Publisher’s note

F
Gavin Ambrose/Paul Harris
The Fundamentals of Typography

Gavin Ambrose/Paul Harris

another in the AVA Academia series...

Ethical practice is well known, taught This second edition of The Fundamentals Gavin Ambrose studied at Central St
and discussed in the domains of medicine, of Typography is an update to the popular Martins and is a practising graphic
law, science and sociology but was, first edition and offers an incisive insight designer. Gavin’s current commercial
until recently, rarely discussed in terms into typographic theory and practice. practice includes clients from the arts
of the Applied Visual Arts. Yet design Subjects covered include a comprehensive sector, publishers and advertising
is becoming an increasingly integral part introduction to the history of typography, agencies. He is the co-author and
of our everyday lives and its influence on typographic detailing and the use of designer of several books on branding,
our society ever-more prevalent. creative typography in print and online. packaging and editorial design.
AVA Publishing believes that our world This volume also demonstrates the power Paul Harris studied at the London
needs integrity; that the ramifications and variety of typography – from basic College of Printing and has gone on to
of our actions upon others should be manipulation to artistic expression – become a freelance writer, journalist
for the greatest happiness and benefit across a range of media. Fundamental and editor. Paul writes for international
of the greatest number. We do not set principles are presented through detailed magazines and journals in London and
ourselves out as arbiters of what is explanations, expanded illustrations and New York, including Dazed & Confused.
‘good’ or ‘bad’, but aim to promote historical and contemporary examples from He is co-author of and collaborator on
discussion in an organized fashion for leading practitioners around the world. several books about graphic design.
an individual’s understanding of their
The second edition features new content
own ethical inclination.
including case studies, student exercises
By incorporating a ‘working with ethics’ and a selection of exciting new imagery.
section and cover stamp on all our

of Typography
The Fundamentals
titles, AVA Publishing aims to help a new
generation of students, educators and
practitioners find a methodology for
‘ I will adopt this book, it is concise and
structuring their thoughts and reflections
approachable for students and I like
in this vital area.
the visual examples that are not in
other texts.’
David Peacock, Seattle Pacific University

ISBN-13: 978-2-940411-76-4 ava publishing sa

[Link]
[Link]
enquiries@[Link]
sales@[Link]

9 782940 411764
£26.50

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

cover 02698_C3.indd 1 UK 6/29/11 5:19 PM
Page:Cover
Gavin Ambrose/Paul Harris
The Fundamentals of Typography

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 1 Page:1 5/13/11 9:55 AM
An AVA Book

Published by AVA Publishing SA

Rue des Fontenailles 16
Case Postale
1000 Lausanne 6
Switzerland
Tel: +41 786 005 109
Email: enquiries@[Link]

Distributed by Thames & Hudson (ex-North America)

181a High Holborn
London WC1V 7QX
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 20 7845 5000
Fax: +44 20 7845 5055
Email: sales@[Link]
[Link]

Distributed in the USA & Canada by:

Ingram Publisher Services Inc.
1 Ingram Blvd.
La Vergne TN 37086
USA
Tel: +1 866 400 5351
Fax: +1 800 838 1149
Email: [Link]@[Link]

English Language Support Office

AVA Publishing (UK) Ltd.
Tel: +44 1903 204 455
Email: enquiries@[Link]

Second edition © AVA Publishing SA 2011

First published in 2006

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
permission of the copyright holder.

ISBN 978-2-940411-76-4

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ambrose, Gavin; Harris, Paul.
The Fundamentals of Typography / Gavin Ambrose, Paul Harris p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 9782940411764 (pbk.:[Link])
eISBN: 9782940447244
[Link] design (Typography).[Link] arts.
Z246 .A547 2011

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Design by Gavin Ambrose

Production by AVA Book Production Pte. Ltd., Singapore

Tel: +65 6334 8173
Fax: +65 6259 9830
Email: production@[Link]

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 2 Page:2 5/13/11 9:55 AM
F
Gavin Ambrose/Paul Harris

of Typography
The Fundamentals

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 3 Page:3 5/13/11 9:55 AM
contents
introduction 6

1 type and language 8

2
a few basics 38
3
letterforms 66
The alphabet 11 Typefaces and fonts 40 Type families 68
Early printing 18 Typeface anatomy 41 Typeweight variations 69
1800s 20 Relative and absolute Frutiger’s grid 70
The Arts and Crafts measurements 42 Types of serif 72
Movement 21 X-height 45 Fractions 74
The early twentieth century 22 Basic terminology 46 Superscript and subscript 75
1950s 24 Majuscule and minuscule 48 Numerals 76
1960s 25 Set width 49 Diacritical marks 77
1970s 26 The baseline grid 50 Punctuation 78
1980s 27 The Golden Section 52 Drop and standing capitals 79
1990s 28 The Fibonacci sequence 53 Dashes 80
Graphic design since 2000 30 Dividing the page 54 Character spacing 81
Case study 34 Standard paper sizes 58 Expert sets and
Typography task 37 The page – how we read 60 special characters 82
Case study 62 Small capitals 83
Typography task 65 Ligatures, diphthongs
and sans serif logotypes 84
Italic and oblique 86
Type classification systems 87
Newspaper text faces 94
Case study 96
Typography task 99

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 4 4 Page:4 5/13/11
6/3/11 1:23
9:55 PM
AM
4words and paragraphs 100
5
using type 126
&conclusion 186
Calculating line lengths 102 Hierarchy 128 glossary 188
Kerning 104 Colour 134 index 190
Automated kerning tables 106 Surprint, overprint, contacts 192
Alignment 107 knockout and reverse 136 working with ethics 193
Word spacing, hyphenation Printing and type realization 138
and justification 112 Type on screen 144
Type detailing 113 Grids and fonts 148
Leading 114 Generating type 150
Indents 120 Vectors and rasters 154
Indexes 121 Legibility and readability 158
Case study 122 Texture 160
Typography task 125 Type as image 164
Concrete poetry,
typograms, trompe l’œil
and calligrammes 166
Humour 170
Environmental typography 172
Vernacular 174
Appropriation 176
Ownership 178
Case study 182
Typography task 185

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 5 Page:5 5/13/11 9:55 AM
introduction
‘ Language is the dress
of thought.’
Samuel Johnson

Typography surrounds us: it adorns the buildings and the While this book provides a deep insight into the essence
streets through which we pass, it is a component part of of typographical development from the base of its
the ever-expanding variety of media we consume – from historical roots, it goes much further, as by necessity
magazines, to television and the Internet – and we even it deals with language and communication, two concepts
increasingly sport it on our clothing in the form of to which typography is inextricably linked. As the
branding and symbolic messages. eighteenth-century English writer Samuel Johnson
said, ‘Language is the dress of thought’. That being the
The typography that is a fundamental part of our lives case, typography can be viewed as one of the swatches
today is the culmination of centuries of development, of fabric from which that dress is made.
as the letters that comprise the written word evolved
and crystallized into the alphabets that are in common It is hoped that this book will serve as a valuable source
usage. Technology has played a central role in this of typographical information with which informed
development, affecting and changing the way that the design choices can be made, to add depth and context
marks we recognize as characters are made and presented. to a work. This book is also intended to be a source of
Through the development of the printing industry, creative inspiration through the visual exploration of
technology gave birth to the concept of typography, the typefaces over the ages.
many different presentations of the same character set.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link]
02698_C3.indd
6 6 Page:6 5/13/11
6/29/11 9:55
5:21 AM
PM
a b c
American
e f
Typewriter Light
Busorama Century Gothic De Vinne Empire Wittenberger
Fraktur MT

g i j l
Georgia Humanist 777 Impact Joanna Kis Linear Konstrukt

m n o p
Modern No. 20 News Gothic Onyx Perpetua Quorum Black
r Rosewood

s t u x
Z z
Stop Trixie Cameo Univers 45 VAG Rounded Windsor Xoxoxa

There are thousands of fonts available and used throughout

the world and they each have a story to tell. This simple A-Z
presentation of some of the rich and diverse variety of typefaces
demonstrates the many nuances, styles, historical and cultural
references that typography includes.

Yorstat Zapfino

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 7 Page:7 5/13/11 9:55 AM
‘ Typography at its best
is a visual form of language
linking timelessness and
time.’
Robert Bringhurst

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 8 Page:8 5/13/11 9:55 AM
chapter 1
type and
language
Typography has developed over the last 600 years as the printing
process has evolved. The characters that are printed, however, have
been developed over a much longer time period as language itself has
developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs to the Latin letters we use today.
This chapter looks at the history of typography in relation to the
development of language together with the cultural and historical
changes the world has undergone. Typography is not only a craft, it
is also part of a wider context. Having an understanding of this context
can help to inform and enrich typographic practice.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 9 Page:9 5/13/11 9:55 AM
Type and language
Type is the means by which an idea is written and given visual form.
Many typefaces in use today are based upon designs created in earlier
historical epochs, and the characters themselves have a lineage that extends
back thousands of years to the first mark-making by primitive man, when
characters were devised to represent objects or concepts.

This section is an introduction to the complex This section aims to be as comprehensive as possible,
origins of type. An appreciation of typography but it is impossible to be conclusive. One of the
naturally involves understanding how written language wonders of typography is this fluidity, its ability to
developed. A general timeline is presented here but adapt to circumstances, technological advances and
it is important to remember that there is overlap cultural shifts. For simplicity, this section has been
across epochs and for many major developments, there divided into the following categories; The alphabet,
exist counter-claims to the invention. What is shown Early printing, 1800s, Arts and Crafts Movement,
here serves as a guide to the major milestones in The early twentieth century, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s,
typography. 1980s, 1990s and Graphic design since 2000.

Language is not static For example, the modern letter ‘A’ was originally a
Letters, language and indeed typography develop pictogram representing an ox’s head, but as the
and change over time as the dominant power inherits, Phoenicians wrote from right to left, the symbol was
alters, adapts and imposes its will on existing forms. turned on its side. Under the Greeks, who wrote from
The modern Latin alphabet is a result of such ongoing left to right, it was turned again and finally, the Romans
transition having been developed and adapted over turned the character full-circle, giving it the form that
several millennia. we recognize today.

A pictogram of an ox’s head… …has been turned on its side by ...rotated by the Greeks… …and turned upright by the
the Phoenicians… Romans, to form the modern ‘A’.

10

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 10 10 Page:10 5/13/11
6/3/11 1:25
9:55 PM
AM
The alphabet Early printing » Type and language

The alphabet

Latin Arabic Chinese Greek boustrophedon

Reading direction For example, Chinese calligraphers use paint brushes

The direction in which text is read varies from to draw ideograms and so it is easier to write down the
language to language and is determined in part by page with the right hand, while controlling the scroll
historical factors such as how text used to be written. with the left.

Cuneiform tablets
Cuneiform uses a wedge-shaped stylus to make impressions into a wet clay tablet and is one
of the earliest standardized writing systems. It was developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the
region that is now east of the Mediterranean, from about 4,000 BC until about 100 BC. Early
forms of cuneiform were written in columns from top to bottom, but later changed to be
written in rows from left to right. With this change the cuneiform signs were turned on their
sides. Cuneiform began to die out as other language systems such as Aramaic spread through
the region in the seventh and sixth centuries BC, and as the use of Phoenician script increased.

Some terms to be familiar with

There are many terms used within this book that you’ll need to be familiar with, many of which are often confused.

PHONOGRAM SYMBOL
A written symbol, letter, character or other mark that A graphic element that communicates the ideas and
represents a sound, syllable, morpheme or word. concepts that it represents rather than denoting what
it actually is.

IDEOGRAM
A graphic element that represents an idea or a concept. PICTOGRAM
A graphic element that describes an action or series
of actions through visual references or clues.
ICON
A graphic element that represents an object, person or
something else.

11

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 11 11 Page:11 5/13/11
6/3/11 1:25
9:55 PM
AM
The alphabet

Hieroglyphs
Hieroglyphs use a pictogrammatic writing system and
were used by several cultures including the Ancient
Egyptians and Incas. Each pictogram represents an object
rather than a vocal sound. There are over 750 individual
Egyptian pictograms. Hieroglyphs can be written from
right to left, left to right, or downwards. This is indicated
in each piece of text by the direction in which the
objects face. For example, if they are facing to the left,
the inscription is read from left to right. Border lines Hieroglyphs on papyrus, reading downwards, as indicated by the border
are used to indicate that text should be read from top lines (above left).
to bottom.
The Rosetta Stone (above right) was carved in 196 BC with an
inscription in Egyptian hieroglyphs, demotic and Greek. Discovered
in 1799, the three scripts were key in deciphering hieroglyphics.

Ideogram-based languages
Ideogrammatic languages use characters or symbols to
represent ideas or concepts. They have a one-to-one
relation between a symbol and an idea. Ideogrammatic
languages, traditionally written down the page, include
Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Thai.
These Chinese ideograms represent the four seasons (left to right)
spring, summer, autumn and winter.

Chinese and Japanese scripts

Written Chinese assigns a single distinctive symbol, A Japanese writing system emerged in the fourth century,
or character, to each word. Many symbols have remained appropriating Kanji characters from Chinese for their
fundamentally the same for over 3,000 years even though phonetic rather than semantic value. Alongside Kanji,
the writing system has been standardized and stylistically three ‘Kana’ scripts emerged. These syllabic scripts are
altered. The system became word-based to express Hiragana, Katakana and Romaji, (used for words
abstract concepts, with ideograms representing sounds borrowed from Western languages or where computer
rather than concepts. software does not accommodate Japanese script).

Watashi I
Kanji Hiragana Katakana Romaji English

12

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 12 Page:12 5/13/11 9:55 AM
The alphabet Early printing » Type and language

Phoenician characters The symbols could be put together in different

The Phoenicians lived in the eastern Mediterranean combinations to construct thousands of words,
regions. They developed what was to become the basis even though the alphabet only contained consonants.
of the modern Latin alphabet in around 1600 BC Phoenician was written horizontally from right to
through a system of 22 ‘magic signs’ or symbols that left without spaces between words, although dots were
represented sounds rather than objects. sometimes used to denote word breaks.

The 22 magic signs The alphabet of 22 magic signs is pictured below along
The Phoenicians were responsible for the development of with its Latin equivalent and the objects that each
what is arguably the greatest invention in humanity. character is believed to have originally represented.

A B C D E F Z H TH I K
Ox House Throw stick Door Window Hook Weapon Fence Token Hand Palm of hand

L M N S O P TS Q R SH T
Ox-goad Water Fish Post or Eye Mouth Javelin Knot or Head Tooth Mark
support monkey

Some terms to be familiar with

Linguistics – the study of language – uses the following terms to describe various elements of language and speech.

Phoneme Morpheme Syllable Letter

The basic sound units Phoneme group forming A unit of spoken A letter is a mark or
used to form words. the smallest language language consisting of glyph (symbol) used in
For example, the unit. Each morpheme a single, uninterrupted an alphabetic writing
phonemes ‘o’ and ‘x’ has a meaning, for sound. The word system to indicate a
come together to make example ‘discredited’ has ‘discredited’ has four sound. A letter’s context
the word ‘ox’. The three; ‘dis’, ‘credit’ and syllables. dictates its pronunciation
pronunciation of letters ‘ed’.
varies, so there are more DIS CRED IT ED D I S C R E D IT E D
phonemes than letters. DIS CREDIT ED

13

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA) p13

001-037 [Link] 13 Page:13 5/13/11 9:55 AM
The alphabet

The Greek alphabet

The Greeks adopted characters from the Phoenician system (such as aleph Aleph Beth
(a) and beth (b)) and used them to develop their own alphabet. (Indeed, the
word alphabet is derived from the Greek alpha (a) and beta (b).) By around
800 BC the Greeks had added other characters to their alphabet, and this
Alpha Beta
became the basis of the modern-day Hebrew and Arabic scripts. Early
Greek was written in the boustrophedon style (see below) where rather than
proceeding from left to right as in modern English, or right to left as in
AlphaBeta
Arabic, alternate lines must be read in opposite directions. Alphabet
α Alpha η Eta ν Nu τ Tau
β Beta θ Theta ξ Xi or Si υ Upsilon
γ Gamma ι Iota ο Omicron ϕ Phi
δ Delta κ Kappa π Pi χ Chi
ε Epsilon λ Lambda ρ Rho ψ Psi
ζ Zeta μ Mu σ Sigma ω Omega

The 24 characters from the modern Greek alphabet and their Greek names.

Vowels and spaces

The Greeks developed vowels, which created a complete and flexible phonetic alphabet. The first vowel letters were Α
(alpha), Ε (epsilon), Ι (iota), Ο (omicron), and ϒ (upsilon). The origins of modern Latin vowels can clearly be seen. Greek
and Latin manuscripts were originally written with no spacing between words, as shown below.

ItwascommonforGreektobewrittenwithnospacing.
The insertion of spaces between words and diacritical marks (see page 75) was a development that helped facilitate
reading and comprehension.

Boustrophedon writing

Text written boustrophedonically moves across the page from left to right,
eerht era erehT .tfel ot thgi r morf kcab semoc neht dna enil a nwod spord
methods of doing this: reversing the lines, reversing the lines and words, or
.srettel dna sdrow ,senil eht gnisrever
14

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 14 Page:14 5/13/11 9:55 AM
The alphabet Early printing » Type and language

The Cyrillic alphabet Russian, Serbian and Ukrainian. The Cyrillic alphabet
The Cyrillic alphabet is based on Glagolitic (developed has 33 letters, including 21 consonants and ten vowels,
by missionaries during the ninth century) and Greek. and two letters without sounds that represent hard and
Developed in the tenth century, it is widely used in Slavic soft signs. Some Cyrillic characters are shown below,
languages such as Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, along with their Greek equivalents.

Б Д З Ж
The Cyrillic letter Be is derived The Cyrillic letter De is derived The Cyrillic letter Ze is derived Some characters, such as Zhe, have
from the Greek letter Beta (β). from the Greek letter Delta (δ). from the Greek letter Zeta (ζ). no similar letter in Greek or Latin.

The Russian alphabet

The 33 Russian Cyrillic lower-case and upper-case letters are shown with their English transliteration.
a A a и И i c C s ъ Ъ “
б Б b й Й j т Т t ъl ЪI y
в В v к К k y Y u b b ‘
г г g л Л l ф ф f є Є eh
д д d м М m x X kh IO IO yu
e E e н Н n ц Ц ts я я ya
ë Ë e о О o ч Ч ch
ж Ж zh п П p ш Ш sh
з З z р Р r щ Щ shch

Semitic and Aramaic languages Aramaic was used and spread by the Assyrian empire and
Aramaic developed from Phoenician in around 900 BC the Babylonian and Persian empires that followed it,
in what is modern-day Syria and south-east Turkey. It is a taking the language as far as India and Ethiopia. Note the
Semitic language and a precursor for Arabic and Hebrew, similarities with the original Phoenician symbols shown
which it closely resembles. on page 13.

’ b g d h w z h. t. y k

l m n s ’ p s. q r s̆ t

The 22 characters of the Aramaic alphabet and their Latin equivalents.

15

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_C2.indd 15 Page:15 6/3/11 1:27 PM
The alphabet

Arabic This alphabet contains 18 letter shapes but by adding

Modern-day Arabic, like Phoenician, is written and read one, two, or three diacritical marks (representing vowel
from right to left. Arabic is based on the 22 consonants of sounds) to these letters, a total of 28 letters is obtained.
the Phoenician alphabet with an optional marking of These diacritical marks originate in Hebrew and Aramaic
vowels using diacritics. Arabic script uses the Aramaic and were added so that Muslims of non-Arab origin
letter names (Alef, Jeem, Dal, Zai, Sheen, and so on). could correctly pronounce the Koran.

a b t th j h. kh d dh r z s sh s. d.

t z c gh f q k l m n h w y
. .

The Roman alphabet Roman is now also frequently used to describe basic
The 26-letter Roman alphabet that we use today was letterforms, principally the minuscules (lower-case
formed from the Greek alphabet and spread through the letters), even though the name is derived from the
Roman empire. Majuscules or upper-case letters derive majuscule forms. The Romans also used seven of their
directly from the forms carved in stone by the Romans, letterforms as base numerals, with each letter representing
and these are the basis for many modern-day typefaces. a numeric building block as pictured below.

I1
V 5
X 10
L 50
C 100
D 500
M 1000

LIKETHEEARLIERGREEKALPHABETOFTENNOSPACEWASUSEDBETWEENWORDS
BUT•OFTEN•A•DOT• CHARACTER•WAS•USED•INSTEAD
Trajan, Carol Twombly, 1989
Modern typefaces such as Trajan (above) have their roots in stone carving from the Roman era. Typographer
Twombly was influenced by early Roman forms in this design, which is modern yet steeped in historical reference.

The ampersand
The ampersand character is a ligature of the letters of the Latin word et, which means
‘and’. The name ‘ampersand’ is a contraction of the phrase ‘and per se and’, which translates
as ‘the symbol for and by itself means and’. The ‘e’ and ‘t’ can still be clearly seen in many
ampersand characters, as shown opposite.

16

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 16 16 Page:16 5/13/11
6/3/11 1:29
9:55 PM
AM
The alphabet Early printing » Type and language

The modern Latin alphabet by various different languages. Lower-case letters

The modern Latin alphabet consists of 52 upper- and developed from cursive (joined up) versions of the
lower-case letters with ten numerals and a variety of other upper-case letters.
symbols, punctuation marks and accents that are employed

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcde
ghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890§-=[];’\`,./
%^&*()_+{}:”|~<>?¡#¢¶•–≠Œ®†¥Ø“‘…
Æ«Ç÷ÅÄÊÎÔÛØUÁÉÍÓÚåäêîôûøuáéíóú
All alphabets are not the same English has 26 letters, while traditional Spanish has
Although most European alphabets are Latin based 30 with the addition of ‘ñ’, ‘ll’, ‘ch’, ‘rr’. Italian has only
they are not all the same. 21 letters, and lacks ‘j’, ‘k’, ‘w’, ‘x’ and ‘y’.

ABCDEFGHILMNOPQRSTUVZ
The modern Italian alphabet lacks the letters ‘j’, ‘k’, ‘w’, ‘x’ and ‘y’.

0
The 0
Modern numbers derive from Arabic characters and M 1000
their adoption brought the ‘0’ with them. The numerals
themselves originated in India and came into use in C 100
Arabic around AD 1000. Common usage in Europe
did not occur until the Renaissance period. Modern VI 6
European digits were created in India in the sixth
century or earlier, and were introduced to the West by IV 4
Arab scholars. As they represent place-based values and
have a zero, calculations can be performed with relative
ease (how quickly can you add up the roman numerals?).
Another advantage is that numbers of infinite length can
be formed, whereas Roman numerals soon meet with
limitations.

17

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 17 Page:17 5/13/11 9:56 AM
Early printing

Gutenberg Movable type further improved this development by

Johannes Gutenberg (c.1400-1468) was a German printer allowing text characters to be reused, providing further
who developed the first printing press and the use of time and cost savings. This technology remained the basis
movable type. The development of the printing press of the printing industry until hot metal printing.
allowed the mass production of books.

