CHAPTER II

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

OF KARNATAKA IN 12TH CENTURY.

The period of 12th century in Karnataka was characteized by a deeply

caste ridden society, in which religion was used by priests, landlords and the

using as a tool of oppression. Practices like untouchability and gender

inequality in the name of devadasi and sati system were prevalent.

Superstition and blind following of ritual were thus common. It was in such

conditions that the Virasaiva Movement was born in the name of equality,

individual freedom and communitarian commitment. Basaveshwara, the

leader of the Virasaiva religion-cultural movement, who occupied an important

position in Bijjala's court, found himself constantly in conflict with arrangement

of the temple and the gift system. His protest against the problems of society

was expressed through religion, through which he tried to establish a new

society free from the irrational notions of discrimination on the basis of caste,

class or sex. Basaveshwara was called Martin Luther of Karnataka. He lived

eight hundred years ago but his thoughts continue to influence many people.

He was not only the founder of a religion but also a socio-economic reformer.

He was called the father of Emancipation of Woman.

28
R. N. Nandi mentioned that a better balanced historical perspective

shows that the origins of this revolutionary faith are easily traceable to the

conflict ridden socio-religious, economic conditions of the twelfth century

Karnataka.1

Social conditions.

The social life in the Chalukya period centered around the village. As

the principal occupation of the people was the cultivation of land, their

settlements were naturally in the country. It appears that like all agricultural

settlements in ancient time, these villages too were divided into three parts;

the village proper, the arable land and the pasture.

Information about the social life is indeed scanty. Polygamy was known

and practiced. Several eastern Chalukyas monarchs had more than one wife.

The nobles and the wealthy people probably followed the example of their

rulers. Concubinage appears to have been popular. Inscriptions frequently

refer to the gifts made by the lanja-pendlams or ‘mistress-wives’ of several

chiefs to temples. The existence of courtesans in large numbers attached to

the courts of the king and nobles as well as the innumerable temples in the

land must have fostered its growth and encouraged people to form irregular

unions with members of the community without social opprobrium. Instance of

regular marriage alliances with the courtesans were not unknown.

29
Social life was carried on traditional lines modified by the pressure of

new factors and situations. Caste was universal and hereditary, but the

connection between caste and occupation was by no means unalterable. As

usual, our sources have preserved more details about the higher strata of

society, while information about the life of the common people finds

comparatively little place in them. The pre-12th century CE Hindu society was

divided into many castes and classes. The Brahmins and the Mahajans

(controller of Agraharas) ruled the society. The society was divided into four

Varnas, Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. The first three categories

got every privilege in the society but the Sudras had no authority in any field.

The Sudra was considered as Holiyas or Untouchable. The women also did

not get any respect in society. She had no right of religious worship. Without

religious rites she had no position in society or any way to get economic

rights. “Free interaction among the castes and classes was restricted and the

rules regarding inter-dining and inter-marrying were rigid. Ideas of superiority

and inferiority of castes and creeds predominated while determining the social

status of individuals and women were not considered on par with them.”

Among the ashramas that is, the stages of life, that of the grihastha (house

holder) acquired early the highest recognition as the mainstay of social life,

and it continued to retain this place up to our own times. One verse from an

inscription at Nagai in praise of General Kalidasa as a householder is typical

30
and may be cited. His life as a householder was the purest in the world, and

his dutiful soul was ever engaged in satisfying brahmanas, performing

sacrifices, worshipping gods, propitiating the line of his ancestors, honoring

the guests who came and observing all the rites famous in the world and in

scripture as daily duties or as those prescribed for particular occasions. 2

The Brahmanical society divided the human functions into good and

bad work. In the name of God, the priest plundered the common people for

his selfish purpose. The high caste people treated the Sudras as below the

animals. The Sudras had no religious rights and their status in the society

degenerated. The individual person's capability was counted not on the basis

of merit but on the basis of caste or birth, with the result that man power was

wasted. In this period the temples kept public women or Devadasis attached

to the temples. Brahmins, who were in charge of the temples, were apparently

responsible for this degrading practice of Devadasi. This system also got the

patronage of the landlords and rulers. In this society the rigidity of caste

system, social instability, Kapalikas and Kalamukhas encouraged bigotry and

rivalry took place. Magic became the fashion. The awakening of a sense of

self-identity and rational thinking in the Sudras would have been fatal to their

dominance and exploitations.3

31
The brief picture of the social conditions given above shows that the

existing society was marked by meaningless practices and it totally degraded

and demoralized the normal and spiritual life of common man and woman.'

Religious Conditions.

The temple was the nucleus of all socio-religious activities. Hundreds if

inscriptions of the period record munificent grants made to them by the people

in general. The period also witnessed a great deal of temple building activity.

Man officials of the State, besides the king and members of the royal

household, took pride in constructing temples.

This leads us to review the religious conditions during the period of

study. Though Buddhism was almost extinct from the region, it may be

interesting to note that (perhaps hue to the policy of religious toleration

adopted by the kings) here and there existed followers of this religious creed

also. The religions practiced in Karnataka during this period were Jainism

Buddhism, Vaishnavism and Saivism. But the two important religions of the

period were Jainism and Saivisin and both of them received royal patronage,

though slowly, Jainism became weaker in its influence towards the closing

years of the Chalukya rule. “These religions no doubt have contributed to the

growth of the cultural heritage of Karnataka, but they divided the society into

many sects and these innumerable sects were following their own principles

and created confusion in the minds of people. Hence in their later stages, the
32
religions had become mere a form without function, a mere shell without the

spirit”4

Jainism got the patronage of kings like the Gangas, Kadambas,

Rastrakutas and Chalukyas of Kalyan. But under the last rulers of Kalyana

(Chalukyas), Jains lost their position. As Jainism started fading, Saivism

gained popularity. However, rivalry between different sects of Saivism did not

help society or religion in majority.

