CHAPTER VIII
Gender and Education
Gender inequality hurts all members of society, not just girls and women.
- World Bank
Individuals come with particular physical characteristics (skin color, hair style, etc.), but how society
interprets and values those physical attributes are relative. Most societies identify their embers into two sexes
based on their biological traits. These ways of identifying sexes are the social givens to which women and men
are made to fit into any preconceived mold on how they are supposed to act, behave, and thing. This chapter
discusses the basic concepts of gender and how school and other social institution play significant role in gender
role socialization. It also discusses the theories of gender and the concept of feminism as a social movement
arising from gender issues in the society. These concepts are studied in Social Dimension of Education because
many problems in contemporary societies are rooted from the supremacy of men over women. In many ways,
domestic violence, sexual abuse, sexual harassment, rape, and other serious problems are perpetrated because
men think that they are tough, strong, powerful, dominant, and in control of their relationship with women.
Defining Sex and Gender
The distinction between the terms “sex” and “gender” is a frequent question raised in an academic
discussion. Distinguishing these two terns is very essential, considering that many people use them incorrectly
and interchangeably. Technically, sex is an inherited biological description, which is based on a person’s genital
(i.e., penis or vagina). It is a classification based on human biology (birth designated) and it is one that divides
humankind into two types of people. On the other hand, gender refers to a categorization that societies construct
to differentiate females from males. It consists of personal traits, roles, and position which the members of the
society consider proper for males and females. Basically, it is a form of sociocultural distinction (being masculine
or feminine) and not a biological characteristic between males and females. The society construct the social
characteristic and traits that define masculinity and femininity, and they differ from culture to culture. Unlike sex,
which is absolute and permanent (unless surgery is undergone), gender is a fluid variable across cultures and is
subject to continuous change. For example, although many Filipinos are brought up to believe that men are
naturally more aggressive and less emotional than women, in some cultures, this pattern is reversed. Edward Hall
(1996) said that in Iran, men are the ones who read poetry, express their emotions freely, and act on intuition than
logic. On the other hands, women are considered to be cold and practical, which in unlikely seen in Filipino
culture.
General Concepts about Gender
1. Gender is learned. Gender is an acquired behavior and not something genetically transmitted. It is
primarily learned through the process of socialization or created through the social interaction. Children
often learn gender consciously or unconsciously from people around them, and later, their gendered
activities and behavior become their second nature. Many feminist theorist believe that an individual is
identified at birth as a member of a sex category, either male or female, and from then on, is held to act
accordingly. Furthermore, gender is not only learned but formally or informally taught and enforced.
Enforcement can be done through rewards, punishments, giving feedback, modeling, and group pressure
at home, church, or school. For example, a mother, a teacher, or a church leader would call the attention
of a girl who sits, dresses, and acts like a boy. This holds true when a boy does the contrary, too.
2. Gender is collaborative. Gender is a product of numerous interplaying factors (family, media, school,
peer, etc.) that provide gender role socialization. Usually, these agencies work together to reinforce gender
stereotypical expectations and behaviors. For example, the idea that women have to do most of the
household chores is not only developed in the family but also reinforced by media, peers, community, and
the like.
3. Gender is not something that individuals have, but something they do. Judith Butler (1999) asserted
that gender is not something that one has or something that one does. “Doing gender” implies that gender
is a product of social interaction or socialization. Thus, it is reflected in one’s daily activities carried out
through routine social interaction. For instance, doing gender is observed on how one walks, talks, dresses,
eats, and socializes and nearly all aspects everyday life.
4. Gender is asymmetrical. Inequality is built into gender at a very basic level. By attaching people to one
or two categories (male or female), society has already created difference between them. These differences
prevent girls and boys from having valuable human experience. They limit growth and development, both
by denying such experience and by creating anxiety in children. They also create social and institutional
barriers against the development of interests, goals, and talents in young people that may be outside the
gender role “parameters”.
Definition of Gender Identities and Gender Roles
The development of a sense of gender identity is one of the earliest and most important learning that all
individuals experience in life. Normally, the knowledge of gender identity is unique to individuals and separate
from their parents, family, members, and other people. Gender identity is a person’s understanding definition, or
experience of his own gender, regardless of his sex. Put differently, gender identity is the conception individuals
have of themselves, which is internal and personally defined. Examples of gender identity are male/boy/man and
female/girl/women. One’s gender identity is part of self-concept and is primarily a product of social interaction.
