
origins
Previsualization Society
purpose
screen credit for member, first
Technology Committee’s Digital Intermediate Subcommittee
American Society of Cinematographers color decision list (ASC CDL)
behavior for different image encodings
benefits
corrections
interchange formats
log
offset
power
production workflow usage, full
saturation
slope
transfer functions
video-gamma and linear (gamma 1.0)
XML files and
Analog and digital basic concepts
Analog definition
Analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion definitions
Animation
sequence
Anamorphic
35mm film
240 aspect ratio advantages and disadvantages
adjusting attachment
advantage
CinemaScope aspect ratio
CinemaScope introduction
cinematography
conversions
definitions
digital intermediate process and
dome port and
flat port and
lenses
lenses use and
optical system used for CinemaScope and Panavision
Panavision and anamorphic mumps
Panavision’s Panaflasher
prisms and mirrors and
rear anamorphic unit
SMPTE 50-1998 and
spherical versus
VistaVision negatives and
widescreen format
Anamorphic mumps
Android handheld apps for production use
Answer print
Aperture
compensator for extreme close-ups chart
plate
specifications summary
Apple ProRes 4444
Apps for production use, handheld
Accessory
Android
IOS
IOS and Android
Windows and Android
Aquacolor and underwater filters
Arc discharge and fluorescent lamps table, filters for
Arc lamps at volts
Archival elements
Archiving, digital basic concepts and
Arri
2-C
3” x 3” matte box
35-3
accessories
Alexa
Alexa camera simulator handheld app
Alexa M
Alexa Plus
Alexa Studio
D-21
fuses for 16mm cameras
matte boxes
raw
ArriCam Lite 35mm camera
ArriCam Studio 35mm cameras
Arriflex
16 BL 16mm camera
16S; 16M 16mm cameras
16SR-1, SR-2 16mm cameras
16SR-3, HSR3, SRAdvanced, HSR3 Advanced 16mm cameras
35 II models
35-3
35-2C
35-3C
35BL
435 Advanced, 435 Extreme
765 65mm camera
stabilizer
Varicon
Arriflex/SL 35 Mark II
Arriflex/SL 35 Mark III
ArriLaser film recorder
Arriscan
Artemis Cine/HD Camera Stabilizing system
Artemis Remote for iPad
Arctic cinematography
broad-range lubricants
equipment and filming techniques
equipment preparation
equipment problems main reason
film
frostbite danger
glove types
storage
tripods
winterizing cameras
Artifact definition
Aspect ratio
1.85 advantages and disadvantages
definition
issues
Audio issues for shooting HD video digital still camera
Aurasoft™
Autodesk Lustre
Automatic gain control (AGC)
Avid and nonlinear editing system
AVC-Intra format
Avid log exchange (ALE)
B
Back scattering
Backgrounds, projection chart for process
Baked in definition
Banding definition
Bandwidth definition
Barndoors
Bayer pattern
Bayer pattern photogate sensor
Beam projectors
Beaulieu Super 8mm cameras 4008
6008 Pro
7008 Pro
Bell & Howell 35mm Eyemo cameras
Bell & Howell 35mm Steve’s Cine Service conversion
Bell Huey UH-1 (civilian version 204/205) helicopter
Bell Jet Ranger (206) helicopter
Bell Long Ranger (206L) helicopter
Bellow-type lenses
Bench test negative preparation
Binary code definition
Bit definitions
Bit depth
definition
digital basic concepts and
black-and-white film day-for-night cinematography
Black body
Black Pro Mist-type filters
Black stretch
Black test, printed
Blackmagic
cinema camera
resolve
Bleach bypass
Blow-ups and reduction and optical printer
Blue- and greenscreen photography
alpha (or matte) channel
backing types and lighting
backing uniformity and screen correction
balancing screen (backing) brightness to shooting stop
camera negative selection
camera selection
choosing the backing color
color ban dwidth and compression
color correction
composite
compositing software
costs and consequences
day-lit backings limits
day-lit green and blue backings
distinctions from other compositing methods
edge enhancement/sharpening/detail settings
environmental bounce light
eye protection
fabric screen choice
filtration
fix it in post
floor shots, virtual sets
foreground lighting and color bias
foreground lighting on the stage
front-lit backings
illumination and reflections from the backing
illuminators
Keylight package
lenses
levels for digital original photography
light sources, alternative
lighting to eliminate shadow
lighting virtual sets
local color
negative scanning and digital conversion
on-set preview
overview
painted screen choice
plastic materials as screen choice
processed foreground
projection composites
recording
rotoscoping
schematic H&D curve
screen choices
screen brightness setting
smoke plumes normal and underexposed
software creation of composite
spatial resolution
spill light control
technical previs and
television monitors and on-set preview–
tracking markers
underwater cinematography and
underwater photography
visual effects supervisor, working with
wardrobe colors and
white card in set lit to shooting stop
white card method for screen balancing
BodyCam
Bodymount
Body-Pan
Body-worn stabilizing systems
Bolex H16mm cameras
Boresight
Brightness and contrast for picture monitor set-up
Brute Fresnel lens spotlight
Bungee or surgical tubing mounts
Byte definitions
C
Cable voltage drop
Cablecam
CalColor filters
Calibration
definition
of lens for underwater cinematography
Camera chart, telescopic
Camera, film
16mm; see also 16mm cameras
35mm; see also 35mm cameras
65mm; see also 65mm cameras
IMAX; see also IMAX
Super 8mm; see also Super 8mm cameras
VistaVision 35mm; see also VistaVision
Camera filters. See Filters, camera
Camera mounts for aerial cinematography, types of
Camera rental order handheld app
Camera selections for digital cinematography on a budget
Camera speed exposure compensator chart
Camera stabilizing systems
Advanced Camera Systems, Inc.
aerial
aerial systems, miniature
Artemis Cine/HD
Body-cam
body-worn systems
Cablecam
Coptervision
CVG-A
Flying-Cam
George Paddock Inc.
Glidecam Gold Series
Glidecam Industries, Inc.