Buddhism also existed in Karnataka but “Buddhism never occupied the

same prominent place, which Jainism did, in the history of Karnataka, but it

did occupy a much bigger place than is usually supposed. Asoka was the first

to introduce Buddhism into Karnataka. Recently some stupas with Prakrit

inscriptions have been discovered in the Gulbarga district, which show that

Asoka's missionary work had borne fruit. By the time of Hieun ‘tsang' there

were one hundred Buddhist monasteries in the kingdom of the Chalukyas of

Badami”.5 Thus, Banavasi was the earliest center of Buddhism. Buddhist

Viharas are found at Bagewadi in Belgaum, Dambal and Kolivad in Dharwad

district were other Buddhist centers of the period. It was the vajrayana or the

Tantric sect of Buddhism that was prevalent there; it was also a cause of

decline Buddhism in Karnataka. Buddhism lost its status because of its laxity

in matters of food and drink and change of their life style as well as the

division in Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana. Thus, Buddhism also

33
became unintelligible to the masses. There were temples dedicated to

goddess Tara.

Vaishnavism was also one of the popular religions practiced in

Karnataka. But, “Shrivaishnavism propagated by Ramanujacharya was

becoming slowly popular during the first half of the twelfth century. He was

from Tamil Nadu who had taken shelter in Karnataka after being persecuted

by the Cholas in his homeland. He converted king Vishnuvardhana of the

Hoysalas (in about 1033 C.E), who gave this religion a sound footing in his

kingdom.”6

Patronage to Vaishnavism resulted in building temples to Vishnu and

his incarnations-Rama, Krishna, etc, but in the Deccan and Karnataka, for five

centuries, the Vaishnavas had nothing to show in comparison with Virupaksa

at Pattadakal, the Kailas at Ellora or Mahadeva at Ittagi, till we come across

the temples in Belur in the 12th century CE. The Vaishnava sect mainly

preached the principles such as truth and nonviolence. It was famous for its

sacrificial rituals and represented the supremacy of Brahmans. The Sudras

were not allowed to learn even one single word of the holy Vedas and they

were never able to attain salvation. This religion was also a temple centered

one but it did not allow the Sudras and Untouchables to enter the temples.

“Within a span of two centuries i.e, from 1150 to 1350 CE in the history

of Karnataka, Saivism witnessed construction of at least 450 temples and

34
Vaishnavism roughly some 100 temples. These impressive figures testify to

the existence of a keen competition in temple-building between the major

religious groups of the period”.7

The tenth-twelfth century in Karnataka was a period of temple building

and donation par excellence. Especially notable are the Shiva temples built in

this period and now surviving in the district of Dharwar, Chitradurga and

Shimoga.8 Saivism is one of the oldest religions in Karnataka. Karnataka

became the scene of great temple-building activity dedicated to Saivism. The

followers of this sect flourished in all parts of the country.

Most predomination of all, however, was Saivism, which had several

sects. Saivism, is a very broad term, which includes many sects, the names of

which are well recorded in inscriptions and literary texts. These sects were,

Saiva Pasupata, Kalamukha, and Kapalika. The Kapalikas invoked Shiva in

his horrifying form of Bhairava. Lokalisha Pasupata, which had a large

following Karnataka, had much in common with another sect called

Kalamukha. The most common ritual observed by the followers of this sect

was the worship of Shivalinga, enshrined in temples. Ingaleshwar, Bagewadi,

Srisaila, Ballegavi and Huli were prominent strongholds of Kalamukha

teachers.

In the religious sphere Vaishnavism and Saivism were ridden with worn

out traditions and rituals which had lost their real values and were observed
35
only mechanically without any faith. Devotion to god had turned out to be an

exhibition of ritualistic pomp. Temples were built in great numbers no doubt.

But even they were a display of devotion and pomp by the ‘haves’. The high

or low status of individuals was judged not so much by their merit and actions

as by their birth in a particular caste or community. Discrimination stood in the

way of treating men and women as equal.

Matha invoked Shiva in his horrifying form of Bhairava. A Matha (also

written Math, Matha or Mutt) is a term for monastic and similar religious

establishments of the Hindu and Jain traditions. A Matha is usually more

formal, hierarchical and rule-based than an ashram. Mathas were also

important places of religions. A local committee fulfilled the needs of the

Matha in its traditional chore of temple management including daily worship.

The Gurus or Acharyas were religious preceptors as well as guardians of the

religion and culture. The system was ideologically underpinned by the belief

that, donations and gifts offered to the monasteries and temples earned

spiritual merit for the donor. It was a measure of the powerful role of this

ideology in contemporary society that, on an average, for every ten villages,

there was least one monastic temple complex.9

The Kalamukha priestly class was skilled in Yoga and well-versed in

Vedic lore. In general, they upheld and continued the Brahmanical religious

and cultural tradition and rigid ritualism. Superstition affected the body-chore
36
of the society, which slowly lost cohesion. The rigid, self-imposed caste

distinction made free interiority marred reason. Even among individual castes,

distinctions based on economic status created social gaps.

The Pasupata cult was popularized in Karnataka by the teachers who

belonged to this school. They were erudite scholars well versed in many

branches of knowledge. They got constructed temples, established

monasteries and administered as heads of these religious establishments.

The sculptures of Lakulisa (Pasupata) are found at Ellora, Badami, Aihole,

Pattadakal and other places. The Saivite sects started to amass gifts of land

and gold. They also started the Devadasi system in the temples. They also

perpetuated the unethical and immoral practice of taking gifts of girls. In short,

their veniality became excessive.

While these were the dominant religions and cults, there were also

others, such as the Sakta cult and the cult of Kartikeya. Superstition was

rampant, and society, already divided on caste basis was further divided on

sectarian lines. All these cults undoubtedly helped add to the sculpture and

architecture of the region, but did not help society.

Thus, we find a religious environment characterized by immoral

behaviour, priestly greed and gross indulgence in material pleasure. These

religious sects totally exploited the common people mentally and spiritually.

This type of religion confused rather than helping them. The rise or birth of
37
any faith, which would give them hope of a better quality of spiritual and social

life, was found to be welcomed.

Political Conditions.

This was a period of mutual conflict among the existing powers, each

seeking constantly to extend its empire at the expense of its neighbours.

Under such circumstances, we notice the Chalukyas following the principle

that offence was the best defence. Hence, we find them, or their ministers,

governors and feudatories fighting in far-off lands and gaining victories.