Movable type
Shown is a piece of movable type. Many typographical
terms are named after the different characteristics of these
type blocks. The physical dimensions of the block dictated
spacing and made negative spacing impossible, whereas
space
computer technology makes spacing more flexible. While
digitized type still adheres to the same conventions of the
bounding box (pictured far right) in terms of
measurements, digitization allows these boxes to overlap,
and indeed have negative tracking.
space
Blackletter
Block, Blackletter, Gothic, Old English, black or
broken typefaces are based on the ornate writing style
prevalent during the Middle Ages. Nowadays these
typefaces appear heavy and difficult to read in large
text blocks due to the complexity of the letters and
the fact that they seem antiquated and unfamiliar to
us. Blackletter typefaces are commonly used to add
Blackletter 686
decorative touches such as initial caps. Blackletter 686, a modern font created by Bitstream Inc. and based on
London Text scripts from the Middle Ages that were written with
feather quills. The clean lines of this font result in an engraved effect.

The effect of printing in Europe Letterforms from this period utilized the greater detail
As printing spread it gave rise to various typographical that working with metal offered. Old Style typeforms
styles. Many printers adopted the Venetian model as superseded Blackletter as people in Renaissance Europe
interest in Italian Renaissance art and culture grew. began to favour classical forms. These are more
Parisian printer Claude Garamond (c.1480-1561) condensed than the Carolingian forms that preceded
established the first independent type foundry. them, but more rounded than Blackletter. Some common
fonts are shown on the opposite page with an
explanation of their development and characteristics.

18

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 18 18 Page:18 5/13/11
6/3/11 1:32
9:56 PM
AM
« The alphabet Early printing 1800s » Type and language

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Bembo
Created by Monotype in 1929 for a Stanley Morison project, Bembo is an Old Style font based on a Roman face cut by Francisco Griffo da Bologna,
which Aldus Manutius used to print Pietro Bembo’s 1496 publication of De Aetna. Morison modified letterforms such as the ‘G’ to create a typeface
with 31 weights – an all-purpose font family suitable for almost any application. Note the crossed strokes in the ‘W’.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Garamond
Based on designs by seventeenth-century French printer Jean Jannon that were themselves based on typefaces cut by Claude Garamond from the sixteenth
century, Garamond is an Aldine font (fonts based on the designs of Aldus Manutius in the fifteenth century, of which Bembo and Garamond are examples)
that is elegant and readable. Note the crossed strokes in the ‘W’, and the bowl of the ‘P’ that does not reach the stem.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Janson
Created c.1685 by Hungarian punchcutter Miklós Kis, Janson wrongly bears the name of Dutch punchcutter Anton Janson to whom it was formerly attributed.
The font has sturdy forms and strong stroke contrast. Note the long tail of the ‘Q’, the oval shape of the ‘O’ and the unified apex of the ‘W’.

ABCDEFGHIJK LMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Caslon Antique
This is a modern font based on a historical font. Modern typographers’ attempts to recreate ancient fonts in digital format often involve imaginative leaps, as they
are based on printed texts where there is ink spread, and in many cases the original fonts are not available to work from.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ vw
Caslon
Created in 1725 by typographer William Caslon, this serif font was styled on seventeenth-century Dutch designs. The font can be identified as most Caslons have
a capital ‘A’ with a scooped-out apex, a capital ‘C’ with two full serifs, and in the italic, a swashed lower-case ‘v’ and ‘w’.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Baskerville
Created by John Baskerville in the eighteenth century, Baskerville is a versatile transitional font (making it a precursor to the modern faces that followed) with
high contrast forms that are used for both body text and display type. Note the absence of the middle serif on the ‘W’ and the distinctive capital ‘Q’.

19

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 19 19 Page:19 5/13/11
6/3/11 1:32
9:56 PM
AM
1800s

1800s

The Industrial Revolution One development of the time was the

The Industrial Revolution brought mechanization, which introduction of BOLDFACE, used for adding emphasis or
allowed printing to speed up. Photo-engraving, which hierarchy. Experimentation with serifs saw them become
replaced handmade printing plates and line-casting thinner and thinner until they ultimately disappeared.
machines that revolutionized typesetting also allowed for William Caslon’s great grandson William Caslon IV cut
ever-increasing levels of detail and intricacy. the first sans serif font in 1816, called English Egyptian.
Technological development also meant that font Transitional fonts from this period typically have
creation took less time, and this opened the doors for the horizontal serifs, vertical stress and more contrast than
development of a wider range of typefaces. Old Style typefaces.

GROTESQUE & GOTHIC

The first sans serif typeface, 1816 Although Egyptian was originally a sans serif style of
William Caslon developed a sans serif typeface called font, it has since come to refer to slab serif typefaces,
Egyptian in reference to public interest in Egypt perhaps because the slabs mirror the construction of the
following Napoleon's campaign. It was not well received, pyramids. Other terms for sans serif fonts including Doric
however, and was called ‘grotesque’ and ‘Gothic’ (a style and Antique (the French term for sans serif) are now
of architecture going through a revival at the time). used less, but are still in use as shown below.

DORIC ANTIQUE OLIVE

Doric, Walter Tracy, 1973 Antique Olive, Roger Excoffon, 1962-1966
Based on the earlier woodblock designs, this sans serif font retains some Using the french term, this sans serif has distinctive characters such as
of the original characteristics and weight of the original typeface. the ‘Q’ and an exaggerated inner apex on the ‘A’.

Commercial art The first person to mass produce posters with lithography
Lithography was invented in Austria by Alois Senefelder was Jules Chéret (1836-1933) in Paris. Other early
in 1796. Following refinements, by 1848 the process protagonists include Thomas Theodor Heine (1867-
enabled print speeds of 10,000 sheets per hour, making 1948) and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901).
mass production of designs economically viable. Despite these developments, the term ‘graphic design’
Lithography allowed the merging of art with industry does not appear until the 1950s.
to produce posters and colour plates for books.

20

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 20 Page:20 5/13/11 9:56 AM
« 1800s The Arts and Crafts Movement The early twentieth century » Type and language

The Arts and Crafts Movement

The Victorian Arts and Crafts Movement (1850s) The Arts and Crafts Movement favoured simplicity,
developed as a rejection of heavily ornamented interiors good craftsmanship and design. British artist and architect
with many pieces of furniture, collections of ornamental William Morris was a leading exponent of this new style
objects and surfaces covered with fringed cloths. that sought to re-establish a link between beautiful work
and the worker.

Franklin Gothic, Morris Fuller Benton, 1904 Copperplate Gothic, Frederic W. Goudy, 1901
Franklin Gothic was named after Benjamin Franklin. Morris Copperplate Gothic exhibits some of the attention to detail found in
Fuller Benton’s design of 1904 is still popular today, appearing in the Arts and Crafts Movement.
many newspapers and as a headline typeface for advertising.

Kelmscott is a typeface designed by

renowned architect and designer, William
Morris. It is named after the house in which he
lived between 1878 and 1896 and was used in
early books produced by the Kelmscott Press.

21

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 21 Page:21 5/13/11 9:56 AM
The early twentieth century

Modernism Functionality and progress became key concerns in

Modernism, through the cubist, surrealist and Dadaist the attempt to move beyond the external physical
movements was shaped by the industrialization and representation of reality. Modernist typefaces often
urbanization of Western society. Modernists departed sought to force viewers to see the everyday differently
from the rural and provincial zeitgeist prevalent in the by presenting unfamiliar forms.
Victorian era.

De Stijl Constructivism
An art and design movement evolved from the A modern art movement originating in Moscow in
magazine of the same name that was founded by 1920, characterized by the use of industrial materials
Theo Van Doesburg. De Stijl used strong rectangular to create non-representational, often geometric objects.
forms, employed primary colours and celebrated Russian constructivism translated to graphic design
asymmetrical compositions. through a use of black and red sans serif type arranged
in asymmetrical blocks.

The Bauhaus
The Bauhaus opened in 1919 under the direction of renowned architect Walter Gropius. Until forced to close
in 1933, the Bauhaus sought to initiate a fresh approach to design following the First World War, with a focus on
functionality rather than adornment.

Left
In 1923 Wassily Kandinsky proposed a universal relationship between
the three basic shapes and the three primary colours: the yellow triangle
was the most active and dynamic, and the blue circle cold and passive.

Bayer universal Basik Alfabet

Bayer Universal, Herbert Bayer, 1925 Basic Alphabet was a further experimentation with language.
Herbert Bayer embodied the modernist desire to reduce designs to Words are written as they sound, with silent letters dropped and
as few elements as possible and repeatedly experimented with typographical elements reduced. Capitals are indicated with an
typography to reduce the alphabet to a single case. underscore, for example.

22

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 22 Page:22 5/13/11 9:56 AM
« The Arts and Crafts Movement The early twentieth century 1950s » Type and language

Dadaism
An artistic and literary movement (1916-1923) that developed following the First World War and sought to discover an authentic reality through
the abolition of traditional culture and aesthetic forms. Dadaism brought new ideas, materials and directions, but with little uniformity. Its principles
were of deliberate irrationality, anarchy and cynicism, and the rejection of laws of beauty. Dadaists lived in the moment and for the moment. The
name Dada derives from the French for hobby horse.

hobby horse
Dada, Richard Kegler, 1995–1998
Inspired by Dada typography and poetry, Richard Kegler created Dada according to the principles of irrationality and anarchic arrangement so
that there appears to be little congruence from one letter to the next.

BASED ON ENGRAVINGS
Perpetua, Eric Gill, 1928
Gill based this design on characters from old engravings. Small diagonal serifs and a medieval number set add an element of formality to the typeface.

The constructivist tradition

Futura, Paul Renner, 1927
Futura is considered the major typeface development to come out of the constructivist orientation of the Bauhaus movement. The characters are based
on the simple forms of circle, triangle and square, but softened them to be more legible and to create a new, modern type.

BODONI POSTER BOLDFACE

Poster Bodoni, Chauncey H. Griffith, 1929
Based on an eighteenth-century design by Gianbattista Bodoni, this is a modern font characterized by hairline serifs that are subtly bracketed, and
heavy downstrokes that give a powerful vertical stress.

23

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 23 23 Page:23 5/13/11
6/3/11 1:33
9:56 PM
AM
1950s

Following the Second World War a new optimism The demand for wider choice and the emergence of
emerged as a consumer boom erupted in the USA. The photosetting helped typography develop. Typographers
cultural scene also expanded, boosted by many European such as Hermann Zapf led the humanist movement, with
creatives and intellectuals who had fled Nazi Europe. the lines between serif and sans serif typefaces blurred
Design became more elaborate, with bright colours that as organic lines were reintroduced into typography.
celebrated life – as personified in cars such as the candy- Humanist fonts have forms that are based on classic
coloured Ford Thunderbird. Romans, but without the serifs.

HELVETICA UNIVERS
Created by Max Miedinger in 1957 - the forgotten designer - Univers, Adrian Frutiger, 1957
Helvetica is one of the most famous and popular typefaces in the world. With sturdy, clean forms, Adrian Frutiger’s Univers also from 1957
Originally called Haas Grotesk, its name changed to Helvetica in 1960. expresses cool elegance and rational competence. It is available in 59
The Helvetica family has 34 weights and the Neue Helvetica has 51. weights that combine well with other fonts.

GGQQyyaa
Pictured in black is Helvetica and in green is Univers. Although both are sans serif fonts, there are noticeable differences such as the absence of
a tail on the Univers ‘G’, ‘y’ and ‘a’, the more open, rounded counter on the Univers ‘a’ and the bisecting tail of the Helvetica ‘Q’.

International Style (Swiss) in the 1950s. Grids, mathematical principles, minimal

International or Swiss Style was based on the decoration and sans serif typography became the norm
revolutionary principles of the 1920s, such as those as typography developed to represent universal usefulness
devised by De Stijl, Bauhaus and Jan Tschichold’s more than personal expression.
The New Typography, which became firmly established

Optima, Hermann Zapf, 1958

Optima was inspired by letters Zapf sketched on two 1,000 lire bank notes, based on grave plates cut c.1530 that he saw while visiting the
Santa Croce church in Florence. Optima is a humanist sans serif blended with Roman and calligraphic styles, making it a smooth read and
general-purpose font, which became his most successful typeface. Letterforms are in the proportions of the golden ratio.

24

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 24 Page:24 5/13/11 9:56 AM
« 1950s 1960s 1970s » Type and language

1960s

The world of culture went pop in the 1960s as music, art, Pop art’s influence on typography resulted in fonts –
literature and furniture design became more accessible particularly for display type – designed or selected
and reflected elements of everyday life. Pop art developed according to possible associations or references in place
as a reaction against abstract art. It was often witty, of any particular theory regarding legibility or aesthetics,
purposely obvious and throwaway in its reflection of while the International Style remained influential for
consumer culture such as advertising and comic books. body text.

Letraset, 1961
Letraset dry-transfer lettering
Countdown, Colin Brignall, 1965
allowed anyone to do
typesetting. Rubbed directly on This typeface developed for
to artwork or virtually any
substrate, it was often used for
Letraset is synonymous with the
headlines and display type
while body type was supplied
1960s, the space race and the
via a typewriter. Letraset
commissioned new typefaces
development of computer
including Colin Brignall’s technology.
futuristic Countdown font.

OCR-A, Optical Character Recognition, Adrian Frutiger and

OCR
the USA Bureau of Standards, 1966
OCR-A is a standardized, monospaced font designed for Optical
Character Recognition by electronic devices, using standards developed
by the American National Standards Institute in 1966 for the processing
of documents by banks and credit card companies. The characters fit
into a 4 x 7 grid which makes them easily read by a scanner, even
though they are not so legible to the human eye. Subsequent version
OCR-B was made a world standard in 1973 and is more legible to
the human eye.

Eurostile, Aldo Novarese, 1962

Eurostile
Eurostile features a subtle distortion of circular
sans serif geometric forms, with rounded corners
that look like television sets of the time.

25

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 25 Page:25 5/13/11 9:56 AM
1970s

Typography in the 1970s continued where the 1960s ITC

left off, becoming more decorative, outrageous and The International Typeface Corp. (ITC) was formed in
extravagant until the middle of the decade, when punk New York to market new typeface designs, distribute
emerged. Punk rejected the decadent, elaborate nature royalties to the creators and extend rights to typographers
of music, fashion and the visual arts in favour of the that were threatened by the photographic copying of
disposable and shocking. fonts. Prior to this, type designers had been tied to
particular typesetting machine manufacturers. The
formation of the ITC resulted in a drive to collect and
commission new work, including revisiting classic fonts.

Austrian designer Michael Neugebauer created Cirkulus in 1970 as

an experimental display face using combinations of hairline circles
and straight lines. The letters have a constructivist feel that is
reminiscent of the revolutionary 1920s. Cirkulus is a unicase
alphabet (there are no upper-case characters), with a very
lightweight appearance that is best used in large display sizes.

Early computers and photocomposition

Photocomposition improved in the 1960s and facilitated
the copying and production of fonts. By projecting a
character created on the screen of a cathode ray tube
(like a TV) through a lens on to light-sensitive paper
or film, it could be stored in a magnetic memory,
overwritten and edited. This was much faster than
physically adjusting hot metal type and led to increased
proliferation of typefaces and historical revivals as fonts ITC Kabel, Victor Caruso, 1976
became more international. The 1970s saw computers Kabel features basic forms influenced by stone-carved Roman letters
increasingly involved in this process through a mixture that consist of a few pure and clear geometric forms such as circles,
of photocomposition and the digital techniques that squares and triangles. Art Deco elements such as the seemingly awkward
would emerge later, with several competing languages angles of some of the curves makes Kabel appear very different from
and formats. Throughout this decade the potential to other geometric modernist typefaces. Based on an earlier design by
design directly on screen increased, offering industry Rudolph Koch in 1923, the typeface is reminiscent of constructivist
professionals more options and flexibility. experiments.

26

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 26 Page:26 5/13/11 9:56 AM
« 1970s 1980s 1990s » Type and language

1980s

The 1980s saw the introduction of personal computers, The ‘Mac’

computer games, music videos and desktop publishing, Macintosh revolutionized the personal computer in1984
as the invention of the laser printer meant that expensive by making computer screens user-friendly and hiding
photosensitive paper was no longer needed. The digital the operational programming from the user, in contrast
revolution meant that new fonts could be designed and to IBM’s approach. Control in type production migrated
trialled quickly and easily, without the great expense and away from professional typesetters to designers, and
commitment of hot metal type. extended to amateurs as well as industry professionals.
The low resolution of early personal computers called
for new fonts to ensure legibility.

Arial is a contemporary sans

serif design that contains many
humanist characteristics. The
overall treatment of curves is
softer and fuller than in most
industrial style sans serif faces.
Terminal strokes are cut on the
diagonal and help to give the face Trixie, LettError, 1989

a less mechanical appearance.

Trixie was developed at a time when font design turned again towards
developing more sophisticated and smoother fonts. LettError based
The typeface was designed in Trixie on the look of a dirty, inky typewriter type to give a rougher
1982 by Robin Nicholas and look that is irreverent and playful. Dutch company LettError was
established by Dutch designers Erik van Blokland and Just van Rossum.
Patricia Saunders for Monotype.

The Face, 1981–2004

Graphic designer Neville Brody revolutionized magazine design
with his unabashed love of typography that he displayed on the
pages of The Face, a style magazine covering music, design and fashion.
Historic and contemporary type were subjected to exaggeration in
scale and proportion, were exploded and otherwise distorted, and
complemented with Brody’s own computer-generated fonts as he
challenged the notion of legibility.

27

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 27 Page:27 5/13/11 9:56 AM
1990s

As the 1990s began, graphic designers reacted to the

International Style and sought to break away from A font that’s a sans and a serif
the constraints of the grid patterns in favour of
experimentation, playful use of type and a more Officina, Erik Spiekermann and Schäfer, Ole, 1990
handmade approach. Type use became more expressive – With both serif and sans serif forms, Officina embodies the ideals of
to be part of the message rather than just its conveyor. efficient office communication, with styling based on traditional
typewriters but adapted to modern technology and spaced for legibility.

Designed for low grade printing

Meta, Erik Spiekermann and MetaDesign, 1991
Meta was based on a rejected typeface commissioned by the German
Post Office (Bundespost) in 1984. Hailed as the typeface for the 1990s,
it is named after Meta Studio, where the new typeface was used.

a pattern of type
Flixel, Just van Rossum / FUSE, 1991
Flixel is a dot pattern font that pushes the boundaries of legibility
with its unusual forms.

you can read me

Can You, Phil Baines / FUSE, 1995
This typeface uses key portions of letterforms that challenge the limits
of legibility.

A contemporary wis
FUSE, Neville Brody / Research Studios, 1991 Mrs Eaves, Zuzana Licko, 1996
Typography magazine FUSE, founded by Neville Brody and Zuzana Licko based the design of Mrs Eaves on the Baskerville font.
John Wozencroft, saw typography explode into uncharted realms Licko gave the font ligatures, such as between the ‘s’ and ‘t’, that give
as type designers grabbed hold of the ‘free reins’ that computer it a contemporary twist.
technology gave them.

28

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 28 Page:28 5/13/11 9:56 AM
« 1980s 1990s Graphic design since 2000 » Type and language

randomness and regradation Beowolf 21

randomness and regradation Beowolf 22
randomness and regradation Beowolf 23
Beowolf, Letterror, 1990
A misspelling of Beowulf, this radical font sees varying degrees of randomness and regradation. The first iteration, released at the end of 1989,
went on to see multiple versions released during the 1990s.

Fresh Dialogue / Stefan Sagmeister, 1996

This poster for the American Institute of Graphic Arts features handwritten typography that is placed in seemingly haphazard blocks.
Photos of cow tongues form the crossbars of the capital ‘F’ of Fresh and reversed ‘E’ at the end of Dialogue.

29

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 29 Page:29 5/13/11 9:56 AM
Graphic design since 2000

High-resolution digital printing has increased options and and other devices. Graphic designers continue to
challenges in graphic design. The growth of multimedia experiment and enjoy the ability that modern technology
applications makes new demands on fonts, with the need allows to free-form type quickly and integrate it in
to obtain legibility between computers, mobile phones their designs.

Pluralism are instead more individualistic, personal and specific.

Today we are living in a pluralistic phase, embracing the This results in regionalism in graphic design, as
ability to move between different styles and points of something that is appropriate in one country will
view. Rather than there being a single meta-narrative, not necessarily translate well in another.
pluralists suggest that there are many narratives and that
fewer universal truths exist in a globalized world. Truths

T Bar, George & Vera Didogo, Creasence

This design uses eclectic, almost This logotype takes direct
surreal images including influence from trends in
typography that looks like line typography, including the
drawings or etchings. emergence of ‘smilies’, a form
of emoticons, or ASCII art,
constructed out of characters
of email and text systems. In
this example, the colon and
the capital ‘D’ form a simple,
smiley face.

30

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_path.indd 30 Page:30 5/13/11 2:16 PM
« 1990s Graphic design since 2000 Case study » Type and language

Designer as Maker, Studio A Flock of Words, Why

Myerscough, 2005 Not Associates and
Type can be quiet, loud, brash, Gordon Young
understated, but ultimately, it can Flock of Words is the result of a
be unexpected. With their six-year collaboration, featuring
freethinking approach to a number of typographic
typography, Studio Myerscough installations as part of a town
demonstrate the power of a arts project.
simple message.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link]
02698_C3.indd
31 31 Page:31 5/13/11
6/29/11 9:56
5:21 AM
PM
Graphic design since 2000

32

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 32 Page:32 5/13/11 9:56 AM
« 1990s Graphic design since 2000 Case study » Type and language

Neutraface, The Design Shop

This brochure was designed by The Design Shop, for the introduction
of the Greek version of the font Neutraface, by Cannibal fonts. The
designers highlighted the Art Deco characteristics of the font on the
front and the back cover. The inners of the brochure feature full-bleed
images, and oversized characters, celebrating the font’s characteristics.
The placement of images on the inner, and the text on the outer, is
essentially a reverse of what you would expect, and creates an
interesting and elegant design. Having an understanding of the historical
and cultural significance of typography helps the designers ‘position’
the new font in the lineage of letterform development.

33

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 33 Page:33 5/13/11 9:56 AM
Case study
Lonsdale Boys Club – Mercy, Liverpool and London, UK

‘ I’m a huge fan of layered, textured typography – there are

some amazing type designers at the moment whose work
I obsess over but whose processes I simply can’t decipher.’
Project description endlessly doodling it and going through a lot of trial and
Lonsdale Boys Club (Loz Curran, Topher Richwhite error (more often than not, because a practical sticking
and Charlie Weaver), commissioned Mercy to develop point messes up my idea – in this instance, how to create
the graphics for their debut single. The single’s name, the three words using one unbroken line without
‘Light Me Up’ became the platform for the designers compromising how realistic it would be). Sometimes
to work from. what looked great in my head just doesn’t work in
practice – and it is only the process of putting pen to
In discussion with Doug Mercy, Mercy Liverpool paper that can confirm this.
GA How do you use sketching as a way of developing
typography, do you see it as an important part of the GA In the Light Me Up project the typography is
design and thinking process? unexpected, and experimental, do you see this as being
DM I actually don’t use sketchbooks anywhere near as part of what designers should be doing? Challenging the
much as I should for general work, but when it comes boundaries of the medium?
to a piece of typography it’s always my first port of call. DM Well absolutely designers should be challenging
I can usually see what it is I want to achieve in my head, boundaries and experimenting with how they work as
but I find I can only physically manifest this through a matter of course. But by the same token – if working

Above and right

Some early development work involved the use of sketching, prior to
crafting the final typography.

