STANDARD MESSAGES V10

ENGLISH - GRAMMAR
 
2.7 GRAMMAR
2.7.1 English grammar
[Link]  Adjectives
[Link]  Adverbs
[Link]  Alphabet
[Link]  Articles
[Link]  Cardinal numbers
[Link]  Capital letters
[Link]  Comparative/Comparision
[Link]  Compound nouns
[Link]  Demonstratives
[Link]    Exclamations
[Link]    Negations
[Link]    Questions
[Link]    Short answers
[Link]    Expressing advice
[Link]    Expressing criticisms
[Link]    Expressing duration
[Link]    Expressing goal/objectives
[Link]    Expressing obligation/absence of necessity
[Link]    Expressing permission
[Link]    Expressing possession
[Link]    Expressing possibility
[Link]    Expressing preference
[Link]    Expressing probability
[Link]    Expressing regrets
[Link]    Expressing reproach
[Link]    Expressing similarity
[Link]    Expressing suggestions/order
[Link]    Expressing wish/desire
[Link]    The impersonal structure
[Link]    Passive
[Link]    Phrasal verb particles
[Link]    Plural/Singular
[Link]    Prepositions
[Link]    Probability
[Link]    Pronouns
[Link]    Quantity
[Link]    Superlatives
[Link]    The address
[Link]    The age
[Link]    The currency
[Link]    The date
[Link]    The nationality
[Link]    The percentage
[Link]    The Time
[Link]    The different meanings of ‘all”
[Link]    The different meanings of ‘quite”
[Link]    The different meanings of ‘rather”
[Link]    The different meanings of ‘since”
[Link]    The place of ‘enough’
[Link]    The place of ‘even’
[Link]    The use of ‘both’
[Link]    The use of ‘else’
[Link]    The use of ‘so’
[Link]    ‘To be’
[Link]    ‘To have’
[Link]    Verbs
[Link]    Sequence of tenses
[Link]    Irregular verbs
[Link]    The simple present
[Link]    The present continuous
[Link]    The present perfect simple
[Link]    The present perfect continuous
[Link]    The present subjunctive
[Link]    The present conditional
[Link]    Future
[Link]    The past perfect
[Link]    The past subjonctive
[Link]    The past perfect subjonctive
[Link]    The preterite
[Link]    The preterite continuous
[Link]    The conditional perfect
[Link]    Imperative
[Link]    Various
 
2.7 GRAMMAR
 
 
2.7.1 English grammar
 
 
[Link]             Adjectives
 
Order of adjectives
Attributive adjectives precede the nouns they modify. When several
attributives are present, the one on which one places the most
emphasis goes closest to the noun.
Example: Look at this beautiful little girl.
Here are some rules: Adjectives of colour, origin, material and function
are usually placed in that order and directly before the noun they
modify.
Example: Black Spanish leather walking boots.
Adjectives expressing judgments precede any others present.
Example: I have a huge red suitcase.
'First,' 'last' and 'next' usually precede any other adjectives
present (e.g., numbers).
Example: The monthly payments are high during the first two years
only. That was the first American space capsule.
Note. Commas are used between adjectives of equal importance when
they complement one another.
Example: A long, difficult exercise. It's a nice, well-equipped,
four-room apartment.
 
Placing the adjective
The qualifying adjective is always invariable.
Example: beautiful dresses, they are crazy
The attributive adjective is placed before the noun.
Example: a red apple, very interesting movies, beautiful dresses
 
Compound adjectives
The second part of a compound adjective, which is the more important
part and is modified by the first, may be:
an adjective.
Example: You're very self-confident. I fell in the water, and it was
ice-cold!
a present participle.
Example: This movie's heartbreaking.
a past participle.
Example: Do you want some home-made cake? You go to a restaurant
for a well-deserved dinner. We need a hand-held vacuum.
a noun + -ed.
Example: Your husband is a bad-tempered man.
Note. Compound adjectives ending in -ed are primarily used as
attributes when they have a concrete meaning. Otherwise they are
predicates.
Example: She's a long-legged girl. She's a fair-haired girl. What an old-
fashioned lady! He's very green-fingered.
Many compound adjectives fit none of the cases described above.
Example: I bought some second-hand books. . I want an 18-month loan.
The interest is on a four-year basis.
 
Adjectives ending in -ing
The gerund (verb with -ing ending) can be used as an adjective. It
generally has an active meaning.
Example: That was a disappointing day. This view is really exhilarating.
These self-sticking stamps don't stick!
 
Possessive adjectives
Singular Plural 1st person my our 2nd person your your 3rd person
masculine his their feminine her their neuter its their
The possessive adjective precedes a noun phrase. It never agrees with
the noun that follows.
Example: I like my suit - I like my suits. She's visiting our house - She's
visiting our houses.
      
[Link]                 Adverbs
 
Adverbs of time
Some of the main adverbs of frequency and imprecise time are:
'always', 'never', ' sometimes', 'often', 'no longer', 'soon', 'already, 'still',
'usually', 'ever', and 'not . . . anymore.
The adverb is placed:
immediately before the verb (before the main verb when an auxiliary
is present);
Example: She often drinks alcohol at night. We sometimes watch
videos. I never talk about the weather! How many passengers usually
ride with you? It will soon be July 4th.
after 'to be' in any simple tense, except when 'to be' is at the end of a
sentence or in the imperative;
Example: We are usually on time. I'm still very tired. It sometimes is!
Always be on time.
before a modal auxiliary and, less often, before auxiliary "be" or
"have";
Example: I still can stay here for a while. They already have gone their
way.
at the end of a sentence.
Example: It will be July 4th soon. They have gone already. How many
passengers ride with you usually? Are you going to drive it often?
Never and always are often put before the auxiliary, to
emphasize a point.
Example: You never can manage this. I always have to wash up.
 
The adverb 'that'
'That,' in addition to being used as a demonstrative, can also be used as
an adverb. When used as an adverb it goes before an adjective or other
adverb.
Example: Was the fog that thick? I had no idea I was that far in the red.
Are you that afraid?
This adverb is not to be confused with the demonstrative 'that.'
 
Relative adverbs
The Relative Adverb ‘When’ replaces a complement of time.
Example: The day when he arrived, his family wasn't there.
Where replaces a complement of place.
Example: We live in a place where the sun shines very often.
(The reason) why replaces an adverbial phrase of cause.
Example: I don't know why he's so angry.
(The reason) ‘why’ replaces a complement of cause.
Example: I don't know why he's so angry.
 
[Link]                 Alphabet
Aa as in 'ant'
Bb as in 'book'
Cc as in 'computer'
Dd as in 'dog'
Ee as in 'egg'
Ff as in 'frog'
Gg as in 'ghost'
Hh as in 'house'
Ii as in 'insect'
Jj as in 'jeans'
Kk as in 'kitchen'
Ll as in 'light'
Mm as in 'monster'
Nn as in 'number'
Oo as in 'office'
Pp as in 'pig'
Qq as in 'question'
Rr as in 'rat'
Ss as in 'son'
Tt as in 'tie'
Uu as in 'uncle'
Vv as in 'vegetable'
Ww as in 'watch'
Xx as in 'xylophone'
Yy as in 'yacht'
Zz as in 'zebra'
 
[Link]                 Articles
 
Definite and indefinite articles
The definite article ‘The’ is the definite article in the singular and
plural.
Example: The cat is in the house. The cats are in the house.
The indefinite article ‘A’ is the indefinite article in the singular. In the
plural, there is no article.
Example: There is a cat in our garden. There are cats in our
garden.
 
The difference between 'a' and 'an'
The indefinite article takes two forms.
'A' is used before words that begin (phonetically) with
consonants.
Example: I'm a man. Are you a grandfather? That's a nice color!
Note. Y, U and O at the beginning of certain words are pronounced as
consonants. The article 'a' is used in such cases.
Example: I bought a yacht. You can download a one-megabyte file. I
study at a university for foreigners.
'An' is used before words beginning (phonetically) with vowels.
Example: I have an apartment. It's an expensive shop. I have an
uncle.
Note. Before certain words beginning with silent h, the article
'an' is used.
Example: An hour. An honest man.
 
The use and omission of 'the'
The article ‘the’ is used before plural nouns or uncountable nouns
when the noun is determined, its meaning is defined by the context.
Example: The cities in Europe are all very different. The coffee you
gave me is really good.
‘The’ is not used: in generalizations with plural nouns or uncountable
nouns.
Example: I don't like towns. (plural noun) I prefer tea to coffee.
(uncountable)
‘The’ is not used before a plural or an uncountable noun with the
meaning of 'a certain amount of.'
Example: I have to buy butter and jelly. (uncountable) There are cities I
don't like. (plural noun)
‘The’ is not used before names of meals when they have a general
sense.
Example: The breakfast I had yesterday was very good. (particular
sense) Breakfast is ready. (general sense)
 
Negation of the indefinite article
The negative form of the indefinite article is expressed using: 'not . . . a'
in front of singular countable nouns;
Example: I haven't got a pen. He hasn't got a permanent address yet.
'not . . . any' in front of plural countable nouns and all uncountable
nouns.
Example: There aren't any buses here. It doesn't require any
equipment.
Note. 'Not . . . any' can be replaced by 'no,' in which case a verb in the
affirmative is used.
Example: I have no idea. You have no means of breaking the contract
during the first two years.
 
The article and geographical names
A - In front of the singular name of a country (or a continent or region),
no article is used.
Example: France, Great Britain, Spain, Germany, Japan, America,
Wales.
Exceptions: the Sahara, the United Kingdom ('kingdom' is a common
noun in origin), the Congo, the Tyrol, the South Pole...
B - In front of a plural name of a country, an article is always
used.
Example: the United States, the British Isles, the West Indies, the
Philippines (the Philippine Islands).
Note. The United States is often considered to be singular. This noun,
in fact, takes an article because the word 'state' is a common noun.
Note. Countries that take a plural name are collective nouns and are
often followed by a verb in the singular.
Example: The United States is a federation of several states.
Note. Abbreviations of countries' names (or of continents and regions)
are preceded by the definite article (the U.K., the U.S.A., the U.S.S.R., the
E.U.)
C - Names of bodies of water and seas are preceded by an article.
Note. Other geographical names don't have an article, except if they are
preceded by 'of' or if they are in the plural. (Cape Cod, the Great Lakes)
D - The names of streets, squares, monuments and parks are not, in
general, preceded by an article, except if they contain the preposition
'of,' or, in certain cases, if it refers to foreign names.
Example: Carnaby Street, Fifth Avenue, Hyde Park, Westminster Abbey,
the Tower of London, the Statue of Liberty, the Champs-Elysées
Note. the White House, the Kremlin...
 
[Link]                 Cardinal numbers
 
Invariable cardinal numbers
‘Dozen’, ‘hundred’, ‘thousand’ and ‘million’ are invariable when they
are multiplied by a precise number or preceded by ‘several’ or ‘a few’.
Example: I bought two dozen eggs. There were several thousand
people at the concert. His purchase volume is around $2 million.
These numbers become plural when they are followed by of.
Example: The system allows millions of people to send each
other messages.
 
 
[Link]                 Capital letters
 
Names of countries: capital letters
Names of countries are capitalized.
Example: He's a friend from France. They live in Spain. It's very nice in
the United States at this time of the year.
 
Nationalities: capital letters
All nationalities take capital letters, whether they are used as
nouns or as adjectives.
Example: There are lots of Americans in Paris. I'm half French, half
Italian. I've just taken a job in an English company.
 
[Link]                 Comparative/Comparision
 
Regular comparatives
Comparative superiority is expressed in two ways. Adjective + '-er
than' is used with short adjectives (i.e., those containing one or —
when they end with '-er,' '-ow,' '-le' and '-y' — two syllables). In such
cases '-y' becomes '-i.'
Example: John's taller than Peter. Is it easier than downhill
skiing?
Note. '-r' is added to adjectives ending in '-e.'
Example: He's nicer than you. New York is larger than life!
Final consonants of adjectives that end in one vowel + one consonant
are doubled in the comparative.
Example: Their house is bigger than ours.
'Than' + noun or noun phrase (or clause) is at times omitted.
Example: When will it get warmer?
'More' + adjective (+ 'than') is used with long adjectives.
Example: My sister is more intelligent than my brother. You know it is
more beneficial on a long-term basis.
Comparative inferiority is expressed by 'less' + adjective (+ 'than').
Example: This model is less expensive than the later one.
Note. Comparative adverbs are formed like comparative adjectives. All
adverbs ending in '-y' are preceded by 'more.'
Example: She runs faster than you. He drives more slowly nowadays.
'More' and 'less' can precede nouns and noun phrases.
Example: I would like more details. A bank guarantee affords less
protection.
 
Comparing equals
The expression 'as . . . as' is used to compare two (or two groups of)
persons or things which have the same characteristics. It is formed as
follows: 'as' + an adjective or adverb + 'as'
Example: My brother is as tall as my dad. You speak French as
well as I do.
 
As much as - As many as
In expressions of comparative equality, 'as much . . . as' is used with
singular (uncountable) and 'as many . . . as' with plural (countable)
nouns.
Example: I bought as much chocolate as I could. There aren't as many
parks in Paris as in London.
Note. The corresponding negative forms are 'not as much . . . as' and
'not as many . . . as.'
Example: I don't have as much luck as you. I didn't see as many
films/movies as you did.
'As much as' or 'as many as' may be used without a noun. In such a
case, the comparative refers either to the entire preceding clause or to
an implied or previously stated noun.
Example: I hate almond paste as much as I love ginger. Do you want
more candies? You didn't have as many as I did. It's twice as much as
the rent. (= It's twice as much money as the rent.)
'As much . . . as,' 'as many . . . as,' 'as much as' and 'as many as' may be
preceded by quantifying adverbs.
Example: Today there are three times as many people in the streets as
yesterday. I worked twice as much as usual.
'As much . . . as possible' and 'as many . . . as possible' are used as
superlatives.
Example: We need as much help as possible. I invited as many
friends as possible.
 
The same . . . as
The expression 'the same . . . as' expresses comparison. It is formed as
follows: the same + noun or noun phrase + as + noun or noun phrase
Example: His shirt is the same color as my dress.
'the same' + noun or noun phrase + 'as' + dependent clause
Example: That is the same lamp as the one I bought.
With personal pronouns, 'the same . . . as' is used as follows.
In everyday language: 'the same' + noun or noun phrase + 'as' +
personal object pronoun
Example: I live in the same house as her.
Less often, in a very polite style of language: 'the same' + noun or noun
phrase + 'as' + personal subject pronoun
Example: I live in the same house as she.
Note. 'The same (as)' is another common form.
Example: Friday is going to be the same as today. It's always the same.
It's the same in America.
 
Reinforcing the comparative
To intensify comparatives of superiority, 'much', 'far', 'rather', 'even',
'no', 'any' are used.
Example: He'll feel much better after a good night's sleep. I want a skirt
rather longer than hers. I think I'll mess these nets up even more! He's
no cleverer than his brother.
To intensify comparative of equality, quite, 'not nearly' and numeric
adverbs are used.
Example: She's quite as nice as her sister. Their house is not nearly as
pleasant as ours. France is twice as large as Britain.
To intensify superlatives, 'very', 'by far', and 'far and away' are
used.
Example: Have you heard the very latest news? You're by far the best.
She's far and away the most beautiful girl.
 
Irregular comparatives
Some adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative forms. The
most common examples follow. Adjective or adverb Irregular
comparative good better bad worse far farther/further much/many
more little less
 
The more . . . the more
The expression the + comparative + clause + the + comparative +
clause is used in the following manner:
Example: The younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language. The
more I learn, the more I know, the more I know, the more I forget, the
more I forget, the less I know.
Sometimes, the verb to be, or even the entire clause (when it normally
contains the verb 'to be') is left out.
Example: The nicer the weather (is), the happier I am. The sooner the
better (it is).
 
A use of the comparative
The comparative is sometimes used where there is an idea of
opposition between two elements.
Example: The younger generation. (as opposed to 'the older
generation') The upper classes. (as opposed to 'the lower classes')
Sooner or later.
 
[Link]                 Compound nouns
 
Construction of compound nouns
The compound noun is made up of a principal noun preceded by one or
several nouns or a noun or noun phrase that has the same function as
an adjective.
Example: an alarm clock, a bedroom, the London-New York flight
The first element is always in the singular, even if it has a plural sense,
except if it exists only in the plural form or if there is risk of ambiguity.
Example: ski boots, a clothes shop, a goods-train (risk of ambiguity if
'good' was in the singular)
Most compound nouns are written as two (or several) separated
words. Some of them are written with a dash/hyphen, others as a
single word.
Example: a great-grandfather, housework
Note. The same compound noun can sometimes be written as two
words, with a dash/hyphen or as a single word.
Example: ice-cream, ice cream.
 