Chalukyas of Kalyana had the good fortune of putting forth five great

warrior and statesman rulers of eminence in unbroken succession in Taila II,

Satyasraya, Jayasimha, Someshvara I and Vikramaditya VI. This advantage

raised its status, prestige and influence among the southern and northern

powers. As compared with the Rashtrakutas the victories won by the Later

Chalukyas on the fields of battle are not as resounding and dazzling as those

of the former. This has to be attributed to the changed political conditions and

not to the lack of military strength and leadership on the part of the latter.

Unlike in the past, forceful and ambitious dynasties viz., the Paramaras and

the Cholas, had now arisen as barriers on the northern and southern frontiers

of the Chalukyan dominions. This new political situation stood in the way of

the Chalukya monarchs pushing forth deep into the north and the south.

These disadvantages, however, were made good by securing advantages in

38
the east and the west. The Chalukyas scored spectacular victories in these

two quarters by their conquests in Vengi at one end and successes over the

Silaharas and the Kadambas at the other. Thus, they could claim the extent

of their sway over a broad stretch of land peninsular India lying between the

two seas. Therefore, it becomes imperative to understand and probe the

polity under the Chalukyas of Kalyana who had a supremacy over large parts

of South India over a considerable time in the history of Karnataka.

The crucial period in Karnataka history for Virasaivism is the period of

king Bijjala II of the Kalachuri dynasty (1100-1167 CE). When Bijjala was

ruling as a feudatory governor under the Chalukyas, Basaveshwara served

under him for over two decades, starting as an ordinary accountant and rising

to the high position of Treasury chief. Historical knowledge about Bijjala is

essential for a biographical study of Basaveshwara. In the history of the Later

Chalukyas, in the reign period of Taila III was a short interregnum during

which the Kalachuris usurped the Kalyani throne in about 1156 and ruled until

1183. By this time the Chalukyas had lost all their power and territory. Bijjala

the king of Kalachuri dynasty and feudatory chief of the Chalukya (of Kalyana)

usurped their kingdom. He exploited the blind beliefs and rituals of the people

for his own aim of strengthening and consolidating his political position and

power. He tried to legitimize his rule, as the political power was concentrated

in the hands of chief Gurus and Priests who controlled the temples. During

39
this period Vira Saivism started by Bijjala’s minister Basava became very

popular in Karnataka and it grew at the expense of Saivism and Vedic

Hinduism.10

Bijjala expanded his territory and political power in the name of religion.

He went to the extent of legitimizing his frequent invasions for territorial

aggrandizement. The feudal political order was successful in exploiting the

people and fulfilling its goals of expanding power. He even lent positive

support to the Brahmanical socio-religious arrangements of Varnashrama

dharma.

The period from 1076 to 1126 CE is described as prosperous and

peaceful, but as has been remarked. “A settled political condition in a country

may not be a proof of the progress and prosperity of the people. Political

conditions are shaped by moral and spiritual factors.”11 But, the latter half of

the 12th century saw increasing political instability. The mainstay of the

political stability was the close association of the upper castes and the ruling

class. The king and the priest were systematically strengthened by the

institutionalized co-operation of the administrative class of Mahajanas, who

governed the Brahman Agrahara. From the capital city to the remotest village,

this formidable combination of the king, the Brahman priest and the Mahajan

exercised virtually unlimited power over the lives and destinies of the common

40
people. It also provided the magico-spiritual infrastructure that forced the

ordinary people to suffer in silence and bear unhappy condition.12

The queens played an important part in the administration of the realm.

The Chalukyas entrusted the queens and other female members of the royal

family with the administration of territorial divisions. Inscriptions of this period

throw much light on the part played by queens in the administration of the

kingdom. However, examples of queens administering smaller units are more

numerous and quite usual. Some examples of queens, as heads of provinces,

are given in a later chapter. The queens promoted religion by constructing

temples and making endowments for their maintenance. The queens paid

much attention to education. They showered liberal patronage on teachers

and made gifts of land and money for the maintenance of centres of learning.

The queens showed untiring energy in establishing works of public utility.

Economic Conditions.

It is necessary to bear in mind the fact that Northern Karnataka was

dominated by poverty and that most of its population earned its precarious

livelihood through menial occupations of low social status. In the 12th century,

new occupational groups such as goldsmiths, oil-grinders, blacksmiths and

small traders also began to be included among the Sudras.

Thus, one finds that the socio-economic arrangement of the period

implied a sharp cleavage between the elite and the lowly. The rich enjoyed
41
various comforts, high prestige and status, whereas the poor working on the

lands they owned became the servants and victims of exploitation. The bulk of

the population was condemned to a condition of constant misery, injustice and

insecurity.

The whole socio-economic structure was such that it supported and

sustained the dominance of class, which was economically rich and politically

powerful. The economic situation supported the emergence of rich class and

the rulers to strengthen their political power. It has been pointed out that in

this period, the temple, the Mathas were the key institutions in the orgarization

and functioning of a society based on economic inequality, social injustice and

the spiritual degradation of the majority. The political economy of Karnataka in

the 11th and 12th centuries was dominated by these groups of feudal landlords

who were political rulers and their provincial officers, royal priests, the

Mahajans and Settis and small peasants and proprietaries".13 The Mahajanas,

in particular, gained political, social and economic power. Having control over

the temple, they were able to use its resources, material and power for

themselves.

In this system, the farmers, the common and the Sudras became the

victims of exploitation. Because of this economic system the bonded labour

system originated. The period saw creation of many Gods and Goddess. It cut

the root of true religion on and led them on wrong tracks. Hence, every
42
religion and sect had its own rules and code of conduct, and left little impact

on the minds and life of the common man.

In this critical situation, Virasaivism arose in the society to give a new

light to the commoners. Basaveshwara’s movement challenged the existing

social structures and tried to establish an ideal form of society where

everyone lived happily without discrimination on the basis of their sex, caste,

creed, class etc.

