A Handbook of Prose

For Students of English Study Program

Compiled by

Prof. Dr. Suryo Tri Saksono

Erika Citra Sari Hartanto, M.Hum

University of Trunojoyo Madura

Faculty of Social and Cultural Sciences

English Study Program

2016
APPROVAL SHEET

A HANDBOOK OF PROSE

Compiled by:

Dr. Suryo Tri Saksono

Erika Citra Sari Hartanto, M.Hum

Approved by:

The 1st Vice Dean Head of English Study Program

Faculty of Social and Cultural Sciences

Dinara Maya Julianti, S.Sos., M.Si Erika Citra Sari H., SS., M.Hum

NIP. 19700722 200501 2001 NIP. 19800131 200604 2001

PREFACE

This handbook is intended to be used for Prose course. The materials are taken from
several sources, such as books and websites. The aim of this course is help the students to
acquire information about literary work, especially in the form of prose. The students will
learn the types and characteristics of prose and also learn how to make an analysis upon a
certain literary work. Hence, after enrolling the class, the students are able to recoqnize the
type and characteristics of prose and able to make an analysis upon it.

This handbook is fulfilled with explanation about genre in literature, especially prose
fiction as well as its characteristics and types of prose fiction. It is also provided with details
about the elements of prose fiction, such as plot, setting, character and characterization, point
of view, theme, symbols, and figurative languages. Several examples of student paper in each
topic are included; therefore, students are able to organize a good paper analysis on literary
works.
Course Outline

Subject : Prose I
Code/Credit : ENG / 2(2-0)

Semester : 5

Description : This subject helps the students to acquire information about literary work, especially in the form of prose. The students will
learn the types and characteristics of prose and also learn how to make an analysis upon a certain literary work.

General Aim : After enrolling the class, the students are able to recoqnize the type and characteristics of prose and able to make an analysis
upon it.

REFERE
NO SPECIFIC AIM TOPIC SUBTOPIC TIME METHOD MEDIA
NCE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Introduction to the 1. Genre in literature (1 x 2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
Students are able to define
course 2. The definition of Prose Discussion White Board
1 the definition, types and
3. The characteristics of prose tasking
characteristics of prose
4. The types of prose
Intrinsic elements of 1. Plot (1 x 2x 50) Lecturing LCD A
prose Introduction Discussion White Board
Students are able to define  Raising Action Short story
2 the intrinsic elements of  Climax
prose  Falling Action
 Resolution
2. Conflict
Students are able to define Intrinsic elements of Setting (1 x 2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
3 the intrinsic elements of prose Discussion White Board
prose Short story
Intrinsic elements of 1.Writing about Setting (1 x 2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
Students are able to define prose 2.Sample Essay of Setting Analysis Discussion White Board
4 the intrinsic elements of on Edgar Allan Poe’s ”The Cask of Short story
prose Amontillado”
Students are able to define Intrinsic elements of 1. Character (1 x 2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
5 the intrinsic elements of prose 2. Characterization Discussion White Board
prose 3.Theme Short story
Intrinsic elements of POV (1 x 2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
Students are able to define
prose 1. Omniscient narrator Discussion White Board
6 the intrinsic elements of
2.Limited narrator Short story
prose
an understanding of 1.Theme (1 x 2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
Students are able to define
prose 2.Imagery Discussion White Board
7 the intrinsic elements of
3.Symbol Short story
prose
4.Figurative language
Students acquire an ability Writing A Literary 1.Introduction (1 x2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
8 to write a literary analysis Analysis Paper 2.Body Discussion White Board
paper 3.Conclusion Short story
Students acquire an ability Analizing short story 1. Title, theme, setting (1 x2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
to analyze a certain prose 2. Plot and conflict Discussion White Board
9 3. POV Short story
4. Character and characterization
5. Symbol and figurative language
Students acquire an ability Analyzing short story 1.Title, theme, setting (1 x2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
to analyze a certain prose 2.Plot dan conflict Discussion White Board
10 3.POV Short story
4.Character and characterization
5.Symbol and figurative language
Students acquire an ability Analyzing short story 1.Title, theme, setting (1 x2 x 50) Lecturing LCD A
to analyze a certain prose 2.Plot dan conflict Discussion White Board
3.POV Short story
4.Character and characterization
11 5.Symbol and figurative language

12 Students acquire an ability Analyzing short story 1.Title, theme, setting Lecturing LCD A
to analyze a certain prose 2.Plot dan conflict (1 x2 x 50) Discussion White Board
3.POV Short story
4.Character and characterization
5.Symbol and figurative language
Students acquire an ability Analyzing short story 1.Title, theme, setting (1 x2 x 50) Lecturing LCD
to analyze a certain prose 2.Plot dan conflict Discussion White Board
13 3.POV Short story A
4.Character and characterization
5.Symbol and figurative language
Students acquire an ability Analyzing novella 1.Title, theme, setting (1 x2 x 50) Lecturing LCD
to analyze a certain prose 2.Plot dan conflict Discussion White Board
14 3.POV Short story A
4.Character and characterization
5.Symbol and figurative language

REFERENCE: Saksono, Suryo Tri. A HANDBOOK OF PROSE.

MEETING 1

Basic Competence: Students are able to define the definition, types and characteristics of
prose

Prose is representative of several forms of communication. It is considered the

ordinary language used in speech or writing. Prose has no intentional structural meter and, as
such, dramatic works, fiction, nonfiction and correspondence are all considered prose.

Prose is organized by grouping complete sentences into paragraphs. Prose can be

further sub-categorized according to structure or subject matter. Common structural
classifications include novels, novellas, short stories, memoirs and biographies. Common
subject matter categories, commonly referred to as genre include, but are not limited to,
romance, comedy and horror. These two sub-categories are not necessarily separate with
prose works classified by their structure and genre.

Prose is performed in the shape of dramas and media broadcasts. Dramas, commonly
known as plays, are recorded predominantly in prose dialogue and enacted by actors on the
stage. Television and radio broadcasts similarly have a prose script from which they report.

Nonfiction is a broad spectrum of prose with personal as well as objective accounts.

Testimonials, philosophy, journals and a range of other physical records are written in prose.
Nonfiction is generally written to pass on knowledge.

Types of Prose Fiction

The following definitions are based on Barnet/Berman/Burto 1964, Cuddon 1998,

Hawthorn 1986, Fowler 1987.

The novel can be defined as an extended work of prose fiction. It derives from the

Italian novella (“little new thing”), which was a short piece of prose. The novel has become
an increasingly popular form of fiction since the early eighteenth century, though prose
narratives were written long before then. The term denotes a prose narrative about characters
and their actions in what is recognisably everyday life. This differentiates it from its
immediate predecessor, the romance, which describes unrealistic adventures of supernatural
heroes. The novel has developed various sub-genres:
In the epistolary novel the narrative is conveyed entirely by an exchange of letters.
(e.g. Samuel Richardson, Pamela.)

A picaresque novel is an early form of the novel, some call it a precursor of the
novel. It presents the adventures of a lighthearted rascal (pícaro=rogue). It is usually episodic
in structure, the episodes often arranged as a journey. The narrative focuses on one character
who has to deal with tyrannical masters and unlucky fates but who usually manages to escape
these miserable situations by using her/his wit. The form of the picaresque narrative emerged
in sixteenth-century Spain. Examples are: Cervantes, Don Quixote; and in the English
tradition: Thomas Nash, The Unfortunate Traveler; Mark Twain, The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn; Daniel Defoe, Moll Flanders.

The historical novel takes its setting and some of the (chief) characters and events
from history. It develops these elements with attention to the known facts and makes the
historical events and issues important to the central narrative. (e.g. Walter
Scott, Ivanhoe; Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities)

The bildungsroman (novel of education) is a type of novel originating in Germany

which presents the development of a character mostly from childhood to maturity. This
process typically contains conflicts and struggles, which are ideally overcome in the end so
that the protagonist can become a valid and valuable member of society. Examples are J.W.
Goethe, Wilhelm Meister; Henry Fielding, Tom Jones; Charles Dickens, David
Copperfield; James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.

The gothic novel became very popular from the second half of the eighteenth
century onwards. With the aim to evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery and a variety of
horrors, the gothic novel is usually set in desolate landscapes, ruined abbeys, or medieval
castles with dungeons, winding staircases and sliding panels. Heroes and heroines find
themselves in gloomy atmospheres where they are confronted with supernatural forces,
demonic powers and wicked tyrants. Examples are Horace Walpole, The Castle of
Otranto; Ann Radcliffe, Mysteries of Udolpho; William Faulkner, Absalom! Absalom!

The social novel, also called industrial novel or Condition of England novel, became
particularly popular between 1830 and 1850 and is associated with the development of
nineteenth-century realism. As its name indicates, the social novel gives a portrait of society,
especially of lower parts of society, dealing with and criticising the living conditions created
by industrial development or by a particular legal situation (the poor laws for instance). Well-
known examples are: Elizabeth Gaskell, Mary Barton; Charles Dickens, Oliver
Twist; Benjamin Disraeli, Sybil and Charles Kingsley, Alton Locke.

Science fiction is a type of prose narrative of varying length, from short-story to

novel. Its topics include quests for other worlds, the influence of alien beings on Earth or
alternate realities; they can be utopian, dystopian or set in the past. Common to all types of
science fiction is the interest in scientific change and development and concern for social,
climatic, geological or ecological change (e.g. Mary Shelley, Frankenstein; H.G. Wells, The
Time Machine; Aldous Huxley, Brave New World; George Orwell, 1984; Anthony
Burgess, A Clockwork Orange).

Metafiction is a term given to fictional writing which self-consciously and

systematically draws attention to its status as an artefact in order to pose questions about the
relationship between fiction and reality. It concentrates on the phenomenological
characteristics of fiction, and investigates into the quintessential nature of literary art by
reflecting the process of narrating. (e.g. Laurence Sterne, The Life and Opinons of Tristram
Shandy, Gentleman; John Fowles, The French Lieutenant’s Woman; Doris Lessing, The
Golden Notebook)

A romance is a fictional narrative in prose or verse that represents a chivalric theme

or relates improbable adventures of idealised characters in some remote or enchanted setting.
It typically deploys monodimensional or static characters who are sharply discriminated as
heroes or villains, masters or victims. The protagonist is often solitary and isolated from a
social context, the plot emphasises adventure, and is often cast in the form of a quest for an
ideal or the pursuit of an enemy. Examples: Anonymous, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight;
Sir Philip Sidney, Arcadia; Percy B. Shelley, Queen Mab; Nathaniel Hawthorne, The House
of the Seven Gables.

