1 PDF

Engineering Drawing

with Worked Examples 2

Third edition
M. A. Parker, TEng. (CEI), MIMGTech.E, and

F. Pickup, CEng., MIProd.E
'I
Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd

© F. Pickup and M. A Parker 1960, 1970 and 1981
Illustrations © M. A Parker 1981 Contents
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical.
including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or
under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further
details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be
obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of 90
Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE.
Originally published in 1960 by Hutchinson Education Preface 4

Reprinted 1961, 1%2, 1963, 1964 and 1966
Second (metric) edition 1970 1 Auxiliary projection 5
Reprinted 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1979 and 1980
Third edition 1981 2 Interpenetration of surfaces 38
Reprinted 1982, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989
3 Conic sections 77
Reprinted 1991 by
4 Development 88
Stanley Thomes (Publishers) Ltd Parallel line - Rildialline - Triangulation - Panel
Old Station Drive development - Approximate development of spheres
Leckhampton
CHELTENHAM GL53 ODN 5 Cams 132
England Types of cams - Followers - Cam profiles - Displacement
curves - Cylindrical cams
Reprinted 1992
6 Involute gears 154
Spur gears - Racks - Helical gears - Bevel gears - Worm gearing
British library Cataloguing in Publication Data
- Hypoid gears
Pickup, Fred 7 Vector geometry 173
Engineering drawing with worked examples.-3rd ed. 2
1. Engineering drawings 2. Mechanical drawing 8 Traces 204
I. Title II. Parker, Maurice Arthur
604'.2'4 T353 9 Machine drawing: 231
ISBN 0 7487 1014 0 Tables 268
Printed and bound in Great Britain by

Scotprint Ltd, Musselburgh
Preface 1 Auxiliary projection
The changes introduced in the 1972 revision ofBS 308, Engineering Cases arise in practice where views of an object projected on to the
drawing practice, have made a new edition of this book necessary. principal planes of projection are either insufficient to describe the
The general plan of the book, however, remains unchanged. The object or are difficult to draw or dimension. Such cases include
text has been kept to a minimum sufficient to outline the general objects with inclined faces of a complex nature and are best drawn
principles of the subject, and worked examples have been freely using auxiliary views. An auxiliary view is one which is drawn on a
used to enlarge on it. Each example shows the method of obtaining plane other than a principal plane of projection. An auxiliary view
the solution, together with additional explanatory notes. For some which is projected from a normal elevation or plan is called a first
topics where a solution on one drawing would have been difficult to auxiliary elevation or plan. Other auxiliary views may be projected
understand, the solution has been drawn in step-by-step form. The from first auxiliary views. These are called second auxiliary eleva-
number of such solutions has been increased in this edition, and tions or plans. It should be noted that an elevation can only be
additional problems have also been provided. projected from a plan and vice versa.
The drawings have been completely redrawn and conform to the
recommendations of BS 308: 1972. To mark the equal status given First auxiliary elevations
to first and third angle projection in this Standard, equal use has Figure 1(a) illustrates the method of projecting these views, using
been made of the two systems. New material has been added to the first angle projection. The standard elevation and plan are first
chapters on auxiliary projection, interpenetration of surfaces, de- drawn with an XY line or datum line between them. It may be
velopment and involute gears to make the treatment of these topics convenient to use the centre line of the plan or the base of the
more complete. elevation as the XY line. The first auxiliary elevation is required in
Several people have made suggestions for improvements in the the direction of arrow Q, so points on the plan view are projected
book and have pointed out errors in previous editions. My thanks parallel to the arrow to cross the new datum line X1Y1 at right
are due to them for their interest. I also acknowledge with thanks angles. This new datum line may be placed in any convenient
the permission given by the British Standards Institution for ex- position. The heights above the XY line, a, band c, of points in the
tracts from some of their Standards to be reprinted. original elevation, are then transferred to the appropriate
projectors above the new X1Y1 line and the view is lined in. To
London 1981 M.A.P. avoid confusion between full lines and hidden detail lines it is better
to complete first those faces which, by inspection, are seen to be
visible in the auxiliary view.
Figure l(b) shows the same views drawn in third angle projection.
The method of using the same heights in both elevations is identical
with views drawn in first angle projection.
S
Engineering Drawing with Worked Examples 2
First auxiliary plan views

The method for these views is similar to that for first auxiliary
elevations and is shown, using first angle projection, in Figure 2(a).
Projectors from points on the normal elevation are drawn parallel
to the new direction of viewing, given by arrow Q, and cross the new
datum X1Yl at right angles. Depths wand z, from the XY line to
points in the original plan, are then transferred to the appropriate
projectors from the X1Y1 line and the view is completed.
Figure 2(b), in third angle projection, shows the method to be the
same in this system of projection.
Second auxiliary elevations

These views are projected from first auxiliary plans and the method
is shown in Figure 3(a). The first auxiliary plan view is first drawn as
described above and projectors from points on this view are drawn
parallel to the direction of viewing and crossing the new datum xzyz
at right angles. Heights above X1Y1, such as h, of points in the
original elevation R are transferred above xzyz on the appropriate
projectors. To complete the second auxiliary view in the available
space it is sometimes necessary to move X1Yl to the position KL, as
. has been done in Figure 3(a).
It is important to realize that the original plan view S is not
required in the projection of the second auxiliary elevation. This is
illustrated in Figure 3(b) which shows the original elevation and first
auxiliary plan drawn in the conventional positions relative to a
horizontal ground line. The projection of the second auxiliary eleva-
tion Q is identical with the projection of a first auxiliary elevation as
outlined above and the original plan view S is not needed.
Figures 4(a) and (b) show the above construction in third angle
projection. As before, the use of third angle projection makes no
difference to the method.
Second auxiliary plan views

These views are projected from first auxiliary elevations as shown in
Figures 5(a) and (b). From the normal elevation R and plan S the
first auxiliary elevation P is projected as described above. Pro-
jectors parallel to the direction of viewing and crossing the new
datum line xzyz at right angles are drawn from this auxiliary eleva-
tion. Depths w from datum X1Y1 to the original plan are transferred
to the projectors from the new datum xzyz. Note that to save space
X1Yl has been moved to KL. The original elevation R is ignored in
8
the projection of the second auxiliary plan, this being demonstrated

in Figure 5(b).
The above construction in third angle projection is shown in
Figures 6( a) and (b).
Projection of arcs of circles and other curves

This is performed by projecting a series of points on the curve in the
same way that the points at the ends of straight lines are projected.
The resulting curves in the auxiliary views can then be filled in with
french curves. If too many points are projected the work becomes
tedious and there is no increase in accuracy.
The solution of problems

The solutions of auxiliary projection problems are obtained more
easily if the following points are observed.
All XY lines should be marked in some way to distinguish them
from each other. Note, however, that XY lines are not shown on
industrial drawings.
The XY line for the first auxiliary view can be moved to a new
position to reduce to a manageable size the distances to points in the
second auxiliary view. Also, this will often enable the second
auxiliary view to be drawn in the available space. The new position
of the XY line must, of course, be parallel to its original position.
Views of symmetrical details are drawn more quickly if centre
lines are used as XY lines.
When distances to points on an object are transferred from one
XY line to another, they must be laid off in the same direction
relative to the linking view. For example, in Figure 5(a) the first
auxiliary elevation links the normal plan and the second auxiliary
plan. Dimension w on the normal plan is laid off from XIYl away
from the first auxiliary elevation. When it is transferred to xzyz it is
again laid off away from the first auxiliary elevation. Observance of
this rule will prevent views being drawn upside down or reversed.
It is unnecessary to project all the points in an auxiliary view since
lines which are parallel in the normal elevation and plan remain
parallel in the auxiliary views. Thus a few lines can be projected in
an auxiliary view and the view completed by making the remainder
parallel to them.
Some worked examples follow, together with examples of the uses
of auxiliary views. Further problems will be found on pages 33-7.
12
Auxiliary projection
Auxiliary projection problems

Scale full size unless otherwise stated. Use the same projection
angle for the solutions as has been used for the given views. Hidden
detail is to be shown in first auxiliary views only.
1 Draw the given views of the hexagonal prism and project a first
auxiliary plan on X1Y1 and a first auxiliary elevation on X2Y2•
2 Views are given of a small cast iron bracket. Draw the given
elevation and plan, and project a first auxiliary plan on XIY·
and a first auxiliary elevation on X2Y2•
3 The given views show a right hexagonal pyramid which is cut by
the plane SS. Draw the lower portion of the elevation below
the plane and project from it a plan. Using these views project a
first auxiliary plan to show the true shape of the cut face and a
first auxiliary elevation on X1Yl.
4 A length of I section bar is shown. It is inclined at 45° to the
horizontal plane with the face F parallel to the vertical plane.
Draw in third angle projection the given elevation, a plan
projected from it and a first auxiliary elevation on X1Yl .
5 A small bracket is shown in plan and elevation. Draw the given
views and project from them a first auxiliary elevation on X1Y1
and a second auxiliary plan on X2Y2.
6 The plan and elevation of a machined block are given. Draw
these views and project from them a first auxiliary plan on X1Y1
and a first auxiliary elevation on X2y2•
7 A length of extruded bar is shown in plan and elevation. Draw
the given views and project from them a first auxiliary sectional
elevation on SS.
8 Draw the given views of a prism and project a complete first
auxiliary plan to show the true shape of the face A.
9 The plan and elevation of a block are given. Draw these views
and project from them a first auxiliary plan to show the true
shape of the sloping face in the elevation. From the first
auxiliary plan project a second auxiliary elevation, viewing the
first auxiliary plan in the direction of arrow P.
10 A slide block is shown in plan and elevation. Draw these views
and project a first auxiliary elevation viewing the plan in the
direction of arrow Q.
33
11 Draw the given views of the block shown and project a first
auxiliary plan viewingthe elevation in the direction of arrow R.
12 The given views show a component in plan and elevation.
Draw these views and project from them a first auxiliary eleva-
tion on Xl Yl and a second auxiliary plan on xzyz.
13 Views are given of a machined detail. Draw them and project a
first auxiliary elevation on X1Y1• From this view project a
second auxiliary plan on xzyz.
14 Details for a small assembly are given. Assemble the parts as
shown in the end view of the support plate and draw an eleva-
tion and plan of the assembly. The face B of the support plate is
to be parallel to the horizontal plane with the edge A posi-
tioned relative to the XY line as shown. Face C of the angle
plate is to be visible in the elevation. Hidden detail is not
required.
15 The given views show the plan and elevation of the centre line
AB of a cylinder 10 mm diameter and the centre C of a 15 mm
diameter sphere. Find the clearance between the cylinder and
sphere.
16 A belt running from left to right passes round a pulley

45 mm diameter. Draw the pulley in the given views, neglecting
its thickness.
17 Using auxiliary views find the true shapes ofthe given aircraft
window panels. Also find the true angles between the panels at
the joints AB and CD.
18 For the given lines AB and CD find (a) the common perpen-
dicular, (b) the true length of a line which joins them vertically,
and (c) the true length of a horizontal line which joins them and
passes through C.
34
2 Interpenetration of
surfaces
Surface intersections appear on many drawings and, apart from

those occurring in the development of sheet metal work which must
be plotted accurately, the draughtsman usually approximates the
curves which they produce. An example of this practice is the use of
circular arcs to represent the chamfer curves on hexagon nuts,
instead of plotting them exactly as hyperbolas.
Approximate curves are satisfactory provided they follow the
true curves closely. Inaccurate approximations can be avoided if the
draughtsman plots a few points to determine the general shape of
the curve. To do this he must understand the method used to
construct the curves, which is a repetitive process employing simple
sections.
Simple sections of geometrical solids

The solids which occur most often are shown in Figures 1 to 4,
together with various sections taken through them.
Right cylinder
Refer to Figure 1.
Section AA. This is taken at right angles to the axis and produces a
circle in the adjacent view. Thus a series of sections at right angles to
the axis will all give the same circle, which is the adjacent view.
Section BB. Provided these sections are viewed along the cylinder
axis they produce the same circle as section AA.
Section Cc. Sections parallel to the axis produce rectangular
flats, the width of the flat depending on the position of the section
relative to the axis. For the section shown, the width of the flat must
be found from the plan view. If, however, the section is parallel to
the horizontal centre line in the plan, the flat may be projected
directly to the elevation.
Section DD. Such sections viewed normally produce ellipses, and
38
the construction becomes tedious if several have to be drawn.

Compare these sections with sections BB.
Hence, when it is necessary to choose the simplest section to take
through a right cylinder, the section should be either AA or BB.
Oblique cylinder
Sections parallel to the base of an oblique cylinder have the same
shape and size as the base. Sections parallel to the axis produce
rectangles similar to section CC in Figure 1. Other sections, for
example those at right angles to the axis, are generally more compli-
cated and should be avoided.
Right cone
Refer to Figure 2.
Section EE. Sections at right angles to the axis give circles in the
adjacent circular view.
Section FF. This section gives an ellipse in the adjacent view, and
is relatively complex to draw.
Section GG. Any section through the apex of the cone produces a
triangular flat in an adjacent view.
Section HH. A hyperbola results in the end view, which, like the
ellipse, is time-consuming to plot.
Section JJ. The section is parallel to a generator giving a parabola
in the view and plan. Again, this takes time to draw.
It can be seen from the above analysis that if a number of sections
are required through a right cone, for ease of drawing the sections
should be taken at right angles to the axis, or through the apex .
•••
Oblique cone
As with the oblique cylinder, sections parallel to the base of an
oblique cone have the same shape as the base, but the size of the
section will decrease as the cutting plane approaches the apex.
Sections through the apex result in triangles. Sections in other
positions are usually complicated and too time-consuming to be
considered.
Elbows
Refer to Figure 3.
Section KK. This section produces a curved flat in the adjacent
view, the radii rand R being found as shown. These radii vary
40
depending on the distance from the cutting plane to the centre line
of the elbow.
Section LL. Provided these sections are viewed normally they
appear as circles, all with the same diameter.
Section MM. These sections need considerable construction and
should be avoided.
For interpenetrations involving elbows, section KK is generally
used. However, cases do arise which can only be solved by using
cutting cylinders instead of cutting planes.
Spheres
Any section through a sphere projects as a circle when viewed
normally. Other directions of viewing, except for edge views, result
in ellipses. Thus sections NN and PP are equally satisfactory for use
in interpenetration problems. See Figure 4.
Application of simple sections to interpenetration problems

The line of intersection between two solids is the line which is
common to both their surfaces. If a cutting plane is passed through
the solids in the area of the line of intersection, it will produce a
section on both solids. The points where the two sections meet lie on
the intersection line. This is illustrated in Figure 5 on page 43. The
process is repeated until sufficient points on the intersection line
have been plotted for it to be drawn accurately. The points may be
projected as necessary to complete other views on the drawing.
Ideally the cutting planes used should produce the simplest sec-
tion on both solids. This cannot often be arranged, and generally
the simplest section results on one solid and a less simple section on
the other. Sometimes a choice of cutting planes is possible, each
having an advantage over the other. To illustrate this, two methods
of solution have been given for Examples 1 and 2.
Limits of the interpenetration curve

Before starting to solve an interpenetration problem the views
should be examined to determine the limits ofthe curve. These are,
for example, the highest and lowest points and the points where the
curve is tangential to the profiles of the intersecting solids. Some-
times the limits may be found by direct projection from view to
view, as in Examples 1 to 5, otherwise the limits may be found by
taking appropriate sections. Most of the following worked examples
show how this is done. When the limits have been fixed, the curve
42
Interpenetration of surfaces
can be completed by taking additional sections between them. It is

unnecessary to space these additional sections closely except where
the interpenetration curve changes direction abruptly.
Using random sections, without first finding the limits of the
interpenetration curve, is time-wasting and often results in an inac-
curate solution.
Hidden detail
Unless they are made from sheet metal, interpenetrating solids
should be considered as one-piece castings and not as one solid
pushed into the other. This will reduce the hidden detail in the
solution, but all hidden parts of the interpenetration curve must be
shown.
Cutting sphere method