Use of compound nouns
The first element of the compound noun is used to determine the
second. Different meanings exist between the terms of a compound
noun: ownership, composition, purpose, aim...
Example: the castle dungeon, a pearl necklace, a jewel box, a tennis
racket
Note. A compound noun cannot express the idea of a cause or a group,
or refer to the contents of a container.
Example: a cry of joy, a group of tourists, a cup of tea
 
[Link]                 Demonstratives
 
Demonstratives
A - Form
The demonstratives 'this' and 'that' may be used as adjectives or as
pronouns. Their singular and plural forms are as follows. Singular
Plural this these that those
B - Use
'This' implies/expresses proximity/closeness in space or time.
Example: I think we met this morning. This is a pencil sharpener. Are
these the Houses of Parliament? These muffins look good
'That' implies distance in space or time.
Example: Can you see that peninsula just off the shore? I'm looking
forward to that. That evening, you are invited to a cocktail party.
 
[Link]              Exclamations
Exclamations with 'what a'
In an exclamatory clause, 'what a / an' precedes a singular countable
noun which may or may not be preceded by an adjective.
Example: What a beautiful fortress! What an old house! What a
question!
Note. Before plural countable nouns and before uncountable nouns,
'what' is used without 'a / an.'
Example: What colourful/colorful flowers! What nice weather!
 
[Link]              Negations
 
The negative form
A negative sentence is formed by adding not (or n't in the shortened
form) to an auxiliary (have, be, do, must, can...). to 'be' and 'have' when
they are used as main verbs.
Example: I am at work. I am not (I'm not) at work. You are my best
friend. You aren't (or you're not) my best friend. He has enough money.
He has not (hasn't) enough money.
When the positive sentence does not have an auxiliary, the auxiliary
‘do’ is used in the negative form. Example: We like mountains. We do
not (don't) like mountains. You live in France. You do not (don't) live in
France.
 
Not . . . either
A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. That's
why ‘either’ is used instead of ‘neither’ in a clause already containing a
negation.
'Either' is always placed at the end of the clause.
Example: We won't need the sleeping bags either. I don't like spinach. I
don't like it either.
 
[Link]              Questions
 
Question-tags
Question tags are the little questions (auxiliary + subject pronoun) that
are placed at the end of a sentence. Usually, an affirmative sentence is
followed by a negative question-tag and a negative sentence by a
positive question-tag.
Example: You're British, aren't you? You're American, aren't you? We
can't go this way, can we? She won't take the plane, will she?
Note. When there is no auxiliary in the first part of the sentence, ‘do’ is
used in the tag.
Example: He lives in Wales, doesn't he?
 
Direct and indirect questions
In a direct question, the auxiliary (or the stative verb 'to be')
precedes the subject.
Example: Are you listening to me? Are you really that tired? Will you go
home at noon? But what can I do?
When the sentence does not have an auxiliary, the auxiliary ‘do’
is used.
Example: Do you speak English? Do you have that passport?
An indirect question contains the following: a main clause with a verb
like 'to ask,' 'to wonder' or 'to discuss'; a dependent clause introduced
by an interrogative word ('where,' 'when,' 'why,' 'how,' 'who,' 'which,'
'what' or 'whose') or by a subordinating conjunction ('if' or 'whether').
The verb of the dependent clause is placed after the subject, as in non-
interrogative sentences.
Example: The waiter asks you what you would like to drink. We
discussed what kind of present we could offer her. You call to find out
if the weather is going to be all right.
 
Interrogative words
The interrogative words introduce questions which cannot be
answered with yes or no. The main interrogatives are: ‘who’, ‘what’,
‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’, ‘whose’, ‘how’, ‘which’. They are always placed at
the beginning of the sentence.
Example: When do you want to go? Whose bag is it? Which car
will you take?
 
Questions without interrogative pronouns
Questions without interrogative pronouns can be asked in the
following ways. 'To be' + subject
Example: Are you a beautiful woman?
Future or conditional modal or auxiliary + subject + verb
Example: Can you count? Will you be all right? Would that suit you?
‘Do' + subject + verb
Example: Do you have a house? Did you understand what I said?
‘Have’ + subject + got
Example: Have you got your bikini?
Note. ‘Have’ got is only used in the present. In the preterite, ‘did’ is
used and in the future ‘will’.
Example: Did you have good friends as a child? Will you have time
tomorrow to do it?
 
Questions in the past
A question, whether closed or open (i.e., introduced by an interrogative
pronoun), is formed by placing the verb before the subject as is
illustrated by the following cases
was / were + subject + complement
Example: Were you insured? You're back from Japan. How was
it?
was / were + subject + verb with -ing ending
Example: Were you talking to these girls? What were you doing
in the garden/yard?
A modal or the auxiliary 'would' + subject + 'have' + past
participle
Example: What could we have done? Would you have invited
her?
'Did' + subject + verb
Example: Did you drive back in the snow? What did your mother say?
What did you have in mind?
'Have' + subject + past participle
Example: What have you done? Have we caught a shark? Have you
seen this person before?
How long have we been skiing?
Note. When the subject is an interrogative pronoun, the verb is
placed directly after it.
Example: Who came to the party? What went wrong?
 
[Link]              Short answers
 
Tags - Short answers
A tag is a short answer composed of a personal pronoun followed by an
auxiliary.
Tags usually begin with 'yes' or 'no.'
To answer yes or no to a question, a tag that reuses the auxiliary of the
question (or be or have as a main verb) is used.
Example: Does it have a dishwasher? Yes, it does. Are you French? Yes,
I am. Does he play soccer? Yes, he does.
Tags may also express contradictions.
Example: I'm lazy. - You're not (aren't). She's smiling. - She isn't
(is not).
Note. When 'to do' or 'to have' is the main verb, the auxiliary 'do'
is used.
Example: Do you do your homework regularly? Yes, I do. Do they do
larger sizes? - No, they don't. : Do you have long hair? - No, I don't.
 
[Link]              Expressing advice
 
'Should' and 'ought to'
To give advice, the auxiliary 'should' or 'ought to' + an infinitive
is used.
'Ought to' suggests an external or moral constraint.
Example: You should always have an umbrella and a raincoat with you!
You ought to apologise to her!
Note. 'Shouldn't' is the usual form in negations.
Example: You shouldn't drive too fast!
 
[Link]              Expressing criticisms
Might
‘‘Might’ is used as well for criticisms.
 Example: You might have asked the technician. He knows a lot.
 
[Link]              Expressing duration
 
How long
'How long' is used with all tenses to ask questions about
duration.
Example: How long are you planning to stay? How long does it have to
cook? How long have we been skiing?
Similar questions may be asked using 'how long' + the expression 'it
takes (someone)' in all tenses, or using 'how long' + 'it' + conjugated
'be.'
Example: How long did it take you to do this? How long will it take
before I get the money? How long will it be before we get there? How
long has it been since he left?
 
[Link]              Expressing goal/objectives
 
Use of 'so' to express a goal
‘So’ can introduce a clause indicating a goal.
Example: I'm saving a lot of money so I can travel in the summer. She
gave him time so he could work properly.
Note. If ‘so’ is preceded by a comma, the dependent clause expresses a
consequence.
Example: I'm saving a lot of money, so I can travel next summer.
 
So that + may / can
Objectives are expressed using 'so that' followed by:
a present simple
Example: He'll take a taxi so that he arrives on time.
'may / might' or 'can / could' (mainly in speech)
Example: He told her about my trip to New York so that she could help
me with my itinerary.
'will / would'
Example: I wrote it in my diary so that I wouldn't forget.
‘should’ when expressing a restraint or hindrance.
Example: She explained the situation to him in detail so that he
shouldn't worry. We'll take the taxi so that we should be on time.
Note: 'In order that' (more rare and formal than 'so that') may
also express objectives.
Example: I'll do the laundry today in order that I may (or can) go out to
dinner tomorrow.
Note: 'To be', 'to seem', and 'to appear' (all of which can indicate
impressions) may also be followed by 'like' and 'as if'.
Example: What was the dinner like? She seems as if she's going
to get very mad.
 
[Link]              Expressing obligation/absence of necessity
 
Must - Have (got) to
The auxiliaries ‘must’ and ‘have (got) to’ express a need or an
obligation.
A - Construction of ‘must’
The auxiliary ‘must’ is conjugated in the same way for all persons: it
does not take an -s in the 3rd person singular.
‘Must’ is followed by the infinitive without ‘to’.
‘Must’ is only used in the simple present.
Example: You must wash your hands before eating.
Note. With ‘must’, questions and negations are formed without
'do.'
Example: Must we bring sleeping bags? You mustn't open the
door to anyone.
B - Use of ‘must’
‘Must’ expresses an obligation.
Example: I must talk to you.
‘Mustn't’ is used to express the forbidding/banning of something.
Example: She mustn't leave the door open.
A - Construction of ‘have (got) to’
The auxiliary ‘have (got) to’ is followed by the infinitive.
Example: I have to go to the dentist's.
‘Have’ is conjugated as follows: I have, you haven he/she/it has, we
have, you have, they have
Note. Questions and negations are formed with ‘do’.
Example: Do you have to go this way? I don't have to listen to
your stupid advice.
B - Use of ‘have (got) to’
The auxiliary ‘have (got) to’ is used when the obligation comes from
the exterior. Example: You have to be at the airport at one o'clock.
(The speaker remembers that this is the rule.)
but
You must be at the airport by one o'clock.
(The speaker emphasizes the fact so that the listener doesn't forget.)
In the future and the preterite, ‘have (got) to’ is used instead of ‘must’.
Example: Future        I'll (will) have to be patient.
Example: Preterite     They had to wait.
 
Absence of necessity
To express absence of necessity, the following forms are used:
'Needn't' + infinitive without 'to' expresses the speaker's opinion,
usually in the present.
Example: You needn't bring your bike, it's not that far.
'Don't/doesn't need to' + infinitive without 'to' may be used in all
tenses. This form is more neutral.
Example: You don't need to bring your bike, they'll lend you one. I
didn't need to come.
'Don't/doesn't have to' + infinitive without 'to' may be used in all
tenses and can imply the speaker's opinion or not.
Example: We don't have to date-stamp tickets in England. You don't
have to go to any trouble. I won't have to have X-rays, will I?
 
[Link]              Expressing permission
 
May
‘May’ is used as well when asking for (and giving) permission with
politeness.
Example: May I borrow your pen?
 
To let
Permisson is expressed using 'let' + object + infinitive without
'to’.'
Example: They let their child do what he wants.
Note. A sentence formed with ‘let’ to express permission cannot be
used in the passive. The expression 'to be allowed to'  is therefore used.
Example: You're not allowed to enter this room.
The infinitive without 'to' may be implied.
Example: She would like to go to India but her parents won't let
her.
'Let' can also be used as an imperative auxiliary.
Example: Let her do what she likes. Let me just deal with this
lady first.
 
[Link]              Expressing possession
 
The possessive
A - Construction An -'s is added to singular nouns (even those ending
with an -s) and to nouns in the plural without -s.
Example: John's birthday, My boss's secretary, Children's feelings
An apostrophe (-') is added to plural nouns ending with an -s.
Example: The horses' stables
Note. The second noun (that follows 's) loses its article.
B - Use The possessive case is used in general with names of living
things, countries, groups and institutions.
Example: Iris's job, The Ministry's officials, Britain's economy,
Washington's economy
 
More uses of the possessive
The possessive '-'s,' is not only used with names of living people,
groups, institutions and countries, but also with nouns concerning
dates (with days of the week and adverbs such as 'today', 'yesterday' or
'year'), a length of time or a distance.
Example:
dates
Sunday's weather, tomorrow's flight, next year's budget
durations
three weeks' vacation, four weeks’holiday
distances
a hundred miles' drive
 
The indefinite possessive
The expression 'a' + person or thing possessed + 'of' + possessor + 's’ is
used to express the possessive case when the object is indefinite.
Example: She's a colleague of my brother's.
The similar expression 'a' + person or thing possessed + 'of' +
possessive pronoun is used with possessive pronouns.
Example: Peter is a nice cousin of mine.
This same construction is possible with the negative article 'no'.
Example: He is no friend of mine.
 
The possessive: a plural use
When reference is made to a number of things, possessed individually
by a number of possessors, the things go in the plural despite the fact
that each possessor only has one thing.
Example: People's hats are blown away by the wind. The children's
bedrooms are upstairs. This man is fixing the employees' computers.
The women are dancing with their husbands.
 
Expressing possession
To have and to have got express an idea of possession.
A - Form
In the indicative present, ‘to have got’ can be conjugated in two forms:
a non-contracted form and a contracted form. ‘Got’ does not change
form.
Note. To have got is used less often in the preterite, and does not exist
in other tenses.
Non-contracted/ Contracted Form: I have got / I've got,  you have got /
you've got,  he/she/it has got / he's/she's/it's got, we have got / we've
got,  you have got / you've got,  they have got / they've got
B - Use
In the present indicative, ‘to have got’ is often used in spoken language
as the equivalent of ‘to have’.
In the negative form, ‘to have got’ and ‘to hav’e are constructed
differently: haven't got and don't have.
Example: I have got my glasses. I haven't got my mask and flippers. I
hope we have everything. She doesn't have any children.
 
The elliptic genitive
In the elliptic genitive case, a noun is not mentioned again if its
repetition is not essential to the clarity of the sentence.
Example: My son is bigger than Karen's (son). Bill's party was as fun as
Fred's (party).
 
[Link]              Expressing possibility
May - Might
The modal auxiliaries ‘may’ and ‘might ‘are used , among other things,
to express a possibility.
A - Construction
may/might + infinitive without ‘to’ when talking about the present or
the future. may/might + be + -ing when talking about the present or
the future.
may/might + have + past participle when talking about the past.
The negative is formed as follows: may + not / might + not
Example: That may not be true. They might not know about this.
In the interrogative form, ‘to be likely to’, ‘is there a possibility’ and ‘do
you think’ are used instead of might and may.
Example: Are they likely to be back soon? Is there a possibility he'll go?
Do you think you might be able to do it?
B - Use
‘May’ expresses a possibility more certain than ‘might’.
Example: Strong possibility   She may be late because she has a lot to
do.
Be quiet! He may be sleeping.
Example: Large uncertainty I might come tonight, but I'm not sure.
I haven't got a towel. John might have taken several.
Note. Might is often used in the place of ‘may’:
in everyday speech (except that might expresses a doubt greater than
may).
in indirect style when the sentence is in the past (to keep with the
sequence of the tenses).
Example: He said he might come tomorrow.
‘Might’ is used as well for criticisms or suggestions.
 Example: You might (as well) take your coat. It's cold outside. You
might have asked
the technician. He knows a lot.
 
[Link]              Expressing preference
 
Expression of preference
Two related expressions are used to speak of preference. 'Would
prefer' precedes a nominal group, a gerund, or an infinitive. Would can
be contracted to 'd.
Example: We would prefer one payment. Would you prefer staying at
home? I'd prefer to talk to someone else.
Note: In sentences containing 'would prefer', negations are placed
before the main verb (an infinitive).
Example: I'd prefer not to meet him.
'Would rather' is used mainly in spoken language. It is followed by an
infinitive without 'to' when only one subject is present (i.e., the verb
takes the same subject as does 'would rather'), or by a past subjunctive
if there are two.
Example: Would you rather be in a compartment? We'd rather he
went now.
Note: When only one subject is present, negations precede the
infinitive. When there are two subjects, negations are applied to the
conjugated verb.
Example: She'd rather not stay alone. I'd rather we didn't invite
him.
 
Would rather
'would rather' precede infinitives without 'to' and may refer to
the present or the future.
‘Would rather' conveys preference.
Example: Would you rather stay inside or go for a walk? I'd
rather go for a swim.
Its negative is 'would rather not.' Example: I'd rather not go.
 
[Link]              Expressing probability
 
Should - Ought to
‘Should’ and ‘ought to’ express, among other things, probability.
‘Should’ and ‘ought to’ are followed by an infinitive and have, in
general, a present meaning.
‘Should’ is used when talking about wished for or probable events.
Example: The train should arrive very soon.
Note. The negative form of ‘should’ is ‘shouldn't’.
Example: We shouldn't be very late.
‘Ought’ to is used when it is understood that the opposite would
be surprising.
Example: He is intelligent. He ought to pass the exam.
Note. The negative form of ‘ought to’ is ‘oughtn't to’ (or didn't ought
to), but it is rarely used.
Example: They oughtn't to drive on the main road.
 