34

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 34 Page:34 5/13/11 9:56 AM
« Graphic design since 2000 Case study Typography task » Type and language

Right
The raw artwork prior to being
rendered fully into the final cover,
shown overleaf.

commercially at least – we mustn’t ever lose sight of why whose processes I simply can’t decipher. I think that’s
and where it is appropriate to do so. A lot of designers great, the idea that even in the days of Macs and quick
can sometimes complain about ‘uncreative’ clients, but in fixes, these things still take weeks’ of skill and craft to
a lot of these cases an experimental approach might well get just right and mere mortals such as myself can only
be alienating their customer. There’s a time and a place marvel at them. But then someone could stick a massive
for everything I guess, and the skill is to know when to Helvetica semi-colon up in a gallery and I’d love that too,
play it straight and when to go that bit further. so I wouldn’t say that I have an exclusive obsession over
hours of craft. If it’s right it’s right!
GA The result of the Light Me Up project has a strong
sense of craft, in the sense that the typography is ‘created’,
is this something that is important to you as a designer?
DM I’m a huge fan of crafty, layered, textured
typography – there are some totally amazing type
designers at the moment whose work I obsess over but

35

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 35 35 Page:35 5/13/11
6/3/11 1:34
9:56 PM
AM
Above
The final artwork is a composite of type and image. The design needs to work at a variety of scales within the context of modern
music sales. So it needs to be equally successful at a point of sale site (in a store or festival, for example) but it also needs to work
online, and on hand-held devices. The final design is immediate, memorable and striking in its simplicity.

36

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 36 Page:36 5/13/11 9:56 AM
« Case study Typography task Type and language

Typography task

Typographic ‘context’

Premise Exercise
We are surrounded by type. We interact with it on 1 Over a 24-hour period, collate a record of all
a daily basis. It is on the books we read, the signs we the items that you interact with that contain type.
follow and the web pages we look at. All of this type This could be signage, packaging, bus tickets, or
has been ‘chosen’, it has been designed – be it well letters and correspondence.
designed or ill-designed. Every piece of type we 2 Create an ‘audit’ of this information. An audit is
interact with has some kind of ancestry, it is a quantitative survey of your findings, it is simply
descended from an earlier incarnation. Type ranges looking at what you have found and recording it,
from the ephemeral to the significant and monumental. you are not at this stage trying to identify any
The sheer scale results in an imposing structure that patterns or make any judgements.
conveys a sense of gravity and meaning. 3 Start to analyse the information you have gathered.
This could be done using some of the following
methods:
• How many touchpoints are with serif as opposed
to sans serif type?
• How many different classifications of type are
there, for example Roman, Black letter?
• How many times do you interact with type?
• What colours are most popular?
• What type size is most common?
• What type of information is it? Is it advertising,
public awareness, directional information?
• What language are these in?
4 Produce a visual outcome of your findings.
This could take the form of a series of charts,
graphs, diagrams or visualizations. Remember
though, that you are trying to present an objective
analysis of what you found.

Outcome
To encourage a deeper understanding of the myriad
typographic forms that surround us.

37

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

001-037 [Link] 37 Page:37 5/13/11 9:56 AM
‘ Typography has one plain
duty before it and that is
to convey information in
writing.’
Emil Ruder

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 38 Page:38 5/13/11 10:34 AM
chapter 2
a few basics
A discussion of type involves the use of specific terminology relating to
its historic characteristics and measurement. An understanding of this
terminology and the measurement system is essential for the satisfactory
communication of typographical concepts.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 39 Page:39 5/13/11 10:34 AM
Typefaces and fonts
In common usage, the words typeface and font are used synonymously.
In most cases, there is no harm in doing this as the substitution is virtually
universal and most people, including designers, would be hard pressed
to state each word’s true definition.

However, each term possesses a separate and distinct James Felici explains the difference as a font being a
meaning. A typeface is a collection of characters which cookie cutter and the typeface the cookie produced.
have the same distinct design, while a font is the physical So while one can ask ‘What typeface is that?’, a question
means of typeface production – be it the description of a such as ‘What font is that?’ when looking at a piece of
typeface in computer code, lithographic film or metal. print or a screen is inaccurate.

What is a font? What is a typeface?

A font is the physical means used to create a A typeface is a collection of characters, letters,
typeface, whether it be a typewriter, a stencil, numerals, symbols and punctuation, which have
letterpress blocks or a piece of PostScript code. the same distinct design.

These are fonts:

These are typefaces:

A typewriter produces a distinctive typeface, a stencil produces a rough and ready font, letterpress blocks produce richly expressive type,
and a computer font containing PostScript information creates a neat and precise typeface.

40

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 40 Page:40 5/13/11 10:34 AM
Typeface anatomy Relative and absolute measurements » A few basics

Typeface anatomy
Typographical characters have an array of attributes and forms
that are described through a variety of different terms, in much the
same way as the different names for every part of the human body.

Apex Arm Ascenders and Barb

The point formed at A horizontal stroke descenders A sharp pointed
the top of a character on the ‘T’, and ‘F’ as Parts of a letter that serif.
such as ‘A’, where the well as the upstroke extend above the
left and right strokes on the ‘K’ and ‘Y’. x-height; or below
meet. Also called bar. the baseline.

Beak Bowl Bracket Chin

The serif form at the The shape that The transitional The angled
end of an arm. encloses a space in shape, connecting terminal of a ‘G’.
circular letterforms. the stem and the
The bowl may be serif.
closed or open.

Counter Crossbar Cross stroke Crotch

The space inside a The horizontal A horizontal stroke The inner point at
bowl as found on ‘e’, stroke that intersects that intersects the which two angled
‘a’ and other letters. the central stem. central stem. Also strokes meet.
Also called a cross called a crossbar.
stroke.

Ear Finial Leg Ligature

A small stroke An ornamental The lower stroke of Typically a crossbar
extending from the terminal stroke at the a letter. Sometimes or arm that extends
the bowl of a ‘g’ or top of characters such used for the tail of across a pair of let-
from the stem of let- as the ‘a’ and ‘f ’. the ‘Q’. ters to join them.
ters such as ‘r’ and ‘f ’.

Link Loop Serif Shoulder

A stroke that joins The bowl formed by A small stroke at the The curved stroke
two other letter parts the tail of a double- end of a main vertical leading into the leg
such as the bowls of a storey ‘g’. or horizontal stroke. of an ‘h’ or ‘n’ for
double-storey ‘g’. example.

Spine Spur Stem Stress

A left-to-right curving The terminal to a stem The main vertical The orientation,
stroke in the ‘S’ and ‘s’. of a rounded letter. or diagonal stroke or slant of a curved
of a letter. character.

Swash Tail Terminal Vertex

An elongated curved The descending stroke The end of a stroke, The angle formed
entry or exit stroke. of letters like the ‘Q’, which may take sev- at the bottom of a
‘K’ and ‘R’. The loop eral forms such as letter where strokes
of the ‘g’ can also be acute, flared, concave meet.
called a tail. and rounded.

41

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd 41 Page:41 6/3/11 1:40 PM
Relative and absolute measurements
Typography uses two types of measurements, absolute measurements
and relative measurements. It is important to understand the differences
between these to understand many of the typographic processes.

Absolute measurements 3 inches (3")

Absolute measurements are easy to understand as they are
measurements of fixed values. For example, a millimetre is
a precisely defined increment of a centimetre. Equally, 76.2 millimetres (76.2mm)
points and picas, the basic typographic measurements,
have fixed values. All absolute measurements are expressed
in finite terms that cannot be altered. Pictured right are 216 points (216pt)
four measurement systems that express the same physical
distance.
18 picas (18 pica)

Relative measurements
10 on 12pt 12 on 14.4pt
In typography, many measurements, such as character
A standard setting with a Although type has a regular
spacing, are linked to type size, which means that their regular number for both value, the leading now has an
relationships are defined by a series of relative typesize and leading. irregular number.
measurements. Ems and ens, for example, are relative
measurements that have no prescribed, absolute size.
Their size is relative to the size of type that is being set.
R R
R R
Leading is another example of the use of relative
measurement. Most desktop publishing programs assign
an automatic percentage value for functions like leading.
The characters above right are 10pt, so with leading set
at 120 percent, they are effectively being set on 12pt 30 on 36pt 36 on 10pt
Another standard value that Negative leading sees characters
leading. As the type gets bigger, so does the leading, as
has a regular number for both overlap – made possible by
it is relative to the type size. You’ll notice that 10pt type typesize and leading. modern technology.
on 12pt leading retains whole numbers. However, when
you use alternative sizes, by default the leading values
sometimes produce irregular numbers, for example
12pt type on 14.4pt leading.
If this did not happen and the leading remained
R R
R
constant, as the characters got bigger they would
eventually crash into one another. This is sometimes
called negative leading.
R

42

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 42 Page:42 5/13/11 10:34 AM
« Typeface anatomy Relative and absolute measurements X-height » A few basics

Points Type sizes traditionally bore a relationship to

The point is the unit of measurement used to measure the 72 point inch (six picas) but with digitized PostScript
the type size of a font, for example, 7pt Times New typefaces, it is now easy to use irregular sizes such as
Roman. This measurement refers to the height of the 10.2pt. This relationship is reflected in the old naming
type block, not the letter itself as shown below (right). system for these common sizes, with 12pt type being
This basic typographical measurement is an absolute referred to as Pica. Some of the other names have a looser
measurement equivalent to 1/72 of an inch or 0.35mm connection, and indeed the sizes are only approximate
and its creation is attributed to French clergyman translations to the modern point equivalents. These names
Sébastien Truchet (1657–1729). It was further developed are no longer in common use, but the equivalent sizes
by Pierre Fournier and Francois Didot in the nineteenth are, with most software packages using these as the
century, before the British/American or Anglo-Saxon default sizes.
point was defined as 1/72 of an inch.

Minion Bourgeois Long Primer Pica English Great Primer 2-line Pica 2-line Great Primer Canon or 4-line
Before standardization, typefaces

24 36 48
9 10 12 14 18
of similar names had varying sizes. 7
A Pica from one type foundry
would be exactly 12 points, while
the same measurement from
another could vary dramatically.

As the point size of a typeface refers to the height of the type block The measurement of a piece
and not the letter itself, different typefaces of the same size behave of movable type is its entire
differently, as these two examples above set in 72pt type show. While vertical size, not just a measure
they are the same size the characters do not necessarily extend to the of the character height.
top or bottom of the block, which has an impact on leading values
discussed on pages 114–119. The typefaces shown are Futura (left),
and Foundry Sans (right).

Picas
A pica is a unit of measurement equal to 12 points that is commonly used for
measuring lines of type. There are six picas (or 72 points) in an inch, which is equal 1"
to 25.4 millimetres. This is the same for both a traditional pica and a modern PostScript
pica. There are six PostScript picas to an inch.
6 Picas

43

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 43 43 Page:43 5/13/11
6/3/11 10:34
1:39 PM
AM
M— M—
Characters that extend beyond the em
Although characters rarely fill their em, some special
characters such as the per thousand symbol (below, left)
extend beyond their em, which may cause a spacing
problem.
The em
The em is a relative unit of measurement used in

‰‰
typesetting to define basic spacing functions, and
therefore it is linked to the size of the type. It is a relative
measurement in that if the type size increases, so does the
size of the em. If the type size decreases, so does the em.
An em equals the size of a given type, i.e. the
em of 72pt type is 72 points and the em of 36pt type
is 36 points and so on. Although the name of the em
implies a relationship to the width of the capital ‘M’, in Ems, ens and hyphens
reality an ‘M’ character will rarely be as wide as an em Both the em and en are used in punctuation to provide a
as the illustration (above) demonstrates. measurement for dashes. These are very specific pieces of
The em is used for defining elements such as punctuation and should not be confused with a hyphen,
paragraph indents and spacing. Different typefaces will although they are all linked. An en is half of an em while
produce certain typographical characters whose sizes a hyphen is one third of an em.
differ in relation to the em of a given point size. The
characters below are 48pt and both therefore have a
48pt em. However, Bembo is clearly ‘smaller’, and
occupies less of the em square than Futura. Em En Hyphen

Word space

N– N –
The standard word space is defined as a percentage
value of an em, which makes it relative to the size of
the type being set. As you can see from the example
below, different fonts have different word spacing values,
with some being ‘tighter’ than others. This value is fixed
in the PostScript information that makes a font but it
The en can be controlled by adjusting the hyphenation and
An en is a unit of relative measurement equal to half justification values (see page 112).
of one em. In 72pt type, for example, an en would be
36 points. A spaced en rule is often used to denote nested

s p a c espace
clauses, but it can also be used to mean ‘to’ in phrases
such as 10–11 and 1975–1981.

44

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd 44 Page:44 6/3/11 1:39 PM
« Relative and absolute measurements X-height Basic terminology » A few basics

X-height
The x-height of a typeface is the measurement from the baseline to the
meanline. Typically, this distance is the height of the lower-case ‘x’. As such
it is a relative measurement that varies from typeface to typeface.

Measuring x-height ascenders or descenders. The majority of fonts are,

The x-height is the typographical equivalent of the however, more generous with the space they provide
length of a skirt in the fashion world: it tends to rise and for their ascenders and descenders, particularly when
fall as design tastes continually change. Facade Condensed legibility is important. Times (below) has a proportionally
is practically all x-height, surrendering little space to its much smaller x-height.

X-height x Meanline

Baseline

X-heights are not constant different. For example, Monaco (below right) with its
Although typefaces may have the same point size their large x-height in relation to its ascender and descender
x-heights are likely to be different. The typefaces below height creates a solid text block in comparison to
are all reproduced at 60pt. Their x-heights are clearly Bembo (below left), with its smaller x-height.

Bembo Egyptian Optima Hoefler Text Univers Facade Rotis Rockwell Futura Monaco

Monaco, with its large x-height in This is Bembo, which has a smaller x-height than
relation to its ascenders and Monaco (left). Although both of these typefaces have
descenders, creates a solid block of the same point size, Bembo appears to be much smaller
copy when compared to Bembo, than Monaco, and in a text block, appears much lighter.
opposite. This concept of heaviness
and lightness in a text block is
often referred to as ‘colour’, which
is described on page 130.

45

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd 45 Page:45 6/3/11 1:39 PM
Basic terminology
Typographic terminology is rooted in the printing industry. Although
the technology has changed, the need for accurate communication has
not and so the majority of typographical terms are still in common usage.

Serif / Sans serif

Standard typefaces generally fall into one of two broad categories: serif or sans serif.
A serif typeface is one that has small cross lines at the ends of the different strokes, Serif
while a sans serif does not have these. These lines, often barely noticeable, aid our ability
to recognize characters and help us to read by leading the eye across the page. For this
reason, serif typefaces are generally easier to read than sans serifs. The clean lines of sans
Sans Serif
serif typefaces are seen as being modern, while serifs are more traditional.

Bounding boxes

Mi
Like its metal type predecessors, digital type still has
a bounding box. The bounding box of a metal type
character traditionally provided spacing between
characters to stop them crashing into one another when
arranged in a measure. The same is true for the invisible
boxes that surround digital type characters. The space
between letters can be increased or reduced to give
a text block a more balanced feel. The digital boxes
are a little bigger than the width of the character and so,
with the exception of monospaced fonts, the box for a
lower-case ‘i’ is thinner than the box for a capital ‘M’.

Tracking or letterspacing
Tracking, or letterspacing, adjusts the amount of spacing between characters. This adjusts all characters equally, but
some combinations will need additional kerning (shown opposite) if they are either colliding, or appearing too far
apart. You can specify any value for tracking, but generally there are four main descriptions, as shown below.

negative tight normal l o o s e

Negative tracking sees letters collide. A tight tracking sees characters ‘pulled’ By default type has a certain amount of An artificially expanded tracking value
closer together. space between characters, though this often sees larger spacing between letters. This is
looks too loose. often used in headlines.

46

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 46 Page:46 5/13/11 10:34 AM
« X-height Basic terminology Majuscule and minuscule » A few basics

Kerning Without kerning With kerning

Kerning or too little space between them, and kerning helps to

Kerning refers to the addition and subtraction of space create more comfortable looking typography. As
between letters to create a comfortable setting. Certain typesizes increase, the amount of space that may need to
letter combinations will appear to have either too much, be taken out also increases, as shown above.

Wordspacing
We have already seen that tracking, or In contrast the space between words can
letterspacing, is used to adjust the space between be ‘opened-up’, resulting in a more open
letters, but the space between words can also be and airy setting.
adjusted. Shown here is a tight word spacing. If this spacing is too open though, the
words become disjointed.

Leading
‘Leading’ is a hot metal printing term that originates from the lead strips that were
inserted between text measures in order to space them evenly. For example, type was
specified as 36pt type with 4pt leading (right). Nowadays, leading refers to the space
Mj Mj
between lines of text in a text block. As PostScript bounding boxes (diagram far left)
are spaced electronically, the norm is to express the leading value as 36pt type on 40pt
leading, as the leading measurement now represents the distance from one base line to
Mj Mj
the next, rather than the actual space between lines of text. Leading is the distance from one baseline
Typographic measurements normally have two values. For example, 10pt to the next baseline, rather than the space
between characters.
Futura with 4pt leading is expressed as 10/14 Futura. This setting could also be described
as 10pt type with 4pt of extra leading. Type with no extra leading is said to be set solid.

baseline
Baseline
The baseline is the
imaginary line that all
type characters sit upon –
with the exception of the
‘o’ and other rounded
characters that fall slightly
below it.

47

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 47 Page:47 5/13/11 10:34 AM
Majuscule and minuscule
Majuscules are upper-case (or capital) and minuscules are lower-case letters.
Both of these character sets have distinct applications and it is important to
note that not all fonts are available in both forms. The terms upper- and
lower-case refer to the trays metal letters used to be stored in.
Connotation ITSELF AND THE COLOURS USED IN THE
ALTHOUGH IT COULD BE ARGUED THAT THE DESIGN. It would therefore be overly simplistic to
MAJUSCULE CHARACTER FORMAT suggest a universal difference or preference between
GENERALLY APPEARS TO BE MORE FORMAL majuscules and minuscules. They both work equally well
OR AUTHORITATIVE THAN MINUSCULES, when used in the right context, and with care and
SUCH CONNOTATIONS ARE LINKED TO MANY consideration. Both offer a cohesive, unified design as the
OTHER FACTORS SUCH AS THE TYPEFACE character heights remain relatively constant.

universal CAPITALS
Font selection
Not all typefaces are available with both upper- and The consideration when selecting a typeface for a design
lower cases, as the two examples above show. Some fonts is whether it is sufficiently flexible for the intended result.
have been specifically designed as unicase and were never Some designs can be set unicase, although this can be
intended to be accompanied by a partnering upper or limiting and cause problems. Postal codes, for example,
lower case. In some instances the font name, Capitals can be difficult to set in lower case, and large blocks of
(above right) indicates its unicase design, and hints at its body copy can be tiring to read if set in upper case.
intended usage or placement on the page.

CAMELLIA TRAJAN
Camellia Trajan
Camellia, designed by Tony Wenman, is a light, round, lower-case Trajan is a majuscule unicase font created by Carol Twombly in
typeface with art nouveau traits and 1960s styling. With a high 1989. It is a clear and modern upper-case font based on Roman carved
x-height and hairline strokes, this unicase sans serif works best at display letters. The characters that fall below the baseline add additional
sizes. Interestingly, although this is a lower-case-only font, certain character to the font.
characters, like the ‘l’, are actually upper-case in form.

48

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 48 Page:48 5/13/11 10:34 AM
« Majuscule and minuscule Set width The baseline grid » A few basics

Set width
Set width is the horizontal scaling of type, and is typically expressed as
a percentage. It refers to the amount of space that each character uses.
Altering the percentage value can stretch or shrink the character size.

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Standard width

The standard width for a
lower-case alphabet is 13 ems.

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz The type set in three different

fonts (left) is set at 24pt, which
means its standard width is
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 312pts (24pt x 13 ems) –
however, some typefaces
13 ems occupy more space than others.

Monospaced type aligns each Proportional type in contrast sets each

character vertically, character within different amounts of
allocating the same amount of space, so a ‘w’ occupies more space
space for a wide character, than an ‘i’ or a piece of punctuation.
say a ‘w’ or an ‘m’, as for a
narrow character, for example
an ‘i’ or a full point.

Above left is Swiss 821 Monospaced, with Swiss 721 to its right. In a proportionally spaced type the characters occupy an amount of space
relative to their character size. Monospaced type, however, ‘forces’ each character to occupy a consistent amount of space, which causes awkward
spacing issues when set as body copy. However, monospaced type was not developed for general typesetting, and when used in the right context
(for example automated bill generation), it offers benefits.

Courier Monaco Isonorm 3098

monospaced monospaced monospaced
1234567890 1234567890 1234567890
Examples of monospaced typefaces include (from top to bottom) Courier, Monaco and Isonorm 3098 Monospaced. You will notice that they
all align vertically. Also note that Monaco has an illustrative ‘0’ so it cannot be confused with a capital ‘O’.

49

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C3.indd
[Link] 49 49 Page:49 5/13/11
6/29/11 10:34
5:24 PM
AM
The baseline grid
A baseline grid is an imaginary grid upon which type sits. The baseline of
a piece of type can be forced to ‘snap’ to this grid to maintain continuity
across the pages of a design.
In this layout, the grid starts 76 points down the page and it is, it would have to have negative leading. Instead it is
is marked in increments of 12 points. Grid dimensions set so that the type sits on every other baseline, which
serve as a basis for the choice of other pertinent dimen- effectively means that the type is 18pt on 24 point (two
sions such as text size. In this example, the main body lines of 12pt) leading.
copy is 18pt type. If the type has to sit on the baseline as

character
Optical amendments
Certain letterforms such as the circular characters ‘o’, ‘c’, and ‘e’ extend over the baseline;
otherwise they would look optically smaller than their upright relatives.

Baseline shift Baseline shift

Although all text can be made to align to the baseline
it can be manually shifted away from this through the

Baseline shift baseline shift function. This is commonly used when

setting mathematical formulae and footnotes that need
to be superscript or subscript, and characters requiring
vertical alignment such as bullet points.
In the footnotes to the left, the bottom example
sees the numeral being raised, through baseline shift, to

Numerals² a more suitable position.

Numerals²
50

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 50 Page:50 5/13/11 10:34 AM
« Set width The baseline grid The Golden Section » A few basics

Cross alignment of one line of text to the baseline of the next).

Cross alignment is the means by which text of varying The secondary text, set at 10pt, occupies every
sizes aligns to the baseline grid. There are two main line of the baseline grid, which translates to an effective
ways that this can occur. In the first instance, shown leading value of 12pt. The caption text, set at 8pt, will
immediately below, texts of three varying sizes snap to also have an effective leading of 12pt. The advantage
the same grid. The header text, at 14pt, gives an effective of this system is that all lines align horizontally. The
leading of 24pt, or two divisions of the 12pt grid disadvantage is that in the first block of copy, the
(remember that leading is measured from the baseline leading is too tight, and in the last it is too loose.

Header text 14pt Secondary text 10pt Captioning text 8pt

Any given page may have several differ- Any given page may have Any given page may have several
ent type sizes for use with headers, cap- several different type sizes. different type sizes for use with
tions, subheads and so on. The use of The use of cross align- headers, captions, subheads and so
cross alignment enables a designer to use ment enables a designer on. The use of cross alignment
different type sizes while maintaining a to use different type sizes enables a designer to use different
consistent baseline. while maintaining a type sizes while maintaining a
consistent baseline. consistent baseline.