Hence, gender identity emerges as individuals enact gender roles and are reacted to by others as being either male
of female.
On the other hand, gender roles are the various cultural expectations that define the ways in which the
members of each sex should behave. Gender roles influence a wide range of human behaviors, including how
people speak, dress, walk, engage in courtship, get angry, play sports, deal with distress, and choose a career
(Hughes and Kroehler, 2009). Simply put, gender identity includes knowledge of a large set of rules and
expectations for what males and females should wear, speak, and act, and knowing their place in the overall
structure of the society. It is observed in the so-called gender expression, which is the way a person express his
gender through gestures, movement, dress, and grooming. Knowledge of these rules makes them know their role
as members of a particular gender group and provides them the ability to deal with many social situations.
Theories on Gender Development
How individuals develop gender identity can be explained by four theories according to Hughes and
Kroehler (2009). These theories explain in various lenses what makes a male or a female, and why he or she
behaves the way he or she does.
Freudian Theory. Sigmund Frued assumed that biology is destiny, which means that children learn their
gender by simply observing whether they have penis or vagina. He and his followers argued that gender identity
and the adoption of sex typed behaviors are the result of an Oedipal conflict that emerges between the ages of
three and six. During this period, children discover the genital differences between the sexes, this discovery
prompts children to see themselves as rivals of their same sex parent for the affection of the parent of the opposite
sex. The main point in this theory is the process of identification, that is, the process by which a person absorbs
the behaviors, attitudes, and characteristics exhibited by his mother or someone very close to the individual. In
effect, children unconsciously model the behavior of their parents and make them the standards for acting and
behaving.
Cultural Transmission Theory. This is also known as Social Learning Theory. It contends that the
acquisition of gender identity and behaviors is shaped by parents, teachers, and other adults by reinforcing
responses that are deemed appropriate to the child’s gender roles in a variety of ways, from how their rooms are
decorated to what toys they play and the clothes they wear. This theory assumes that the individuals is passive,
and his behavior is influenced or programmed by the immediate environment.
Cognitive Development Theory. Unlike the cultural transmission theory, cognitive development theory
asserts that children actively seek to acquire gender identities and roles. The child is not a passive actor of his
own life but an active participant in choosing and defining his own gender, as well as his own development.
Cognitive theory like Kohlberg and Ullian explained that children come to label themselves as “boys” or “girls”
when they are between 18 months and three years of age, which is called self-socialization. Once they have
identified themselves as males or females, they would adopt behaviors consistent with their newly discovered
status. They use a particular image to organize their behavior and cultivate their attitudes and actions, associated
with being a “boy” or a ”girl”.
Self-Construal Theory. Self-Construal is essentially synonymous with self-conception of self-definition.
The theory asserts that gender difference is based primarily on relationship and group membership. This is with
the view that maintaining harmonious relationship with others is extremely important. Many social influences
promote independent ways of behaving, feeling, and thinking for men, while relational ways of behaving, feeling,
and thinking are more likely promoted for women. The consequences of these create gender differences, including
those of cognition, motivation, emotion and social behavior. For example, women are more likely to be sensitive
to the emotions of others and they base their emotions on others.
Source of Gender Stereotyping in Society
1. Family. The family as the initial social world of the child is the first place where children absorb
gender biases, fears, and prejudice. Thus, the family is where the seed of gender stereotyping, sexism,
discrimination, and racism, are planted. In the family, young girls are encouraged to be dependent, obedient, and
quiet, while boys are encouraged to be independent, tough, strong, powerful, and self-willed. Similarly, the first
books and stories children are exposed to like fairy tales and nursery rhymes have the same general plot. For
instance, stories given to children reflect that femininity is associated with beauty, dependence, passivity, self-
sacrifice, innocence, powerlessness, and patience, while masculinity is associated with qualities like being
successful, rescuers, independent, action-oriented, strong, handsome, brave, and romantic. As children see the
differential roles of their mothers and fathers, the, too, internalize that husband are considered breadwinners and
wives are responsible for domestic roles. Girls, likewise, learn from their mothers that they have to serve their
husband and to be subservient to their husband’s decision. This is depicted when children begin to play bahay-
bahayan, wherein the marks of a good wife and a good husband are defined and portrayed. At, adolescence,
females are tough to be passive, attractive, or pleasing to men of their dreams (Prince Charming concept) and to
be a wife and a mother. In the choice of career, they are advised to become legal secretaries instead of lawyers,
and nurses rather than doctors. Finally, as mothers assume more involvement on the educational concerns and
issues of their school children, males are able to internalize through unconscious modelling that fathers do not
have anything to say about teaching and caring roles in the family.