Strong probability with 'must'
‘Must’ can be used to express a strong probability, something which is
almost certain. Example: You must be Mr Land. The dispenser must be
out of order.
Note. The negative form of ‘must’ is ‘cannot’, when it expresses a
strong probability.
Example: He can't be ill. The UK market can't fall given the current
slowdown in the economy.
‘Must,’ in this sense, is not used in the future tense, where to be sure +
infinitive is preferred.
Example: It's sure to be cold tomorrow.
In the past tense, must + have + past participle is used.
Example: Somebody must have picked my pocket in town
yesterday.
‘Must’ can be followed by ‘be’, ‘have’ or by verbs taking a predicate or
expressing thought processes.
‘Must’ can be followed by a continuous form.
Example: He must be wondering where I am.
 
[Link]              Expressing regrets
 
'Should' and 'ought to'
'Should' or 'ought to' + 'have' + a past participle is used to express a
regret.
Example: We should have gone to the mountains.
 
Wish
When expressing regret in the perspective of a past action, the past
perfect subjunctive is used in the dependent clause: subject + wish +
subject + verb in past perfect
Example: I wish I had paid attention.
 
[Link]              Expressing reproach
 
'Should' and 'ought to'
'Should' or 'ought to' + 'have' + a past participle is used to express a
reproach.
Example: They ought to have invited her.
 
[Link]              Expressing similarity
 
Similarity: 'like' and 'as'
The preposition ‘like’ introduces a noun or noun phrase or a
pronoun.
Example: Like most students, I love pizzas. I wish I had a garden
like that.
The conjunction ‘as’ introduces a clause.
Example: Some women felt as I did about it.
Note. ‘As’ is also used in front of a noun indicating a title, or role.
Example: He worked as a taxi driver. I am the company's manager and
am therefore acting as legal representative.
 
[Link]              Expressing suggestions/order
 
Had better
'Had better' precede infinitives without 'to' and may refer to the
present or the future.
'Had better' ('-'d better,' contracted) expresses a firm suggestion
or an order.
Example: You had better tell her the bad news. You'd better accept it
for your career's sake.
The negative of 'had better' is as follows: had better + not +
infinitive.
Example: You'd better not forget my birthday.
Note. 'Had' (or '-'d') is often omitted, particularly in speech.
Example: You better not shout.
 
Might
‘Might’ is used as well for suggestions.
 Example: You might (as well) take your coat. It's cold outside.
 
Shall
The auxiliary 'shall' is rarer in American than in British English; its
meaning is most often conveyed, in speech as well as in writing, by the
future auxiliary 'will.' Nevertheless, many speakers use 'shall' in first-
person questions that ask opinions or imply suggestions.
Example: Shall we go? What shall we do about them? Shall we say
Wednesday? Shall I help you?
 
Suggestions with 'should'
‘Should’ is used in polite speech after verbs or expressions which
convey an idea of suggesting, ordering or needing, such as: to suggest -
to insist to determine - to order - to be anxious that it is necessary that
- it is important that...
Example: I suggest you should leave him. He ordered that the man
should be released. It is important that they should win.
Note. In spoken language, should is left out.
Example: I suggest he (should) settle it straightaway.
 
[Link]              Expressing wish/desire
 
Wish
‘Wish’ is used to express a wish:
when talking about an event in the present, the past subjunctive is
used in the dependent clause: subject + wish + subject + past
subjunctive
Example: I wish I were rich. I wish she were spending the day with us.
She wishes she could be free. Note. In everyday speech, the preterite is
used.
Example: I wish I was rich.
to express a wish concerning the future, subject + wish + subject +
would may be used when it concerns a wish related to an external
situation.
Example: I wish they wouldn't make such a noise.
Note. If the wish is not related to an external situation, subject + hope +
subject + will is used.
Example: I hope I'll see you again.
 
Would like
The conditional 'would like' may express a wish or desire. 'Would like'
is contracted '-'d like.'
'Would like' precedes an infinitive or a noun or noun phrase.
Example: I would like more details. I would like some sliced bread. I'd
like to make a call to New York. I'd like to go to the movies.
In the interrogative form, the expression ‘would you like’ has the same
meaning as 'do you want' but is a more polite form.
Example: What kind of gas would you like? Would you like to have a
drink? Would you like to wait for your flight in this lounge?
 
[Link]              The impersonal structure
 
The impersonal structure
An impersonal structure, used to talk about people in general, is
constructed as follows:
A - The passive form without the agent. This is only possible if the
active sentence contains a direct object.
Example: The castle was built in 1478. (Active sentence: Somebody
built the castle in 1478.) We are expected at 7 o'clock. (Active
sentence: Someone expects us at 7 o'clock.)
B - The personal pronouns we, you, they.
‘We’ when the speaker is included in the group of people in question.
Example: We drive on the left side of the road. (In this case, the
speaker is British.) ‘You’ when the listener is included in the group of
people in question, but the speaker, in general, isn't.
Example: You drink a lot of tea in Britain. (In this case, the listener is
British.)
‘They’ when neither the speaker nor listener are included in the group
of people in question.
Example: They are very friendly in Ireland.
C – ‘People’ (plural meaning), ‘somebody’ / ‘someone’ (singular
meaning).
Example: People think he's funny. Someone's on the phone for
you.
D - The indefinite pronoun ‘one’ in proverbs or other expressions
of that type.
Example: One never knows. (More familiar: You never know.)
E – ‘There is’ + noun with a verbal meaning
Example: There is a ring at the door.
 
[Link]              Passive
 
Construction of the passive
The passive exists in every tense. The passive voice is formed as
follows:
Be (conjugated) + past participle
'By' is used to introduce the person or the object that does the
action.
Example: A worm is being eaten by the bird. (Active sentence: The bird
is eating a worm.)
The church was built in 1654. (Active sentence: People built the
church in 1654.)
My brother is punished by the teacher. (Active sentence: The teacher
punishes my brother.)
Get + past participle
'Get' is used to express:
- the passage from one state of being to another.
Example: They'll get married in two months. –
- an idea of some effort being undertaken.
Example: Be careful, or you'll get yourself punished. We'll try to get
invited.
 
Use of the passive
The passive is used to describe an event happening to the subject. The
passive verb can be followed by an agent introduced by 'by'. This is, in
fact, the subject of the active sentence.
Example: The thief was caught by the police. (Active sentence: The
police caught the thief.)
Some verbs in the passive are never followed by an agent, such as to be
born and to be left (in the sense of 'to remain').
Note. The subject of the passive sentence is in general the direct object
in the active sentence.
Example: Passive sentence: The painting was signed by Dalí. (Active
sentence: Dalí signed the painting.)
However, the indirect object of an active sentence can also become the
subject in the passive.
Example: Passive sentence: She was told the truth. (Active sentence:
Somebody told her the truth.) The agent introduced by 'by' can be an
indirect interrogative (or exclamatory) clause.
Example: I'm amazed by how clever you are.
 
[Link]              Phrasal verb particles
 
Phrasal verb particles
The main phrasal verb particles are:
Away
distance: to go away
disappearance: to melt away, to sweep away
an energetic action: to talk away, to cry away
Back
backward movement: to fall back, to stand back
return to the point of departure: to bring back, to go back
retort, revenge: to answer back, to shout back, to hit back
reserved attitude: to hold back
Down
downward movement: to go down
act of writing: to take down, to write down
reduction, decrease: to turn down
In
inward movement: to get in
inside (without movement): to be in
visit: to drop in
Off
averting: to put off
departure: to go off, to take off
interruption: to switch off , to turn off, 
completion: to finish off
On
contact: to try on
movement: come on
continuation: to go on
start: to switch on, to turn on
Out
outward movement: to go out, to move out
outside (without movement): to eat out
extension: to spread out, to stretch out
distribution: to give out
clarification, externalization: to find out, to yell out
exhaustion: to run out
of suddenness: to break out
Over
passage (from one person to another, from one country to
another): to pass over
turning or tipping action: to turn over
repetition: to say over
action done with care: to think over
Up
upward movement: to climb up
enhanced intensity: to speak up
completion: to drink up, to eat up
continuation of a path: to go further up
 
[Link]              Plural/Singular
 
The plural
In general, the plural is formed by adding an -s to the end of the
noun.
Example: a book - books ; a house - houses
Nouns that end with an -s, -sh, -ch and -x, as well as certain other
nouns that end with an -o, have a plural ending of -es.
Example: bus - buses ; box - boxes ; dish – dishes ; beach – beaches ;
tomato - tomatoes
Nouns that end with a -y have a plural ending of -ies.
Example: family - families
Some nouns have irregular plural endings. The main ones are: man -
men ; woman - women ; foot - feet ; child – children
 
Nouns without singular forms
Some plural nouns have no singular forms. These include the
following.
certain nouns referring to objects composed of two symmetrical parts,
e.g. 'jeans,' 'shorts,' 'pajamas,' 'pants,' or 'scissors'
Note. When used as countable nouns, such nouns are preceded
by 'a pair of.'
Example: My pants are too short. She bought two pairs of
scissors.
certain collective nouns, e.g. 'clothes,' 'goods,' 'people,' 'cattle,' or
'poultry'
Example: People are very friendly here.
Note. At times, 'people' is the plural form of 'person.' 'Head of cattle,' in
which 'head' is invariable, is the singular of 'cattle.' The rare 'article of
clothing' is the singular of 'clothes.'
Example: There were ten people at the party. They have ten head
of cattle. '
savings,' 'riches' and 'remains'
Example: She used her savings to invest in a start-up.
 
Singular nouns in '-s'
Some nouns end in '-s' in the singular.
The uncountable noun 'news' is always singular.
Example:        The news is great. (singular use, plural meaning)
This is an interesting piece of news. (singular use, singular
meaning)
'Means' may be singular or plural.
Example:        Tramways/Subways are an excellent means of transport
in cities. (singular use, singular meaning)
Use whatever means are necessary. (plural use, plural meaning)
 
[Link]              Prepositions
 
Prepositions of place
An adverbial phrase of place is always preceded by a preposition of
place. The principal prepositions of place are: ‘at’ ‘in’ ‘near’ ‘on’ ‘under’
‘between’ ‘behind’ ‘opposite’ ‘across’ ‘in front of‘
Example:
My mom is at home. My sister is in her room. I'm standing near the
window.
The adverbial phrase of place is always preceded by a
preposition of place.
 
Prepositions of time
'At' is used with the hours and indicates a precise instant.
Example: I always get up at seven. The supermatket/store opens at
noon.
'In' is used with the months, seasons, and years.
Example: My birthday's in August. In the summer, it's nice. I was born
in 1975.
'In' may also express a duration.
Example: He finished his work in two days. It's going to close in ten
minutes. I haven't seen him in years.
'On' introduces specific dates and days of the week.
Example: My birthday's on September 24th. You'll have to arrive on a
Saturday. I go to the cinema/movies on Saturdays.
Note. 'On' can be omitted in such cases.
Example: I'm leaving (on) Tuesday.
 
Final prepositions
In certain clauses a preposition may be placed after the verb: in a
clause introduced by an interrogative pronoun, and in an indirect
clause.
Example: What kind of music do you like to listen to? What ad are you
talking about? I never know where the wind is coming from.
In relative clauses (whose relative pronouns, in such cases, are usually
omitted)
Example:        I don't like the girl she's talking to. ('who(m)' is omitted)
We've forgotten the discount we talked about. ('which' is omitted)
In infinitive clauses
Example: She has nothing to complain about.
elliptical questions.
In such cases, the prepositions go after the interrogative pronouns.
Example: Yesterday I went to the opera. Who with?
Note. In an elliptical question expressing surprise or indignation, the
preposition precedes the interrogative pronoun.
Example: I just came back from Brazil. From where?
Note. Final prepositions are very common in writing and dominant in
speech. Nevertheless, many Americans still follow a traditional rule
according to which no sentence must ever end with a preposition.
Following this rule entails placing prepositions before their objects.
Example: He is the one to whom I addressed my complaint. With what
money are you planning to buy the car?
 
Omission of certain prepositions
In American English, certain prepositions (on, in, at...) can be
omitted.
Example: She arrived Thursday (= on Thursday). We usually go hiking
Sundays (= on Sundays). He often gets up nights (= in the night). I
won't be home (at home) till 7 o'clock.
 
The prepositions 'in' and 'at'
‘At’ is used: before the number of a house.
Example: The British Prime Minister lives at 10, Downing Street. John
lives at 7498, 85th Street.
when it concerns a precise and fixed place.
Example: at the station, at one's office, at the doctor's, at the chemist's,
at the door, at his desk.
before certain nouns:
Example: at home, at school, at work, at university.
‘In’ is used: before the name of a street or a region.
Example: My friend lives in Chestnut Street. During the holidays I'll go
to Hartford, Connecticut, in New England.
before certain nouns.
Example: in bed, in the hospital, in the sun, in the shade, in the
rain.
Before the names of buildings, work or meeting places, the
following rules apply:
‘at’ is used when referring to the activity rather than the place itself, or
when the place is used for a meeting.
Example: I'll see you at the restaurant. He's working at The
Farmers' Bank.
‘In’ is used in all other cases.
Example: We ate in a beautiful restaurant. There are many employees
in The Farmers' Bank.
With names of towns:
A - ‘In’ is used before the name:
of a city or large town.
Example: He works in London/Chicago.
of small towns (or a small villages) or which has significance for
the speaker.
Example: I spent a year in Guildford, near Woking. I spent a year in
Tampa, near Orlando. We had lunch in Stratford-upon-Avon, where
Shakespeare was born.
We had lunch in Boston, where Benjamin Franklin was born.
B - ‘At’ is used before the names of: small villages, small towns, cities
and large towns that have no importance for the speaker.
Example: We spent the night at East Horsley We spent the night at
Ocala. We stopped at London before going to Glasgow. We stopped at
Newark before going to Toronto.
 
[Link]              Probability
 
Should - Ought to
'Should' and 'ought to' often express probability. Both forms introduce
infinitives and, usually, refer to the present. 'Should' describes events
that are desirable or probable.
Example: The train should arrive very soon.
Note. The negative of 'should' is 'shouldn't.'
Example: They shouldn't be hard to find.
'Ought to' implies an expectation or assumption.
Example: He is intelligent. He ought to pass the exam.
Note. Use of 'ought not (to),' the negative of 'ought to,' is
exceedingly rare.
Example: They ought not to drive on the main road. The distinction
between 'should' (the more common of the two) and 'ought to' is often
ignored.
 
Strong probability using 'must'
'Must' may express strong probability or near certainty.
Example: You must be Mr. Land. Your car must be worn out! Note.
When 'must' is used to express strong probability, its negative form is
'cannot.'
Example: He can't be ill. That can't be easy.
'Must' in this sense has no future: 'probably' or, alternatively, subject +
'to be sure' + a clause referring to the future is used instead. In the
present perfect, 'must' + 'have' + past participle is used.
Example: I will probably go to bed. I'm sure I'll come back. Somebody
must have picked my pocket in town yesterday. '
Be,' 'have,' verbs introducing predicates or describing mental
operations, and, generally, progressive forms may follow 'must.'
Example: He must be wondering where I am.
 
[Link]              Pronouns
 
Object pronouns
A - Form
Singular/Plural 1st person me/us
Singular/Plural 2nd person you/you
Singular/Plural 3rd person him/them (masculine) ; her/them
(feminine) ; it/them (neuter)
B - Use
They are used as direct or indirect complements to the object, or after
prepositions.  They are always placed after the verb. When a verb is
followed by a particle, the object pronoun is always put between the
verb and the particle.
Example: She's looking at me. We'll pick you up at eight. I'll give
them the papers.
 
Possessive pronouns
A - Form
Singular/Plural 1st person mine/ours
Singular/Plural 2nd person yours/yours
Singular/Plural 3rd person his/theirs (masculine) ; hers/theirs
(feminine) ; its/theirs (neuter)
B - Use
The possessive pronoun replaces a noun or noun phrase. It is never
preceded by a determiner. It doesn't vary in function with the nominal
group that it replaces.
Example: This skirt is mine (my skirt). These skirts are mine (my
skirts).
In the third person singular, the possessive pronoun agrees with the
gender and number of the possessor.
Example: This is Edward's hat - This is his. I like her shoes - I like hers.
 