A short-story is a piece of prose fiction marked by relative shortness and density,

organised into a plot and with some kind of dénouement at the end. The plot may be comic,
tragic, romantic, or satiric. It may be written in the mode of fantasy, realism or naturalism.
MEETING 2:

ANALYZING SHORT STORIES/NOVELS

When analyzing fiction, you should consider the plot, setting, characters, point of view,
imagery, symbolism, tone, irony, and the theme.

PLOT

Plot refers to what happens in the story - events and thoughts which make up the story's basic
structure. The plot is usually composed of an introduction, rising action, a climax, falling
action and an ending that ties the story together.

All plots contain a conflict: a struggle between two or more opposing forces. The conflict
may be internal (person vs. self) or external (person vs. person, person vs. nature, person vs.
society, or person vs. fate).

  What is the story about? What are the main events in the story, and how are they
related to each other?
  Are the main events of the story arranged chronologically, or are they arranged in
another way?
  To what extent is this a "formula" story? How is the story narrated? Are
flashbacks, summaries, stories within the story used?
  Is the plot fast-paced or slow-paced?
  How do the thoughts, behaviours, and actions of characters move the plot forward?
  What are the conflicts in the plot? Are they physical, intellectual, moral or
emotional? Are they resolved? How are they resolved? Is the main conflict between
good and evil sharply differentiated, or is it more subtle and complex?
  What is the climax of the story and at what point in the story does the climax
occur?
  Is the ending of the story happy, unhappy, or indeterminate? Is it fairly achieved?
  Does the plot have unity? Are all the episodes relevant to the total meaning or
effect of the story? Does each incident grow logically out of the preceding incident
and lead naturally to the next?
  What use does the story make of chance and coincidence? Are these occurrences
used to initiate, to complicate, or to resolve the story? How improbable are they?

SAMPLE LITERARY ESSAY

Arielle Samuel
ENG 104, Prof. C. Agatucci
Midterm Literary Analysis Paper 
26 October 2003

Plot and Character in Maupassant’s “The Necklace”

            “Life…is composed of the most unpredictable, disparate, and contradictory elements,”
according to Guy de Maupassant.  “It is brutal, inconsequential, and disconnected, full of
inexplicable, illogical catastrophes” (“The Writer’s Goal" 897).  Utterly to the point with his
words, Guy de Maupassant’s fame as a writer stemmed from his “direct and simple way” of
telling readers what he observed (Chopin 861).  His short story, “The Necklace,” is no
exception.  “The Necklace” is evidence of the literary realism that dominated literature during
the 19th century. Cora Agatucci, a professor of Humanities, states that the subjects of literature
during this time period revolved around “everyday events, lives, [and the] relationships of
middle/lower class people” (Agatucci 2003).  In “The Necklace,” Maupassant describes an
unhappy woman, born to a poor family and married to a poor husband, who suffers
“ceaselessly” from her lower-class lifestyle, “[…] feeling herself born for all the delicacies
and all the luxuries”  (Maupassant 524).  Through the unfolding of the plot and the exquisite
characterization of Mathilde and her husband, Maupassant offers readers a dramatic account
of what could happen when a person is not satisfied with her place in life.

             Ann Charters defines plot as “the sequence of events in a story and their relation to
one another as they develop and usually resolve a conflict” (Charters  1003).  According to
Charters, there are five major parts of a plot.  The exposition explains the characters, the time
period, and the present situation; the rising action introduces a major complication, with
smaller conflicts occurring along the way; the climax, or the dramatic turning point in the
action of the story; the falling action, which helps wrap up the major complication; and
finally, the conclusion of the story (Charters 1004-1005).

            Plot plays a vital role in “The Necklace,” particularly the exposition.  Approximately
one page is devoted entirely to Mathilde’s description, a description of both her physical
appearance as well as her mentality, giving the readers a crystal clear picture of the main
character and the reasons behind her depression.  Mathilde “dressed plainly because she could
not dress well, but she was as unhappy as though she had really fallen from her proper
station,” undoubtedly a station of wealth and prosperity in her mind.  Suffering “from the
poverty of her dwelling,” Mathilde often dreamt of “silent antechambers hung with Oriental
tapestry, lit by tall bronze candelabra” when her own drab furniture and dreary walls angered
her to look at them (Maupassant 524).  The exposition paints Mathilde as a woman who feels
she’s been dealt a poor hand in life, a woman desiring riches far beyond her grasp, which
foreshadows the events to come later in the plot.

            “The action of the plot is performed by the characters in the story, the people who
make something happen or produce an effect” (Charters 1006).  Without the characters, the
plot would be meaningless because the characters bring the plot to life.  Charters also explains
that characters can be one of two types: dynamic or static.  A static character does not change
throughout the story; he or she just stays the same, while a dynamic character is often
described as “round” and often changes throughout the course of the story (Charters 1007). 
The way an author chooses to develop a character affects the entire story, particularly the
climax.  If a character developed as a calm and level headed person, he or she will react
wisely to conflicts or emotional turning points; however, if a character is developed as greedy
and self absorbed, the climax of the story will cause the character to make irrational choices in
the face of conflict, as Mathilde, the dynamic main character of “The Necklace” illustrates.

            Mathilde’s character is consistently unhappy with her own life and her own
possessions, always longing for more than what she has.  When her husband brings home the
invitation to the ball, hoping his wife will be thrilled at the chance to attend such an exclusive
gathering, she instead “threw the invitation on the table with disdain,” because she had
nothing to wear.  At her husband’s suggestion of wearing her theater dress, she simply cries
with grief.  When the dress dilemma is resolved, Mathilde is “sad, uneasy, [and] anxious”
(Maupassant 525).  Her lack of fine jewelry and gems makes her feel that she “should almost
rather not go at all” (Maupassant 526).  Clearly, Mathilde’s character is one with an insatiable
greed for what she does not have. 

            Later in the story, after the precious necklace has been lost, Mathilde’s character
appears to change, taking on the role of a poor woman with “heroism.”  As she is forced to
scrub dishes, wash laundry, and bargain with their “miserable” money, the reader would
assume Mathilde has been humbled by her greed and the price she paid for insisting on
wearing the diamond necklace.  The reader questions the extent of Mathilde’s transformation
when Mathilde sits at her window and ponders the evening of the ball, remembering her
beauty and the attention she received.

            Contrary to Mathilde is her husband, M. Loisel, a character who remains static
throughout the course of “The Necklace.”  M. Loisel seems happy with the small things in
life, desiring only please his wife.  When he sits down to a supper of soup, he exclaims, “Ah,
the good pot-au-feu!  I don’t know anything better than that” (Maupassant 524).  Meanwhile,
Mathilde is picturing food she feels she is worthy of, like “the pink flesh of a trout or the
wings of a quail” (Maupassant 524).   M. Loisel does look his patience once with his wife,
saying to her, “How stupid you are!” (Maupassant 526) when she is upset about her lack of
jewelry.  Other than that small episode, M. Loisel remains fairly consistent throughout the
length of the story.

            The construction of the plot, such as the dramatic climax when Mathilde realizes she
has lost the necklace, combined with the shaping of the two main characters, Mathilde and her
husband, force the reader to realize the unspoken theme of the story.  Mathilde’s envy of other
people’s possessions leads to the eventual demise of her life, while her husband’s contentment
with what he has allows him to remain essentially unchanged, illustrates the theme running
throughout the story, which is the importance of being satisfied with who you are and what
you have, as well as the importance of not wanting or envying what other’s have.  This theme
becomes obvious when, in the exposition, Mathilde’s perspective on her life makes her seem
poor and underprivileged; yet, when the Loisels are forced to make drastic changes in their
way of life, such as firing their maid and moving to more economical lodging, the reader
realizes the poverty Mathilde suffers from is not poverty at all compared to the life they must
lead after they are forced to replace the diamond necklace.

            Without a strong plot that envelops the reader in the ongoing action, a story is not as
powerful or effective; without good characterization of the main characters, there is no
mechanism for the plot to unfold.  If there is not an effective plot with identifiable characters,
the theme of any story is lost to the reader, so clearly the three go hand in hand with each
other.  Maupassant’s ability to communicate facts and descriptions, leaving the emotional
interpretation for the reader, is what he’s known for.  In fact, this ability makes the reader feel
as though Maupassant is telling the story for their ears and hearts only.  Kate Chopin
eloquently wrote, “I like to cherish the delusion that he has spoken to no one else so directly,
so intimately as he does to me” (Chopin 862).

Works Cited

Agatucci, Cora (Professor of English, Humanities Dept., Central Oregon Community

College). “Emergence of the Short Story: Literary Romanticism and Realism-Poe

and Maupassant.” Handout & In-Class Presentation, English 104: Introduction to

Literature-Fiction, Central Oregon Community College [Bend, OR], Fall 2003.

Charters, Ann. “The Elements of Fiction.” [header note.] The Story and Its Writer: An

Introduction to Short Fiction. Compact 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003.

1003-1015.

Charters, Ann. “Guy de Maupassant” [header note.] The Story and Its Writer: An

Introduction to Short Fiction. Compact 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003.

523.

Chopin, Kate. “How I Stumbled upon Maupassant.” [First published 1969.] Rpt. The

Story and Its Writer: An Introduction to Short Fiction. Ed. Ann Charters.

Compact 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003. 861-862.

Maupassant, Guy de. “The Necklace.” [First published 1884.] Rpt. The Story and Its 

Writer: An Introduction to Short Fiction. Ed. Ann Charters. Compact 6th ed.

Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003. 524-530.

Maupassant, Guy de. “The Writer’s Goal.” [First published 1888.] Rpt. The Story and Its 

Writer: An Introduction to Short Fiction. Ed. Ann Charters. Compact 6th ed.

Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003. 896-898.

© 2003, Arielle Samuel

MEETING 3: SETTING

Basic Competence: Students are able to define the definition, types and the usage of setting.