Alternating alignment block aligns on every increment of the grid, a leading

To combat the problems highlighted above, cross align- value of 12pt.
ments of different values can be used. The three examples The final caption copy is set 8pt type on 8pt
below align to the grid, i.e. they are all divisions of 12 (a leading, making the type align every third line.
12 point grid), but they align at different points. The first This system is less restrictive than the one above,
block has three lines between baseline-to-baseline, giving while still maintaining a degree of consistency across a
an effective value of 36pt (12 + 12 + 12). The second range of type–size relationships and leading values.

Header 34pt Secondary text 11pt

The text elements cross
Caption text 8pt
Caption copy is set at 8pt
type on 8pt leading. This

Elements cross align at intervals rather than

on every line. Here, 11pt
type is set on 12pt leading,
is an interval of the 12pt
baseline grid every three
lines. 8pt + 8pt + 8pt =
24pt (the first multiplication

align at intervals the same as the base grid,

making it occupy every
division on the grid. This
of 12) so that every third
line will align to the copy
on the left, as shown in
magenta.

rather than on means every third line aligns

with the header copy to the
left, and every third line of

every line. the caption copy to the

right also aligns.

51

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 51 Page:51 5/13/11 10:34 AM
The Golden Section
In the field of graphic arts the Golden Section, also known as the golden
ratio, forms the basis of paper sizes and its principles can be used as a means
of achieving balanced designs. The Golden Section was thought by many
ancient cultures, from the Egyptians to the Romans and the Greeks, to
represent infallibly beautiful proportions.

Dividing a line by the approximate ratio of 8:13 means both pleasing to the eye and echoed in the natural world,
that the relationship between the greater part of the line such as in the growth of shells. The proportions are
and the smaller part is the same as that of the greater part shown in the ‘rule’ above.
to the whole. Objects that have these proportions are

A B C D E

13

Constructing a Golden Section apex of the triangle to the baseline (D) and draw a line
To form a Golden Section begin with a square (A) perpendicular to the baseline from the point at which
and bisect it (B) then form an isosceles triangle (C) the arc intersects it. Complete the rectangle to form a
by drawing two lines from the bottom of the bisecting Golden Section (E).
line to the top corners. Next, extend an arc from the

The Golden Section in practice

The Golden Section can be used to create page sizes, but
it can also be used to ‘plot’ where elements on a page
will go. It is the proportion, rather than a specific
measurement that is important, so you can use the ‘rule’
from above to begin to break down a page and generate
a grid, as shown left.

52

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 52 Page:52 5/13/11 10:34 AM
« The Golden Section The Fibonacci sequence Dividing the page » A few basics

The Fibonacci sequence

The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers in which each number is
the sum of the two preceding numbers. The series, starting from zero, can
be seen below. The Fibonacci sequence is important because of its link to
the 8:13 ratio, the Golden Section.
Pictured right is a series of Fibonacci numbers. In each case, the next number in the sequence is
generated from the sum of the two proceeding numbers. The infallible beauty of these proportions 0+1=1
constantly recur in nature, and are evident in pine cones, branch structures of trees, flowers and
petal formations, and the inner chambers of nautilus shells, as shown below left. Pictured below 1+1=2
right is a Fibonacci spiral that is created by drawing quarter circles through a set of Fibonacci
squares. The set of squares is simple to produce by first drawing two small squares together. Draw
a third square using the combined lengths of the two original squares as one side and carry on
1+2=3
repeating this process and the set will form as pictured. 2+3=5
3+5=8
5+8=13
8+13=21
13+21=34
21+34=55
34+55=89…
These proportions can be translated to paper or book sizes, and also to typographical values, as shown below.

For example, a title could be set at 13pt

With body copy set at 8pt type to complement the title size, which is one number up on the Fibonacci sequence.

Alternatively, titles could be set at 21pt

With body copy set at 13pt type to complement the title size, which is one number
up on the Fibonacci sequence.

53

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 53 Page:53 5/13/11 10:34 AM
Dividing the page
A grid on a page can be likened to scaffolding on a building. It is the
structure within which the various elements on the page are organized.
A grid allows a degree of continuity to be maintained from page to page
and chapter to chapter, and helps a reader access and digest information.

Van de Graaf Canon book design and will not work for all print jobs. Other
The classic Renaissance layout shown below (later more mathematical approaches to dividing the page will
reinterpreted as the Golden canon by Jan Tschichold) is be discussed later.
based on a page size with proportions of 2:[Link] simplicity Raúl Rosarivo in his 1947 book Typographical
of this page is created by the spatial relationships that Divine Proportion analysed the proportions of books,
‘contain’ the text block in harmonious [Link] including those of Gutenberg, to discover how these used
other important factor about this grid is that it is dependent Golden Sections and so called ‘hidden numbers’. These
upon proportions rather than measurements, which gives it numbers and layouts seek to establish a harmonious layout
an unmechanical [Link] grid is based on traditional through the use of the Golden Section.

Division of page space

B
The classic proportions see the
Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. Concubine miscere
pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari
parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli,
ut rures deciperet catelli.
spine (A) and head margin (B)
saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi
suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas
agricolae, semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, quamquam
ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet catelli, semper verecundus
Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis.
Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat
Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere
positioned as a ninth of the page,
cathedras neglegenter agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes,
matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli.

Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus

iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus
adfabilis umbraculi adquireret chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei,
etiam Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere
with the inner margin (C) at half
ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat tremulus
adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras
conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis
matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa
corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et the size of the outer margin (D).
quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper incredibiliter adfabilis adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine
catelli praemuniet zothecas, quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut neglegenter agnascor zothecas.
matrimonii deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor
parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix
Within this structure, the height
ut rures deciperet catelli. lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. Rures
agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter
Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis.
Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat
parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis
rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari
of the text block (E) is equal to
Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere rures. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii
adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras infeliciter.
iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus
adfabilis umbraculi adquireret chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix
the width of the page (F).The
etiam Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. Rures
E adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat tremulus agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter
matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa
corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et
parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis
rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari
text block is shown in blue and
adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine rures. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii
neglegenter agnascor zothecas.
Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix
celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras infeliciter.
Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis.
the margins in black.
lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. Rures Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat
agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere
parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes,
rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus
rures. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii adfabilis umbraculi adquireret chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei,
celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras infeliciter. etiam Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere
adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat tremulus
Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre.
Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat
Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere A Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix
adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. Rures
iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter
adfabilis umbraculi adquireret chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis
etiam Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari
adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat tremulus rures. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii
matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras infeliciter.

Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix
ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. Rures
adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras C agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter D
conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis
quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper incredibiliter adfabilis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari
catelli praemuniet zothecas, quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut rures. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii
matrimonii deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras infeliciter.

112 113

54

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 54 Page:54 5/13/11 10:34 AM
« The Fibonacci sequence Dividing the page Standard paper sizes » A few basics

Creating the Van de Graaf canon

To construct this type of grid, the starting point is a page
with proportions of 2:3. Draw full diagonal and half
diagonal lines across the page from the bottom corners.

The Van de Graaf Canon has inner margins of one-ninth

and outer margins of two-ninths and a type block in
proportion to the page size.

Adding text blocks

Positioning the text blocks needs the addition of a
horizontal grid to provide points that intersect with the
diagonals. Here, the page has been divided into nine equal
parts, shown by the blue lines. Increasing the divisions to
twelve would provide more space for the text block but
less white space for it to nest in.

Adding an anchor point

An anchor point can be added for a consistent text indent
B by inserting a vertical line (wide blue line).This line is
positioned by drawing a line from where the half and full
diagonals intersect on the verso page (A) that extends
A
through the inner top corner of the recto page text block
(B) to the head of the recto page (C) and then vertically
down (D).This anchor point is proportional to the other
spacings on the page as it is fixed by reference to its other
spatial proportions.

55

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 55 Page:55 5/13/11 4:37 PM
B

G
Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi
H D E
Satis tremulus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus infeliciter. matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis Satis tremulus
umbraculi spinosus ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. catelli. quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper umbraculi spinosus
suffragarit gulosus quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, suffragarit gulosus
ossifragi. Concubine ossifragi. Concubine
miscere pretosius saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii miscere pretosius
matrimonii. quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter matrimonii.
quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius
incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet
quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis catelli.
deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus
agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii,
matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari
catelli. agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet
Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis
ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper
quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas,
saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii
quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis agnascor zothecas. tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter
quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix agnascor zothecas. agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius
incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet
quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, catelli.
deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis.
agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre
matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam
catelli. plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis Satis tremulus
Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii umbraculi spinosus
Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras suffragarit gulosus
spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae infeliciter. ossifragi. Concubine
miscere pretosius
Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus matrimonii.
bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii,
iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari
cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet
chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis
Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper
rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas,
agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii
chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa
corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere
deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter
agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius
I
chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet
tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter catelli.
agnascor zothecas. Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus
Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii,
lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari
senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet
iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis
umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper
quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas,
plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii
cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter
celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius

A
F
112 Satis tremulus umbraculi C Satis tremulus umbraculi 113

Type has to work together with many other elements in a [Link] main way a designer organizes all this information
is by using a [Link] main elements of a grid are:

A) Column A column is an area or field into which text is flowed so that captioning space, and the trim edge of the page.
it is presented in an organized manner. Columns can give a strong sense of F) Folio numbers Folios or page numbers are traditionally placed at the
order but can also result in a static design if there is little text variation or outer edge of the bottom margin, where they are easy to see to aid
few opportunities to vary text block presentation. navigation.
B) Head margin The head or top margin is the space at the top G) Running head Running heads, the header, running title or straps are
of the page. repeated lines of text that appear on each page of a work or section such
C) Foot margin The foot margin is usually the largest margin as the publication title or chapter name. A running head usually appears at
on the page. the top of the page although they can be placed at the foot or in the side
D) Back edge, or inside margin The inner margin is usually the [Link] folio number is often incorporated into the running head.
narrowest margin while the bottom is the [Link], the outer H) Captions Differentiated by the use of italics in the example above,
margin is twice as wide as the inner margin although they tend to be captions are positioned to align horizontally with body text.
narrower now. I) Images Images are typically positioned to the x-height and baseline of
E) Fore-edge, or outer margin The margin between the text block, or the nearest corresponding text block lines to maintain visual harmony.

56

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 56 56 Page:56 5/13/11
6/3/11 10:34
1:39 PM
AM
« The Fibonacci sequence Dividing the page Standard paper sizes » A few basics

Symmetrical grids
Grids can be designed to house a varying number of elements – through different column
structures, for example – and they can be symmetrical or asymmetrical as shown below. The
aim of a grid is to create a series of harmonious structures that allow for the easy placement
of text and graphic elements on a page. In symmetrical grids, such as the two immediately
below, the recto and verso pages are mirror images of one another. Note the position of the
margin on the right-hand example, which allows space for notes or captions.

Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi

Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus Satis tremulus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus infeliciter. infeliciter. infeliciter. Satis tremulus
Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere umbraculi spinosus ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. umbraculi spinosus
adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat suffragarit gulosus quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre suffragarit gulosus
ossifragi. Concubine ossifragi. Concubine
cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet miscere pretosius saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae miscere pretosius
quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, matrimonii. quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus matrimonii.
semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes,
quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis
catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor neglegenter agnascor zothecas. catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor neglegenter agnascor zothecas. quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret
parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix lascivius parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix lascivius deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam
tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque
Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre
Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet catelli. agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis utilitas agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam
adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa adfabilis chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre.
cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae
quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras
semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine
quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet infeliciter. quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet infeliciter. quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis agnascor zothecas. agnascor zothecas. neglegenter agnascor zothecas.
catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix
parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter
tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei,
Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia
imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis
Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam
miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet catelli. plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis Satis tremulus
circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor parsimonia circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor parsimonia Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii umbraculi spinosus
quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus suffragarit gulosus
chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae infeliciter. infeliciter. cathedras infeliciter. ossifragi. Concubine
miscere pretosius
comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus matrimonii.
adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii,
tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari
quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet
semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis
praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper
neglegenter agnascor zothecas. quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet neglegenter agnascor zothecas. quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas,
Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix lascivius catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor parsimonia Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix lascivius catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor parsimonia agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii
chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter
Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius
suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet
fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter catelli. catelli. catelli.
Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes agnascor zothecas. Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus
adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii,
celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari
infeliciter. quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret infeliciter. quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet
Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis
imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper
Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas,
miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii
circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter
quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius

112 Satis tremulus umbraculi Satis tremulus umbraculi 112 112 Satis tremulus umbraculi Satis tremulus umbraculi 112

Simple two-column symmetrical grid Two-column symmetrical grid with caption space for marginalia

Asymmetrical grids
An asymmetrical grid does not possess the mirror reflection quality of the symmetrical grids
described above. Instead, both the recto and verso pages use the same grid as shown in the
examples below.

Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi

Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus Satis tremulus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus infeliciter. Satis tremulus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus infeliciter.
Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere umbraculi spinosus ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. umbraculi spinosus ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis.
adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat suffragarit gulosus quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre suffragarit gulosus quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre
cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet ossifragi. Concubine ossifragi. Concubine
miscere pretosius saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae miscere pretosius saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae
quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus
matrimonii. matrimonii.
semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes,
quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis
catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor neglegenter agnascor zothecas. catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor neglegenter agnascor zothecas. quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret
parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix lascivius parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix lascivius deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam
tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque
Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas
Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet catelli. agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis catelli. agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis
adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa
cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere
quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane
semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter
quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet infeliciter. quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet infeliciter. quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis agnascor zothecas. quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis agnascor zothecas.
catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix
parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter
tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei,
Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia
imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis
Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam
miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet catelli. plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis catelli. plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis
circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor parsimonia circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor parsimonia Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii
quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras Chirographi imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras
chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae infeliciter. spinosus vocificat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae infeliciter.
comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus ossifragi. Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes miscere adlaudabilis apparatus Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus
adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, quamquam zothecas bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei circumgrediet syrtes, ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii,
tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari saburre. Pessimus adfabilis iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari
quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, cathedras conubium santet quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet
semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras quod adlaudabilis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis
praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, praemuniet plane tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine semper incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper Augustus comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper
neglegenter agnascor zothecas. quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet neglegenter agnascor zothecas. quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii deciperet rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, rures miscere adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas,
Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix lascivius catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor parsimonia Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix lascivius catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter agnascor parsimonia agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii agricolae imputat tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii
chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter senesceret ossifragi. catelli, quamquam vix lascivius matrimonii imputat tremulus chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter chirographi deciperet quinquennalis saburre. Medusa deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter
Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, iam lascivius cathedras catelli, ut rures deciperet catelli. corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius corrumperet saetosus zothecas, semper Aquae Sulis miscere agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius
suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras praemuniet plane matrimonii imputat tremulus catelli, ut rures deciperet
fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat fiducia suis, quod satis quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter catelli. tremulus matrimonii, semper concubine neglegenter catelli.
Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes Medusa, iam plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes agnascor zothecas. Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus agnascor zothecas. Satis tremulus umbraculi spinosus suffragarit gulosus
adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei adfabilis cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii, Parsimonia matrimonii aegre spinosus praemuniet vix ossifragi. Concubine miscere pretosius matrimonii,
celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari lascivius chirographi, et saetosus matrimonii fortiter quamquam zothecas adquireret Augustus. Agricolae iocari
infeliciter. quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret infeliciter. quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet senesceret ossifragi. Rures agnascor adlaudabilis quadrupei, saburre. Pessimus adfabilis cathedras conubium santet
Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus Bellus saburre lucide insectat apparatus bellis. Chirographi chirographi. Pretosius catelli senesceret quadrupei, etiam Augustus iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis iam lascivius cathedras suffragarit incredibiliter parsimonia quadrupei. Ossifragi suffragarit Pompeii, quod adlaudabilis
imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere imputat tremulus umbraculi. Octavius aegre spinosus vocificat comiter conubium santet chirographi, utcunque rures miscere umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper umbraculi. Oratori corrumperet fiducia suis, quod satis quadrupei agnascor aegre utilitas agricolae, semper
Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat Augustus, iam Caesar fermentet Aquae Sulis. Plane adfabilis syrtes adlaudabilis fiducia suis, semper aegre utilitas agricolae imputat quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas, quinquennalis rures comiter circumgrediet Medusa, iam incredibiliter adfabilis catelli praemuniet zothecas,
miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet miscere adlaudabilis apparatus bellis, semper pretosius quadrupei tremulus matrimonii, etiam adfabilis chirographi deciperet plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii plane adlaudabilis ossifragi iocari rures. Pessimus adfabilis quamquam ossifragi vocificat quadrupei, ut matrimonii
circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, circumgrediet syrtes, iam verecundus agricolae fortiter insectat quinquennalis saburre. Medusa corrumperet saetosus zothecas, cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter cathedras agnascor syrtes. Optimus utilitas matrimonii deciperet catelli, semper verecundus cathedras neglegenter
quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras quinquennalis cathedras. Pessimus adfabilis umbraculi adquireret semper Aquae Sulis miscere chirographi, et adlaudabilis cathedras celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius celeriter miscere umbraculi, utcunque verecundus cathedras agnascor parsimonia catelli, quamquam vix lascivius

112 Satis tremulus umbraculi 112 Satis tremulus umbraculi 112 Satis tremulus umbraculi 112 Satis tremulus umbraculi

Simple two-column asymmetrical grid Two-column asymmetrical grid with caption space

57

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 57 Page:57 5/13/11 5:01 PM
Standard paper sizes
Standard paper sizes provide a convenient and efficient means for designers,
printers and others involved in printing and publishing to communicate
product specifications and keep costs down.
The modern ISO (International Organization for Standardization) paper size system is based on the metric system
using the square root of two ratio (1:1.4142) with format AO having an area of one square metre. Paper with this
ratio will maintain its aspect ratio (i.e. retains the same proportions) when cut in half. Today, only the USA, Canada and
Mexico do not use ISO standard paper sizes.

Perhaps the most common final paper sizes used in publications are The A series of paper sizes differs from the next by a factor of either
A5, A4 and A3, which are proportionally related as shown below. For two or a half, as shown below. An AO sheet is equal to two A1 sheets,
example, two A5 pages make a spread equal in size to an A4 page; two an A1 sheet is equal to two A2 sheets etc.
A4s are equal to an A3 spread and so on.

A0

A5
148.5 x 210mm

A4
210 x 297mm

A1 A2

A3 A4
A3
297 x 420mm

A5 A6

A7

58

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 58 Page:58 5/13/11 10:34 AM
« Dividing the page Standard paper sizes The page – how we read » A few basics

Paper formats [in mm] Envelope formats

A series formats B series formats C series formats Format Size [mm] Content format
4A0 1682 x 2378 – – – – C6 114 x 162 A4 folded twice = A6
2A0 1189 x 1682 – – – – DL 110 x 220 A4 folded twice = 1/3 A4
A0 841 x 1189 B0 1000 x 1414 C0 917 x 1297 C6/C5 114 x 229 A4 folded twice = 1/3 A4
A1 594 x 841 B1 707 x 1000 C1 648 x 917 C5 162 x 229 A4 folded once = A5
A2 420 x 594 B2 500 x 707 C2 458 x 648 C4 229 x 324 A4
A3 297 x 420 B3 353 x 500 C3 324 x 458 C3 324 x 458 A3
A4 210 x 297 B4 250 x 353 C4 229 x 324 B6 125 x 176 C6 envelope
A5 148 x 210 B5 176 x 250 C5 162 x 229 B5 176 x 250 C5 envelope
A6 105 x 148 B6 125 x 176 C6 114 x 162 B4 250 x 353 C4 envelope
A7 74 x 105 B7 88 x 125 C7 81 x 114 E4 280 x 400 B4
A8 52 x 74 B8 62 x 88 C8 57 x 81
A9 37 x 52 B9 44 x 62 C9 40 x 57
A10 26 x 37 B10 31 x 44 C10 28 x 40

Tabled above are the page size measurements of the standard ISO paper sizes. Series A comprises a range
of paper sizes that are typically used for magazines, letters and other publications. B series sizes are intermediate
sizes and C series sizes are for envelopes that can contain A size stationery. A4
210 x 297mm
8 1/4 x 11 11/16
American and Canadian exceptions
America and Mexico are the only industrialized nations not to use the ISO paper system.
In contrast to the fixed ratios of the A series, the US system has alternating aspect ratios
of 17/11, or 22/17, depending on the paper size. The main disadvantage of this is the
US Letter
inability to scale from one format to another. For example, Letter and Legal paper sizes 216 x 279mm
share the same width, but have varying heights. Canada adopted the ISO system in 1972, 8 1/4 11 3/4

but in 1976 introduced the Paper Sizes for Correspondence shown below.

US standard paper sizes American National Canadian standard

Letter 216 x 279 mm Standard for technical paper sizes
Legal 216 x 356 mm drawing paper sizes Canadian P4
P1 560 x 860 mm
215 x 280mm
Executive 190 x 254 mm A 216 x 279 mm P2 430 x 560 mm 8 x 11
Ledger/Tabloid 279 x 432 mm B 279 x 432 mm P3 280 x 430 mm
C 432 x 559 mm P4 215 x 280 mm
D 559 x 864 mm P5 140 x 215 mm
E 864 x 1118 mm P6 107 x 140 mm
Standardization
The illustration above shows
Canadian standard paper sizes how similar the three standard
letter paper sizes tabled above are.
Canadian paper sizes are governed by the CAN 2-9.60M standard for Paper Sizes for
The majority of the countries in
Correspondence. Introduced in 1976, this defines the six P formats as shown in the table the world abide by the ISO
above. These are the same as the US sizes but rounded to the nearest half centimetre. standard paper sizes. The aim of
For example, Canadian P4 is equivalent to US Letter. While these paper sizes are similar standardization is to remove
to a metric standard they still suffer the major inconveniences of the US formats in that differences to increase efficiency.
they have no common height/width ratio and they differ from the standard that the rest
of the world uses.

59

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 59 Page:59 5/13/11 10:34 AM
The page – how we read
Design can be complex when many items are used on the page or screen
at the same time. Different typographical elements are included in layouts
for their aesthetic qualities and legibility. When creating a layout, thought
needs to be given to how a user, reader or viewer will approach the task
of obtaining information from the design.

This page is not meant to be a guide to page design – there are infinite ways of doing this, as
proved by the examples on the page opposite by design studio Frost Design. Rather, this spread
aims to highlight the need to think about how a reader’s gaze will drift around a page. Every
page, when well crafted, can be like a mini journey for the viewer.

