ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS AFFECTING WOMEN PARTICIPATION

IN MANAGERIAL POSITIONS: THE CASE OF ARBA MINCH

UNIVERSITY

MBA THESIS

LEMLEM BEKELE

October, 2016

ARBA MINCH, ETHIOPIA

ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS AFFECTING WOMEN PARTICIPATION
IN MANAGERIAL POSITIONS: THE CASE OF ARBA MINCH
UNIVERSITY

A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Management

College of Business and Economics

School of Graduate Studies

Arba Minch University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Master of Business

Administration

October, 2016

ARBA MINCH, ETHIOPIA

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this MBA thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a
degree in any other university, and all sources of material used for this thesis have been duly
acknowledged.

Name: Lemlem Bekele

Signature: ___________________________

Date: _______________________________

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SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

ADVISORS’ THESIS SUBMISSION APPROVAL SHEET

(Submission sheet-1)

This is to certify that the thesis entitled ‘’Assessment of Factors Affecting Women
Participation in Managerial Positions: The Case of Arba Minch University” submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master’s with specialization in
management, the graduate program of the Department of Management, and has been carried
out by Lemlem Bekele,Id.No: EMA/018/07, under my/our supervision. Therefore, I/We
recommend that the student has fulfilled the requirements and hence hereby can submit the thesis
to the department for defense.

_________________________ ______________ _______________

Name of Principal advisor Signature Date

_________________________ ________________ ______________

Name of Co-advisor Signature Date

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SCHOOL OF GRADATE STUDIES

ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

EXAMINERS’ THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

(FOR MINOR CORRECTIONS)

We, the undersigned, members of the board of the Examiners of the final open defense by
Lemlem Bekele have read and evaluated his thesis entitled “Assessment of Factors Affecting
Women Participation in Managerial Positions: The Case of Arba Minch University”, and
examined the candidate’s oral presentation. This is, therefore, to certify that the thesis has been
accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree with minor corrections.

_________________________ _______________ _____________

Name of the chairperson Signature Date

_________________________ ______________ _____________

Name of Principal advisor Signature Date

_________________________ ______________ _____________

Name of Co-advisor Signature Date

_________________________ ______________ _____________

Name of internal Examiner Signature Date

_________________________ ______________ _____________

Name of External Examiner Signature Date

_________________________ ______________ _____________

SGS Approval Signature Date

Final approval and acceptance of the thesis is contingent upon the submission of the final four
copies of the thesis to the department of the candidate on the satisfaction of the advisor.

Stamp of Department Date: ____________

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Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deep gratitude to God for his support in my every move and
invaluable gift being with me throughout my study as the research comes an end with his will.

I would like also to thank my adviser assistant professor Afework Getachew (PhD) and my
coadvisor Daniel Yosef for their proper guidance and encouragement for this study up on
completion of this study.

I also want to acknowledge participants and contributors of the study who forwards their
idea, believes, agreements and disagreements through questionnaire, interview and
discussion.

I feel the deepest sense of gratitude to my husband, my lovely daughter mekilet and my mother
for being with me and supporting me in different way.

Finally, my special thanks go to all my colleagues, friends and relatives for the generous support
and contribution of by letting me to discuss and sharing idea about my research.

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................................. iv
List of Table ..........................................................................................................................................viii
List of Figure.......................................................................................................................................... ix
List of Acronyms ..................................................................................................................................... x
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................. xi
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the study ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of problem ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objectives of Study........................................................................................................................ 4
1.3.1 General Objective ................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Research question .......................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Significance of the study ................................................................................................................ 5
1.6 Scope of the study.......................................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Limitation of the study ................................................................................................................... 5
1.8 Organization of the paper ............................................................................................................... 6
1.9 Definition of Key Terms ................................................................................................................ 6
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................... 7
REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE ...................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Concept of leadership .................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Male and Female Leadership Styles ............................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 The Nature of Males and Females ........................................................................................... 9
2.3 Leadership and Power .................................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Leadership and Management ........................................................................................................ 10
2.5 Gender Difference: Do Male and Female Leaders Adopt Different Style? .................................... 11
2.5.1 The ‘Yes to Differences’ Position .......................................................................................... 11
2.5.2 The ‘No Differences’ Position ............................................................................................... 12

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2.6 General Situation of Women in Ethiopia ...................................................................................... 12
2.7 Women and Leadership in Ethiopia .............................................................................................. 14
2.8 Factors which Affect Women’s Leadership Position..................................................................... 15
2.8.1 Social / Cultural Factors ........................................................................................................ 16
2.8.2 Organizational Culture Barriers ............................................................................................. 17
2.8.3 Gender Stereotype Factors..................................................................................................... 17
2.8.4 Work Place Policies .............................................................................................................. 18
2.8.5 The “Maternal wall” .............................................................................................................. 19
2.8.6 Discrimination in Appointments ............................................................................................ 19
2.8.7 The Subtle Barriers: The Role of Male Clubs ........................................................................ 20
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................... 23
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 23
3.1 Study Design ............................................................................................................................... 23
3.2 Sampling ..................................................................................................................................... 23
3.3 Data Collection Tools .................................................................................................................. 24
3.3.1 Primary data .......................................................................................................................... 24
3.3.2. Secondary Data .................................................................................................................... 25
3.4 Data Analysis Techniques ............................................................................................................ 25
3.5 Background of the study area ....................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................. 29
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................ 29
4.1 Response Rate of Respondents ..................................................................................................... 29
4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ............................................................................... 29
4.2.1 Gender .................................................................................................................................. 29
4.2.2 Marital Status ........................................................................................................................ 30
4.2.3 Educational Status ................................................................................................................. 30
4.2.4 Working Experience.............................................................................................................. 30
4.3 Managerial position at AMU ........................................................................................................ 31
4.4 Women at managerial positions in AMU ..................................................................................... 32
4.5 Factors for low participation of women on management position................................................. 32
4.5.1 Lack of Recommendation...................................................................................................... 33

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4.5.2 Lack of Delegation ................................................................................................................ 33
4.5.3 Educational Gap .................................................................................................................... 34
4.5.4 Socio-Cultural Attitudes ........................................................................................................ 35
4.5.5 Lack of Confidence ............................................................................................................... 36
4.5.6 Male Dominancy................................................................................................................... 37
4.5.7 Double Responsibility ........................................................................................................... 37
4.5.8 Lack of Information .............................................................................................................. 38
4.6 Gender Discrimination ................................................................................................................. 39
4.7 Affirmative Action....................................................................................................................... 40
4.8 Major barriers that hinder women’s from managerial positions ..................................................... 40
4.8.1 Social/Cultural Factors .......................................................................................................... 41
4.8.2 Organizational culture ........................................................................................................... 45
4.8.3 Work Place Policies (Lack of Policies or Policy Gap) ............................................................ 47
4.8.4 Discrimination in Appointments (Unfavorable or unfair treatment due to gender on female) .. 49
4.8.5 Gender Stereotype ................................................................................................................ 51
4.9 Strategies for women better achievement on management positions ............................................. 53
4.9.1 Qualification ......................................................................................................................... 53
4.9.2 Political support .................................................................................................................... 54
4.9.3 Family Background ............................................................................................................... 55
4.9.4 Women Networking .............................................................................................................. 56
4.9.5 Affirmative action ................................................................................................................. 56
4.10 Effectiveness of women on management position ....................................................................... 57
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................................... 59
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................... 59
5.1 Summary of findings.................................................................................................................... 59
5.2 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 60
5.3 Recommendation ......................................................................................................................... 61
References............................................................................................................................................. 64
Appendix .............................................................................................................................................. 68

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List of Table

Table 1. Managerial positions at AMU ...................................................................................... 29

Table. 2 Marital Status of the Respondents ................................................................................ 27
Table 3. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of recommendation’ ........ 30
Table 4. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of delegation’ .................. 34
Table 5. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Educational Gap’ .................... 34
Table 6. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Socio-Cultural Attitude’........... 35
Table 7. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of Confidence’................. 36
Table 8. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Male Dominancy’ .................... 37
Table 9. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Double Responsibility’ ............ 38
Table 10. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of Information’ .............. 38
Table 11. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Gender Descrimination’ ........ 39
Table 12. Frequency of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of Power’ ....................... 42
Table 13. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Low Social Status’................. 43
Table 14. Organizational culture variables (a-values, b-realities, c-symbols, d-rituals)............... 45
Table 15. Workplace Policies variables (a-childcare, b-breastfeeding, c-flexible working hours,
d-part-time work) ...................................................................................................................... 47
Table 16. Discrimination in Appointments variables (a-discrimination during hiring, b-job
evaluation, c-promotion policies, d-training, e-compensation, f-disciplinary action) .................. 49
Table 17. Gender stereotype variables (a-more expressive, b-communal, c-less confident) ........ 52

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List of Figure
Figure. 1 Gender of the Respondnts........................................................................................... 29
Figure 2. Educational Background of the Respondents .............................................................. 30
Figure 3. Working Experience of Respondents .......................................................................... 31
Figure 4. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Affirmative Action’ ................. 40
Figure 5. Frequency of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Social Burden’ ........................ 41
Figure 7. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Qualification’ ......................... 53
Figure 8. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Political Support’ ................... 55
Figure 9. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Family Background’........ Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 10. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Women Networking’ ............. 56
Figure 11. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Affirmative action’ ........ Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 12. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Effectivness of women in
managerial positions’ .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

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List of Acronyms

AMIT – Arbaminch University institute of technology

AMU – Arba Minch University.

BDPA – Beijing Declaration and platform of Action

CEDAW- Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against women

CSA- Central Statistical Authority

EOC- Equal Opportunity Commission

FCSC- Federal Civil Service Commission

FDRE- Federal Demographic Republic of Ethiopia

HPR –House of People Representative

IPU- International Parliament Commission

MDG’s – Millennium development goals

NGO’S – Non Governmental Institutions.

NCTPE- National Committee for Traditional Practices Eradication.

UNDP- United Nation Development Program

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Abstract
Women face challenges to participate in managerial position due to several factors. The
purpose of the study was to assess factors that hinder women’s participation in lower to top
management position. It was based on evidences that representation of women in leadership
position was low, both in the country and in the institution. Thus, this thesis aimed to identify
possible strategy to increase women’s participation in all managerial position in the university.
To attain this objective both qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed. The
data was collected through interview and questionnaire with employee at different managerial
position as well as with other employee who were not in managerial position; interview with
gender and human resource office directors to identify the current gender practice and assessing
the factor for minimal representation of women in management position of the university. Both
probability and non probability sampling techniques were employed. From the total sample size
of 356, 85.6 % were responded. The study revealed that the current position of women in
managerial position was minimal. Major factors for this were lack of delegation,
recommendation, educational gap, socio-cultural factors, gender stereotype, male dominance
and dual responsibility of women. Based upon the findings, the study suggested that there should
be affirmative action, equal opportunity policy, elimination of gender stereotype, providing
legislative and infrastructural support and special training program as necessary action to bring
significant change in women participation in managerial position.

Key words:- Women, Management Position, Arba Minch University, Gender

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

For hundreds of years the lives of women have been formed by their ability to bear children,
while men were the ones concerned with business and politics. A mixture of societal changes and
technological developments happening over the last 50 years has, however, facilitated the entry
of women into the labor market and caused the need for the social role of women to be
significance. Besides being mothers and wives women are now also researchers, managers and
politicians. Inventions, such as birth control, have given women a choice if and when to have
children, thereby easing the planning and pursuit of a professional career. While economic and
societal trends, like the shift in the distribution of jobs; favoring an increasing number of jobs in
the service sector, have redesigned work to be less dependent on the superior physical strength of
men (Cook, 1985). The result has been a significant change in the composition of the workforce,
caused by the large increase in the participation rate for women over the last few decades (Karen,
1999). This tendency causing an increasing number of women in the work force has been present
in practically all of the Western countries.