Reflexive pronouns
A - Form
Singular/Plural 1st person: myself/ourselves
Singular/Plural 2nd person: yourself/yourselves
Singular/Plural 3rd person: himself/themselves (masculine) ;
herself/themselves (feminine) ; itself/themselves (neuter)
B - Use
Reflexive pronouns are used:
when the subject and the object of a sentence are the same
Example: They hurt themselves. Now, tell me about yourself!
to emphasize a person or thing in particular. In such a case, the
reflexive pronoun is not the object of the verb.
Example: I can manage myself.
 
Relative pronouns
The Relative Pronouns ‘Who’ is the relative subject pronoun (singular
and plural) that refers to a person.
Example: I like people who are honest.
‘That’ and ‘which’ are the relative subject pronouns and direct and
indirect objects (singular and plural). ‘That’ is restrictive, while ‘which’
is not.
Example: She's reading a book that makes her laugh. The shoes, which
I bought yesterday, hurt my feet.
‘Whom’ is the relative indirect object pronoun (singular and plural)
that refers to an animate antecedent.
Example: The boy whom you met is my cousin. Here is the woman
whom you were looking at.
Note. ‘Whom’ is often replaced by ‘who’.
‘Whose’ and of ‘which’ replace a noun phrase which complements a
noun. ‘Whose’ refers to an animate or inanimate antecedent.
Example: The girl whose dad is a scientist is very clever. (Animate
antecedent.) Her room is the one whose door is locked. (Inanimate
antecedent.)
‘Of which’ refers to an inanimate antecedent.
Example: She's in the room the door of which is locked.
‘What’ and ‘which’ are the relative subject and object pronouns (direct
and indirect) that announce or continue previous clauses.
Example: I don't understand what you're saying. Darkness is what I'm
afraid of. He said he's lazy, which is true. She'll give a party, which I'm
excited about.
 
Subject pronouns
Singular/Plural 1st person I/we
Singular/Plural 2nd person you/you
Singular/Plural 3rd person he (masculine), she (feminine),  it (neuter)/
they
 
Use of the pronoun 'one'
The pronoun 'one' (or 'ones' in the plural) is used after an adjective to
replace:
a countable noun already expressed.
Example: I bought a red shirt and a blue one. She saw some beautiful
homes and some ugly ones too.
a noun that hasn't been expressed.
Example: That's a nice one. The sensible ones have done their
homework.
'One' is sometimes omitted in a question expressing a choice (with
which one), in literary language, or, in a general sense, after a
superlative.
Example: Which one will you take, the blue one or the yellow one?
Spanish bulls are more fiery than Mexican ones. (D.H. Lawrence). Your
suit is the most beautiful one.
Note. 'One' is not used to replace:
a noun indicating a person or a generalization.
Example: A blond woman and a dark-haired woman. (instead of 'a
dark-haired one') American cars are often bigger than French cars.
(instead of 'French ones')
an uncountable noun (after an adjective).
Example: Italian coffee is stronger than American coffee.
 
[Link]              Quantity
 
A little - A bit
'A little' is used with uncountable nouns to designate a small quantity.
It may also replace nouns to avoid repetition.
Example: We wanted a little fresh air. Do you want some coffee?
A little, please.
'A little' is also an adverb of degree used before adjectives and
after verbs.
Example: We're a little busy today. This tooth aches a little.
'A bit' is often used instead of a ‘little’ in spoken language.
Example: It's a bit bright but it looks nice.
Note: 'A bit' is followed by 'of' before nominal groups and
pronouns.
Example: I have a bit of work to do. Do you want some cake? I
still have a bit of it.
 
Few - A few - Many
The indefinite adjectives (or pronouns) ‘few’, ‘a few’ and ‘many’
express a notion of quantity and are used before a countable plural
noun.
‘Few’ is used to stress a very small quantity.
Example: He has few friends.
‘A few’ is used to stress a small quantity, but contrary to few, it is only a
simple statement.
When ‘a few’ is used with ‘the’, ‘these’ or ‘those’, the indefinite article
“a” disappears.
Example: He has a few friends abroad. The few people I met have
gone.
‘Many’ is used when describing a large quantity. It is usually used in a
negative sentence.
Example: There aren't many companies in that area.
Note. Often, in the affirmative form, ‘many’ is replaced by ‘a lot of’ (or
lots of) or ‘plenty of’.
Example: She has lots of friends.
When the noun is understood, the indefinite adjectives become
indefinite pronouns.
Example: These students are working hard and many (students)
are quite clever.
 
Little - A little - Much
The indefinite adjectives (or pronouns) ‘little’, ‘a little’ and ‘much’
express a notion of quantity and are used before an uncountable
singular noun.
‘Little’ is used to stress a very small quantity.
Example: There is very little juice left.
‘A little’ is used when describing a small quantity, but contrary to
‘little’, it is only a simple statement.
Example: There is a little juice in the fridge, if you want.
‘Much” is used when describing a large quantity. It is usually used in a
negative sentence.
Example: There isn't much juice left.
Note. Often, in the affirmative form, ‘much’ is replaced by ‘a lot of’ or
‘plenty of’ or ‘a great deal of’.
Example: There's a lot of tea in China.
When the noun is understood, the indefinite adjectives become
indefinite pronouns.
Example: There is little (juice) left.
 
How much - How many
'How much' and 'how many' are interrogative quantifiers. 'How much'
is used before a singular noun and how many before a plural noun.
Example: How much sauce do you want? How many bedrooms are
there? How many friends have you got?
The nouns and noun phrases may be implied. In such cases, 'how
much' and 'how many' are pronouns.
Example: How much (money) is it? How many (books) do you
have?
 
Some - Any
The article 'some' is used in front of a countable plural or uncountable
noun or noun phrase to express an undetermined/unspecified
quantity.
Example: Some children were playing outside. I've got a busy day
tomorrow and I must get some sleep.
The pronoun 'some' replaces a countable plural or uncountable
noun or noun phrase.
Example: If you like milk, I have some. If you like yoghurts, there are
some in the fridge. Where are the sponges? We have to buy some.
The article or the pronoun 'any' replaces the article or the pronoun
'some' in an interrogative or negative clause.
Example: Do you have any children? No, we don't have any. Are there
any cross-country trails here? No, there aren't any.
 
'Some,' 'any': singular or plural?
When 'some,' 'any,' 'none,' 'all' and 'most' refer to a singular noun, the
verb is singular. When they refer to a plural noun, the verb is plural.
Example: Some of the meal was really good. Some of the books are
quite funny. None of the presentation seems interesting. None of the
stories seem interesting.
 
[Link]              Superlatives
 
Regular superlatives
The superlative of superiority takes the following forms. With short
adjectives, 'the' or a possessive + adjective + '-est' is used. (Short
adjectives are those having one or — if the adjective ends in '-er,' '-ow,'
'-le,' or '-y' — two syllables. Final '-y' is replaced by '-i' before '-est.')
Example: She would choose the cheapest possible car. I was the
lousiest golfer on the course.
Note. '-st' is the ending for adjectives ending in '-e.'
Example: We have the latest camping equipment.
When an adjective ends in one vowel + one consonant, the consonant is
doubled.
Example: This is the biggest skyscraper in the world. With long
adjectives, 'the most' + adjective is used.
Example: These guys are the most intelligent I've ever met. It will soon
be July 4th, the most popular American holiday.
The superlative of inferiority is formed using 'the least' + adjective.
Example: She's the least outgoing of my friends. This restaurant is the
least expensive in town.
Note. Superlatives are followed by 'in' before singular nouns describing
places, and by 'of' or 'in' in other cases.
Example: It's the highest mountain in the world. He's the kindest of my
friends. She's the oldest member of the family. She's the richest woman
in the family.
'The' + a comparative is the superlative form when only two elements
are compared.
Example: This painting is the prettier of the two. She is the more
intelligent of the two sisters.
 
Irregular superlatives
Some adjectives and adverbs have irregular superlative forms. The
most common examples follow. Adjective or adverb Irregular
superlative ‘good’, ‘the best’, ‘bad’, ‘the worst’, ‘far’, ‘the farthest’,’the
furthest’, ‘much’, ‘many’, ‘the most’, ‘little’, ‘the least’
 
Absolute superlative
The absolute superlative of superiority may be formed in the following
ways: ' very' + adjective ‘much’ + past participle
Example: You've been very helpful. The children are very excited
tonight. Computers are much used nowadays.
However, lots of past participles are used as adjectives and are
therefore preceded by ‘very’.
With 'most', 'so' or with adverbs ending in -ly
Example: The setting under the dome is most effective. Your parents
are so nice with me. I'm awfully sorry.
with a superlative ending in -est + 'of'
Example: They were the oldest of friends.
To express the absolute superlative of inferiority, 'not very', 'far from',
and 'less than' are used.
Example: I can see you're not very happy today. Her joke was far from
funny. The noise is less than reassuring.
       
[Link]              The address
 
Addresses in Great Britain
When writing an address, the name of the person or the company is
followed by the number and the name of the street, the town, the post
code and the country.
Example:        London Engineering Systems
7 Sisters Avenue
London SW15 9EJ
Great Britain
In clauses, ‘at’ is used in front of the number of a house and ‘in’ before
the name of a street or town.
Example: He lives at number 32. The shop's in Oxford Street.
Note. When the name of the street follows the number, the preposition
‘in’ is not used. Example: He lives at number 32, Oxford Street.
 
Addresses in the USA
An American address includes — in order — the name of a person or
business; a street number and name (sometimes followed by an
apartment number); and a city, state (usually abbreviated), and ZIP
(postal) code. ('USA' should follow on correspondence of foreign
origin.)
Example:        Jane McFadden
6020 Franconia Road
Pittsburgh, PA 15238
USA
 
Auralog Inc.
3344 East Camelback #107
Phoenix, AZ 85018
USA
Note. When addresses are included in sentences, commas
replace line breaks.
Example: Write to me at 25 Canute Drive, Richmond, VA 23234.
In clauses, 'at' precedes house numbers, 'on' precedes streets, and 'in'
precedes cities and states.
Example: He lives at number 32. The shop's on State Street. She works
in Philadelphia.
Note. When a house number precedes a street name, 'on' is not
used.
Example: He lives at number 32, State Street.
       
[Link]              The age
 
Expressing age
Age is expressed: ‘to be’ + number + ‘years old’.
Example: I'm nineteen years old. My dog's two years old.
Note. When talking about a person, ‘years’ old is often left out.
Example: I'm nineteen.
 
       
[Link]              The currency
 
British money
The currency of Great Britain is the pound, the penny being one
hundredth of a pound. The plural of penny is pence.
Example: £4 = four pounds
£4.50 = four pounds fifty
25 p = twenty-five pence
Note. £ is placed in front of the figure and p is placed after the
figure.
 
American money
The United States' primary monetary unit is the dollar. A cent is a
hundredth of a dollar.
Example:
$4 = four dollars
$1 million = one million dollars
$4.50 = four dollars and fifty cents (or four fifty)
$.25 = twenty-five dollars
Note. $ precedes the number to which it refers, ¢ follows the number to
which it refers.
American coins have various names.
1¢ = a penny
5¢ = a nickel
10¢ = a dime
25¢ = a quarter
50¢ = a half dollar
Note. A number of countries besides the United States have monetary
units called dollars. To distinguish among these various currencies, it is
useful to speak of 'US dollars' (or 'American dollars'), 'Canadian
dollars,' 'Australian dollars,' etc.
 
[Link]              The date
 
The date
Dates are written as cardinal numbers and pronounced as
ordinal numbers.
Days and months are capitalized.
There are different ways of writing the date.
Example:        Monday 5th May 1996
Monday, May 5, 1996
Sunday, 22nd August 1999
Saturday June 3rd
In a clause, ‘on’ precedes the date.
Example: I'll meet Mrs Beckett on Friday 16th.
When the day of the week precedes the day of the month, a definite
article introduces the latter (which is expressed as an ordinal).
Example: Friday the 16th (or 'Friday 16') (written) = Friday the
sixteenth (oral)
In speech, the day of the month and month can be expressed using
definite article + day (as an ordinal) + 'of' + month.
Example: 10th June: the tenth of June
In writing, the month - whether spelled out or expressed as a number -
usually precedes the day.
Example: January 1, 2000 ;  6/25/89
Years are read in sets of two numbers; the second set is read hundred
for -00 and O + the number for the series -01 to -09.
Example: 1999: nineteen ninety-nine 1900: nineteen hundred 1909:
nineteen-o-nine
Exception is made, however, for any year whose third digit is '0': '-00'
is pronounced 'hundred,' and '-01' through '-09' are pronounced 'O' +
digit.
Decades are expressed using 'the' + multiple of ten.
Example: I like the fashion of the sixties.
 
[Link]              The nationality
 
Nouns and adjectives of nationality
English nouns and adjectives of nationality can be divided into the
following four categories:
in certain cases, only an adjective exists. To form the noun form,
another noun, which designates some category of person, is added. In
such a case, the collective noun is formed using 'the' + adjective.
Example: I'm English. Yesterday, I met an English woman. The English
are fond of tea.
in other cases, the singular noun and the adjective are identical. The
collective is expressed using 'the' + the plural noun form.
Example: I married a Norwegian. The Norwegians are used to the
cold.
sometimes, the singular noun differs from the adjective and the
collective noun form is 'the' + the plural noun.
Example: A Spaniard is coming tonight. The Spanish government. The
Spaniards have lunch at 2 p.m. finally,
sometimes the noun, adjective and collective forms are all identical.
Example: I bought some Portuguese wine. The Portuguese are a
warm people.
Note: Adjectives of nationality are capitalized. Many nationality
adjectives are identical to the nouns designating the corresponding
languages.
Example: He speaks French, Russian and Chinese.
 
Nationalities: capital letters
Nationalities, whether used as nouns or as adjectives, are
capitalized.
Example: You'll meet lots of Americans here. I'm half French, half
Italian.
Note. Languages are also capitalized.
Example: I don't speak English very well.
 
[Link]              The percentage
 
Expressing percentages
Percentages are expressed using number + % or ‘percent’.
Example: We've reduced the size by about 20% (percent).
Note. With half, percent is a one word noun and is preceded by
the indefinite article.
Example: The winning margin was less than half a percent.
When used as adjectives, percentages precede the nouns they
modify.
Example: We'll have to pay a 40% deposit. It's 100% coverage.
 
[Link]              The Time
 
Time
A question beginning with 'what time' is used to ask the time of
day.
Example: What time is it? What time do you get up?
Here are the different ways of telling the time:
The time + 'o'clock' indicates an exact hour.
Example: It's six o'clock.
Note. 'O'clock' is only used for times exactly on the hour and is often
unstated but understood.
To express a half-hour in spoken (and, less often, written) language,
the preceding hour + '-thirty' is used.
Example: The clock says eight-thirty. The clock says 8:30.
(written)
To express a quarter-hour in spoken (and, less often, written)
language, '(a) quarter after' + the preceding hour, or the preceding
hour + '-fifteen,' is used.
Example: It's a quarter after two. It's two-fifteen. It's 2:15.
(written)
To express a time forty-five minutes after the hour, in spoken (and, less
often, written) language, '(a) quarter to' + the following hour, or the
preceding hour + '(-)forty-five,' is used.
Example: He'll be there at quarter to five. He'll be there at 4:45.
(written) We'll meet at three forty-five. We'll meet at 3:45. (written)
Note. American speakers and, less often, writers sometimes use the
British expressions 'half past' and '(a) quarter past.'
Example: The clock says half past eight. She's coming at a quarter past
two.
In many parts of the United States, '(a) quarter of' is used—most often
in spoken language—in place of '(a) quarter to.'
Example: It's a quarter of four.
To express times between the hour and the half-hour, in spoken (and,
less often, written) language, the minutes + 'after' + the preceding
hour, or the preceding hour + the minutes, is used.
Example: The passengers will disembark at around ten after two. It's
one-twenty. Note. The British 'past' is sometimes used instead of 'after'
in the United States.
Example: It's ten past three. To express times between the half-hour
and the hour, in spoken (and, less often, written) language, the minutes
+ 'to' (or 'of') + the following hour, or the preceding hour + the
minutes, is used.
Example: I'll stay until five to eight. She came at five of eight. The plane
leaves at seven fifty-five.
Note. The United States uses a twelve-hour clock. To clarify the time of
day, 'a.m.' ('ante meridiem' ['before noon']) or 'p.m.' ('post meridiem'
['after noon']) may be added. At times these abbreviations are replaced
by 'in the morning,' 'in the afternoon,' 'in the evening,' 'this morning,'
'this afternoon,' or 'tonight.'
Example: The figures are due at 1:30 p.m. She works from ten in the
morning to six in the evening. Let's meet at three in the afternoon. I'll
call you at seven tonight.
 