Most interpenetration problems can be solved by using cutting
planes which produce simple sections. However, there are prob-
lems involving two solids of revolution whose axes are not at right
angles, for which cutting planes do not give simple sections on both
solids. See problem 32 on page 76. Problems of this type may be
solved by using cutting spheres instead of cutting planes.
The method, illustrated in Figure 7 on page 68, depends on the
fact that a sphere with its centre on the axis of a solid of revolution
cuts circles on the solid. In a view in which the axis appears true
length these circles will appear in edge view. Figures 7(a) and (b)
show such a sphere cutting a right cylinder and a right cone. In
Figure 7(c) the axes of the solids intersect and both appear true
length. Therefore, the circles cut on the solids by a sphere centred at
the intersection of the axes, both appear in edge view. The points
where the circles intersect are common to the cylinder and cone and
so lie on the interpenetration curve.
If the axis of one solid is not true length, the circles cut on that
solid will appear as ellipses. If the axes do not intersect, no spheres
can be drawn which cut edge view circles on both solids. In this case
a solution can be obtained using cutting cylinders, provided a view is
available showing both axes true length.
The cutting sphere method has the advantage that the solution is
completed using only one view. If other views are required they are
often those which show one set of circles cut by the sphere in true
shape. Points on the interpenetration curve will lie on these circles,
and can be found by direct projection from the first view.
53
Examples 1,2 and 8, for which solutions are given using cutting
planes, can also be solved by the cutting sphere method.
Interpenetration problems
Scale full size unless otherwise stated. Use the same projection
angle for the solutions as has been used for the given views. Hidden
detail must be shown.
1 Figure 1 shows a cylinder penetrated by a hexagonal prism.
Draw the given views, completing the elevation, and add an
end view looking in the direction of arrow R.
2 Figure 2 shows a cylinder penetrated by a square prism. Draw
the given views and complete the elevation with the inter-
penetration curve. Add an end view looking in the direction of
arrow S.
3 The plan and elevation of a right hexagonal prism penetrated
by an oblique cylinder are given in Figure 3. Draw the given
views, constructing the interpenetration curve in the elevation,
and project an end view in the direction of arrow T.
4 Figure 4 shows the plan and elevation of a cylinder penetrated
by a triangular prism. Draw the given views and complete the
elevation with the interpenetration curve. Add an end view
positioned on the left of the elevation.
5 Two interpenetrating oblique cylinders are shown in plan and
elevation in Figure 5. Draw these views and complete them
with the interpenetration curves.
6 The elevation of a milled cylinder is shown in Figure 6. Copy
this view and project an end view in the direction of arrow U.
7 Figure 7 shows an elevation and plan of the boss for a built-up
handwheel. The boss is to be drilled for four 50 mm diameter
equally spaced spokes, the centre line for one spoke being
given. Complete the given views with the interpenetration
curves produced by the hole for this spoke, but do not show the
spoke.
8 Complete the elevation given in Figure 8 of the cylinder pierced
by a conical hole, and project an end view looking in the
direction of arrow V.
69
9 Figure 9 shows the end view of a cone pierced by a square hole.

Draw this view, project a front elevation looking in the direc-
tion of arrow W, and a plan.
10 A cone and cylinder interpenetration is shown in Figure 10.
Obtain the curves of interpenetration in the two given views.
11 An open-topped conical hopper penetrated by an inclined
circular pipe is shown in Figure 11. Draw the given views to a
scale of 1:50 and complete them with the interpenetration
curves. Use the cutting sphere method.
12 The plan and elevation of a cone and a vertical triangular prism
are given in Figure 12. Complete the elevation and project an
end view looking in the direction of arrow R.
13 Figure 13 shows the plan and elevation of a cone penetrated by
a vertical hexagonal prism. Complete the elevation and draw
an end view looking in the direction of arrow S.
14 The elevation and plan of two intersecting cones are given in
Figure 14. Draw and complete these views with the inter-
penetration curves, and project an end view looking in the
direction of arrow T.
15 Two views of the interpenetration of a cone and sphere are
shown in Figure 15. Complete these views with the inter-
penetration curves.
16 Figure 16 shows a sphere penetrated by an oblique cone, the
apex of the cone apparently being on the surface of the sphere
in the elevation. Complete the given views and add an end view
looking in the direction of arrow U.
17 Two views of an oblique cone penetrated by an inclined square
prism are shown in Figure 17. Plot the interpenetration curves
on both views.
18 The elevation and plan of a milled triangular pyramid are
shown in Figure 18. Complete the plan and add an end view
looking in the direction of arrow V.
19 An elevation and end view of a barrel-shaped solid of revolu-
tion penetrated by a cylinder are given in Figure 19. Construct
the curves of interpenetration for both views.
71
20 An auxiliary elevation and plan of a hemisphere and inter-

penetrating cylinder are shown in Figure 20. Draw these views,
completing the plan, and project an elevation looking in the
direction of arrow R, and an end view placed on the right of the
elevation.
21 Views are given in Figure 21 of a hemisphere pierced by a
cylinder. Draw the given views, complete them with the inter-
penetration curves, and add an end view looking in the direc-
tion of arrow S.
22 Figure 22 shows the plan and incomplete elevation of a hemi-
sphere pierced by a hexagonal hole. Draw these views and
complete the elevation.
23 A plan and auxiliary elevation of a hemisphere pierced by a
triangular hole are given in Figure 23. Draw these views,
project an elevation looking in the direction of arrow T, and an
end view placed on the right of the elevation.
24 Figure 24 shows the plan and elevation of a solid of revolution
penetrated by a cylinder. Draw these views and complete them
with the interpenetration curves.
25 A sheet metal hopper feeding into a reducing neck is shown in
Figure 25. Complete the given view with the interpenetration
curve without using any other view.
26 Two views of an elbow piece with a branch cylinder are shown
in Figure 26. Complete these views with the curves of inter-
penetration.
27 Construct the curve of interpenetration in the front elevation
of the elbow and branch cylinder shown in Figure 27.
28 Figure 28 shows incompletely a plan and elevation of an elbow
with an oblique conical branch. Construct the interpenetration
curves for both views, showing the complete branch in the
plan.
29 The sectional elevation of a control rod end is shown in Figure
29. Draw this view and project from it a plan.
30 A plan and incomplete elevation of an eccentrically turned
square bar are shown in Figure 30. Draw the given views and
complete the elevation with the interpenetration curves.
73
31 Figure 31 shows two views of a needle valve. The elevation

shows the valve after being turned, and the plan shows it after
being ground. Draw the given views and construct the inter-
3 Conic sections
penetration curves in the elevation produced by the grinding
operation. Scale 5:1.
32 A solid of revolution pierced by a cylinder is shown in Figure
32. Use the cutting sphere method to plot the interpenetration
curves in the given view and project a plan.
33 Half views of a connecting rod end are shown in Figure 33.
Draw these views and complete them with the interpenetration Conic sections are produced when a plane intersects a right circular
curves produced by milling the pair of vertical flats, and by cone. They may be considered as loci, which was done in Chapter 4
spotfacing the 12 mm diameter holes. Add an end view posi- of Volume 1, or, as here, they may be considered as curves of
tioned on the left of the elevation. interpenetration.
The surface of a right circular cone can be produced by the
rotation of two straight lines which cross at some acute angle equal
to half the apex angle of the cone. One line, which is shown vertical
in Figure 1, is the axis; the other is the generator. Successive
positions of the generator as it sweeps out the conic surface are
called elements of the cone. The conic surface theoretically extends
to infinity in both directions from the apex but practically is limited
by planes at right angles to the axis. Each half of the double cone is
called a nappe.
Depending on the position of the cutting plane several sections
are possible. These are illustrated in Figures 1 to 5.
(a) Circle (Figure 2). Produced when the plane is at right angles to
the axis and cuts all the elements on one side of the apex.
(b) Ellipse (Figure 3). Produced by a plane which cuts all the
elements on one side of the apex, but is not at right angles to
the axis.
(c) Parabola (Figure 4). Produced by a plane parallel to one
element of the cone.
(d) Hyperbola (Figure 5). Produced by a plane cutting both
nappes but not passing through the apex.
If the plane cuts both nappes and passes through the apex two
isosceles triangles are produced.
The ellipse
Figure 6 shows a right circular cone cut by a plane XX. This plane
produces an ellipse since it is not at right angles to the axis but cuts
all the elements on one side of the apex. The ellipse appears in true
76 77
Conic sections
size in an auxiliary view, the projectors for which are at right angles
to XX.
To draw the ellipse cutting planes such as AA are used. These are
at right angles to the axis and so produce circles as shown in the
plan. Where planes XX and AA intersect, the widths across them
are equal. This width a is found from the plan view and transferred
to the auxiliary view to plot two points on the ellipse. Additional
cutting planes parallel to AA give more points on the ellipse. Note
that the curve in the plan is also an ellipse. Thus any view of plane
XX, except an edge view, is an ellipse.
By using focal spheres the focal points pi and Pz and the direc-
trices may be established. The focal spheres are inscribed in the
cone so that the conical surface and the cutting plane XX are
tangential to them. The centres of the focal spheres projected onto
the axis in the auxiliary view position the foci pi and PZ. The axis of
the ellipse is the projection in the auxiliary view of the axis of the
cone. The lines of intersection between XX and horizontal planes
through the tangent circles of the focal spheres and cone give the
directrices when projected into the auxiliary view.
To draw the tangent to the ellipse at any point P on the curve,
bisect the exterior angle between the focal radii pip and PZP. To
draw the normal, bisect the supplementary angle of the exterior
angle. The normal is perpendicular to the tangent at the point of
contact. This is true for all the conics.
The ratio of the distances focus to vertex and vertex to directrix is
called the eccentricity of the curve. For the ellipse the eccentricity is
less than unity. It is constant for any point on the curve.
The parabola
The cutting plane YY in Figure 7 is parallel to an element of the
cone so the conic section is a parabola. It is shown in true shape in an
auxiliary view projected from YY at right angles. The curve pro-
duced by YY in the plan is also a parabola, as is any view of YY,
except an edge view.
As with the ellipse, cutting planes at right angles to the axis are
used to draw the true shape view. The focus is the projection on the
axis of the centre of the focal sphere, which has the conical surface
and YY tangential to it. The directrix is the line of intersection
between YY and a horizontal plane through the tangent circle of the
focal sphere and cone, projected into the auxiliary view. The axis is
the projection of the cone axis in the auxiliary view.
79
Conic sections
Constructions to find the tangent and normal to the parabola at

any point P on the curve are also shown in Figure 7. The lines FP are
focal radii. The other lines through P parallel to the axisare diameters.
For the parabola the eccentricity is unity and is the ratio FV and
YD. It is constant for any point on the curve.
The hyperbola
The plane ZZ in Figure 8 cuts both nappes of the double cone and so
produces a hyperbola. The plane is shown parallel to the cone axis
but need not be, since any plane cutting both nappes without
passing through the apex will produce a hyperbola.
Cutting planes such as AA, at right angles to the cone axis, are
used as before to plot points on the true shape view of the hyper-
bola. The foci FI and P are the projections on the axis of the centres
of the focal spheres. These spheres have the conical surface and ZZ
tangential to them. The directrices are the intersection lines
between ZZ and planes through the tangent circles of the focal
spheres and cone. The asymptotes are the lines which would be
tangential to the curves at infinity. They are the projections of the
outer elements of the cone. To establish the asymptotes draw a
circle with centre C through the vertices VI and V2• This circle cuts
the directrices at four points which lie on the asymptotes as shown.
As with the ellipse, bisecting the angles between focal radii at a
point on the curve enables the tangent and normal at that point to be
found.
The eccentricity of the hyperbola is greater than unity and is the
ratio PVl to VID1 or PV2 to V2D2• It is constant for any point on
the hyperbola.
V1V2, the distance between the vertices, is called the transverse
axis and is equal to the difference between the focal radii of a point.
Conic section problems

Scale full size unless otherwise stated. Use first or third angle
projection as required by the question. Show hidden detail where
specified.
1 A right cone with a base diameter of 100mm and an apex angle
of 60° is cut by a plane inclined at 45° to the horizontal. The
plane cuts the cone axis 50 mm up from the base. Draw the
views of the cone as shown in Figure 6 on page 80, adding an
end view on the right of the front elevation of the part of the
83
cone below the plane. Establish the foci and directrices on the
true shape view of the ellipse. At any point P, other than the
vertex, draw the tangent and nonnal. Use third angle projection.
2 A right cone with the same dimensions as that in Question 1 is
cut by a plane parallel to an element. The plane cuts the base
32 mm to the right of the axis. Using first angle projection draw
the views of the cone as shown in Figure 7 on page 81. Add an
end view on the left of the front elevation of the part of the cone
below the plane. On the true shape view of the parabola
position the focus and directrix. At any point P, other than the
vertex, draw the tangent and normal.
3 A double right cone has base diameters of 100mm and an apex
angle of 60°. Its axis is horizontal and the cone is cut by a plane
parallel to the axis and 20 mm above it. Draw the views of the
cone as shown in Figure 8 on page 82, using first angle projec-
tion. In the true shape view of the hyperbola establish the foci,
directrices and asymptotes. Draw the tangent and normal at
any point P, other than a vertex.
4 A flood light which projects a right circular conical beam is
mounted on a pylon 7 metres above ground level. The axis of
the beam makes an angle of 45° with the ground and the apex
angle of the beam is 60°. Using a scale of 1:10, determine the
shape of the illuminated ground area. Use third angle pro-
jection.
5 Using first angle projection, draw the elevation of the right
cone shown in the figure, and project a plan of the portion
below the plane AA. Add an end view of the lower portion in
the direction of arrow R.
6 The figure shows the elevation of part of a cone after being cut
by two planes. Draw this view and project from it a plan and an
end view in the direction of arrow S. Use third angle pro-
jection.
7 Copy the elevation of the part cone shown and draw a plan and
an auxiliary plan in the direction of arrow T to show the true
view of the sloping face which is parallel to an element. Use
first angle projection.
8 Draw the elevation of the cone given in the figure and project a
plan, using third angle projection.
84
Conic sections
9 Copy the given elevation of the part cone shown and, using
third angle projection, add a plan.
10 The figure shows a view of a right conical hopper fed by an
inclined chute. The hopper and chute have open tops. Draw
the true cross-section of the chute using third angle projection.
11 Draw the given views of the conical spacer shown and complete
the elevation, using first angle projection.
12 Views of a conical stop are shown. Using first angle projection
draw these views, making the elevation a full view instead of a
half view. Complete the elevation and project a plan.
13 The figure shows views of a vee support. Draw these views in
first angle projection, making the plan a full view. Complete
the plan and add an end view. Show hidden detail.
14 The elevation of a casting is given in the figure. Draw this view
and project an end view looking on the 16 mm diameter boss.
Use third angle projection.
15 Views of the end of a turnbuckle are shown. Draw the views
and complete the elevation, using third angle projection.
16 The figure shows one view of a jig detail. Draw this view and
project from it, using third angle projection, a view in the
direction of arrow R.
17 The standard lamp shown in the figure illuminates part of the
wall and part of the sloping ceiling. Using first angle projection
draw views of the illuminated areas in the directions of arrows
A and B.
87
Development
4 Development When the pattern for a sheet metal detail is laid out, extra
material must be allowed for bends, since sharp comers cannot be
produced because of the material thickness. Allowance must also
be made for seams or laps and for finishing raw edges by hems. If the
bases of the part are closed their true shapes will be needed. For
simplicity these aspects have been ignored in the following worked
examples.
Generally the shortest seam or joint line is used because this gives
the greatest economy in time and material in making the joint.
Sometimes, however, using the shortest seam may increase the area
Development is a term used in sheet metal work and means the of sheet metal needed, or may make it impossible to fit the pattern
unfolding or unrolling of a surface into a plane. The resulting shape on to a standard sized sheet.
is called a pattern. Only ruled, single-curved surfaces and those There are three methods of pattern development: parallel line,
composed of planes can be developed exactly. radial line and triangulation. These methods are shown pictorially in
A ruled surface is generated by the motion of a straight line and Figure 1 on page 90. Before considering them in detail the student
may be a plane, a single-curved surface or a warped surface. To must remember that all lines on a pattern should be true lengths or
produce a single-curved surface the generating line always touches a the object made from the pattern will not be the correct size or shape.
curve and moves so that any two successive positions either
intersect or are parallel. A conical surface is produced if successive Parallel line development
positions of the generating line intersect, the intersection point This method is used for objects which have a constant cross-section
being the vertex. If successive positions are parallel a cylindrical throughout their length, for example, prisms and cylinders. Parallel
surface results. lines, parallel to the axis of the detail, are drawn on the surface in a
Warped surfaces comprise those ruled surfaces for which view which shows them as true lengths. These true lengths are
successive positions of the generating line neither intersect nor are projected or transferred with dividers to the pattern so that they
parallel. A common example is the flank of a vee thread which is an remain true lengths. When the object is a prism, its comers will
oblique helicoid. The flanks of a square thread are right helicoids. serve as surface lines, as in Examples 1 to 4. The true distances
In both cases the directing curves are helices. For a right helicoid the between the comers are also needed and these are available in a
generating line is perpendicular to the axis of the helix, whilst for an view which shows the right cross-section of the prism. This is the
oblique helicoid it is at a constant angle to the axis. cross-section in a plane at right angles to the axis and comers. On
A double-curved surface is produced by the motion of a curved the right cross-section the prism comers appear as points. Thus the
generating line, as with the sphere, which may be formed by pattern length, called the stretch-out or girth, is the perimeter of the
rotating a semicircle about its diameter. Other examples are the right cross-section.
paraboloid, which is generated by revolving a parabola about its When the object is cylindrical, as in Examples 5 to 9, surface lines
axis, and the torus, which is formed by moving a circle in a circular are obtained by dividing the circumference of the right cross-section
path about an axis outside the circle but in the same plane as the into a number of equal parts, often twelve for convenience. The
circle. There are no straight lines on a double-curved surface. stretch-out, which is the circumference of the right cross-section, may
Warped and double-curved surfaces are theoretically not be found approximately by setting off the chordal distance a twelve
developable. However, they can be developed approximately by times along the stretch-out line. For a more accurate pattern calculate
dividing them into small sections which are developable surfaces. the circumference of the right cross-section and divide it into twelve
Alternatively a plane may be pressed, stamped or otherwise parts geometrically. At each division draw a perpendicular repre-
deformed into the required shape. senting the surface line and project or transfer its true length.
88 89
For intersecting sheet metal components, such as those shown in