Glidecam V-16
Glidecam V-20
handheld systems
Hydro Gyro
Libra III
MK-V Evolution Modular Sled system
PRO-TM System’s Donkey Box II
Rollvision
Sachtler
Spydercam
suspended camera system
Tiffen Steadicam
Universal Model III
Camera-support systems
airplane and helicopter mounts/heads
arms remotely operated
body-worn systems chart
cable rigged
crane charts
cranes
dollies
dolly charts
hand wheels, remote
jib charts
jibs and sliders, small
radio controlled vehicles
remote controlled camera chart
remote handwheels chart
remote heads
remote heads charts
suspended camera system chart
telescopic camera chart
track systems, remotely operated
Camera-top encoder handheld app
Cameras, digital. See Digital cameras and recorders
Canon cameras
814 XL-S, 1014 XL-S Super 8mm
C300
EOS 1D C
EOS 5D Mark III
EOS 7Dm
Vixia HF S21
XA10
XF format
XF105
XF305
Cathode ray tube (CRT) definition
Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors
Cessna (many variants)
Chapman charts for
cranes
dollies
jibs
remote heads
Charge coupled device (CCD)
Charts and diagram creation handheld app
Chip definition
Chips and pixels, digital basic concepts and
Chromakey green fabric
Chromatic aberration
Chromaticity coordinates definition
Chromaticity diagram
Cine lens list
Cine zoom lens
Cinedeck EX onboard recorder
CinemaScan process
CinemaScope. See Anamorphic cinematography
Cinematographer and the laboratory. See Laboratory and the cinematographer Cineon digital film system
Cineon file definition
Circle of confusion
Clinometer handheld app
Clipping
Close Encounters of the Third Kind and streaking of hot (bright) objects
Close-to-macro focusing
Close-up and split-field diopter lenses
CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow) definition
Code of Safe Practices
Code value definition
CODEC
avoiding recording
definition
interframe definition
intraframe definition
Codex ArriRaw onboard recorder
Codex Onboard M recorder
Codex Onboard S recorder
Color, filters for
color-conversion filters
color-compensating (CC) filters
coral filters
Decamired filters
Didymium filers
differences between camera and lab/post correction
in digital world
digital post processing options
fluorescent and other discontinuous spectra lighting correction
gel filters
graduated color filters
information, general
light-balancing filters
LL-D
mixed lighting situations
sepia filters
stripe filters
underwater color-correction filters
Color absorption and underwater cinematography
Color and look management, digital basic concepts and
Color balancing
for existing fluorescent lighting chart
for existing nonphotographic lighting chart
to match daylight or ambient light on location interiors chart
Color correction collection (CCC)
Color correction for carbon arcs table
Color decision list (CDL), ASC. See ASC color decision list (CDL)
Color gamut definition
Color grading
Color sampling
as compression of image data
definition
digital basic concepts and
Color space
correlated
definition
digital basic concepts and
Color temperature
definition
meters
Colortran boosting
Commission Internationale de L’Eclairage (CIE) XYZ color space
Common center
Common topline
Communications
radios and pilot jargon
underwater
Comparisons of 35mm, 1.85, anamorphic, Super 35 film formats
advantages of 1.85
advantages of Super 35 composed for 2.40 aspect ratio
composition
digital motion picture cameras
disadvantages of 1.85
disadvantages of anamorphic 2.40
disadvantages of Super 35 composed for 2.40 aspect ratio
fill factor
history and definition of terms
introduction
magnification
negative area
pixels
pros and cons clarification
resolution versus megapixels
scanner versus cameras
screen heights importance
video transfers
Complementary high-density metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) definition
Component video signal definition
Composite Components Co. (CCC)
Composite image definition
Composite video signal definition
Composition
1.85 aspect ratio and
2.40 versus 1.85 aspect ratios and
anamorphic 2.40 aspect ratio and
Compression
definition
digital basic concepts and
ratio definition
Computer generated effects
filtering for digital intermediate and
Computer-graphics imaging (CGI)
data management and
Computer displays, filming
color temperature
frame rates and exposure time
LCD monitors and projectors
monitors
obstacles, principal
over- and undercranking
plasma displays
Computers and lenses
Computers and motion control
Contrast control filters
Contrast-viewing filters
Convergent Design Gemini onboard recorder
Conversion factors, measuring
Conversion tables
Cooke S4 Wide Prime lens
Copper cable type SC entertainment 90°C
Copperwire voltages drop
Coptervision stabilizing system
Coral filters
Crane charts, key to reading
Cranes
Crushing the blacks definition
Cucoloris
Custom (homemade and field-ready) filters
Cyclorama luminaries
D
Dailies
ASC CDL workflow and
color analyzers for
digital postproduction for feature films and
laboratory aim density and
laboratory handling
one-light
one-light print versus
single printer light setting printing
timed
timer
Data definition
Database application handheld app
Day-for-night cinematography
black-and-white film
contrast between players and background
filters and degree of underexposure
lighting
negative color film
neutral density filters and
Pola screens
reversal color film
skies and
Dazian and blue- and greenscreens
Dead (dark or bright) pixel definition
De-Bayer process
De-mosaic process
Decamired filters
Decimal equivalents of fractions and equivalents of fractions of an inch in mm
Dedo light
Delrama
Densitometer
Depth of field
65mm-format lenses and
aspect ratio and
calculators
circles of confusion and
diffusion filters and
effects and focal-length changes with filter considerations
formulas
hard lighting and
HD video shooting on digital still camera
lens
lighting and
neutral-density filters and
optical breathing and
out-of-focus objects and
sensor size and
spherical versus anamorphic and
slant-focus lens and
Super 35 formats and
Depth of field tables