Hour - Time - O'clock
‘Hour’ is used to express a specific duration.
Example: Shall we meet at the harbour in an hour? I have to be at the
theater in a half hour!
‘Time’ is used to indicate an unspecified duration.
Example: We won't have time to see him. Take your time.
‘Time’ also refers to the time indicated by the clock.
‘Time’ is used especially in asking the time.
Example: What time is it? Is it time to go?
‘O'clock’ expresses the exact time of day and is often left out.
Example: It's six (o'clock). I'd like to watch the nine o'clock news.
 
[Link]              The different meanings of ‘all”
 
Different meanings of 'all'
'All' is used as a determiner. ‘All’ precedes and modifies uncountable or
plural countable nouns. When it designates all of something limited,
the noun follows 'the' or a demonstrative or possessive adjective.
Example: The cat drank all the milk. Make sure you take all your
pills!
Note: When 'all' expresses a general meaning, no article precedes
the noun.
Example: All children like sweets. The Internet has spread to all sectors
of the population.
'All' may also be used in two ways with personal pronouns: personal
pronoun + 'all', or 'all of' + personal pronoun.
Example: Have you read these books? I've read them all. or I've read all
of them. When 'all' is used with a subject pronoun, it may occupy
various positions in the sentence. It is placed either before a simple
verb, or after a modal, an auxiliary, or 'to be'.
Example: The girls all left early. We will all have some tomato juice.
They're all ready to go.
Note: In a short answer, 'all' is placed before the auxiliary, the
modal or 'to be'.
Example: Do you like this film? We all do.
'All' may be used as an object pronoun.
Example: That's all we have. That's all we need.
Note: The whole expression is actually ‘all that’, but 'that' is left
out
 
 
[Link]              The different meanings of ‘quite”
 
Different meanings of 'quite'
‘Quite’ is used to express incontestable facts.
Example: You're quite right. I'm afraid that's quite out of the
question.
‘Quite’ is also used with adjectives expressing a personal opinion. In
such cases it has a slightly restrictive meaning.
Example: He's quite good at tennis. Your guaranteed delivery date
option seems quite expensive to me.
‘Quite’ is used on its own to express approval.
Example: That was a good meal. Yes, quite.
‘Quite a few’ is used with a plural noun to express a large
quantity.
Example: I have quite a few letters for you.
      
[Link]              The different meanings of ‘rather”
 
Different meanings of 'rather'
‘Rather’ is in general placed in front of the word whose meaning it
modifies. ‘Rathe’ can be used with adjectives with negative
connotations.
Example: After a rather stressful day, I go back home for a well-
earned rest.
‘Rather’ can also be used with adjectives with positive
connotations.
Example: She's rather clever.
‘Rather’ can be used with a noun or noun phrase or a verb.
Before a noun or noun phrase, ‘rather’ can either precede or follow the
indefinite article.
Example: That's a rather good idea. It's rather a strange family. I rather
like this town.
Note. Rather . . . than may be used to express a comparison.
Example: I'd rather eat now than wait for her.
      
[Link]              The different meanings of ‘since”
 
Different meanings of 'since'
‘Since’ is used as a preposition in front of a date, hour, or moment
when an action has begun.
Example: I've known her since 1994. A lot of progress has been made
since the days of MS-DOS.
Note: The verb is in the simple present perfect to express continuity up
to the present or in the simple past perfect to express continuity up
until a moment in the past.
Example: He's been ill since Monday. We had to leave the town where I
had lived since my childhood.
The conjunction 'since' introduces a subordinate clause. The verb of
the subordinate clause is in the preterite if the action is finished, or in
the present perfect if the action is ongoing.
Example: We haven't called him since we arrived. Since I've been here,
I haven't had the time or the money to buy much.
‘Since’ is also used as an adverb, in which case it goes at the end of the
clause. Example: He lost his job four months ago and he's been
unemployed since.
‘Since’ can be followed by ‘then’.
Example: Since then, the Internet has spread to all sectors of the
population.
'Since' may also be used as a conjunction to introduce expressions of
causality in all tenses.
Example: Since it's raining, we won't go to the seaside.
 
[Link]              The place of ‘enough’
 
The place of 'enough'
The adverb 'enough' is placed:
after adjectives and adverbs
Example: I'm not tall enough. This is clean [Link] drive fast
enough.
before nouns and noun phrases
Example: But there aren't enough pillows! I haven't got enough
red plates.
after verbs, including past participles.
Example: Do you sleep enough? One pound is enough. I've eaten
enough.
 
[Link]              The place of ‘even’
 
The place of 'even'
The adverb 'even' expresses the unexpected or paradoxical nature of
fact and precedes the word it modifies. ‘Even’ can be used in front of a
noun or noun phrase, a pronoun, a verb or between the auxiliary and
the main verb.
Example: Even my sister will be there. Even you can come. He's so kind
he even did the cooking. I've even invited John.
'Even' can also be used before a comparative.
Example: It's even better than a car.
'Not even' even is placed just after the verb or before a noun.
Example: I don't even know you. Not even a genius could solve
this problem.
 
[Link]              The use of ‘both’
 
Use of 'both'
'Both' is used in the following ways and refers to exactly two
elements:
as an adjective
Example: Both children are sleeping. Both versions are identical.
as a pronoun
Example: Are you writing or listening? I'm doing both.
'Both of' + personal pronoun is used as a quantifier.
Example: Hands up! Both of you!
 
[Link]              The use of ‘else’
 
Use of 'else'
'Else' is used after the compounds of  'some,' 'any,' 'no,' and
'every.'
Example: You should ask someone else. I've nothing else to tell you. Is
there anything else you'd like?
Note. ‘Else’ can be used with the possessive ending.
Example: I took somebody else's coat.
Else is also used after ‘much’, ‘little’ and the interrogative pronouns
‘what’, ‘who’ and ‘where’.
Example: There was little else to be said. What else could I do?
Note. 'Somewhere else' and 'elsewhere' are synonymous.
Or ‘else’ is often used as a linking adverb in the sense of 'otherwise'.
Example: Write back, or else I won't write to you again.
 
[Link]              The use of ‘so’
 
Uses of 'so'
'So' + adjective or adverb is used to express an exclamation.
Example: Why is this taking so long? Don't be so sensitive! Gliding is so
majestic and free!
Note. 'So' can be followed by a 'that' clause, in which 'that' may be left
out.
Example: He was driving so fast that he went through a red light.
'So' placed at the beginning of a clause is used as an adverb.
Example: So you found a job? It's 100% coverage, so it is
particularly attractive.
'So' can replace a clause in an elliptical sentence or in tags.
Example: We thank you for flying with us and hope you'll do so again.
He's late, so am I. I don't think so.
Note. Use of 'so' is impossible in certain negative elliptical clauses. In
such cases, 'not' is used and goes after the verb.
Example: Do you think he's going to come? I hope not.
 
[Link]              ‘To be’
 
The verb 'to be'
To be is both: a stative verb, an auxiliary
In the present indicative it is conjugated as follows. I am, you are,
he/she/it is, we are, you are, they are
 
Contraction of 'to be'
A - Construction
In the present indicative, the verb 'to be' can be conjugated in two
ways: Non-contracted/Contracted form: I am/I'm, you are/you're,
he/she/it is /he's/she's/it's, we are/we're, you are/you're, they
are/they're
B - Use
The non-contracted form is commonly used to emphasize 'to be' and to
ask questions.
Example: Yes, I am old. My hair is very dark brown. Are these your
glasses? Yes, they are. I'm as old as you are.
The contracted form is used when 'to be' is not emphasized, and is
more common with pronouns than with nouns.
Example: Of course, I'm a man! She's with our son and daughter. You're
not old, are you?
Note. 'To be' has no contracted form in the preterite.
 
[Link]              ‘To have’
 
The verb 'to have'
A - Construction
To have is both an auxiliary and an ordinary verb, and is conjugated in
the present indicative as follows: I have, you have, he/she/it has, we
have, you have, they have
B - Use
The verb to have expressing possession is often followed by got (past
participle of to get) in everyday speech. The auxiliary have disappears
completely sometimes, which results in: I got, he got...
Example: You've got (or you got) a nice sweater.
In the interrogative and negative forms, to have (got) is conjugated
with the auxiliary do, as with an ordinary verb. In these two forms, got
is never used.
Example: Do you have a car? How many children do you have? Did you
have a good time? Yes, we did. She doesn't have any pets. I didn't have
my credit card with me.
Note. The questions introduced by the interrogative pronoun 'who' are
formed without 'do', but short answers and emphatic structures are
formed with 'do'.
Example: 'Who has some paper?' 'I do.' They do have nice
daughters.
 
Expressions with 'to have'
In certain expressions, 'to have' has precise meanings and is
conjugated with the auxiliary 'do'. The most common ones are 'to have
a bath', 'to have lunch', 'to have a rest', and 'to have a look'.
Example: Did you have a bath last night? We'll have lunch in a typical
London/New Orleans restaurant.
These expressions can take progressive and imperative forms.
Example: They're having a rest on the terrace. Let's have a look
at the models first.
 
[Link]              Verbs
 
Verbs expressing a wish to act
Certain verbs expressing the will to act can be followed by infinitives
and gerunds. 'To intend' and 'to propose' may be used with both
infinitives and gerunds.
Example: He intends to settle in New York. He intends settling in
New York.
'To try' is followed by an infinitive when it describes an effort and by a
gerund when it describes an experiment, a trying out.
Example: I'm trying to do this exercise. I wouldn't try gliding or
rafting.
'To consent' and 'to agree' are used with an infinitive if both verbs in
the sentence have the same subject or with 'to' + gerund if the two
verbs have two different subjects.
Example: She agreed to see the manager. He consented to her coming
with us.
Note: 'To consent' and 'to agree' can be followed by 'to' + noun.
Example: Do you agree to our conditions? I consent to the terms
of the contract.
 
Verbs expressing impressions and feelings
Verbs expressing impressions and feelings ('to look', 'to sound', 'to
smell', 'to taste', 'to feel') may be followed by:
the preposition 'like'
Example: He looks like his father. It sounds like you're angry. It smells
like smoke. It feels like velvet. This cake tastes just like the one I had
yesterday.
'as if / as though'
Example: You look as if you didn't (or don't) understand me. It sounds
as if you weren't (or aren't) listening to me. It smelt as if she had burnt
something. These potatoes taste as if I added too much salt. I felt as if I
were (or was) going to fall asleep.
an adjective
Example: He looks happy. This ice cream tastes very good. It feels
funny to write with my left hand. I felt so sick!
 
Verbs: reactions and preferences
Some verbs express thought reactions and preferences. They are
followed only by the gerund (-ing). Other verbs, according to the
meaning of the sentence, are followed by the gerund or the infinitive.
A - A few verbs are followed only by the gerund: ‘to enjoy’, ‘to mind’, ‘to
resent’, ‘to object to’, ‘to miss’ and ‘cannot stand’.
Example: They enjoy dancing very much. Would you mind holding my
jacket for a second?
B - Some verbs are followed by the gerund or the infinitive: ‘to like’, ‘to
love’, ‘to dislike’, ‘to hate’, ‘to prefer’, ‘to loathe’ and ‘cannot bear’.
They are followed by the gerund (-ing) when they express usual
reactions or unchanging tastes.
Example: I love traveling. She dislikes watching television.
They are followed by the infinitive when they express reactions
to precise actions.
Example: I prefer to stay and leave tomorrow.
 
Verbs expressing stages of an action
Some verbs express the idea of beginning, continuation or end of an
action and are only followed by the gerund (formed by adding -ing).
The main ones are: to stop, to finish, to go on, to keep (on)...
Example: Stop shouting! She's finished eating. They kept on
spending money.
To begin, to start, to continue and to cease are followed by either a
gerund (-ing) or an infinitive.
Example: I continued to play golf until late at night. I continued
playing golf until late at night.
To begin and to start are followed by the infinitive to emphasize an
action, and by the gerund (-ing) to emphasize the notion of the
beginning or continuation of an action
Example: It started to snow. She starts working at 7 o'clock,
which is early.
 
Verbs introducing a second action
Many verbs expressing an invitation to act are followed by 'to' +
infinitive. These include 'to ask', 'to invite', 'to encourage', 'to dissuade',
'to lead', 'to advise', 'to warn', 'to tell', 'to order', etc.
Example: My mum asked me to do the shopping. I'm invited to go to
dinner with him. That would lead you to come back early. The boss told
me to proofread a new document.
 
Verbs with reflexive or reciprocal meaning
Certain verbs used alone (without a reflexive or reciprocal pronoun)
have a reflexive meaning ('to wash,' 'to dress,' 'to hide') or a reciprocal
meaning ('to meet,' 'to fight,' 'to unite').
Example: I have to wash and dress quickly this morning. I couldn't find
you. Did you hide behind the door? Where shall we meet?
 
Verbs without a continuous form:
Some verbs are generally used in the simple form.
These include:
the verbs of involuntary perception: to hear, to see.
the verbs expressing beliefs, preferences, feelings, appearances... For
example: to be (the most common), to believe, to feel, to know, to like,
to love, to mean, to prefer, to think, to understand, to want, to realise,
to have (got) and have (got) to.
Example: She wants chocolate. I think you're right about that.
Note. When they are used in the continuous form, some of these verbs
change their meanings.
 
Verbs without continuous form: exceptions
Some verbs that normally take the simple form can be used in the
continuous form in certain cases. When the verb ‘to think’ is used in
the continuous form, it has a different meaning with respect to the
simple form.
Example (continuous form): I'm thinking of my friend who's taking an
exam. We're thinking of going to the cinema tonight.
Example (simple form): What do you think of this movie?
The verbs of perception are used in the continuous form when they
express a voluntary action.
Example: To see if he has a fever, the mother is feeling the child's
head.
The verb to want is often used in the continuous form in the
present perfect.
Example: I've been wanting to take dance lessons for ages.
The verb to like is used in the continuous form in everyday
language:
How are you liking... ?  with the meaning: 'Are you enjoying... ?'
Example: How are you liking your stay?
The verb ‘to have’ can be used in the continuous form in the expression
to have something done (in the passive), and in expressions such as ‘to
have dinner’.
Example: They're having a chimney built. My friend's having dinner in
a nice restaurant tonight.
The verb ‘to be’ can be used in the continuous form either as an
auxiliary in the passive voice or followed by an object to insist on the
fact that it refers to the present moment.
Example: The building is being renovated. Usually you're quite serious,
but right now you're being crazy!
 
Verbs without continuous forms: exceptions:
Certain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form
may do so nonetheless:
Verbs of perception such as 'to see', 'to hear', 'to feel', 'to smell', 'to
taste' when they express voluntary actions.
Example: We definitely won't be seeing dunes or geysers! The doctor
was feeling his pulse.
Stative verbs expressing notions of belief, preference, feeling or an
intellectual activity such as 'to think' (to reflect) different from 'to
think' (have an opinion), the latter never being used in the continuous
form.
Example: What are you thinking of? What do you think of it?
 
'To go' and 'to come' + infinitive
When the verbs ‘to go’ and ‘to come’ are followed by the infinitive, they
are not preceded by ‘to’ and the coordinating conjunction and can be
omitted.
Example: Go (and) get the mail. Come (and) eat with us.
 
To write
The verb ‘to write’ can be followed by:
'to' + indirect object, and generally referring to a person.
Example: I'm writing to my parents.
a direct object.
Example: I was writing a love letter. I write her every week.
 
[Link]              Sequence of tenses
 
Sequence of tenses
The sequence of tenses applies: in indirect speech. When the verb of
the main clause is a verb expressing opinion or a declaration (to
think, to say, to tell...) in the simple present or in the preterite, the verb
of the dependent clause is conjugated as follows:
Main Dependent present present or future or present perfect preterite
preterite or conditional or past perfect
Example: Main Dependent Dependent-clause tense
He says it doesn't matter. present
He said it didn't matter. preterite
I think that it will be fun. future
We thought it would rain. conditional
I know you've tried. present perfect
I knew you had tried. past perfect
with dependent clauses introduced by that or a relative pronoun.
When the main clause is in the preterite or in the conditional, the verb
of the dependent clause is usually in the preterite.
Example: We were the ones who did it. It was on Saturday that it
happened to him.
Note. When that is used in indirect speech, the dependent-clause verb
follows the sequence of tenses of indirect speech (it does not
necessarily have to be in the preterite).
 