Examples 8 and 9, accurate interpenetration curves must be drawn
before the patterns can be laid out.
Parallel line development applied to oblique cylinders

Parallel line development can be used to develop oblique cylinders,
but before considering this the following definitions should be
noted, in conjunction with Figures 2 and 3 on page 99.
A right circular cylinder is one in which all sections at right angles
to the axis are circular. Thus, when dimensioned, its diameter is
shown at right angles to the axis.
An oblique circular cylinder is one in which the axis is inclined at
some angle to the plane of its circular base. Therefore its right
cross-section is elliptical. When dimensioned, its diameter is shown
at some angle to the axis.
It will be seen therefore, that oblique cylinders have a constant
cross-section for their full length and so can be developed by the
parallel line method. However, a slight modification is necessary
which will be apparent from the following explanation.
Referring to the solution to Example 10, divide the circular base
into twelve equal parts and draw surface lines in the elevation as for
a right cylinder. These surface lines will be true lengths and can be"
projected into the pattern. The stretch-out of the pattern will not
now be equal to the circumference of the circular base. Instead, the
circumference will equal the length of the curved edge in the pattern.
Project the ends of the surface lines into the pattern with projectors
at right angles to them, and position the joint line in the pattern.
From the ends of the joint line strike arcs a, equal to one-twelfth of
the circumference of the circular base, to cut the projectors from the
surface line nearest the joint line. This will fix two points, one on
each edge of the pattern. From these points again strike arcs a to cut
the projectors from the next surface line, and so on. This procedure
ensures that the length of the curved pattern edges equals the
circumference ofthe circular base ofthe cylinder. It should be noted
that the distances between surface lines in the pattern are not equal.
An alternative method is to use the elliptical right cross-section of
the oblique cylinder, and this is shown in part in the solution to
Example 11. The right cross-section will then develop as a straight
line perpendicular to the surface lines and equal in length to the
circumference of the ellipse. The surface lines can be positioned
along this stretch-out line by chordal distances taken from the right
98
cross-section view, but note that if the surface lines are equally
spaced round the circular base they will not be equally spaced round
the ellipse.
Radial line development

This method is used for objects which taper to an apex, such as
cones and pyramids. For cones radial lines are drawn on the surface
from the apex to the base. For pyramids the sloping edges are used
as surface lines.
Right cones
The development of any right cone is a sector of a circle since the
radial surface lines are all the same true length. The angle at the
centre of the sector depends on the base radius of the cone and the
slant height.
Referring to the solution to Example 14, let the radius of the base
of the cone be r, the slant height be R and the angle at the centre of
the pattern 9. Then the ratio of 9 to 360 equals the ratio of the
0 0
length of the sector arc to the circumference of a circle of radius R.
For a complete cone, shown in Example 14, or a frustum, shown in

Example 15, the pattern can be laid out using 9 and the slant heights
Rand Rl only. That is, surface lines need not be drawn in the
orthographic views or in the pattern. The solution to Example 15
shows that the pattern for a frustum is a sector with a smaller sector
removed from it. However, for truncated cones, such as those in
Examples 16 and 17, surface lines are needed. In such cases, instead
of calculating 9, it is more convenient to draw in the pattern the arc
representing the base of the cone, and to step off round it twelve
chords a each equal to the chord of one-twelfth of the base circum-
ference of the cone. This method fixes the size of the pattern and
positions the surface lines in one operation and avoids having to
divide an awkward angle into twelve parts. The size ofthe pattern is
not quite as accurate as that obtained by using 9 since the chord a is
shorter than the arc of one-twelfth of the base circumference, but
this is offset by the convenience of the method.
102
The student should realize that the only surface lines in the
orthographic views of the cone which are true lengths are the
outside elements in the elevation. So, when using the other radial
lines to obtain the truncated edges in the pattern, their ends are
projected to the outside of the cone to find the true lengths. This is
illustrated in the solutions to Examples 16 and 17.
It is sometimes necessary to use radial lines additional to the
twelve equally spaced ones, as in the solution to Example 18. These
are drawn as required in the elevation and the positions x, y and z of
their ends are found in the plan by projection. Points x, y and z are
plotted in the pattern using arcs 2-x, 3-y and 4-z transferred from
the plan.
When developing any cone or pyramid always layout the pattern
for the complete object before plotting the edges produced by
truncations or other cuts.
Oblique cones
An oblique cone has its axis at some angle to the plane of its base
and so radial surface lines are not all the same true length. There-
fore the development is not a sector of a circle. The surface lines
divide the cone into approximate triangles and the development
consists of finding the true lengths of the sides of the triangles and
then laying out the triangles side by side in order.
Referring to the solution to Example 20, the plan of the circular
base is divided into twelve equal parts which are used to position
radial surface lines in the elevation and plan. As with a right cone
only the outside elements in the elevation, A--{) and A-6, appear i~
true length. The true lengths of ~he remainder are found by rotating
their plans about the apex untIl they meet the vertical plane and
joining these points to the apex in the elevation. Note that to avoid
confusion between surface lines in the elevation and true lengths,
the true length diagram is constructed outside the elevation.
Start the pattern by positioning A-6, the surface line in the
centre. From 6 strike arcsa, equal to the chord of one-twelfth of the
base circumference, on both sides of A-6. Intersect these arcs with
arcs struck from A, equal to the true length of A-5. This completes
the two triangles A56. R~peat this proce.dure for the remaining
triangles until the pattern IScompleted. Smce the pattern is sym-
metrical about A-6, it is quicker to work outwards from the centre
rather than to begin at the seam.
It will be realized that this method ensures that the length round
106
the curved edge of the pattern equals the circumference of the

circular base of the cone. Compare this with the development of
oblique cylinders in Examples 8 to 13.
When an oblique cone is truncated, as in Example 21, the method
for obtaining the true lengths of parts of the surface lines is similar to
that used for a right cone. The end of each part surface line in the
elevation is projected parallel to the base of the cone to the appro-
priate true length line in the true length diagram.
Additional surface lines may be employed where required exactly
as for a right cone, such as lines A-x in the solutions to Examples 22
and 23.
Although the worked examples above are of oblique circular
cones, the same method may be used if the base is elliptical.
Pyramids
The lateral surfaces of a pyramid are triangular and the pattern
consists of these triangles drawn in order, side by side, and in true
shape. Thus the general method which is used for cones can be
applied to pyramids.
Example 24 is a right pyramid and, therefore, all the sloping
edges are the same true length. To find this true length, rotate the
plan of a sloping edge h as 02b2 until it is parallel to the vertical
plane. Project to the elevation and join to the vertex in the same
way as for finding the true length of a surface line on an oblique
cone. The true lengths of the part sloping edges are found by
projecting their ends in the elevation to the true length line. The
true length of the seam ON is available directly in the elevation and
the true lengths of the base edges appear in the plan.
Start the pattern by laying off the true length of ON in a con-
venient position. Complete the half side ONA by drawing an arc
n2a2centred at N, to cut an arc equal to the true length ofthe sloping
edges, centred at O. This arc may be extended round the pattern as
all the sloping edges have this true length. Fix the points D, C and B
on this arc by stepping round it a2d2,d2c2and c2b2.Join D, C and B
to 0 and add the other half side ONB to give the pattern for the
complete pyramid. Mark off on the bending lines the appropriate
true lengths to fix M, P, S, Rand Q on the cut-out.
This pattern can also be drawn by beginning at the centre and
working outwards in both directions.
A right triangular pyramid is shown in Example 25. In this case
108
the true length of the sloping edge OC differs from the true length of
the other edges OA and OB. It may be found by rotating its plan
02C2as before, or by projecting an end view, when 03C3is the true
length. The end view will also enable S2to be positioned. Rotation
of 02b2 or 02a2 and projection to the elevation constructs their true
length. The pattern is drawn in a similar way to the previous
example but note that the pattern for the full pyramid is laid out
before attempting to cut off the base.
Example 26 shows an oblique rectangular pyramid. Here the true
lengths of the sloping edges are all different and each must be found
by rotating the plan length and projecting to the elevation. Example
27 is similar, but since 02a2and 02b2are parallel to the vertical plane
their true lengths appear directly in the elevation.
Development by triangulation
In this method of development the surface of the object is divided
into a number of triangles. The true sizes of the triangles are found
and they are drawn in order, side by side, to produce the pattern. It
will be apparent that to find the true sizes of the triangles it is first
necessary to find the true lengths of their sides. Figures 4 and 5 on
page 116 show how this is done.
Figure 4 shows a rectangle to round transition piece having the
top and bottom edges in planes parallel to the horizontal plane. This
is the simplest case for a triangulation problem. Two surface lines
AC and DE are shown in plan and elevation. Their true lengths are
found by placing their plan lengths at right angles to their vertical
heights. Then the hypotenuses of the right angled triangles so
formed are the true lengths of the surface lines.
This method is essentially the same as that used to find the true
lengths of surface lines on pyramids and oblique cones. However, if
plan lengths are rotated and projected to the elevation in triangu-
lation problems, the many construction lines used make the drawing
very diffiicult to follow and may lead to mistakes being made. Also
the true lengths often appear on the elevation and are difficult to
distinguish from the original surface lines. For these reasons a
separate true length diagram is preferred.
Since in Figure 4 the top and bottom edges of the transition are
parallel to the horizontal plane, distances on these edges may be
taken directly from the plan, as in this view they are true lengths.
Using these lengths and the true lengths of the surface lines from the
114
true length diagram, the triangles into which the object is divided
may be laid out in order and the pattern obtained.
When, as in Figure 5, the object does not lie between planes
parallel to the horizontal plane, the procedure is similar to that
outlined above. Now, however, the distances ST, TU, UV, etc., on
the top of the object are not true lengths in either view. Their true
lengths must be found in the same way that the true lengths of the
surface lines are found. Note too, that the vertical heights of the
surface lines now vary. It is convenient to construct the true lengths
of the divisions of the circular edge and the true lengths of the
surface lines on opposite sides of the vertical reference line in the
true length diagram. Reference to Figure 5 will make these points
clear.
When dividing the surface of an object into triangles prior to
developing it, care should be taken so that surface lines lie as near as
possible on the surface of the object and are straight. For example,
in Figure 5 a line from A to T could only lie on the surface if it were
curved. If it were straight it would only touch the surface at its ends.
Panel development
Example 32 shows a sheet metal detail composed of eight similar
panels. The development of one panel may be obtained as follows.
Draw an elevation and plan, positioning the detail so that the
horizontal edges of one panel are parallel to the vertical plane.
Obtain the profile of this panel in the elevation by taking a series of
horizontal sections such as XX. Project the width waf the panel at
XX back to the elevation from the plan. Width w is a true length.
The stretch-out of the panel is the length of the profile of the
elevation.
Start the pattern by drawing a centre line and mark off along it
lengths such as a and b from the profile of the elevation. These
lengths are the distances between successive horizontal sections.
Through the points so obtained on the pattern centre line draw
horizontals and mark off on them the appropriate panel widths.
Complete the panel by lining in the profile.
Example 33 is similar to the previous example but now horizontal
sections such as YY produce hexagons in the plan. The pattern is
drawn in the same way as for Example 32 except that an end view is
projected by transferring widths such as t from the sections in the
plan.
120
Development
Sphere development
A sphere is a double-curved surface and is therefore non-develop-
able. However, an approximate development may be obtained by
dividing the spherical surface into either gores or zones. A gore is
that part of the spherical surface which is contained between two
planes which pass through the axis. A zone lies between two planes
which are at right angles to the axis.
When gores are used cylindrical surfaces are substituted for the
spherical surfaces of the gores, hence the term polycylindric
method. This is shown in Figure 6 on page 124. The polyconic
method, shown in Figure 7(page 125), is so named because the
zones are replaced by conic frusta.
The surface of any solid of revolution may be developed by either
of these methods. Examination of the solutions to Examples 32 and
33 will show that the panels are essentially gores.
Development problems
Develop the details full size except where a different scale is shown
on the drawing. Make no allowance for metal thickness, seams or
hems. Give full patterns unless otherwise stated.
1-4 These are prisms, open at both ends.
5 Develop the vertical and horizontal pipes of the smoke
cowl and one of the inclined pipes.
6 Develop both 32 mm diameter pipes and show the hole
shape required in the pattern for the square duct. The
complete pattern for the square duct is not required.
Complete the elevation with the interpenetration
curves.
7 Layout the patterns for both branch pipes and construct
the hole shapes required in the pattern for the main
pipe. Do not give a full pattern for the main pipe. Show
in the plan the interpenetration curve for the 375 mm
diameter branch.
8 Using 30° segments construct a lobster-back bend to
connect the two given pipes with (a) right cylindrical
segments (b) oblique cylindrical segments. Develop one
segment in each case. Refer to Figures 2 and 3 on page
99.
123
9, 10 These are combinations of right cylinders and prisms,