5.9mm
8mm
9.8mm
10mm
12mm
14mm
16mm
18mm
20mm
24mm
25mm
28mm
32mm
35mm
37.5mm
40mm
50mm
75mm
85mm
100mm
105mm
135mm
150mm
200mm
300mm
400mm
and exposure factor versus magnification or field of view (16mm extreme close-up)
and exposure factor versus magnification or field of view (35mm extreme close-up)
introduction
Super 8mm/6.5mm
Super 8mm/13mm
Super 8mm/38mm
Super 8mm/50mm
Depth of focus formulas
Designing the look responsibilities
Device dependent color space definition
Device independent color space definition
Didymium filters
Diffusers
Diffusion filters
center spot filter
circular
depth of field and
dot filters
faces, diffusing
filtering for digital intermediate and
green- and bluescreen and
lenslats
mesh, fine
moiré patterns
multiple filter use and
optical diffusion digital camera
pattern handling
sliding
Digital assistant handheld app
Digital calculator handheld app
Digital camera equipment preparation. See Preparation of digital camera equipment
Digital camera postproduction considerations, some
Digital cameras
Arri Alexa
Arri Alexa M
Arri Alexa Plus
Arri Alexa Studio
Arri D-21
Canon C300
list of
Panasonic AJ-HDC27H VariCam
Panasonic AJ-HPX3700 VariCam
Panavision Genesis
Pro I/O module
RED EPIC
RED ONE
RED Scarlet-X
Silicon Imagining SI-2K
Sony F23 CineAlta
Sony F35 CineAlta
Sony F65 CineAlta
Sony HDC-F950 CineAlta
Sony HDW-F900 CineAlta
Sony HDW-F900R CineAlta
Sony PMW-F3 CineAlta
Vision Research Phantom 65 Gold
Vision Research Phantom Flex
Vision Research Phantom HD Gold
Vision Research Phantom Miro M320S
Digital cinema, mastering basic concepts of
Digital cinema distribution master (DCDM)
Digital cinema initiatives (DCI)
Digital cinema package (DCP)
Digital cinematography on a budget
aspect ratio issues
camera selection
depth of field and sensor size
DSLR video, beyond
frame rate issues
history, brief
recording CODEC, avoiding
recording formats
shooting HD video on digital still camera
videotape, beyond
Digital concepts, basic
ACES
analog and digital
archiving
bit depth
color sampling
color space
compression
conclusion
exposure
gamma and log/lin
intermediate, digital
look management and color management
mastering
pixels and chips
raw versus de-Bayer
resolution
video versus de-Bayer
video scanning—interlace or progressive
Digital conform definition
Digital Green© fabrics
Digital ICE
Digital intermediate (DI)
2K
2K resolution and
3-D post handling and
4K resolution and
4K workflows
Anamorphic cinematography and
basic concepts
color grading
data dailies and
definitions
edit decision list and
filtering for
impact on final image quality
Kodak and
lens and
log images
postproduction for feature films
Super 35 formats and
video masters creation and
Digital light processing (DLP) definition
Digital master definition
Digital micromirror devices (DMDs)
Digital motion picture cameras
capture format
fill factor
log images
pixels
resolution versus megapixels
scanner versus cameras
Super 35 formats and
Digital motion pictures cameras primer, evaluating
complicated question
fill factor
megapixels
resolution versus megapixels
scanner versus cameras
sensors and amount of light they capture, digital
Digital movie slate (clapper board) handheld apps
Digital onboard recorders
Cinedeck EX
Codex ARRIRAW
Codex Onboard M
Codex Onboard S
Convergent Design Gemini
Panavision SSR-1
Sony SR-R1
Sony SR-R4
Sony SRW-1
S.Two OB-1
Vision Research Phantom CineMag-II
Digital post processing options and filters for color
Digital postproduction for feature films
2K or 4K
archival elements
color gamut
color grading
conforming
dailies
data dailies
data management
digital camera considerations, some
digital cinema
digital intermediates and
dirt fix
dodge and burn
film output
history, brief digital
home video masters
scanning
Digital sensors and amount of light they capture
Digital signal definitions
Digital source master (DSM)
Digital technology brief history
Digital terminology introduction
Dimmers, electrical
Diopter lenses
Diopter lenses focal length conversion tables, plus
Direct to edit (DTE) format
Director’s viewfinder handheld app
Discrete values definition
Disk space calculator for Final Cut Pro editors
Distribution systems
DLP displays and projectors
Dodge and burn shots digitally
Doggicam
dollies
handheld stabilization systems
remote heads
Dogma ’95 movies
Dollies
camera-stabilizing systems and
camera-support systems and
charts
charts, key to reading
with lifting arms
with lifting center posts
location/doorway
optical zoom and
with track for motion control
Dome lens port and underwater cinematography
DPX file definition
DSLR video, beyond
Dustbusting
DV recording format
DVCAM
DVCPRO
DVCPRO-HD format
Dynalens
Dynalens stabilizers
Dynamic range
definition
testing for
E
Éclair CM-3 16/35mm camera
Editors decision list (EDL)
CMX EDL files
conforming shots to
data dailies and
definition
digital intermediate and
scanning and
Egg crates to control spill light
Egripment cranes
Electrical toolkit handheld app
Element Labs
Empireflex VistaVision camera
Emulsion test preparations to establish a single printer light (tungsten)
ASA Exposure Index
conclusion
filters
fleshtone tweaking
laboratory instructions
lighting
miscellaneous
preliminaries
results
T-stop
test, actual
Emulsion testing
bench test negative preparation
black test, printed
density aim, laboratory
dynamic range, testing for
exposure calibration
judging
object of
trust your eye more than your meter
Encoding definition
ENR
Equipment and underwater cinematography
European comparison of filter system names chart
Evaluating digital motion pictures cameras primer
complicated question
fill factor
megapixels
resolution versus megapixels
scanner versus cameras
sensors and amount of light they capture, digital
Exposure, digital basic concepts
Exposure calibration
Expose factor and depth of field versus magnification or field of view (16 and 35mm extreme close up)
tables
Exposure composure compensation for extreme close-up cinematography table
Exposure Index (EI)
Exposure index/ASA exposure index reduction table