HERE
D

A B

or here
A reader or viewer needs an entry point into a design. This may sound In reality there are many factors that govern how we read a page.
obvious, but designs can be complex, and an entry point is not a fixed Areas that are normally passive can be dominated and become entry
thing. As a general rule, with an equally weighted page such as one that points. In contrast, areas that are normally considered to be active can
has the same type of content throughout, a viewer will look top left (A) be left blank, rendering them obsolete. The placement of type and
first, then to the middle plane (B), and finally to the extremities (C). images should be intentional, creating clear entry points, and a defined
This is overly simplistic, as a dominant headline or shocking image will ‘journey’ for the reader. Of course you may choose to create a design
always draw attention. It is also worth bearing in mind that in any of that intentionally has no entry points, and makes the reader’s journey
these sub modules (page areas) there can be an active and a passive as hard as possible, but if this is the case, it should still be intentional.
corner (D). As a designer you should be in control of this pattern and flow of
information.

60

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 60 Page:60 5/13/11 10:34 AM
« Standard paper sizes The page – how we read Case study » A few basics

When thumbing through a publication, attention is usually drawn to largest, boldest type, allowing the reader to enter through the image
the recto (right-hand) page first as that is exposed to our sight before before moving over to the body copy. In the example below, the title
the verso (left-hand) page, which is why magazine advertisers always dominates the layout even though it is in the centre of the spread,
want their advertisements positioned on a right-hand page and why relying on the texture and scale of the typography to grab attention.
quality publications try to maintain right-hand pages free for editorial. The style of the characters leads vertically to the secondary copy
The positioning of an image on the recto page reinforces this. In the beneath, which is the equivalent of a standfirst.
example immediately below, this portion of the layout also contains the

In the examples above by Frost Design (all for Zembla magazine) it is These spreads, in many instances, subvert the ‘normal’ pattern of reading.
clear that any formula about how we read a page is more complicated Irregular columns, body copy overlaying titles, type meeting the
than a simple and definitive guide. Where images are placed, what parameters of the page, all combine to create an eclectic and engaging
colours are used, how type is arranged and placed, all have an impact on design, maintaining interest over a series of spreads.
how we navigate around a page.

61

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 61 Page:61 5/13/11 10:34 AM
Case study
ARCA – The Design Shop, Greece

Project description
Shown is a project for Greek architectural practice,
ARCA. The main typographic element is an expressive,
angular marque, that creates a bold and dynamic
statement.

In discussion with Dionysis Livanis, of

The Design Shop
GA The typography of the studio, and indeed this
project in particular, is both expressive and modern.
Do you take influence from any specific areas of design
and art in relation to your typographic process?
DL Typography plays a major part in any design project
we undertake. I admire the old masters for their clarity
and the quality of their work as well as contemporary
experimental designers for breaking the boundaries. I
always look for a balance in my work between these two
poles.

GA Can you explain how you came to create such

a bold and dynamic typographic design for ARCA?
DL I got inspired by the flat-plans that architects create.
It is fascinating how simple lines describe complex three-
dimensional spaces. This logotype expresses exactly that,
the balance between complexity and simplicity.

GA Greek design and typography is emerging as a

more and more prominent force, do you feel that your
heritage and location have a specific bearing on how
you approach design and specifically typography?
DL I see Greek design as part of European design, thus it
follows the same kinds of trends and ways of exploration.
However, there are elements in our culture and our
environment that influence us, such us our ancient
heritage or the vibrant combination of sun and sea!

62

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 62 Page:62 5/13/11 10:34 AM
« The page – how we read Case study Typography task » A few basics

‘ The idea for the logo and corporate identity of ARCA

Architects derived from the geometry of space, a fundamental
element of every successful architectural composition. We
created the logo using a single line that moves freely into the
two-dimensional space, conveying simplicity and dynamism.’

63

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 63 Page:63 5/13/11 10:34 AM
Above
This identity for a Greek architecture practice features a strong graphic marque. The logo is applied across a range of media, including printed
items and an online presence. Images and information are then ‘placed’ directly over the logo, creating a strong graphic layering. Online, the logo
is also animated, as shown above, adding an additional level of interest and playfulness to the identity.

64

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 64 64 Page:64 5/13/11
6/3/11 10:34
1:41 PM
AM
« Case study Typography task A few basics

Typography task

Looking at type

Premise Outcome
Type is all around us, printed on magazines and mailers, To allow us to appreciate the subtle differences between
constructed in environmental graphics and signage, typefaces, and to start to apply meaning to different
displayed on websites and on the packaged items we shapes and quirks of design. By enlarging and drawing
consume. We interact with type throughout the day, a typeface you’ll gain a real appreciation of how it is
but how often do we really ‘look’ at typography? constructed, and what makes it unusual and distinct.

Exercise
1 Select a series of found items, be it direct mail,
record covers, signage, packaging or books.
2 Select a font on each item, and take one of the
characters, the one you feel is the most distinct.
3 Draw a grid over the original, and then enlarge it
onto an A1 sheet. You need to pay special attention
to the nuances and details of the form of the letter;
consider its shape, the curves and angles, and the
way its stroke weight subtly alters.
4 Identify what you feel makes this typeface distinct.
What is the ‘essence’ of the font? What makes it
different? What constructs its ‘character’?

65

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 65 65 Page:65 5/13/11
6/3/11 10:35
1:41 PM
AM
‘ Wouldn’t it be interesting
if there were only one
typeface in the world?
Designers would really
have to think about the
idea behind their designs
instead of covering it up
with fancy typefaces.’
Erik Kessels

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 66 Page:66 5/13/11 10:35 AM
chapter 3
letterforms
Letterforms are the basic alphabetic and numeric characters that
communicate within a design, and can be styled in many different ways.
This chapter looks at how we describe letterforms and their characteristics,
and how we can accurately control these characters. Letterforms are more
than a basic alphabet, they contain special characters, accents, numerals and
details including weights and serif types. Having an understanding of these
will facilitate intentional and controlled typography.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 67 Page:67 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Type families
‘Type family’ refers to all the variations of a particular typeface or font,
such as different weights, widths and italics.

Type families offer a designer a set of variations that work together in a clean and
consistent way and as such are a useful design tool. To achieve clarity and a uniform feel
to a piece of work, many designers restrict themselves to using only two type families for
a project, meeting their requirements from the type variations these contain to establish
the typographic hierarchy.

a a* a a
Roman Italic Light Boldface
The basic cut of a typeface, so A true italic is a drawn typeface A lighter or thinner version Bold, boldface, medium,
called due to its origins in the based around an angled axis. of the Roman cut. In Frutiger’s semibold, black, super or poster
inscriptions found on Roman These are normally designed for grid (see pages 70–71) the all refer to a typeface with a
monuments. Roman is serif typefaces. Obliques are lightest cuts have the lowest wider stroke than the Roman
sometimes referred to as book, slanted versions of sans-serif numbers. cut. In Frutiger’s grid the
although book is often a slightly typefaces rather than a newly heaviest cuts have the highest
lighter version of the Roman. drawn version. numbers.

* The italic ‘a’ of Helvetica Neue (pictured) is actually an oblique and not a true italic.

Condensed Extended
Condensed Extended
Condensed and extended Extended types are wider versions of the Roman type
Many type families include condensed and extended and are often used for headlines to dramatically fill a
versions that provide additional typesetting flexibility. space. Both of these versions are often available in weight
Condensed types are narrower than the Roman cut and variations, from light through to black.
are useful for tight space situations.

68

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd 68 Page:68 6/3/11 1:41 PM
« Type families Typeweight variations Frutiger’s grid » Letterforms

Typeweight variations
Typefaces can have many variations. The naming of the variations is very
diverse and abstract, as the examples below illustrate. What is the difference
between a semibold and a medium? What about extra black, heavy and
ultra black? The variety of names makes the comparison of different
weights from different families confusing, and was one of the motivations
for Adrian Frutiger when he developed his grid system (see page 70–71).

Naming The various typefaces surrounding this

While there is no standard convention for the naming paragraph highlight some of the different names that
of different cuts of a typeface, names tend to reflect what have been used to label the basic typeface weights.
is actually happening. Heavy, black, extra and so on imply The three examples below – Gill Sans, Helvetica
typefaces with thicker strokes than the Roman, regular and Warnock Pro – use different naming conventions for
or book typeface. typefaces of different weights.

Gill Sans Light Italic Helvetica 25 Gill Sans describes fonts by

Gill Sans Helvetica 35 weight, while Helvetica uses a
numbering system, and Warnock
Gill Sans Bold Helvetica 45
uses the intended use as a
Gill Sans Extra Bold Helvetica 55 descriptor.
Gill Sans Ultra Bold Helvetica 65
Helvetica 75
Helvetica 85
Helvetica 95

A wide range of words are used in describing the weight and style of a font.

69

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 69 Page:69 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Frutiger’s grid
Adrian Frutiger is prominent in the pantheon of typeface designers.
This is in part due to the Univers family he launched in 1957 and
the numbering system he developed to identify the width and weight
of each of the family’s 21 original cuts.

The numbering system was designed to eliminate the The legacy of Frutiger’s grid is that some parts
confusion caused by different naming systems such as of the numbering system have been adopted in common
thin, black, heavy and so on. The diagrammatic use. The main numbers in Helvetica for example are
presentation of the Univers family provides a sense 55 for Roman, 75 for bold, 35 for thin and 25 for light
of order and homogeneity through the relationships while others are not commonly used. For example, 68
that weight and width have with each other. The grid is still called medium condensed oblique.
is a modernist structure and uses numbers (something While this grid system may initially be daunting
popular with the Bauhaus) to identify the different cuts. and quite complex to the novice, its inherent logical
organization means that it can be understood and used
as a productive design tool within a short space of time.

Using this system Numbering systems

The grid is intended to
make type selection
Frutiger’s numbering
system has been applied
Helvetica 25
simpler and ultimately to various typefaces.
more useful, although it Frutiger’s Serifa, Avenir,
may appear complicated Glyphic and Frutiger all In any two digit number, the first digit, or designator, refers to the line
at first glance. The italic use this system, as does weight. The thinnest is 2, with line weight incrementally getting fuller up to
version of a font, 56, can Helvetica Neue, shown 9, the widest (see bottom). The second digit refers to the character width, with
be used seamlessly with opposite. 3 being the most extended and 9 the most condensed. Finally, even numbers
its Roman, 55, for indicate an italic face and odd numbers represent a Roman face.
[Link] character
width is easily achieved
by moving one row down
the grid from 55 to 65, or
Helvetica 56
if a bold is required, down
to 75 if 55 and 65 are too Helvetica 73
similar in character
weight.
Helvetica 95

70

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 70 70 Page:70 5/13/11
6/3/11 10:35
1:42 PM
AM
« Typeweight variations Frutiger’s grid Types of serif » Letterforms

Light 23 24 25 26 27 28

33 34 35 36 37 38

43 44 45 46 47 48

53 54 55 56 57 58

63 64 65 66 67 68

73 74 75 76 77 78

83 84 85 86 87 88

93 94 95 96 97 98

Black

Extended Condensed

Combining type weights Typographic harmony (65)

Type weights can be combined using the grid. The 65 is
Visual harmony is produced by combining weights
different enough from the 45 to stand apart from it, while
moving to the corresponding italic, 46, can be done that are two apart from each other on the grid, i.e.
seamlessly. The difference between 25 and 95 is perhaps 65 and 45, as shown here. Weights that are too
too exaggerated for general usage but can be used for
specific stylistic effects. The beauty of the grid is that similar, for example 65 and 55, have too little
even when opting for a heavier cut like 95, an italic is differentiation to be combined effectively.
readily available in 96 that allows for seamless interaction.

71

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 71 Page:71 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Types of serif
Serifs are a key characteristic for identifying a typeface – they can be
employed in a variety of ways. Serifs are often said to enhance the
readability of a piece of text by helping the eye to advance from one
character to the next. Many serif styles reflect the zeitgeist of a particular
time, with some more ornate or more bold, and others more discreet or
more refined.

Horizontal movement across the page…

It is a common assumption that serif fonts are better for An earlier study by Professor Emile Javal at
reading, while sans serif are better for display. Books, for the University of Paris concluded that serifs don’t aid
example, are normally set in a serif font, while road signs vertical movement either, as the eye scans runs of text
are normally set sans serif. In his 1993 study Performance in a jagged, scatter pattern. And so the debate continues,
differences between Times and Helvetica R. W. De Lange do serifs actually make reading easier? As we move into
questions this assumption, and indeed whether ‘Serifs an era of increased online reading, will the serif
are used to guide the horizontal “flow” of the eyes’. ultimately become redundant?

The main serif varieties Unbracketed slab serif Bracketed slab serif Bracketed serif
Each type of serif lends a font A serif without any supporting The slab serifs are supported by A serif with barely noticeable
its own personality - from the brackets on TS-heavy slabs. subtle curved brackets. supporting brackets.
robust, muscular quality of an

W W W
unbracketed slab serif, to the
delicate finesse of a hairline serif.
Although at times barely
noticeable, typographical details
such as serifs can alter how a
piece of work is perceived. For
this reason it is important for
designers to bear them in mind This is Egiziano Classic Antique Clarendon is also a slab serif but Berkeley also has small brackets
and even celebrate the subtle Black, which has large slab serifs it has small bracketing arcs. on its serifs, but of regular size.
differences they can give a job. with no supporting brackets.

72

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 72 Page:72 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Frutiger’s grid Types of serif Fractions » Letterforms

Above
This book by Studio KA
uses an overly large and
exaggerated bracketed
serif font to create a
typographic execution
reminiscent of the 1970s.

Unbracketed serif Hairline serif Wedge serif Slur serif

A standard serif without A fine hairline serif without Shaped like a wedge rather than Rounded serifs that look
brackets. brackets. the typical rectangle or line. ‘unfocused’.

W W
Memphis has regular-sized serifs
without brackets.
Poster Bodoni has thin hairline
serifs that give it a refined air.
Egyptian 505 has exaggerated
wedge brackets.
W
Cooper Black has rounded serifs
that give an ‘out of focus’ look.

73

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 73 Page:73 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Fractions
Fractions (parts of whole numbers) can be represented in two ways
depending upon how the bar separating the numerator and denominator
is presented. Fractions may be nut or en fractions with a horizontal bar,
or em fractions with a diagonal bar.
With virgule, solidus or slash, that is more Comparison of a virgule, left, and

½
upright than a fraction bar. a fraction bar, right.

/2 /⁄
Fraction bar

Numerator

Denominator
1
Parts of a fraction The fraction bar is a kerned character, so unlike
Many expert sets come with complete fractions as a unit. the solidus it will not push the numerals away a full em
Bembo Expert (above), which accompanies Bembo, space. Additional kerning may be needed, but as the
comes with a full set of diagonal fractions. Most fonts example above demonstrates, the fraction bar gets close
come with a fraction bar because you cannot use a without additional work. When building fractions, the
solidus as the angle, length and position on the baseline is character weight is lighter and so it may be necessary to
different. The fraction bar allows a designer to construct build them in a medium weight, to match a regular font.
their own fractions.

½ ¼
Diagonal or em fractions En fractions, horizontal or nut fractions
Diagonal fractions are more pleasing to the eye and are En fractions have a bar that is an en in length. Over time,
commonly included with expert sets. These are also called en fractions have been referred to as nut fractions to
em fractions as the bar is an em in length. avoid confusion with the em fraction.

74

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 74 Page:74 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Fractions Superscript and subscript Numerals » Letterforms

Superscript and subscript

Superscript and subscript are characters set at a reduced point size that
are either top or bottom aligned. Text is often set in this way for notations
such as footnotes and also for chemical and mathematical formulae.

True superiors and inferiors Generated versions

H2 H³ H2 H 3
True and generated superiors and inferiors Computer generated superiors and inferiors do
True superiors and inferiors are sized between 50 and 70 not have this weight matching and appear too light in
percent of the equivalent Roman font, and the characters comparison.
are redrawn so that their weight is matched.

Usage

³
Superiors and inferiors commonly have two main usages as shown below: scientific notation and footnote notation.

H2 H Note³
Scientific notation Footnotes
In scientific notation, superiors centre on the ascender In contrast, a superior used to indicate a footnote top
line, while inferiors centre on the baseline. aligns with the ascender line.

75

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 75 Page:75 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Numerals
Numerals can be classified as Old Style (or lower case) and lining (or upper
case) according to how they are presented. These styles reflect the different
ways that numerals are used in text, such as in text blocks or tabular form.

Lining figures
1234567890 Lining numerals are aligned to the baseline and are of
equal height. Lining numerals also have fixed widths,
allowing for better vertical alignment in tables (left). By
0987654321 reversing the order of the numbers, a vertical alignment
is maintained.

Spacing issues
As lining numerals align vertically, care needs to be taken
in situations where it is not appropriate for them to do
so, such as when dates are written. In this instance the ‘1’
can seem distant from a number that follows it (right).
This can be kerned to reduce the space (far right).
1973 1973
Old Style numerals

1234567890 Old Style numerals have descenders and only the ‘6’ and
‘8’ have the same proportions as their lining counterparts.
Old Style numerals do not align to the baseline, which
means they can be difficult to read.

Old Style numerals are used in running text for dates

(1973 for example) as the characters function more like
letterforms because they have descenders. The same date
set in lining figures is much more prominent, which may
be undesirable in body text.

76

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 76 Page:76 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Numerals Diacritical marks Punctuation » Letterforms

Diacritical marks
A range of accents and other symbols indicate that the sound of a letter
is modified during pronunciation.
Accents and stresses Pictured below are some of the common
Various accents and stresses, called diacritical marks, accents used with the Latin alphabet.
have developed over time to provide visual guides to the
pronunciation of letters and words.

ž
Acute Circumflex Breve

é ê
Acute accent, from the Latin acutus, meaning From the Latin circumflexus, meaning ‘bent From the Latin brevis, which means ‘short’,
‘sharp’, represents a vowel with a high around’, the circumflex indicates that a vowel this symbol placed over a vowel indicates
or rising pitch. has a long sound. that it has a short sound.

Grave Diaeresis / Umlaut Tilde

è
From the Latin gravis meaning ‘heavy’, it is a
ë
Typical in Germanic languages, the umlaut
ñ
From the medieval Latin titulus meaning
mark placed above a vowel to indicate stress indicates that a vowel sound changes by ‘title’, a tilde placed over a letter indicates
or special pronunciation. assimilating the vowel sound of the following that a more nasal pronunciation is required.
syllable.

Bergère BERGÈRE bergère

Usage Lower-case letters usually come with diacritical marks
Diacritical marks are available for lower case (above left), but capital letters and small capitals don’t always have an
upper case (above middle) and small capitals (above right). accompanying set of marks.

Generating diacritical marks

c ˜ ˆ ˜ ¯ ˘ cˆ ĉ
may often be necessary to construct these manually.
Standard fonts include some letters that have diacritical To do this, position the diacritical mark after the letter
marks already positioned above or below them, but it and kern it back until it is correctly positioned.

77

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 77 Page:77 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Punctuation
A functional understanding of punctuation is required in order to
set text accurately, both to ensure that the meaning of the text is
maintained and in order to provide correct type detailing. The
incorrect use of punctuation is common and detracts from a job.

true ellipsis … Ellipsis Non-numerical

generated ellipsis . . An ellipsis is a series of three dots, used to indicate a text reference marks
omission or the suspension of the text flow. Used at the These are the non-
.
end of a sentence, the ellipsis is followed by a full stop. numerical reference
A true ellipsis has tighter points than a generated ellipsis marks and they are used
and as it is a single unit, it will not split like the generated in the following sequence
version shown bottom in the example left. (left to right): asterisk,
dagger, double dagger,
section mark and
Primes, quotation marks and hanging punctuation paragraph mark.
' "
A prime
Primes are typographic marks that are used to indicate
feet and inches, and hours and minutes. These are not * If the non-numeric
to be confused with typographic quotation marks or reference marks are
‘inverted commas’. †
‘’ “”
Quotation marks
‘ In justified text, the punctuation is sometimes allowed to
extend into the right-hand margin area to make the ‡
exhausted and further
references need to be
made, the convention
margin look neater. This is called hanging punctuation. is to use them again
Flush punctuation is contained within the margin. ’ § but doubled up (two
asterisks, two daggers
¶ etc.). If additional
Parentheses, brackets and braces
()[]{} Parentheses are round brackets used to enclose a word or
explanation inserted into a text passage; square brackets
**
reference marks are
needed, numbers
should be used.
Shown left to right are parentheses, are used to enclose words added by someone other than ††
brackets and braces. the original speaker or writer in a text passage; and braces
are used to enclose words or text lines that are to be ‡‡
considered together.

Apostrophe
I’ve I've An apostrophe is used to indicate the removal of a letter
or letters such as the ‘ha’ in ‘I have’, left. A common error
is to use a prime instead of an apostrophe, as shown left.

78

Job: 02698
Job: 02698 Title:
Title: Fund
Fund of
of Typoraphy
Typoraphy (2nd
(2nd edition)
edition) (AVA)
(AVA)
038-192 02698_C2.indd
038-192 02698_path.indd 7878 Page:78 5/13/11
Page:78 6/3/11 11:12 AM
1:42 PM
« Punctuation Drop and standing capitals Dashes » Letterforms

Drop and standing capitals

Dynamism can be added to a text block through the use of a drop or
standing capital to lead into it.

These create a strong visual entrance, although certain letters are more suitable than others. For example, letters with
square shapes such as ‘H’ work best as drop capitals. Curved letters that bend away from the text block create a space that
can look awkward and so are less suitable. This is not such a problem for standing capitals that create a lot of space to
surround them.

D
rop capitals are enlarged initial capitals that
drop down a specified number of lines into
a paragraph. Drop caps create a strong visual
starting point due to the hole they punch into the text
block. op caps create a strong visual starting point due to
the hole they punch into the text block.
ine depth of a drop cap can be altered to create a
L more subtle or more dramatic entry point for the
start of a paragraph, although two or three lines is
standard.

TEX
t can be started with drop cap
variations that make a greater
visual impact such as the use of a
three-letter drop cap here that pushes the body text
much further across the page. These are formed in the
same way as a drop cap but with more letters.

ecorative caps can be formed by using a

D different font for the drop cap, such as the

swash font that starts this paragraph. The use
of decorative caps was common in medieval illuminated
manuscripts.

S tanding capitals or pop caps are enlarged initial

capitals that sit on the baseline of the text. They create a
strong visual point at the start of a text passage due to the
This reception and menu created by Webb & Webb design studio
white space that they generate. features decorative standing inline caps picked out in red.

79

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 79 79 Page:79 5/13/11
6/3/11 10:35
1:42 PM
AM
Dashes
Typography provides a designer with a number of dashes, each serving a
specific function.

X-height Geo-graphy Re-serve

Hyphens
A hyphen is one third the size of an em rule and is used to link words or parts of words.

70–71 1939–1945 Kent–Sussex border

En dash
An en dash is half of an em rule and is used to indicate ranges and relationships
or connections.

Standard—em dash Punctuating—em dash

——————————— ———————————
Em dash
Em dashes are used to form lines and house nested clauses. A standard, joining em dash
can cause spacing issues as it has no side-bearings and fills its bounding box so that it
touches the surrounding characters. A row of these em dashes would form a solid line.
Punctuating em dashes are slightly shorter, providing space for surrounding characters to
breathe. A row of punctuating em dashes form a punctuated line.

80

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 80 Page:80 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Dashes Character spacing Expert sets and special characters » Letterforms

Character spacing
Numerals and special characters often have certain spacing conventions,
as the examples below illustrate. The ultimate objective is to improve clarity
and help communicate the information.