open at both ends.
11-14 These are oblique cylinders.
In problem 12 develop the gusset piece A and the
horizontal branch pipe but show only the shape required
in the pattern for the vertical branch.
15-19 These are right cones, open at both ends.
In problem 17 the 30 mm diameter hole passes
through one side only of the cone.
In problem 18 obtain the interpenetration curve be-
tween the hopper and the discharge pipe and develop
both components.
In problem 19 find the interpenetration curve be-
tween the hopper and the rectangular trunking and lay
out the pattern for the hopper.
20-23 These are oblique cones, open at both ends.
In problem 22 layout the developed hole shape in the
80 mm diameter pipe as well as constructing the pattern
for the cone.
In problem 23 develop the cone and the 76 mm dia-
meter cylinder.
24-28 These are right and oblique pyramids, open at both
ends.
29-38 These are transition pieces to be developed by triangula-

tion.
In problem 34 the area of the circular end is to be the
same as that of the rectangular end. Calculate the dia-
meter D and layout the pattern.
39,40 These are examples of details built up from panels.
Problem 39 is an exhaust flare made from six similar
panels. Develop one panel.
Problem 40 is a bowl made from eight panels and all
horizontal sections are octagons. Develop panels A, B
and C.
128
5 Cams
A cam is a device having a profile or groove machined on it, which

gives to a 'follower' an irregular or special motion. The type of
follower and the motion required of it decide the shape of the profile
or groove.
Types of earn
Cams fall into two main classes: radial, disc, edge or plate cams, and
cylindrical cams. The follower working with a radial cam recipro-
cates or oscillates in a plane at right angles to the carn axis. With a
cylindrical cam the follower moves in a plane parallel to the carn
axIS.
The left-hand drawing in Figure l(a) shows the most elementary
type of cam. A block with a sloping top face has a follower, which is
a knife edged rod, resting on it. When the block is reciprocated in a
horizontal plane, the follower is caused to reciprocate in its guide in
a vertical plane. In the centre drawing (Figure 1(a) ) the cam rotates
about a centre, usually at constant speed, and the follower recipro-
cates up and down. In the right-hand drawing the follower is pivoted
at one end and oscillates about the pivot as the cam rotates. These
are all examples of radial cams. Occasionally the carn may oscillate
instead of rotating.
A cylindrical cam is illustrated in Figure l(b). Here a groove is cut
in the surface of the cylinder, which reciprocates the follower as the
cylinder rotates. Sometimes a radial follower, oscillating about a
pivot, is used. Again, the cam may oscillate instead of rotating.
Instead of cutting a groove in a cylinder, the end may be
machined to a special form when the cam is called an end carn. In
this case thrust is applied to the follower in only one direction,
whereas the groove applies it in both directions.
132
Types of follower
These are illustrated in Figure 2. The simplest type is one having a
knife edge or point which works on the profile of the cam. It is not
often used as it wears rapidly but it has the advantage that any form
can be given to the cam profile.
With the roller follower the rate of wear is reduced, but the
profile of the carn must not have any concave portions with a radius
smaller than the roller radius.
The flat follower is sometimes used but here the carn profile must
have no concave portions. All three types of follower may have
their axes offset from the cam axis.
Followers to work with radial cams are generally spring loaded to
keep them always in contact with the cam profile.
Follower motions
When studying the motions which are given to a follower by the
profile of a radial carn, it is convenient to use a cam graph or
displacement diagram in which the rise and fall of the follower is
plotted against the angular displacement of the carn. The 360°
rotation of the carn is laid off in 15°steps along the horizontal axis,
to a convenient scale, and the rise and fall of the follower is shown
on the vertical axis, full size.
There are three motions which may be given to the follower:
uniform velocity, simple harmonic motion and uniform acceleration
and retardation.
For the follower to have uniform velocity, it must move through
equal increments of rise or fall as the cam turns through equal
angles. Thus the graph is a straight line, as shown in Figure 3(a). It is
usual in practice to smooth out the abrupt changes of direction at
each end of the motion by radii. If this is not done large accelera-
tions are given to the follower which tends to jump on the carn
profile.
Simple harmonic motion when plotted on the cam graph is a sine
curve and may be drawn as in Figure 3(b). A semicircle is drawn on
the rise or fall of the follower and divided into a number of equal
parts. The cam displacement is divided into the same number of
equal parts and at these points verticals are erected. Horizontal
lines drawn through the points on the semi-circle to cut these
verticals give points on the graph.
Figure 3(c) shows the construction for a curve of uniform
acceleration and retardation. In this case the curve is parabolic in
134
form. The angular displacement of the cam and the rise or fall of the
follower are each divided into the same even number of equal
divisions. During the first half of the motion the follower is acceler-
ated uniformly; during the second half it is retarded. The construc-
tion, which is the circumscribing rectangle method of drawing a
parabola, should be clear from the figure.
In the following worked examples it has been assumed that the

follower is the part which is to be given the special motion by the
cam. This is not always the case. A third part of the mechanism may
require the special motion, the follower being only an intermediary
between this part and the cam. If this is so, the motion required by
the third part should be plotted on the line along which it moves and
transferred to the cam profile through the follower. Problems 10, 16
and 17 on pages 150 and 153 are illustrations of this point.
To construct a radial carn profile

The method for drawing the profile of a radial carn to operate a
point or knife edged follower is shown on page 137. The same
general method is used for all radial cams but is varied by the type of
follower and its position relative to the cam axis.
First position the cam centre and the nearest approach of the
follower to it. From this point layoff the maximum lift of the
follower. Draw circles through these two points about the cam
centre and divide them into 15° divisions. The circle through the
lowest position of the follower is called the base circle. Construct
the cam graph, positioning the angular displacement axis on a level
with the lowest position of the follower end. Now imagine the cam
to be held stationary and the follower to be moved round it. To
obtain the same motion as with the carn rotating, the follower must
be moved in the opposite direction to the cam rotation. When the
follower has moved through 15°its height will be given by the point
on the cam graph at the 15° station. Project this point to the line of
action of the follower, which in this case is the vertical centre line of
the cam, and swing it round the cam centre with compasses to cut
the 15° line on the cam. Succeeding points are obtained in the same
way. Where the follower remains at the same height, or 'dwells', the
cam radius is constant. When points on all the 15°radial lines have
been plotted, a smooth curve through them will be the cam profile.
Complete the carn with an arrow showing the direction of rotation.
In the worked examples 15° angular displacement divisions have
136
been used, and these usually give a sufficiently accurate profile.

However, cams for automatic machine tools are divided into 100
parts.
The construction of a radial cam to work with a flat follower is
shown on page 139. As before, points on the cam profile are
positioned on the radial displacement lines by projection from the
cam graph. These points lie on the face of the flat follower. Lines
representing the follower face are drawn through them at right
angles to the angular displacement lines. The cam profile must be
tangential to these lines.
It should be noticed that the point of contact between the fol-
lower face and the cam profile is in most cases a considerable
distance from the angular displacement line. This point must be
borne in mind when deciding the size of the follower face.
The example on page 140 is a plate cam to operate a roller
follower. Here points projected from the cam graph to the radial
displacement lines on the cam are positions of the centre of the
roller follower. The roller must be drawn at each ofthese positions,
the cam profile being tangential to the rollers. The line through the
roller centres is the pitch curve of the cam.
Note, that in examples involving roller followers the angular
displacement axis of the cam graph is positioned on a level with the
start position of the roller centre. This ensures that lift points on the
cam graph can be projected directly to the cam.
The previous examples of cam design have all had in-line fol-
lowers, that is, the line of action of the follower has been vertically
above the cam centre. Sometimes, due to lack of space for the
mechanism, this cannot be arranged and the line of action must be
offset to one side. The cam with a roller follower on page 141 is an
example of this.
First fix the highest and lowest positions of the roller relative to
the cam centre. Draw the offset circle, that is, the circle having the
line of action of the follower tangential to it, and divide it into 15°
divisions. At each division draw a tangent, and number them oppo-
site to the cam rotation. These tangents represent successive posi-
tions of the line of action as it is moved round the cam. Construct the
cam graph, placing the angular displacement axis on the same level
as the initial position of the roller centre. Project points on the cam
graph to the line of action and then swing them round the cam centre
to the appropriate tangent. As in the previous example these points
on the tangents are positions of the roller centre. The roller is drawn
138
at each position and the cam profile drawn tangential to the rollers.
In some applications, for example on automatic machine tools, a
radial arm or oscillating follower is more suitable than a recipro-
cating follower. A radial arm follower is pivoted at one end. The
other end, which usually carries a roller, works on the cam profile.
The method for constructing the cam profile in this case is shown on
page 143.
Set out the cam centre, pivot centre and extreme positions of the
roller centre. Draw circles about the cam centre through the pivot
centre and the roller centres. Divide the circle through the pivot
into 15° divisions, starting at the pivot, and number them opposite
to the cam rotation. If the cam is held stationary and the follower
moved round it, the pivot centre will move to each ofthese points in
turn. So, with these points as centres, draw arcs with a radius equal
to the length of the follower arm. The follower is to move outward
through 60° with uniform angular velocity during the first half
revolution of the cam, that is, the first twelve 15° divisions. There-
fore, divide the 60° movement of the follower into twelve equal
parts. Project these points to the appropriate follower arc, thus
obtaining the first twelve positions of the roller centre. Positions of
the roller centre during the return motion of the follower are
obtained in the same way. Draw the roller at each position of the
centre and draw the cam profile tangential to the rollers.
To draw the carn graph for a given carn profile

This is the reverse of the previous examples. The example on page
144 illustrates the method for an offset roller follower. The method
for in-line followers of other types can easily be determined by the
student.
Start by drawing the cam profile and plot round it the pitch curve.
Since this is the locus of the roller centre it will be parallel to the
profile and the roller radius away from it. Position the line of action
of the follower and draw the offset circle with the line of action
tangential to it. Divide the offset circle into 15° divisions and at each
draw a tangent, numbering them opposite to the cam rotation.
Where the tangents cut the pitch curve are positions of the roller
centre. Swing these points round the cam centre to the line of
actionof the follower and project them into the cam graph to the
appropriate displacement line.
The cam graph may have a time base as shown, instead of an
angular displacement base. To determine the time base calculate
142
Cams
the time taken by the cam to make one revolution and divide it by
twenty-four. This gives the time for the cam to turn through 15°,
enabling the graph to be related to the roller centre positions on the
cam.
Cylindrical cams
The drawing of a cylindrical cam, illustrated on page 146, requires a
development of the cam surface. From this development a template
is made which is used in the manufacture of the cam.
Start by drawing an elevation and end view of the cam blank,
dividing both into a number of equal parts. Twelve have been used
in the illustration for clarity but the motion of the follower may
require 15° divisions or others. From the elevation project the
development of the cam surface and divide it into the same number
of equal parts as the elevation and end view. Layoff on the develop-
ment the extreme positions of the centre of the roller follower and
plot its motion between them in the same way that motions are
plotted on a plate cam graph. Draw the roller at each point where
the curve crosses an angular displacement line, and draw the groove
profile tangential to the rollers. The elevation can then be com-
pleted by projection from the development.
A roller follower is commonly used to work with a cylindrical cam
but the roller must be conical or it will slip on the groove profile.
This happens because points on the outside of the cam move faster
than points at the bottom of the groove. For simplicity a cylindrical
roller has been assumed for the cam in the worked example and in
the problems which follow.
Cam problems
All solutions are to be drawn full size.
1 A plate cam rotating clockwise is to give an in-line point
follower the following motion.
0°-120° lift 32 mm with uniform velocity
120°-180° dwell
180°-360° fall 32 mm with simple harmonic motion. Draw the
cam profile if the minimum cam radius is 38 mm and the
camshaft diameter is 24 mm.
2 Draw the profile of a radial cam to operate an in-line knife edge
follower, the follower motion being:
0°_ 60° dwell
145
Cams
60°-180° lift 38 mm with uniform acceleration and retardation

180°-240° dwell
240°-360° fall 38 mm with simple harmonic motion
The cam rotates anti-clockwise, the least thickness of metal
round the cam centre is 32 mm and the camshaft diameter is
22mm.
3 An in-line flat follower is to be given the motion described

below by a plate cam rotating anti-clockwise. The nearest
approach of the follower to the cam centre is to be 38 mm and
the camshaft diameter 24 mm. Set out the profile of the cam.
150°-210° dwell
210°-270° fall 20 mm with uniform velocity
4 Layout the profile of a radial cam to give an in-line roller

follower, 16 mm diameter, the following motion:
0°_ 90° dwell
90°-180° lift 38 mm with simple harmonic motion
180°-270° dwell
270°-360° fall 38 mm with uniform velocity
Cam rotation clockwise, minimum cam radius 56 mm, cam-
shaft diameter 24 mm.
5 A plate cam rotating anti-clockwise at 10 rev/min is to give an

in-line roller follower the following motion in one revolution.
Lift 38 mm with simple harmonic motion in 1.5 seconds
Dwell for 1 second
Fall 20 mm with uniform velocity in 1.25 seconds
Fall 18 mm with simple harmonic motion in 1.5 seconds
Dwell for the remainder of the revolution
Draw the cam profile making the minimum distance from the
cam centre to the roller centre 50 mm, the roller diameter
20 mm and the camshaft diameter 32 mm. Use a scale of 20 mm
to 1 second on the horizontal axis of the cam graph.
6 An offset roller follower, 20 mm diameter, is to be given the

motion set out below by a plate cam rotating clockwise. Con-
struct the profile of the cam.
Lift 38 mm with uniform velocity in 120° of cam rotation
Dwell for 60° of cam rotation
147
Fall 38 mm with simple harmonic motion in 90° of cam

rotation
Dwell for the remainder of the revolution
The line of action of the follower is offset 32 mm to the left of
the vertical centre line of the cam. The minimum distance from
the cam centre to the roller centre is 56 mm. The camshaft
diameter is 24 mm.
7 Draw the profile of a plate cam rotating clockwise which gives

an 18 mm diameter offset roller follower the following motion.
0°_120° lift 24 mm with uniform acceleration and retardation
120°-180° dwell
180°-240° lift 12 mm with uniform velocity
The minimum distance from cam centre to roller centre is
50 mm, the camshaft diameter is 20 mm and the line of action of
the follower is offset 24 mm to the right of the vertical centre
line of the earn.
8 A radial carn rotating anti-clockwise is to operate an offset flat

follower giving it the following motion.
180°-270° dwell
Construct the cam profile if the follower is offset 22 mm to the
right of the vertical centre line of the carn. The nearest
approach of the follower to the horizontal centre line of the
cam is 40 mm and the camshaft diameter is 32 mm.
9 Figure 1 on page 149 shows a radial arm roller follower which is

to be operated by a plate carn rotating clockwise. The motion
given to the follower is to be:
Dwell for first 45° of cam rotation
Move outward through 30° with uniform angular velocity
during the next 90° of carn rotation
Dwell for the next 45° of carn rotation
Move inward through 15° with uniform angular velocity
during next 60° of cam rotation
Dwell for the next 60° of cam rotation
Move inward through 15° with uniform angular velocity
during the remainder of the revolution of the cam
Construct the cam profile.
148
10 The guide block in the mechanism shown in Figure 2 on page