Exposure meters
analog type
Gossen Color-Pro 3F
Gossen Luna-Pro Digital F
Gossen Luna-Pro F
Gossen Luna-Pro S
Gossen Luna-Star F2
Gossen Mavolux 5032 C/B
Gossen Starlite
Gossen Ultra-Spot2
Handheld app for production use
incident-light meters
Minolta 1-Degree Spot meter
Minolta Auto Meter IV F
Minolta Auto Meter V
Minolta Auto Meter VF/Kenko KFM-1100
Minolta Cinemeter II
Minolta Color Meter III-F/Kenko KCM-3100
object of
Pentax Digital I Degree Spot Meter
Pentax Spotmeter V
reflected-light meters
Sekonic L308BII
Sekonic L358M
Sekonic L398M
Sekonic L508C
Sekonic L558
Sekonic L608C
Sekonic L778 Dual Spot F
special effects
specific situations in outdoor photography
Spectra Cinespot Foot Lambert Meter
Spectra Cinespot IE Spot Meter
Spectra Professional IV
Spectra Professional IV-A
testing
tropical cinematography and
underwater cinematography and
Exposure time and filming television and computer displays
Exposure using incident light
Exposure/dynamic range test
Extenders
Extension tubes or bellows
Extreme close up (16mm or 35mm cameras) tables
aperture compensator for
depth of field and exposure factor versus magnification or field of view
exposure compensation for
focusing chart for 2, 3, and 6 inch lenses
plus diopter lenses for focal length conversation
Eye protection, UV
F
FAA Motion Picture Manual
Falling body, distance and velocity of free
Far and Away and slant-focus lenses
Field definition
Field of view
calculator handheld app
f/2 aperture and
optical breathing and
Field of view tables
8mm
9.8mm
10mm
12mm
14mm
16mm
16mm extreme close up
16mm/Super
18mm
20mm
24mm
25mm
28mm
32mm
35mm
35mm extreme close up
40mm
50mm
75mm
85mm
100mm
105mm
135mm
150mm
200mm
300mm
400mm
Super 8mm/6.5mm
Super 8mm/13mm
Super 8mm/38mm
Super 8mm/50mm
File format conversion definition
File format definition
File transfer protocol (FTP) definition
Fill Facture and digital motion picture cameras
Film calculator
Film camera equipment preparation. See Preparation of motion picture film camera equipment Film formats
comparisons
history and definition of terms
Film rate calculator
Film sizes in use
Film stocks chart, Eastman Kodak
Film-strip projectors
Filmlight Baselight
Filmlight Northlight scanner
Filter tables
for altering black-and-white contrast of colored subjects, color filters
for arc discharge and fluorescent lamps
for black-and-white cinematography daylight exteriors, selected color filters
color temperature adjust and lighting filters
comparison of system names
compensator chart
correlated color temperature of typical light sources
for daylight correction
Kodak color compensating filters for color films
Kodak conversion filters for color films
Kodak light balancing filters
Kodak ultraviolet and haze cutting filters
mired shift value effects
mired values of color temperatures from 2000° to 10,000°K
neutral density filter selector chart
sizes for motion pictures, most common
Tiffen decamired filters
underwater photography color filter selection chart
Filters, camera
application filters, special
barrier
for black-and-white
CalColor
checking out
circular gradient and circular/elliptical center spot ND filters
close-up and split-field diopter lenses
for color
color and black-and-white
color in digital world
color-compensating filters
color-conversion filters
contrast control filters
contrast-viewing filters
for control of natural daylight
coral filters
custom (homemade and field-ready) filters
Decamired® filters
definition
Didymium filter
diffusion
digital postprocessing options
effect of depth of field and focal-length changes
exciter
factors
filtering for digital intermediate
fluorescent and other discontinuous spectra lighting correction
fog, double fog, and mist filters
grades and nomenclature
graduated color filters
graduated ND
for incandescent lamps
infrared filters and digital imaging
infrared filters and film imaging
infrared-neutral density
lab/post correction versus camera
light-balancing filters
LL-D
mixed lighting situations
multiple use
neutral-density
optical diffusion in digital camera
planning
polarization filters and 3-D
polarizing
rain spinners
secondary reflections
sepia filters
sizes, shapes, and on-lens mounting techniques
sliding diffusion filters
special effects filters
star and flare effects
technology changing
Tessive Time Filter
tilting filters
tone control filters
ultraviolet
underwater cinematography and
underwater color-correction filters
variable neutral density
Wratten filters. See Wratten filters
Wratten numbers
FireWire (IEEE 1394)
Fixed-wing aircraft, common
Flash memory definition
Flashing
Flat lens port and underwater cinematography
FLEx files
Floating point definition
Fluorescence (black-light) photography
Fluorescent lamps, filters for arch discharge and
Fluorescent lighting
Fluorescent and other discontinuous spectra lighting correction
Flying-Cam miniature aerial system
Focal length matching exposure calculator handheld app
Focal length of lens in mm charts
Focal length versus horizontal angle table, effective
Focal length versus vertical angle table, effective
Focus conversion table, plus diopter lenses
Focusing digital still camera lens
Fog, double fog, graduated fog, and mist filters
Formats summary
Formulas
conversion tables
distribution systems
lens
light and exposure
measurement conversion factors
Ohm’s Law
shooting practices
Frame rate issues
Frame rates for slow-motion on HD video digital still camera
Fresnel lens spotlights
Fries 35mm camera
Fries Model 65mm/8-pef camera
Fringing (color) definition
fStop Wireless WiFi Receiver
Fuji comparison of filter system names chart
G
Gain definition
Gamma and Log/Lin, digital basic concepts
Gamma correction definition
Gamma definition
Gekko Technology Ltd.
Gel filters
Gel frames
Gel swatch library handheld app
Glasses for 3-D
active (shuttered)
anaglyh
circular polarization
Dolby
first public use
leakage of image information
left and right eye images and
linear polarized
liquid crystal
passive
Pulfrich
Gobos
Glidecam Industries, Inc.