2. Mass Media. In media, men play more interesting characters than women. The images of women
are oftentimes confined to being supporters, mistress, or those that cause the downfall of the hero. In
advertisements, women are traditionally shown in domestic roles and men in occupational roles. Advertising
similarly regards women as the prize in the competition of men and perpetuates beauty myth as seen in beauty
pageants, depicting that beauty belong to women with stunning faces and sexy figure. Information and technology
equally convey the message that girls are objects of men manipulated through bullying, violence, sexual
harassment, rape, mocking, and taunting. Likewise, pornography and TV programs reveal the “commodification”
of women portraying them in sexy and indecent poses. Degrading the dignity of women, both physically and
sexually.
3. School. The school reinforced and continues the stereotyping of roles that is started at home. The
existence of single sex school (exclusively school for boys or for girls), for example, carries the traditional image
of masculinity as reinforced by an authoritarian ethos and patriarchal values. The gender composition of faculty
and staff in school is also a socializing mechanism. Young minds unconsciously learn that the teaching career is
for women as they see majority of their teachers are female. Career tracks are similarly influenced by gender lens.
Women go to humanities and social science, and they enter in nurture-giving occupations, such as nursing and
social work, whereas, men are for mathematics and applied science like engineering. Moreover, textbooks are
gender blind, that is, sexist not only in content, but also in illustration and language.
In the Philippines, Luz (2007) noted that gender issue in basic education is favorable for girls than boys.
He asserted that the country is becoming a nation of male underachievers as boys are dropping out of school 2 to
2.5 times more than girls from Grade 5 onwards. At the end of the high school cycle, there are more girls graduates
than boys (53% versus 47% on average across regions). Senior girls are equally more inclined to go to college
than senior boys (58% versus 52%). Interestingly, Luz revealed that boys are dropping out principally because of
lack of interest to schooling and for work/employment reasons. This explains why at the end of the college cycle,
there are as many as 20% more girls in the graduating class than boys.
4. Workplace. The growing imbalance between males and females in different occupations causes
feminization or “masculinization” of the workplace. Elementary schools, welfare services, and hospitals, for
example, are dominated by females, driven from the assumption that women are primarily responsible and suited
for domestic and emotional labor. On the other hand, military, policing, and transport servicer are dominated by
males as these jobs are assumed to require strenuous physical activity that women cannot do.
5. Peer Group. Peer groups greatly influenced adolescent life. As a matter of fact, teenage boys and
girls often learn the gender rules of society through their respective peer groups. For example, a demonstration
of physical dominance and
6. Religion. The vicious cycle of violence and oppression against women has its religious roots.
While the church teaches salvation or liberation, its patriarchal elements have continued to rationalize the
subordination and discrimination of women. The biblical concept of creation (that Eve came from Adan’s rib for
the purpose of accompanying him) is already giving a hint of women’s inferiority. This is coupled with moral
guilt as the Bible teaches that a woman caused the first original sin, who was tempted by the devil to disobey
God’s command. Moreover, religion is a long-time perpetuator of gender inequality, for instance the Catholic
Church forbids women become priests. Women normally assist in church activities, while males (usually the
priest) play a major role in the ceremonies.
Gender Equality and Inequality
Gender equality means sameness of men and women in term of prevailing norms about what a man and a
women can do, equal access to opportunities, and appreciation of their gender activities. In the context of
education, gender equality means equality of entitlements, opportunities, experiences, and outcomes in education
for both men and women. It implies the elimination of gender inequality and it is founded on the belief that women
have the right to be educated in their full capacities like all men can enjoy. Significantly, a very good legal treaty
that safeguards women’s right is the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women (CEDAW), which is often described as the International Bill of Rights for women. It determines the
different forms of discrimination against women or the exclusion, as well as restrictions made on the female sex.
It is believed that perpetuating these forms of discrimination would impair or nullify the recognition, enjoyment,
or exercise of numerous rights and privileges of women. With CEDAW, it is hoped that women all over the world
will experience more freedom, participation, and empowerment in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil
or any other fields, which are dominated by men.