As a response to the challenges passed by the political, religious,

economic and social pressures and confusions of the time, “Virasaivism

emerged as a great protest movement against the irrational illogical and

inhuman practices pursued, preached and practiced by the orthodoxy".14

Basaveshwara struggled relentlessly to keep a balance between the life

of the spirit, and the demands of humanity, following spiritual direction and

path. He and his followers tried to build a welfare society, Kalyana Rajya, a

kingdom of God, which would continue spirituality, morality, and the human

material world.

The rise of Sri Basaveshwara (1132-1167 CE).

Basaveshwara was a great prophet, socio-economic, religious reformer.

He was also a great saint, revolutionary and great spirit (Mahatma). He spent

his whole life trying to give a good life to all the human beings without

considering caste, creed, class, sex, ritual and tradition. He spread social
43
awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas.

Basaveshwara used Ishtalinga, an image of the Siva Linga, to eradicate

untouchability, to establish Socio-economic equality among all human beings

and as a means to attain spiritual enlightenment. He is undoubtedly one of the

pioneer's of Indian Democracy. He created a model Parliament called the

“Anubhava Mantapa,” which gave not only equal proportion to men and

women, but also had representatives from different socio-economic

backgrounds. He was a man ahead of his time, who believed that conflict

should be resolved through debate and not violence. He advocated mercy

towards both humans and animals. 15

Basavanna (Basaveshwara) is also called ‘Vishwaguru’ because his

followers believed him to have been the first ever to know the practicality of

transcending to Godliness and demonstrating the technique of becoming God.

He spread the concept of the path of becoming God through four levels of

divinity that exists in one’s own body and soul – Unmanifest Chaitanya (Guru),

Manifest Chaitanya Shakti (Linga), consciousness of the manifest chaitanya

shakti in Prana (Jangama) and the Individual consciousness (Jeevatma/

Mind). Basaveshwara taught Sharanas, the technique of transcending the

mind with one's own Prana through Ishtalinga, Pranalinga and Bhavalinga

Saadhana. He preached that anybody in the world, irrespective of caste,

creed, merit, gender, nationality, etc., can transcend and become God by

44
being in union with prana. He himself declared that he is playing only the elder

brother's role and that is how the name Basavanna came to be. He is

popularly called Bhakti Bhandari (Champion of Devotion) or ‘Kranti Yogi’. The

key aspect of his preaching is a monotheistic concept of God.16

To know the life sketch of Basaveshwara the historical data is drawn

mainly from three sources; the poetic biography of Basaveshwara entitled

‘Basavaraja Devara Ragale’ by the reputed medieval Kannada poet Harihara;

the biography in the Puranic form entitled ‘Basava Purana’ by the Telugu

writer Palkurki Somanatha; and finally, Basaveshwara's own Vachanas. There

are also other sources like inscriptions, edicts, hagiographies and folk

traditions, as well as the vachanas of his contemporaries.

These sources show that Basaveshwara was probably born in 1132 CE

at Bagewadi situated presently in the Bijapur district of Karnataka. His parents

Madarasa or Madiraja and Madalambike were Brahmins belonging to Shukla

Yajurveda. Bagevadi was then a renowned Agrahara governed by an

assembly of five hundred Mahajans. Madiraja, Basaveshwara's father, was

the president of that assembly of Kalamukha Matha. At home, all Brahmanical

traditions were practiced.

Basaveshwara had his schooling at an early age. The lessons and

courses taught included more of sacred lore like the Vedas, Agamas, Epics,

Puranas and a few other disciplines such as lexicography, grammar and logic.
45
While undergoing training, rites and rituals had to be performed by the

students. Young Basaveshwara was placed in such an environment. His

sensitive mind reacted sharply to the conditions prevailing in the Agrahara.17

At the age of eight Basaveshwara's Upanayana (initiation ceremony)

was performed. This event was a turning point in his life. The Brahmanical

religion, its teachings and traditions aroused the latent spirit of inquiry and

revolutionary thoughts in his mind. He spent a few years in this state of mind.