Characters set closed-up and not preceded by a space

registered® 76° asterisk* 2x 2x4

® symbol set as superscript. Degree symbol. Asterisk character Magnification or
(indicating footnote). dimension indicator.

trade mark™ 3" 8' 5m 20% 300‰ 1st 3rd 4th

™ symbol set as superscript. Prime (inch) mark, feet, and Percent / thousandths etc. Ordinal numbers.
other measurement marks.

Characters followed by a single space

@ 7pm x@[Link] © • ¶
The at sign (except in email The copyright symbol. Bullet points. Pilcrow (paragraph mark).
addresses).

Characters followed by and preceded by a single space

you & me (A&E) 2+2–1=3 En rules – such as this – in nested clauses

The ampersand, except Mathematical symbols in En rules.
in acronyms. formulae.

Characters not followed by a space

# $2.50 £2.50 +23% –23° ±1°

Pound, number or hash sign. Dollar, pound, euro and other Plus and minus signs indicating Plus or minus sign.
currency symbols. value changes, or positive or
negative values.

81

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 81 Page:81 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Expert sets and special characters
Many different characters are available in a full character set, although
not all fonts contain the full range of characters.
Certain typesets, such as Cable and UckNPretty (both below) contain a very limited
character set. To insert what may be non-standard characters often requires the use of
auxiliary keys such as ‘alt’ and ‘shift’, in conjunction with letters.

ABCDEFGHIJKLM
Cable
Fonts can contain more than the usual alphabet set. In some instances they are used for the distribution of logotypes and identities.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 123456
UckNPretty
UckNPretty is a font that contains no upper- or lower-case letters, and no numerals. The numerals generate alternative characters as highlighted above.

AR sa ı Tıme fi fl
Swash characters Finial characters The dotless i Ligatures
These have extended decorative Decorative calligraphic swashes A lower-case ‘i’ without a dot Joining of characters to form a
calligraphic swashes, usually found on the ultimate (i.e. last) to prevent interference with a single unit to avoid interfer-
on capitals. letter of a line. preceding letter. ence in certain combinations.

χαλ ✴ ➵❆ •• ÍÎÏÌ
PI characters Dingbats Bullets Accents
Greek letters used as A collection of special decorative Fonts often have different sized Diacritical marks that alter the
mathematical symbols. characters and symbols. bullet points. pronunciation of a letter.

82

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 82 Page:82 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Expert sets and special characters Small capitals Ligatures, diphthongs and sans serif logotypes » Letterforms

Small capitals
Computer programs can generate small caps for a given typeface, but these
are not the same as true small caps. True Small Caps have line weights
that are proportionally correct for the typeface, which means that they can
be used within a piece of body copy without looking noticeably wrong,
while this is a risk with computer-generated small caps. FAKE SMALL CAPS,
or computer-generated small caps, adjust the character size, but not the
width, and may look out of place as they result in a capital that looks heavy
when compared to the text that surrounds them.

Real Small Capitals have line weights that are

proportionally correct. The advantage of this is that Small
Capitals can be used within a piece of body copy without
looking out of place.
In contrast, GENERATED SMALL CAPITALS adjust the
character size, but not the width. The disadvantage of this is that
GENERATED SMALL CAPITALS will look incorrect, as the line
weights have been manipulated, giving a heavy capital letter in
comparison to other characters.

Pictured right is Matrix, a typeface with a proper small

cap (above right) and the computer generated version
from the Roman cut (below right). The small cap has
Matrix Small Caps
better proportions and takes up less space.

MATRIX SMALL CAPS

83

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 83 Page:83 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Ligatures, diphthongs and sans serif logotypes
Ligatures, diphthongs and sans serif logotypes are typographical devices
that join two or three separate characters together to form a single unit.
They are used as a solution to the interference that certain character
combinations create.

Ligatures

fi fl ff ffi ffl Various character combinations are set as separate

characters (top) and with ligatures (bottom). Ligatures
prevent the collision or interference of characters,
particularly the extended finial of the ‘f ’, and the dot
of the ‘i’.

0lf26
Diphthongs
The fusion of two vowels into a single character that

Encyclopædia represents a unique pronunciation, are rarely used in

print today. An example is encyclopædia, in which the
diphthong is commonly replaced by a single ‘e’.

Mediæval Also known as a gliding vowel.

Sans serif logotypes

Many sans serif fonts include ligatures although these

fl fl
do not usually fuse the letters. Far left is a single character
used in place of ‘f ’ and ‘l’, set in Helvetica, where the
letters don’t fuse and in contrast, Avant Garde, that does
fuse certain logotype characters.

84

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 84 Page:84 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Small capitals Ligatures, diphthongs and sans serif logotypes Italic and oblique » Letterforms

Above and right

These posters created by
Peter and Paul design studio
use typographic ligatures
inspired by neon signs for
a logotype.

Above
This is a logo created by Chilean
design studio Y&R Diseño for
the country’s bicentenary in
2010. It features a figure-of-
eight ligature for the double
zero, that is representative of
time, and also indicative of
events such as track sports.

85

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 85 Page:85 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Italic and oblique
A true italic is a drawn typeface for a serif font, based around an
axis that is angled at somewhere between 7 and 20 degrees. Italics
have a calligraphic style and can sit compactly, in part due to their
use of ligatures. An oblique is a slanted version of the Roman face.
Confusion often arises when obliques are named italics.

Italic
aa aa
True italic typefaces are specifically drawn and
include characters that can visually be very different,
such as this ‘a’.
Oblique
Obliques are slanted versions of the Roman font.

Italics derived from the subtly angled calligraphic typefaces used

in sixteenth-century Italy. Early italics were drawn to accompany
fonts and were based on the upright Roman forms. This font,
Novarese, is based on older italic forms. Note that the capitals are
standard Roman capitals.

86

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 86 86 Page:86 5/13/11
6/3/11 10:35
1:43 PM
AM
« Italic and oblique Type classification systems Newspaper text faces » Letterforms

Type classification systems

Type classification aims to instil a meaningful order into a plethora
of typefaces. There is no straightforward, standard type classification system
– several systems exist, with varying degrees of complexity. Typefaces can
be classified according to their inherent characteristics, the time period in
which they were developed, or their typical usage. A simple classification
could be serif, sans serif and graphic.

Simple grouping classification

The McCormack type classification system uses five basic categories, as shown below. While instructive, this system
does not differentiate between serif and sans serif fonts, which is perhaps the primary means of distinction between
fonts. However, this system is the most used system due to its simplicity.

Block typefaces are based on the ornate writing style prevalent during the Middle Ages. Nowadays they appear

Block heavy and difficult to read in large text blocks, and seem antiquated. Also called Blackletter, Gothic, Old
English, Black and Broken. Shown is Wittenberger Fraktur MT.

Roman Roman type has proportionally spaced letters and serifs, and was originally derived from Roman
inscriptions. It is the most readable type and is commonly used for body text. Shown is Book Antiqua.

Gothic typefaces do not have the decorative serifs that typify Roman fonts. Their clean and simple design

Gothic makes them ideal for display text, but may make them difficult to read in long passages, although they have
been successfully developed for use as newspaper body text. Also called sans serif and Lineale. Shown is
Grotesque MT.

Script Script typefaces are designed to imitate handwriting so that when printed the characters appear to be
joined up. As with handwriting, some variations are easier to read than others. Shown is Isadora.

Graphic typefaces contain characters that could be considered images in their own right and this category

Graphic contains the most diverse array of styles. Often designed for specific, themed purposes, they can provide an
image connection to the subject matter. Shown is Trixie Cameo.

87

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 87 Page:87 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Classification by date
The Alexander Lawson
type classification system
1400s Blackletter
Blackletter typefaces are based on the ornate writing style prevalent
during the Middle Ages. Also called Block, Gothic, Old English, Black
is based on date. The and Broken. Shown is Goudy Text MT.
names of many type styles
derive from the epoch in
which they first appeared,
for example Old English,
1475 Old Style
This style refers to Roman fonts created in fifteenth- and sixteenth-
century Italy which have slight stroke contrast and an oblique stress.
and so this method is This group includes Venetians and Garaldes. Shown is Dante MT.
closely linked to the
development of Italic
typography. An
understanding of this
development timeline,
1500s Based on Italian handwriting from the Renaissance period, letterforms
are more condensed. Originally a separate type category, they were later
developed to accompany Roman forms. Shown is Minion Italic.
as expressed through
Lawson’s system, can help Script
a designer choose type
to be consistent with or
convey the impression
1550 Fonts that attempt to reproduce engraved calligraphic forms.
Shown is Kuenstler Script Medium.

of a certain period. For

example, we may be
transported back to the
Middle Ages through the
1750 Transitional
Transitional typefaces marked a divergence from Old Style forms
towards more modern forms at the end of the seventeenth century.
use of Blackletter type. Their characteristics include increasing stroke contrast, and greater
vertical stress in curved letters. Shown is Baskerville.

Modern
1775 Typefaces from the mid-eighteenth century with extreme stroke
contrast, as typified by the widespread use of hairlines and unbracketed
serifs. Shown is Bodoni BE Regular.

Slab serif

1825 These typefaces have little stroke weight variation and thick, square
serifs. Shown is Clarendon MT.

1900s
Sans serif
Typefaces without serifs and little stroke weight variation first
introduced by William Caslon in 1816. Shown is News Gothic MT.

Serif / Sans serif

1900s This recent development encompasses typefaces that include both serif
and sans serif alphabets such as Rotis. Shown is Rotis Semi Serif.

88

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 88 Page:88 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Italic and oblique Type classification systems Newspaper text faces » Letterforms

Left
This booklet was created by
Angus Hyland at Pentagram
for The Globe Theatre in London
and uses an oversized title set
in Minion, a font chosen to
transport the reader to the
Elizabethan age. Minion,
designed by Robert Slimbach
in 1990, was based on the
typeforms of the late
Renaissance era around the
seventeenth century. Using
only type to communicate, and
resisting the temptation to add
additional, potentially distracting
detail makes the choice of
typeface all the more important.

89

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 89 Page:89 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Classification by type Typefaces inspired by classical and Roman letterforms such as Centaur
The Vox system was Humanist and Italian Old Style. Shown is Centaur MT.
devised by Maximilien
Vox in 1954 to
modernize type
classification. It has nine Old Style typefaces from sixteenth-century France and their Italian
divisions as shown on the Garalde predecessors, consisting of subtle contrast and steeply angled serifs,
right and places graphic such as Bembo and Garamond. Shown is Bembo.
fonts into a separate
category. It attempted
to make a simpler
Transitional
Transitional typefaces are those that marked a divergence from Old
classification system Style forms towards more modern forms at the end of the seventeenth
that was detailed enough century. They feature increasing stroke contrast, and greater vertical
to be useful. stress in curved letters, such as Baskerville and Fournier. Shown is
Baskerville.

Didone Didone is a term that is used in place of ‘modern’, given that modern
types were those created in the eighteenth century, such as Bodoni.
Shown is Bodoni BE Regular.

Slab serif typefaces are distinguished by larger, square serifs that were
Slab Serif considered to be bolder than those of their predecessors. Also called
Egyptian or Antique. Shown is Memphis Medium.

Lineale
Lineale fonts are sans serifs with further divisions of Grotesque,
nineteenth-century types, Neo-grotesque and recent versions, such
as Univers and Gill Sans. Shown is Futura.

Glyphic
Fonts with glyph type serifs such as Albertus. Shown is Albertus MT.

Script
Script typefaces are designed to imitate handwriting so that when
printed the characters appear to be joined up. As with handwriting,
some variations are easier to read than others. Shown is Berthold-Script
Regular.

Graphic typefaces contain characters that could be considered images

Graphic in their own right and this category contains the most diverse array of
styles. Often designed for specific, themed purposes, they can provide
an image connection to the subject matter. Shown is Stealth.

90

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 90 Page:90 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Italic and oblique Type classification systems Newspaper text faces » Letterforms

Left
An elaborate letterform taken
from the Diesel book produced
by Spanish design studio Vasava
Artworks. The book features
typography of a highly graphic
nature. These elaborate upper-
case letters appropriate a fantasy
novel, blurring the boundaries
of text and image. The base
typeface, a slab serif, is fused
with illustrative elements and
designs.

91

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 91 Page:91 5/13/11 10:35 AM
In detail
Presented here are examples from the Vox classification system categories.

Old style

These fonts have conservative character strokes and angled stresses, often combining elements
from different type styles. Shown is Tiffany, Edward Benguiat, 1974 (an amalgamation of two earlier designs,
Aeiou
Ronaldson and Caxton).

These exhibit greater stroke contrast and a vertical stress of curved elements; transitional developers
included John Baskerville. Shown is Zapf International, Hermann Zapf, 1977.

Modern

Modern fonts became more stylized

Stroke contrast increased with Modern types in the late eighteenth century as fonts became heavily stylized.
Twentieth-century revivals drew inspiration from Giambattista Bodoni’s work in the eighteenth century and
share the characteristics of Didone faces (see previous page). Shown is Fenice, Aldo Novarese, 1980.
Aeiou
Clarendon is a slab serif sub-classification

Clarendon Neo was first created in the twentieth century

It has a pronounced stroke contrast, with longer serifs. Shown is Cheltenham, Tony Stan, 1975.
Aeiou
Clarendon Legibility premiered in the 1920s
Its large x-height, high stroke contrast and slight incline were created to be legible on poor quality stock.
Shown is Century, Tony Stan, 1975.
Aeiou
Aeiou
Slab serifs have no, or very slight, bracketing
With little or no bracketing on the blocky slab serifs, there is little stroke width variation.
Shown is Aachen, Colin Brignall, 1969.

92

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 92 Page:92 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Italic and oblique Type classification systems Newspaper text faces » Letterforms

Glyphic

Glyphic types reflect inscription rather than calligraphic style

They possess triangular serifs that are drawn from lapidary inscriptions, echoing engraved qualities.
Shown is Novarese, Aldo Novarese, 1980. Aeiou
Sans serif

Sans Serif Neo Grotesque

Neo Grotesque typefaces have broader characters than those of Grotesques and possess a ‘g’ with a loop
rather than a double-storey, and a ‘G’ with a chin. Shown is Akzidenz Grotesk, Gunter Gerhard Lange, 1984. Aeiou
These are based on simple geometric shapes. They are very rounded and are distinguishable by their
splayed nature. Shown is Kabel, Rudolph Koch, 1976.

Aeiou
Sans Serif Humanistic
Similar to Geometric fonts, these are based on the proportions of Roman capitals and Old Style lower-case
letterforms. Humanistic fonts also possess splayed characters, but they have greater stroke weight contrast and
a double-storey ‘g’. Shown is Frutiger, Adrian Frutiger, 1976.

Script

Scripts imitate handwriting

The cursive flow of the hand is imitated in these fonts with characters that join when printed. Shown is
Zapf Chancery, Hermann Zapf, 1979. Aeiou
Graphic

Graphic typefaces do not easily fit into any category

Graphic typefaces are those that are constructed rather than drawn to make a strong visual impact in short
bursts of text. Shown is American Typewriter, Joel Kaden, 1974. Aeiou
93

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd 93 Page:93 6/3/11 1:45 PM
Newspaper text faces
Many of the typefaces we are familiar with today were originally
developed for use in newspapers. Given that newspapers print large text
blocks at a reasonably small size, this puts demands on a typeface – it
needs to be legible and should not cause the eye to become tired.
Newspaper types are nearly always serif fonts, although
sans serif fonts have also been developed specifically for
newspaper usage.

Counters Legibility X-height Ink wells

Newspaper fonts tend to Newspaper fonts have Large x-heights help These are exaggerated
have large counters (the high stroke weight make newspapers legible cuts in characters that fill
enclosed circular parts of contrast and condensed even though this can with ink. Print process
letters such as ‘o’) to forms to ensure efficient reduce the visual has improved to the
prevent them filling in use of space and to be impression of space extent that these are now
with ink. readable in blocks at between text lines. seldom seen, although
Shown is Ionic MT. small sizes. Shown is Excelsior. some fonts still have
Shown is Charter. them.
Shown is Bell Centennial.

Bell Centennial Sub Caption Naming

With fonts designed
primarily for newspapers
Bell Centennial Sub Address or editorial use, the
naming of the particular
Bell Centennial Bold Listing style or weight will relate
to its intended usage.

Bell Centennial Name and Number

94

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 94 Page:94 5/13/11 10:35 AM
« Type classification systems Newspaper text faces Case study » Letterforms

Times New Roman Times New Roman first

appeared in 1932 and has

Fe yR
become one of the world’s
most successful typefaces. It is
narrow compared to its apparent
size, with a crisp and clean
appearance, and an even colour
is maintained through the
management of weight and
density.

Times Small Text was spe- Times Ten is a version of Times Eighteen is a version of
cifically designed for use the font designed for use
as body copy. It has an under 12pt, which has the font designed for use as a
x-heightalmostasbigasitscap wider characters with
height, maximizing stronger hairlines. headline at 18pt and over that
legibility and allowing
economical setting of type has subtly condensed charac-
in narrow measures.
ters with finer hairlines.

Excelsior Created by C.H. Griffith in

1931, Excelsior reads easily in

Fe yR
small sizes. Griffith consulted
studies by optometrists about
optimal legibility before
starting the design, which
has high stroke contrast
and evenly weighted
letterforms.

Ionic Based on an 1821 design

by Vincent Figgins,

Fe yR
Ionic was refined with
more contrast between
thick and thin strokes.
Together with a large
x-height and strong
hairlines it has been a
popular newspaper font.

95

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 95 Page:95 5/13/11 10:35 AM
Case study
Ixvar Inc. – Creasence, Czech Republic

Project description symbol ‘X’ as the main part of the logo. As for the
This identity by Creasence for Canadian company Ixvar client’s involvement in the process, we had a lot of
Inc. makes explicit use of the character ‘x’. Within this freedom and that’s what made a positive impact on
single character a sense of communication, discussion the result of our work.
and movement has been instilled. Ixvar supply Internet
solutions, including high-traffic servers, and the x symbol GA The work of the studio often has a very clean,
clearly denotes this idea of traffic of information. modern outcome, but with a subtle sense of craft and
care. How do you see the typography you produce fitting
In discussion with Alexander Nevolin, of Creasence within a larger context of design? Do you take influence
GA This identity uses a single character as the focal from other studios, styles, or is it an internal
point for the narrative you are trying to convey. Can you development?
explain how the logo was developed? Was the identity a AN In the last couple of years we have dramatically
response to a specific requirement of a formal brief, or changed our approach to design, choice of clients and
was it a more organic process? work process with them. Today our design is more open-
AN Initially, we had several requirements from the client minded, confident, minimalistic and usable. We use mostly
such as: ‘The logo should reflect freshness, clarity, and thus simple sans typography and a lot of our design is inspired
create an impression of high degree of company lability to the by Scandinavian and Central European designers.
customer’. It also had to be recognizable and readable
regardless of logo size. Moreover, it had to include the
original symbol so that it could be used as an
independent part of brand identity.
Below
GA As can be seen on this spread, the original early Initial sketches of the ‘x’.
development stage of this job involved ‘sketching’ in
the traditional sense. Is sketching and drawing something
that is important to the studio?
AN No, it’s not too important. The most important
thing for us is the final result. If a designer can sketch
and draw in his mind, and that’s better for him, and is
also saving paper.

GA How did you develop the project typography

into the final form? Is this a collaborative process in
the studio, and did this process have much input from
the client?
AN This logo typography was originally based on the
font that we got from the Internet. Then we slightly
redesigned each letter the way we needed by using
Adobe Illustrator. In the final stage we emphasized the

96

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd 96 Page:96 6/3/11 1:46 PM
« Newspaper text faces Case study Typography task » Letterforms

Above Below
Experiments in expressing movement in the letter ‘x’. These abstractions The logo development is abstracted into a pattern, that can be used on
can be seen in the final logo shown to the following page. As shown the reverse of stationery.
here, there is also a cosideration as to how the logo will reproduce out
of black or a colour, as well as when printing on white.

97

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 97 Page:97 5/13/11 2:12 PM
Above and below
The final typographic logo (above) and its implementation on stationery
and online (below and right).

98

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
[Link] 98 98 Page:98 5/13/11
6/3/11 10:35
1:46 PM
AM
« Case study Typography task Letterforms

Typography task

Type classification

Premise Outcome
Within this chapter we looked at some of the various To encourage thought about how we categorize
ways in which typefaces can be classified. But many of typefaces in order to make working with them more
these methods were devised before some of the most efficient.
significant changes in design technology took place –
the advent of new media, for example. So how do these
systems relate to modern typographic practice?

Exercise
1 Devise an alternative system for classification based
on a new set of values. These can be as simple as
you like: fonts you like and fonts you don’t like, for
example. Alternatively, you might classify them by
usage – for ‘reading’, ‘posters’, ‘screen’ etc. You may
choose to classify them by designer, items they have
appeared on, or on specific qualities they possess.
2 Present an explanation of your revised system,
showing how a selection of fonts are categorized.

99

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 99 Page:99 5/13/11 10:35 AM
‘ Typography needs
to be audible.
Typography needs
to be felt.
Typography needs
to be experienced.’
Helmut Schmid

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 [Link] 100 Page:100 5/13/11 10:35 AM
chapter 4
words and
paragraphs
Type is used to form words and paragraphs, some of the basic
elements of a design. Within this chapter we will look at some of
the basic controls you have over type, in order for it to communicate
in the way you intended. We will also look at some of the ways that
space, be it between words or between lines, can enhance a piece
of communication.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 101 Page:101 5/13/11 11:03 AM
Calculating line lengths
Text needs to be set with a comfortable line length, or measure, to
aid reading. The measure is the width of the text column being set.
The three elements of measure, type size and typeface are linked in that a change to any of
them means that an adjustment may be needed in the others. As typefaces of a given size do
not share the same width, switching from one typeface to another will alter the setting of
the type. Different fonts are physically different in size, even when set at the same typesize,
as shown below. So if you change from one font to another, the amount of characters per
line will change, and the overall measure, or width, may need to be adjusted.

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
A lower-case alphabet set in Times New Roman, at 32pt, is approximately 387 points wide.

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
In contrast, Bookman Old Style, also set at 32pt, is significantly wider, at 459 points.

Times New Roman has a narrow set width and comfortably fills the measure to produce
a compact text block (above top). Bookman has a wider set width, which means that it is
more prone to the appearance of unsightly white space in a justified text block (above).

Times New Roman 12pt Bookman Old Style 12pt

Type set using a font with a narrow set width Type set using a font with a narrow set
will look different to text set with a wide set width will look different to text set with
width. Changing the typeface will alter the a wide set width. Changing the typeface
width setting and may call for adjustment of the will alter the width setting and may call
measure. While one type may give a relatively for adjustment of the measure. While
comfortable fit in the measure, another may one type may give a relatively comfortable
have awkward spacing issues, particularly in fit in the measure, another may have
justified text, as shown here. awkward spacing issues, particularly
in justified text, as shown here.

102

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 102 Page:102 5/13/11 11:03 AM
Calculating line lengths Kerning » Words and paragraphs

There are several methods for determining the optimum line length for typesetting.

Calculating using the lower-case alphabet

The width of the lower-case alphabet can be used as a reference, with the measure being one-and-a-half-
to two-times this width.

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Lower-case alphabet with a measure of 213 points.