149 is reciprocated along the line AB by a plate cam rotating
clockwise. The carn operates a radial arm roller follower which
is linked to the guide block as shown. The block is to move 54
mm to the left with simple harmonic motion while the cam
rotates through 90°. It is then to remain stationary for 180°of
cam rotation, returning to its starting position with simple
harmonic motion during the final 90° rotation of the cam. If the
starting position is as shown, construct the cam profile.
11 Figure 3 on page 149 shows the profile of a plate carn to operate
an in-line roller follower. If the cam rotates clockwise deter-
mine the displacement curve for the follower on an angular
base, using a scale of 6 mm to 15°. Assume the starting position
of the carn to be shown.
12 A plate cam to operate an offset 24 mm diameter roller fol-
lower is shown in Figure 4 on page 149. If the line of action of
the follower is 24 mm to the right of the vertical centre line of
the cam, draw the cam displacement curve on a time base when
the cam makes 62.5 rev/min. 15° angular divisions of cam
rotation must be used with a scale of 6 mm to one-twenty-fifth
of a second on the time axis of the displacement curve. The cam
rotates anti-clockwise.
13 The displacement curve for a radial cam to rotate clockwise at
40 rev/min is shown incompletely in Figure 5 on page 151.
Complete the graph to the given scale and construct the carn
profile if the roller follower is 20 mm diameter with its line of
action offset 32 mm to the left of the vertical centre line of the
carn. The nearest approach of the roller centre to the carn
centre is to be 40 mm and the camshaft diameter is to be 25 mm.
14 Figure 6 on page 151 shows a blank for a cylindrical carn.
Complete the given view adding a development of the cam
surface, if the follower moves 76 mm to the right with simple
harmonic motion during one-third of a revolution of the carn,
dwells for the next one-sixth of a revolution, and returns to the
start position with simple harmonic motion during the re-
mainder of the revolution. The cam rotates clockwise when
viewed from the left of the given view.
15 The cylindrical carn shown in Figure 7 on page 151 is to move
the follower 64 mm to the left with simple harmonic motion
150
Cams
during the first half revolution of the cam, and return it to the
start position with uniform acceleration and retardation during
the second half revolution. Draw the cam with a development
of its surface, if the rotation is clockwise when viewed from the
left of the given view.
16 Figure 8 on page 152 shows two blocks, A and B, which are to
be reciprocated by an oscillating plate cam and a system of
levers. If the initial position of the system is as shown draw the
cam profile from the following information.
Block A is to move 48 mm to the left with simple harmonic
motion, and block B is to move 64 mm to the left with uniform
velocity while the cam rotates anti-clockwise through 120°.The
blocks are to return to their starting positions with the same
motions while the cam rotates clockwise through 120°.
The non-working portions of the cam profile may be shown
as circular arcs about the cam centre, blending into the working
portions with 6 mm fillet radii, as shown.
17 A plate carn rotating anti-clockwise is to move the tappet in
Figure 9 (page 152) 36 mm to the left with uniform acceleration
and retardation in half a revolution. In the second half revolu-
tion the tappet is to return to its start position, again with
uniform acceleration and retardation. If the start position is as
shown, layout the cam profile.
153
6 Involute gears
Spur gears
Imagine two cylinders in contact at a common point on their cir-
cumferences. If one cylinder is turned on its axis the other will be
turned by the friction between the cylinders at the point of contact.
The driven cylinder will rotate in the opposite direction to the
driving cylinder and the ratio of the angular velocities will equal the
inverse ratio of the diameters. It is obvious that very little power can
be transmitted by this system before the cylinders slip on each
other. To avoid this slipping, slots are cut in the cylinders with
projections added between them. These slots and projections form
teeth and the cylinders become spur gears. To keep the ratio of the
angular velocities constant the teeth must have profiles of either
cycloidal or involute form. The involute form is much commoner
than the cycloidal, mainly because it is easier to manufacture. Only
involute gears will be considered here.
Involute construction
Figure 1 shows the method for constructing an involute to a circle.
The involute is generated by rolling a straight line round the circle,
when points on the line will trace out involutes. Draw the circle,
which is called the base circle, and divide its circumference into a
number of equal parts. Through the points so obtained on the
circumference draw tangents. Mark off on these tangents the
lengths of corresponding arcs on the base circle. The ends of the
tangents will then be points on the involute.
Figure 2 shows the effect on the involute of varying the base circle
diameter. If it is increased the involute becomes straighter, until
when the base circle diameter is infinitely large the involute is a
straight line. Thus an involute rack, which may be thought of as a
gear with an infinitely large base circle diameter, has straight sided
154
teeth. This property of an involute rack is made use of in the cutting

of involute spur gear teeth on hobbing machines, the Sunderland
gear planer and the Maag grinder.
Involute spur gear terms

The names of the various parts and dimensions of spur gears and
their teeth are illustrated in Figure 3.
The pitch circle is the circle representing the original cylinder
which transmitted motion by friction, and its diameter the pitch
circle diameter.
The centre distance of a pair of meshing spur gears is the sum of
their pitch circle radii. One of the advantages of the involute system
is that small variations in the centre distance do not affect the
correct working of the gears.
The pitch point is the point of contact between the pitch circles of
two gears in mesh.
The line of action. Contact between the teeth of meshing gears
takes place along a line tangential to the two base circles. This line
passes through the pitch point and is called the line of action.
The pressure angle. The angle between the line of action and the
common tangent to the pitch circles at the pitch point is the pressure
angle or angle of obliquity.
The addendum is the radial height of a tooth above the pitch
circle.
The dedendum is the radial depth below the pitch circle.
The clearance is the difference between the addendum and the
dedendum.
The whole depth of a tooth is the sum of the addendum and
dedendum.
The working depth of a tooth is the maximum depth that the tooth
extends into the tooth space of a mating gear. It is the sum of the
addenda of the gears.
The addendum circle is that which contains the tops of the teeth
and its diameter is the outside or blank diameter.
The dedendum or root circle is that which contains the bottoms of
the tooth spaces and its diameter is the root diameter.
The tooth face is the surface of a tooth above the pitch circle,
parallel to the axis ofthe gear.
The tooth flank is the tooth surface below the pitch circle, parallel
to the axis of the gear. If any part of the flank extends inside the base
circle it cannot have involute form. It may have any other form
156
Engineering Drawing with Worked Examples 2 Involute gears
which does not interfere with mating teeth, and is usually a straight Approximate construction for the spur gear teeth
radial line .
It is usual to represent the involute curves on the teeth by circular
Circular tooth thickness is measured on the tooth around the pitch arcs, since to draw them accurately would take too long. The
circle, that is, it is the length of an arc. Chordal tooth thickness is the method shown on page 160 is Unwin's construction.
chord of this arc.
Draw the pitch, addendum and dedendum circles and the base
The module is the pitch circle diameter divided by the number of circle tangential to the line of action. On a convenient radial line fix
teeth.
a point A on the addendum circle and a point E on the base circle.
Diametral pitch is the number of teeth per inch of pitch circle Divide AE into three equal parts and through B, the division
diameter. This is a ratio.
nearest A, draw a tangent to the base circle at D. Divide BD into
Circular pitch is the distance from a point on one tooth to the four equal parts and through F, the division nearest D, draw a
corresponding point on the next tooth, measured round the pitch circle. The centres for the profile arcs lie on this circle and F is the
circle.
centre for the profile arc passing through B. From C, the inter-
If contact between the teeth of meshing gears does not take place section of this profile arc and the pitch circle, mark off tooth
on the line of action interference may occur. This is often the case thicknesses round the pitch circle. Draw profile arcs, radius FB,
when a pinion with a small number of teeth is in mesh with a wheel through these points, with their centres on the circle through F. The
with a large number of teeth, the faces of the wheel teeth fouling the fillet radius at the roots of the teeth is approximately one-seventh of
flanks of the pinion teeth. If interference is allowed the pinion teeth the widest tooth space.
will be undercut at the roots.
On a working drawing of a spur gear it is usually unnecessary to
The term pinion is applied to the smaller of two mating gears. show more than two or three teeth. The working drawing consists
generally of two views, a circular view on which the addendum
circle is shown as a thick, continuous line and the pitch circle as a
Proportions and relationships of standard involute spur gear teeth chain dot line, and a sectional view taken through the centre line of
the gear. On the sectional view the hatching does not cross the
pitch circle diameter, PCD teeth. The data relating to the teeth are generally shown in tabular
mo d u Ie m = ~-------- __
, number of teeth, T form on the drawing.
hence, PCD = mx T Figure 10 on page 169 shows the conventional representations of
circular pitch, p = 'IT X m the commoner type of gears.
circular tooth thickness =~

Involute racks
addendum = module As explained previously, involute racks have straight sided teeth.
clearance = 0.25 x module The sides of the teeth are normal to the line of action, therefore,
dedendum = addendum + clearance they are inclined to the vertical at the pressure angle.
Figure 4 on page 161 shows the basic rack tooth profile for unit
Pressure angle, 'P = 14.5 or 20 The British Standard recom-
0 0
•
normal metric module. To obtain the dimensions for the profile if
0
mendation is 20 This value reduces the possibility of interference
•
the module is, say, 4, the given dimensions must be multiplied by 4.
and gives the tooth a wider root.
In practice the basic rack is usually modified as shown in Figure 5
Base circle diameter, BCD = PCD cos 'P . (Refer to Figure 3, page but the modifications are so small that for drawing purposes they
157.)
can be ignored.
Involute gears will work correctly together if they have the same Figure 6 illustrates the point that for a gear and rack in mesh the
pressure angle and module.
pitch line of the rack is tangential to the pitch circle of the gear.
158 159
Helical gears
These are a development of spur gears. Instead of the teeth being
parallel to the axis they lie on helices as shown in Figure 7 (page
163). This means that contact between teeth in mesh takes place
progressively along a diagonal line across the faces and flanks of the
teeth. Before contact ceases between one pair of teeth the next pair
begin to engage and so engagement is continuous. Because of this
the load on the teeth is distributed over a larger area than is the case
with spur gears, and the shock loads which are present when spur
gears transmit large torques are reduced.
Helical gears run smoothly and quietly under heavy loads and,
compared with spur gears, backlash is smaller. Since helical teeth
are longer than spur gear teeth, for the same thickness of gear, the
strength of the teeth is greater.
Figure 7 illustrates the terms lead, helix angle and lead angle as
applied to helical gears and shows how meshing single helical gears
produce an end thrust which must be absorbed with a thrust
bearing. The end thrust is analogous to the axial movement of a
screw as it is turned in a nut. The direction of the end thrust depends
on the hand of the helix on the gear and its direction of rotation.
End thrust may be eliminated by using double helical gears as
shown in Figure 7. These may be cut on the same wheel or on
separate wheels. The end thrusts from each wheel act in opposite
directions and so cancel each other out.
Helical gears can be used to connect parallel shafts and shafts
with any angle between them up to 90°. When the shaft angle is 90°
single helical gears have the same helix angle and the same hand.
Bevel gears
This type of gearing is used to transmit power between shafts in the
same plane whose axes would intersect if produced. The angle
between the shafts is usually a right angle, but it may have any value
up to 180°.
When the transmission of motion by spur gears was considered,
the starting point was two cylinders in contact at a point on their
circumferences. With bevel gears the starting point is two cones in
contact along a pair of generators, the apices of the cones being
coincident, as shown in Figure 8. These cones are the pitch cones of
the gears. If they roll on each other without slipping the velocity
ratio is the inverse ratio of the diameters of their bases. These
diameters are the pitch circle diameters.
162
Involute gears
The teeth on a bevel wheel lie on the curved surface of a second

cone having the same base as the pitch cone and with its generators
at right angles to the generators of the pitch cone. This cone is the
back cone of the gear.
If the curved surface of the back cone is viewed normally the teeth
have the same profiles as the teeth on a spur gear. The addendum
and dedendum have the same proportions as spur gear teeth but are
measured above and below the pitch circle, parallel to the back cone
generator. Pressure angles for bevel gears are usually 14.5° or 20°as
for spur gears.
Bevel gear terms

In addition to those terms used for spur gears the following are also
used and are illustrated in Figure 8.
The pitch angle is the angle between the axis of the gear and the
pitch cone generator. When the pitch angle is 45° the gear is a mitre
gear. When the pitch angle is 90° the gear is a crown gear.
The cutting angle or root angle is the angle between the gear axis
and the root cone generator.
The face angle is the angle between a line at right angles to the axis
and the top surfaces of the teeth.
The edge angle is the angle between a line at right angles to the
axis and the generator of the back cone.
The addendum angle is the angle between the pitch cone gener-
ator and the top surfaces of the teeth.
The dedendum angle is the angle between the pitch cone gener-
ator and the bottoms of tooth spaces.
The width of the tooth face is the width measured parallel to the
pitch cone generator.
The angular addendum is the addendum measured on a line at
right angles to the gear axis.
The outside diameter is the diameter of the gear at the tops of the
teeth.
The vertex distance is the height of a cone with the outside
diameter as base.
Approximate construction for bevel gear teeth

This is shown on page 166, and is due to Tredgold. First draw the
gear centre line with the pitch circle diameter crossing it at right
. angles. On the pitch diameter layout the pitch cone, using the pitch
.'angle. Draw the back cone with the generators at right angles to the
. 165
"
Involute gears
pitch cone generators. On the back cone set out the addendum and
dedendum and joint these points to the vertex. Mark off the face
width of the teeth on the pitch cone and complete the sectional view
of the tooth. Draw lines across the view at right angles to the axis
through the tip and root points and points on the pitch cone at each
end of the teeth. Now develop the back cone by swinging arcs about
a from the addendum, dedendum and pitch points on the back
cone. These arcs fix the addendum, dedendum and pitch circles of
the developed teeth. Using the same construction as for a spur gear,
layout on these circles the profiles of one or two teeth. In the end
view set out the centre lines of the teeth and draw six circles
representing the addendum, dedendum and pitch circles at each
end of the teeth. Fix three points on the profiles of teeth at the large
end by transferring the widths x, y and z from the developed view of
the teeth. The view may now be completed by filling in the teeth
profiles with a french curve or with circular arcs. All straight lines on
the teeth are radial and this enables three points on the profile of the
teeth at the small end to be fixed. The elevation can be completed by
projection from the end view. All straight lines on the teeth in this
view pass through the vertex if produced.
It will be seen from the illustration that when the back cone is
developed a spur gear is formed with a pitch circle diameter equal to
twice the length of the back cone generator. This spur gear is called
the virtual spur gear and it is used in the manufacturing calculations
for the bevel wheel.
Worm gearing
Worm gearing, consisting of a worm and wormwheel, connects
shafts at right angles which lie in different planes. An example and
the commoner terms used in worm gearing are shown in Figure 9 on
page 168
The worm is essentially a screw, which may be single or multi-
threaded, and it engages with teeth cut on the wormwheel. On an
axial section through the worm the teeth have the form and propor-
tions of a standard involute rack, whilst on a similar section through
the wormwheel they are similar to those on an involute spur gear.
Normally the worm drives the wormwheel and in one revolution
will turn the wheel pitch circle through a circumferential distance
equal to the lead of the worm. High velocity ratios can be achieved.
For example, a single-start worm driving a 40 tooth wheel will give a
167
Enginee ring Drawing with Worked Examples 2
Involute gears
velocity ratio of 40 and the same wheel driven by a double-start