Moreover even though women have succeeded in participating many of the previously male-
dominated areas, jobs are still segregated by sharp ‘gender lines’. The gender lines work not only
horizontally; dividing traditionally male dominated occupations from the female ones but also
vertically; meaning that few women can be found at senior management levels. Different
researches showed that the proportionate increase in the overall labor force participation rate for
women is not reflected in the proportionate increase in women in managerial positions (Karen,
1999).

The fact, that the proportion of women decreases at progressively higher levels of managerial
hierarchies (Parker & Fagenson, 1994), suggested that the discussion regarding social roles and
gender equality is still far from settled, which seems to be supported by the considerable amount
of attention the matter is given by parties of the trades and industries. Therefore, trying to rectify
this gender based imbalance between genders, governments and companies as well as NGOs

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have been trying to equalize the opportunities for men and women through a number of different
initiatives.

According to WB (1998), although women constitutes two third of the world’s working
hours, produce half of the world’s food and above all, bear and rear children, women continue to
suffer from all forms of discrimination and from the absence of adequate protection
against violence. A large number of females have entered the labor market in the last few
decades and this means that females have been and are entering traditionally male dominated
domains. One might think there would be a proportionate increase of females in most
occupations, but research shows that this is not the case, by contrast it shows that the increase in
the overall labor force participation rate for females is not reflected in the proportionate increase
of women in managerial positions (Karen Korabik, 1999). This suggests some adjustment
problems for both organizations and society. .

Ethiopia is party to all major human right treaties including the most important women’s
conventions, such as CEDAW which calls for equal participation of women in public decision
making, Beijing Declaration and Platform of Action (BDPA), which requires governments to
attain a 30% benchmark for women’s representation in all public decision making positions
(Meaza,2009). However, women’s participation in Ethiopian higher institutions is at infant stage.

However, women have minimally participated in managerial position. The reasons for low
representation of women in managerial roles as compared to males are the traditional patriarchy
of Ethiopia which remains supported by religion, culture as well as gender differentials in access,
participation and service provision across the educational, legal, health and economic sectors.
Thus, the recent changes to the constitution and legal code were the means to resolve and do
away with patriarchal attitudes plus practices and engendered some changes; there is still need
for further transforming discriminatory attitude towards the female gender at work place, in the
public sphere and at homes ( Haregewoin and Emebet,2003).

Therefore, recently in Ethiopia various policies and strategies adopted by the government
to promote gender equality and protect women’s rights, including the National Plan for
Gender Equality (2005-2010), the Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to
Eradicate Poverty (2005-2010), which included “unleashing the potential of Ethiopian women”

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among its eight strategic elements, the Development and Change Package for Ethiopian women,
seeking to promote the economic and political participation of women and to eradicate harmful
traditional practices, and the joint United Nations/Government of Ethiopia flagship
programs on gender equality and maternal health. Moreover, the 2nd growth and transformation
plan (GTP-2) of the country has also given due attention for women participation in all sectors.
(Haregewoin and Emebet, 2003).

Arbaminch University is one of the first generation universities which have six colleges and one
institute of technology. Thus, the university has total of 4714 employees both in academic and
administrative wing. However, women participation in lower to higher managerial position has
been insignificant.

1.2 Statement of problem

In many countries, women are participating in areas of public where they were not
previously visible. Women are slowly but increasingly occupying senior positions in the public
and private sectors, including the judiciary, the Academia and the media. There was less
evidence in the discussion of women in leadership roles in trade unions, professional associations
and non-traditional areas. Men are still overwhelmingly the decision makers as senior executives
and board members of corporations. Public sector officials, judges, lawmakers, media
executives, negotiators, in trade unions and leaders in civil society organizations may not
have women’s issues as their primary concern.(Women Watch, 2007)

It is explained that the sustainability of the economy of a country depends on the extent of the
integration of women in public decision-making, and the inclusion of their needs and
interests in policy which ultimately helps to ensure good governance. In Ethiopia, as women are
more than fifty percent of the population, it is very important to utilize this part of population so
that the talent of whole population is optimally utilized. Internationally, women’s right to
participate in decision-making processes at local, national and international levels were
recognized by the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women
and the Beijing Fourth World Conference on Women and the issue of gender equality was also
focused by the Millennium Development Goals Afoz (2010.

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More over even though the Ethiopia government’s effort in concerning towards gender
perspective in to economic empowerment programs show a relative improvement, it is still
insignificant. Additionally, in Ethiopia women’s participation in labor market increasing as
compared to the last decades, but as compared to male counterpart their participation in decision
making is low(Chalchissa, 2011; Federal Civil Service Agency, 2006/7).

Arba Minch University, one of the first generation universities in Ethiopia, has a total of 4714
employee including both academic and administrative staffs of 1324 and 3418, respectively.
There are also 114 expatriate staffs of different nationalities such as, Indians, Filipinos, German,
and British. However, in both administrative and academic management position women’s are
underrepresented. Currently, there are,1 president,4 vice president,6 college deans, 5 vice
deans,16 director,42 department head,19 coordinators position in academic wing and 14
director,19 team leader, 20 compass coordinator in administrative wing in the university.
However the representation of women in every position both in academic and administrative
wing are as follows: from 5 presidential position 1 women vice president, 1 director, 1 dean, 2
vice dean, 5 department head , 5 women coordinators are in academic wing and 5 team leader ,
3 women coordinator are in administrative managerial position. Thus, it requires determining
the factor which hindered women from raising their participation to all levels of managerial
position.

However, the government policy towards leadership participation of women has been given
more emphasis, but still the participation of women in managerial positions is insignificant
which need to be addressed.

1.3 Objectives of Study

1.3.1 General Objective

The main purpose of this study is to assess the factors that affect women participation on
management position in Arba Minch University.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

 To reveal the current position women occupied in management position.
 To identify the major barriers that are affecting the access of women in to management
positions.

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 To identify possible strategies to enhance women participation on management position.

1.4 Research question

The study attempts to assess the existing gap and the factors affecting women participation in
management position of Arba Minch University. Thus, the researcher will focus on the following
research questions:

1. What positions do women occupy in university management as compared to men?

2. What are the major factors which affect women’s participation in the management position of
Arba Minch University?

3. What strategies should be used to enhance women participation on management position in

the university?

1.5 Significance of the study

The output of the present study will primarily benefit the university to aware of women
representation in different management positions within the institution and hence take remedial
actions to encourage and empower both administrative and academic women staffs to come to
position. Furthermore, women staffs in the university will also be motivated to be equally
compete with men staffs for different management positions in the university.

1.6 Scope of the study

In spite of the fact that women are subjected to several factors that hinder their empowerment,
the present study focused on uncovering major barriers that limit women staffs to appear at
different levels of management positions in the university.

1.7 Limitation of the study

The major limitation of this research was the respondents’ reaction towards the questionnaires.
The main source of primary data were the employees of university who are placed at
different position and most of them were not timely responding which had an impact on the
research schedule. In addition to that some were even not responding an open ended question in
a proper manner.

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Besides the questionnaires, interview is one of the other primary data for this study and it had
also difficulty to arrange it on time with HR and gender office director because they are too busy
now it is a time of recruitment and other daily work.

1.8 Organization of the paper

This study is organized in five parts. Chapter one is about introduction of the study which
contains background of the study, statement of the problem, objective of the study, significance
of the study, scope and limitation of the study; chapter two is about review of related literature;
chapter three is about research design of the study comprising all methods and tools which are
employed to achieve the stated objectives.

There are information consists about results obtained from Questioners, interviews, secondary
data and there is also brief analysis of the findings. The data collected are organized, summarized
and interpreted by using SPSS software program. To analyze the data descriptive statistics such
as frequency table, graph and other technique are used to show the overall condition of women in
the university. A qualitative analysis also applied to elaborate the data which is collected through
interview and report of the university. The discussion contains the major barriers that hinder
women from managerial positions and the current status of women in management position in
the university. The last chapter five is about summary, conclusion and recommendation of the
study.

1.9 Definition of Key Terms

Management- The term in this study used to refer the person who has the responsibility of
planning, coordinating and directing people, a department or an organization, in the case of
university

Participation: The term is used in this study to refer to the provision of equal opportunity to
women to take part in the leadership and decision-making and management in Arbaminch
University. It implies quantitative and qualitative participation of women in university
management.

Strategies: The term is used to refer to ways and means that can be used to improve both
quantitative and qualitative participation of women in managerial position of university.

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Socio-cultural Factor: Socio-cultural factor is the norm and value that was accepted and kept
by the society through generation as a binding common asset that the society acts within
it accordingly. Social factor can be categorized in harmful and useful features that the
society handles as per the tradition and of level societal consciousness.

Masculine;- Having characteristics that are traditionally thought to be typical of or suitable for
men or boys.

Feminine;-Having qualities which are traditionally considered to be suitable for

women.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Concept of leadership

There are so many definitions about leadership. According to Gary Yukl(2006) leadership is
influencing other how to achieve the goal , the processes of facilitating individual and

7
collective effort to achieve share objectives. Additionally Peter Northout (2010) defines
leadership as a process whereby and individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a
common goal. These definitions suggest that several components are crucial for leadership. So
(a) Leadership is a process, (b) leadership involves influencing others, (c) leadership happens
with in the context of a group, (d) leadership involves goal attainment, (e) these goals are shared
by leaders their followers me of them are as follows: the first one which defines leadership as
process suggests that leadership is that leadership is not a characteristic or trait with which only a
few certain people are endowed at birth. Defining leadership as a process means that leadership
is a transactional event that happens between leaders and their followers. Viewing leadership as a
process means that leaders are affected by their followers either positively or negatively. It
focuses on leaderships a two-way interaction between leaders and followers. Defining leadership
as a process makes it available to everyone not just a select few who are born with it. More
important, it means that leadership is not restricted to just the one person in a group who has
formal position power (i.e., the formally appointed leader) (Peter Northout ,2010).

More over: leadership as the process of encouraging and supporting other to work
enthusiastically toward objectives. It is the human factor that helps a group identify where
it is going then motivates it towards its goals. Without leadership, an organization would
be only a gathering of people machines, just as an orchestra without a conductor would
be only musicians instrument. The orchestra all other organizations require leadership to
develop their precious assets to their fullest capacity (Davis Newstorm 1989).

As result, the definition of leadership as a process of encouraging helping others to work

actively toward objective is considered since the meaning of leadership is taking in to
consideration as facilitator( transformational leadership style) not as a power (transactional
leadership style).

It is described by management writers leadership is the process of influencing an individual or a

group for the achievement of goal in a given situation. From this definition of the leadership, it
follows that the leadership process is function of the leader, the follower and other situational
variables Hersey (2001).

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2.2 Male and Female Leadership Styles
Brooks, (2009) Defines Leadership is an increasingly important issue for organizations, recent
leadership theories like diversity management, have brought additional attention to the benefits
of having diverse workforce. The belief is that men and women differ in their approach to
management, therefore offer different qualities. Arnie and William (1990) were indeed able to
conclude that there is a difference in how women and men are thought to lead.

2.2.1 The Nature of Males and Females

It described that a common interpretation of the behavior and relation between, men and
women emphasized the importance of the biological maternal function of the female in
determining the nature and content of her being. A women’s early life is a preparation for
becoming, her later life is devoted to being, a successful wife and mother. Their activities,
though not necessarily confined to the home, at least center on it, for them primary mission is to
be a helpmate to their husband to provide a warm safe haven for their family. If they do work for
pay, they will do best in jobs compatible with their household responsibilities and their feminine
personality. Men, on the other hand, are not constrained by their paternal function from fully
entering the world outside the home. On the contrary, their natural role as provider protector
spurs them on to greater efforts. Thus, nature by itself has an impact for women for not to
be influential to outside work not make women more competitive in their assigned position(Blau
and Ferber,1992).