The above lower-case alphabet, set at 18pt,

has a width of 213 points. Multiplying this
by 1.5 gives a measure width of 320 points.
320 points

Alternatively, multiplying this alphabet width by 2 gives

a measure of 426 points. Both these calculations give a
comfortable type measure in that it is not so short as to
cause awkward returns and gaps, and not so long as to
be uncomfortable to read.
426 points

Mathematical calculation Character calculation

Slightly more complex is to make a measurement in Another simple formula is to select a specific number
picas. In this instance, there should be a relationship of characters per line, such as 40 characters (not less than
of 2:1 to 2.5:1 between the measure in picas and the 25, or more than 70), which is enough for about six
type size in points. For example, a 16-20 pica measure words of six characters per line.
for 8pt type, 20-25 picas for 10pt type and 24-30 picas
for 12pt type.

103

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 103 Page:103 5/13/11 11:03 AM
Kerning
Kerning is the removal of space and letterspacing is the addition of space
between letters to improve the visual look of type.

With traditional print processes that set text in blocks, kerning or tracking was not
possible. However, digitization means that letters can be set close or even over each other.
In practice, combinations of values may be used for these techniques with an overall
tracking value for body copy that either opens or closes up the text. Headlines and larger
copy may require additional tweaking.

yttrium
Without kerning
Without the inclusion or removal of space between characters by
kerning they are set to the values held by the font in its PostScript
information. This will give a reasonable result, but the addition or
subtraction of space may be necessary to achieve an optimum result.
Take as an extreme example the setting to the left of the word yttrium,
a chemical element that contains an unusual combination of letters.
There are clearly some characters that are closer than others, and
indeed the opening ‘y’ and ‘t’ are colliding. In contrast, the final ‘u’
and ‘m’ feel disjointed from the rest of the word. To resolve this we
use kerning, as shown below.

yttrium With kerning

By removing and adding space, a more comfortable setting of the
word can be achieved.

Type size affects white space

Type size affects white space
As type size increases, so does the quantity of white space between characters. In the two lines above, the second line demonstrates
that where space has been removed, a more comfortable setting is achieved.

104

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 104 Page:104 5/13/11 11:03 AM
« Calculating line lengths Kerning Automated kerning tables » Words and paragraphs

Fashion logotype, Parent

This type features overly rounded, almost inflated forms that overlap
to create a distinctive identity. This form of typography is made possible
by the technological advances of the last decade.

105

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 105 Page:105 5/13/11 11:03 AM
Automated kerning tables
Manual kerning can be used to tidy up display copy, headlines and other
short text passages but is impractical for large text blocks of running copy.

Automated kerning tables allow for problem pairs of characters to be altered so that the
information is stored and applied to every occurrence of that pair. PostScript fonts have
this information built into them, but problematic combinations can still occur.

No kerning applied Kerning applied

archery archery
Kerning and typesize large sizes for the type to almost split into two parts. In
As type increases in size, for example on posters and the example above, the ‘a’, ‘r’ and ‘c’ have almost become
signage, the more space may need to be taken out. In separated from the remaining letters. This can be altered
newspaper headlines for example, the settings are manually in larger, single elements of type, but if you have
normally tighter in relation to typesize than in the body an entire book to set then automatic kerning tables can
copy. There is also a tendency when type is reproduced at be used, as described below.

Applying automated kerning values words but is set in Helvetica Neue 85 with its kerning
The texts below are both set in Helvetica Neue. The list table altered to compensate for the ‘r’ and ‘y’ collision.
on the left, set in Helvetica 65, clearly shows a problem Once altered, the values are applied over every
character pair at the end of all the words as the ‘r’ and ‘y’ instance of the combination, including future
touch. This could be dealt with manually, but would be occurrences. As problem characters are noticed they
time consuming. The list on the right contains the same can be altered and forgotten about.

accessory archery accessory archery

story cursory story cursory
discretionary poetry discretionary poetry
constabulary rotary constabulary rotary
contemporary obligatory contemporary obligatory
military hoary military hoary

106

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 106 Page:106 5/13/11 11:03 AM
« Kerning Automated kerning tables Alignment » Words and paragraphs

Alignment
Alignment refers to the position of type within a text block, in both
the vertical and horizontal planes.

Horizontal alignment
Horizontal alignment in a text field can be range left, range right, centred or justified.

Flush left, Centred Flush right, Justified horizontally

ragged right Centred aligns each line ragged left Justified text allows the
This alignment follows horizontally in the Right aligning text is appearance of rivers of
the principle of centre to form a less common as it is white space to appear. It
handwriting, with text symmetrical shape on more difficult to read. It can cause plagues of
tight and aligned to the the page, with line is sometimes used for hyphenation if words are
left margin and ending beginnings and endings picture captions and allowed to split to
ragged on the right. ragged. Raggedness can other accompanying prevent this (see page
be controlled to a texts as it is clearly 112).
certain extent by distinct from body copy.
adjusting line endings.

Vertical alignment
Text can align vertically to the centre, top or bottom.

Top aligned Justified vertically

This text is aligned to
This text has been
the top of the text
block. vertically justified to
Vertically centred force the lines to
This text is aligned to
the centre of the text distribute throughout
block. the text block. This is
Bottom aligned only normally used in
This text is aligned to
newspapers and
the bottom of the text
block. advertising.

107

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
02698_path.indd 107
107 Page:107 5/13/11
6/3/11 11:03
1:46 PM
AM
108

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 108 Page:108 5/13/11 11:03 AM
038-192 02698_path.indd 109
« Automated kerning tables
Alignment
Word spacing, hyphenation and justification »

Broadside
This is text that is aligned to read vertically, such as for tabular matter
Words and paragraphs

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

or where the page orientation conflicts with the text to be set. This example
by design studio Frost Design demonstrates the dynamic results of typography
set this way.

109

Page:109 5/13/11 11:03 AM

Alignment in practice
A design will often feature text aligned in several
different ways to differentiate the information it contains
or to unify the presentation of the information, as the
examples on this spread show. There are a number of
axioms in design, for example that range left is easier to
read than range right, or that range left is more ‘modern’
than centred type. Alignment should be used
appropriately, to help convey a message, or to order
information in a particular way. There are some
publications that adhere to certain conventions, for
example a recipe book where the ingredients often align
to the right, while the main text body aligns to the left.

Opposite
This poster was created by
George & Vera design studio for
sportswear company Fred Perry.
It features a combination of
flush left and flush right text
elements that create a visible
central axis against which the
type hangs. Display type bleeds
off the poster to create a wrap-
around effect when the posters
are displayed side by side.

Above and left

This publication was created
by Untitled design studio for
London barristers 18 St John
Street Chambers. The type aligns
left but is set to the extreme
right margin to offset a strong
passepartout (a frame or image
around the design) photo.

110

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 110 Page:110 5/13/11 11:03 AM
« Automated kerning tables Alignment Word spacing, hyphenation and justification » Words and paragraphs

Characters requiring vertical alignment

Some individual characters need additional alignment when used in certain
circumstances, as the examples below illustrate.

• Set in a list club-med (For example)

• set in a list CLUB-MED (For example)
• set in a list CLUB-MED
Bullets Hyphens Parentheses
A bullet set in a list looks balanced A hyphen set in lower-case type Parentheses can appear too low
when set next to a capital (top), but looks vertically balanced (top) but (top), which can be corrected by
when the text is minuscule (middle) when set between majuscules it giving them a centre alignment
the bullet appears to float. An appears to drop lower (middle). on the cap height (bottom).
adjustment to the baseline shift of To compensate for this the hyphen
the bullet is necessary to lower it can be raised using baseline shift
(bottom) for a more balanced look. (bottom).

111

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 111 Page:111 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Word spacing, hyphenation and justification
The use of word spacing, hyphenation and justification functions allows
for greater control of word spacing in a text block by controlling the
space between words.

The space between words Word spacing

Tracking adjusts the space between characters while
The space between words word spacing adjusts the space between words. In the
examples to the left, the word spacing increases with
The space between words each line of text. The first two lines have pared back
spacing; the middle line is set to the default settings;
The space between words and the last two lines have extended spacing. Note
that the spaces between the characters within the words
The space between words remains unchanged.

Justification Pompeii circumgrediet catelli. Pompeii circumgrediet catelli.

Justification uses three values for type setting: minimum, Utilitas cathedras fermentet agrico- Utilitas cathedras fermentet agrico-
maximum and optimum values. The first block (right) lae. Aegre bellus suis incredibiliter lae. Aegre bellus suis incredibiliter
is set standard, which introduces a hyphenated widow comiter deciperet quinquennalis comiter deciperet quinquennalis chi-
(hypho). The block next to that (far right) is set tighter, chirographi. Vix utilitas saburre rographi. Vix utilitas saburre sen-
allowing the type to contract more. This removes the senesceret plane tremulus rures esceret plane tremulus rures Etiam
hypho in the last line. In justified type, word spacing on Etiam saetosus apparatus bellis vix saetosus apparatus bellis vix spinosus
separate lines is irregular, unlike range left type where spinosus amputat Aquae Sulis. Aegre amputat Aquae Sulis. Aegre bellus
all lines have the same spacing. bellus suis incredibiliter comiter suis incredibiliter comiter deciperet
deciperet quinquennalis chi- quinquennalis chirographi.
rographi.

Hyphenation Pompeii circumgrediet catelli. Pompeii circumgrediet catelli. Util-

Hyphens in justified text allow spacing issues to be Utilitas cathedras fermentet itas cathedras fermentet agricolae.
resolved, but can result in many broken words. The first agricolae. Aegre bellus suis Aegre bellus suis incredibiliter com-
block (right) has spacing problems on nearly every line, incredibiliter comiter deciperet iter deciperet quinquennalis chi-
and the only way to solve this without rewriting is quinquennalis chirographi. Vix rographi. Vix utilitas saburre sen-
through the use of hyphenation (far right). Hyphenation utilitas saburre senesceret plane esceret plane tremulus rures Etiam
controls the number of hyphens that can appear as well tremulus rures Etiam saetosus saetosus apparatus bellis vix spinosus
as the point at which words break (usually on a syllable). apparatus bellis vix spinosus amputat amputat Aquae Sulis. Aegre bellus
Aquae Sulis. Aegre bellus suis suis incredibiliter comiter deciperet
incredibiliter comiter deciperet quinquennalis chirographi.
quinquennalis chirographi.

112

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 112 Page:112 5/13/11 11:04 AM
« Word spacing, hyphenation and justification Type detailing Leading » Words and paragraphs

Type detailing
Text can rarely be flowed into a design and left without further adjustment.

Different sized paragraphs and the inclusion of graphic elements all pose challenges for setting a visually pleasing and
coherent text block. This page identifies common problems and the type detailing solutions that can address them.

A widow or orphan A river has occurred over several lines

Chirographi verecunde iocari adfa- suis.

bilis suis. Incredibiliter tremulus fidu- Lascivius matrimonii infeliciter
cias corrumperet Pompeii. Aquae iocari umbraculi, quod incredibiliter
Sulis praemuniet quinquennalis con- adlaudabilis zothecas divinus
cubine, iam vix parsimonia fiducias senesceret. Saetosus cathedras
libere miscere pretosius rures, ut adquireret apparatus bellis, semper
saburre circumgrediet zothecas, perspicax rures agnascor quinquen-
etiam matrimonii santet nalis.
Awkward spacing issues A hyphenated widow

Widows, orphans and hyphos Rivers and rags

Justified text can be visually very unforgiving due to the Rivers typically occur in justified text blocks when the
creation of widows, orphans and even worse, the hypho. separation of the words leaves gaps of white space in
The terms ‘widow’ and ‘orphan’ have become several lines. A river effect is created where white space
interchangable for lines or words that have become gaps align through the text. These can be easier to spot
separated from the main column of text. A widow is by turning the text upside-down or by squinting to
a lone word or short line at the start of a paragraph or unfocus your eyes.
column, while an orphan is a lone word or short line at Rags occur when highly noticeable shapes
the end of a paragraph. A hypho is a hyphenated widow form by the line ends of text blocks that distract
that leaves half a word on a line. In all instances, the from simple, uninterrupted reading. Rags can
removal of orphans, widows and hyphenated line endings include exaggerated slopes or noticeable inclines.
creates a more aesthetically considered setting of type, In extreme cases words can appear to overhang
that will ultimately be easier to read. other lines of text, creating unsightly and noticeable
gaps in text blocks. Words can be manually returned
to make the gaps less noticeable.

113

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 113 Page:113 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Leading
Leading was originally a hot-metal printing term for the strips of
lead that were inserted between lines of text in order to space them
accurately. Leading is specified in points and refers nowadays to the
space between the lines of text in a text block.

Leading in relation to type size and fonts

try try
To achieve a balanced and well-spaced text block,
leading usually has a larger point size than the text it is
associated with, for example a 12pt typeface might be
set with 14pt leading. Different fonts, however, occupy
differing amounts of the em square. This can make
equally set fonts appear different. Shown right and below
are two fonts, Aachen and Parisian. It is clear that Aachen Parisian
Aachen occupies more of the vertical space of the em
square, while Parisian, with its much smaller x-height,
appears much lighter.

Aachen and Parisian, Aachen and Parisian, both set at 18pt

both set at 18pt on 20pt on 20pt leading.
leading.
There is more space between descenders
There is more space and ascenders in Parisian, giving the
between descenders illusion of more space and looser leading.
and ascenders in
Parisian, giving the
illusion of more space
and looser leading.
114

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 114 Page:114 5/13/11 11:04 AM
« Type detailing Leading Indents » Words and paragraphs

Computer
nology makestech-it
possible
text with to set
negative
leading
the linessoofthat
text
crash into
another. one
Text set
with negative
leading can look
dramatic
although it may
be difficult
read. to
Negative leading
Computer technology makes it possible to set text with negative leading so that the lines
of text crash into one another. Text set with negative leading can look dramatic although
it may be difficult to read, as demonstrated above.

Left
This flyer was created by design studio Untitled for an exhibition
at the Chelsea Flower Show in London by Ember Inns and Pickard
School of Garden Design. It features two-tone text set with negative
leading, with the lighter text overprinting the darker text. In effect,
by reading between the lines (of darker text) the location of the
Pub Garden identified in the darker text is revealed.

115

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 115 Page:115 5/13/11 11:04 AM
This page and opposite
A surprising amount of
leading can be removed
when type is used at a larger
scale, as this identity by
Creasence demonstrates.
The individual characters
have been kerned closer
together, and the lines of
type contracted to form a
recognizable identity.

116

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 116 Page:116 5/13/11 11:04 AM
« Type detailing Leading Indents » Words and paragraphs

117

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 117 Page:117 5/13/11 11:04 AM
As type gets bigger the line
space, or leading, can appear to
grow, which means that larger
text may need to be set tighter
to look comfortable.

s type gets bigger the

ace, or leading, can a
ow, which means tha
xt may need to be se
look comfortable.
Shown above is a block of copy set at 8pt type on 10pt leading. ‘Scaling’ this type in size
to 72pt gives a leading value of 86pt, proportionally the same as the smaller block of text.
However, this block looks noticeably more ‘spaced’, and may require some of the leading
to be removed.

118

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 118 Page:118 5/13/11 11:04 AM
« Type detailing Leading Indents » Words and paragraphs

Asymmetrical leading difficulties. In lines of copy with few ascenders or

Type is normally set with one particular leading value, descenders, the leading may look much bigger, as
such as 10pt type on 12pt leading. This is generally fine demonstrated below. To prevent this optical distortion,
for body copy, as there is a pattern of ascenders and the leading values of some lines need to be tweaked to
descenders that break up the lines of space. However, restore a visual balance.
when type is enlarged, more noticeable anomalies can
become apparent. Display type poses particular leading

To fix errors
one can use a As there are no ascenders or
descenders punctuating this
space, it looks noticeably wider
than the line below, although

bit of spacing they are actually equal in

distance.

To fix errors
one can use a
bit of spacing
Above
The headline above looks as though it has uneven leading due to ascender absence in the
middle row. This has been corrected (bottom) by reducing the line spacing between the first
and second lines.

119

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 119 Page:119 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Indents
Text blocks can be indented so that some or all of the text lines aremoved
in from the margin by a specified amount. Traditionally, the first paragraph
is not indented, with indentation commencing with the second paragraph.
Indentation provides the reader with an easily accessible entry point to
a paragraph. The length of the indent can be related to the point size of the
type such as a one em indent (as shown here). Alternatively, indent points
can be determined by the grid, or a division of the overall text measure,
for example 1/3 in from the margin.

Four basic indent types exist, as explained below. Technically speaking an indent is an
attribute of a text line rather than a paragraph, but most design programs handle indents
through the paragraph characteristics function.

1 First-line indent 2 Running indent 3 Hanging indent 4 On a point indent

In a first line indent, the text is A running indent is an A hanging indent is similar to a Point: The indentation of
indented from the left margin in indentation from the left or right running indent an on a point indent
the first line of the second and margin, which affects several text except the first line is located at a specific
subsequent paragraphs. The lines. This may be done to frame of the text is not place according to the
first paragraph in a document a long quotation. indented. requirements of the
following a heading, subhead or design, such as the first
crosshead is not normally A running indent is an word in a list.
indented as this introduces an indentation from the
awkward space, although this left or right margin,
can be done. which affects several
In a first line indent, text lines. This may be
the text is indented from the done to frame a long
left margin in the first line quotation.
of the second and subsequent
paragraphs. The first paragraph
in a document following a
heading is not normally
indented.

120

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 120 Page:120 5/13/11 11:04 AM
« Indents Indexes Case study » Words and paragraphs

Indexes
Indexes provide a means of easily locating information within a book. They
are traditionally set solid, i.e. 9 on 9pt, but additional leading can be used.
Types of indexes
Indexes can take one of two formats: indented and run-in. A run-in index is more
economical with space, whereas an indented one is easier to navigate. The choice
between them depends upon the space available and the complexity of the information
to be indexed, as shown below.

Indented index Run-in index

R Entry eight (cont.) R Sub-entry, 87; Third-entry,

Entry one, 12 Third-entry, 201 Entry one, 12; Sub-entry, 45 15; Third-entry, 27; Sub-
Sub-entry, 45 Third-entry, 154 Entry two, 14; Sub-entry, 86; entry, 26
Entry two, 14 Third-entry, 15 Sub-entry, 87; Third-entry, Entry eleven, 17; Sub-entry, 15;
Sub-entry, 86 Third-entry, 47 145; Third-entry, 24; Sub- Sub-entry, 71; Third-entry,
Sub-entry, 87 Third-entry, 74 entry, 75 24; Entry eleven (cont.) Third-
Third-entry, 145 Third-entry, 20 Entry three, 30; Sub-entry, 31; entry, 25
Third-entry, 24 Entry nine, 12 Sub-entry, 78 Entry twelve, 12; Sub-entry, 45
Sub-entry, 75 Sub-entry, 45 Entry four, 50 Entry thirteen, 30; Sub-entry,
Entry three, 30 Entry ten, 7 Entry five, 70 86;
Sub-entry, 31 Sub-entry, 86 Entry six, 89 Sub-entry, 87
Sub-entry, 78 Sub-entry, 87 Entry seven, 12; Sub-entry, 86;
Entry four, 50 Third-entry, 15 Sub-entry, 87; Third-
Entry five, 70 Third-entry, 27 entry, 14; Third-entry,
Entry six, 89 Sub-entry, 26 157
Entry seven, 12 Entry eleven, 17 Entry eight, 88; Sub-entry, 86;
Sub-entry, 86 Sub-entry, 15 Sub-entry, 87; Third-
Sub-entry, 87 Sub-entry, 71 entry, 94; Third-entry, 76;
Third-entry, 14 Third-entry, 24 Third-entry, 201; Third-
Third-entry, 157 Third-entry, 25 entry, 154; Third-entry,
Entry eight, 88 Entry twelve, 12 15; Third-entry, 47;
Sub-entry, 86 Sub-entry, 45 Third-entry, 74; Third-
Sub-entry, 87 Entry thirteen, 30 entry, 20
Third-entry, 94 Sub-entry, 86 Entry nine, 12; Sub-entry, 45
Third-entry, 76 Sub-entry, 87 Entry ten, 7; Sub-entry, 86;

Indented index Run-in index

An indented index is hierarchical, with entry, sub-entry The run-in index format has sub-entries following the
and subsequent descending levels presented on their own main entry and separated by a semicolon. The example
line with an equal indent. Entries are set as entry, comma, index above shows how much space can be saved by
page number. References to other entries are set in italic. using a run-in index rather than an indented index.
With the use of indents, care needs to be taken not to
leave widows or orphans. If a widow occurs over a page-
break the convention is for the last superior entry to
be repeated (including any indent) and follow it with
cont. or continued.

121

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 121 Page:121 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Case study
Thank You Exhibition – Slavimir Stojanovic, Serbia

Project description GA How do you see the role of a designer and in

Thank You is an exhibition of typographic work dedicated turn typography? That is to say, do you feel designers
to the current worldwide phenomenon of identity crisis. have an obligation or role in questioning society as
Mass-media messages are presented in super-size format, opposed to only fulfilling commercial needs?
questioning the true meaning of these statements. SS I don’t think designers have an obligation like that.
It is a question of what personally intrigues you. Of
In discussion with Slavimir Stojanovic course, more and more smart people are questioning
GA Your work regularly crosses the boundaries between what is obviously wrong in the world today. Designers
art and design. Do you see a difference in how you have their medium in their hands, so it is easy to be
approach typography in a personal sense, in comparison on the brink of new thought, be visible and active.
to a commercial sense? Especially if you sell brands by day, and act as street
SS Absolutely. In my artistic, personal work I try to superhero by night.
depersonalize typography and overall aesthetic, because
when you make a strong commentary on society and
individuals, it is much stronger to make it look like some
Special Grey Council did it for their communication
purposes. But in my commercial work, clients want me
to be as personal as possible, so that keeps me sitting on
both chairs.

GA Your work shown here makes explicit use of words,

in an almost concrete poetry way. Do you take influence
from artists that have worked in this way, for example
Barbara Kruger or Jenny Holzer?
SS I take my inspiration from the idiotic world we live
in, with all the wrong systems of value. Aesthetically, I am
moved by street art, depersonalized languages, 1984 and
of course by the work of giants like Barbara Kruger,
Jenny Holzer, Lawrence Weiner, Shepard Fairey and pop-
art in general. Emotionally, I am inspired by the comedy
of Steve Carell and Robin Williams and the music of
James Brown. Opposite
These typographic epigrams are from an exhibition by Belgrade
designer Slavimir Stoljanovic. The statements are simultaneously
profound and throwaway. The typographic style is reminiscent of 1960s
Americana, and creates an immediate and memorable impression.

122

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 122 Page:122 5/13/11 11:04 AM
« Indexes Case study Typography task » Words and paragraphs

123

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 123 Page:123 5/13/11 2:18 PM
This page
The typographic epigram theme
is continued with a series of
‘collections’ featuring different
backgrounds.

124

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 124 Page:124 5/13/11 2:18 PM
« Case study Typography task Words and paragraphs

Typography task

Alignment & orientation

Premise Outcome
Most printed items we see, and most websites we visit To encourage you to think about how information
feature what could be described as an ‘expected’ layout, is aligned and how this affects how we read it.
alignment and orientation. This isn’t to say they don’t
work, or aren’t effective, but can alignment and
orientation be made to ‘work harder’?