When he attained his sixteenth year Basaveshwara discarded the Yajnopavita

(the sacred thread) which marked his allegiance and affiliation to the

Brahamanical order and thus broke away and rejected the age-old religious

traditions.16 After his father’s death, Basavanna’s Elder brother Devaraja was

denied the right of Gramani or post of mahajana this led to the migration of his

family. Consequently, Basaveshwara left his home for Kudala Sangama

(sangama or Kudala sangama is in Bagalkot district in Kamataka State).17

At Kudala Sangama, Basaveshwara had the good fortune of securing

Jataveda Muni also known as Eeshanya Guru as his guide who was perhaps

the first to recognize the greatness of Basava. At Sangama, Basaveshwara

concentrated his attention on Sangameshwara, the supreme God who was all

in all to him. He spent 12 years there at Kudala Sangama. His two aims or

goals were the need for spiritual attainment and religious and social

reformation. He began to regard everything as a worship of Shiva.18

46
It was at Kudala Sangama that his thought and struggle for the

establishing a welfare state was begun. This state or society was to comprise

the institutions of Guru, Linga and Jangama, the concepts of work as sacred,

the brotherhood, and equality of men and the interrelated ideals of individual

and social welfare. There, he conversed with scholars and Vachanakaras and

developed his spiritual and religious views in association with his societal

understanding. Among the various Vachanakaras Jedara Dasimaiah,

Madivala Machaiah, and Ambigara Chowdaiah (who had a forceful anti-

Brahmin views) made a strong influence on Basavanna. It was at Kudala

sangama that he developed a strong resentment towards Brahmana

orthodoxy.19

Basaveshwara left Sangama for Mangalavada (the modern

Managalavedhe in Sholapur district of Maharastra) about 1132 CE. It was the

time when Bijjala, the provincial vassal of the Kalyani Chalukya was involved

in the process of territorial expansion. Joining Bijjala’s services as a

secretarial functionary (or an accountant), Basaveshwara rose to become

chief officer of the Royal Treasury by 1141 CE. After this, Basaveshwara

married Gangambike and Neelambike. Accepting family responsibility, he also

showed to his followers the relevance of religion to worldly life. Basaveshwara

used his material wealth for feeding and sheltering the Jangamas, the

47
itinerant devotees of Shiva. Because of this his fame for piety and

munificence spread far and wide.20

He began to preach his social reform. A new community of ‘Veera

Shaivas’ or Heroic Saivas grew in Mangalavada. It rejected social inequality

based on, castes class and gender and it challenged orthodoxy. Thousands of

people came, mostly from the poor and downtrodden masses, and embraced

the teachings of Basaveshwara. Bijjala and his courtiers and other royal

members were against these new thoughts of Basaveshwara. The religion,

which he practiced and propagated, is called Veerasaivism. 'Veera' generally

means a brave or hero. Veerasaivism insisted that its followers should

develop single-minded devotion to one God, Shiva. This did not however,

mean that they should show disrespect to other gods. To them, Shiva is

supreme. The term ‘Veera’ also suggests the zeal with which the new

movement was propagated. The term Lingayata or Lingavanta is also used to

describe this religion. Lingayats are those who wear a Linga on their body.21

The seeds of Basaveshwara’s revolution took shape in Mangalavada

but they grew and bore fruit in Kalyana (now in Bidar district of Karnataka). In

the meantime, many drastic political changes took place in the state. Bijjala

usurped the Chalukya throne in CE 1162 and moved his capital from

Mangalavada to Kalyana. As a result, Basaveshwara also moved into Kalyana

and became the chief treasurer of the emperor. Subsequently with his
48
honesty, hard work and visionary mission, Basaveshwara rose to the position

of Prime Minister in the court of king Bijjala at Kalyana. Here, he established

the Anubhava Mantapa, a spiritual parliament, which attracted many saints

from throughout India.22

Basaveshwara was a great philosopher and an accomplished

organizer. Devotees from different places and regions came in large numbers

to meet him and attain enlightenment from him. Meetings, assemblies,

conferences and congregations were held frequently. Out of such activities

emerged, a spiritual organization the Anubhava Mantapa in about 1141 CE.

Here all people participated democratically without considering their birth.23

Kalyana now became the center of Basaveshwara's movement, earned

the name Kalyana of Basavanna and the Jangama devotees flocked around

him. His teachings and activities appealed to the spiritual seekers from

different parts of the country. Seekers of truth like Allama Prabhu,

Akkamahadevi, Siddharama, Moligeya Marayya, Madivala Machayya and

host of and many others visited Kalyana and set their stamp of approbation on

the spiritual activities going on there.24

The reactionist ministers and officials of Bijjala’s court started spreading

false rumors against Basavanna and disturbed the faith the king had in him.

Sevaral courtiers charged Basavanna of favouring persons of his own faith in

administration and the court, and charged complaint that the state treasury
49
was misappropriated. They raised furor that the state treasury was spent on

the daily Dasoha. Unfortunately, Bijjala and traditionalists began to lend ear

and began to doubt Basavanna and the sharanas.25

The fear that vachanakaras’ revolutionary faith spreading like a

hurricane, which would sweep off their Sanatana faith (religion) had unnerved

the reactionists. It was a question of life and death for them. In indignation and

consternation that if the sharanas’ socio-religious revolution is allowed to grow

like this thare is no survival for themselves, all of them together set out to

oppose it and complained to Bijjala.26

In this time two Virasaiva devotees in Kalyana namely Haralayya an

untouchable by birth Madhuvayya a Brahmin were friends. Madhuvayya

wanted to give his daughter in marriage to Haralayya's son. Basaveshwara

had given his consent to the marriage and the entire Veerasaiva community

was jubilant over it, lawgivers of that period forbade such a marriage. The

traditionalists saw in it as a terrible blow against on very pillars of their society.

Bijjala ordered Haralayya and Madhuvayya to stop the marriage but they

refused. The king lost his head, he summoned the two men and had their

eyes plucked out; after having them blinded, they were dragged to death in

the dust of the city streets (probably in 1167 CE).27

In the meanwhile, conspiracy and preparation for succession started

appearing in the royal household at about the same time, which divided the
50
feudatories and officers of the empire into two factions. The stir created

among the people of Kalyana by Basavanna’s Socio-religious reformist

movement gradually spread to politics as well. The anxiety that it would make

a prey of his household began to disturb the mind of the king. The

atmosphere at Kalyana raging thus, it must have been inevitable for him to

come to a decision. At first, he began to persuade Basavanna in a friendly

way to give up such anti-traditional, catastrophic acts. But to no avail, the

sharana community kept intensifying its movement. Ultimately, the

traditionalists and the king offered Basavanna two hard choices, to be loyal to

worldly customs, withdraw his movement and live happily in Kalyana or else

resign his post of and get out of the capital. This is what happened in world

history in such circumstances. Basavanna, who believed that even if one is

under pressure, mustn’t give up determinations and chose the later path i.e.,

departure from country.28

Basaveshwara left Kalyana for Kudala Sangama and died there. Shortly

after Bijjala the king, also died in the same year (probably 1167 CE). After

Bijjala's death, Basaveshwara's followers left Kalyana and scattered in

different directions. Most of the elder sharanas do not seem to have had any

political relation with Bijjala. They may not have immediately gone out of

Kalyana. Chenna Basavana, Madivala Machideva, Sodala Bacharasa,

Moligeya Marayya, Rudra Munideva, Padihari Uttanna and the like might have

51
stayed for sometime at Kalyana to arrange to send out safely innumerable

Shivabhaktas. One prominent section of the devotees under the leadership of

Chennabasavanna, the nephew of Basaveshwara, reached Ulavi, some to

Srisaila and others to other parts of Karnataka. Vijayanagara rulers later on

encouraged the Virasaiva moment. In the opinion of scholars, Basavanna

attained Aikya in 1167 CE at Kudala Sangama. But the date and month of it

are yet to be accurately determined.29

The evidences in literary works now available, suggest that some

sharanas occumpanied Basavanna to Kudalasangama and were with him

until his Aikya. Both the wives of Basavanna, Neelambika and Gangambika

did not go with him and stayed on at Kalyana. Neelambika, on hearing of

Basavanna’s departure attained Aikya with the Linga at Kalyana itself and

Gangambika engaged herself in Dasoha and went to Ulavi with Channa

Basavanna and other sharanas as described in Kalajnana works. The

Sharana organization getting feeble after Basavanna’s departure was under

great distress following Bijjala’s Murder. Rayumurari Sovideva’s army chased

and subjected them to cruel torture the sharanas scattered helter skelter. By

this time, many had fallen victim to the king’s army. Many ran in any direction

they found, the remaining sharanas reached Ulavi, settled there, and attained

aikya in the end. Thus, the final curtain fell on the Veerashaiva movement,

which achieved unprecedented socio-religious revolution and uplifted all

52
common men and women. Thus, history of mankind saw another chapter of

misfortune.30

Religious Philosophy of Basaveshwara.