2.3 Leadership and Power

According to Yukl (2006), power is related to but different from leadership. It is related to
leadership because it is an integral part of the ability to influence others. Power is defined as the
potential or capacity of influences others to bring about desired outcomes. Leaders can influence
others’ beliefs, attitudes, behavior. Thus there are different kinds of power, in organizations,
which are two kinds of power position power and personal power. Position power is that power
that comes from holding a particular office, position, or rank in an organization (Daft, 2005). A
university president has more power than a dean of a business school, but they both have formal
power. Personal power is the capacity to influence that comes from being viewed as
knowledgeable likable by followers. It is power that derives from the interpersonal relationships
that leaders develop with followers. There is an argument when leaders have both positional
interpersonal power, they should use personal power a vast majority of the time. Over use of

9
position power may erode the ability of a leader to influence people. Of course, it is important to
know when it is most appropriate to use position power to be able willing to use it (Daft, 2005).
Power can be two-faced. One face is the use of power within an organization to achieve one’s
personal goals to the detriment of others in the organization. The other face is that power that
works to achieve the collective goals of all members of the organization, sometimes even at the
expense of the leader’s personal goals(Daft,2005).

2.4 Leadership and Management

There are different definition about leadership management Zalesznik (1977) defines Leadership
is similar to, different from, management. They both involve influencing people. They both
require working with people. Both are concerned with the achievement of common goals.
However, leadership management is different on more dimensions than they are similar. As
described by writer managers leaders are very distinct, being one precludes being the other. It is
explained that managers are reactive, while they are willing to work with people to solve
problems; they do so with minimal emotional involvement. On the other hand, leaders are
emotionally involved seek to shape ideas instead of reacting to others’ ideas. Managers limit
choice, while leaders work to exp the number of alternatives to problems that have plagued an
organization for a long period of time. Leaders change people’s attitudes, while managers only
change their behavior (zalesznik, 1977).

Mintzberg (1998) contends that managers lead by using a cerebral face. This face stresses
calculation, views an organization as components of a portfolio, and operates with words
numbers of rationality. The writer suggests that leaders lead by using an insightful face. This
face stresses commitment, views organizations with an integrative perspective, is rooted in the
images feel of integrity. Additionally managers need to be two faced. They need to
simultaneously be managers ‘and leaders. Moreover Kotter (1998) suggests that organizations
are over managed under led. However, strong leadership with weak management is no better
may be worse. The writer also suggests that organizations need strong leadership strong
management. Managers are needed to help complexity by instituting planning budgeting,
organizing staffing, controlling problem solving. Leaders are needed to support change through
setting a direction, aligning people, motivating inspiring people. It also suggested that

10
organization require people who can do both managers and leaders activity in collaborate (kotter,
1998).

Additionally Rowe (2001) contends that leaders managers are different suggests that one aspect
of the difference maybe philosophical. Managers believe that the decisions they make are
determined for them by the organizations they work for that the organizations they work for
conduct themselves in a manner that is determined by the industry or environment in which they
operate.

2.5 Gender Difference: Do Male and Female Leaders Adopt Different Style?

2.5.1 The ‘Yes to Differences’ Position

It is suggested that societal norms promote a general stereotype of gender roles which have been
cultured through a process of social learning. These socialization practices encourage the
development of skill, traits behaviors that are different between men women, which in the eyes
of many men women are perceived as contrary to those required in the higher levels of
management (as cited in Collins and Singh, 2006).

Further more women have a different management style which can bring benefits to the
organization. Hence, women are more inclined to take a fresh perspective, identify, what is not
working develop new solution. Compared with their male peers, women leaders are more willing
to share power, make decisions and solve problems based on shared ideas and information
encourages participation and expression. Women prefer organizational structures that enable
consensual working rather than the traditional hierarchical structures favored by men. So the
author describes this as ‘the female advantage’ (as cited in Collins and Singh, 2006).

More over the style adapted by women as an interactive leadership style consisting of
behaviors that represent power-sharing, energizing, encouraging participation, mutual trust
respect, enhancing self-worth. It stated that women described themselves in ways that
characterize transformational leadership-getting subordinates to transform their own self-interest
into the interest of the group through concern for a broader goal. Conversely male managers
were more likely to use their position as a source of power employ methods based on formal
authority. In short, men are more likely to adopt transactional leadership method. Because

11
women’s traditional role in society is to offer a supportive cooperative environment that
this influences their leadership style (as cited in Collins and Singh, 2006).

2.5.2 The ‘No Differences’ Position

Although evidence of behavioral and personality differences between male and female managers
is a consistent finding across a number of studies as indicated above, other authors have reported
that there is no significant gender differences. Examining gender and transformational
leadership, (as cited in Collins and Singh, 2006) reported male female manager’s to be
generally equally transformational, with both groups stating that a collaborative style built on
consensual relationship was important to effective leadership.

Similarly, Ferrario (as cited in Collins and Singh, 2006) states that although research examining
explanations of women’s failure to attain leadership positions has frequently focused on gender
differences, she could find no evidence that men women lead in different ways. When
leaders rating provided by subordinates are examined, there is again no evidence of significant
gender difference in the perceptions of whether male or female leaders utilize greater levels of
transformational behavior.

2.6 General Situation of Women in Ethiopia

Women in Ethiopia as anywhere else occupy the law status in the society. Although they
represent 49.8% of the estimated Ethiopian population of 77.1 million (CSA, 2007), contribute
mainly to food production and other, they have not shared the fruits of development equally with
their male counterpart. Rights such as, access to l, credit and other productive resources are
difficult for women to attain. They also experience multiple forms of other deprivations such as
longer working days, women specific ill health, low levels of education relative to men, lack of
adequate representation in leadership decision making positions (Sosena and Tsehai, 2008).

In general, Women in Ethiopia occupy low status in the society. In spite of their
contributions to the well being of their family community affairs in general, women experience
lower socio-economic status as a whole hence is marginalized from making decisions at
all levels. Women are facing multiple forms of deprivation. Gender based discrimination, lack
of protection of basic human rights, violence, lack of access to productive resources, education

12
training, basic health services, employment are widespread (National Committee for Traditional
Practices Eradication (NCTPE, 2003).

Women experience lower socioeconomic status in general and hence is marginalized from
making decisions at all levels. Nonetheless, women are poor in terms of access to resources,
services employment. Women are underrepresented in the formal sector of employment. The
survey conducted by the Central Statistical Authority (CSA, 2004) showed that women
account for less than half (43%) of the total employees in the country. Considering the
percentage of female employees from the total number of employees by employment type, the
highest was in domestic activities (78%) followed by unpaid activities (59.3%). In other
types of formal employment (e.g. government, NGOs, private organizations), the percentage of
female workers is less than 359(CSA, 2004).

On the other h, the survey showed over representation of female workers in the informal
sector. About 58% of working women work in the informal sector whereas the percentage of
working men in the informal sector was 37.7 %. The breakdown of the federal government
employees by occupational groups also indicated gender disparity. From federal government
employees found in the clerical fiscal type of jobs 71.3 % were female, while the
percentage of females was slightly more than half (51%) in custodial manual type of jobs.
Women make up 25% 18% of the administrative professional and scientific job categories,
respectively, indicating that upper middle level positions are overwhelmingly dominated
by men (Federal Civil Service Commission, 2005). This concentration of women in the
informal sector low level positions has implication on their earnings. In this regard, the survey
showed four out of ten women civil servants earn Birr 300 a month compared to two out
of ten for men (Federal Civil Service Commission, 2005).

Generally, regardless of women’s immense contribution, they often lack productive assets
particularly, are underserved with agricultural extension, credit, labor, oxen and farm
implements. Women’s representation in the permanent employment of both regional federal
civil services is also lower than men; in comparison to the large number of unemployed
women. The increase in the number of women employees over the years is insignificant.

13
Women’s employment in the formal sector both in industries and in the Civil Service is lower
than men (NCTPE, 2003).

2.7 Women and Leadership in Ethiopia

A woman is an adult female human being, as contrasted to men, an adult male, a girl, a female
and child. The term woman (irregular plural: women) is used to indicate biological sex
distinctions, cultural gender role distinctions, or both (Wikipedia, 2005:1). Ethiopia is a
patriarchal society that keeps women in a subordinate position (Haregewoin Emebet, 2003).

There is a perception that women are docile, submissive, patient, and tolerant of monotonous
work and violence, for which culture is used as a justification (Hirut, 2004). Like most African
country many Ethiopian women face low social status which results to lack of women power to
make decision in developing countries in general and in Ethiopia in particular (Almaz1991).
They have been denied equal access to education, training, gainful employment
opportunities, their involvement in policy formulation decision making processes has been
minimal. It’s true that women play a vital role in the community by taking care of all societal
activities. However, they do not enjoy the fruits of their labor and suffer from political,
economical, societal, cultural marginalization. According to Meaza (2009), although there are
many women who have played important political and leadership roles in the history of Ethiopia,
only few are visible in the existent literatures (Meaza, 2009). Additionally Meaza (2009)
indicated that women have played important political roles mostly by wielding proxy
power through birth or marriage. In addition to this, as Teshome (1979) stated, in Ethiopian
history, women did great contributions in both out and in door activities especially in battles
and other activities. They have been actively participating in rural and area in agriculture,
commercial, undertaking reproduction social responsibilities. However, their misfortunes of
living in the shadow of men have hidden from view such highly notable performances.
Also women have been forced to lose confidence so have been unable to act on their own action
directly concerning themselves (Teshome, 1979).

It is described that even if women’s formal participation on leadership position have been
minimum, but it is documented that throughout the world, women played a vital roles in times of
war and peace as community organizers and activists. Moreover, for instance, un Ethiopian
Women history, contributions and brilliant leadership role which have Emperor Minilik’s

14
(1877-1913) first and formal wife, Bafena and second legal wife Empress Taitu had played is
unforgettable history comes first when one talk about Ethiopian women contributions. For
instance, Taitu was acted as the chief advisor of Emperor with particular influence in the
area of foreign relations. She holds high profile in the history for patriotism
uncompromisingly pursuing Ethiopia’s independence (Meaza, 2009). These historical facts
make it clear that despite their strengths, contributions demonstrated leadership abilities; it has
never been easy for Ethiopian women to ascend to formal political power (Meaze, 2009).

On present day FDRE government has adopted several enhancing instruments to raise women
participation on nation’s decision making positions because of that FDRE constitution which is
most promising binding one which had played a significant role for women participation on all
decision making level. However some efforts should be done because still the participation of
women in leadership and decision making position is minimal as per to their counterparts. This
can be seen on all levels of decision making position seem increasing from time to time, it is still
minimal, according to the information gained from international Parliament Union (IPU),
in 2005 National election women accounts 21.3%, where as in 2010 national election, their
number has increased to 152 (27.8%) out of the total 547 seats of HPR members, with compared
to Rwanda (56.3%), South Africa of which they accounts for 44.5% others.
(http://www.ipu.org//wmn-e/classif.htm)

2.8 Factors which Affect Women’s Leadership Position

The representation of women in all decision making position is minimal due to several reasons.
First low representation of women on high management position may discourage the low-level to
raise their motivation to compete an upper level position, because they may thought it is
unattainable. It may also results to highly qualified experienced women may thus not apply for
upper level management positions. Therefore organization can lose women with high
qualification who can play significant role on the organizational goal achievement. Moreover it
may results to when employees perceive a low representation of women in upper
management, they may form ideas about the implicit values culture of the organization,
such as it is an ‘‘old-boys club,’’ or Discriminatory in its hiring retention practices. As
result there are so many barrier which are hindered women moving from lower level to upper
level managerial position, so from those factors some of them are described as follows:

15
2.8.1 Social / Cultural Factors
According to Willis (1991) culture is that which surrounds us plays a certain role in determining
the way we behave at any given moment in time. By no means a static, concept defines culture
is both defined by events that are taking place both locally as well as regionally internationally,
it is shaped by individual events as well as collective ones, it is a feature of the time or epoch
we live in. Because it is so vast, culture is also often used as a tool to validate all manners of
actions not, all of which may be acceptable to all concerned are often intimately, connected to
issues of identity. Cultural frameworks are not always imposed, but are open to manipulation
interpretation from many angles sources.