What makes gender a big concern and issue in any society is the existence of inequality between males
and females. To many, gender inequality does not happen by chance. Rather, it is learned and reinforced through
social institution. To fully understand gender inequality, it is indispensable to know the following concepts:
1. Gender stratification. Gender stratification is the process of separating men and women based
on what they enjoy, acquire, or exercise. Usually, this separation creates unequal distribution of rewards, such as
power, status, and individual freedom. As a consequence, men and women differ in their access to privilege,
prestige, and power because of how they are treated. Thus, males are more favored when answering question
related to resources distribution.
Gender stratification provides men with various powers. Power refers to the individual or group’s ability
to accomplish what they desire through influence or prescription, even if it involves the resistance of others.
Power also affects the ability of people to make the world work on their behalf (Hughes and Kroehler, 2009).
From this perspective, it can be said that division of labor between sexes is a social instrument created by men to
ensure for themselves privilege, prestige, and power in their relationship with women. By limiting the role of
women to the home, for instance, men have been able to deny women those resources they need to succeed in the
larger world. Hence, gender inequality exist because it benefits men, who use the power given to them to ensure
their domination.
2. Gender Stereotyping. To understand the concepts of gender stereotyping, it is essential to first
consider the concept of stereotyping, Stereotype is an opinion based on one’s appearance or membership to a
particular group. It is a generalized belief about the members of a group using forms of positive and negative
categorizations. For example, the female sex is stereotyped as the weaker sex.
Against this concept, gender stereotyping is then the prejudices, biases, and labels attached to males and
females. For example, boys and men are (and should be) tough, aggressive, independent, strong, logical, direct,
adventurous, confident, ambitious, and not particularly emotional. Girls and women are to be sweet, loving,
fickle-minded, passive, weak, illogical, indirect, gentle, very emotional, inferior, tempter, and the cause of original
sin. Not all males and females adhere to these stereotypes, however, social institutions reinforce them. Gender
stereotyping can stifle an individual’s growth, especially when these labels become too rigid.
3. Sexism or sex bias. Closely related to stereotyping is sexism bias – the belief in the biological
grounding of social and behavior differences between men and women. As a matter of fact, many believe that
gender stereotyping starts from the concepts of sexism. Sexism is anchored on the view that the male sex is
superior to the female sex. Sex prejudice can happen when pronouns are used hastily, as when the masculine
pronoun “he” is used as a generic term for both sexes, or when the masculine or feminine pronoun is used
exclusively to define roles by sex (e,g,. the nurse – she). It is to be noted that gendered language is interpreted as
reflecting pre-existing and maintaining social distinction. Such is revealed when using the pronoun “he” and “she”
which have outright gender connotation. Anyone who uses, hears, and reads these pronouns automatically
influences how he or she thinks and relates about gender.
Indeed, a significant way to express sexism is through language as it is a powerful tool in establishing the
meaning of human experience. One form of sexism is linguistic sexism which is a way of devaluing the members
of one sex, thus defining his or her place in society as unequal. Similarly, language is said to be a set of symbols
that express ideas and allows people to think and communicate with one another. It can also be a source of
discrimination for it is the cause of stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination. For example, addressing a man as
“Mr.” reveals nothing about in terms of her relationship to a men. Husband and wives wit Ph.D. are commonly
addressed as “Dr.” and “Mrs.” which is often articulated in wedding invitations. Such is an illustration that a
woman’s identity is subsumed in their relationship with men.
Gendered Experiences in School
The teachers themselves are gender role socializers. They add to gender role typing and support the
stereotypes learned by students from their home and community. Traditional gender division and stereotypes are
perpetuated by the school, particularly in classroom activities manifested through language, teacher’s manner,
and subject choice. Such socialization into traditional gender roles can be viewed as a form of gendering students,
which may cause miseducation. Few example of these types of socialization are cited:
1. School curricula teach that some things are for girls and othersare for boys. For example, teachers view
the image of Mathematics as a male subject and Language as a female subject. They see that males can
easily learn Math, inasmuch as females excel in Linguistic.
2. Gendered language and assumption are used by teachers inside the classroom. In giving sentences, for
example, they would say. “Joy helps mommy cook in the kitchen, and John helps daddy fix the broken
fence.” This example implies that girls are made to cook and boys are to repair broken things.