Sequence of tenses with 'if'
In sentences containing subordinate clauses expressing conditions (i.e.,
introduced by 'if', 'suppose','unless', etc.), the sequence of tenses is as
follows: 'if' + present future
Example: If you go to the beach, I'll come with you. 'if' + preterite
present conditional
Example: If you went to the beach, I would come with you. 'if' + past
perfect past conditional
Example: If you had gone to the beach, I would have come.
 
[Link]              Irregular verbs
 
Irregular verbs:
Reminder.
The preterite and the past participle of regular verbs are formed by
adding -ed or -d to the verb in the infinitive.
Verbs that end in -y have the preterite and past participle ending -ied if
y comes after a consonant.
Verbs ending in a stressed consonant preceded by a vowel double this
final consonant. However, some irregular verbs do not follow any
precise rule.
You must therefore learn them by heart.
Here is the list of the main irregular verbs.
 
PAST
INFINITI PRETERI PARTICIPL
VE TE E
To arise arose arisen
was /
To be were been
To beat beat beaten
To
become became become
To begin began begun
To bend bent bent
To bet bet bet
To bind bound bound
To bite bit bitten
To bleed bled bled
To blow blew blown
To break broke broken
To bring brought brought
To build built built
To burn burnt burnt
To burst burst burst
To buy bought bought
To cast cast cast
To catch caught caught
To
choose chose chosen
To cling clung clung
To come came come
To cost cost cost
To creep crept crept
To cut cut cut
To deal dealt dealt
To dig dug dug
To do did done
To draw drew drawn
To dream dreamt dreamt
To drink drank drunk
To drive drove driven
To eat ate eaten
To fall fell fallen
To feed fed fed
To feel felt felt
To fight fought fought
To find found found
To fly flew flown
To forbid forbad(e) forbidden
To forget forgot forgotten
To
forgive forgave forgiven
To freeze froze frozen
To get got got
To give gave given
To go went gone
To grind ground ground
To grow grew grown
To hang hung hung
To have had had
To hear heard heard
To hide hid hidden
To hit hit hit
To hold held held
To hurt hurt hurt
To keep kept kept
To kneel knelt knelt
To know knew known
To lay laid laid
To lead led led
To learn learnt learnt
To leave left left
To lend lent lent
To let let let
To lie* lay lain
To lie down:  
Do not confuse with
To lie lied
To light lit lit
To lose lost lost
To make made made
To mean meant meant
To meet met met
To pay paid paid
To put put put
To read read read
To ride rode ridden
To ring rang rung
To rise rose risen
To run ran run
To say said said
To see saw seen
To seek sought sought
To sell sold sold
To send sent sent
To set set set
To sew sewed sewn
To shake shook shaken
To shine shone shone
To shoot shot shot
shown /
To show showed showed
To shrink shrank shrunk
To shut shut shut
To sing sang sung
To sink sank sunk
To sit sat sat
To sleep slept slept
To slide slid slid
To smell smelt smelt
To speak spoke spoken
To spell spelt spelt
To spend spent spent
To spill spilt spilt
To spin spun spun
To spit spat spat
To split split split
To spread spread spread
To spring sprang sprung
To stand stood stood
To steal stole stolen
To stick stuck stuck
To sting stung stung
To stink stank stunk
To strike struck struck
To swear swore sworn
To sweep swept swept
To swim swam swum
To swing swung swung
To take took taken
To teach taught taught
To tear tore torn
To tell told told
To think thought thought
To throw threw thrown
To underwen
undergo t undergone
To
understa understoo
nd d understood
To wake (up) woke
To wear wore worn
To weave wove woven
To weep wept wept
To win won won
To wind wound wound
To
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
To write wrote written
 
[Link]              The simple present
 
 
The simple present and the present continuous
The simple present is used to talk about facts more or less permanent
and regular actions or events. The present continuous is used to
describe an action actually taking place at the moment at the moment
of speaking.
Example: Simple present      She works every day from 9 a.m. to 6
p.m.
Example: Present continuous           I'm working on the computer
right now.
 
The simple present
A - Construction
The verb to be conjugated in the simple present always takes an -s in
the third person singular. For all other persons it is identical to the
infinitive.
Example: to work I work we work you work you work he / she /
it works they work
B - Use
The simple present is used: especially to talk of events more or less
permanent and for regular actions.
Example: We often play tennis.
for narrations in the simple present, to describe an instantaneous and
precise action (for example in reports).
Example: A policeman knocks at a door and tells a woman...
Note. In the third person singular: after -s, -ss, -sh, -ch and -x, is
added -es.
Example: she passes, he catches... verbs ending in -y take -ies (except
when the 'y' is preceded by a vowel).
 Example: to try = he tries but to play = he plays
 
Simple present with 'when' / 'while'
The verbs of dependent clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions
of time (after, as soon as, as long as, as much as, before, once, until,
when, whenever, wherever, while...) are always in the present tense
when the verb of the main clause is in the future.
Example: They'll eat as soon as they arrive. Before we leave, we'll help
with the cleaning. When I come back, I'll ring you.
 
[Link]              The present continuous
 
The simple present and the present continuous
The simple present is used to talk about facts more or less permanent
and regular actions or events. The present continuous is used to
describe an action actually taking place at the moment at the moment
of speaking.
Example: Simple present      She works every day from 9 a.m. to 6
p.m.
Example: Present continuous           I'm working on the computer
right now.
 
The present continuous
A - Construction
In the affirmative form, the present continuous is formed as follows: be
(conjugated) + infinitive without 'to' + -ing
Example: I'm (I am) washing my hair.
In the negative form, the following is used: be + not + infinitive without
'to' +-ing
Example: I know you aren't (are not) working.
In the interrogative form, the auxiliary is put before the subject.
Example: What are you doing?
B - Use
The present continuous is used to describe an action that is actually
taking place.
Example: I think he's sleeping in his bedroom. I don't want to go out.
It's raining. She's not crying, she's laughing.
 
[Link]              The present perfect simple
 
Construction of the present perfect simple
The present perfect simple is formed as follows: have
(conjugated) + past participle
Example: As I've seen this play before, I don't want to see it again. He's
always been very kind.
 
Use of the present perfect simple
The present perfect simple always expresses a link between the past
and the present. One uses the present perfect simple to express:
a consequence/an impact in the present of a state or an action in the
past.
Example: Example: I've forgotten to post this letter. Could you remind
me to do it? The shop has been closed for weeks. I have to go shopping
elsewhere.
a state or an action that has begun in the past and continues until
the present.
Example: I've never smoked. He's always won until now. He's been
very helpful recently.
a state or an action, of a definite beginning and end, that has begun in
the past and that continues into the present. In that case, 'since,' 'for,'
'how long' or 'since when' are used.
Example: I haven't slept since Tuesday! She's been pregnant for
two months.
Note. When since (sense of time) is followed by a clause, the verb of the
clause is in the preterite.
a state or an action that has just been accomplished.
Example: I've just finished an excellent book.
Note. The simple present perfect is never used with expressions
describing a moment in the past such as 'ago' or 'yesterday'. The
preterite is used instead.
 
Expressions with the simple present perfect
To refer to a period of time that is not yet over ('today', 'this week',
'this year', etc.) or ends at present, ('already', 'lately', 'in the last two
months', 'all my life', 'so far', etc.), a verb in the present perfect is used.
Example: He's been in a bad mood all day. This is the first time I've met
Jenny. I haven't heard about it so far.
Note. In questions of this type, ‘so far’ is sometimes left out: How many
times have you met?
 
[Link]              The present perfect continuous
 
Construction of present perfect continuous
The present perfect continuous is formed as follows: have (conjugated)
+ been + -ing Example: She's (has) been reading a book for two hours.
I've (have) been living in Ireland for five years.
 
Use of present perfect continuous
The present perfect continuous is used especially when talking about
events or actions:
that begin in the past and continue in the present.
Example: They've been living together for a long time. I've been
working in this company for three months and I find it interesting.
that have just finished.
Example: We are very tired because we've been working for hours.
 
[Link]              The present subjunctive
 
The present subjunctive
A - Construction The form of the present subjunctive corresponds to
the infinitive form without to.
Example: I suggest that you try this beer. He ordered I be there at ten
o'clock.
B - Use The present subjunctive is used in formal speech to express:
an order (after 'to order,' 'to command,' 'the order'...)
a suggestion (after 'to suggest,' 'to insist,' 'to ask,' 'the suggestion'... )
a necessity (after 'it is necessary that,' 'it is imperative that,' 'it is
important that'... ) and sometimes after 'on the condition (that).'
Example: The judge gave the order he not be penalized. The lawyer
asks the session be closed. It is imperative that you participate in this
project.
 
[Link]              The present conditional
 
Construction of the present conditional
The present conditional is formed with: would + infinitive without to
Would is invariable. It is shortened to 'd.
Example: It would be more difficult if you explained it this way. I'd like
to go on holiday.
In the negative form, ‘would’ and ‘not’ are shortened to wouldn't.
Example: We wouldn't go sailing in such weather conditions.
 
Use of the present conditional
The present conditional is used: in a main clause, where the dependent
clause (which is sometimes left out) is introduced by if + preterite and
expresses a condition or a supposition/ assumption.
Example: If I had time, I'd (would) do many things. What would you do
if it rained? - I'd stay in.
to express the idea of future in the past.
Example: I thought she wouldn't come.
to offer, ask for or state something with politeness.
Example: Would you like a drink? I'd (would) like to go swimming. We
should say he didn't fit the job.
 
[Link]              Future
 
The future
A - Construction
Will ('ll in the shortened form) is followed by a verb in the infinitive. It
is invariable.
Example: Tomorrow he will (he'll) play.
In the negative form, will not is shortened to won't.
Example: It's too cold outside, they won't go out.
The interrogative form is formed as with the other auxiliaries: will is
placed before the subject.
Example: Will you help me, please?
B - Use
The future is expressed with the auxiliary 'will'. 'Will' also expresses
the tendency of an event to take place on a repeated basis. In that case,
repetitive temporal adverbs are used (often, sometimes, always... )
with 'will'.
Example: I will often have to take the train.
 
The near future: 'be' + '-ing' verb
The present continuous ('be' + '-ing' verb) can be used to express the
near future when talking about planned or expected events.
Example: We're having friends over for dinner. Where are you
going?
Note. In such a case, the date is often explicit.
Example: They're coming tonight.
This form can also imply a strongly felt intention or desire. ‘Not’ can be
stressed in negative sentences of this type.
Example: I'm not seeing anybody today.
 
Future with 'be' + infinitive
Be + complete infinitive expresses an idea of the future.
The auxiliary 'be' is only used in the present and in the preterite for:
a planned or agreed action.
Example: We're to see them tomorrow.
Note. In the past tense, was / were + past infinitive emphasises the fact
that what was agreed on was not done and was / were + infinitive
expresses a past project or a pre-destined event.
Example: They were to have picked us up. I was to become a priest. He
was to die at the age of thirty.
An action which should be done, especially in interrogative clauses.
Example: What's to be done?
an imposed action, a strict order. The negative form expressing a ban is
more common than the affirmative form.
Example: You're not to read this letter.
be + passive infinitive is used to express instructions and
directions for use.
Example: The syrup is to be taken twice a day.
 
[Link]              The past perfect
 
Past perfect
A - Construction
The past perfect is formed as follows: had + past participle
Example: She met someone she had already seen before. When we
opened the door, we realized a thief had stolen the TV.
B - Use
The past perfect expresses: an action completed before a given
moment in the past.
Example: When they arrived, we had already finished eating. She told
me she had tried to reach me. I had never seen this movie before then.
a state or an event beginning in the past and continuing until some
later time in the past
Example: They had been friends for ten years when he left.
Note. In the case of an action, the continuous form of the past perfect is
used.
Example: How long had you been waiting for me when I called
you yesterday?
a recent action or state, in which case 'just' is used with the simple past
perfect Example: I had just finished writing a letter when you knocked
at the door.
Note. The continuous form also expresses a recent event.
Example: You could tell he had been sleeping.
in order to respect the sequence of tenses in indirect style: the past
perfect is used in a dependent clause to report speech that, in the
direct style, was in the preterite or in the present perfect.
Example: She told me she had won. (Direct style: she won.) They said
they had been walking all day long. (Direct style: they have been
walking all day long.)
 
[Link]              The past subjonctive
 
The past subjunctive
A - Formation
The past subjunctive of all verbs except 'to be' is identical to the
indicative. The verb 'to be' is conjugated as 'were' in all persons. In
speech, 'was' is often used in the first and third persons singular (e.g. 'I
was', 'he was').
B - Use
The past subjunctive follows 'if', 'if only', 'as though / as if', 'even if' (as
a hypothesis), 'wish', 'suppose', 'imagine', other expressions of desire,
appearance, and hypothesis; and, at times, 'unless'.
Example: If I were (or I was) you, I would tell him the truth. I suppose
you were not at the bus station, then. She left even though she seemed
to be happy.
 
[Link]              The past perfect subjonctive
 
The past perfect subjunctive with 'if'
The past perfect subjunctive may be used after ‘if’ when referring
to the past.
Example: If I had known, I would have come. If I had had the money, I
could have gone on holiday.
 
[Link]              The preterite
 
To be' and 'to have': preterite
In the preterite, 'to be' is conjugated as follows:
I was, you were, he/she/it was, we were, you were, they were
Example: It was probably a forum on environmental issues. We were
lucky to get these seats.
In the preterite, 'to have' is conjugated as follows:
I had,  you had, he/she/it had, we had, you had, hey had
Example: We had a very good meal. The American pension funds had a
major effect on prices.
 
Construction of the preterite
The preterite of regular verbs is constructed by adding -ed or -d to the
verb in the infinitive.
Example: Yesterday I watched a movie.
The preterite of verbs that end with -y is formed with an -ied ending
where ‘y’ comes after a consonant.
Example: The baby cried a lot last night.
Verbs ending in a stressed consonant preceded by a vowel double this
final consonant. Example: to stop => stopped
The construction of irregular verbs in the preterite does not have a
precise rule, they must therefore be learned by heart.
Example: When did (to do) you first meet him? I first met (to meet)
him yesterday. I went (to go) to Spain 15 years ago.
 
Use of the preterite
The preterite is used when: talking about actions or events which are
completely finished and have no link to the present.
Example: We spent three years in Switzerland.
talking about a specific action in the past. With expressions describing
moments in the past such as ‘yesterday’, ‘last month’, ‘ago’ etc..., the
preterite is necessary.
Example: They married two years ago. He died in 1964.
talking about past habits.
Example: My grandfather worked on a farm.
 
 
Use of the preterite with 'just,' 'yet' and 'already'
One often uses the preterite instead of the present perfect, particularly
with just, yet and already.
Example: I just finished my paper. Did she meet him yet? She already
saw the video. It's 11 o'clock and you slept in.
 
[Link]              The preterite continuous
 
The preterite continuous
A - Construction
The preterite continuous is formed using 'were' or 'was'
(preterite of 'to be') + '-ing'.
B - Use
The preterite continuous expresses an action taking place in the
past.
Example: When he arrived, I was cooking. What were you doing
up so late at night?
 
[Link]              The conditional perfect
 
Conditional perfect
A - Construction
The conditional perfect is formed as follows: would + have + past
participle
Example: I would have been on time if the bus hadn't been late. They
wouldn't have come anyway.
B- Use
The conditional perfect is used in a main clause in which the
dependent clause is introduced by if + past perfect to express a
condition or an assumption.
Example: If you had listened to me, you wouldn't have failed. If I had
been you, I would have done the same.
 
The simple conditional perfect with 'should'
When the conditional perfect is formed with should (should + have +
past participle), it expresses:
a regret or a reproach
Example:        I should have got up earlier. I wouldn't be late now.
You should have listened to me. You're in a strange situation
now.
an (unfulfilled) expectation or assumption regarding the past
Example: You should have received my e-mail, I sent it half an
hour ago.
 
[Link]              Imperative
 
The affirmative imperative
In the second persons of the singular and the plural, the affirmative
imperative has the same form as the infinitive without 'to.'
Example: Take a seat. Follow me, please.
In the first persons of the singular and the plural, as well as in the third
persons of the singular and the plural, the affirmative imperative is
formed as follows: let + personal pronoun complement + infinitive
without 'to' / let + noun or noun phrase + infinitive without 'to'
Example: Let me check in the dictionary. Let Mark sit here. Let's (let
us) go to the beach. Let them do what they want! Let the party begin!
 