Gold Series
Gyro Pro
V-16
V-20
GoodReader for iPhone app
Gossen exposure meters
Color-Pro 3F
Luna-Pro Digital
Luna-Pro Digital F
Luna-Pro F
Luna-Pro S
Luna-Star F2
Mavolux 5032 C/B
Ultra-Spot 2
Grading definition
GR-HD1 HDV camcorder, JVC
Green and bluescreen. See Bluescreen and greenscreen photography
Greenscreen
Ground fault circuit interrupted (GFCI)
Group of pictures (GOP) and compression
Gyro Pro camera stabilizer
GyroMaster
Gyron systems
Gyrosphere (dedicated mass-gyro system)
H
Handheld apps for production use. See Apps for production use, handheld
Handwheels chart, remote
Hazletine timer
HDCAM format
HDCAM-SR format
HD cameras, early
HD underwater
HD video shooting on digital still camera
audio
bypassing internal recorder
control for, handheld app
depth of field
focusing lens
frame rates for slow-motion
issues to consider
lens coverage
lens selection
monitoring
picture quality
postproduction
recording
sensor sizes
storage
HDV format
Header definition
Helicopters
ball mounts
belly mounts
common
door mounts
door/side mounts
exterior gyrostabilized mounts
fixed-wing aircraft versus
ground effect
losing tail-rotor authority
mounts/heads
nose/belly mounts
pilots
settling with power
weather basics
High definition (HD) format definition
High dynamic range image (HDRI) definition
Histogram
HMI lights/lamps
as AC discharge lamp
beam projectors and
blue- and greenscreen and
characteristics, typical
color rendering index and
electrical and physical characteristics summary
flicker and
flicker free calculator handheld app
Fresnel lens spotlights and
Fresnels chart
globe wattage and globe amperage
helium filled balloons and
open reflector variable-beam spotlights and
PAR charts
quartz beam projector table
tungsten lamps versus
underwater cinematography and
Hobbit 3-D 48 fps, The
Horizontal angle versus effective focal length table
Hot mirrors
Hue and chroma for quick picture monitor set-up
Hue definition
Hughes series (A through E + NOTAR models) helicopters
Hybrid film/digital workflow definition
Hydro Gyro digital-stabilization head
Hyperfocal distances
Super 8mm/6.5mm table
Super 8mm/13mm table
Super 8mm/38mm table
Super 8mm/50mm table
I
IEEE 1394 (FireWire)
Ikelite digital exposure meter
Ikonoskop A-Cam dII camera
Ikonoskop A-Cam SP-16 16mm camera
Illuminators for blue- and greenscreen
Image file definition
Image flip feature cameras
Image on film, putting
Image processing definition
IMAX
3-D camera
15-perforation film
Cameras
conversions
IW5, IW5A cameras
MKII 4W and H/S cameras
MSM 9801 camera
In-camera compositing. See Miniatures with full-scale live-action actors, in-camera compositing of
Incandescent lamps globe wattage and globe amperage
Incident key light/T-stop table
Incident-light meters
Infrared cinematography
Infrared filters
digital imaging and
film imaging and
Input Device Transforms (IDTs)
Institute of Radio Engineers (IE) measurements
Inter-frame CODEC definition
Interlace scanning definition
Interlaced video scanning benefits and downsides
Internal recorder bypassing for shooting HD video on digital still camera
International Cinematography Summit Conference (ICSC)
International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
definition
-R BT.601.5 definition
-R BT.709
-R Recommendation
Internegatives
Interpolation definition
Interpositives
Intra-frame CODEC definition
iOS handheld apps for production use
ITU-R BT.709
ITU-R Recommendation
J
Jet systems, customized
Jibs charts
Joysticks
JVC cameras
GR-HD1 HDV camcorder
GY-HM100U
GY-HM250U
GY-HM750U
K
Kenworthy snorkel camera systems
Kenyon stabilizer
Ki Pro recorder
Kino
Flo fixtures table
Flo lamps
Flo lamps for underwater
Flo white tubes
Flo-4-tube and 8-tube units lamps
fluorescent lighting
green fluorescents
Kodak
color compensating filters for color films table
conversion filters for color films table
Gray Card
light balancing filters table
Neutral Test Card
ultraviolet and haze cutting filters table
Vision films
L
Laboratory Aim Density (LAD)
Laboratory and the cinematographer
aim density
answer print
black-and-white negative and reversal films
color reversal films
dailies. See Dailies
densitometer
emulsion
exposure reporting
flashing
forced development of color films
Lightflex
monitoring the process
negatives, life of
printer calibration
printer lights matching
printer points
processing, special
pushing
release printing procedures
techniques by lab to modify look of film
Lagrange invariant
Lamps glove wattage and amperage, incandescent
Laser recorder definition
Latitudes chart
LED (liquid crystal display), definition
LED displays, filming
LED lighting for motion picture production
advantages over conventional lighting technology
challenges
color
companies providing
diffusion and light loss
fixture types available
glare
heat management
shadows, multiples
LEDs (light emitting diodes)
LEDz
Lens, subject, distance, and image size relationships
Lens angle calculator
Lens coverage for shooting HD video on digital still camera
Lens focal length conversion table
Lens mounted filters
Lens selection for shooting HD video on digital still camera
Lenses
anamorphic cinematography and use of
anamorphic formats
anamorphic versus spherical
antireflection coatings
apertures T versus f-stops)
applications of, special
attachments
attributes and format size
bellow-type
calibration for underwater cinematography
catadioptic still photography lenses
check back focus on
checking out
cine lens list
cine versus still
close-up cinematography, extreme
components
computers and
Cooke
data tables
definition
depth of field. See Depth of field
depth of focus formula
design and manufacture
designs of early lens
designs of some modern lens
diopter
diopter and split diopter close-focusing lenses
displacement for focusing
Dynalens
ergonomics
extenders
extension tubes or bellows
focal length conversion table
focusing digital camera
format size and lens attributes
formats and
formulas
Frazier lens system and The Rock
future
hyperfocal distance formulas
introduction, general
Kenworthy snorkel camera systems
kinds and types
LL-D
manufacture and design
medium-angle
mesmerizers
objective
Panavision 24mm T3.5 or 45mm T.28 slant focus lens
Panavision/Frazier lens system and camera and Titanic,
pitching lens
ports, flat or dome
prime lens. See Prime lenses
reflective lens layout
selection for underwater cinematography
semi-telephoto
single lens definition and illustration
slant-focus lenses
special purpose
spherical versus anamorphic
specialty lenses and systems
Super 35 and size of
Swing Shift
Viewing angles formulas
wide-angle
Zeiss
zoom lens. See Zoom lenses
Letterbox format
anamorphic 2.40 aspect ratio and
digital cameras and
Super 35 composed for 2.40 aspect ratio and
Libra III digitally-stabilized camera mount
Lift definition
Light and exposure formulas
Light-balancing filters
Light emitting diodes. See LEDs
Lightflex
Light meters. See Exposure meters
Light scattering and underwater cinematography
Light sources, luminaries, and lighting filters; see also Luminaries
AC arc lamp flicker problem
AC arc lamps, enclosed
accessories, light-control
calculations general comments
characteristics of typical photographic light sources table
color rendering index
color temperature
commercial/industrial light sources
coverage and lighting quantities
daylight, natural
DC carbon arc sources
filters for control of natural daylight
filters for incandescent lamps
fluorescent lighting
grip accessories for light control
high pressure DC short arc xenon light sources
HMI lamps
incandescent lamp operational characteristics
incandescent light sources
intensity and lighting quantities
lighting and other flashing-type lighting effects
low-pressure AC/DC xenon arc lamps
MIRED (Micro Reciprocal Degrees) system
national carbons for studio lighting chart
photographic light sources
programmable handheld app
special purpose photographic lighting equipment and systems
synchronized stroboscopic lighting
voltage operation, boosted
Lighting and underwater cinematography
Lighting fixture charts
factors as supplied by manufacturer, multiplying
HMI and quartz beam projectors
HMI fresnels
HMI PAR
illumination data for source four ellipsoidal spotlights
Kino Flo fixtures
open face
PAR fixtures
softlights
SoftSun 5400°K
tungsten fresnels
Lighting situations and filters, mixed
Line of sight
Linear code values definition
Linearity definition
Liquid crystal display. See LED
Litepanels Inc.