3. Boys study woodwork, metalwork, and technical drawing, while girls study culinary, sewing and other
domestic-oriented subjects. Also, teachers and guidance counselors may encourage male students to
pursue careers in the sciences (engineering, architecture, police science, agriculture) but steer equally
talented female students into careers such as teachers, nurses, librarians, dieticians, and the like.
4. Teachers relate differently toward boys and girls. Boy tend to receive more attention than girls. Teacher
may ask boys to carry water, build tents, while girls asked to write on the board, act as secretary, sweep,
and clean the classroom.
5. Education textbooks use sexist language, such as: chairman, forefathers, and mankind. In addition,
illustration used in elementary books always portray a police officer, soldier, driver, pilot, engineer, and
doctor to be of male sex which are not gender sensitive.
Feminist Theory
The issue on gender has brought the emergence of a theory called Feminism. Feminism is a social
movement which consist of a set of beliefs and actions that centers on assuring equality between men and women.
It is founded on the notion that biology does not chart individual’s destiny. Proponents of feminism believe that
the structure of society oppresses humans, women in particular, from achieving their human potential. Men have
actively oppressed women in society, creating inequality. In human history, men’s oppression of women has
created inequality. The feminist perspective asserts that gender is basic to all social structures and organizations
including the school. In other words, it recognizes that the experiences of women are different from those of men,
unequal or less privileged compared to men, and oppressed, subordinated, or abused by men (Eshlem, 1997).
The development of feminist theory is a consequences of the universal movement to promote the self-
actualization of women worldwide. It is the movement that criticizes male supremacy, with the ultimate aim of
changing it. Its goal are: (a) to demonstrate the importance of women; (b) to reveal that historically, women have
been subordinating to men; and (3) to bring about gender equality. Simply put, feminists seek for the quality of
women and assert that women should share equally in society’s opportunities and scare resources.
Four Types of Feminism
As a growing social movement and as a result of its pluralistic view, feminism has four types, namely: (1)
liberal feminism; (2) socialist feminism (3) radical feminism; and (4) post-modern feminism.
(1) Liberal or Reform Feminism. Liberal feminism believes that all people are created equal and should not
be denied of equal opportunity on the basis of their gender. It argues that sexism is the primary obstacle
to equality, which is seen in the denial of equal rights and opportunities between men and women. Thus,
it focuses on women’s right through the creation of laws and regulations to employment practices. Also,
it strives to empower women by changing the social structures that delimit them. In education, this type
of feminism attempts to eliminate sexism practices, like the misrepresentation of women in textbooks and
the differential career counseling for girls and boys. It examines, in particular, gender bias and stereotyping
in curricular materials. This is congruent with its assertion that standard academic curricula have failed to
represent the important contributions of women to history, literature, and other fields of study.
(2) Socialist Feminism. Socialist feminism emphasize the democratic and egalitarian aspects of socialism.
The root of gender inequality is seen on societal expectations on the role of men and women in the
household. Men are expected to be breadwinners or good providers, while women are expected to manage
the household. The patriarchal ideology present in any society perpetuates the inequalities between men
and women as it is evident in the capitalist system. Because of this, socialist sphere, which includes the
field of education. They criticize that schools help maintain the gender-based system operate on a
competitive/capitalistic basis, which marginalizes some groups of people, especially the economic lower
class an minorities that often silence women.
(3) Radical or Separatist Feminism. Radical feminism emerged to change the system of male dominance.
Radical argue that sexism is the tool men used to oppress women. Also, they believe that patriarch family
is a miniature of the broader oppression, where patriarchal ideology is exercised and maintained. In such
case, women’s oppression provides a picture for understanding all other forms of oppression in the society.
Due to these oppressions, radical feminist take to the extreme the argument that women should be able to
fully participate in society. For them, women or the system of male dominance. This explains why its goal
is the eradication of male supremacy by redefining woman-centered beliefs and systems.
To realize this goal, however, certain mechanisms are proposed by radical feminists like pointing
out the systematic devaluation and oppression of women, which are embedded with all forms of social
organization (e.g., the school, family). It also suggests being critical to the inherent values of patriarchy
in society (e.g. men controlling the norms of acceptable sexual behavior) and speaking out against all
social structures because these are created by men. In media studies and Information Technology (IT), for
example, radical feminist analyze the violence in movies, software, video, games, and so forth.
(4) Post-Modern Feminism. Post-modern feminists argue that knowledge is created from a male’s standpoint
and, thus, it is completely biased. In essence, it calls into question the privileged position of male theorists.