The negative imperative
In the second persons of the singular and the plural, the negative
imperative is constructed as follows: do not (or don't) + infinitive
without 'to'
Example: Don't touch that. Don't be silly!
In polite speech, in the first person of the plural, the negative
imperative is formed as follows: let us (or let's) + not + infinitive
without 'to'
Example: Let's not argue.
In everyday speech, in the first and third persons, the negative
imperative is formed as follows:
do not (or don't) + let + object pronoun + infinitive without 'to'
do not (or don't) + let + noun or noun phrase + infinitive without 'to'
Example: Don't let me fall asleep. Don't let the children do what
they want! 
 
[Link]              Various
 
·         Also - As well - Too
The synonyms 'also,' 'as well' and 'too' have the same meaning but
occupy different places in the clause.
'Also' is placed before a simple verb, before the main verb in a
compound tense, after 'to be' used as a stative verb, or at the end of a
clause.
Example: He also plays rugby. My lawyer had also raised that point.
There is also a basement downstairs. I have one also.
'As well' ends a sentence.
Example: These two want some chocolate mousse as well!
'Too' usually ends a clause. It is at times placed after its referent for
emphasis; in these rare cases, commas set off 'too.'
Example: All the other restaurants are full too. John, too, was
impressed with the demonstration. I, too, have been to Australia!
 
·         At last - At least
You must not confuse at last and at least. 'At last' means 'finally' and 'at
least' means 'in any case,' 'at the lowest estimate' 'at the minimum'.
‘At last' may precede a clause, follow an auxiliary, or end a sentence.
Example: At last you have stopped that noise. We can at last relax.
She's arrived at last. We've arrived at last.
'At least' may precede a clause, a noun or noun phrase, or follow a
clause, auxiliary, or main verb.
Example: At least your illness isn't serious, otherwise you would be in
the hospital. And don't forget to rest for at least three days. You can at
least tidy your bedroom. This must cost at least 20 dollars/pounds.
 
·         Each other - One another
The plural and invariable reciprocal pronouns 'each other' and 'one
another' are, in practice, interchangeable. Nevertheless, in theory,
'each other' follows subjects made up of only two elements, and 'one
another' refers to those composed of more than two elements.
Example: Forrest and Nancy love each other. Members of the family
may turn to one another for support. 'Each other' and 'one another' are
inseparable expressions when they are used with prepositions.
Example: I put the suppliers in competition against each other. The
children are sitting opposite one another. 'Each other' and 'one
another' can be used in the possessive.
Example: They took each other's hands. We often meet at one
another's places.
 
·         Either . . . or - Neither . . . nor
To indicate a choice between two elements, 'either . . . or' is used with
an adjective, noun or noun phrase, verb or clause.
Example: She's either English or American. I want either fruit juice or
coffee. In the summer, I either go to Prague or stay at home.
To express a choice between two elements in the negative form,
‘neither . . . nor’ is used with an adjective, noun or noun phrase or verb.
Example: I neither read French, nor write it. He met neither John nor
his wife. She's neither nice nor nasty.
 
·          Even though - Even if
'Even though' and 'even if' have similar but distinct meanings. ‘Even
though’ introduces a dependent clause of concession, which highlights
an opposition in relation to a real fact. It may be replaced by ‘although’.
Example: Even though (or although) you're my friend, I can't trust you.
Even though (or although) she tried her best, she fell twice.
'Even if' introduces an apparent contradiction of some hypothesis. In
such sentences, the conditional is used in the main clause and the past
subjunctive in the dependent clause introduced by ‘even if’.
Example: Even if you were my friend, I wouldn't trust you.
 
·         Ever - Never
'Ever,' is used in questions in the simple present and simple present
perfect tenses. It is placed between the auxiliary and the main verb.
Example: Do you ever play tennis? Have you ever tried going on the
Internet?
Note. In a non-interrogative clause, 'Sometimes' is used.
Example: I sometimes go swimming.
'Ever' can be used in affirmative clauses where 'if' or a superlative is
present.
Example: She's the nicest girl I've ever met. Visit the Eiffel Tower if you
ever go to Paris.
‘Never’ has a negative meaning but is only used with verbs in the
affirmative form.
Example: I never drink and drive. I almost never subcontract.
Accordingly, 'ever' is used instead of 'never' in clauses already
containing negations.
Example: No one ever comes to visit me. Nothing's ever perfect.
 
·         Everybody - Somebody - Nobody
'Everybody', 'somebody', and 'nobody' are followed by singular verbs.
But they are taken up by a plural personal pronoun or a plural
possessive adjective.
Example: Everybody was enjoying themselves. Somebody has to go
shopping, don't they? Nobody really knows, do they?
‘Everybody’ (synonym of everyone) is the combination of ‘every’ and
‘body’.
Example: Everybody thinks he's clever.
In the negative form, ‘everybody’ becomes ‘nobody’ (synonym of no
one). This pronoun is followed by a verb in the positive form.
Example: Nobody is home.
 
·         For - Since – Ago
A – ‘For’ and ‘since’ are used after a main clause in the present perfect.
‘For’ + expression of length of time
‘For’ is always followed by a noun or noun phrase.
Example: I've lived in Southampton/Detroit for five years. He's been
studying in Oxford/Stanford University for two years.
‘Since’ + point of departure (precise moment)
‘Since’ introduces a noun or noun phrase, or a dependent clause
indicating a point of departure (e.g. a date).
When ‘since’ is followed by a dependent clause, the verb of the clause
is, according to the context, either in the preterite, or the present
perfect.
Example:        I've been learning English since I was eleven years old.
I haven't talked to her since I've been back.
She's been playing the violin since 1987.
They've been playing chess since this morning.
B – ‘Ago’ is preceded by a noun or noun phrase describing a length of
time. The verb of the sentence is in the preterite.
Example: The couple met two years ago. He arrived three hours ago.
 
·         For how long - Since when
A - 'For': 'how long... (for)'
'For' introduces a noun or noun phrase indicating an expression of
length of time.
Example: We've been traveling for almost a month now.
Statements containing 'for' answer questions containing 'how long...
(for)'.
Example: How long have you been traveling for? How long have you
been waiting?
B - 'Since': 'since when'
'Since' introduces a noun or noun phrase or a dependent clause
indicating a specified time in the past.
Example: It has been snowing since Monday.
Statements containing 'since' answer questions containing 'since
when'.
Example: Since when has it been snowing?
 
·         For the sake of - On behalf of
The nouns 'sake' and 'behalf' are used after possessive '-'s,' with 'of,'
and with possessive adjectives. 'Sake' appears in the following
expressions.
'for' + noun or noun phrase + '-'s sake'
'for' + possessive adjective + 'sake' 'for the sake of' + noun, noun
phrase, or '-ing' verb
Example:        You'd better accept it for your career's sake.
For Pete's sake, stop it now!
You should do it for her sake.
He changed jobs for the sake of his marriage.
They're complaining for the sake of complaining.
'Behalf' appears in the following expressions. 'in' or 'on' + noun or
noun phrase + '-'s behalf' 'in' or 'on' + possessive adjective + 'behalf'
'in' or 'on' + 'behalf of' + noun or noun phrase
Example:        I came on her mother's behalf.
He'll speak in my behalf.
I would like to thank you on behalf of everyone.
 
·         Here - There
'Here' designates the speaker's or writer's location.
Example: It's written here. I've already been here for half an hour.
'There' designates a location away from the person who is speaking.
Example: I came from there. Cosmetics are down there on your right.
 
·         Holiday - Holidays
The singular holiday is used in the expressions to be on holiday and to
go on holiday. Example: I'm on holiday next week. I'm going on holiday
with my friends.
Note. Holiday can be preceded by the indefinite article in the sense of
day off and in the expression 'Have a nice holiday!'.
Example: We have a holiday on Tuesday. The plural holidays is used
with the preposition during and when talking about school holidays.
Example: It rained a lot during the holidays. The summer holidays have
come, at last.
 
·         Home - House
'Home' indicates a person's place of residence, or the place where one
feels 'at home'.
Example: I'm glad to see my home again. You get back home for a well-
earned rest. Do you have a cat at home?
'House' indicates a physical structure, a building used as a residence.
Example: Do you have a house or an apartment? My house was broken
into yesterday.
Note. 'Home' is used when movement is described. In sentences not
involving movement, either 'at home' or 'home' ('at' being, in this case,
implied) may be used. 'At' is omitted in negations.
Example: It's time to go home. Tonight I'm staying (at) home. I won't
be home tomorrow
 
·         It's time to - It's time for
'It's time' may be used in either of the two following ways:
before a clause beginning with 'to'
Example: It's time to go to bed. It's time to go on vacation.
before 'for' + a noun or noun phrase
Example: It's time for the concert. It's time for the meeting.
 
·         'Kind of' followed by a noun
'Kind of' + noun may be used with or without an indefinite article.
However ‘Kind of’ + a/an + noun has a more general, vaguer meaning.
Example: What kind of a man is he? What kind of aircraft are we flying
in?
 
·         Last - Later - Latter
The adjective 'last' indicates a time before the moment of speech or
writing.
Example: I met your manager at last week's fair. Remember, we had no
snow last year.
Note. 'Last' is used as a temporal adverb.
Example: When he last came, he was ill.
'The last' refers to the last thing on a list.
Example: I bought the last dress they had. I didn't get the last number!
See Mr. Warcock in the last office on your right.
‘Later’ is an adverb of time in a comparison. 'Later' is followed by 'than'
+ clause unless its reference point is the moment of speech or writing
(in which case 'than' + clause may be omitted).
Example: You arrived later than expected. Could you please call back
later?
'The latter' is used as a pronoun to refer to the last of two people or
things already mentioned.
Example: I can come by car or by train. I think I'll take the latter.
 
·         Next - The next
'Next' + expression of time (e.g. a day of the week, 'week,' 'month,'
'year,' 'term,' or 'time') is used without any article and indicates a
moment in the future.
Example: Next Friday I'm on vacation. We'll go to a club next year.
Next time, give yourself an hour or more to get to the airport.
'The next' is followed by the same terms but with the definite article to
indicate a moment in the future in relation to another moment
mentioned in the text which is either in the future tense, or in the past
tense.
Example: I'll spend the first week in Paris and the next two weeks in
Rome. She said she was leaving the next day.
'The next' can also indicate a period that is beginning or about to begin
at the moment of speech or writing.
Example: The next school year is going to be easy. (School begins
tomorrow.) Can you put me on the next flight?
Note. 'The next few days' is a common expression.
Example: You'll get your checkbook in the mail within the next few
days.
 
·         Nothing ever
A negative clause contains only one negation. With the adverb ‘never’,
the verb is in the affirmative form. In a clause which already contains a
negation such as ‘nothing’, ‘ever’ is used.
Example: I can never get an arrow onto the target. Nothing ever works
in this kitchen.
Note. ‘Hardly ever’ is used in the same way, hardly being a restrictive
term.
Example: I hardly ever visit him.
 
·         'One' replacing a noun
To avoid repeating a count noun, the pronoun ‘one’ is used. Its plural is
ones.
Example: Look at these shirts! I have one like that. (= I have a shirt like
that.) Which socks do you prefer? The black and white ones. (= The
black and white socks.)
 
·         Expressions with 'one's way'
Expressions containing ‘one's way’ may be used with verbs of
movement.
Example: Passengers should make their way to the car deck. I keep
losing my way in this town.
Note. To express a difficult movement, more descriptive verbs + ‘one's
way’ are used, such as ‘to elbow one's way’.
Example: He elbowed his way through the crowd.
The expression ‘one's way’ may be used in a figurative sense after
verbs other than verbs of movement, such as ‘to work one's way up’.
Example: She has worked her way up.
 
·         Piece of
‘Piece of’ precedes singular uncount nouns. These nouns refer to
objects, activities, and notions and cannot be used with numbers. ‘Piece
of’ allows them to be preceded by a definite or indefinite article, a
demonstrative or a number and provides them with a plural form.
Uncount nouns preceded by piece of are: collective nouns.
Example: I bought a piece of furniture. Can you give me that piece of
cloth?
abstract nouns.
Example: He asked for a good piece of advice. He gave me two pieces of
information.
Note. ‘Piece of’ can also precede names of materials or food. In this
context it has a literal meaning. Example: It's on this piece of paper.
Have the last piece of bread.
 
·         Quite - Quite a few
'Quite' limits adjectives that express personal opinions.
Example: He's quite good at tennis. Your guaranteed delivery date
option seems quite expensive to me. 'Quite a few' modifies plural
nouns to indicate large quantities.
Example: I have quite a few letters for you.
 
·         Still - Yet
'Still' indicates continuity or a link with the past.
Example: Is it still open? I'm still hesitating.
'Still . . . not' indicates continuity in some negation or absence.
'Still' precedes an auxiliary and 'not' follows it.
Example: She still doesn't know.
'Yet' implies that the action or state described may still occur in the
future.
Example: He has yet to learn.
'Not . . . yet' refers to an event that has not occurred in the past but is
likely to occur in the future.
'Not' follows an auxiliary and 'yet' ends a clause.
Example: I haven't thought about it yet. She hasn't had any car
accidents yet.
Note. 'Yet' may be used with ‘never” and 'nobody.'
Example: I've never been to China yet. Nobody has arrived yet.
 
·         There is - There are
The expression 'there is' (singular) becomes 'there are' in the plural.
Example: There is a hole in your pocket. There are many nice flowers
in that garden.
In the interrogative form, 'there’ is put after the verb.
Example: Is there a problem? Are there lots of children at the
playground?
In the negative form, 'there is' becomes 'there isn't' (there is not) and
'there are' becomes 'there aren't' (there are not).
Example: There isn't any milk left. There aren't many mistakes in your
paper.
 
·         Till - Until
'Until' and 'till' have the same meaning, but ‘till’ is more commonly
used in spoken language: in front of an adverbial phrase of time. In this
case, 'till' and 'until' act as prepositions.
Example: I'll be in the office till six. You might want to wait until next
week.
When they introduce clauses 'till' and 'until' act as conjunctions.
Example: Wait till I come back from the airport. Do not get off until the
train is at a complete stop.
'Not . . . till' and 'not . . . until' are used as prepositions or conjunctions
to indicate that the action will not take place before the date
mentioned.
Example: I won't see him till Monday. I can't say until I check with the
carrier.
 
·         Too - Too much
'Too' precedes adjectives and adverbs.
Example: My tea's too strong. He runs too fast.
'Too much' precedes uncountable (singular) nouns;
'Too many' precedes plural countable nouns.
Example: Too much sun is bad for you. She has too many friends.
Note. When 'too much' modifies a verb, it follows the verb.
Example: He drank too much.
 
·         To be interested in
‘To be interested in’ can be used with:
a noun or noun phrase or pronoun.
Example: Would you be interested in another loan? I was interested in
your lightweight mobile/cell phone. He's interested in you.
a gerund (verb with -ing ending).
Example: I don't think we're interested in paying much more.
 
·         To be left - To have left
'To be left' and 'to have left' express the same idea of 'remaining' but
are used in different ways.
‘To be left’ is a passive form: subject + be + left
Example: The weather was bad. Few people were left on the streets.
‘To have (got) left’ is an active form with a direct object. 'Left' therefore
goes at the end of the clause. Subject + have (got) + direct object + left
Example: Do you have any tea? I only have coffee left. Do you have any
rooms left?
 
·         To be likely
The expression ‘to be likely’ allows the speaker express the high
probability of the event it describes / the degree of likelihood of a fact.
‘To be likely’ is used with the infinitive to express a present or future
action.
Example: This meeting's likely to bore me. It's likely to be food
poisoning.
Note. To be likely also exists in the preterite and the conditional.
Example: She was likely to appreciate the gift. It's the kind of challenge
he'd be likely to take on.
‘To be likely’ is followed by a past infinitive to express an opinion
about a previous action.
Example: He's likely to have forgotten our appointment.
Note. The related impersonal expressions 'it's likely (that)' and 'it
seems likely (that)' are also common.
Example: It's likely that it will rain. Do you think that she's going to
win? It seems likely.
'Unlikely' is the opposite of 'likely.'
Example: He is unlikely to come. It's unlikely that it will snow.
'To be liable to do' has the same meaning as 'to be likely to do.'
Example: It's liable to be a long wait.
 
·         To look forward to
'To look forward to' can be used with:
a noun
Example: I'm looking forward to the holidays/vacation.
a gerund (verb ending in '-ing')
Example: We're looking forward to seeing you.
 
·         To make sb do sth - To have sth done
The pattern 'to have or make + direct object + infinitive without to'
means 'to cause someone to do something'. This pattern has an active
meaning.
Example: I had him service my car. He made me laugh so much! She
had her daughter tidy her room. The pattern 'to have + direct object +
past participle' means 'to cause something to be done'. This pattern has
a passive meaning.
Example: He had his car repaired. She had her tooth pulled out by her
dentist. Note. In this sense, to have is conjugated with the auxiliary do.
Example: Did you have your coat cleaned?