Setting refers to the location of a story or novel in terms of place, time, social
environment, and physical environment.
Place: the geographical location of the story - a country or a city, a large city or a
small village, indoors or outdoors, or both.
Time: the period in history, the season of the year, the day of the month, and/or the
hour of the day in which the events of the story occur.
Social environment: the location of characters and events in a particular society
and/or a particular social class (lower, middle, or upper class).
Physical environment: the details of the location in which the story takes place. These
physical details often indicate the emotional state of the characters or the relationship
between characters.

Three Basic Types of Settings

1. NATURE AND THE OUTDOORS ARE IMPORTANT LOCATIONS FOR
MANY WORKS.

The natural world is an obvious location for the action of many stories, plays, and narrative
poems. It is therefore important to note natural surroundings (hills, shorelines, valleys,
mountains, meadows, fields, trees, lakes, streams); living creatures (birds, dogs, horses,
snakes); and also the times, seasons, and conditions in which things happen (day or night,
summer or winter, sunlight or darkness, wind or stillness, rain or snow, day or night,
fogginess or clarity, heat or cold, dryness or humidity, storminess or calmness)—any or all of
which may influence Character and action.

2. OBJECTS OF HUMAN MANUFACTURE AND CONSTRUCTION ARE VI-

TALLY IMPORTANT IN MANY WORKS.

To reveal or highlight qualities of character, and also to make narratives lifelike,

authors include many details about objects of human manufacture and construction. Houses,
both interi- ors and exteriors, are common, as are possessions, such as walking sticks,
kitchen tables, park benches, distant lights, necklaces, hair ribbons, and rocking chairs.
In Maupassant’s “The Necklace,” the loss of a comfortable home brings out the
best in a character by causing her to adjust to her eco- note reversal. The lugubrious vaults
in Poe’s “The Cask of Amontillado” reveal the similarly lugubrious and sinister nature of
Poe’s narrator.
Objects also enter directly into literary action and character. A broken birdcage
reveals the pathetic husband-wife relationship in Trifles; a letter from abroad brings about the
speaker’s concluding indignation in “Pat- terns”; a telegram occasions the unfortunate
circumstances in “The Story of an Hour”; gunnery practice at sea occasions the speaker's
monologue in Hardy’s poem “Channel Firing”.

3. CULTURAL CONDITIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS FIGURE

S IGNIFICANTLY IN WHAT CHARACTERS DO AND SAY.

Just as physical setting influences characters, so do historic:i1 and cultural

conditions and assumptions. O’Connor’s “First Confession” assumes that readers will
understand the role of the Catholic Church in early—twentieth—century life. In “Dover
Beach,” the speaker assumes an understanding of the religious skepticism that developed in
the nineteenth century.
In Chekhov's The Bear, the action takes place on a relatively isolated nineteenth
—century Russian estate, and the characters therefore see life in ways that are vastly
different from our own. The broad cultural setting of Layton’s poem “Rhine Boat Trip”
brings out the contrast between the beauty of German scenery and mythology, on the one
hand, and the ugliness and insane depravity of German atrocities in, World War II, on the
other.

SETTING IS IMPORTANT IN MANY WAYS

To study the setting in narrative (or play), you need to discover the important details
and then try to explain their FUNCTION. Depending on the author’s purpose, the amount of
detail may vary.
For examples:
a. Poe provides many graphic and impressionistic details in “The Cask of Amontillado,”
so that we can follow, almost visually, the bizarre action at the story’s end.
b. In some works, the setting is so intensely present, like the countryside in Hardy’s
“The Three Strangers,” that it might be considered as an additional participation in the
action.

1. A CREDIBLE SETTING HELPS ESTABLISH LITERARY CREDIBILITY.

One of the major purposes of literary setting is to establish realism or verisimilitude. As
the description of location and objects becomes particular and de tailed, the events of the
work become more believable.
In 'Me Story of an Hour," Chopin gives us details about the inside of the Mallard
household, particularly Louise's room and the stairway landing at the front door. These are
essential aspects of setting for the story's major scenes.
Even futuristic, symbolic, and fantastic stories, as well as ghost stories, seem more believ -
able if they include places and objects from the real world. Hawthome's "Young
Goodman Brown" and Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado" are such stories. Though they
make no pretenses to everyday realism, their credibility is enhanced because their settings
are so realistic.

2. SETTING MAY BE A STRONG GUIDE TO CHARACTER.

Setting, may intersect with character as a means by which authors underscore the importance
of place, circumstance, and time on human growth and change. Glaspell's setting in Trifles is
the kitchen of the lonely, dreary Wright farm. The kitchen is a place of such hard work,
oppression, and unrelieved joylessness that it explains the extinguishing of Minnie's early
brightness and promise, and also helps us understand her angry act.
The way characters respond and adjust to setting can reveal their strength or weakness.
Peyton Farquhar's scheme to make an escape from his fate, even when it is almost literally
hanging before him, suggests his character strength ("An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge").
In contrast, Goodman Brown's Calvinistic religious conviction that human beings are totally
depraved, which not reality but his nightmarish encounter confirms, indicates the weakness of
his character because it alienates him from family and community ("Young Goodman
Brown").

3. AUTHORS MAY USE SETTING AS AN ORGANIZING ELEMENT IN

MANY WORKS.

An author may often use setting to organize a work graphically, as in Maupassant's "The
Necklace" where Mathilde and her husband move from a respectable apartment to a cheap
attic flat. The story's final scene is believable because Mathilde takes a nostalgic walk on the
Champs-Elysées, the most fashionable street in Paris. Without this shift of setting, she would
not have encountered Jeanne Forrestier again, for their ways of life no longer bring them
together.
Another organizational application of place, time, and object is the framing or
enclosing setting, whereby a work begins and ends with descriptions of the same scene, thus
forming a frame or an enclosure. An example is Hardy's "The Three Strangers," which both
begins and ends with a description of the lonely English countryside containing a solitary
cottage ("Higher Crowstairs"), where the main action takes place. The use of objects as a
frame is seen in Mansfield's "Miss Brill," which opens and closes with references to the
heroine's shabby fur piece. In such ways, framing creates a formal completeness, just as it
may underscore the author's ideas about the human condition.

4. SETTINGS MAY SERVE AS LITERARY SYMBOLS.

If the scenes and materials of setting are highlighted or emphasized, they also may be taken
as symbols through which the author expresses ideas.
The horse Toby in. Chekhov's The Bear is such a symbol. Mrs. Popov has made caring for
the horse, which was her 'dead husband's favorite, a major part of her memorial obligations.
When Mrs. Popov tells the servants not to give oats to this horse, Chekhov is using this
ordinary barnyard animal to indicate that new commitments replace old ones.
In Arnold's poem "Dover Beach," the light that gleams from across the English Channel and
that is soon "gone" may be read as a symbol of the extinguishing of intellectual and religious
faith that Arnold believed had taken place in the nineteenth century.

5. SETTING MAY BE USED TO ESTABLISH A WORK'S ATMOSPHERE.

Setting also helps to create atmosphere or mood, which refers to an enveloping or

permeating emotional texture within a work. Most actions require no more than a functional
description of setting. Thus, taking a walk in a forest needs just the statement that there are
trees. However, if a story includes descriptions of shapes, light and shadow, animals, wind,
and sounds, you can be sure that the author is creating an atmosphere or a mood for the action
as in Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown").
There are many ways to develop moods. Descriptions of bright colors (red, orange, yellow)
may contribute to a mood of happiness. The contrast of such bright colors with darkness and
dark colors, as in Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado," may in gloom or augment hysteria.
References to smells and sounds further b the setting to life by asking additional sensory
responses from the real The setting of a story in a small town or large city, in green or snow-
cove fields, or in middle-class or lower-class residences may evoke responses, these places
that contribute to the work's atmosphere.

6. SOME AUTHORS USE SETTING IRONICALLY.

Just as setting may reinforce character and theme, so also it may establish expectations that
the opposite of what occurs. The colorful and orderly garden described Lowell's poem
"Patterns," for example, is an ironic background for, speaker's deep anguish and grief.
Bizarre irony is created by Hardy "Channel Firing" when the noise of large guns being fired
from ships at sea awakens the skeletons buried in an English churchyard. The irony is those
engaged in the gun practice, if "red war" gets still redder, will quickly join the skeletons.
An equally ironic situation is created by Poe in "The Cas of Amontillado," when Montresor
repeats Fortunato's appeal "For the love of God" as he puts in place the final bricks, of
Fortunato's living tomb.
MEETING 4: WRITING ABOUT SETTING

Basic Competence:
In preparing to write about setting, determine the number and importance of locations,
artifacts, and customs. Ask questions such as those in the following section.
Raise Questions to Discover Ideas
 What is the setting of the story?
 Where and when does the action take place?
 How does the setting affect characters in the story?
 Does their environment give them freedom, satisfaction, or enjoyment, or does their
environment make them feel trapped, dissatisfied, or unhappy? Why?
 Be able to describe the social forces and institutions that shape the characters and
their lives: political, social, economic, philosophic, religious, educational, etc.
 Determine to what extent, if at all, the characters are influenced by nature.
 How fully are objects described? How vital are they to the action? How important are
they in the development of the plot or idea? How are they connected to the mental
states of the characters?
 What connections, if any, are apparent between locations and characters? Do the
locations bring characters together, separate them, facilitate their privacy, make
intimacy and, conversation difficult?
 How well done are the visual descriptions? Does the author provide such vivid and
carefully arranged details about surroundings that you might even be able draw a map
or plan? Or is the scenery vague and difficult to imagine?
 How important to plot and character are shapes, colors, times of day, clouds, storms,
light and sun, seasons of the year, and conditions of vegetation?
 Are the characters poor, moderately well-off, or rich? How does their economic lot
determine what happens to them? How does their economic condition affect their
actions and attitudes?
 What cultural, religious, and political conditions are displayed and acted upon in the
story? How do the characters accept and adjust to these conditions? How do the
conditions affect the characters' judgments and actions?
 What is the state of houses, furniture, and objects (e.g., new and polished, old and
worn)? What connections can you find between this condition and the outlook and
behavior of the characters?
 How important are sounds or silences? To what degree is music or other sound
important in the development of character and action?
 Do characters respect or mistreat the environment? If there is an environmental
connection, how central is it to the story?
 What conclusions do you think the author expects you to draw as a result of the
neighborhood, culture, and larger world of the story?