Logarithmic color values definition
Look and color management, digital basic concepts and
Look management
definition
preparation
systems
test
Look-Up Table (LUT)
Lossless compression definition
Lossy compression definition
Luminaires
beam projectors
cyclorama
Dedo light
ellipsoidal spotlight
Fresnel lens spotlights
light emitting diodes (LEDs)
open reflector variable-beam spotlights
optical lens system lights
Par fixtures and lamps
soft lights
tungsten-halogen floodlights
Luminance
definition
masks creation
M
Macbeth Color Checker color chart
Macro-focus lens
Mastering, digital basic concepts and
MatchLens handheld app
Mattes, traveling
Measurement conversion factors
Medium-angle lens
Megapixels and evaluating digital motion picture cameras
Mercury-vapor lamps
Mesmerizers
Metadata definition
Micro Reciprocal Degrees (MIRED) system
Microwave transmitters and safety
Miniatures: camera speed, model speed, exposure factors versus miniature scale chart
Miniatures, photographing
camera speed calculation
information needed
model size
shooting speeds
Miniatures with full-scale live-action actors in-camera compositing
advantages of hanging miniatures, some
considerations, important
mixed scales
nodal pans and tilts
perspective, forced
speed of moving objects, adjusting
Miniaturized radio-controlled helicopters
Minolta
1-Degree Spot meter exposure meter
Auto Meter IV F exposure meter
Auto Meter V F exposure meter
Auto Meter V F/Kenko KFM-1100 exposure meter
Cinemeter II exposure meter
Color Meter II-F/Kenko KCM-3100 exposure meter
Color Temperature
IV
Mired comparison of filter system names chart
Mired-coordinated filters
Mired shift value (filter) effects examples table
Mired value
Mired values of color temperatures from 2000° to 10,000°K table
Mist filters
Mitchell-based platform-mounted stabilization system
Mitchell FC, BFC 65mm camera
Mitchell Mk-2 camera modified
MKII 4W and H/S IMAX camera
MK-V Evolution Modular Sled system
Modulation transfer function (MTF)
Moiré pattern definition
Monitor set-up, quick picture
Monitoring issues for HD video on digital still camera
Moon and sun calculator handheld app
Motion-control cinematography
capabilities, cinematic
definition
equipment and field
equipment and visual effects studio
technique
tracking extends cinematic capabilities
Motion control data definition
Motion Pictures Expert Group (MPEG) definition
Movie*Slate handheld app
Moviecam compact 35mm camera
Moviecam SL 35mm camera
Moviecam Super America MK 2
MSM 9801 IMAX camera
MSM Model 8870 65mm/8-perf camera
Multiple filter use
N
National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) definition
Nautica Super 8mm camera
Negative color film and day-for-night cinematography
Neutral-density (ND) filters
circular gradient and circular/elliptical center spot
daylight correction table
infrared
graduated
selection chart
types
variable
Nikon
comparison of filter system names chart
D800 camera
R8, R10 Super 8mm cameras
Nila JNH series
Noise definition
Nonlinear editing definition
NTSC
aspect ratio
definition of 7.15 IRE
frame rate
television standard 30 frames per second
Nuke IBK (Image-based Keyer)
O
Ohm’s Law and formulas
Onboard cinematography
Open EXR definition
Optical breathing
Optical disk system
Optical low pass filter (OLPF)
Optical printer, cinemagic of
anamorphic conversions
blow-ups and reductions
doctoring, modifying, and salvaging
frame sequence modification
history, brief
motion adding
quality manipulation
size or position change
split screen
superimpose
systems, new
transitional effects
traveling mattes
uses, general
zoom, optical
O-rings, cleaning and checking
Out of gamut definition
Output device transform (ODT)
Oversampling definition
P
Pan and scan
anamorphic
common topline format versus
definition
HDTV 16 x 9
home video masters and
Super 35 composed for 2.40 aspect ratio and
video transfer and
Panaflex 16mm camera (Elaine)
Panalog definition
Panasonic cameras
AG-AC160
AG-AF100
AG-DVX100
AG-HMC150P
AG-HPX250PJ
AG-HVX200
AG-HX370
AJ-HDC27H VariCam
AJ-HPX3700 VariCam
AVCCAM AG-HMC40
Genesis
Lumix DMC-GH2
Panasonic external recorder
Panavision. See Anamorphic cinematography Panavision 35mm cameras
Gil Golden Panaflex (PFX-GII)
Millenium (PFX-M)
Millenium XL (PFXMXL), XL2
models list
notes and accessories for
Panaflex Panastar II High-Speed
Panaflex-X (PFX-X)
Platinum Panaflex 35mm (PFX-P)
Panavision 65mm cameras
System-65
System 65mm Hand-holdable
Panavision Genesis camera
Panavision Panascourt handheld app
Panavision SSR-1 onboard recorder
Panavision Solid State Recorder SSR-1
Panning speeds tables
Par fixtures and lamps
PDF Expert for iPad handheld app
Pedestal definition
Pentax Digital 1 Degree Spot Meter exposure meter
Pentax Spotmeter V exposure meter
Permanent Gray Card
Persistence of vision definition
Petro Vlahos Technique
Photo fx handheld app
Photodiodes sensors
Photogates sensors
Photometric calculation tool handheld app
Photoshop definition
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4CR camera
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4ER camera
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4ML (reflex and nonreflex)
Photo tools handheld app
Picture monitor set-up, quick
Picture quality issues for shooting HD video n digital still camera
Pixels (picture element)
check steps
chips and, digital basic concepts and
definitions
digital motion picture cameras and
Pixels (picture element) and chips, digital basic concepts
Pocket DIT handheld app
PocketLD handheld app
Pogocam
Pola filter
Pola screens
Polarized light definition
Polarizing filers
3-D and
circular
digital intermediate and filtering for
multiple filter use and
variable-density filter and
Portable DTE recorders
Postproduction issues for shooting HD video on digital still camera
Postproduction responsibilities
Potentiometers
Power calculator handheld app
Power function definition
Power load calculator
Precision fader
Preparation of digital camera equipment
back focus adjustment steps
checkout
choices and working style
color space, bit depth, and sampling ratio selection