In any ethnic group in Africa a typical woman has low status particularly lack of power to make
decisions on matters affecting her life those of her family. This culturally determined expectation
attitude towards the girl child influences less allocation of resources towards the girl as
compared to the boys. A boy will always be considered first before a girl. This gender biased
cultural assumption the subsequent differential treatment of boys girls in a homestead not
only diminish girls’ access performance in the education but also tend to push girls to
doing the so called ‘feminine careers’(as cited in Mbugua, 2007) .

One of the earliest biological justifications for male superiority comes from Aristotle 5th century
B.C (as cited in Amrot, 1998,). It is stated that the world is a hierarchy composed of ruling
elements women are “naturally” fit to the second. In his own words the author described it as
“The male is naturally fitter to common than the female own benefit most by being subject to
male royal authority”. It is mainly because during that time the inequality of men women was a
legally socially accepted fact. Therefore, this simply shows his ideological difference from
contemporary thinkers. While society believes in the superiority of men, we are in the decade of
woman in which the involvement of women in many aspects is a hot issue. It is stated that the
1990’s have been named the decade of Women changes in values technology, labor
availability the work force, life styles, public attitudes, family roles, globalization, legal
requirements, company recognition, emphasis on team work employee involvement are all
factors that will enhance women’s opportunity to compete survive in tough economic time
Amrot, (1998).

16
A significant social feature resides in the double if not triple responsibilities of women: In most
countries, women are perceived to have primary responsibilities as wives mothers. But in many
cases, either as a result of a preference for personal development, or out of sheer economic
necessity, women also go out to work in the employment market. Managing these
different occupations their consequent responsibilities is no easy task for anyone man or
woman (Willis, 1991).

2.8.2 Organizational Culture Barriers

Organizational culture is defined as the realities, values, symbols rituals held in common by
members of an organization which contribute to the creation of norms expectations of behavior.
It defines conduct within an organization, determines what is is not valued, how authority is
asserted (as cited in Mbugua, 2007).

The values, which support the great majority of organizations, thus define success, often
include money, power status. The corresponding behaviors include working long hours
putting in face time (as proxies for productivity), competitiveness a willingness to put work
above all else. These values behaviors, which some authors define as being masculine, have
come to dominate organizations for historical socio-economic reasons but are increasingly being
challenged by women, many men, who want to 'work to live' rather than 'live to work (cited in
Mbugua 2007). Leadership and management continue to be the domain of men that is ‘thinks
manager, think male’. This has implications for women and men, rightly or wrongly, are
perceived in a particular way in society, which permeates organizations. They are assigned
gender roles, which are shared beliefs that apply to individuals on the basis of their socially
identified sex (as cited in Miller, 2006).

2.8.3 Gender Stereotype Factors

There are different definition about gender stereotypes from them the following definition
describes gender stereotypes are generalized beliefs about the characteristics qualities
attributed to men and women in a society. In general, men are characterized as
aggressive, risk-taking, decisive, autonomous (agentic attributes), whereas women are
characterized as kind, caring, relational, and humble (communal attributes) (Collins and
Singh, 2006; Sikdar and Mitra, 2008).

17
It also described as the characteristics, attitudes, values behaviors that society specifies as
appropriate for the particular gender. The differences may have arisen not just from biological
differences but also from sex role socialization during childhood and the way in which
men and women develop psychologically. Gender stereotypes have consistently
demonstrated that men are generally seen as more agent and more competent than women, while
women are seen as more expressive and communal than men (Duher and Bono; Sczesny
and Stahlberg, as cited in Ginige, 2007).

Moreover gender stereotype also describes the different representation of women compared to
their counterpart in particular type of jobs. Hence women dominate in care occupation such as
nursing, teaching, social care and especially childcare. Whereas, men concentrated on job like
management construction areas associated with risk taking and decision making position. Such
practices observed on many organization in which male are dominated on all decision making
position while women representation have been minimal as compared to male (Hoobler ,2011) .

According to Hoobler (2011) states the ‘‘glass ceiling’’ explanations focus on discrimination
due to many, varied causes, such as sex role stereotyping (where individuals tend to
associate male characteristics and consequently men with leadership positions also called
the ‘‘think leader, think male’’ phenomenon). Scholars have collected substantial empirical
evidence that illustrate that we associate successful leaders with stereotypically male attributes
such as independence, assertiveness, and decisiveness. So because stereotypes of what women
‘‘are like’’ in the work place do not match with the male leadership archetype, women are not
considered for or are judged to be ill suited for the top jobs (Hoobler, 2011).

As result stereotyping can have an influence on the way in which men and women are
perceived in the workplace. The use of stereotypes as the basis for assessment of
individuals can result in advantage or disadvantage, not because of individual ability or
lack of it but because of group membership. Gender stereotypes are still pervasive and
widely shared (cited in Mbugua, 2007).

2.8.4 Work Place Policies

Women are not the same as men; they have particular biological functions that make
them different, which in turn make their work experiences different. To this end, treating

18
men and women the same has effectively created a systemic form of indirect discrimination for
women. Mbugua (2007) asserts that pregnancy is a workplace issue that starts well before
conception and ends long after birth. It is impossible to separate pregnancy and family
responsibilities. Anecdotal evidence suggests assumptions that women will resign when they
have children are still widespread and continue to form the basis for not hiring women among
some employers. Large number of women report significant difficulties when they return to work
due to the lack of supportive policies and practices in workplace. Issues like childcare,
breastfeeding, flexible working hours and part-time work are still very current issues for most
working women (Mbugua, 2007).

2.8.5 The “Maternal wall”

There has been a thought which describes women managers and professionals under
representation in the labor market due to their status as potential or actual mothers, sticking to
the old saying that reads, “The hands that rock the cradle cannot rock the boardroom”. Despite
anti-discrimination legislation, a negative link continues to be made, by employers, between
a women’s reproductive status and her employment orientation (Gatrell, 2006).

Additionally The Equal Opportunity Commission (EOC) stated that this is partly because
employers fear that expense and inconvenience may be involved in managing both maternity
leave and mothers ‘subsequent return to work, when women might request flexibility due
to their maternal responsibilities. The EOC also described that such discrimination occurs due
to a belief on the part of organizations that mothers likely to lose their career focus from the
moment they become pregnant. It has been suggested that discrimination in relation to
women’s maternity occurs because the ‘normative’ image of womanhood is gendered.
While men are seen as employment-oriented economic providers and bread makers, it is
assumed that mothers’ chief responsibility and interest is (or ought to be!) embedded within the
home. As result mothers are constructed as having a lower employment-orientation (and a
higher home-orientation) than fathers (Gatrell, 2006).

2.8.6 Discrimination in Appointments

There is discrimination if employee faces unfavorable or unfair treatment due to sex, religion,
disabled or veteran status, or other legally protected characteristics. In our country federal law
prohibits discrimination in a number of work-related areas, including recruiting, hiring, job

19
evaluations, promotion policies, training, compensation and disciplinary action. Discrimination
can be portrayed in different ways. It can occur in accessing employment, in promotion or in the
treatment of an employee (UNDP, 1999).

According to UNDP report of 1999, despite the fact that many governments have adopted and
adapted affirmative action measures and the rhetoric of gender balance, the figures still indicate
that globally, despite the fact that women are half of the population, they are nowhere near half
of the decision-making structures. The threshold of 30% advocated by the UNDP report,
as a prelude to the 50% is still a dream for most women. As a matter of fact, intelligence, ability
and motivation are the attributes of a good leader. These attributes are inherent in both men and
women, and gender has no role to play in determining these attributes. However in pursuit to
investigating the factors influencing women progression to leadership, social/cultural
factors, organization culture, workplace policies and discrimination of women in
appointments have come out clearly as the factors inhibiting women from moving up the ladder
of upper managerial positions(UNDP, 1999).

2.8.7 The Subtle Barriers: The Role of Male Clubs

There are factors influencing women’s careers that may at first appear to be only tangentially
related to the labor market. For instance, being denied admittance to prestigious all-male private
clubs can impede the progress of career women. These “social” clubs are, in fact, places where
influential people meet, relationships are developed, and deals are made; they are not simply
places where weary businessmen go to relax and socialize. Studies have shown that most
people find their jobs through personal contacts or by word of mouth-club affiliations
give those in executive positions information and contacts that allow them to reap
benefits not accessible to those who are excluded. However women’s underrepresentation
in high-level jobs, and their flatter experience earnings profiles, may in part be traced to
their exclusion from networks that insiders enjoy (as cited in Blau and Ferber, 1992).

Additionally, male executives also being to other associations and participate in other
activities in which women are substantially under-represented. For instance, as students, women
generally missed out on the bonding provided by participation in team sports, and female
executives are considerably less likely to serve on Corporate Board of Directors. However
exclusion from important all male clubs is an especially serious barrier, because important

20
business and professional meetings often take place there. It is, to say the least, very awkward
for a young professional when a prospective employer schedules a luncheon interview at
a club where women are only permitted to enter the lobby, or far a female executive to arrive at
a club to meet a group of peers, only to be denied entry (as cited in Blau and Ferber, 1992).

21
Conceptual Framework of the Study

Socio-cultural Factors

Organizational Culture

Women Representation at
Managerial Position

Gender Stereotype

Workplace Policy

Source: Adapted from Fegenson (1990)

22
CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Design

The research method that employed was descriptive method. The major purpose of descriptive
research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present (Kothari, 2004). Thus, in the
present study, it is used to describe characteristics of a population and/or phenomenon. Both
qualitative and quantitative approaches are followed to describe factors that affect women
participation on different management position in the university.

The researcher used descriptive survey method because, the nature of the research topic and the
data collected leads to use the method and can be clearly interpreted and understood by external
body, how the estimated findings could be identified.

3.2 Sampling
The study populations were both academic and administrative staffs of Arba Minch University.
Complete list of all employees in the university were acquired from Human Resource
Development Directorate Office of the university. Both probability and non-probability sampling
techniques were used. The probability sampling technique used to select sample respondents
from the total population following systematic random sampling technique. The non probability
method was used to include higher university officials and women in position. as From a total of
4714 employees in the university, 356 which is (95 %) confidence interval were taken sample.

The formula below showed how the sample size for the study was determined (Kotrlik &
Higgins (2001):-

23
n= sample size

∂2= Confidence interval

z= z- score (at 95% confidence interval, i.e 1.96)

p= percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal

3.3 Data Collection Tools

Both primary and secondary data were collected. The primary data collected from the sample
respondents through questionnaire and interview. The questionnaire was included both open-
ended and close-ended questions. The sources of secondary data were published and unpublished
articles, books, university quarterly reports, etc.