ORGANIZE YOUR ESSAY ABOUT SETTING

INTRODUCTION
Your introduction should contain a brief description of the setting or scenes of the
work, specifying the amount and importance of detail.
BODY
Following are five possible approaches for the bodies of essays on setting. Choose one
that seems appropriate, bearing in mind that some works invite one approach rather than
others. As you develop your essay, however, you may find it necessary to introduce one or
more of the other approaches. Whatever approach you use, be sure to consider setting not as
an end in itself, but rather as illustration and evidence.
1.Setting and action. Explore the importance of setting in the work. How extensively is
the setting described? Are locations essential or incidental to the actions? Does the
setting serve as part of the action (e.g., places of flight or concealment; public places
where people meet openly, or hidden places where they meet privately; natural or
environmental conditions; seasonal conditions such as searing heat or numbing cold;
customs and conventions)? Do any object; cause inspiration, difficulty, or conflict
(e.g., a bridge, a cellar, a fur piece, a walking stick, a necklace, a box, a hair ribbon, a
breadknife, a dead bird)? How directly do these objects influence the action?
2.Setting and organization. How is the setting connected to the various parts of the work?
Does it undergo any changes as the action develops? Why are some parts of the setting
more important than others? Is the setting used as a strue ll tura! frame or an enclosure
for the story? How do objects, such as money or property, affect the motivation of the
characters? How do descriptions made at the start become important in the action later
on?
3.Setting and character. Analyze the degree to which setting influences and interacts with
character. Are the characters happy or unhappy where they live? Do they get into disc
fissions or arguments about their home environments? Do they want to stay or leave?
Do the economic, philosophical, religious, or ethnic aspects of the setting make the
characters undergo changes? What jobs do the characters perform because of their
ways of life? What freedoms or restraints do these jobs cause? How does the setting
influence their decisions, transportation, speech habits, eating habits, attitudes about
love and honor, and general behavior?
4. Setting and atmosphere. To what extent does setting contribute to the atmosphere of
the story? Does the setting go beyond the minimum needed for action or character?
How do descriptive words paint verbal pictures and evoke moods through references
to colors, shapes, sounds, smells, or tastes? Does the setting establish a feeling, say, of
joy or hopelessness, plenty or scarcity? Do events happen in daylight or at night? Do
the movements and locations of the characters suggest permanence or impermanence
(like the return to a darkened room, the creation of a brick wall, or the purchase of a
fragile toy)? Are things warm and pleasant, or cold and harsh? What connection do
you find between the story's atmosphere and the author's apparent thoughts about
existence?
5. Setting and other aspects. Does setting reinforce the story's credibility and meaning?
Does it establish irony about the circumstances and ideas in the story? If you choose
this approach, consult the section earlier in this chapter titled "The Uses That Writers
Make of Setting."

CONCLUSION.
To conclude, summarize your major points or write about related aspects of setting
that you have not considered. Thus, if your essay treats the relationship of setting and action,
your conclusion could mention connections of the setting with character or atmosphere. You
might also point out whether your central idea about setting also applies to other major
aspects of the story.

Sample Essay
Poe's Use of Setting to Create a Mood of Horror
and Repulsion in "The Cask of Amontillado"°
In "The Cask of Amontillado," Edgar Allan Poe uses many details of set ting to create
a mood rof horror and repulsion.* The story is a detailed narration of an act of premeditated
and ghastly vengeance. Poe's character Montresor is both the narrator and the principal
creator of the twisted act of murder. He believes that his vengeance must be known by the
victim, Fortunato, and that it must be threatening and irrevocable. At the end he is uccessful,
and the reader is both fascinated and repulsed by the story's mood of ghastliness and
heartlessness. The mood is established through Poe's descriptions of under ground rooms.
space. and sound.**

The height of Poe's graphic description is the story's evocation of gloomy and
threatening vaults. The journey into the hellish "catacombs of the Montresors" (paragraph
25), which are also the area for the storage of Montresor's wine collection, ends with a room
"lined with human remains, piled to the vault overhead" (paragraph 68). The walls in the
rooms leading to this last, horrible room are dark and damp, and they drip moisture from the
river above; they also become increasingly airless and suffocating. The bones on the walls
and floors are evidence of generations of death. In addition, Montresor uses the bones first to
hide his bricks and mortar and then to disguise the wall within which he entombs Fortunate.
The mood is further fixed by the narrator's observationt that each of the catacomb rooms is
progressively more covered and shrouded by spiderlike white and ghostly films of nitre,
which gloomily suggest increasing death and decay.

The most disturbing of the catacomb rooms is the last one. the "interior recess" which
is to be Fortunato's vertical grave. It is an inauspicious area, which Poe indicates was built
"for no especial use within itself" (paragraph 68), but its dimensions are ominous. It is no
accident that Poe gives us the measurements of the recess. It is four feet deep, three feet
wide, and six or seven feet high—exactly the size of a large coffin standing on end. The
failure of the faltering torches to illuminate the area suggests the ending of breath and light,
and the beginning of death. What could be more appropriately sinister, distressing, and
ghostly?

The rooms not only provoke horror but also are spatially arranged to complement
Montresor's horrible act of vengeince. To reach these increasingly dark areas, the characters
must walk downward. A circular staircase begins the descent, followed by-a first and then a
second set of stairs that end_ in the last deep crypt. The downward direction is like an
inevitable journey to, ward the grave, and it also suggests a journey into a bleak, cold, dark,
and damp hell.

Within this interior of death. Poe adds the eeriness of fearsome sound. Fortunato has
a terrible rasping cough, to which Poe devotes an entire paragraph (paragraph 32). The
jingling of the bells on Fortunato.'s carnival cap ap Rears at first ordinary (paragraph 26),
then bizarre (paragraph 40), and finally sepulchral (paragraph 89). Fortunato's attempt to get
free of the chains results in desperate clanking (paragraph 76). He also moans (paragraph
76), laughs in fear and disbelief (paragraph 78), speaks weakly and sadly (paragraph 78), and
at the end is silent (paragraph 89). Perhaps the most grisly sounds described by Poe are those
of Fortunato's screams of protest, which Montresor cruelly stifles by screaming even louder
and longer (paragraph 77)—an action that was duplicated by the insane man in the film The
Silence of the Lambs. These described sounds, having their source in Montresor's diabolical
action) create a mood of uneasiness, anxiety, repulsion, and horror.
Thus Poe's setting within the eerie catacombs is both descriptive and evocative. The
major action takes place in the last room, in the grave like recess, leading to the climax of
the story's movement into darkness and the very walls of death. In this way, Poe uses his
setting to show the horror of how a twisted and depraved person carries out a cruel and
pitiless act of revenge. The events of the story, the sustained mood, and the narrator's
compulsion with vengeance are all tied together by Poe's skillful control of setting.

(* Central Idea)
(** Thesis Sentence)
MEETING 5: CHARACTERS

Basic competence: Students are able to define the intrinsic elements of prose

Characters are the people (or animals!) in a story. The term character refers to
people's outward appearance and behaviour and also their inner emotional, intellectual, and
moral qualities. Most stories have a main character (the protagonist or hero/heroine), whose
personality traits move the plot forward and contribute to conflict. Many stories also have at
least one minor character, who is not the focus of the story but who still plays an important
role. Sometimes characters provide contrasts with one another.
CHARACTER ANALYSIS ESSAY

Character in literature is an extended verbal representation of a human being,

specifically the inner self that determines thought, speech, and behaviour. Through dialogue,
action, and commentary, literature captures some of the interactions of character and
circumstance. Literature makes these interactions interesting by portraying characters who
are worth caring about, rooting for, and even loving, although there are also characters at
whom you may laugh or whom you may dislike or even hate.

In literature you may expect completeness of context. That is, you may think of each
action or speech, no matter how small or seemingly unusual, as an accumulating part of a
total portrait. Whereas in life things may "just happen", in literature the actions, interactions,
speeches, and observations are all arranged to give you the details you need for conclusions
about character. From these happenings in their contexts you make inferences about the
characters involved. In effect, you determine the "character" of the various characters.

In writing about a literary character, you should try to describe the character’s major
trait or traits. As in life, characters may be lazy or ambitious, anxious or serene aggressive or
fearful, assertive or bashful, confident or self-doubting, adventurous or timid, noisy or quiet,
visionary or practical, reasonable or hotheaded, careful or careless, fair or partial,
straightforward or underhanded, "winners" or "losers", and so on. With this sort of list, to
which you may add at will, you can analyze and write about character.

The appearance of a character is also worth noticing. Often a writer gives physical
features to a character in order to match them or contrast them with some aspect of the
character’s mind and personality. Even the name of the person may be significant. Charles
Dickens, for example, uses character names with efficacy. He names one of his characters, a
brutal schoolmaster, "Wackford Squeers". The name conjures up a man given to thrashing his
pupils (literally giving them "wacks").

When you study character, be sure to consider physical descriptions, but also be sure
to relate the physical to the mental, Suppose your author stresses the neatness of one
character and the sloppiness of another. Most likely, these descriptions can be related to your
character study. The same also applies to your treatment of what a character does. Go beyond
the actions themselves and try to indicate what they show about the character. Always try to
get from the outside to the inside, for it is on the inside that character resides.

One last thing to notice before going on to write your essay on character is how the
writer has chosen to show the character to you. In preparing your theme, you should look for
the following four specific ways in which writers may give you information about character.
Always remember that authors rely on you for the knowledge of ordinary behaviour.

o What the characters themselves say (and think, if the author expresses their
thoughts). On the whole, speeches may be accepted at face value to indicate
the character of the speaker. Sometimes, however, a speech may be made
offhand, or it may reflect a momentary emotional or intellectual state. Thus, if
characters in deep despair say that life is worthless, you must balance this
speech with what the same characters say when they are happy. You must also
consider the situation or total context of a statement, and whether speeches
show change or development. A despairing character might say depressing
things at the start but happy things at the end. Your analysis of such speeches
should indicate how they show change in your character.
o What the characters do. You have heard that "actions speak louder than
words", and you should interpret actions freely as signs of character.
Sometimes you may find that action is inconsistent with words. Here you
might have hypocrisy, weakness or an approaching change of character.
o What other characters say about them. In literature, as in life, people always
talk about other people. If the speakers are shown as honest, you may usually
accept their opinions as accurate descriptions of character. But sometimes a
person’s prejudices and interests distort what that person says. You know, for
example, that the word of a person’s enemy is usually slanted, unfair, or even
untrue. Therefore, an author may give you a good impression of characters by
having a bad character say bad things about them. Similarly, the word of a
close friend or political manager may be biased in favor of a particular
character. You must always consider the context and source of all dramatic
remarks before you use them in your analysis.
o What the author says about them, speaking as storyteller or observer. What
the author says about a character is usually to be accepted as truth. Naturally,
authors must be accepted on matters of fact. But when they interpret the
actions and characteristics of their characters, they themselves assume the
critic’s role, and their opinions may be either right or wrong. For this reason,
authors frequently avoid interpretations and devote their skill instead to
arranging events and speeches so that their conclusions are obvious to the
reader.