Basaveshwara believed in Ishtalinga. He was driven by his realisation;

in one of his Vachanas he pronounces Arive Guru, which means one's own

awareness or consciousness is his/her teacher, many other contemporary

Vachanakaras (writers of Vachanas) have described him as Swayankrita

Sahaja, which means “self-made”.31

Basaveshwara worshiped Ishtalinga (image/linga of God in one's body)

to eradicate untouchability, establish equality among all human beings and a

means for attaining spiritual enlightenment. Ishtalinga is quite different from

Sthavaralinga and Charalinga. Ishtalinga is the universal symbol of god,

Sthavaralinga represents Shiva in Dhyana Mudra whereas Charalinga is a

miniature form of Sthavaralinga.32 He believed in the principle Káyakavé

Kailása by which he means that work puts one on the path to heaven, Work is

Heaven.33

Basaveshwara held that the roots of social life are embedded not in the

cream of the society but in the crust of the society.34 He says that the cow

does not give milk to him who sits on its back, but to him who squats at its

feet. With his wide sympathy, he admitted high and low into his fold with no

discrimination. The Anubhava Mantapa established by him laid the

53
foundations of social democracy.35 Basavanna believed that man becomes

great not by his birth but by his conduct in society. This means faith in the

dignity of man and the belief that a common man is as good a part of society

as a man of status.36

The ultimate goal of the Veerashaiva Philosophy is “merging of one’s

soul with the Supreme”. As discussed earlier “Veerashaiva” literally means a

staunch, brave or heroic Shaivite. According to one of the Shaiva branches all

living being is graded into three groups based on the stage of development.

They are;

1. Pasu (Animal)

2. Veera (Heroic)

3. Divya (Divine).

Wherein, Pasu being the primary, Veera happens to be the middle

stage and Divya the highest stage. Thus, Veerashaiva would mean one who

having ascended from the animal stage aspiring for the divine is engaged in a

discipline heroically towards that divine end. In the Virasaiva Philosophy the

term used for this is Lingangasamarasya.37 Lingangasamarasya is the

ultimate end of Virasaivism. Lingangasamarasya means the ultimate unity of

man and God, Soul and Supreme Soul, Jeeva and Shiva, i.e., Anga and

Linga. Lingangasamarasya is also called Shivayoga, where Shivayoga is the

54
Shivapuja (Shiva worship), which is performed regularly in the form of

Istalinga, which is to be performed once, twice or thrice daily.38

In another form, followers of Basaveshwara Philosophy are also called

as Lingayats, where ‘Lingayat means Linga + Ayat: Linga is, Istalinga and

Ayat is to carry or one who carries.’ In other words Lingayat is a person who

carries or wears Linga. The ultimate goal of a Lingayat is to acquire the

‘Nature of Divine’, which technically called ‘Soonya Sampadane’. To attain his

stage, a Bhakta or devotee will have to follow three integral sadhanas,

Ashtavarana- the eight-fold covering or spiritual aids, panchachara - the

fivefold conduct which elevates the individual in his social environment and

Shatsthala- the six-fold stage, which leads him on the path of spiritual

progress and perfection.39

Shaktivishistadwaita is the Philosophy of Virasaivism, according to

which shiva is Shakti. Without Shakti, Shiva has no substance, and without

Shiva Shakti has no completeness. This type of uniqueness and inseparable

sense is found in Shaktivishistadwaita.

Unity between Shiva and Jeeva.

In Virasaivism, the unity between Shiva and Jeeva is been accepted,

like that of Shiva and Shakti. Jeeva forms a part and parcel of Shiva. The

Virasaiva philosophy is rooted in the belief that Shiva and Linga are the only

eternal and real entity. The individual soul is affected by Avidya or ignorance,
55
which also is called Maya. Salvation can be achieved through Jnana, the

knowledge of supreme soul or Kriya the proper observance of the prescribed

rules. Salvation or Mukti is union with the Supreme Soul (Shiva), which is

depicted as Bayalu or Nirbayalu. 40

To conclude, in Virasaivism “the supreme soul in the form of Shiva or

Linga is the only eternal and real entity. The individual soul is Shiva coming to

the worldly existence under the influence of Avidya or illusion also called

Maya. The individual soul can be freed from the influence of Maya through

Jnana and Kriya. The individual Soul can thus attain Mukti or liberation and

unite with Shiva which is described as Bayalu or Nirbayalu, the State where

existence is non-existence”.41

The Linga duly consecrated by the Guru, at the time of Diksha or

initiation is of the highest importance in the Veerashaiva religion and

philosophy. Its symbol is the God Shiva himself in the form of Istalinga. This

Istalinga is to be worn on the devotee’s body at all times. Because of this

symbolic emphasis, which is its outstanding characteristic, the followers of this

system are called Lingayats. Worship of Linga consecrated in a temple or

Shrini is not favored in Veerashaivism. Strictly speaking, it is even prohibited.

This Linga is called Sthavara or immovable Linga. 42

56
The Ashtavarana.

The Ashtavarana constitute the religious (Dharmic) tenets of

virasaivism. It is by these doctrines that the Virasaivas are distinguished from

the followers of other religions. The eight protective aids of worship are43;

1. Guru -Spiritual Guide. In Veerashaivism the Guru is superior to father and

mother, since it is he who is the cause of spiritual birth which is a more

important than the birth of a corporal body.