3.3.1 Primary data

3.3.1.1 Interview
Interview was prepared for director of human resource and gender office in Arbaminch
University which is prepared through reference of different documents. It is important to collect
the data which is about the existing practice on assigning individuals for managerial position.
Both structured and unstructured questions were applied. The interview method was employed
that the respondent has necessarily information on the area of study.

3.3.1.2. Questionnaire
The study used questionnaires (for female and male employees of the university) to collect the
required data. It was because questionnaire is amenable to statistical data analysis with minimal
manipulation of raw data, help to access a large sample, place minimal demands on personnel,
can avoid biases of responses due to personal experiences unlike interview and observation and
can totally anonymous(plumb and Spiridakou) in( Alebachew,2007). The questioners consists of
the question which related to the current participation of women in managerial position, factors
for low participation of women in managerial position such as educational gap, double
responsibility ,gender stereotype, socio cultural attitude, male dominancy and the issue which
can be alternative strategy in order to alleviate the problem.

24
The questionnaire was developed to assess the factor of women participation in managerial
position and to identify alternative strategy to increase their participation in different leadership
position of the university.

Questionnaire is prepared for employees of Arbaminch University for both academic and
administrative staff. From administrative staff officers, team leaders and director of different
office where as from the academic staff Lectures, Department heads, Coordinators, Deans of
college and vice president are filled the questioner. The questionnaire contains three sections; the
first section is about general information of the study, the second section is regarding the
respondents profile and the third main section includes specific questions which are
relevant for the study. More over the questioner prepared based on respondent characteristics
because it composes question for both male and women on different work position. It involves
both open ended and close ended questioner to collect relevant data from respondents. Totally
354 questioner were distributed for above respondents.

3.3.2. Secondary Data

The study used various documents which were relevant for the study. It also collected both
qualitative and quantitative data from secondary data sources. Secondary data which describes
about policy and procedure related to promotion, delegation and other necessary information for
study. In addition to the secondary data source, tertiary sources such as books, review
articles, published reports, web site related to women and analysis essays are used for the study.
A review of varies publication were also conducted to find the facts about the factors that affect
women’s participation in management position in the organization.

3.4 Data Analysis Techniques

Data analysis was conducted in a descriptive form having identified thematic areas in reference
to the research objective. So it involved a qualitative technique and supported by using software
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) program in order to organize and analyze
data which is collected through questionnaire method. Hence descriptive statistics, such as
frequency counts of managers, and percentages of women managers are used to show the status
of women in management position in the university. Besides a questionnaire, the whole
categorizations are substantiated and analyzed in reference to guidelines and working documents
while analyzing a data.

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3.5 Background of the study area
Arba Minch University (AMU) is one of the well-established universities found in the Southern
Nations, Nationalities and People's Region (SNNPR). It is located at Arba Minch town, 500 km
south of Addis Ababa. The main campus of the university is situated at the eastern foot of Gamo
mountain ranges and adjacent to the vast low land stretching towards Lake Abaya and Lake
Chamo which form part of the East African Rift Valley. The spectacular features of the twin
Rift Valley lakes, Abaya and Chamo, impart a picturesque view to the University as it is
viewed from the main campus hills. The Lakes are essential components of the area in view
of socio-economic value and ecological diversity. Its two new campuses are named after these
two lakes while the third new campus is named after one of the wonderful national parks of the
country - NechSar. The gifted land of the South offers a huge opportunity to the University
to venture into new territories of education, research and development (profile of AMU
2015).

Ethiopia is endowed with a vast potential of water resources. However, lack of efficient
management and utilization of the resource has increased susceptibility and vulnerability
to drought and a consequent famine and disaster. Thus Arba Minch Water Technology Institute
was established in 1986 with the general objectives of promoting the advancement of
water resource development and environmental protection so as to address water related
problems that the country often faces(profile of AMU 2015).

Upon establishment, the institute had the mission of providing short term and long -term training,
conducting research and rendering consultancy services in the water sector. Three departments:
Hydraulic Engineering, Irrigation Engineering, and Sanitary Engineering were organized to
serve the function. The institution started its academic activity by admitting 181 students in
two degree, two advanced diploma and two diploma programs. A major restructuring was made
in 1997 when three B.Sc. degree programs (Civil, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering) were
added. The institute was under the administration of the Water Resource Commission until
1993, and then administered by the Ministry of Education. The institute, following the
recent restructuring of the university, is now named Arba Minch Technology Institute
combining the former Engineering Faculty and Water Technology Institute (profile of AMU
2015).

26
Currently, the University comprises of five colleges and the institute. The Colleges are: College
of Natural Sciences, College of Agriculture, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, College
of Social Science and Humanities and College of Business and Economics. In addition the
university has a School of Graduate Studies. The school, which was launched in the 2002/03
academic year, is now running 40 programs (profile of AMU 2015).

In 2014-15 academic year a total of 16520 students are being enrolled in the regular programs.
The university, from its inception as Water Technology Institution has graduated 25614 students
in diploma, advanced diploma, first degree and second degree programs (profile of AMU 2015).

The alumni have proven to be competent professionals in their respective areas, and are
actively participating in the socio-economic development of the country. Furthermore, many of
the former graduates are working in higher education institutions and other firms around
the world. A number of comprehensive researches, particularly focusing on the socio-
economic problems of the area where the university is situated are being undertaken. In
the course of time, to strengthen the capacity of academic staff in order to deliver quality
education in the various programs, the university has been employing expatriate teachers from
different foreign nations like India, Philippines, Italy, Germany and England(profile of AMU
2015).

Similarly, it has spurred the economic growth of the region by churning out innumerable
professionals; wedded to nation’s secular fabric, it fosters unprejudiced religious environment,
thereby contributing in the overall development of the nation. Comprehensive researches,
particularly focusing on the socio-economic problems of the area where the university is situated
are being undertaken. Despite all these challenges, the university is able to maintain its leading
role in educating and training professionals ranging from short term demand driven courses to
full-fledged degree programs (profile of AMU 2015).

AMU’s Institute of Technology and six colleges are situated across sprawling five campuses i.e.
Main Campus, Abaya, Chamo, Kulfo and Nech Sar. The respective colleges came into being
as mentioned. In 2003, College of Business & Economics was established; College of Social
Science & Humanities in 2008-9 and both are situated at Chamo Campus. College of Natural
Sciences at Abaya Campus was set up in 2004. College of Agriculture and College of Medicine

27
& Health Sciences were established in 2007 & 2008 respectively; are situated at Nech Sar
Campus. Recently College of Agriculture has shifted to new Kulfo Campus.Distance and
Continuing Education Coordination office came into being in the year 1997 which got the status
of full-fledged college in 2013 is situated at Main Campus; since then it is offering equal
opportunities to those who can’t afford to go for regular education (profile of AMU 2015).

28
CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Response Rate of Respondents

From the 354 questioners which are distributed to the sample respondent 303 are collected thus
51 respondents from vice president, directors, lecturers coordinators ,team leader and some
administrative staff are not return back the questioner. As result 85.6% of distributed questioner
is collected and all respondent filled all the questionnaires as required.

4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 1 below shows the number employee in managerial position; thus the total number 4742 of
1324 academic staff 1175 are male, women are 149 in academic and from the total of 3418
administrative staff 1572 are male ,women staffs are1846. It indicates the number of women in
administrative wing high because of women mostly segregated in the job for preparation of food
for student and other commonly known profession of women.

4.2.1 Gender
In the present study both males and females were participated. Thus, from the total of 303
respondents, 57.4% and 42.6% were males and females, respectively (Figure 1).

Figure. 1 Gender of the Respondnts

29
4.2.2 Marital Status
The marital status of respondents was assessed. Accordingly, majority of the respondents have
found to be bachelor (52.1%). Further, married and divorced respondents were also participated
with 47.2% and 7%, respectively (Table 1).
Table 1. Marital status of the respondents

Valid
Frequency Percent Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid Married 143 47.2 47.2 47.2

Single 158 52.1 52.1 99.3

Divorced 2 .7 .7 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

4.2.3 Educational Status

Respondents with different educational background were participated in the study. As the study
area was higher institution, most (93.4%) of the respondents educational status was first degree
and above (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Educational Background of the Respondents

4.2.4 Working Experience

Respondents with varied working experience have been participated in the study. As a result,
majority (54.8%) of the respondents working experience had fallen between 2 – 8 years.

30
However, respondents having more than 8 years of experience were also constituted 18.2% of
the sample population (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Working Experiences of Respondents

4.3 Managerial position at AMU

The table below showed numbers of managerial position in Arbaminch University and the level of
women representation within these positions.

Table 2. Managerial positions at AMU

% of positions
S. Managerial Total No. No.of positions No.of positions held by
No. Positions of positions held by men held by women women
1 President 1 1 0 0.0
2 Vice President 4 3 1 25.0
3 Director 30 26 4 13.3
4 Dean 6 5 1 16.7
5 Vice Dean 5 3 2 40.0
6 Department Head 42 37 5 11.9
7 Coordinator 39 31 8 20.5

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8 Team Leader 19 14 5 26.3
Total 146 120 26 17.8
Source: Human Resource Development and Management, AMU

There have been studies about women participation in management position which indicates that
the number of women in all management position as compared to male counterpart is
insignificant. Thus respondent in this study described that women’s number from lower level
management position to higher level position also minimal. There for, there are,1 president,4
vice president,6 college deans, 5 vice deans,16 director,42 department head,19 coordinators
position in academic wing and 14 director,19 team leader, 20 campus coordinator in
administrative wing in the university. However the representation of women in every position
both in academic and administrative wing are as follows: from 5 presidential position 1 women
vice president, 16 director position 1, 6 dean position 1, 5 vice dean 2, 42 department head 5, 19
coordinators 5 women are in academic wing and 19 team leader 5, 20 coordinator 3 women are
in the managerial position. It indicates that their participation in all level management position is
insignificant, because women are represented minimally in all levels which require special
attention to be taken by university

4.4 Women at managerial positions in AMU

The study has revealed that there was no equal involvement of women at different managerial
positions in the university (χ2= 242.4, df = 1, p > 0.05). It indicates that number of women in
managerial position in arbaminch university have been insignificant due to several factor which
was stated below.

4.5 Factors for low participation of women on management position

Women participation in decision making can be dependent on so many factors. These factors can
affect women on their participation on different management position in the university unless it
is managed by concerning body. Because the number of women in leadership position in
Arbaminch University is minimal; however their role for the achievement of goals is important.
There are factors for minimal representation of women which are lack of recommendation, lack
of delegation, educational gap, socio-cultural attitudes, lack of women confidence, male
dominance, due to dual responsibility and lack of responsibility. But women can prove to be a
valuable resource and an asset for the country with the abilities like handling multiple tasks

32
simultaneously, which might not be that easy for male employee Thus women’s are
efficient and effective in their assigned position while they have many challenges on one side to
meet the organization goal on the other side to fulfill the three major gender role such as
productive role, reproductive role and community role( as cited in Afroz, 2010 & Chalchissa and
Emnet, 2013). There are many factors which results to minimal representation of women on
management position.

4.5.1 Lack of Recommendation

Recommendation refers to offering written or oral endorsement to someone that would help
him/her to compete for job promotion and/or pursuing further education. In the present study,
55.4% of the respondents agreed that lack of recommendation was one of the major factors that
made women managers in the university to be only finger-counted (Table 3).

Table 3. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of recommendation’

Lack of Recommendation

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid No 135 44.6 44.6 44.6

Yes 168 55.4 55.4 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

One of the reasons for minimal representation of women on management position is lack of
recommendation. However the institution has its own legislation which is merit based and which
should be applicable on all position together with affirmative action. Thus on actual base some e
position on middle to higher management positions are hold by delegation like vice president
position and directors, assistant on all vice president level. As result there is insignificant
participation of women in leadership position because the majority of managers are making their
recommendation for male employees than that of female employees.