QUESTIONS ABOUT CHARACTERS:

 Who is/are the main character(s) in the story? What does the main character look like?

 Describe the main character's situation. Where does he/she live? Does he/she live
alone or with others? What does the main character do for a living, or is he/she
dependent on others for support?

 What are some of the chief characteristics (personality traits) of the character? How
are these characteristics revealed in the story? How does the main character interact
with other characters? Note the degree of complexity of his/her behaviour, thought,
and feelings; their appearances, their habits, mannerisms, speech, attitudes and values.
What is the main character's attitude towards his/her life? Is he/she happy or sad,
content or discontented? Why?

 What sort of conflict is the character facing? How is this conflict revealed? Is it
resolved? If so, how?

 What means does the author use to reveal character? Are the characters sufficiently
dramatized? What use is made of character contrast?

 Are the characters consistent in their actions? Adequately motivated? Plausible? Does
the author successfully avoid stock characters?

 Is each character fully enough developed to justify his role in the story? Are the main
characters round or flat?

 Is any character a developing character? If so, is his change a large or a small one? Is
it a plausible change for him? Is he sufficiently motivated? Is the change given
sufficient time?

 At the end of the story, is the main character different from how he/she was at the
beginning of the story? In what way has the character changed? What has caused this
change?

SAMPLE ESSAY
The Character of Mathilde Loisel in Guy de Maupassant’s The Necklace

Guy de Maupassant’s character Mathilde Loisel, in "The Necklace", is above all a dreamer.
Her dreams make her both weak and strong. Her weakness is that her dream is not to have
high ideals, but rather to have a life of ease and wealth. Her strength is her willingness to
work to keep her dreams of honor. De Maupassant shows her qualities in the introduction, the
cover up, and the poverty she endures.

In the early part of the story Mathilde is a young housewife dreaming about wealth. She
thinks money is everything and her highest aim is ease and luxury, which she thinks that she
was somehow born to have. Her husband, a lower-rank clerk, can afford only a small
household. Mathilde gets angry at this gap between her dream and the reality of her life. The
result is that she is not able to like anything that she has. She does not treat her husband with
love and respect, but whines at him instead about their condition. Her borrowing of the
necklace for the big party is, in a way, her attempt to escape her drab life and live out her
dream, if only for a night.

The cover-up of the loss of the necklace brings out the worst in Mathilde. She believes more
strongly in the real value of the jewels than in her friendship with Jeanne Forrestier. If she
had told the truth to Jeanne, she would never have had the trouble she faced. But her
character is too weak to permit her to endure the embarrassment that the truth would bring
out. Thus, by covering up, she loses friendship, truth, and financial future all at the same
time.
But her life of poverty and sacrifice to pay back the moneylenders bring out her strengths.
She pitches in to work. She gives up her servant, her good address, and everything else
connected with her dreams of good living. Although her character is excellent in this respect,
her hard work makes her loud and coarse, just the opposite of the wealthy, refined person she
dreamed of becoming.

Thus Mathilde is a character whose dream life keeps her from seeing the truth until the truth
hits her with a vengeance. It is this weakness, not her bad luck, that gives her all her pain. It is
this same weakness that brings out her best quality of sharing the work to preserve her honor
and good name. She may be dreamy, unlucky, and foolish, but she is not bad. On balance, she
comes out looking good, getting a life that is much worse than she deserves.

Extracts taken from: Roberts, Edgar V., Writing Themes About Literature, New Jersey,
Prentice-Hall, 1983

MEETING 6: POINT OF VIEW

Basic Competence: Students are able to define the intrinsic elements of prose
Point of view is the perspective from which a story is told. The author creates a
narrator to tell the story. It is through the narrator's perspective (through the narrator's eyes
and mind) that readers learn what is happening in a story. Do not make the mistake of
thinking that the narrator of a story is the author. Remember that the point of view and
the narrator are tools created and used by the author in order to tell a story in a certain way.
The narrator of a story does not necessarily express the author's opinions.

QUESTIONS ABOUT POINT OF VIEW

 What point of view does the story use? Is the story told from a first-person
perspective, in which the narrator is one of the characters in the story, and refers to
himself or herself as "I"? Or is the story told from a third-person perspective, in which
the narrator is not one of the characters in the story or may not participate in the
events of the story?
 Is it consistent in its use of this point of view? If shifts are made, are they justified?
 What are the advantages of the chosen point of view? Does it furnish any clues as to
the purpose of the story?
 Is the narrator reliable or unreliable? Does he/she have a limited knowledge or
understanding of characters and events in the story? Does the narrator know almost
everything about one character or every character, including inner thoughts?
 Look for a first person narrator, an omniscient narrator (one who knows all and tells
all), a "central observer," who seems to be looking over a main character's shoulder
and seeing more than the character possibly can.
 Decide whether the narrator assists the story or needlessly confuses it.
 Does the author use point of view primarily to reveal or conceal? Does he ever
unfairly withhold important information known to the focal character?
Sample Student Essay on Katherine Mansfield’s “Miss Brill”
 
It was written in response to the following assignment:
Discuss how the author's choice of a particular point of view helps
communicate a central theme of the tale.  Develop a clear argument to show
how the narrator's point of view is essential to the audience's recognizing
and understanding the theme.  Support your argument with specific
observations and analysis.  

Mansfield’s “Miss Brill”

     This short story is narrated in the third person from the point of view of the
limited omniscient narrator who primarily acts as the voice of the story’s protagonist, Miss
Brill. By telling the story through the eyes of the protagonist, Mansfield is able to convey to
the reader the protagonist’s loneliness and the lack of self-awareness. She offers no
explanation as to the Miss Brill’s past, leaving it to the readers to draw their own conclusions.
At the same time the author provides illuminating insights into the protagonist’s character
and lifestyle that effectively communicate to the reader the theme of this short story. The
central theme of “Miss Brill” is the pain of loneliness, and inadvertent attempts to experience
life through the experiences of total strangers.
    From the beginning of the narrative it becomes apparent that Miss Brill is starving
for warmth and companionship. She tenderly caresses her fur as if it were a beloved pet when
she rubbs “the life into the dim little eyes” (p.50) of the old fox boa. Another sign of Miss
Brill’s need for companionship is evident in her perception of the music which the band is
playing at the Jardins Publiques: “It was like some one playing with only the family to listen
(p.50).” Despite of her loneliness, she is considering herself a part of this family that the band
is entertaining with its music. But in reality she is more of an observer, a voyeur, and not an
active participant in life as it unfolds at the Jardins Publiques. She is looking forward to
eavesdropping on other people’s conversations, believing herself to be quite an expert in
remaining unnoticed. Miss Brill adopts a more critical, at times even hostile, attitude toward
the women that she observes in the park than toward their male companions: she views the
man who shares her “special” seat as “a fine old man,” while the woman is “a big old woman
(p.50).” When she recollects the events of the previous Sunday at the park, she remembers a
patient Englishman with the difficult to please wife, whom “Miss Brill wanted to shake
(p.50).” These observation of the women carry perhaps a note of envy that she feels toward
the women who have male companionship.
    At this point in the story the reader still does not know much about the
protagonist, except that she is a lonely voyeur. Then one of her observations about the “odd,
silent, nearly all old people, and from the way they stared they looked as though they’d just
come from dark little rooms or even – even cupboards! (p.51)” whom she sees every Sunday
at the park hints to the reader that she might be one of those people. The pieces of the puzzle,
of course, fall into place at the end of the story, when the protagonist’s room is described as
“the little dark room-her room like a cupboard (p.52).” This is the conclusion of the story,
when Miss Brill is able to see herself and her surroundings in the new light. Her new self-
awareness is brought about by disparaging remarks of the young lovers who refer to Miss
Brill as “that stupid old thing (p.52),” and to her precious fur as “a fried whiting (p.52).” This
is Miss Brill’s moment of epiphany. She is as old as the other park-goers, her fur is a pitiful
necklet, and she foregoes her usual Sunday slice of honeycake. In spite of her newly found
self-awareness, Miss Brill still denies some of her own emotions when “she thought she
heard something crying (p.52)” at the very end of the story. The tears are obviously her own.

Work Cited

 Mansfield, Katherine. “Miss Brill.” An Introduction to Fiction. Ed. X.J. Kennedy and

Dana Gioia. 7th ed. New York: Longman, 1999. 50-52
MEETING 7: THEME, IMAGERY, SYMBOLS

Basic Competence: Students are able to define the intrinsic elements of prose.

 THEME

A theme is a truth that a story reveals. A theme is rarely directly stated by the author. Instead,
the reader must discover the theme by questioning and examining the meaning from details in
the story. Usually themes deal with general areas of human experience, for example: the
nature of humanity or society, the relationship of human beings to the environment, or the
question of moral responsibility. A theme is a statement about how things are in the world.

Themes often focus on one of these issues:

 The nature of humanity
 The nature of society
 The relationship between humanity and nature
 Ethical responsibility

Examples of Themes:

Seeing examples of themes in a story can help you gain a stronger understanding of theme.
The short story “The Necklace” by Guy de Maupassant tells about a woman in 19th century
France who tries to pretend that she is richer than she is by borrowing a necklace from a rich
acquaintance. Unfortunately, she loses the necklace and ends up spending years doing
backbreaking labour to earn money to replace it. Ironically, after all her hard work, she learns
that the necklace she borrowed was not real. It was just a cheap copy. That is the plot of the
story.

In writing about this story, students have identified the following themes:
1. In “The Necklace”, de Maupassant shows that when people strive for what they can’t have,
they often lose what they do have. (nature of humanity)
2. De Maupassant suggests that the class system in 19th century France was insurmountable.
(nature of society)
3. De Maupassant suggests that dishonesty can hurt most the person who is dishonest. (ethical
responsibility) Discovering Themes in Literature RS4.20 J.Robinson/2006 2
4. “The Necklace” shows how personal tragedy can lead to strength of character.
5. De Maupassant shows how chance can often play a role in people’s lives.
6. De Maupassant presents false pride as the road to loss of freedom.
7. According to de Maupassant, women are inferior.