2. Linga- The symbol of God Shiva.

3. Jangama-Itinerant religious teacher. The Jangama is classified into

‘Svaya’, ‘Chara’ and ‘Para’ indicating the graded development of God-

realization. In fact the Guru, Linga and Jangama are regarded as forms of

the ultimate Reality.44 So the Jangama is a traveling religious teacher,

representing the community of saints. He is the dynamic Linga.

4. Padaodaka It is the sacred water after washing the feet of the Jangama or

Guru. Padaodaka thus is a special mystical implication in the tenets of

Veerashaivism. The Veerashaivas believe that the barrier of the mundane

world is released by the sipping of the Padaodaka.

5. Prasada- The sacred offering of food.

6. Vibhuti- The holy ash.

57
7. Rudrakshi-The sacred beads must be worn as a symbol that the wearer

has cancelled his evil outlook and sublimated it into an auspicious look.

8. Mantra. The mantra is the sacred six syllable formula or prayer i.e. Om

Namah Sivaya. This is called Panchakshara Mahamantra, the great mantra

of five-lettered mantra. Virasaivas do not accept any other Mantra except

this.

The Panchachara.

Panchachara is a socially important ideology in the Veerashaiva of

religion and philosophy. It is a code of moral and social conduct. The

Veerashaiva householder has to follow strictly the five Acharas, namely:

1. Lingachara- the code of Shiva i.e. Istalinga, which is worn around the

neck by a Veerashaiva. A devotee should worship only the Istalinga which

has been graced by the Guru, at the time of initiation.

2. Sadachara- it means to earn money by moral behavior and spend some

part of it for the betterment of the society. It is a reminder of social

responsibility.

3. Shivachara- it gives the unique message of equality because all Virasaiva

men and women carry on element of Shiva in them. Shivachara is the

conduct of devotee towards Shiva.

58
4. Ganachara- is zeal to build up the kingdom of God on earth, after fighting

personal evils, both internal and external and social evils, is Ganachara.

5. Bhrityachara- it invokes human respect towards all men and women.

Humanity is the core of Bhrityachara.

The Shatsthala.

Every religion has its own way of spiritual practice through which

salvation can be attained. Virashaivism has prescribed the path of Shatsthala,

which is the centerpiece in the structure of religious discipline and practice

advocated by the Saktivishistadwaita theology. It is also a unique component

of the Lingayat religion. Shatsthala of Veerasaiva philosophy indicates the

elevation of human soul from one phase to the higher phase of a Sadhaka,

ultimately merging with the Divine Soul. It signifies the absolute, the source of

all evolution and phenomenal existence, into which all things are finally

absorbed. These six stages or Shatsthala can be briefly explained as follows;

1. Bhakta Sthala: It is the stage in which the soul remains as Bhakta

(devotee). The primary characteristic of Bhakta Sthala is devotion and faith

in the three divine entities of Veerashaiva philosophy, Guru, Linga and

Jangama.

2. Maheshwara Sthala: It is the stage where devotion gradually develops and

the devotee now attains a firm and unflinching faith in Istalinga.

59
3. Prasadi Sthala: In this stage faith in God and patience of the worldly trails

promotes a sense of obligation in the individual to surrender himself and all

his belongings to God. He is a Prasadi who receives the three fold prasada

(offering)-Shuddha, Siddha and Prasiddha by surrendering body, mind and

spirit to Guru, Linga and Jangama.

4. Pranalinga Sthala: It is the stage where the devotee now draws with his

attention to direct inwardly and realizes that his Self (Prana) is none other

than the Universal Self (Linga). The individual he tries to get the nearness

of God within himself.

5. Sharana sthala: In this stage there is complete surrender of the Bhakta to

Shiva. Here Bhakti assumes another form, namely, Self-surrender

(sharana), which is a higher form of devotion.

6. Aikya Sthala: Lastly comes the Aikya Sthala, the sixth and final stage

which is characterized by a rarified psychological state of unitary

consciousness. This accompanies mystic experience, the soul gets at last

unified with the supreme, and this called as Aikya or Lingangasamarasya.

Thus, the Shatsthala is related to both-philosophy and experience.

Social virtues like sympathy, tolerance, understanding, politeness and co-

operation are created through Shatsthala.

60
In brief, the Lingadharana is the root principle of Veerashaivism.

‘Asthavarana’ is the religious code of conduct, whereas 'Panchachara' is the

social and ‘Shasthala’ is the spiritual code of conduct of Veerashaivism.

These have given specific direction to the social, religious and spiritual

behaviour of an individual Veerashaivism. The edifice of Veerashaivism is

based on the foundation of these four basic tenets, which continue to have

influence over the followers of Veerashaivism. To sum Veerashaivism

preaches simplicity in life and religious practice, supreme devotion, sacrifice,

brotherhood which can be gleaned from the following vachanas of

basaveshwara; 45

Ullavaru Shivalaya Máduvaru,

Nánénu Mádali Badavanayyá

Enna Kále Kambha, Dehavé Degula, Shiravé Honna Kalashavayyá, Kúdala

Sangama Devá Kelayya;

Sthavarakkalivuntu Jangamakalivilla

Meaning

The rich will raise temples for Shiva. What shall I, a poor man, do?

My legs are pillars, body the shrine, head a cupola of gold.

Listen, O lord Kudalasangama deva, things standing shall fall, but the moving

ever shall stay.

61
Gnyanada baladinda Agnyanada Kedu Nodayya

Jyotiya Baladinda Andhakarada Kedu Nodayya

Satyada Baladinda asatyada Kedu Nodayya

Kudala Sangana Sharanara Baladinda Atmana Ahankarada Kedu Nodayya

Kudala Sangama deva

Meaning

The Power of knowledge destroys ignorance;

The power of light dissipates darkness;

The power of truth is foe of all untruth;

The sharana's experience of god is the sole cure of worldliness;

– Lord Kudala Sangamadeva

Jagadagala mugilagal migeyagal,

Nimmagala, pataladindattatta nimma shricarana,

Brahmandadindattatta nimma shri mukuta,

Agammya, agocara, apramana lingave,

Neevenna karasthalakke bandu

Culukadirayya kudala sangamadeva. 46

62
In this Vachana, lord Basaveshwara has made it clear that, Kudala

Sangamadeva in not Lord of meeting rivers. He is infinite, eternal, and beyond

the reach of the physical senses. Basavanna gives him a perfect shape in the

form of Ishtalinga to the formless and absolute god. Thus, Ishtalinga

represents the eternal, omnipresence, and absolute god.