crew preparation
daily prep and maintenance
delivery of elements to post dailies, editorial, VFX, and DI
digital camera preparation steps
exposure/dynamic range test
factors to consider
field calibration setup steps with SMPTE bars
format settings
frame rate, scan type, and resolution setting
image and color settings
in-house preparation
inventory and master production equipment list
look-management preparation
menus, setting up
monitor check and calibration
objective
pixel check stops
responsibilities of prep crew
sensor cleaning steps
targets for testing, useful
testing
time code
universal preparation procedures
viewfinder functions
viewing environment guidelines
workflow chronological list
workflow test
Preparation of motion picture film camera equipment
accessories
batteries and cables
blimp housing
camera assistant
camera body
checkout of equipment
film tests
filters
flange focal depth (flange to aperture-plane depth)
fluids, useful
format (movement, aperture plate, lens position, assist monitor)
ground glass
inventory
invoice check
lamps and LEDs
lens focus calibration
lenses
magazine
matte box
ramping
scratch test
shooting, daily preparation for
spreader
steadiness test
test procedure
time code
tools
tools list, optional
tools list, standard
tripod head
tripods
variable shutter
video assist (video camera, monitor, recording device)
viewfinder
zoom lens
zoom motor and control
Preproduction planning responsibilities
Previsualization (previs)
assets assembly
benchmarks for successful previs, some
Cinematographer and
computers, before
crew communication and outreach
definitions and types
digital dailies and
digital development
introduction
on-set previs
pitchvis
postvis
problem solving, additional
process step-by-step
sequence animation
sequence cutting
study and review
technical previs
virtual shoot
Previsualization Society
Primaries definition
Primary color correction definition
Primatte
Prime lenses
components
depth of field and
ergonomics and
future of
zoom lenses versus
Principal photography responsibilities
Printer light, finding your own; see also Emulsion test preparations to establish a single printer light
(tungsten)
Printer lights adjustment to match a sample clip
Prism system, three-chip
Pro8mm Pro II Super 8mm camera
ProCyc’s Pro Matte plastic material
Progressive definition
Projection chart for process backgrounds
Propeller aircraft, customized
Prosumer cameras
aspect ratio
definition
depth of field and
HD-SD1 output
interlace-scan
sensor size and
Pro-TM camera stabilizing systems
Pull processing
Push processing
Q
Quantization artifact definition
R
Radial distortion
Raid array definition
Rain spinners
Raw files definition
Raw versus de-Bayered, digital basic concepts
REC.
Recorders, external
Recording formats, digital
Recording HD video on digital still camera
Red Epic camera
Red Epic digital camera
Red One digital camera
Red Scarlet camera
Red Scarlet-X digital camera
Redcode raw format
Redundancy definition
Reflected-ultraviolet photography
Refraction and underwater cinematography
Reflection(s)
polarizing filters and
secondary
underwater cinematography and
Reflector boards
Region of interest correction definition
Registration (color) definition
Releases handheld apps
Remotevision
Render definition
Rental orders handheld app
Resolution, digital basic concepts
common image standards
definitions
Resolution definition
Resolution vs. megapixels and digital motion picture cameras
Responsibilities of cinematographers
designing look
postproduction
preproduction planning
principal photography
Reversal color film and day-for-night cinematography
RGB (red, green, blue)
definition
stripe pattern
Rigid/hard mounts (fixed wing or helicopter)
Ringing definition
Robodog
Rock and Frazier lens system, The
Rollvision stabilization system
Rosco
CalColor line of primaries
diffusion materials
lighting filers
Rotoscoping (roto)
S
Safety on the set
Salvaging, doctoring, and modifying with optical printer
Scan definition
Scanner versus cameras and digit motion picture cameras
Scanning and digital postproduction for feature film
Scanning video—interlace or progressive
Scattering and underwater cinematography
Scene-referred data definition
Screen heights importance
Screen ratios, most common
Scrim
Secondary color correction definition
Sekonic exposure meters
L 164 Marine meter
L 308 BII
L 358
L 398M
L 508C
L 558
L 608C
L 778 Dual Spot F exposure measure
Sensor definition
Sensor size
depth of field and
HD video shooting on digital still camera
Sensors and amount of light they capture, digital
Sepia filters
Shadows
multiple shadows and LED lighting
Shooting practices formulas
computing exposure times
footage in feet and frames
footage versus time relationship
frames rates for miniatures
high speed formulas
image blur
running times, feet, and frames
Shooting to screen time calculator handheld app
Shutter angle compensator for constant exposure chart
Shutter angle exposure compensation chart, reduced
Shutter angle/f.p.s./T-stop change chart
Shutter speeds chart
Silicon Imaging SI-2K digital camera
Sin City and digital cameras
Skydiving cinematography
Slant-focus lenses
Snoots
Society of Motion Pictures and Television Engineers (SMPTE)
59-1998
125 M standard
CinemaScope aspect ratio
DC28
DCI/SMPTE Reference Projector specifications
Recommended Practice for Critical Viewing Conditions for the Evaluation of Color Television Pictures (RP
166)
RP431-2-2007
safe image area for digital projection
ST2065-1:2012
ST2065-2:2012
ST2065-3:2012
standard for motion picture projection
standards for digital cinema release
Soft clip definition
Soft contrast filter
SoftSun 5400°K fixtures chart
Solid-state flash memory cards and drives
Sony
external recorder
F23 CineAlta digital camera
F35 CineAlta digital camera
F65
F65 CineAlta digital camera
HDC-F950 CineAlta digital camera
HDR-AX2000
HDW-F900 CineAlta digital camera
HDW-F900 HDCAM pro camcorder
HDW-F900R CineAlta
NEX-FS100U camera
NEX-FS700U camera
NEX-VG10 camera
NXCAM HXR-NX5U camera
SR-R1 onboard recorder
SR-R4 onboard recorder