4.5.2 Lack of Delegation

Delegation is the assignment of any responsibility or authority to another person temporarily
(normally from a manager to a subordinate) to carry out specific activities. According to 55.8%
of the respondents, delegations in the university were primarily given to men (Table 4).
33
Table 4. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of delegation’
Lack of Delegation

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid No 134 44.2 44.2 44.2

Yes 169 55.8 55.8 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

Delegation has significant role for employee in developing their experience in any leadership
position since experience on any profession can add value on the performance of an employee.
However mostly managers delegate male employees than female employee. Hence this results to
women not to devote their time on to paid work than their family responsibility. As result women
lose their opportunity of being leaders in the university.

4.5.3 Educational Gap

Due to several intricate factors, women’s have no equal opportunity with men with regard to
education. Thus, it would result educational gap. 71.9% of the respondents have agreed that
educational gap was another factor why women involvements at managerial positions have
become limited (Table 5).

Table 5. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Educational Gap’

Educational Gap

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid No 83 27.4 27.4 27.4

Yes 218 71.9 71.9 99.3

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

It showed that increase in educational attainment has a positive impact on both economic growth
and development. There are positive externalities associated with education of the labor force

34
both in terms of economic and social capital. The economic gain from women’s education in
general is considered to be at least as high as those from men’s education. Further, there is a
multiplier effect associated with women’s education. However, developing countries experience
gender gap in terms of educational attainment as well as enrolment
(testnew.ncaer.org/…ile/Gender Gender Educational).

There is educational gap between women and male due to several factors. Hence women in
Arbminch University with higher academic level are low: however in academic staff there are
lecturers in all subject area and also their number is also increasingly but it is insignificant. In
administrative wing women academic status is also low thus it also results to negative impact in
women participation in leadership position.

4.5.4 Socio-Cultural Attitudes

There are several traditional sayings and customary activities in a typical society that would
influence women not to seek for managerial positions. According to 58.4 % of the respondents
socio-cultural attitudes were among the major factors that made women to be less competent in
managerial positions (Table 6).

Table 6. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Socio-Cultural Attitude’

Socio-Cultural Attitude

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid No 126 41.6 41.6 41.6

Yes 177 58.4 58.4 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

Socio cultural attitude also parts of the factor for low participation of women on management
position in university. However society attitude towards women competency have been negative
that it considered as women cannot compete leadership position like their male counterpart
because women can only be able to fit home responsibility than the professional work. Thus due
to negative attitude given for women employees from male employee’s side, from male
managers, women are infrequently representing in managerial position of university.

35
4.5.5 Lack of Confidence
Similar to other factors, lack of self-confidence in women is also another barrier to equally
compete with men. In the present study also 67.7% of the respondents have agreed with this
factor (Table 7.)

Table 7. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of Confidence’

Lack of Self- Confidence

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid No 98 32.3 32.3 32.3

Yes 205 67.7 67.7 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

Women’s lack of confidences results not only from socio cultural attitude it also related with
biological difference which is sex role socialization during childhood and the way in which
women and male develop psychologically. There is a thought about gender stereotype which
described as the characteristics, attitudes, values and behaviors that society specifies as
appropriate for the particular gender (as cited in Ginige,2007).

Thus, from interview with gender office director women are infrequently representing in
managerial position in university: “Mostly managers delegate and recommend male employees
than female due to socio cultural attitude. It also results to women lose their confidences to
compete on all leadership position. Hence they consider themselves that they are incapable to
compete on leadership position.”

Gender stereotypes has been considered that men are more agent and more competent than
women, where as women are seen as more expressive and communal than male. As result it
results to women become less confident on their work and achievement, as well as unable to
express themselves freely as men (Collins and Singh, 2006; Sikdar and Mitra, 2008).

36
4.5.6 Male Dominancy
Male dominance may refer to androcenterism which is a worldview focusing on male
supremacy. It is one of the factors which hinder women empowerment in the society. Thus, in
the present study, 56.1% of the respondents have agreed that with respect to managerial positions
in the university, it is highly male-dominated (Table 8).

Table 8. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Male Dominancy’

Male Dominancy

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid No 133 43.9 43.9 43.9

Yes 170 56.1 56.1 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

Women mostly excluded from informal networks which dominated by male counterpart which is
crucial for career development. The reason for this factor related with the perception that women,
unlike male are not able to devote their full time and energy to paid work because of their family
responsibility. So most managers are male hence they recommend and delegate male employee
than women. As result they have also an opportunity to form an informal group (boys club) to
discuss freely regarding the position. These “social” clubs are, in fact, places where influential
people meet, relationships are developed, and deals are made; they are not simply places where
weary businessmen go to relax and socialize. Therefore, male dominancy and an informal group
(boys club) has been creating an impact in gender roles and achievement as well as a factor for
less number of women in decision making position in the university (as cited in Blau & Ferber,
1992,p. 211).

4.5.7 Double Responsibility

Women’s roles often include family obligations, caretaking for children and/or elderly parent
and work responsibilities as well as other roles. Such multiple roles would have significant
impact on women representation on managerial positions. However, in the study only 48.8% of

37
the respondents believed that double responsibilities were factors for women underrepresentation
in managerial positions (Table 9).

Table 9. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Double Responsibility’

Double Responsibility

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid No 155 51.2 51.2 51.2

Yes 148 48.8 48.8 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

Women have double responsibility at their home and at the work place which have impact in
their participation to managerial position. Moreover, there are assumptions about women’s
ambitions and abilities. It described that women do not excel sufficiently in their career due to
assumptions on women’s ambitions such as women having less ambition and a lesser for
institution commitment due to family responsibility (research by Development Dimensions
International,2009).

4.5.8 Lack of Information

Being not close to information sources is also another barrier to women participation at
managerial positions. Accordingly, 54.8% of the respondents in the study have agreed that lack
of information was another factor (Table 10).

Table 10 Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of Information’

Lack of Information

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid No 137 45.2 45.2 45.2

Yes 166 54.8 54.8 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

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The major way for participation of any vacant place is to have access to information. Employee
has the right to know all available information. There should be transparency for free flow of
information. Transparency also explain that managers decisions on whether routine or matters
relating to issue which is important for employees or not are determined on the level of managers
transparency for it. Thus in Arbaminch university all vacant position are not always posted
rather it represented by recommendation or delegation specially higher and middle management
positions. As result some positions are filled by delegation.

Furthermore from the interview with human resource director it is indicated that the number of
women on leadership positions are low due to the reason that the lack of adequate information
towards vacant position and educational gap of women to compete with their male counterpart

4.6 Gender Discrimination

Considering gender discrimination, 79.2% of the respondents replied that there was no gender
discrimination during promotion in the university (Table 11).

Table 11, Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Gender Descrimination’

Gender discrimination

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly agree 14 4.6 4.6 4.6

Agree 49 16.2 16.2 20.8

Disagree 202 66.7 66.7 87.5

strongly disagree 38 12.5 12.5 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

There is a practice which discriminates women participation from decision making position.
Therefore women do experience a strong gender bias when being evaluated for promotions
on both their level of performance as well as their potential impact. Research within professional
group describes that women have to significantly work harder to be perceived as equally
competent as men (Lyness & Heilman, 2006). However from the data collected in Arbaminch

39
University it is responded that there is no discrimination in promotion but some decision making
position are given through recommendation by managers.

4.7 Affirmative Action

Majority (93.4%) of the respondents believed that affirmative actions were commonly practiced
in the university to support women for promotion (Figure 4).

Figure 4, Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Affirmative Action’

There is an implementation of affirmative action in Arbaminch University which has substantial
role in women participation in all position. However position like president, vice presidents, and
assistants of vice president has been given through recommendation which have negative impact
on women participation.

4.8 Major barriers that hinder women’s from managerial positions

In conducting this research both in interview as well as in questioner the respondent responded
the major factor for low participation of managerial position.

Thus from human resource director its responded that ‘the number of women in decision making
position very low due to the factor that lack of recommendation ,delegation, educational gap and
lack of women confidence to compete in leadership position. In addition to that socio cultural
factor also has it is own factor in female effectiveness.”

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More over there are additional factor which hinder women from participating in management
position and stated as follows:-

4.8.1 Social/Cultural Factors

4.8.1.1 Social Burden

As figure 5 below depicted, most of the respondents agreed that social burden was one of the
major barriers that hinder women’s from managerial positions in the university.

Figure 5. Frequency of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Social Burden’

It is known that our society have negative attitude towards women ability which take part for low
participation of women on management position. Thus it results to low participation of women in
the university because society gives women low social status.

4.8.1.2 Lack of Power

According to 77.2% of the respondents, women had less power in the society that could limit
their decision making capacity (Table 12).

41
Table 12. Frequency of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Lack of Power’

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 24 7.9 7.9 7.9

Disagree 45 14.9 14.9 22.8

Agree 190 62.7 62.7 85.5

strongly agree 44 14.5 14.5 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

Hence women lack power to make decision which is critical for herself and her family members
too. As result, society allocate their resource to their male counterpart than women because of
their consideration that women can not fit decision making position rather male are capable on
decision making position.

4.8.1.3 Low Social Status

Women’s low social status in the community could also be another barrier that would make them
not to equally compete with men. This argument was also verified by 81.9% of the respondents
in the present study (Table 13).

42
Table 13. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Low Social Status’

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 16 5.3 5.3 5.3

Disagree 39 12.9 12.9 18.2

Agree 125 41.3 41.3 59.4

strongly agree 123 40.6 40.6 100.0

Sour

Total 303 100.0 100.0 ce:

Own
Survey

As stated in the above tables due to socio-cultural factor women has low social status hence it
results to they lack power in decision making.

4.1.5.1.4 Less Allocation of Resources

73.3% of the respondents agreed that within the society less resource were allocated to empower
women as compared to men (Figure 6).

43
Figure 6. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Less Allocation of
Resource’

Due to socio cultural factor women face less allocation of resource by their family. In
any ethnic group in Africa a typical woman has low status particularly lack of power to
make decisions on matters affecting her life those of her family. This culturally
determined expectation attitude towards the girl child influences less allocation of
resources towards the girl as compared to the boys. A boy will always be
considered first before a girl. This gender biased cultural assumption the subsequent
differential treatment of boys girls in a homestead not only diminish girls’ access
performance in the education but also tend to push girls to doing the so called
‘feminine careers’(as cited in Mbugua, 2007) .

44
As result it makes women to feel that they are in capable of position which require decision
making due to the impact of negative socio cultural attitude.

4.8.2 Organizational culture

Table 14. Organizational culture variables (a-values, b-realities, c-symbols, d-rituals)

Values

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 6 2.0 2.0 2.0

Disagree 31 10.2 10.2 12.2

Agree 202 66.7 66.7 78.9

strongly agree 64 21.1 21.1 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

a)

Realities

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 14 4.6 4.6 4.6

Disagree 22 7.3 7.3 11.9

Agree 226 74.6 74.6 86.5

strongly agree 41 13.5 13.5 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

b)

45
Symbols

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 14 4.6 4.6 4.6

Disagree 50 16.5 16.5 21.1

Agree 193 63.7 63.7 84.8

strongly agree 46 15.2 15.2 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

c)

Rituals

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 14 4.6 4.6 4.6

Disagree 36 11.9 11.9 16.5

Agree 211 69.6 69.6 86.1

strongly agree 42 13.9 13.9 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

d)
Source: Own Survey

It is important factor for the participation of women in decision making position. Thus
organizational culture which gives positive value for the employee of the institution can use the
potential of its employee to achieve the goal of the organization. Hence organization should have
values, symbols, rituals and realities which encourage women to increase their participation as
well as to use their capacity in decision making. As result Arbaminch university should create
such organizational cultural rather than only following civil service rule which is Affirmative
action.