He believed in the principle Káyakavé Kailása (Work puts you on the

path to heaven, Work is Heaven). It was at this time that the Vachanas,

simple and easy-to-understand poetic writings which, contained essential

teachings, were written.47

The sharana movement produced a literature of considerable value in

the vernacular language of the country that attained the dignity of a classical

tongue, its aim was the elimination of the barriers of caste and to remove

untouchability, raising the untouchable to the equal of the high born. The

sanctity of family relations and the improvement in the status of womanhood

were striven for while at the same time the importance of rites and rituals, of

fasts and pilgrimages was reduced. It encouraged learning and contemplation

of God by means of love and faith. The excesses of polytheism were deplored

and the idea of monotheism was encouraged. The movement tended, in many

ways, to raise the nation generally to a higher level of capacity both in thought

and action. 48

63
The Social Philosophy of Basaveshwara will be discussed and analysed

in the next chapter so as to frame the background to his thoughts and fight for

empowerment and equality of caste and gender.

64
REFERENCES

1. R. N. Nandi “Origins of the Virasaiva Movement”, in The Indian Historical

Review, Vikas Publishing House, pvt , Ltd, Delhi, 1975, [Link], No.1, pp.

32-46.

2. P. B. Desai. Basaveshwara and His Times, Karnataka University, Dharwar,

1968, p.119.

3. T. R. Krishnegouda (Trans. by G. B. Sajjan), “Hindu Society and

Basavanna” Basava Journal [Link].l6, No.3, March 1992,Basava Samiti,

Bangalore, p.4

4. [Link],Concept of Equality and Ideal society, Rawat Publications,

New Delhi, 1997. p.27.

5. Thomas Watters, Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India, Vol. II. p. 239

6. M. Chidananda Murthy, Basavanna, National Book Trust, lndia, 1912, p.9.

7. [Link] (Ed), A Complete History of Kannada Literature,

University of Bangalore, Bangalore, 197 6, p.28 (Kannada).

8. Ramendra Nath Nandi, Religious Institutions and Cults in the Deccan,

Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1973. p.4.

9. S. Nagaraju, “Religious and Cultural life in Kamataka”, H. H. Nayak and

T.V. Venkatachal Sastri (Ed), History of Kannada Literature, Mysore

University, Mysore, 1977, p.146 (Kannada).

65
10. P.N. Chopra, T.K. Ravindran, N. Subramainyam (ed) “History of South India

–Vol I Ancient Period”, p. 172

11. Hardekar Manjappa, Dimension of Universal Man, M. Hardekar

Granthamala, Dharwar, 1966, p.19.

12. K. Ishwaran, Religion and Society among the Lingayats of South India,

Vikas Publishing House, Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 1983, p.19.

13. Ibid., p.33.

14. H. M. Sadashivaiah, A Comparative Study of Two Veerashaiva Monastries,

Prasaranga, Manasa Gangotri, Mysore, 1967, p.2.

15. Sailendra Nath Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization p.388.

16. [Link], History and Culture of Karnataka, Chalukya Publications,

Dharwar, 1984, p.511.

17. Saki, Making History-Karnataka’s People and their Past Vol-I, p.265.

18. M. Chidananda Murthy, BASAVANNA, pp.21-22.

19. Saki, Making History-Karnataka’s People and their Past Vol-I, p.265.

20. B. B. Hendi, BASAVESHWARA (Trans., Sadanand Kanavalli), pp.13-18.

21. M. Chidananda Murthy, op. cit, p.32.

22. B. B. Hendi, [Link]., p.18.

23. Uttagi, “Basava and Anubhava Mantapa, the heart of Lingayats”, Basava

Journal, Vol 14, No.1 Sept 1989, Basava Samiti, Bangalore, pp.3-16

24. B. B. Hendi, [Link].,pp. 18-19.

66
25. Ibid., p.19.

26. T.S. Venkayya (Ed), Basavaraja Devara Ragale, sthala 8, lines 79-80.

27. K.V. Zvelebil, Basavanna, the Lord of the meeting rivers-devotional poems,

Motilal Banarasidas Delhi, 1984, p.147.

28. L. Basavaraju, Basavannanawara Shatasthala Vachanagalu, Vachana

No.897.

29. B.B. Hendi, [Link]., pp. 23-25

30. Ibid., pp.28-29

31. Ibid., p.30

32. Ibid.

33. Saki, Making History-Karnataka’s People and their Past Vol –I, pp.265-66.

34. N. K. Singh and A. P. Mishra, Global Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophy,

p.116.

35. S. S. Basavanal, Basavannanavara Shatsthalada Vachanagalu.

36. M. Chidananda Murthy, [Link]., p. 72.

37. Malwad, “virasaivism and vacanakaras”, Basava Journal, Vol.5, No.1, July

1980, Basava Samiti, Bangalore, p. 1

38. Kumar Swamiji, Mirror of Virasaivism, Navakalyana Math, prakashan,

Dharwar, 1960, p.58.

39. [Link], “Pathway to God through Lingayatism” Basava Journal, July-Sept

2003, Basava Samiti Bangalore, p.29.

67
40. K. R. Basavaraja, Basaveshwara, His Life, Vision and Work, Someshwara

Publications, Dharwar, 2001, p.140.

41. Ibid., p.141.

42. Ibid.

43. [Link], Handbook of Virasaivism, the literary committee, L. E.

Association, Dharwar ,1941, p.54.

44. Malledevaru, Essentials of Virasaivism, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay,

1973, p.70.

45. S. S. Basavanal., Basavannanavara Shatsthalada Vachanagalu, p. 45

46. M. R. Sakhare, History and Philosophy of the Lingayat Religion, pp.156-58.

47. Saki, [Link]., pp.265-66.

48. Ibid.

68