It attempts to criticize the dominant order as it believes of male theorists. It attempts to criticize the
dominant order as it believes that all theory is socially constructed. The position of this type of feminism
rests in its attempt to speak for all women and unmask all systems of oppression. However, it recognizes
individualism, that is, different female groups must articulate their own unique feminist position in relation
to specific and individual oppression, hindrances, and daily experiences. According to Gore (1993), post-
modern feminism can realize this goal by fostering methodologies, such as phenomenology, personal
accounts of multiplicity, and contradiction. This is consistent with the idea of rejecting the “grand
narrative” of men, claiming that only rational, abstract though, and scientific methodology can lead to
valid knowledge. Rather, knowledge must be founded on the subjective realities of women and must not
be forced-fit within the existing theories constructed by men.
Homosexual and Transgenderism
Human beings have different choices among a broad field of selections of food, cars, houses, music,
clothes, books, movies, hobbies, and so on. This seems to be part of our nature and, customarily, we frown upon
those whose preferences are different. Such attitude extends even to sexual preferences of people in the society,
which may, in turn, develop into discrimination.
Sexual preferences is described by whom one is sexually attracted to. This usually comes in three types,
namely: heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual. A large number of society’s population composes the
heterosexual, those who are sexually attracted to members of opposite sex. Homosexual are those attracted to
members of the same sex and are classifies as gay (men) or lesbian (women). Lastly, bisexuals are those attracted
to members of both sexes.
Related to the issue of sexual preference and gender identity is the issue on transgenderism. Transgender
(TG) is not a medical term but is used to refer to people whose gender identity (sense of self as male or female)
or gender expression differs from that usually associated with their sex at birth. The incongruity between an
individual’s gender identity and biological sex manifest through one’s non-conformity with society’s standards
of behavior for men and women. Moreover, some transgender may experience intense dissatisfaction, which
eventually leads to unhappiness and distress.
Transgerderism may come in different forms. Examples of which includes cross-dressers, transsexuals,
and other gender non-conformists whose appearance are perceived to be unusual. Cross-dreesing means wearing
the clothing of the opposite sex. A cross-dresser mat wear make-up, long hair, lace blouse, and skirts or dresses.
A caution, however, is that persons who cross dress do not always identify themselves with another sex, although
this can sometimes be the case. On the other hand, transsexual (TS) is a person who lives or wishes the live full-
time opposite his sex. Usually, there are two types of transsexual. Biological females who aspire to live and be
recognized as men are called transsexual men or female-to-male (FTM) transsexuals. They were born as females
but they identify themselves as boys/men. Biological males who yearn to live and be recognized as women are
called transsexual women or male-to female (MTF) transsexuals. They were born as male at birth but they identify
themselves as girls/women. Transsexuals usually seek medical interventions, such as surgery and Hormone
Replacement Therapy (HRT) to make their bodies as congruent as possible with their preferred gender. The
politically correct term used for the process of changing one's biological sex to conform with one's gender identity
is called Sex Reassignment Surgery (SRS) and not sex transplant. However, depending on their status,
transsexuals could either be considered a pre-op (pre-operative) or post op (post-operative). Pre-operative
transsexual is one who is preparing to have SRS while a post-op (post-operative) is someone who has already
undergone sex re-assignment.
Homosexuality and transgenderism are oftentimes used interchangeably, which causes confusion to a lot
of people, even those who are homosexuals and transgender themselves. As a way of distinction, homosexuality
is basically an issue of sexual preference. It is manifested when boys/men who identify themselves as boys /men
are sexually and romantically attracted to other boys/men (same sex). In contrast, transgenderism is a question of
gender identity. It is an issue of those who were born male but identify themselves as girls/women; or those who
were born female but identify themselves as boys/men. In short, homosexuals have gender identity, which is in
conformity with their biological sex (penis or vagina), only that they prefer same sex as their partners. In
transgenderism, however, there is mismatch between one's biological sex and how they define themselves (male
or female), which is internal and personally expressed through gestures, dressing, and grooming.
Unfortunately, even today, discrimination is experienced by the homosexuals and transgender of our
society. A good example of discrimination which denigrates people of this kind is called homophobia.