These examples show a number of key points about theme:

 A work can have many themes.
 A theme is a complete sentence, not just a topic or subject.
 A theme dramatizes ideas about life.
 A theme does not describe specific characters in the story; it describes people in
general.
 A theme does not describe the work of literature; instead, it notes an important
comment the work makes about life.
 A theme is not an opinion of the student; it is an idea that the student sees revealed in
the work.
 A theme may not have been consciously put forward by the author; it may simply be
something that a reader infers based on what the author says in the work.

Analyzing for Theme

When analyzing a work for theme, make note of the following:
1. What are some real life issues reflected in the work? Make a list.
2. What does the author say about those issues, directly or indirectly?
3. Why did the author write this work? What point is the author trying to make through
writing this novel/poem/etc.?
4. What does the work tell us about how people behave?
5. What does the work tell us about how the society affects the individual?
6. What does the work tell us about the relationship of people to nature?
7. What does the work tell us about right and wrong?
8. Which of these subjects and themes seem most important in the work?
9. Which of the themes seem most meaningful and interesting to you?
10.For these important, meaningful, or interesting themes, identify things in the work which
suggest these themes. Look at titles, chapter headings, names, plot, characters, settings,
imagery and symbolism, and at things people say and do.
11. Consider if there is anything in the story that contradicts these themes.

 IMAGERY

Imagery refers to the collection of images in a work of fiction: the mental pictures created by
the author's words. Writers use concrete images to go beyond physical description in order to
express feelings and states of mind. Most images are created through words that appeal to the
reader's five senses.
For example, a pink flower may appeal to the reader's sense of sight or smell and bring forth
pleasant associations with springtime or a holiday memory. The colour green suggests youth
and life; white, purity.

 What scenes, moments, descriptive passages, phrases, or words stand out in your
reading of the story?
 Did a particular image make you feel happy, or frightened, or disturbed, or angry?
Why?
 Which of your five senses did this image appeal to? · What do you associate with this
image, and why? What do you think the author wants you to feel about a certain
image?
 How do you think your reactions to the imagery in the story contribute to the overall
meaning of the story?

 SYMBOLISM
A symbol is something that represents something else. It is an image of an event or a physical
object (a thing, person, or place) that is used to represent something non-physical such as an
idea, a value, or an emotion. Authors use symbols to suggest meaning. A heart, for example,
symbolizes love. One symbol may suggest more than one meaning.

 What are some of the symbols in the story?

  Are there any objects which seem to have a symbolic meaning? What are their
meanings?
  Do any people act as symbols in the story? What do they represent?
  Do aspects of the story's setting seem symbolic? In what way?
  Is one symbol used throughout the story or do the symbols change?

SAMPLE ESSAY

Things Fall Apart: Examining Literary Merit

by Feross Aboukhadijeh

In Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, the reader is taken on a literary journey to a
Nigerian tribe, the Umuofia, to experience first-hand the struggles of a warrior named
Okonkwo. At first glance, the novel appears to be written for a very specific audience:
scholars familiar with Nigerian history, traditions, and culture. However, upon further
examination the novel reveals itself to be a striking chronicle of human experiences, universal
themes, and timeless struggles that appeal to every human, regardless of familiarity with
Nigerian culture. Taken as a whole, the novel appears to be much more than the sum of its
parts: syntax, diction, figurative language, imagery, repetition, and symbols. Things Fall
Apart is a novel with literary merit—and lots of it.

Part of the novel’s appeal lies in its compelling themes which strike chords that
resound throughout time and across linguistic barriers. The clash of cultures, the struggle
with change, and fatal character flaws are the main themes which Achebe’s novel probes. In
order to sculpt a literary monument to the human condition and these universal themes, the
author, Achebe, employs a broad variety of literary tools. Literary devices play a crucial role
in enhancing the novel’s main themes and earning Things Fall Apart its widespread
acceptance as a quality piece of literature.

The clash of cultures is undoubtedly one of the most universal themes seen in
literature. This cultural clash can be seen throughout life and history anytime two groups of
people hold differing views that cannot coexist. Even today, Western and Eastern cultures—
the U.S. and China are one example; the Palestinians and Israelis are another—continue their
struggles to reconcile dissimilar beliefs through negotiation, and in some cases, armed
conflict. Similarly, the European missionaries and the native Umuofians struggle to coexist
peacefully. However, the relationship between the Europeans and the Umuofians is one-
sided.

When the Europeans arrived in Umuofia, they brought Christianity with them but
did not foist it upon anyone; joining the church was entirely optional. But over time, the
missionaries became increasingly aggressive—even hostile—to the native Umuofian beliefs
and culture. Slowly, the Europeans erode the native beliefs and come to dominate the native
society. Achebe expresses the effects of the missionaries clearly through the repeated
imagery of the tribal drums. The signature Umuofian drums are heard many times throughout
the story—until the Europeans arrive in the tribe—after which the drums are heard no more.
The tribal drums are a symbol of tribal unity. “The drums were still beating, persistent and
unchanging. Their sound was no longer a separate thing from the living village. It was like
the pulsation of its heart. It throbbed in the air, in the sunshine, and even in the trees, and
filled the village with excitement” (44). Any time Achebe mentions the sound of the drums,
Umuofian society is functioning properly. Every clansman knew his place and purpose in
life; the tribe worked together, functioning as a single unit. Indeed, the drums seemed to have
Umuofia under a spell. “Old men nodded to the beat of the drums and remembered . . . its
intoxicating rhythm” (47). However, the constant repetition of the drum imagery before the
European missionaries arrive stands in stark contrast to the lack of drums throughout the
latter half of the novel.

After the Christian missionaries arrive in Umuofia, they immediately begin to

evangelize the locals. One method they used to captivate the tribesmen was to sing hymns.
“Then the missionaries burst into song. It was one of those gay and rollicking tunes of
evangelism which had the power of plucking at silent and dusty chords in the heart of an Ibo
man” (146). And pluck at Umuofian hearts the missionaries did. Achebe uses imagery of the
“silent” and “dusty” Umuofian man’s heart being quenched by the Christian music to
demonstrate the European point-of-view. No doubt, the missionaries believed that they were
bringing salvation (water) to a savage people (living in the desert). When Okonkwo returns
from his seven year exile, he finds the Europeans dominating Umuofian culture—even
controlling the Umuofian government. The tribal unity has been shattered. Family ties—once
so important in Umuofian society—are now nearly meaningless. In this clash between
tradition and change, change was the clear-cut winner.

In addition to cultural clash, Achebe explores the theme of masculinity versus

femininity, and in doing so, reveals Okonkwo’s fatal character flaw: hyper-masculinity.
Okonkwo is motivated by a desire to prove himself superior to his father, who was cowardly
and irresponsible and died a poor man with many unpaid debts. He viewed his father as
overly pensive, slow to act, and effeminate (womanly). Therefore, Okonkwo adopts opposite
traits; Okonkwo is rash, quick to act, and excessively violent (Okonkwo associates violence
with masculinity). Achebe uses figurative language like metaphors and similes to compare
Okonkwo to a fire. “. . . Okonkwo's fame had grown like a bush-fire in the harmattan . . .”
(1). Okonkwo gained power and importance in Umuofian society by burning lesser people as
fuel. Just like a brush-fire, Okonkwo’s fame, importance, and prestige grew stronger the
longer he burned. He continued to burn strong into adulthood. “. . . [The drums] filled him
with fire as it had always done from his youth. He trembled with the desire to conquer and
subdue” (42). Okonkwo’s inner fire is what allowed him to conquer Umuofian society and
rise above the disgrace of his father.

As his fame and popularity increased, Okonkwo pursued his ideal of masculinity.
Okonkwo constantly distanced himself from anything even remotely feminine. He constantly
reminded himself of his masculinity and strove to make sure all his clansmen knew of it as
well. “Okonkwo was popularly called the ‘Roaring Flame.’ As he looked into the log fire he
recalled the name. He was a flaming fire” (153). The metaphor of fire is perfect to describe
Okonkwo’s character, and yields a deep analysis of human feelings and personality. Like a
fire, Okonkwo is violent, and burns whatever he touches. In many cases, he “burns” his own
family. Throughout the novel, Okonkwo nags on his wives and son, beats his family, and
kills three innocent people—not to mention himself, as well. In many cases, he hurts his
family for trivial reasons. For instance, Okonkwo chastised and beat his son, Nwoye, for
merely listening to his mother’s stories. He beat Nwoye again when he discovered him
helping women with their household tasks. Okonkwo saw within Nwoye the same
“effeminate” essence of his the father whom he hates so much.

Although Okonkwo’s fiery personality is what allowed him to succeed in Umuofian

society, his destructive nature also led to his eventual suicide. As the Europeans gained
influence and political clout in the Umuofian government, Okonkwo saw his own power and
influence at risk. When the Europeans finally succeed in taking control of the government,
then Okonkwo—like a fire without any fuel—dies, a victim of his own nature. And this is the
beauty of Achebe’s fire metaphor, which is seen throughout the novel.

Ultimately, the success of Things Fall Apart as a novel of literary merit is due to
Achebe’s use of universal literary themes like self-exploration, change, tradition, cultural
clash, and masculinity versus femininity. No matter what language is spoken by the reader or
what time period they come from, Achebe’s writing about the human experience is relevant
and meaningful. Of course, not all scholars agree with the assertion that Things Fall
Apart has literary merit. However, this is not important. Achebe’s skillful use of literary
devices like metaphor, simile, imagery, and repetition demonstrate the quality of writing.
Achebe’s understanding of the “human experience” demonstrates the relevance of theme.
And the number of copies of the novel sold (over two million worldwide) demonstrates the
universality of the story. It is safe to say that Things Fall Apart has earned widespread
acceptance as a quality piece of literature.
MEETING 8:

WRITING A LITERARY ANALYSIS PAPER

Basic Competence: Students acquire an ability to write a literary analysis paper

The Purpose of a Literary Analysis:

A literary analysis is not merely a summary of a literary work. Instead, it is an argument
about the work that expresses a writer’s personal perspective, interpretation, judgment, or
critical evaluation of the work. This is accomplished by examining the literary devices, word
choices, or writing structures the author uses within the work. The purpose of a literary
analysis is to demonstrate why the author used specific ideas, word choices, or writing
structures to convey his or her message.