diameter 112 mm, four equi-spaced lightening holes 22 mm
worm will give a velocity ratio of20.
diameter, through the web on a 78 mm diameter pitch circle.
For high efficiences the pitch diameter of the worm should be
Fillet radii 3 mm.
small and the lead angle large. As the lead angle of a single-start
Draw full size in first angle projection a front elevation
worm is small it is relatively inefficient but, on the other hand, there
showing three teeth drawn approximately, and a sectional end
is little tendency for the wheel to drive the worm, that is, for the
view. In the end view the boss is positioned symmetrically
drive to be reversible. However, when the lead angle exceeds about
about the centre line. Show a table giving the gear data.
9° the drive is reversible. At lead angles of about 45° maximum
efficiency occurs. 5 Draw full size in third angle projection a dimensioned front
Multi-start worms have large lead angles and so give high elevation and sectional end view of a 30 tooth spur gear,
efficiencies. Waisted worms, which envelop the wormwheel, also module 6, 20° pressure angle. Show three teeth on the front
increase the efficiency compared to parallel worms. elevation drawn approximately and a table of gear data. The
Worm gearing has many applications and common examples are face width of the gear is 25 mm, rim diameter 158 mm, boss
indexing mechanisms, slow-motion drives and torque converters. diameter 34 mm, reamed 24 mm diameter, boss length 50 mm.
The boss is supported by four straight spokes of elliptical
Hypoid gears cross-section, the minor diameter being constant at 10 mm and
These gears are similar to bevel gears but the basic surface on which the major diameter tapering from 24 mm at the boss to 22 mm
the teeth are cut are hyperboloids instead of cones. A hyperboloid is at the rim. Fillet radii 5 mm. The boss is symmetrical about the
the solid of revolution generated by rotating a hyperbola about its centre line in the end view. Show a revolved section of one
directrix. The teeth of hypoid gears are helical and the axes of the spoke on the elevation.
shafts do not intersect when produced. Hypoid gears are commonly
used in the rear axles of cars. 6 Draw full size one view of a pair of involute spur gears in mesh
showing five teeth on each gear. The gears have 32 teeth and 24
Involute gear problems teeth of module 6 and a 20° pressure angle.
The 32 tooth gear has a rim diameter of 170 mm, boss
1 Layout twice full size five teeth of a spur gear with 35 teeth of diameter of 48 mm and a shaft diameter of28 mm. There are six
involute form, module 5 and 20° pressure angle. Use the lightening holes 35 mm diameter on a pitch circle of 105 mm
approximate construction shown on page 160. Give a table diameter.
showing the number of teeth, module, pressure angle, pitch On the 24 tooth gear the rim diameter is 120 mm, the boss
circle diameter, circular pitch, addendum and dedendum. diameter is 35 mm, the shaft diameter is 22 mm and there are
three 32 mm diameter lightening holes on a pitch circle
2 Draw twice full size five teeth of a 15 tooth involute spur gear, diameterof75 mm.
module 6 and 20° pressure angle. Show in tabular form the Show the gear data in tabular form.
important dimensions of the gear.
7 A 300 mm pitch circle diameter involute spur gear is to mesh
3 A 16 tooth pinion with a module of 10 has a 20° pressure angle. with a pinion with a 200 mm pitch circle diameter. If the gears
Set out twice full size five teeth on the pinion. Add a table
have a pressure angle of 20° and a module of 8, draw full size
showing the important gear dimensions.
four teeth on each gear in mesh at the pitch point. Give a table
4 Make a dimensioned working drawing of an 18 tooth pinion, of gear data.
module 4, 20° pressure angle using the following information. 8 The centre distance of an involute spur gear and pinion is 175
Face width 38 mm, central web 12 mm thick, boss length mm and the speed reduction is 2.5:1. Assuming a module of 5
50 mm, boss diameter 45 mm, boss bored 32 mm, inside rim and a pressure angle of 20° calculate the following:
170
171
(a) the pitch circle diameters of gear and pinion

(b)
(c)
the base circle diameters of gear and pinion
the number of teeth on the gear and pinion
7 Vector geometry
(d) the circular pitch of the teeth
(e) the addendum
(f) the dedendum
9 A pinion with 20 teeth is to mesh with a rack whose teeth have a
pressure angle of 20° and an addendum of 6 mm. The travel of
the rack is to be 125 mm.
Draw twice full size all the teeth on the rack and five teeth on Many problems in engineering involve quantities such as (a) dis-
the pinion. Show the rack and pinion in mesh; tabulate the data. placement - change of position, (b) velocity - rate of change of
displacement with respect to time, (c) force - the action of one body
10 A machine work table is driven by an involute rack whose teeth on another.
have a pitch of 31.42 mm and a pressure angle of 20°. The rack These quantities have magnitude, direction and line of action and
is operated by a pinion and intermediate wheel, the gear train may be represented on a drawing by a line, drawn to scale in the
giving a speed reduction of 3: 1. The pitch circle diameter of the stated direction with an arrow indicating the sense of the line. This
pinion is 120 mm.
line is called a vector.
Draw full size the intermediate gear and rack in mesh show- Typical vector lines are illustrated in Figure 1. ab represents a
ing five teeth on each. Tabulate data for two gears and the rack. vector 3.5 units long directed upwards to the right at 45° to the
11 A pair of bevel gears is to connect 38 mm diameter shafts horizontal and cd represents a vector 5 units long directed horizon-
having an included angle of 90°. The velocity ratio of the drive tally from left to right.
shaft to the driven shaft is to be 3:2, the module 8, and the face
width 55 mm. The pinion is to have 16 teeth. Addition of vector quantities
Draw full size a half sectional elevation and half end view of When adding vector quantities we have to take into account not
each gear, similar to the views shown on page 166. All other only their numerical value but also their direction. To add two or
dimensions necessary to complete these views are to be sup- more vectors proceed as follows. Draw the first vector in the direc-
plied by the student. tion of its arrow, continue the second one on the end of the first, the
third on the end of the second and so on. The sum of the vectors is
12 A reduction gear in the form of a pair of bevel gears connects the vector joining the beginning of the first to the end of the last in
30 mm diameter shafts having an included angle of 90°. The the series. The final diagram will be a closed polygon.
pinion, which is the driver, revolves at 125 r.p.m. and has a Figure 2 (a) shows four vector quantities A, B, C and D. To
90 mm pitch diameter, a face width of 20 mm and a module of 5. determine the sum of these quantities proceed by drawing ab equal
The bevel wheel is to revolve at 75 r.p.m. Draw the following and parallel to vector A; on the end b draw bc equal and parallel to
views of the assembly full size. vector B; on the end c draw cd equal and parallel to vector C and
(a) A front elevation, similar to that on page 164, the gears from d draw de equal and parallel to vector D. The sum of A, B, C
being shown in half section with the pinion axis vertical and D is the vector ae, and its direction is indicated by the arrow.
(b) An outside plan view of the pinion only
See Figure 2(b).
(c) An outside end view on the right of the front elevation
showing the wheel only
Subtraction of vector quantities
Dimensions for the hubs, etc., are to be supplied by the Again considering the vector quantities in Figure 2 (a), if we wish to
student.
subtract the vector C from the sum of the vectors A, Band D then
172 173
Vector geometry
we may add -C to A + B + D. A minus vector is a positive one with

the direction of its arrow reversed.
Solving the problem in the same order as before we now have
A + B + (-C) + D (see Figure 3).
Vector examples
1 Add together the following vectors; 6 units vertically upwards,
to 4 units horizontal left to right, to 4.5 units downwards, 10°to
the right of the vertical, to 3 units vertically downwards (Figure
4).
2 A vector ab 15 units long, left to right, 45° above the horizontal,
represents the sum of two vectors, ac and cb. The angle between
ac and cb is 30°, and ac is upwards 30° to the right of the vertical.
Find the values of the vectors ac and cb (Figure 5).
3 Add together the following vectors; 4 units vertically upwards,
to 5 units horizontal right to left, to 4 units downwards 15°to the
left of the vertical, and from the sum of these vectors subtract a
vector 3 units upwards 30° to the right of the vertical (Figure 6).
Vectors applied to the solution of problems in statics

Statics is that part of mechanics which deals with systems of forces in
equilibrium. The term static implies a state of rest for the bodies on
which the forces act, as for example, in the case of roof trusses,
structural members of supporting frames, columns, bridge sections
etc.
Force may be represented vectorially since the length of the
vector may represent the amount of the force, the inclination of the
vector may represent Its line of action and the arrow head will show
its sense or direction.
Concurrent co-planar forces

Concurrent forces are those whose lines of action intersect at a
common point. Co-planar forces lie in the same plane.
Figure 7 (a) illustrates a system of five concurrent co-planar
forces. The forces along OP, OQ and OR are 5, 7 and 6 units of
force respectively. We are required to find the forces along OS and
OT so that equilibrium may exist.
The condition for equilibrium is that the vectors when drawn
should form a closed polygon.
175
Vector geometry
Solution
1 Reproduce the space diagram as illustrated in Figure 7 (b), and
place the letters A, B, C, D and E in the spaces between the
forces in accordance with Bow's notation.
2 Commencing at a, draw ab to scale to represent the 5 units of
force OP in magnitude and direction.
3 From b draw be to represent the 7 units of force OQ in magni-
tude and direction.
4 From c draw cd to represent the 6 units of force OR in magni-
tude and direction.
5 Through d draw a line parallel to the force as. The length of this
line will be unknown since the magnitude of the force as is
unknown.
6 Through a draw a line parallel to the force aT so that this line
intersects the line drawn through d (stage 5) in point e.
7 The vectors de and ea represent in magnitude and direction the
forces as and aT.
Note that the arrows must follow through in direction in the force
polygon as shown in Figure 8.
To determine the equilibrant and resultant of a system of concurrent

co-planar forces
Three electric wires attached to the top of a pole are illustrated in
Figure 9(a). The wires have the following pulls and directions:
(a) 500 units of force due north
(b) 480 units of force due east
(c) 540 units afforce south-east
Determine the equilibrant of this system of forces.
Solution
1 Produce a space diagram as illustrated in Figure 9 (b) and place
the letters A, B, C and D between the forces.
2 Commencing at a, draw ab to scale to represent the 500 unit
force in magnitude and direction.
3 From b draw be to represent the 480 unit force in magnitude and
direction.
177
Vector geometry
4 From c draw cd to represent the 540 unit force in magnitude and

direction.
5 The line joining d to a will represent the equilibrant in magni-
tude and direction, see Figure 10.
Note that the polygon closes and the equilibrant acts from d to a ,
the arrow following in the same direction as those on the other
vector quantities. The magnitude of the resultant of this system of
forces would have the same value as the equilibrant but its sense
would be opposite to the equilibrant, that is, it would act from a to
d.
To determine the resultant of a system of non-concurrent co-planar
forces
Non-concurrent forces are those whose lines of action do not inter-
sect at a common point.
Figure 11 illustrates a system of three forces A, Band C which are
all acting in one plane but which do not pass through the same point.
Let the values of A, Band C be 8, 6 and 4 units offorce respectively.
The magnitude and direction of the resultant can be determined by
the usual method of drawing the force polygon, Figure 12 (a). This,
however, will not give the complete answer to the problem since we
do not know the position in which the resultant acts. Its line of
action must still be determined.
In order to determine the line of action of the resultant it is
necessary to draw another diagram which is known as the link or
funicular polygon.
The construction of the link polygon

1 Draw the force polygon, pqrs, in the usual way, and obtain the
magnitude and direction of the resultant as represented by the
vector ps.
2 Choose any point 0 either inside or outside the force polygon,
and join 0 to each corner of the force polygon. Figure 12 (b).
3 Referring to Figure 13, from any point 1 in the line of action of
force A, draw a line in space P parallel to the line op.
4 From the point 1, draw the line 1 to 2 in space Q parallel to oq
and cutting the line of action of force B in point 2. It may be
necessary to produce the line of action of f -
necessary intersection.
179
Vector geometry
5 From point 2, draw the line 2 to 3 in space R parallel to line or

and cutting the line of action of force C in point 3. Again the line
of action of force C may have to be produced in order to obtain
the intersection point.
6 From point 3, draw the line 3 to 4 in the space S parallel to the
line os which will intersect the line parallel to op, drawn through
point 1, in 4.
7 The resultant of the forces will pass through point 4. Through 4
draw a line parallel to ps to represent the resultant force R.
The diagram 1234 is the link or funicular polygon.
Note: The technique carried out to produce the link polygon
involves replacing each of the original forces A, Band C by two
forces.
Force A represented by pq is replaced by po and oq.
Force B represented by qr is replaced by qo and or.
Force C represented by rs is replaced by ro and os.
The resultant force represented by ps is replaced by po and os.
Therefore the intersection of po and os will give the position where
the resultant acts.
Figure 14 (a) indicates forces of 8,6,4 and 5 units which act in the
directions CA, DB, BC and AB respectively, on a square of 50 mm
side. The problem is to determine the magnitude, direction and
position relative to A, of the resultant of these forces.
Solution
1 Produce a new space diagram, Figure 14 (b), showing the
forces with their lines of action terminating at the corners of the
square. This will enable the lettering of the diagram for Bow's
notation to be done more easily.
2 Draw the force polygon pqrst, Figure 15 (a). The vector pt
drawn from the starting point to the finishing point closes the
polygon and represents the resultant of the given forces in
magnitude and direction.
3 To determine the position of the resultant it is now necessary to
draw the link polygon. Choose any point 0 inside or outside the
force polygon and draw lines op, oq, or, os and ot. Figure 15
(b).
181
Vector geometry
4 From any point 1 on the line of action of the 8 unit force draw a
line in space P parallel to the line op.
5 From 1 draw the line 1 to 2 in space Q parallel to the line oq and
cutting the line of action of the 6 unit force in point 2.
6 From 2 draw the line 2 to 3 in space R parallel to the line or and
7 From 3 draw the line 3 to 4 in space S parallel to the line os and
8 From point 4, draw the line 4 to 5 in the space T parallel to the
line at, which will intersect the line parallel to op, drawn
through point 1, in 5.
9 The resultant of the forces will pass through point 5. Through 5
draw a line parallel to pt to represent the resultant force. Figure
16 shows the complete link polygon.
10 Measure the distance from the intersection of the line of action
of the resultant and the square to point A.
To determine the resultant and reactions of a parallel system of

forces acting on a beam
Figure 17 (a) indicates a loaded beam supported at its extremities.
The problem is to determine the magnitude and position of the
single force which could replace the three given forces, and to find
the reactions R and Rl at the extreme ends of the beam in order to
maintain equilibrium.
Solution
1 Reproduce the given space diagram with Bow's notation as
illustrated in Figure 17 (b).
2 Draw the force diagram abcd for the three parallel forces. This
will be a straight line, the magnitude of the resultant being
represented by the vector ad (Figure 18).
3 Choose any point 0, which must be outside the force diagram,
and join ao, bo, and do (Figure 19).
183
Vector geometry
4 See Figure 20. From any point 1 on the line of action of the
reaction R, draw a line in space A, parallel to oa, and cutting
the line of action of the 2 unit force in point 2.
5 From 2 draw the line 2 to 3 in space B, parallel to ob and cutting
6 From 3 draw the line 3 to 4 in space C, parallel to oc and cutting
7 From 4 draw the line 4 to 5 in space D parallel to od and cutting
the line of action of the reaction Rl in point 5. Note the
relationship between space A and oa, space Band ob, space C
and oc, and space D and od.
8 Produce the line 1 to 2 and the line 4 to 5 to intersect in 6. The
resultant of the given system of forces will pass through point 6.
9 Join the points 1 to 5, and through 0 in Figure 19, draw a line oe
parallel to the line 1 to 5, cutting the vector ad in e.
10 Then ae represents the magnitude of the reaction Rand ed
represents the magnitude ofthe reaction RIo
Forces in frameworks
The simple triangular frame forms the basis of the more complex
frameworks used in structural engineering. Roof trusses, bridges,
crane supports are but a few of the examples of the use of frame-
works. Figure 21 gives a few illustrations of frameworks and it will
be seen that each one is made up of a number of simple triangular
frames. It is essential to know the forces in each of the members of
the frame in order to produce a satisfactorily designed framework
capable of supporting the loads it has to carry. Any diagram
showing the layout of a framework is in fact a space diagram of a
series of forces. These forces would consist of (a) external forces
such as loads and reactions, (b) internal forces within the members
ofthe actual framework.
Since the complete framework is in a state of equilibrium it
follows that each of the junctions of the frame must also be in a state
of equilibrium. Thus a separate vector diagram could be drawn for
each of the junctions of a framework, as shown in Figure 22.
However, normal procedure is to draw a vector diagram for the
complete framework and the method of doing this will appear from
the following examples.
185
Vector geometry
Direction of reactions
It is common practice to support one end of a framework by a hinge
and the other end upon rollers. Thus allowances can be made for
expansion and contraction of the framework due to variations in
temperature.
One assumption made is that the reaction at the roller support
will always be perpendicular to the line joining the centres of the
rollers. The reaction at the hinge can be in any direction, but it is
governed by the conditions required to maintain the whole frame-
work in a state of equilibrium.
ExternaL Loads verticaL, roller reaction verticaL- the line of action
of the hinge reaction will be vertical (Figure 23 (a)).
ResuLtant of externaL Loads inclined, roller reaction verticaL - the
line of action of the hinge reaction must pass through the point of
intersection of the resultant and the line of action of the reaction of
the roller support. (Figure 23 (b)).
Ties and struts