More over organizational culture should generate values, which support the great majority
of organizations, thus define success, often include money, power and status. The

46
corresponding behaviors include working long hours putting in face time (as proxies for
productivity), competitiveness a willingness to put work above all else. These values behaviors,
which some authors define as being masculine, have come to dominate organizations for
historical socio-economic reasons but are increasingly being challenged by women, many men,
who want to 'work to live' rather than 'live to work (cited in Mbugua 2007).

4.8.3 Work Place Policies (Lack of Policies or Policy Gap)

Workplace policies often reinforce and clarify standard operating procedure in a workplace.
They are manifested by childcare, breastfeeding; flexible working hours and part-time work
Majority of the respondents in the present study have agreed that there was organizational policy
gap which could hinder women’s participation in managerial positions (Table 15).

Table 15. Workplace Policies variables (a-childcare, b-breastfeeding, c-flexible working

hours,part-time work)

a) Childcare

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 18 5.9 5.9 5.9

Disagree 60 19.8 19.8 25.7

Agree 117 38.6 38.6 64.4

strongly agree 108 35.6 35.6 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

b) Breastfeeding

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 16 5.3 5.3 5.3

Disagree 70 23.1 23.1 28.4

Agree 113 37.3 37.3 65.7

strongly agree 104 34.3 34.3 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

47
c) Flexible Working Hours

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 10 3.3 3.3 3.3

Disagree 84 27.7 27.7

Agree 156 51.5 51.5 82.5

strongly agree 53 17.5 17.5 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

d) Part-time Work

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 28 9.2 9.2 9.2

Disagree 114 37.6 37.6 46.9

Agree 126 41.6 41.6 88.4

strongly agree 35 11.6 11.6 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

Source: Own Survey

Moreover it is known that women have the ability to perform dual activity both formal work and
family responsibility as well. Hence the institution should have work place policy which allows
women to meet both family and formal work responsibility through creating flexible working
environment, part time work and meeting the need of women for breastfeeding and child care.

Mbugua (2007) describes that pregnancy is a workplace issue that starts well before conception
and ends long after birth. It is impossible to separate pregnancy and family responsibilities.
Anecdotal evidence suggests assumptions that women will resign when they have children are
still widespread and continue to form the basis for not hiring women among some employers.
Large number of women report significant difficulties when they return to work due to the lack
of supportive policies and practices in workplace. Issues like childcare, breastfeeding, flexible
working hours and part-time work are still very current issues for most working women.

48
4.8.4 Discrimination in Appointments (Unfavorable or unfair treatment due to gender on
female)
Discrimination refers to partiality or unfair treatment. It is cognizant that women discrimination
can be occur during recruiting job evaluation, promotion policies implementation, training,
compensation and disciplinary action. Thus, in the present study majority of the respondents
have disagreed that all the above factors were not practically experienced in the university (Table
16)

Table 16. Discrimination in Appointments variables (a-discrimination during hiring, b-job

evaluation, c-promotion policies, d-training, e-compensation, f-disciplinary action)

Discrimination during hiring

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid 0 4 1.3 1.3 1.3

strongly disagree 30 9.9 9.9 11.2

Disagree 222 73.3 73.3 84.5

Agree 33 10.9 10.9 95.4

strongly agree 14 4.6 4.6 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

a)
Job evaluation

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid 0 4 1.3 1.3 1.3

strongly disagree 24 7.9 7.9 9.2

Disagree 227 74.9 74.9 84.2

Agree 32 10.6 10.6 94.7

strongly agree 16 5.3 5.3 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

b)

49
Promotion policies

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid 0 4 1.3 1.3 1.3

strongly disagree 28 9.2 9.2 10.6

Disagree 133 43.9 43.9 54.5

Agree 121 39.9 39.9 94.4

strongly agree 17 5.6 5.6 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

c)
Training

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid 0 4 1.3 1.3 1.3

strongly disagree 20 6.6 6.6 7.9

Disagree 151 49.8 49.8 57.8

Agree 89 29.4 29.4 87.1

strongly agree 39 12.9 12.9 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

d)
Compensation

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid 0 4 1.3 1.3 1.3

strongly disagree 16 5.3 5.3 6.6

Disagree 168 55.4 55.4 62.0

Agree 95 31.4 31.4 93.4

strongly agree 20 6.6 6.6 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

e)

50
Disciplinary action

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid 0 4 1.3 1.3 1.3

strongly disagree 22 7.3 7.3 8.6

Disagree 239 78.9 78.9 87.5

Agree 25 8.3 8.3 95.7

strongly agree 13 4.3 4.3 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

f)

Source: Own Survey

There is a practice which discriminates women participation from decision making position.
Therefore women do experience a strong gender bias when being evaluated for promotions
on both their level of performance as well as their potential impact. Research within professional
group describes that women have to significantly work harder to be perceived as equally
competent as men (Lyness & Heilman, 2006). However from the data collected in Arbaminch
University it is responded that there is no discrimination in promotion but some decision making
position are given through recommendation by managers.

Moreover, there are assumptions about women’s ambitions and abilities. It described that women
do not excel sufficiently in their career due to assumptions on women’s ambitions such as
women having less ambition and a lesser for institution commitment due to family responsibility
(research by Development Dimensions International,2009).

4.8.5 Gender Stereotype

Gender stereotypes are over-generalizations about the characterstics of an entire group based on
gender. In this study it was defined as general belives about the characterstics and qualities that
demonstrated men were generally perceived as more competent than women. Thus with respect
to being more expressive, communal and less confident majority of the respondents have agreed
on these factors as barriers to women to involve in managerial positions in the university (Table
17).

51
Table 17. Gender stereotype variables (a-more expressive, b-communal, c-less confident)

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 14 4.6 4.6 4.6

Disagree 30 9.9 9.9 14.5

Agree 85 28.1 28.1 42.6

strongly agree 174 57.4 57.4 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

a) More expressive

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 8 2.6 2.6 2.6

Disagree 20 6.6 6.6 9.2

Agree 99 32.7 32.7 41.9

strongly agree 176 58.1 58.1 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

b) Communal

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid strongly disagree 16 5.3 5.3 5.3

Disagree 32 10.6 10.6 15.8

Agree 134 44.2 44.2 60.1

strongly agree 121 39.9 39.9 100.0

Total 303 100.0 100.0

c) Less Confident

Source: Own Survey

52
Gender stereotypes can be described as the characteristics, attitudes, values and behaviors
that society specifies as appropriate for the particular gender (as cited in Ginige, 2007).

Gender stereotypes has consistently demonstrated that men are generally seen as more agent and
more competent than women, while women are seen as more expressive and communal
than men. So that makes women less confident on their work and achievement, as well as unable
to express themselves freely as men (Collins and Singh, 2006; Sikdar and Mitra, 2008).

4.9 Strategies for women better achievement on management positions

4.9.1 Qualification
According to 90.8% of the respondents being qualified to fit in a certain managerial position was
one of the major strategies for women (Figure 7). Thus, good educational background would be
inevitable.

Figure 7. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Qualification’

Educational opportunity for women plays a significant role for women enhancement to compete
in all position. Hence, women should have upgrade themselves through education to fit on the
required qualification because Women participation indecision making play a significant role for
the advancement of women achievement, increase the qualification of women and to raise their
number. Thus, there should be strategy to encourage as well as to raise women participation in

53
decision making position. Because using potential resource for the attainment of institutional
goal is important. Thus women have ability to meet dual responsibility and they are considered
as transformational leaders. Hence they are democrat on sharing and accepting the idea of their
colleague (Merchant, 2012).

Furthermore it is described that women have a different management style which can bring
benefits to the organization. In her view, women are more inclined to take a fresh
perspective, identify, what is not working and develop new solution (as cited in Collins &
Singh, 2006).

More over an interview with human resource director described “that during on the competition
of vacant decision making position there is requirement to promote into decision making position
most women who apply for those positions are not qualifying due to educational gap both in
administrative as well as academic position. She also added that we can see that there is no PhD
holder women from academic staff and only 2 Masters degree holder women from administrative
staff. Hence this and other negative factor hindering women from competing in leadership
position.”

Additionally an interview with gender office director: “most of time the issue related with female
student is their major concern but their role in changing women attitude through training play
important role to raise women in decision making position. However last year the office prepared
training to develop women attitude in that they can be able to compete in any leadership position
as well as in creating awareness about leadership. Thus it requires high intention to raise women
awareness and the office take action in order to support women who can compete and fit
leadership position”.

4.9.2 Political support

Political commitment of the government to support women could also brought significant change
in women’s involvement in managerial positions. Similarly, 66% of the respondents have agreed
on this matter (Figure 8).

54
Figure 8. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Political Support’
There is also another issue to be addressed in order to increase women participation in all
decision making position, government also should arrange political support in addition with
affirmative action through allowing institution to follow their own strategy in order to increase
qualified women for managerial position.

4.9.3 Family Background

Family could play a major role in shaping women to make them self-confident as well as god
leaders. However, in the present study only 46.2% of the respondents have agreed on this matter
(Figure 9).

Figure 9. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Family Backgorund’

55
Family also play significant role for the success of any women through encouraging, supporting
and facilitating required resource for future empowerment of women.

4.9.4 Women Networking

58.1% of the respondents mentioned that women networking were also important input to
achieve managerial positions in the university (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Women Networking’

Women networking play significant role through developing bond between women to exchange and
promotion of information and ideas, accelerating ones acquisition of skills and knowledge experience .

4.9.5 Affirmative action

Majority (79.2%) of the respondents have agreed that affirmative action’s should have existed in
order to promote women to managerial positions in the university (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Percentage of respondents with regards to the variable ‘Affirmative Action’

56
More over in encouraging women participation in leadership through training and awareness
creation affirmative action also play a significant role in raising number of women. Hence in the
university it is clearly stated that to give affirmative action at promotion time for women
employee, however it is not applicable in all level of managerial position due to that some of the
academic as well as administrative positions were given through recommendation. Hence, it has
negative impact on women to have equal opportunity as their counterpart. If it is applicable in
all position woman has equal educational background and experience, the women will get
5(five) additional points; and if they get equal point women get priority.

4.10 Effectiveness of women on management position

Regarding effectiveness of women’s on management positions in the university,5.3 %, 50.2 %,
and 44.6% of the respondents have replied as highly effective, moderately effective and less
effective, respectively (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Percentage of respondents with regard to the variable ‘Effectiveness of women in
managerial position’

57
In collection of data regarding women manager effectiveness and efficiency it is described that
women are efficient and effective in their assigned field of work ,because in addition to their
skill women have good attribute such as respectful, supportive and more democratic in their
leadership style (transformational leadership) which enables them to handle the work on the
desired way.

58
CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of findings

The summary of this study is from the findings which obtained from both primary and secondary
source in order to assess the factor which affect women participation in management position in
Arbaminch University .Its conducted from reference of data towards current as well as past
condition of women participation in decision making in relation to national as well as
international women policy with the university practices.

Based on the major findings, there is summery below which drawn from the above findings.
Arbaminch university has 4714 employees from the total of 1324 academic staff 1175,149 male
and female where as from 3418 administrative staff 1572,1846 male and female. However
women participation from lower to top managerial position is only (26)17.8% which indicates
insignificant involvement of women in all level of managerial position. There should be strategy
to encourage as well as to raise women participation in decision making position. Because using
potential resource for the attainment of institutional goal is important. Thus women have ability
to meet dual responsibility and they are considered as transformational leaders. Hence they are
democrat on sharing and accepting the idea of their colleague (Merchant, 2012).