How to Create a Literary Analysis:

1. Read the text closely several times.

Focus on the ideas that are being presented. Think about the characters’ development and the
author’s writing technique. What might be considered interesting, unusual, or important?
2. Brainstorm a list of potential topics.
Highlight important passages in the text and take notes on these passages. Later, when
writing the paper, these notes should help a writer to remember which aspects of the story
caught his/her attention. The topic chosen should always be based on a writer’s interpretation
of the author’s message. Here are some things a writer may want to consider when
brainstorming for a literary analysis.
􀂙 Character: What observations might a writer make about the
characters? Are there discrepancies in what they think, say, or do? Are the
observations a writer makes different from what other characters say? How does
the author describe the characters? Are the characters “dynamic” (a dynamic
character is a character that undergoes important changes throughout the work)?
Are the characters “static” characters (a static character is a character that stays
the same throughout the work)? Are the characters “flat” characters (a flat
character is a character that does not have vivid character traits) or “round”
characters (a round character is a character that has vivid character traits)? Are
the characters symbolic or representative of some universal quality? Is it
possible that two characters in the text might be compared or contrasted?
􀂙Setting: Is there a relationship between the work’s setting and its
mood? Does the setting reflect the work’s theme? How does the setting impact
the characters? Does a change in the setting affect the mood, characters, or
conflict?
􀂙 Plot: How might the beginning of the work be interpreted? How does
the plot build suspense? Does the author use techniques such as foreshadowing or
flashback? Are there patterns of cause-effect relationships? Do events occur in a
logical order? Examine the events that lead to the climax and determine how the
work ends?
􀂙 Theme: What is the major idea or theme of the work? How does the
author relay this theme? Is there a greater meaning to the details given? How do
the characters’ moods affect the theme? What allusions are made throughout the
work? Are there repeating patterns or symbols? What does the title say about the
theme?
􀂙 Dialogue: What is the purpose of the dialogue? Is the dialogue
appropriate in terms of word choice or sentence length? How does the dialogue
impact the characterization? How does the author use the dialogue to show the
mood of the characters? How does this aid the author’s message? How does the
dialogue impact the plot?
􀂙 Imagery: In what way might a specific image or series of images be
analyzed? How might the development of images throughout the work be
explained? Are the images important to the meaning of the work? How are
images interrelated with other literary elements?
􀂙 Figures of speech: How are figures of speech such as similes,
metaphors, and hyperboles used throughout the text? How are these figures of
speech important in relation to the meaning of the text? Are figures of speech
interrelated between other literary elements?
􀂙 Tone: How might describe the attitude of the author or the tone of the
work be described? Is the tone serious, playful, casual, formal, or somber? How
does the author achieve this tone? How does the tone impact the author’s
message? Does the author say one thing but mean another? Does the author take
the subject seriously or treat it lightly?
􀂙 Rhyme/Rhythm: Do the author’s words, sentences, or paragraphs
seem to share a similar rhyme pattern? What type of rhythm does the author seem
to be creating? How is this rhyme/rhythm impacting the author’s message? Does
the author use the different rhymes/rhythms as a sound device for the literary
work? How does the author do this?
􀂙 Point of View: What point of view do the characters display? First,
second, or third? How does this point of view affect the theme, plot, or conflict of
the work? How might the author’s point of view impact a writer’s analysis?
Might the character’s first person point of view draw a writer to feel as though
he/she is hearing a personal account and cause him/her to feel an intimate
connection with the character? Might the author’s third person account cause a
writer to feel as if the author is acting as the narrator of the story? Or might it
cause a writer to believe that the narrator is an omniscient being who is distant
but knows the character’s thoughts and feelings?

3. Think about what the author is trying to say. Why is this important? When viewing this
work as a piece of art, what might a writer’s response be? What might a writer’s reactions be
to the ideas presented in the work? Are these ideas truthful or relevant to today and how? If a
writer were asked what they thought of this work how might they respond? What points
might a writer make?”

4. Select a topic that has sufficient supporting evidence. A writer should make sure to
include specific details to support the topic. Use highlighted sections of the book as evidence
to support the topic that has been chosen.

5. Write a working thesis. The analysis will need a strong thesis that states a writer’s
perspective but also allows it to be debated. The thesis should state a writer’s opinion, but it
should also allow readers to arrive at their own conclusions.
􀂙 Example of a debatable thesis:
Pride and Prejudice is about Elizabeth Bennet’s effort to overcome her own
proud behavior and discrimination towards Mr. Darcy, as well as how her
family is affected by the haughtiness and preconceptions of the society around
them.
(This is a debatable thesis because it asks the reader, “Does Elizabeth
actually exhibit haughtiness and preconceptions? Is this why she doesn’t get
along with Mr. Darcy? How is Elizabeth’s family affected by the haughtiness
and preconceptions of the society around them?”)

􀂙 Avoid a non-debatable thesis:

Pride and Prejudice is about five sisters and their journey to find love.
(This thesis is non-debatable because it is undisputable. The paper is framed
as a summary rather than as a literary analysis.)

6. Make an extended list of evidence. Find more evidence from the text to support the
working thesis. Then select the evidence that will be used in the paper.

7. Refine the thesis. Make sure the thesis fits with the evidence that has been presented.

8. Organize the evidence. Match the evidence to the order of the thesis. Delete any of the
original textual supports that may no longer follow the thesis, and gather new evidence if
needed.
9. Interpret the evidence. When writing a literary analysis, it is very important for writers to
make sure they express their own personal interpretation of the work. Be careful that the
literary analysis is not a summary.

10. Create a rough draft. When writing a rough draft, there are several methods that may
aid a writer in creating a strong final draft. Here are a few methods:

􀂙 Outline: An outline will help a writer to organize his/her thoughts and

ideas. It will remind a writer of the order of the thesis, as well as the supporting
points he/she would like each topic sentence to have.
􀂙 Free-write: A short, ten minute free-write will help to get all of a
writer’s thoughts on paper. It will allow a writer to focus on the content, rather
than the punctuation and spelling. Once the free-write is complete, a writer can
read through it and circle the points that are strong, as well as omit the ones that
are not.
􀂙 Bubble Map: A bubble map will allow a writer to draw connections
from one idea to the next. It will give a writer a visual idea of the direction of the
literary analysis, as well as help a writer to see the connections between the
topics. This can help a writer transition from one topic to another more fluidly.

11. Revise the Analysis. After completing the first draft, revise the analysis by considering
the following questions:
􀂙 Is the thesis clearly stated in the first paragraph?
􀂙 Is the sentence structure varied?
􀂙 Does the structure of the analysis emphasize the main ideas?
􀂙 Is the third-person point of view used throughout the entire essay?
􀂙 Has the present tense been used to discuss the work and past tense to describe the
author’s background?
􀂙 Have quotation marks been used around direct quotations?
􀂙 Have the sources been cited correctly according to MLA style?
􀂙 Has extraneous information that does not support the thesis been eliminated?
􀂙 Have clear transitions been used between sentences and paragraphs?
12. Proofread. Once the content of the essay is well-developed, it should be proofread for
grammar, punctuation, and spelling. It is often helpful to read the paper slowly and clearly
out loud. If possible, another person should listen and read along as the paper is being read.
The paper should be printed and proofread several times until an accurate final copy is
created. Be alert to common grammatical errors such as sentence fragments, comma splices,
or run-on sentences. Remember to consult a style manual for grammatical or citation
questions, and if further assistance is desired, group workshops and individual appointments
are available free of charge through Tutoring Services.

REMEMBER:
Writing is the sharpened, focused expression of thought and study. As you develop
your writing skills, you will also improve your perceptions and increase your critical abilities.
Writing ultimately boils down to the development of an idea. Your objective in writing a
literary analysis essay is to convince the person reading your essay that you have supported
the idea you are developing.
Unlike ordinary conversation and classroom discussion, writing must stick with
great determination to the specific point of development. This kind of writing demands tight
organization and control. Therefore, your essay must have a central idea (thesis), it must
have several paragraphs that grow systematically out of the central idea, and everything in it
must be directly related to the central idea and must contribute to the reader’s
understanding of that central idea.

These three principles are listed again below:

1. Your essay must cover the topic you are writing about.
2. Your essay must have a central idea (stated in your thesis) that
governs its development.
3. Your essay must be organized so that every part contributes
something to the reader’s understanding of the central idea.

THE ELEMENTS OF A GOOD ESSAY

The Thesis Statement

The thesis statement tells your reader what to expect: it is a restricted, precisely worded
declarative sentence that states the purpose of your essay -- the point you are trying to make.
Without a carefully conceived thesis, an essay has no chance of success. The following are
thesis statements which would work for a 500-750 word literary analysis essay:

 Gwendolyn Brooks’s 1960 poem “The Ballad of Rudolph Reed” demonstrates how
the poet uses the conventional poetic form of the ballad to treat the unconventional
poetic subject of racial intolerance.
 The fate of the main characters in Antigone illustrates the danger of excessive pride.
 The imagery in Dylan Thomas’s poem “Fern Hill” reveals the ambiguity of our
relationship with nature.

PLEASE NOTE:
THE BEST PLACE TO PUT YOUR THESIS STATEMENT IS AT
THE END OF YOUR INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH.

The Introduction
The introduction to your literary analysis essay should try to arouse interest in your reader.
To bring immediate focus to your subject, you may want to use a quotation, a provocative
question, a personal anecdote, a startling statement, or a combination of these. You may also
want to include background information relevant to your thesis and necessary for the reader
to understand the position you are taking.
In addition, you need to include the title of the work of literature and name of the author.

The following are satisfactory introductory paragraphs which include appropriate thesis
statements:

A. What would you expect to be the personality of a man who has his wife sent
away to a convent (or perhaps has had her murdered) because she took too
much pleasure in the sunset and in a compliment paid to her by another man? It
is just such a man – a Renaissance duke -- that Robert Browning portrays in his
poem “My Last Duchess.” Through what he says about himself, through his
actions, and through his interpretation of earlier incidents, the Duke reveals the
arrogance, jealousy, and materialism that are his most conspicuous traits.