The tie exerts an inward pull at each end of the member to prevent
the member being pulled apart by tensile loads whilst the strut
exerts an outward force at each end of the member to prevent the
member being crushed by compressive loads. The difference
between them is shown in Figure 24. It is assumed that the force in
any member of a framework acts in the direction of that member of
the framework, as shown in Figure 25.
To determine the magnitudes of the forces in the members of a

framework
Figure 26 shows a pin jointed structure which is simply supported at
Rand RI' For the loaded structure determine (a) the magnitude of
the reactions at Rand Rl and (b) the magnitudes of the forces in
each member of the framework. State for each member whether it is
a tie or a strut.
SoLution
1 Choose a suitable scale for the space diagram and draw the
framework with the external forces, reactions and Bow's nota-
tion as shown in Figure 27.
2 Choose a suitable scale for the force diagram, and draw the line
abcd to represent the external forces as in Figure 28.
187
4 Through b draw be parallel to BE and through a draw ae parallel

to AE. The intersection gives point e.
5 Through e draw ed parallel to ED and through a draw ad parallel
to AD. The intersection gives point d.
Note that the line cd should be parallel to DC.
6 Measure the lengths of the lines in the force diagram and hence
obtain the magnitudes of the forces in the members of the frame.
7 The directions of the forces acting in the members are obtained
as in the previous example (See Figure 35). Tabulate the forces
in the members as shown.
To determine the reactions carrying a given load

A pin jointed structure is shown in Figure 36. Determine the magni-
tudes and directions of the reactions when the structure is carrying
the loading shown. Determine also the forces in the members,
distinguishing between tension and compression.
Solution
1 Choose a suitable scale for the space diagram and draw the
framework with the external forces, reactions and Bow's nota-
tion as shown in Figure 38. Note that the 2 and 3 units of force
have been replaced by a single inclined force acting at P. Figure
37 shows the construction for determining the value of this
single force.
2 Choose a suitable scale for the force diagram and draw the lines
ab and be to represent the external forces. The line ae will be
the resultant of the external forces (Figure 39).
3 Choose any point 0 adjacent toab and be and join ao, bo and co
(Figure 39).
4 To construct the link polygon (Figure 38). Choose any point 1
on the line of action of the inclined force and draw a line
through this point in space A, parallel to ao.
5 From point 1 draw a line in space B, parallel to ob, to cut the
line of action of the 9 unit force in point 2.
6 Through point 2 draw a line in space C parallel to oe, to cut the
line through 1 in point 3.
7 The resultant of all the external forces will have its line of
action passing through this point 3.
192
8 Since the line of action of each reaction and the line of action of
the resultant of the external forces must pass through the same
point to maintain equilibrium, draw a line through 3, parallel to
ae, to meet the vertical line of the right hand reaction in point
X.
9 Join X to T (Figure 38) to give the line of action of the reaction

R.
10 Referring to Figure 39, draw a line ad, parallel to the line of
action of the reaction R. Then ad represents the magnitude of
the reaction R and de represents the magnitude of the reaction
RI'
11 Repeat as in the previous example to complete the force
polygon (Figure 40). Figure 40 (a) shows the positions of struts
and ties.
To determine the centre of gravity of a given system of masses

Figure 41 shows four masses, 4, 2, 8 and 1 unit of mass, having fixed
relative positions. It is required to determine the centre of gravity of
this system.
Solution
1 The weights of the masses could be considered to be acting along

the lines PQ, QR, RS and ST. Draw the force diagram pqrst
(Figure 42) so that the vectors pq, qr, rs and st represent the 8, 1,
2 and 4 units of mass respectively.
2 Choose any point a away from the vector line p to t and connect
po, qo, ro, so and at.
3 The link polygon (Figure 43) can now be constructed in the usual
way, and the resultant of the four masses can be seen to act
through point N.
4 The mass system can now be turned through any angle, for
convenience one of 90°. The weights of the masses now act along
the lines AB, BC, CD and DE.
5 Construct another force diagram as shown in Figure 44. The

second resultant can be seen to act through point M of the link
polygon (Figure 45).
194
6 The intersection of the two lines of action of the resultants will

give point G, the position of the centre of gravity of the system of
masses.
To determine the centre of area of a given section

Figure 46 shows a plane figure and it is required to find the centre of
area of this figure.
Solution
1 Divide the figure into three rectangles, A, Band C, as shown in
Figure 47.
2 Draw the force diagram pqrs such that the vector lengths pq, qr,
and rs have magnitudes proportional to the areas of the
rectangles C, B and A respectively (Figure 48).
3 The link polygon (Figure 49) will give the position of the
resultant, point N.
4 Complete the construction by drawing a second force diagram
Figure 50, and a second link polygon Figure 51, and thus obtain
a second resultant acting through point M.
5 The centre of area of the section is at G, the point of intersection
of the two resultants.
The vectors are taken in two directions; horizontally, and inclined
at approximately 45°. 45° was chosen to avoid the small diagram that
would result if the vectors were taken at 90° to each other.
To determine non co-planar concurrent forces in the members of a

framework
Figure 52 shows a pictorial view of a tripod arrangement. The
members AB and AC are equal in length. It is required to deter-
mine the forces in each member of the framework due to a 4 unit
force acting vertically at A.
Solution
1 Consider a vertical plane containing AD and the vertical 4 unit
force acting at A (Figure 53 (a».
2 Draw the space diagram (Figure 53 (b» showing the vertical
loading, the back leg AD and another member AE. The latter
196
Vector geometry
member is introduced to provide equilibrium and replaces the

two shorter legs AB and AC. The member AE lies in the same
plane as AB and AC.
3 Figure 53 (b) illustrates three co-planar forces in equilibrium.
Choose a suitable scale and draw the force diagram for these
three forces as shown in Figure 54; pq represents the vertical
load, qr represents the force in the new member AE and rp
represents the force in the member AD.
4 Now consider the inclined plane containing the members AB,
AC and AE (Figure 55). A view taken normal to this plane in the
direction of the arrow S will give the true inclination of AB and
AC. This view is shown in Figure 56.
5 Figure 56 again illustrates three co-planar forces in equilibrium.
The force diagram wxy representing these forces vectorially is
shown in Figure 57; xy represents the force in the member AE,
yw and wx represent the forces in the members AC and AB.
Vector problems
1 Determine the resultant force for the given co-planar, con-
current force system shown.
2 Determine the magnitude and the direction of the equilibrant
for the given co-planar, concurrent force system shown.
3 The figure shows the directions of four concurrent forces re-
ferred to axes OX and OY. Determine the equilibrant and give
its sense and inclination to OX.
4 Three forces are located by means of the square shown. Deter-
mine the equilibrant of this system of forces, and the perpen-
dicular distance from the line of action of the equilibrant to the
centre of the square.
5 The figure shows a pin jointed square frame with loads acting at
each comer. Determine the magnitude, direction and position
relative to A of the resultant of these forces.
6 Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown.
7 Determine the reactions at the supports for the loaded beam
shown. Note that the beam carries two loads and is acted on by
an upward force of 4 kN.
199
Vector geometry
8 The beam shown is hinged to a fixed support at the left-hand

end and is supported at a point 0.3 m from the right-hand end,
so as to be in the horizontal position. Determine the reactions
at the supports for the given system of loading.
9 The figure shows a pin jointed structure loaded at point 0 and
hinged at point P. The structure is maintained in equilibrium
with PO vertical by the pull in the vertical chain RT. OR is
horizontal. Determine (a) the pull in the chain; (b) the magni-
tude and direction of the reaction at the hinge P; (c) the forces
in the members PO and SR. State whether each member is in
tension or compression.
10 The figure shows a pin jointed structure which is simply sup-
ported at A and B. For the system of loading illustrated deter-
mine (a) the magnitudes of the reactions at A and B; (b) the
magnitude of the force in each member of the structure stating
whether the member is a tie or a strut.
11 Determine the forces acting in the various members of the
framework shown.
12 Construct the complete force polygon for the simple roof truss
shown. State the force acting in each member and whether the
member is a tie or a strut.
13 A pin jointed structure is loaded and supported as shown in the
figure. Determine the tension T in the bracing cable and the
magnitude and direction of the reaction at the hinge. All
members are of equal length. Draw the force diagram for the
structure and indicate the type of load in each member. State
the magnitudes of the loads in members RJ and JK only.
14 Using the link polygon, find the parallel equilibrants for the
system of forces shown. The equilibrants are to pass through
the points P and O. Find also the resultant of the given system
offorces.
15 A roof truss with a 10 metre span and a rise of 4 metres is loaded
as shown in the figure. The end X is hinged and the end Y rests
on a support. Determine the magnitude and the direction of
the resultant reactions at X and Y. Find also the magnitudes of
the forces in members GR, RJ, KL and LG. State whether the
member is in tension or compression.
201
Vector geometry
16 The figure shows a loaded roof truss hinged at the left-hand

support and supported on rollers at the right-hand support.
Draw the complete force diagram for the truss and tabulate the
forces acting in the members, indicating which are in tension
and which are in compression.
17 Determine the centre of gravity of the given system of masses
shown. State its position relative to the lines AB and CD.
18,19 Determine the centres of area of the figures shown.
20 Two legs of a tripod are each 400 cm long, the third leg is 396 cm
long. If the feet of the legs lie at the corners of an equilateral
triangle of side 300 cm, lying in a horizontal plane, find the
force in each leg when a mass of 2000 kilogrammes is sus-
pended from the apex of the tripod.
21 In a tripod the length of each of the legs OA, OB and OC is 6
metres. The lines joining their feet are AB = 4 metres, BC =
3.5 metres, and AC = 3 metres. If a mass of 5000 kilogrammes
is suspended from the apex 0, determine the force in each leg
of the tripod.
203
8 Traces
Traces of lines
Figure 1 on page 205 shows the principal planes of projection in the
first quadrant. Figure 2 shows the same planes with a line AB
positioned between them. The line is projected on to each plane
giving the elevation albion the vertical plane and the plan a2b2 on
the horizontal plane.
In Figure 3 the line is produced to pierce the vertical and hori-
zontal planes. The point where the line, produced if necessary,
pierces the vertical plane is the vertical trace of the line. The point
where the line, produced if necessary, pierces the horizontal plane
is called the horizontal trace of the line. The abbreviations VT and
HT are commonly used. It can be seen from Figure 3 that the VT of
AB lies on the elevation produced and similarly that the HT of AB
lies on the plan produced.
Figure 4 shows the plan and elevation of AB drawn in ortho-
graphic projection and illustrates how the traces of a line are found.
To find the vertical trace, produce the plan to meet XY. Relative to
the plan, XY represents the vertical plane. The intersection of the
plan and XY is therefore the vertical trace of the line in plan.
Project this intersection into the elevation to cut the elevation of the
line, or the elevation produced. This is the vertical trace of AB. The
horizontal trace is found in a similar way. Produce the elevation to
meet Xy. Relative to the elevation, XY represents the horizontal
plane, so the intersection of the elevation with XY is the horizontal
trace in the elevation. Project this intersection into the plan to cut
the plan of the line, produced if necessary. This is the horizontal
trace of AB. A comparison of Figures 3 and 4 will make the method
clear.
In general, the vertical trace of a line appears above the XY line
and the horizontal trace below it. However, it is possible to position
the line relative to the principal planes so that both traces appear
204
above, or both traces appear below, the XY line. This is illustrated

in Figures 5 to 8.
Figure 5 shows pictorially a line AB whose horizontal trace lies in
the second quadrant. When the principal planes are rabatted and
orthographic views of this line are drawn as in Figure 6, the hori-
zontal trace will lie above XY with the vertical trace.
In Figure 7 the vertical trace of AB lies in the fourth quadrant.
Therefore, after rabatting the principal planes, the orthographic
views shown in Figure 8 will have the vertical trace below XY with
the horizontal trace.
Four worked examples on traces of lines follow on pages 209 to
211. These examples involve the points set out above. In addition,
the method of finding the true angles of inclination of the line to the
principal planes by using auxiliary views is shown in each case. This
is revision of the principles given in Chapter 13 of Book 1.
Traces of planes
The lines in which a plane meets the principal planes of projection
are the traces of the plane. The line where the plane meets the
horizontal plane is the horizontal trace. The line where the plane
meets the vertical plane is the vertical trace. As with traces of a line,
the abbreviations HT and VT are usually used.
Planes are of two main types, perpendicular or oblique. Perpen-
dicular planes are perpendicular to one or both of the principal
planes. They may be horizontal, vertical or inclined, as shown in
Figure 9 on page 212.
Figure 9 (a) shows a plane P which is perpendicular to both
principal planes. Its traces VT and HT meet on XY. This is true for
all traces of planes provided they are not parallel to XY. The lines
AB and CD are drawn on the plane P and therefore their traces
must lie in the traces of the plane. This is always true.
In Figure 9 (b) the plane P is parallel to the horizontal plane.
Therefore it cannot have any horizontal trace and neither can the
line AB drawn on the plane. The vertical trace of P is parallel to XY.
The plane P in Figure 9(c) has no vertical trace because it is
parallel to the vertical plane. Similarly the line AB contained by the
plane has no vertical trace.
In Figure 9(d) plane P is perpendicular to the vertical plane and
inclined to the horizontal plane. Note that its traces intersect on
XY, and the traces of lines AB and CD lie in the traces of the plane.
It will be seen from Figure 9 that with all perpendicular planes at
206
Traces
in the auxiliary elevation and transfer the height h2 from the front
elevation to the auxiliary elevation. Project p3 on to the inclined
plane, making the projector perpendicular to the plane. Now
project the projection of p3 back to the plan view. The projector
from pi to the oblique plane in this view must be at rightangles to
HT, so the position of the projection of the point on the oblique
plane can be found. Project it to the elevation and, to find its
position in this view, transfer h I from the auxiliary view.
The principles set out above for converting an oblique plane to an
inclined plane and projecting a point on to an oblique plane are
illustrated in the following worked examples.
Example 5
The traces VTH of an oblique plane are given with the plan and
elevation of a line AB. It is required to project this line on to the
oblique plane and to draw the plan and elevation of the projection.
This is merely an extension of the projection of a point on to an
oblique plane. First convert the oblique plane to an inclined plane
by drawing an auxiliary elevation and project the line into this view.
Project the ends of the line on to the inclined plane and project
these points back to the plan. Points c2 and d2 on the plan of the line
on the oblique plane can be found by projecting from a2 and b2 in the
given plan to cross HT at right angles. The same principle may be
applied to find cl and dl on the elevation of the line on the oblique
plane.
Example 6
Here the triangle ABC lies in the oblique plane VTH. The plan of
the triangle is given. The elevation and true shape of the triangle are
required. Start by converting the oblique plane to an inclined plane,
and project the corners a2, b2 and c2 of the given plan of the triangle
on to the inclined plane. The true shape of the triangle is found by
projecting a second auxiliary plan viewing the inclined plane
normally. The elevation of the triangle is drawn by transferring the
heights p, q and rfrom the auxiliary elevation to the front elevation.
Example 7
The plan and elevation of a triangle ABC are given with the traces
VTH of an oblique plane. The plan and elevation of the triangle
after it has been projected on to the oblique plane are required.
Convert the oblique plane to an inclined plane by projecting an
217
auxiliary elevation. Project the triangle into this view and project
the corners on to the inclined plane. Project these points back to the
plan and fix a2, b2 and c2 in the projected plan by projectors at right
angles to HT from the corners of the given plan. Project a2, b2 and c2
to the elevation and find them by transferring heights p, q and r from
the auxiliary elevation to the appropriate projector.
Two examples are now given of solids cut by oblique planes.
These can be solved using the principles already given.
Example 8
The plan and elevation of a square prism are given with the traces
VTH of an oblique plane. This plane is to cut the prism, passing
through point P. Determine the plan and elevation of the cut prism
and the true shape of the section produced by the oblique plane.
First convert the oblique plane to an inclined plane and project the
prism into this auxiliary view. Move VITI parallel to itself, to pass
through p3 on the auxiliary elevation of the prism. The plan of the
cut prism can now be completed by projecting from the cut auxiliary
elevation, and then the front elevation can be completed by projec-
tion from the plan. The true shape of the section is found by
projecting a second auxiliary plan normal to VITI and transferring
widths such as w from the normal plan.
Example 9
This example, illustrated on pages 225 and 226, is similar to Ex-
ample 8, but now the position of the oblique plane VTH relative to
the solid is given instead of the plane being required to pass through
a specified point on the solid. Find the plan and elevation of the cut
solid and project a view to show the true shape of the cut surface.
Proceed as before to convert the oblique plane to an inclined plane
by drawing an auxiliary elevation. Project the solid into this view.
Project back to the plan the points where the inclined plane VITI
cuts the edges of the solid. Complete the elevation by projecting
from the plan, using heights from the auxiliary elevation to locate
the points on the projectors. A second auxiliary plan, projected
from the auxiliary elevation, will give the true shape of the cut
surface. Widths across this view are the same as corresponding
widths w across the normal plan.
222
Traces
Problems on traces
Unless otherwise stated use first angle projection and draw full size.
Construction lines should not be erased. Hidden detail should be
shown.
1-4 Draw the given views of the lines and determine their
traces, true angles of inclination to the horizontal and
vertical planes, and true lengths. Question 4 is to be
drawn in third angle projection.
5 The elevation a b of a line AB is given. The end A is
l l
positioned in the plan at a2• If the true length of the line