Homophobia is an all-encompassing, irrational fear, rejection and/or discrimination of transgender and
homosexuals. Homophobic people make use of language that mocks and demeans homosexuals and transgender,
making them feel sick and appear sinful and criminal members of society. Sadly, discrimination against them
continues to permeate in all aspects of human life. Majority of lesbians, gays, and transgender (including their
lovers) are subject to scrutiny and prejudice due to well-entrenched social bias. For example, these people are
denied housing or employment; they lose custody of their biological or adopted children; or they have difficulty
achieving legal recognition of their marriages, solely because they are homosexuals or transgender. Worse, they
are oftentimes a target of crime, which makes them feel unsafe.
With this perspective, issues on homosexuality and transgenderism must be given enough attention in
the study of Social Dimensions of Education. People of their kind must not be treated as outcasts in society.
They must rather be treated with respect and should not be looked down for what they are, particularly if they
are kind, decent persons who abide by the law and do not hurt or trample on the rights of anyone or anything
else. Part of being a member of this pluralistic society is to show a great deal of tolerance to them by respecting,
accepting and appreciating their differences, particularly their self-expression and preference. After all, it is not
very difficult to understand and believe that all human beings, as people, have the right to be accepted and
treated as human beings.
Theoretical Views on Gender and Education
Interactionist Perspective. Interactionist view gender as a condition to which individuals attach socially
devised meanings. The development of meanings and construction of self is made possible through the kind of
socialization given to the students. In this regard, students' knowledge about their masculinity and femininity is a
product of their interaction and experience with society. The school community should be a venue where student
interaction and experience can provided them a positive self-concept and definition. It is the duty of the school to
provide options on how women create there sense of identities and realities. It has to look into the gendered
everyday experiences of the classroom. At all times, schools must focus their programs and decisions along
inequalities between male and female students, which are constructed through interaction within the school
community. Significantly, the school interaction must replace the meanings that create gender inequality to
change the social pattern of male dominance.
Functional Perspective. Functionalists like Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales believe that is functional and
beneficial for society, for families, and for individuals if males and females play specialized roles in society. They
contend that an ideal family is created if men specialize in instrumental tasks, roles particularly associated with
having a job and making money, and women in expressive tasks, roles particularly associated with having a job
and making money, and women in expressive tasks, roles supporting their husbands, doing household labor, and
caring for children (Hughes & Kroehler, 2009). For social relevance, schools must focus on teaching specialized
roles for men and women to create an ideal family. Functionalists assume that education can be very valuable to
respond to concerns about socializing students to this role of men and women. Many sociologists and educators,
who have functional orientation, believe that schools can perform a great role in promoting or tackling specialized
roles for men and women to develop an ideal family life in the society.
Conflict Perspective. Conflict theorists opine that educational system is not meritocratic as it uses gender
lenses in socializing male and female student. For them, differential school socialization between male and female
students by the teachers and school administrators causes inequality. Rather than addressing gender inequality,
the school reinforces the gender stereotyping practiced at home, mass media, and workplace. They also add that
schools biased against girls. Girls have higher tendency to be ignored; less likely to be corrected or challenged;
challenged; counseled into stereotypical subjects, careers, and segregation by sex into activities. They also lack
role models, as well as mentoring, and experience the problems of harassment and violence. In such case, schools
have restricted the development of women, making education certainly create negative repercussions to women
in society.
Critical Perspective. Feminists argue that school must provide equality so that students can raise personal
aspiration and, thus, achieve higher educational outcomes. Textbooks have to be scrutinized to identify sexist
language and biased assumptions. They also unravel the oppressive socio-cultural processes and system of the
school that relate to inequalities of power between the males and females. They try to challenge claims of
objectivity that academics cannot be truly gender blind, and that the power relation of men and women is
embedded in the power of language.
One of the key roles of schools in critical perspective is to allow students to gain the necessary social skills
to allow them to actively participate in a transformed and inclusive democratic community. When students can
identify the sources of power, they are able to recognize their own position in relation to power and understand
the political nature of what they learn. In so doing, they can develop their own social actions for change. It is the
view of critical perspective that the goal of schooling is to lessen human suffering as the alleviation of oppression
and human suffering is the key aspect of the purpose of education. Educational systems are to be transformative
in terms of developing students to prove on existing gender relations and notions of masculinity and femininity.
School must become a space where students have opportunities for questioning, debating, seeing new
perspectives, forming new identities and relations without feeling threatened or weak. As kincheloe (2007) said,
"Critical pedagogy seeks to give those who have been excluded from power (usually the women) the right and
ability to have an input into civic life."