B. The first paragraph of Alberto Alvaro Rios’s short story “The Secret Lion”
presents a twelve-year-old boy’s view of growing up -- everything changes. As
the narrator tells us, when the magician pulls a tablecloth out from under a pile
of dishes, children are amazed at the “stay-the-same part,” while adults focus
only on the tablecloth itself (42). Adults have the benefit of experience and
know the trick will work as long as the technique is correct. When we “grow
up” we gain this experience and knowledge, but we lose our innocence and
sense of wonder. In other words, the price we pay for growing up is a permanent
sense of loss. This tradeoff is central to “The Secret Lion.” The key symbols in
the story reinforce its main theme: change is inevitable and always accompanied
by a sense of loss.

C. The setting of John Updike’s story “A & P” is crucial to our understanding of

Sammy’s decision to quit his job. Even though Sammy knows that his quitting
will make life more difficult for him, he instinctively insists upon rejecting what
the A & P represents in the story. When he rings up a “No Sale” and
“saunter[s]” out of the store, Sammy leaves behind not only a job but the rigid
state of mind associated with the A & P. Although Sammy is the central
character in the story and we learn much about him, Updike seems to invest as
much effort in describing the setting as he does Sammy. The title, after all, is
not “Youthful Rebellion” or “Sammy Quits” but “A & P.” In fact, the setting is
the antagonist of the story and plays a role that is as important as Sammy’s.

The Body of the Essay and the Importance of Topic Sentences

The term regularly used for the development of the central idea of a literary analysis essay is
the body. In this section you present the paragraphs (at least 3 paragraphs for a 500-750
word essay) that support your thesis statement.

Good literary analysis essays contain an explanation of your ideas and evidence from the text
(short story, poem, play) that supports those ideas. Textual evidence consists of summary,
paraphrase, specific details, and direct quotations.

Each of the paragraphs of your essay should contain a topic sentence (usually the first
sentence of the paragraph) which states one of the topics associated with your thesis,
combined with some assertion about how the topic will support the central idea.

The purpose of the topic sentence is twofold:

1. To tie the details of the paragraph to your thesis statement.
2. To tie the details of the paragraph together.

The substance of each of your developmental paragraphs (the body of your essay) will be
the explanations, summaries, paraphrases, specific details, and direct quotations you need to
support and develop the more general statement you have made in your topic sentence. The
following is the first developmental paragraph after one of the introductory paragraphs (C)
above:

TOPIC SENTENCE Sammy's descriptions of the A & P present a

setting that is ugly, monotonous, and rigidly
regulated. We can identify with the
EXPLANATIONS AND TEXTUAL
uniformity Sammy describes because we
EVIDENCE have all been in chain stores. The fluorescent
light is as blandly cool as the "checkerboard
green-and-cream rubber tile floor" (486). The
"usual traffic in the store moves in one
direction (except for the swim suited girls,
who move against it), and everything is
neatly organized and categorized in tidy
aisles. The dehumanizing routine of this
environment is suggested by Sammy's
offhand references to the typical shoppers as
"sheep," "house slaves," and "pigs." These
regular customers seem to walk through the
store in a stupor; as Sammy tells us, not even
dynamite could move them out of their
routine (485).

This paragraph is a strong one because it is developed through the use of quotations,
summary, details, and explanation to support the topic sentence. Notice how it relates back
to the thesis statement.

The Conclusion
Your literary analysis essay should have a concluding paragraph that gives your essay a sense
of completeness and lets your readers know that they have come to the end of your paper.
Your concluding paragraph might restate the thesis in different words, summarize the main
points you have made, or make a relevant comment about the literary work you are
analyzing, but from a different perspective. Do not introduce a new topic in your
conclusion.

Below is the concluding paragraph from the essay already quoted above (A) about
Browning's poem "My Last Duchess":
If the Duke has any redeeming qualities, they fail to appear in the poem.
Browning's emphasis on the Duke's traits of arrogance, jealousy, and
materialism make it apparent that anyone who might have known the Duke
personally would have based his opinion of him on these three personality
"flaws." Ultimately, our opinion of the Duke is not a favorable one, and it is
clear that Browning meant us to feel this way.
SAMPLE PATTERNS FOR THESES ON LITERARY WORKS

1. In (title of work), (author) (illustrates, shows) (aspect) (adjective).

Example: In “Barn Burning,” William Faulkner shows the characters Sardie and Abner
Snopes struggling for their identity.
2. In (title of work), (author) uses (one aspect) to (define, strengthen, illustrate) the
(element of work).
Example: In “Youth,” Joseph Conrad uses foreshadowing to strengthen the plot.

3. In (title of work), (author) uses (an important part of work) as a unifying device for
(one element), (another element), and (another element). NOTE: The number of
elements can vary from one to four.
Example: In “Youth,” Joseph Conrad uses the sea as a unifying device for setting,
structure and theme.

4. (Author) develops the character of (character’s name) in (literary work) through

what he/she does, what he/she says, what other people say to or about him/her.
Example: Langston Hughes develops the character of Semple in “Ways and Means”…

5. In (title of work), (author) uses (literary device) to (accomplish, develop, illustrate,

strengthen) (element of work).
Example: In “The Masque of the Red Death,” Poe uses the symbolism of the stranger,
the clock, and the seventh room to develop the theme of death.

6. (Author) (shows, develops, illustrates) the theme of __________ in the (play, poem,
story). Example: Flannery O’Connor illustrates the theme of the effect of the
selfishness of the grandmother upon the family in “A Good Man is Hard to Find.”

7. (Author) develops his character(s) in (title of work) through his/her use of language.
Example: John Updike develops his characters in “A & P” through his use of figurative
language.
AN EXAMPLE OF A LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY

Disappointment

      "The Story of an Hour" is a short story in which Kate Chopin, the author, presents an

often unheard of view of marriage. Mrs. Louise Mallard, Chopin's main character,

experiences the exhilaration of freedom rather than the desolation of loneliness after she

learns of her husband's death. Later, when Mrs. Mallard learns that her husband, Brently, still

lives, she know that all hope of freedom is gone. The crushing disappointment kills Mrs.

Mallard. Published in the late eighteen hundreds, the oppressive nature of marriage in "The

Story of an Hour" may well be a reflection of, though not exclusive to, that era.

      Though Chopin relates Mrs. Mallard's story, she does not do so in first person. Chopin

reveals the story through a narrator's voice. The narrator is not simply an observer, however.

The narrator knows, for example, that Mrs. Mallard, for the most part, did not love her

husband (paragraph 15). It is obvious that the narrator knows more than can be physically

observed. Chopin, however, never tells the reader what Mrs. Mallard is feeling. Instead, the

reader must look into Mrs. Mallard's actions and words in order to understand what Mrs.

Mallard feels.

      Mrs. Mallard is held back in her marriage. The lines of her face "bespoke repression"

(paragraph 8). When Mrs. Mallard learns of her husband's death, she knows that there will

"be no powerful will bending her" (paragraph 14). There will be no husband who believes he

has the "right to impose a private will upon a fellow creature" (paragraph 14). Mrs. Mallard

acknowledges that her husband loved her. Brently had only ever looked at Mrs. Mallard with

love (paragraph 13). This information implies to the reader that Brently is not a bad man; he

simply believes that it is his right, and perhaps his obligation as a husband, to direct Mrs.

Mallard in everything she does. When Mrs. Mallard learns of her husband's death, she
realizes that he will no longer be there to repress her; there will be no one, save her, to direct

her will. Then, in a crushing blow, everything she has just realized and begun to look forward

to is stolen from her grasp.

      Upon learning of her husband's death, Mrs. Mallard realizes that she is now free. She

repeats the words "Free, free, free!" (paragraph 11) and feels her body come alive. Her pulse

beats faster; her blood runs warmer; her eyes brighten (paragraph 11). Mrs. Mallard knows

that from now on she can live for herself and no one else, that "all sort of days…would be her

own" (paragraph 19). Mrs. Mallard sees the chance to live out the rest of her days for herself;

she sees the opportunity to be her own person. Mrs. Mallard now looks forward to a long life.

She had previously dreaded the years ahead spent under the thumb of her husband (paragraph

19). Now, though, Mrs. Mallard is someone who has much to look forward to and many joys

to appreciate. This opportunity is taken from her just as her chance of freedom is taken from

her when she learns that Brently still lives. When Mrs. Mallard sees Brently walk through the

front door, the disappointment and the devastation of loss that she suffers cause her heart to

fail.

      When Mrs. Mallard walks down the stairs with her sister, she has triumph in her eyes

(paragraph 20). The front door opens, however, and Brently walks in. What effect does this

have on Mrs. Mallard? It kills her. Mrs. Mallard has, in a very short time, realized the world

is a wonderful place and that she can live in it anyway she chooses. She gains freedom,

independence, individuality, and a whole host of things to look forward to in life. When

Brently walks in the door, though, Mrs. Mallard knows that she will have to spend the rest of

her life as no more than his wife does, just as she had been. She knows that she will never be

free. This is too much for Mrs. Mallard to handle. Life had been grim before, with her

looking forward to the years ahead "with a shudder" (paragraph 19). Now that Mrs. Mallard
has tasted what life might have been like without her husband, the idea of resuming her

former life is unbearably grim. When Mrs. Mallard sees that her husband still lives, she dies,

killed by the disappointment of losing everything she so recently thought she had gained.

Mrs. Louise Mallard experiences the exhilaration of freedom after she learns of her

husband's death in "The Story of an Hour". Later, when Mrs. Mallard learns that her husband

still lives, she know that all hope of freedom is gone. The crushing disappointment kills her.

The oppressive nature of marriage in "The Story of an Hour" may well be a reflection of,

though not exclusive to the late eighteen hundreds.

REFERENCES

An Example of a Literary Analysis Essay. www.sjaweb.org.

Bucks County Community College. How to Write A Literary Analysis Essay.

Germanna Community College. Writing A Literary Analysis Paper. Tutoring Services.

How to Write an Analysis Essay.

https://www.bucks.edu/media/bcccmedialibrary/pdf/HOWTOWRITEALITERARYAN
ALYSISESSAY_10.15.07_001.pdf

http://web.cocc.edu/cagatucci/classes/eng104/midtermexamples.htm#Samuel

http://www.k-state.edu/english/baker/english320/SE-Miss_Brill.htm

https://www.apstudynotes.org/english/sample-essays/literary-devices-things-fall-apart/

http://www2.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/intranet/englishbasics/ProseTypes.htm