SRW-1 onboard recorder
XDCAM EX cameras
XDCAM PMW-EX1R camera
XDCAM PMW-EX3 camera
XDCAM MW-F3 camera
Spacecam (dedicated mass-gyro system)
Spacial corrections definition
Spacial resolution definition
Special effect filters
contrast control
diffusion
general information
optical diffusion in digital camera
sliding diffusion
star and flare effects
Specialty lenses and systems
Spectra exposure meters
Spectra Cinespot Foot Lambert Meter
Spectra Cinespot IE Spot Meter
Spectra Professional IV
Spectra Professional IV-A
Speed and streaking of hot (bright) objects
Spherical lenses
anamorphic lenses versus
image produced by
Spirit Datacine
Split diopter close-focusing lenses
Split screen technique
Spot meters
Spydercam
Stabilizers in the air, alternate
Standard definition defined
Star and flare effects filters
Star Wars Episode 3 and digital cameras
Steadicam. See Tiffen Steadicam
Steady tester
Stopwatch handheld app
Storage and HD video on digital still cameras
Storage Area Network (SAN)
Storage requirement calculations handheld app
Storyboard composer handheld app
Stripe filters
S.Two OB-1 onboard recorder
Subtractive color definition
Sun and moon calculator handheld app
Sun position calculator handheld apps
Sunpath computer software charts
daylight hours
height of sun, maximum
latitudes of world cities
sea level sunrise/sunset
Sunrise and sunset calculator
Super 8mm cameras
6.5mm field of view table
13mm field of view table
38mm field of view table
50mm field of view table
footage table
footage/time table
Super 35 formats
advantages of, composed for 2.40 aspect ratio
camera to screen, from
common center
common topline
digital intermediate and
disadvantages of, composed for 2.40 aspect ratio
other names for
scanning and
Superman Returns and digital cameras
Superimpose
Support systems for camera. See Camera-support systems
Sync box
T
Technovision. See Anamorphic cinematography
Television displays, filming
color temperature
frames rates and exposure time
obstacles, principal
over- and undercranking
plasma displays
Tessive Time filter
Thomson Spirit Datacine
3-D
definition
polarization filters and
3-D stereoscopic cinematography
audience position
convergence definition
editing constraints
floating objects
glasses
higher frame rates usage
interocular (interaxial) definition
left eye definition
monocular depth perception
object appearance behind screen
object appearance in front of screen
plane of convergence definition
proscenium arch
resurgence reason
right eye (master eye or dominant eye) definition
rigs weight and
screen plane definition
stereoscopic (binocular vision) definition
TIFF file definition
Tiffen Steadicam
aerial cinematography and
AQUACOLOR
buoyancy control and underwater cinematography
camera-support systems and
decamired filters table
Master Series
Master Series Elite
mount for aerial cinematography
Ultra Elite, Ultra Cine
Universal Model III
Vector 12, Vector EL, Vector CN
Tilting filters
Time codes preparation
Time lapse chart
Time/speed effects tables
Titanic
lens requirements and
Panavision/Frazier lens system and camera
Tonal mapping definition
Tone control filters for black and white
TouchDraw handheld app
Traveling mattes
Tropical cinematography
biological factors
black-and-white film
color film
dehumidifiers
dew point
equipment preparation and protection
relative humidity and
storage of photographic materials
Truelight
T-stops (transmission-stops)
calibration of
compensation for camera speed table
definition
scale
Tungsten fresnels chart
Tungsten-halogen floodlights
Twin fixed wing aircraft
U
Ultimatte Preview
compositing software
digital
video
Ultra contrast filter
Ultracam 35mm camera
Ultraviolet cinematography
considerations, special
exposure determination
eye protection
films
fluorescence (or black-light) photography
mercury-vapor lamps
precautions
reflected-ultraviolet photography
Ultraviolet filters
Underwater cinematography
blue- and greenscreen
buoyancy control
color absorption and
color correcting for
communications underwater
distance calculator handheld app
equipment
equipment care
exposure meters
filters
flat or dome lens ports
HD underwater
lens calibration underwater
lens selection
light is changed by water, how
lighting
lighting safety
reflection
refraction
scattering
service kit
Underwater color-correction filters
V
Vectorscope definition
Vertical angle versus effective focal length table
Vertical blanking
Video scanning—interlace or progressive, digital basic concepts
Video storage calculator
Video versus data, digital basic concepts
Video walls, filming
Viewfinder handheld app
Vision Research Phantom digital cameras
Vision Research Phantom CineMag-II onboard recorder
Vistacam
VistaVision
8-Perf Horz. Pull Across aperture specs
8-perforation film
35mm cameras
high quality anamorphic release prints and
Visually lossless definition
Voltage drop of copperwire
W
Watermark definition
Waveform monitor definition
Weather conditions display handheld apps
White point definition
Wide-angle lens
Wilcam 35mm cameras
W-7 VistaVision High Speed (pic, one diagram)
W-9 VistaVision Lightweight
W-11 VistaVision Sound
Wrap Time Lite handheld app
Wratten filters
# 1A
# 2A
# 2B
# 2C
# 2E
# 3
# 8
# 11
# 12
# 15
# 16
# 18A
# 21
# 23A
# 25
# 29
# 47
# 56
# 58
# 70
# 80
# 80A
# 80B
# 80C
# 80D
# 81
# 81A
# 81B
# 81C
# 81D
# 81EF
# 82
# 82A
# 82B
# 82C
# 85
# 85B
# 85C
# 87
# 89
# 98 blue filter
# 99 green filter
comparison of filter system names chart
HF-3
HF-4
HF-5
Wratten numbers
WYSIWYG definition
X
XDCAM format
Xenon light sources
AC/DC low pressure arc lamps
cautions
characteristics, typical
flash tubes
XYZ definition
Y
YCrCb definition
YMC (yellow, cyan, magenta) definition
Z
Zoom lenses
anamorphic lenses and
aspherical surfaces and
checking out
cine zoom lens
color sampling and
computers and design of
depth of field and
ergonomics and
extension tubes and
fixed focal-length lens (or prime) and
focus and
optical
optical breathing and
popularity reasons
prime lenses versus
scales
spherical zoom-lens cam technology
split-field diopter lenses and
telephoto
Zylight