It is identified that there are factors for low participation of in leadership position in the
university; which are lack of recommendation, lack of delegation, educational gap, socio-
cultural attitude, male dominancy and lack of information are the major ones that hinder
women employee’s from moving up to top decision making position in the company.

Additionally when the number of women low in decision making position, it results to gender
gap in leadership and because when the number of women in managerial position low it has
negative impact for the women who can compete in decision making position. Thus having role
model women in managerial position helps the other women by developing their confidence and
capability. However in Arbaminch University the number of women in decision making is very
low. Hence it may discourage the interest of other women who can fit managerial position. It
also results to the negative achievement of institutional as well as national goal. Therefore

59
women can play significant role for the growth and development program of the nation because
women are important resource of the nation.

More over due to low participation of women in managerial position most decision made in one
angle (male part). Hence women are few in decision making position it may cause lack of
confidence for women in managerial position as well as women who can compete in managerial
place since having equal opportunity in decision making position play a significant for women in
managerial position as well as women outside from managerial position.

In addition to that giving decision making position by recommendation and delegating male
employee cause negative impact for the advancement of women leadership confidence for
managerial position. However in Arbaminch University it’s common that recommending and
delegating male employee than women is common. It results for women consider themselves as
in capable to compete in decision making position. However educational gap between male and
women in university is wide but encouraging women can play significant role in enhancement of
women to compete in leadership position.

Finally from the finding that women participation in managerial position plays significant role
for the achievement of university goal, for the advancement of women competency and equality.
Thus the university should attain gender mainstreaming in order increase women participation
and to enhance them to be competent for all managerial position. Since women’s endowed to
implement transformational leadership style and they are, more democrat in their managerial
skill. So the university should use this resource for the achievement of university goal.

5.2 Conclusion
Based on the result of the study numbers of women in academic and administrative wing in
university are involved in the other profession than decision making position due to several
factors. However difference in educational status between male and women brought significant
change in the participation of decision making position. It is known that the prior concern during
promotion as well as competition of vacant place in the university dependent in implementing
merit based recruitment technique without including the position which has been given by the
recommendation of managers. Because of difference in educational status of women and male
staff mostly women could not qualify high managerial position in academic managerial position

60
of university. More over in addition to educational gap women with better experience in
university are very few. Thus to enhance existing women both in administrative and academic
staff special consideration should be given to women in different method.

In addition to educational status there are other factors which have been hinder women from the
participation of decision making position those, are socio cultural attitude, male dominancy,
delegation, dual responsibility and organizational culture. The other factor most decision made
by male managers since decision making positions are hold by male manger, it may have impact
in women when decision are made because the decision may be made by the angle of male.
Therefore it creates negative image in minds of women who are in leadership position and the
overall women staffs of the University. Hence it results to women lack confidence and
motivation to express their idea freely.

More over affirmative action which given by civil service should not be the only for
enhancement of women for leadership position .Thus special concern should be given for women
stuff of the university through providing educational opportunity to raise their qualification in
addition to that gender office of the university can also play significant role by providing training
opportunity to develop women confidence and to increase their capability.

As result the university should implement alternative strategy to motivate women in managerial
position and women who are in other profession.

5.3 Recommendation
Based on the findings of this study the following recommendations are made for the
improvement of current practice.

The university should apply participative approach

In order to increase the participation of women in managerial position the university should
develop participative strategy which is unique like quota system which can be better
organizational culture to enhance their participation.

Moreover there should be consideration of gender issues in educational opportunity since women
have been victimized by socio cultural attitude in the past as well as in the present time. So that

61
they become competent in all profession and it also develops their confidence to participate in all
decision making position.

Implementation of Affirmative action in senior management position

It play significant role in the favor of women by providing special concern for women. Given the
past disadvantage experienced by women in most sectors of our society, it is necessary that they
are given the opportunities that culture and traditions have deprived them .So the university
should represent women at all levels on managerial position , because some of senior managerial
position in university have been given through recommendation. Thus women can participate in
the position which can add value for the achievement of university goal through women
involvement in allocation of fund, research awards, establishing promotion criteria and support
facilities of the university.

The university should also give great emphasis to bring women in leadership and decision
making position because women’s empowerment is a human right issue that lies at the heart of
development and the achievement of the MDGs

Elimination of gender stereotypes from the collective conscience

Arbaminch University should generate positive attitude in its staff and the society at all. Thus
women can play significant role in the achievement of desired goal like their male counterpart.
It’s impossible to relegate one group of society to traditional roles which are no longer viable for
national development. Women can play significant role for goal achievement of the university.
Hence the university should use this resource for better achievement and to encourage other
women to enhance their participation in decision making position.

More over institutional attitudinal climate needs to be made conducive for women. Attitudes of
senior academic and administrative staff must change. It is described by different author that
women have transformational leadership approach; hence they are democrat in their leadership
style and it is also known that women can meet dual responsibility effectively because of their
natural endowment.

62
Provide legislative and infrastructure support for women

There should be legislation and infrastructure to encourage women and to provide additional
support to enhance women, because women employee should be seen by two angles as a mother
and as wives. To implement this reasonable provision of maternity leave, and childcare centers
within the university necessary, thus encouraging women through different method results to
efficient use of potential resource of the nation. Hence the institution should allocate resource in
women to enhance existing women in managerial position and to encourage other women who
are not in managerial position.

Special training programs for women

Training is necessary to equip women with skills of management. This will go a long way in
changing the way women perceive themselves and gives them confidence in their own capacity
Providing training opportunity for women in managerial position and for other employee who
are not in managerial position is necessary to equip them with skills of management. Thus it play
an important role in changing the way women perceive themselves and gives them confidence in
their own capacity to be effective leaders. These should be given by the coordination of gender
office with other concerned bodies through encouraging women to attend conferences,
workshops, and other short courses to widen their knowledge, skills, and attitudes. There for the
existence of gender office in university can allow the university to utilize its potential resource
effectively for the achievement of goal of the institution.

Gender office should play its vital role as its establishment objective that gender should not be a
barrier to be in higher positions and exert its effort to enhance women participation at managerial
position. In addition to that women should be confident enough to claim the top position if they
are competent and should participate in women networking to develop their confidence.

63
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Appendix
Arba Minch University

College of Business and Economics

Department of Management

Questionnaire: Assessment of factors affecting women participation on management position: in the case
of Arba Minch University’

Dear Respondent,

I am pursuing my graduate study in the field of Masters of Business Administration (MBA) in the department
of management, Arba Minch University. Currently, i am conducting my thesis work on ‘Assessment of factors
affecting women participation on management position: in the case of Arba Minch University’. Coincidently,
you are become one of the respondents selected to participate in this study. Thus, I humbly request you to take
your time and answer all the questions included in this questionnaire. Your honest and genuine responses will
have mammoth contribution towards the success of my study. Finally, I would like to assure that the
information that you will share will be kept confidential and only used for academic purpose.
Thank you in advance for your positive cooperation!

I. Respondent Background
1. Gender:
 Male  Female
2. Age
 Below 25  25 – 30  31 – 40  41- 60  Above 61
3. Marital Status
 Married  Single  Divorced  Windowed  Separated
4. Educational status
 12 grade complete  Certificate  Diploma  Degree  Masters and above
5. How long you have been working in the university?________________________________
6. What is your position in university?_______________________________________________
II. General Question
1. Do you think that the numbers of women in managerial positions are few as compared to men in the
university?
 Yes  No

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2. If yes, what is the reason? (Multiple responses are possible).
 Lack of recommendation.
 Lack of delegation (both men & women managers are mostly delegating men rather than women employee)
 Educational gap
 Socio-cultural attitudes
 Lack of women confidence & unable to express themselves.
 Male dominancy
 Due to double responsibility
 Lack of information
 Other. Please specify____________________________________________________
3. Do agree that there is gender discrimination regarding promotion in the university?

 Strongly Agree  Agree  Disagree  Strongly Disagree

4. If you agreed that there is gender discrimination regarding promotion in the above question, do you think it
could have impact in creating gender gap in leadership?

 High Impact  Moderate Impact  Low Impact  No Impact

5. Is there any affirmative action used by the university to support women for promotion?  Yes  No

6. If ‘yes’ for the above question, is it applicable to all positions (such as managers and officers)?

 Yes  No

7. If no, what is the reason behind it? __________________________________________ ____________

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8. What are the major barriers that hinder women’s from managerial position in general? (4=Strongly Agree,
3= Agree, 2= Disagree, 1= Strongly Disagree)

8.1 Social factor/Cultural Factor

 Social Burden 4 3 2 1

 Lack of power 4 3 2 1

 Low social status 4 3 2 1

 Less allocation of resources 4 3 2 1

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8.2 Organizational Culture

 Values 4 3 2 1

 Realities 4 3 2 1

 Symbols 4 3 2 1

 Rituals 4 3 2 1

8.3 Work place Policies (Lack of polices or policy gap)

 Childcare 4 3 2 1

 Breastfeeding 4 3 2 1

 Flexible working hours 4 3 2 1

 Part-time work 4 3 2 1

8.4 Discrimination in Appointments (Unfavorable or unfair treatment due to sex on female (answered
by women only)

 Discrimination during hiring/recruiting 4 3 2 1

 Job evaluation 4 3 2 1

 Promotion Policies 4 3 2 1

 Training 4 3 2 1

 Compensation 4 3 2 1

 Disciplinary Action 4 3 2 1

8.5 Gender Stereotype (these are generalized believes about the characteristics, qualities, and
demonstrated that men are generally seen as more agent and more competent than women while women
are:-)

 More expressive 4 3 2 1
 Communal (breastfeeding, childcare, …) 4 3 2 1
 Less confident 4 3 2 1

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8.6 If other, please specify-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

9. In your opinion, how do women achieve top positions in the university? (Multiple responses are possible)

 Qualification

 Political support

 Family background

 Women's networking

 Affirmative action

 Other, Specify) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

10. What do you think about the employers’ and subordinates’ present attitude towards women managers?

 Strongly positive  Positive  I don’ t know  Strongly negative  Negative

11. From your experience, what do you suggest, to increase the number of women in management position?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12. Do you think women’s at managerial positions in the university are effective? (4=Highly effective, 3=
Moderately Effective, 2= Less Effective, 1= Not Effective)

4 3 2 1

13. Based on your experience, do you have any additional information about women in management, which is
not mentioned above? If so, please specify

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Home Life Style Question (Answered by women only)

1. How many family members do you have?---------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Are you more responsible for your family member?  Yes  No

3. If yes, did your responsibility affect your job? How? Please specify-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. If no, are you satisfied with your relationship?  Yes  No

5. Does your family problem interfere with your job?  Yes  No

6. Have you had any problem with your family when you are late to come home, dedicating more time to
office, going abroad…?  Yes  No

7. Do you think being a women manager is harder for you to prove your ability, to show what you have done
or to convince people?  Yes  No

Interview checklist for gender office

1. Do you think that women are equal in number with men in managerial position in the
university? if it is not equal, which one is getting more position and why?
2. What is the impact of gender gap in leadership due to an imbalance of leadership in the
university?
3. What are the major barriers that hinder women from moving up to the decision making
position?
4. Does the office have any contribution to enhance the contribution of women to top
management level?

Interview Checklist for Human Resource Officer

1. Does the university have any criteria that used for promotion purpose in the managerial
position?

72
2. Does the university maintain any rules or procedure to ensure women’s participation in
leadership position?
3. What are the major barriers that hinder women from moving up to the decision making
position?
4. What are the most important things or strategy that the university considers for ensuring
women’s participation in managerial position?

73