is 118 mm, complete the plan, find the traces of the line,
and its true inclinations to the principal planes. Use third
angle projection.
6 The figure shows the plan of a line AB with the position
bl of B in the elevation. The line makes an angle of 30°
with the horizontal plane, with A nearer the plane than
B. Complete the elevation and find the true length of the
line. Also find its traces and true inclinations to the
principal planes. Use third angle projection.
7 The plan view a2 b2 of a line AB lying in an oblique plane
VTH is given. Project the elevation of the line and find
its true length. Also find the true inclination of the
oblique plane to the horizontal.
8 A triangle is shown in plan and elevation in the figure,
together with its position relative to an oblique plane
VTH. Produce the plan and elevation of the triangle
when it is projected on to the oblique plane, and deter-
mine the true shape of the projection. Also find the true
inclination of the oblique plane to the vertical plane.
9 The plan a2 b2 c2 of a triangle and the traces VTH of a
plane containing it are given. Draw the plan and eleva-
tion of the triangle and find its true shape.
10 The plan a2 b2 of a line AB, which lies in an oblique
plane, is shown, together with the horizontal trace HTof
the plane. The true inclination of AB to the horizontal
plane is 55°. A second line CD lies in the same oblique
plane and intersects AB at P. Determine the true lengths
of both lines and the true angles between them.
227
11-12 Both questions show the plan and elevation of a triangle

ABC. The triangles lie in oblique planes. Determine the 9 Machine drawing
traces of these planes and their true inclinations to the
vertical and horizontal planes.
13 The triangle ABC shown in plan and elevation lies in an
oblique plane. The same plane passes through the given
hexagonal prism. Determine the traces of the oblique
plane and project an elevation of the cut prism.
14 The elevation and incomplete plan are given of a
hexagonal prism which is inclined to both principal In the problems which follow the scale is to be full size, unless
planes. The prism is 100 mm long and makes an angle of otherwise stated. Use the same projection angle as the given views
30° with the horizontal plane. An oblique plane VTH, are drawn in. Hidden detail and dimensions need not be shown.
positioned as shown, cuts the prism. Draw an elevation
of the cut prism and project from it a plan. State the true Bearing assembly
inclination of the oblique plane to the horizontal plane. The details for a 76 mm diameter bearing are shown on page 232.
Draw half full size the following views of the complete assembly.
15 Two views of part of a cylindrical strut are given. The (a) A sectional front elevation on BB
strut is to be welded to a plate which lies in the oblique (b) A sectional plan view on AA
plane VTH. Find the true inclination of the plate to the (c) An outside end view looking on the bearing cap
horizontal plane. Draw the given views of the strut
showing the strut end before welding to the plate. Also Aircraft bracket
project a view to show the true shape of the strut end. Two views of this detail are given on page 233. Draw the given front
16 The triangle ABC lies in an oblique plane. Find the elevation and project from it sectional end views on AA and BB,
traces of this plane and its true inclination to the hori- and an outside plan view.
zontal plane. The same oblique plane cuts the hexagonal
pyramid shown, passing through point P. Draw the plan Valve assembly
and elevation of the cut pyramid showing the section Views of the details for a small valve are given on page 234. Draw
produced. twice full size the following views of the complete assembly.
(a) A half sectional front elevation corresponding to the given
17 The traces HT and VT of an oblique plane are at 30° and sectional elevation of the body. The right -hand half of the view
45° respectively to XY. Determine the true inclination is to be in section
of this plane to the horizontal plane. A triangle ABC has (b) An outside end view in the direction of arrow A
sides AB 50 mm, BC 70 mm, and CA 80 mm and lies in Gland packing is to be shown in the 12 mm diameter counterbore
this oblique plane with BC parallel to and 20 mm from in the spindle guide.
the vertical plane. B is the corner of the triangle nearest The handwheel to fit the 6 mm square end of the spindle has been
XY in the elevation. Draw the plan and elevation of the omitted.
triangle. Determine the horizontal and vertical traces of
a line from A to a point 20 mm from B along BC in the Oil pump cover
elevation. Draw twice full size the following views of the oil pump cover shown
on page 235.
231
230
(a) The given front elevation

(b) A sectional end view on QQ
(c) A sectional auxiliary plan view on PP
Lathe tailstock
The details for a small lathe tailstock are shown on page 237. Draw
the following views of the assembled tailstock, supplying the mis-
sing details to fit hole B and lock the sleeve.
(a) A sectional front elevation corresponding to the given front
elevation of the body
(b) A half-sectional end view corresponding to the given end view
of the body, with the left-hand half in section and the section
plane passing through hole B.
Carburettor body
The plan and elevation of a carburettor body are illustrated on page
238. Draw the following views of the component.
(a) The given plan view
(b) A sectional front elevation on AA
(c) A sectional end view on BB
Clamp
On page 239 are shown the details for a clamp. Draw the following
views of the assembled components.
(a) A sectional front elevation corresponding to the given eleva-
tion of the fixed jaw, item 1, the section plane passing through
the centre line
(b) An outside plan view
(c) An outside end view positioned on the right of the front
elevation
Show the sliding jaw, item 3, open 25 mm and the tommy bar,
item 6, vertical.
Elbow casting
The incomplete plan and elevation of a steam valve casting are
given on page 240. Draw these views, completing them with the
interpenetration curves, and add a sectional end view on AA.
Hidden detail must be shown in the front elevation but need not be
shown in the other views.
The 6 mm diameter holes in the branch flange need only be
indicated by their centre lines in the plan view.
236
Machine drawing
Engine mounting fitting

A detail from an aeroplane engine mounting is illustrated on page
242.
Draw the given front elevation and project from it a plan view and
an end view looking in the direction of arrow B.
Location fixture
Draw the following views of the fixture shown on page 243.
(b) A sectional front elevation on BB
(c) A half-sectional end view on AA, the left-hand half being in
section
Coupling and disc cam

Views of a coupling with an integral cam are shown on page 244.
Draw the following views of the component.
(a) An outside front elevation in place of the given sectional front
elevation
(b) Two outside end views, one looking on the coupling face, the
other on the cam
The motion given to the follower by the cam is to be:
0° - 90° lift 38 mm with simple harmonic motion
90" - 180° dwell
180°- 360° fall 38 mm with uniform acceleration and retardation
The coupling rotates clockwise when the given sectional eleva-
tion is viewed from the left. The coupling flange has two part conical
bosses running into the 86 mm diameter boss. The line of action of
the follower is on the vertical centre line of the component in the
end views.
Pump barrel
Draw half full size the following views of the pump barrel shown on
page 245.
(a) An outside front elevation in place of the given sectional front
elevation
(b) A sectional plan view on BB in place of the given part plan
VIew
(c) A sectional end view on AA
241
Wall bracket
Views of a special wall bracket are shown on page 247. Draw the
given plan view and complete the front and side elevations.
When the plan is viewed in the direction of arrow C, the 50 mm
radius in the side elevation appears in true shape.
Lines XX and YY should be positioned as shown to fit the
required views on an A2 size sheet.
Hidden detail is required in the plan view only.
Distribution casing
Two elevations of this component are given on page 248. Draw the
following views of the casing.
(a) A front elevation obtained by viewing the given front eleva-
tion in the direction of arrow A
(b) A sectional end view on BB, in projection with the front
elevation
(c) A sectional plan view through CC projected from the front
elevation
Pulley belt adjuster

Details for a pulley belt adjuster are shown on page 249. Draw the
following views with all the parts assembled.
(a) A sectional front elevation with the edges XX and YY of the
base and adjusting bracket in line. The section plane is to pass
through the centre of the adjusting screw
(b) An outside end view obtained by viewing the front elevation
from the left
Valve casing
Draw the following views of the valve casing shown on page 250.
(b) A sectional front elevation on BB
(c) A sectional end view on AA
(d) An outside end view obtained by viewing the front elevation in
the direction of arrow C
Bevel pinion
A part sectional front elevation and an incomplete end view of a
bevel pinion are given on page 251.
Draw twice full size the given front elevation completely in sec-
tion and complete the given end view showing all the teeth.
The serrations are to be shown conventionally in the end view.
246
Pinion gear assembly

The components for a pinion gear assembly are detailed on pages
253, 254 and 255. Draw the following views of the assembly.
(a) A sectional front elevation corresponding to the given half-
sectional front elevation of the housing, item 2
(b) An outside end view looking on the teeth of the pinion, item 1.
The teeth are to be shown conventionally
(c) The outside end view of the opposite side of the front elevation
The lock nut, item 6, and the lock ring, item 7, retain the bear-
ings, items 4 and 5, on the pinion. The lock ring, item 8, retains the
pinion sub-assembly in the housing. When the housing bush, item 3,
is assembled in the housing, the faces A are to be in line.
Control bracket
Views are given on pages 256-7 of a control bracket for an aero-
plane. Draw the following views of the detail.
(a) The given plan view with hidden detail
(b) A sectional front elevation on QQ
(c) A sectional end view on PP
Drill jig body

Views of this component are shown on page 258. Draw the given
front elevation and a sectional end view on CC.
Connecting rod end assembly

The details for this assembly are shown on page 259 and consist of
the following.
A steel connecting rod, item 1, of which only the end is shown;
two brass bearing halves, item 2; a mild steel front plate, item 3; a
mild steel locking plate, item 4; two steel bolts, item 5; two steel
hexagon nuts, and a hexagon head cap screw to secure the locking
plate to the front plate.
Draw the following views of the complete assembly.
(a) A half-sectional front view, corresponding to view A of the
connecting rod. The top half of the view is to be in section. The
visible half of the intersection curve on the connecting rod is to
be correctly projected
(b) A sectional plan view, the section plane passing through the
horizontal centre line of the front view
(c) An outside end view looking on the hexagon nuts
252
Bracket and casting assembly

Page 261 shows the parts for this assembly. When assembled on the
casting face the bracket centre line CC coincides with cutting plane
AA. With the bracket in this position draw the following views of
the assembly.
(a) A plan view, corresponding to the given part plan view of the
casting face, showing the bracket completely
(b) A front view, obtained by viewing the plan view in the direc-
tion of arrow B, showing the bracket completely
(c) An auxiliary sectional view on AA.
The fixing stud dimensions are to be settled by the student.
Bracket and base assembly

The parts for this assembly are shown on page 262. Assemble the
parts and draw the following views of the assembly.
(a) A plan view corresponding to the given plan view of the base
(b) A front view corresponding to the given front view of the base.
Show a broken-out section around hole X
(c) An auxiliary sectional view on AA
Footstep bearing assembly

This assembly consists of the following details which are shown on
pages 263 and 264.
A cast iron base plate, item 1; a cast iron bearing support, item 2;
a bronze bearing bush, item 3; a bronze bearing pad, item 4; four
square head bolts, item 5; a steel dowel, item 6; four hexagon nuts
and four plain washers.
Assemble the parts and draw the following views of the complete
assembly.
(a) A plan view
(b) A half-sectional front view on AA
(c) A half-sectional end view on BB
Carn assembly
The carn assembly shown on pages 265 and 266 consists of the
following details.
A cast iron body, item 1; a cast iron end cover, item 2; a case
hardened mild steel camshaft, item 3; a case hardened mild steel
follower, item 4; a bronze follower bush, item 5; two bronze cam-
shaft bushes, item 6; and three hexagon head screws.
260
Machine drawing
Assemble the parts and draw the following views of the complete
assembly.
(a) A plan view corresponding to the given plan view of the body
(b) A sectional front view on AA. Show a broken-out section on
the camshaft around the keyway
(c) An outside end view looking on the end of the camshaft
When assembled the chamfered end of the follower bears on the
earn.

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Engineering Drawing

with Worked Examples 2

M. A. Parker, TEng. (CEI), MIMGTech.E, and

Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd

Originally published in 1960 by Hutchinson Education Preface 4

ISBN 0 7487 1014 0 Tables 268

Printed and bound in Great Britain by

First auxiliary plan views

Second auxiliary elevations

Second auxiliary plan views

the projection of the second auxiliary plan, this being demonstrated

Projection of arcs of circles and other curves

The solution of problems

Auxiliary projection problems

16 A belt running from left to right passes round a pulley

Surface intersections appear on many drawings and, apart from

Simple sections of geometrical solids

the construction becomes tedious if several have to be drawn.

Application of simple sections to interpenetration problems

Limits of the interpenetration curve

can be completed by taking additional sections between them. It is

Cutting sphere method

9 Figure 9 shows the end view of a cone pierced by a square hole.

20 An auxiliary elevation and plan of a hemisphere and inter-

31 Figure 31 shows two views of a needle valve. The elevation

Constructions to find the tangent and normal to the parabola at

Conic section problems

For intersecting sheet metal components, such as those shown in

Parallel line development applied to oblique cylinders

Radial line development

length of the sector arc to the circumference of a circle of radius R.

For a complete cone, shown in Example 14, or a frustum, shown in

the curved edge of the pattern equals the circumference of the

9, 10 These are combinations of right cylinders and prisms,

29-38 These are transition pieces to be developed by triangula-

A cam is a device having a profile or groove machined on it, which

In the following worked examples it has been assumed that the

To construct a radial carn profile

been used, and these usually give a sufficiently accurate profile.

To draw the carn graph for a given carn profile

60°-180° lift 38 mm with uniform acceleration and retardation

3 An in-line flat follower is to be given the motion described

4 Layout the profile of a radial cam to give an in-line roller

5 A plate cam rotating anti-clockwise at 10 rev/min is to give an

6 An offset roller follower, 20 mm diameter, is to be given the

Fall 38 mm with simple harmonic motion in 90° of cam

7 Draw the profile of a plate cam rotating clockwise which gives

8 A radial carn rotating anti-clockwise is to operate an offset flat

9 Figure 1 on page 149 shows a radial arm roller follower which is

10 The guide block in the mechanism shown in Figure 2 on page

teeth. This property of an involute rack is made use of in the cutting

Involute spur gear terms

circular tooth thickness =~

The teeth on a bevel wheel lie on the curved surface of a second

Bevel gear terms

Approximate construction for bevel gear teeth

velocity ratio of 40 and the same wheel driven by a double-start

(a) the pitch circle diameters of gear and pinion

we may add -C to A + B + D. A minus vector is a positive one with