 
·         To lie (lied) - To lie (lay)
Do not confuse the verbs: ‘to lie’ which is conjugated as a regular verb:
it takes -ed in the preterite and in the past participle.
Example: Aren't you lying? He lied about his age. I've never lied.
and ‘to lie’ which is an irregular verb: its preterite is lay and its past
participle is lain.
Example: The cat's lying on the floor. He lay on his side. Having lain on
the bed, she felt better.
Note. The past participle lain is seldom used.
 
·         To remember - To remind
Past actions may be recalled using 'to remember' + gerund (verb with
-ing ending) or 'to remember' + nominal group.
The thing being remembered is the direct object of to remember.
Example: He remembered locking the door. I remember my first day at
work.
'To remember' + infinitive evokes a future action someone must not
forget to do.
Example: Remember to post the letter.
The direct object of ‘to remind’ is the person that has to be reminded of
something. Two constructions are possible: to remind + object + of +
noun / to remind + object + infinitive
Example: He reminded her of her promise. Remind me to phone him.
Note: 'To remind' may be followed by relative clauses introduced by
'that'.
Example: May I remind you that we're playing tennis tomorrow?
 
·         The expression 'used to'
The expression ‘used to’ is used when talking about past habits that no
longer apply in the present. It is used as follows: subject + used to +
infinitive
Example: I used to play with my neighbour when I was younger.
With questions, did (preterite of 'do') + use to is used.
Example: Where did you use to go shopping before you came here?
With negations, didn't + use to is used.
Example: In the past I didn't use to work as much as now.
 
·         Which - What
'What' and 'which' may introduce non-interrogative clauses. In such a
case: 'what,' which has no antecedent, introduces a relative clause
which may be subject or object to the sentence's main verb.
Example: What worries me is how he'll get here.
'which' relates to an antecedent which may be a noun, noun phrase, or
clause.
Example: She often smiles, which is nice. You're inspecting the
downtown branch, which has higher operating costs than the others.
In an interrogative clause: 'what' is used generally to convey a choice
between or among things. Example: What books do you prefer? What
kind of services do you want? What time do they open? 'which'
conveys a choice between or among a limited number of possibilities.
‘Which’ is used before nouns referring to both objects and people.
Example: Which friend did you invite? Which of these shirts is yours?
Which airline did you choose?
Note. 'Which' is sometimes followed by 'one.'
Example: Which one do you prefer?
 
·         Within - Within . . . of
The preposition 'within' is used as a spatial preposition.
Example: Her office is within the sales department.
‘Within’ is also used as a temporal preposition.
Example: I'll finish within the next two weeks. Can you deliver within
48 hours?
'Within . . . of' expresses the distance between two points in space, or
the period between two points in time.
Example: Our house is within two miles of the station. The deadlines
are within a day of expiry.
When used with a gerund, 'within . . . of' expresses a period of time
immediately preceding the completion of an action.
Example: Within ten minutes of my arriving, the phone rang.
 
·         Yet - Not yet
A – ‘Yet’ is used in questions when talking about an event that is
waiting to happen. It is generally put at the end of the clause.
Example: Have you met him yet?
Note. This question is answered as follows: Yes, we have. Yes, we've
met before. - Yes, we've already met him.
B – ‘Not yet’ In the negative form, not (. . .) yet is used.
Example: We haven't started watching the video yet, you can join us.
Note. With 'nobody,' 'not' is avoided.
Example: Nobody has arrived yet.
 

 
·         Emphatic 'do'
Simple affirmative clauses may include the modal auxiliary 'do' to
express emphasis. 'Do' may serve any of the following purposes:
insistence on the speaker's or writer's point of view; confirmation of
what precedes
Example: She does look pretty. He said it would rain and it did rain.
You did get the contract I sent you, didn't you?
Note: The main verb is sometimes omitted.
Example: I was sure I would fail and I did.
to contradict the speaker.
Example: He didn't come to the party yesterday. He did come but he
didn't stay long.
to convince the speaker (It is then used as an imperative).
Example: I can't do it! It's too difficult! Do try again.
Note: In speech, the auxiliary "do" is stressed.
 
·         Anaphoric 'to'
In order to avoid repetition, an infinitive can be replaced by the
particle 'to' (in such cases called an anaphoric 'to') in one of the
following forms.
auxiliary 'used to,' 'ought to' or 'have to'
Example: You don't eat as much as you used to. You don't behave as
you ought to. I don't want to go. You'll have to.
an ordinary verb + an infinitive
Example: I hope he'll get through his exam; he deserves to.
an infinitive clause
Example: Would you like him to call you back? Yes, I'd like him to.
Note. When serving as a passive auxiliary, 'to be' cannot be replaced by
'to.'
Example: You'll be punished as you deserve to be. You're not listening.
You ought to be.
 
·         Uncountable nouns which may take 'a'
Uncountable nouns are usually not preceded by an indefinite article
(e.g., 'a'). There are however exceptions; these include 'pity', 'shame',
'disgrace', 'relief', 'hurry', 'waste', 'mess', 'fuss', and 'shambles'.
Example: What a pity! This is such a waste of time! He's in a big hurry.
 
·         Words ending in 'ever'
The suffix '-ever' is added to some relative pronouns and
interrogatives and may express one of two things: absence of
restriction
Example: Can I withdraw money whenever I like? Choose whichever
book you like.
the idea of possibility in concessive clauses; words ending in '-ever' are
in this case used with the auxiliary 'may', as in the structure 'however'
+ adjective or adverb
Example: Whatever you may think, it was a mistake to trust him.
However clever he may be, he can still do stupid things.
 
·         Can - Could - Be able to
The auxiliary can, in the infinitive form, is ‘to be able to’.
Example: It's great to be able to speak many languages.
The future of the auxiliary can is ‘will be able to’.
Example: Don't worry. I'll (will) be able to pick you up.
The preterite of the auxiliary can is ‘could’.
Example: He could be very kind sometimes. I couldn't hear anything
because of the music.
 
·         Can: perception and knowledge
A - Construction
The modal auxiliary 'can' is conjugated in the same way for all persons.
It doesn't take an -s in the 3rd person singular.
'Can' is followed by the infinitive without 'to'.
Example: He can see me.
B - Use
The auxiliary 'can' has several meanings. It expresses:
involuntary perceptions and operations of the mind.
It is sometimes used before the verbs: to hear, to see, to feel, to
understand...
Example: Don't speak so loud. She can hear you. I cannot (can't)
understand why you're nervous. intellectual ability and knowledge.
'Can' may thus be replaced by ‘to know how to’.
Example: I can swim. = I know how to swim.
She can read. = She knows how to read.
 
·         Can and verbs of perception
The verbs of perception ('to see,' 'to hear,' 'to feel,' 'to understand'... )
can be used with or without the auxiliary ‘can’. The auxiliary ‘do’ is
used in questions and in the negative form.
Example: I can see a nice bird over there. Do you hear a strange noise?
I don't feel the cold.

 
·         Can: ability and likelihood
The auxiliary 'can' is used not only to express perception and the
notion of knowledge, but also ability
'Can' may also be replaced with ‘to be able to’.
Example: As he has big muscles, he can carry heavy bags. (As he has big
muscles, he is able to carry heavy bags.)
likelihood
Example: It can become really humid during the summer in the
Amazon.
 
·         Will - To be going to
‘Will’ expresses an idea in the future but also a willingness (or
refusal in the negative form) and the likelihood of an event happening
repeatedly.
Example: Will you help me, please? I will often have to take the train.
‘Will’ rather than ‘to be going to’ is used with verbs that describe a
thought process such as to think, to know, to remember...
Example: This is too hard. I won't remember it.
‘To be going to’, followed by the infinitive, expresses a notion of
forseeable future, an intention or a conviction. The notions of intention
and immediate future are expressed more clearly by ‘to be going to’
than by ‘will’.
Example: I'm at the station. Are you going to pick me up? Will you pick
me up at the station next Tuesday?
‘To be going to’ is used to express a conviction while ‘will’ only
expresses a prediction or statement.
Example: There are lots of clouds. I'm afraid it's going to rain today.
(Speaker's conviction) On Sunday it will rain on the south coast.
(Weather forecast)
 
·         ''Will' and 'shall''
The future auxiliaries and modals ‘will’ and ‘shall’ express different
ideas.
A – ‘Will’
‘Will’ is used to express: the simple future.
Example: She will start working tomorrow.
an idea of willingness, of choice (offer, asking for help) or agreement,
in questions in the 2nd person singular and plural and in affirmations
in the 1st person singular and plural.
Example: We will make an effort to be as quiet as possible. Will you
have some juice? Thanks, I will. Will you do this for me? Yes, I will.
a refusal or a negative promise in negative sentences for every person.
Example: I won't take his advice seriously. She won't go out tonight.
She's too tired. We won't forget it next time.
‘Will ha’s other less common uses. It expresses: near certainty in the
present.
Example: Ask her. She will know.
an idea of frequency.
Example: When the cat's away, the mice will play.
B – ‘Shall’
‘Shall’ is used:
to ask for an opinion, some advice or to offer something, or in
questions in the 1st person singular and plural.
Example: Shall I take you back home?
in a ceremonious style, for formal promises or orders from the
speaker, in the 2nd and 3rd persons singular and plural.
Example: They shall be rewarded for their work. (I promise they will
be rewarded for their work.) You shall do your homework now. (I want
you to do your homework now.)
to express a prohibition in the negative form.
Example: You shall not interrupt me. She shan't go with you to the
nightclub. She's too young.
in the place of ‘will’, in very formal language, in the 1st person.
Example: We shall (or will) be there by 10 o'clock.
in the place of ‘will’ in the 1st person of the singular and plural at the
beginning of questions to which one can only answer yes or no.
Example: Shall we leave tomorrow?
 
·         Near certainty in the past
'Must have' + past participle expresses near certainty about a fact in
the past.
Example: It must have slipped his mind. The office staff must have
forgotten to put them on the consignment note.
'Must have' + past participle is used above all in the affirmative form.
In the negative form, 'cannot have' + past participle is used.
Example: He can't have done that intentionally.
 
·         'To get' + adjective
'To get' + adjective is used to express the transition from one state to
another.
Example: Let's go before we get all wet. It'll take months before I get
familiar with all this! Put some sunscreen on, or you'll get sunburned.
'To get' + comparative adjective is used to express a change of degree.
Example: When will it get warmer? Every day I get more and more
tired.
 
·         To hope + dependent clause
After 'To hope', either the future, or the simple present may be used to
express a future. However, the present simple is the most commonly
used.
Example: She hopes he'll come. I hope my card won't get swallowed up
this time! He hopes the traffic's all right. I hope the water's deep
enough!
 
·         Use of the past participle as an adjective
A - Construction
Certain past participles may be used as adjectives. The past participle
of regular verbs is formed by adding -ed or -d to the infinitive.
Example: enjoyed (to enjoy) created (to create) designed (to design)
liked (to like)
The construction of the past participle of irregular verbs does not have
a definite rule.
Example: come (to come) made (to make) taken (to take) gone (to go)
B - Use
Past participles used as adjectives usually have passive meanings.
Example: I will fix the broken cup. The cooked meal is waiting for you.
Your soiled clothes are in the launday.
 
·         Expressions followed by the gerund
The following expressions are followed by the gerund (verb with -ing
ending):
to be worth
Example: It's worth trying, you know!
It’s no use
Example: It's no use waiting here.
It’s no good
Example: It's no good staying outside.
There’s no
Example: There's no knowing what he thinks about it.
 
·         Verbs + infinitive clauses
The infinitive clause is used after verbs expressing an order, a wish, a
ban, a preference, a desire which the subject imposes on an object:
verb + noun / complement pronoun + infinitive
The following verbs are normally active when they introduce infinitive
clauses: 'to want,' 'to like,' 'to love,' 'to wish,' 'to get,' and 'to cause.'
Example: He wants John to rent a replacement vehicle. When would
you like your car to be ready? What caused him to change his mind?
The following verbs may be active or passive when they introduce
infinitive clauses: 'to intend,' 'to mean,' 'to force,' 'to compel,' 'to order,'
'to forbid,' and 'to expect.'
Example: He ordered her child to do her homework. He was ordered to
pay at once.
Note. ‘Not’ is placed in front of the infinitive.
Example: He expects you not to say anything.
 
·         Infinitive clause
The infinitive clause is a direct object used with verbs expressing a
strong relationship between the subject of the main clause and the
subject of the infinitive clause. 'To ask,' 'to expect,' and 'to want' are
examples of verbs that may introduce infinitive clauses.
If the subject of the infinitive clause is a pronoun, it is placed as an
object pronoun of the main-clause verb.
Example: I'll ask my secretary to fax you. Do you expect him to pay
more?
Note. In an infinitive clause, any expression of negation is placed in
front of the infinitive.
Example: He advised me not to wait.
'For' precedes infinitive clauses expressing goals.
Example: I've brought this book for you to read.
'For' may also precede objective infinitive clauses that do not express
goals.
Example: I'm waiting for the rain to stop.
Note. 'For' + gerund ('-ing' verb) introduces infinitive clauses
expressing cause.
Example: He was punished for forgetting his homework.
 
·         When 'that' may be left out
The relative pronoun 'that' is often omitted in subordinate/dependent
clauses.
Example: The book he gave me makes me fall asleep. (or The book that
he gave me makes me fall asleep.) The CD-ROM I told you about is
really fun. (or The CD-ROM that I told you about is really fun.)

 
·         Dependent clauses with 'that'
A dependent clause introduced by ‘that’ can be used after verbs
expressing knowledge, perception, opinion, agreement, declaration,
confession, supposition, remembrance, forgetting, hope, surprise, and
fear
'That' is often omitted.
Example: I think (that) Puccini's great. They're saying (that) the sea's
going to be very rough for three days.
Note. Such dependent clauses can be elliptical.
Example: I don't like dogs. I know you don't.
Certain verbs imply the use of ‘should’ in the dependent that-clause.
These are verbs which express an assumption, offer or request, or an
order in formal language.
Example: He insists that she should come.
After verbs such as 'to tell', 'to remind', 'to inform', the dependent
clause is preceded by an object.
Example: He told me that she was ill.
Note. When the verb in such a case is 'to explain,' 'to' precedes the
indirect object.
Example: I explained to them that it would be a good idea to go to
Spain on holiday.
 
·         When - While + present
The verbs of dependent clauses of time introduced by conjunctions of
time (‘after’, ‘as soon as’, ‘as long as’, ‘as much as’, ‘before’, ‘once’, ‘until’,
‘when’, ‘whenever’, ‘wherever’, ‘while’...) are always in the simple
present when the verb of the main clause is in the future.
Example: They'll eat as soon as they arrive. Before we leave, we'll help
with the cleaning. When I come back, I'll call you.
 
·         Always + present continuous
‘Always’, which is normally used with the simple present, is used with
the present continuous to express a repeated action which has an
effect on the speaker.
Example: We're always running, aren't we?
‘Always’ is also used with the present continuous to talk about
unexpected events.
Example: I'm always meeting interesting people at concerts.
 
·         Means with 'by' + gerund
The notion of means can be expressed by:
‘by’ + gerund
Example: How did she gain so much weight? (She gained weight) by
eating a lot of sweets. How did he get that position? (He got that
position) by working hard.
‘by’ + means of + noun
Example: How are you going to increase the sales figures? (I'm going to
increase the sales figures) by means of a huge advertising campaign.
Note. ‘By’ may also be used with noun of means of transport: by bus, by
train, by plane / by air, by car.
Example: How did you manage to go there? - By bus.
 
·         How + adjective or adverb
A great deal of open questions (to which one can't answer either yes or
no) are formed as follows: how + adjective or adverb + verb (or
auxiliary) + subject
Example: How tall are you? How high is Mount Everest? How often do
you go to the cinema?
Note. In indirect questions, the verb is put after the subject: how +
adjective or adverb + subject + verb or auxiliary.
Example: I wonder how far city/town hall is.
 
·         I am told
For certain expressions, the simple present is used instead of the
present perfect, as in: 'I am told' (= 'I understand') instead of 'I've been
told 'I forget' (= 'I can't remember') instead of 'I've forgotten' 'I hear'
instead of 'I've heard'
Example: I am told (I've been told) that you are in charge of the sales
department.
What time is the match tonight? I forget (I've forgotten) to lock the
door.

·         phone numbers in the USA