Exercise
1 Take three printed or online items, for example a
Shakespearean sonnet, a food recipe and a
nightclub flyer.
2 Taking the elements of these items, how can layout,
alignment, and orientation be used to alter,
enhance, or disrupt the ‘reading’ of these items.
3 Produce a series of experiments using alignment
and orientation, exploring the way that it affects
how we read and interpret information.
4 Don’t take for granted how you think something
should be aligned or orientated. Deconstruct the
information of the original piece and reassemble it
with a new focus and vision.
5 Try to understand the meaning of the text you
are setting. What parts are you trying to make
important and which parts are you trying to
make less important?

125

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 125 Page:125 5/13/11 11:04 AM
‘ Typographical design
should perform optically
what the speaker creates
through voice and gesture
of his thoughts.’
El Lizzitsky

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 126 Page:126 5/13/11 11:04 AM
chapter 5
using type
Type can be used as a graphic element to produce dramatic creative
results in a design. Within this chapter we look at some of the techniques
used to add a point of difference to typography, including different print
and finishing techniques.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 127 Page:127 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Hierarchy
Arguably one of the most important aspects when considering typography
is adding a sense of hierarchy. Hierarchy is a logical and visual way to
express the relative importance of different text elements by providing a
visual guide to their organization. A text hierarchy helps make a layout
clear, unambiguous and easier to digest.

In this hierarchy, the title is set in the largest, boldest

typeface to reinforce its importance.
Dropping down a weight for the subtitle distinguishes it as a
subsidiary to the title while allowing it to remain prominent.
Body copy can be set with a different type size, but same weight as the subtitle.
Finally, captions can be formed using an italic that has less prominence on the page.

Right
These designs by Untitled, for
the Royal Institute of British
Architects (RIBA), share an
understated approach with
considered, delicate typography
and a strong sense of hierarchy.

128

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 128 Page:128 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Hierarchy Colour » Using type

Left
This is an invitation created by
MadeThought for an exhibition
by contemporary design and
manufacturing company
Established & Sons. It features
several changes in font size and
style, and the distinctive headline
font creates a clear sense of
hierarchy.

129

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 129 Page:129 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Working with a hierarchy requires additional separation, a second type weight
The key to working effectively with a hierarchy is to can be introduced and additional colour, indentation or
have an understanding of the types of information being graphic devices can be used. Any added device should
dealt with. Not all publications, screen projects or print ultimately be able to justify its presence. If it is not
items have, or need, complicated hierarchies. If one type needed, do not use it.
weight will suffice then why use two? If the information

Right
A simple hierarchical type order
is defined by geographical page
spacing, type weight and type
size in this understated
letterhead created by George
& Vera design studio for a
promotions company.

130

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 130 Page:130 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Hierarchy Colour » Using type

Above and left

These images show an identity and invitations by Planning Unit, for
London gallery Payne Shurvell. The typography, although simple, is
considered and distinctive. A sense of hierarchy is instilled through type
size, position and colour. In this identity scheme only one font is used,
Bureau Grotesque. This makes the choice of a font of great importance,
what does the font ‘say’, what message does it convey? Now shortened
to Bureau Grot, this font was used in the Tribunes Newsweek, and it
still has a feel of editorial gravity and authority.

131

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 131 Page:131 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Working without a hierarchy sense isn’t necessarily needed. Order, pace, delivery of
Previously we looked at how a hierarchy is used to add a information and clarity of thought, are all facets that can
defined and ordered appearance to a piece of design. In be conveyed without the use of a dictatorial hierarchy.
many instances, however, a hierarchy in the traditional

In this brochure for Chase PR by George & Vera design studio, the
absence of a text hierarchy allows a harmonious balance of text and
image, without visual interference. The text, all one size and one colour,
still creates a clear and intentional design statement.

132

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 132 Page:132 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Hierarchy Colour » Using type

Above
This spread was created by Chilean design studio Y&R
Diseño for a book celebrating Chile’s bicentennial.
Hand-painted typography has elements picked out in
primary colours creating a clear division of information.

Left
Anarchic qualities are translated to exhibition graphics
in this installation by Studio Myerscough for
Archigram. The freedom of the typography is both
engaging and informative. The hierarchy in this instance
is a fluid and changeable part of the design.

133

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 133 Page:133 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Colour
Colour works with typography in many ways to help impart information
and contribute to the overall visual effect of a design.
Colour can be used to provide a logical, visual hierarchy reproduced. The ability of foil to pick up and reflect
for text, in addition to providing definition, contrast and colours around it can also be used to add dynamism
added meaning to text elements. This applies to the to typographical elements.
colours printed and the substrate upon which they are

In typography, colour can also describe the balance In contrast, Helvetica 25 has fine, delicate lines that appear
between black and white on a page of text. As much lighter. As there is less ink on the page, the white
different typefaces have different stroke widths, stock dominates and gives the page a grey ‘colour’.
x-heights and serif styles, fonts set in the same Cheltenham is stockier and has a lower x-height than
size, with the same leading and other dimensions Helvetica. While not as ‘black’ as Aachen, it creates the
will produce varying degrees of ‘colour’ coverage impression of a condensed black line crossing the page, as
on the page, and give the impression of different does Times New Roman and Perpetua, to a lesser degree.
colours. Although this is an extreme example, it
illustrates the point well. Slab serif font Aachen
has broad strokes and appears very black on the
page as the ink dominates.

Specifying colour on-screen use, designers employ the RGB (red, green
Most desktop publishing programs allow type to be and blue) colour selection, and when preparing for print
specified according to different colour systems, notably they use CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow and black).
Pantone and Hexachrome. When preparing work for

100% M 100% Y 100% C 100% Y 100% C 100% M 70% C 60% M 70% Y 40% K 6%C 12% M 5% Y

High values of two colours give a strong, definite colour. High aggregate values result in Low value tints can cause visible
a muddy colour. dot gain.

Colour associations
There are thousands of colours to choose from but it is important to highlight that certain
colours are associated with particular meanings. For example, red is used in China for
weddings and funerals because it represents celebration and luck. The same colour
in Eastern cultures represents joy, while in Western cultures it represents danger.
Blue is a sacred colour for Hindus as it is the colour of Krishna. It is also a
holy colour in the Jewish faith, while the Chinese link blue to immortality.
In Western culture, white is a colour of purity used for weddings, but in
Eastern cultures it is a colour of mourning, symbolizing death.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 134 Page:134 5/13/11 11:04 AM
« Hierarchy Colour Surprint, overprint, knockout and reverse » Using type

This poster was created by George

& Vera design studio for an exhibition
for artist Kate Davis at London’s Fred
gallery. George & Vera used a simple
typographic layout and different coloured
inks with elements from Davis’s
‘Condition’ series of drawings, which
covers the changing moods and
sentiments we associate with colours.

135

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 135 Page:135 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Surprint, overprint, knockout and reverse
These terms relate to how printing inks can produce different effects.
A surprint uses tints of the same colour to create texture. An overprint
occurs when one ink is applied over another, usually a darker ink is
printed over a lighter one. Knockout printing is a gap left in the base
colour, allowing other colours, an image or the unprinted page to show
through. In contrast, a reverse sees one colour printing out of another –
not allowing any other element to show through.

Surprint Overprint Reverse

The panels above show how the order and settings of elements can create different effects. A surprint features tints of the
same colour, in this case black. In an overprint, one ink is applied over another – with no gap left in the base colour. A
knockout shows a gap left in the base colour whereas reverse printing sees one colour printing out of another, in this
case yellow printing out of black.

overprin
overprint
overprint
overprint
voverprint
verprint
print
print overprint
overprint
overprint
overprint
The word ‘overprint’ is printed twice (above) using the four CMYK process colours. The left set is overprint while the
right set is knockout. Overprinting effectively blends the printed colours to produce new ones such as green, while
knocking out retains the purity of the individual colours. These techniques give a designer options for graphic
manipulation by extending the range of the colour palette used, without the need to use different printing inks.

136

Job: 02698
Job: 02698 Title:
Title: Fund
Fund of
of Typoraphy
Typoraphy (2nd
(2nd edition)
edition) (AVA)
(AVA)
038-192 02698_path.indd
038-192 02698_path.indd 136
136 Page:136
Page:136 5/13/11
5/13/11 11:13
11:04 AM
AM
« Colour Surprint, overprint, knockout and reverse Printing and type realization » Using type

Above
This spread from Juice magazine created by
Parent design studio features an overprint over
a photo on the verso page, with text reversed
out of a solid colour on the recto page.

Right
Spread from the magazine Zembla created by
design studio Frost design. A knockout out was
used to create a white on black tapestry of type.

137

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C4.indd 137 Page:137 7/14/11 4:00 PM
Printing and type realization
The way text elements are presented in a design is not just a
question of font selection, styling and positioning within a piece.
As the examples on this spread illustrate, the printing method to be
used and whether any print finishing will be required are important
post-design considerations. A design undergoes a metamorphosis from
what is created on screen to the production of the final product.

The examples on this page are intended to give an overview of the possibilities of type
realization. Many final printed pieces involve several of these processes, and the art of
combining them can create some sensational, dynamic and brave work. Common to all
is that they add to perceived value and enable work to appear unique and unusual.

Letterpress Hot metal type Gravure Silk screen

Webb & Webb used The cover of Paw Prints, a self- Gravure is a high-volume This invitation for Staverton
letterpress to give this published book produced by intaglio printing process in furniture by SEA Design has
showreel packaging for design studio Webb & Webb, which the printing area is the text screen printed in white
photographer Robert Dowling features letterpress typography etched into the printing plate, on blocks of yellow perspex in
a bespoke touch. Letterpress on a duplexed cover substrate and is capable of fine detail and order to create a distinctive and
prints differently according to that is a combination of paper reliable results. This example is weighty invitation. Silk
the amount of ink and pressure board and endpapers. Hot metal from 1000 years 1000 words, a screening allows almost any
on the printing press, giving type gives a tactile impression to book designed by Webb & Webb substrate to be printed.
work an individual twist. the page. for Royal Mail, UK.

138

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 138 Page:138 5/13/11 11:04 AM
« Surprint, overprint, knockout and reverse Printing and type realization Type on screen » Using type

Fluorescents and Spot UV Thermography Varnish

specials The cover of this brochure A method of applying a powder This invitation, designed by
Pictured is a book with metallic created for property developer to a still-wet printed sheet, Turnbull Grey for risk specialist
type, designed by Still Waters Austin Gray by Parent design which is then heated, leaving a Marsh Mercer, features text
Run Deep. Special colours also studio features a dual line font mottled texture. This Christmas reversed out of a pearlescent
include pastels, metallics and printed in a spot UV varnish. card for Lisa Pritchard Agency varnish that can only be read
fluorescents, which are printed Spot UV varnishes are striking by SEA Design was when it catches the light. Several
via a separate pass and give rich, and heavy. Not only can they be thermographically printed varnishes are available to choose
vibrant colours. Special colours seen on the page, they can also leaving ‘bubbly’ characters that from including gloss, matt, satin
are also flat, containing no dots, be felt as a raised surface. are highly visible, tactile and and more adventurous ones such
as they are not made from reflect light in a unique way. as pearlescent.
CMYK process colours.

Emboss Deboss Die cut Foil blocking

This brochure cover designed by This brochure by Faydherbe / This invitation by Studio This business card was created
Faydherbe / De Vringer features De Vringer features debossed Myerscough features die-cut for interior designers d-raw
an embossed title to give added typography covered with a UV text, giving a textural quality to Associates by MadeThought
depth. In an emboss a pair of lacquer. A deboss uses a pair of the piece. Die cuts are usually and features silver-foil type that
dies are used to raise the surface dies to make a deep impression applied after printing. Laser- has been stamped into light-
of the substrate. An emboss is in the printed surface. A blind cutting gives a more accurate coloured greyboard. Foils are
usually applied with ink or a emboss uses no ink or foil, cut, but is more expensive. available in many textures and
foil. A blind emboss occurs whereas a deboss is usually colours, and can add a reflective
when no ink is applied. applied with colour. dimension to a piece of work.

139

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 139 Page:139 5/13/11 11:04 AM
Above
This book for the Asian
Development Bank called
‘Reflections & Beyond’ was
designed by Webb & Webb and
uses letterpress typography. The
book celebrates 25 years of the
bank and is a series of ‘verbal
histories’ of the staff.

Right and above right

The type, set by printers Hand
& Eye, features a series of
‘images’. For example the
Manila skyline, shown right,
which accompanies personal
stories from people living in
the Philippines. The rotated
‘J’ shown on the spread
above represents a new water
infrastructure project that
the bank supports.

140

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 140 Page:140 5/13/11 11:05 AM
« Surprint, overprint, knockout and reverse Printing and type realization Type on screen » Using type

Above left and left

Letters form a suitcase,
representing workers arriving,
while a maze of letters illustrates
the chapter opener ‘Complex
Situations and Tricky
Judgement Calls’.

Above
An accompanying CD
containing sounds and stories
from the region was also
printed in letterpress.

141

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 141 Page:141 5/13/11 11:05 AM
142

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 142 Page:142 5/13/11 11:05 AM
« Surprint, overprint, knockout and reverse Printing and type realization Type on screen » Using type

Opposite Above
This is the Yearling Jazz & Classics direct mailer created for Arjo This envelope was created by design studio SEA Design for paper
Wiggins by Thomas Manss & Co. design studio. The qualities of the merchant GF Smith to demonstrate the quality and flexibility of the
paper are articulated through a series of specialist printing techniques. stock, and showcase the creative use of colour. The scarlet base stock
Here they have used letterpress and a bronze foil. Typographical has a brocade emboss and gold foil block to exaggerate the decadent
elements are used in images to mimic details of musical instruments. patterning.

143

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 143 Page:143 5/13/11 11:05 AM
Type on screen
The use of type on screen shares many of the requirements and
concerns of type on a printed page. The same thought patterns govern
the use of layout and the font choices made, but the end result is a
little less controllable.
HTML vs Flash will undoubtedly have an impact on the route people
When designing for screen, an important factor for choose to take. The main advantage of Flash is that a
consideration is whether the design will be built using designer has greater control over what a web page will
HTML or Flash. Both have advantages and disadvantages look like over a series of different machines. HTML, in
and designers and clients need to be clear about the contrast, will look different on different machines –
intentions of a website from the outset. HTML is a though it is worth remembering that this also means that
progamming language, and creates websites where the users with special needs and requirements will also be
content is easily searchable by search engines. Flash on better catered for.
the other hand isn’t easy to search, and isn’t as easy to
update as HTML. Blogs, forums and social networking
sites are easier to integrate into a HTML site, and this

Left
Shown here is a website and its
hand-held device version, by
Creasence Design for Far From
Moscow. The site is a resource
for promoting and recording
emerging music from Russia,
Ukraine, and Belarus, together
with the Baltic nations (Latvia,
Lithuania, Estonia). The site is
edited and updated by David
MacFadyen (Department of
Slavic Languages and Literatures
at the University of California,
Los Angeles). The site embraces
the new technology offered by
the web, and uses a simple, clear,
hierarchical typography style.

144

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 144 Page:144 5/13/11 11:05 AM
« Printing and type realization Type on screen Grids and fonts » Using type

Standard fonts for use on PCs have Macintosh equivalents that are designed to fulfil the same tasks. For example, there
are standard serif and sans serif fonts, a cursive font and so on as illustrated in the lists below. These standard fonts and
their counterparts have the same set widths, as the two passages of text set in Century Gothic and Avant Garde show.

Standard PC fonts Standard Macintosh fonts

Century Gothic Avant Garde

Arial Helvetica
Arial Narrow Helvetica Narrow
Times New Roman Times Roman
New Courier Courier
Century Schoolbook New Century Schoolbook
Bookman Old Style ITC Bookman
Monotype Corsiva Zapf Chancery
Monotype Sorts ITC Zapf Dingbats

=DSI 'LQJEDWV ✺❁❐❆ ✤❉■❇❂❁▼▲

Symbol Symbol
Σψμβολ Σψμβολ
Fonts have equivalents which mean that the Fonts have equivalents which mean that the
space they occupy on a web page is identical space they occupy on a web page is identical
when viewed using different operating when viewed using different operating
systems, although the font may appear systems, although the font may appear
different. The use of equivalents prevents text different. The use of equivalents prevents text
from being reflowed when displayed on from being reflowed when displayed on
different platforms. The two lists above show different platforms. The two lists above show
various fonts and their equivalents. This is various fonts and their equivalents. This is
Century Gothic, the PC equivalent of ITC ITC Avant Garde, the Mac equivalent of
Avant Garde (right). Century Gothic (left).

145

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 145 Page:145 5/13/11 11:05 AM
Before After

This identity and website design by Creasence Design shows the As part of the redesign, the original logo, shown above left, was
translation of traditional design skills into online activity. A clear refined and simplified for use online. The original logo is unnecessarily
hierarchy, a refined colour palette and controlled, restrained typography confused and cluttered, and the revised identity brings a sense of
creates a sense of order, while still feeling feminine and inviting. care and structure to the design.
You’ll also notice over a series of pages from the website, that layout
and alignment are used to create pace and structure.

146

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd
02698_C2.indd 146
146 Page:146 5/13/11
6/3/11 11:05
1:48 PM
AM
« Printing and type realization Type on screen Grids and fonts » Using type

147

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd
02698_C2.indd 147
147 Page:147 5/13/11
6/3/11 11:05
1:48 PM
AM
Grids and fonts
Grids can be used as a basis for creating typography, with the letterforms
built around the structure of a grid rather than being penned by hand
or based on carved letterforms like traditional typographic forms.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890
Foundry Gridnik Light
Often described as the thinking man’s Courier, Foundry Gridnik is based on a font by Dutch designer Wim Crouwel, and takes its name from
his devotion to the grid – he was often called ‘Mr Gridnik’ by his contemporaries in the 1960s.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
1234567890
OCR-B
The OCR-B font was designed as an optical character recognition font (OCR) and as such can be scanned and turned back into editable text.
To aid this process the characters are made additionally explicit to avoid any confusion, which would lead to scrambled text. The capital ‘I’ for example
has exaggerated slab serifs so that it cannot be confused with the number ‘1’. The capital ‘O’ is very round in comparison to the number ‘0’, again
to prevent confusion. This is a monospaced font which means that all characters, however thin, occupy the same amount of space.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890
Data Seventy
Data Seventy is reminiscent of LED calculator display screens from the 1970s. The characters appear very square and have a space-age feel.

148

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 148 Page:148 5/13/11 11:05 AM
« Type on screen Grids and fonts Generating type » Using type

This is Moonbase Alpha, created

by Swiss typographer Cornel
Windlin in 1991 for issue 3 of font
magazine FUSE, which focused
on disinformation. Windlin used
type generation software for the
first time in the design, which
was based on a pixelated printout
of 4pt that he cleaned up, Akzidenz Grotesk

restructured and partly

redesigned.
149

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 149 Page:149 5/13/11 11:05 AM
Generating type
While there are thousands of typefaces available, it is sometimes
necessary to generate new ones. Fonts can be produced in a number
of different ways, from creating original art to replicating type from
older publications, mark making or rendering type in font generation
programs. The ability to create fonts electronically has enabled fonts to
be generated quickly, in response to the specific needs and desires of
clients, designers and typographers.

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
FF Stealth, above
FF Stealth has strong graphic presence. Created by Malcolm Garrett in 1995, it features minimalist forms reminiscent of occult symbols.

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
FF Karton, above
Designed by Just van Rossum in 1992, this font has the appearance of being sprayed, rather than printed.

This is an identity created

by Studio Myerscough for
webwizards. It uses a typeface
inspired by the Slinky toy.
The letters replicate the
movements of a Slinky’s coils.

150

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 150 Page:150 5/13/11 11:05 AM
« Grids and fonts Generating type Vectors and rasters » Using type

This typeface was created by London design studio Research Studios to promote ‘Made in
Clerkenwell’, an open event held in central London. To reflect the precise and crafted, artisan-
nature of the works exhibited (including ceramics, textiles and jewellery), a hand-drawn type was
developed. The typeface was generated using vector paths, as these can be quickly manipulated to
obtain the desired shape and style for each letter. Each character is created using lines of the same
width, ensuring consistency and a degree of uniformity from letter to letter.

151

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd
02698_C3.indd 151
151 Page:151 5/13/11
7/13/11 11:05
10:25 AM
A masthead design by Planning Unit that makes reference to op art. The logo is deceptively simple, while also
being amazingly complicated. The illusion of movement is created by the expressive lines that collide to make
letters, as though shimmering in a pool of water.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 152 Page:152 5/13/11 11:08 AM
« Grids and fonts Generating type Vectors and rasters » Using type

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 153 Page:153 5/13/11 11:09 AM
Vectors and rasters
There are essentially two ways of digitally storing typography: in vector
format and in raster format. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages,
and there are instances where both will be used on a single job, as shown
on the following spread.

Vectors Rasters
Nearly all fonts are saved as vector-based information. Once type is rasterized (that is to say converted from
That is to say that they are constructed from a set of lines and coordiantes into pixels, like a photographic
mathematical coordinates and values, which in turn image) any number of effects and styles can be applied.
generate the typefaces we use. For this reason they can be This is usually only done for titles, and for on-screen
resized at will, and can be enlarged indefinitely, without work, such as title sequences in a film. The disadvantage
any degradation in quality or loss of sharpness. This of this approach is that once converted into a raster
means they can be easily distributed, and you only need format, type is no longer editable as letters and words, as
the main font file to be able to generate text at any size. it is now essentially a picture made of pixels and colour
The limitation is that they tend to be constructed from information. You also need to be aware that rasters are
crisp, linear lines, and it can be hard to assimilate texture, of a finite size and can’t be enlarged without degradation
or any graphic effects while in a vector format. of image quality.

154

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 154 Page:154 5/13/11 11:09 AM
« Generating type Vectors and rasters Legibility and readability » Using type

Above and right

Shown is a poster and invitation
to a concert by pianist and
composer Lena Platonos by The
Design Shop. The typography is
based on the symbol for the
‘Fruit of Life’. The Fruit of Life
is a geometrical figure, said to
be the blueprint for the universe,
based on 13 circles. The shape
shown here is called Metaton’s
Cube, and within this,
typographical forms are set.
The accuracy of vector graphics
is used to create the detailed line
work and geometric forms.

155

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 155 Page:155 5/13/11 11:09 AM
156

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 156 Page:156 5/13/11 11:09 AM
« Generating type Vectors and rasters Legibility and readability » Using type

This page and opposite

Generation Txt is a series of books published by Penned in the Margins and
designed by the design and arts collective, Mercy. The books demonstrate
an eclectic range of approaches to typography and the complex relationship
between text and image. From type-set forms to hand-rendered marks, the
resulting covers are both dynamic and engaging. The various book titles are
a mixture of vector and raster graphics. On the page opposite, ‘Napoleon’s
Travelling Bookcase’ uses a raster artwork to get texture and degradation,
while in contrast, ‘Static Exile’ (right) makes use of vector artwork to generate
a clean, accurate design.

157

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 157 Page:157 5/13/11 4:32 PM
Legibility and readability
These two terms are often used synonymously. Strictly speaking, legibility
refers to the ability to distinguish one letterform from another through the
physical characteristics inherent in a particular typeface, such as x-height,
character shapes, counter size, stroke contrast and type weight. Readability
concerns the properties of a piece of type or design that affect the ability
to make it understood. That is to say that you don’t need to be able to read
something, to understand it. Graffiti that is illegible allows people to read
anger on the part of the protagonist, for example.

The decorative nature of the Benguiat font means that when set as body copy it can

Ab
be hard to read, as the decorative elements impede the eye tracking across the text
and break the reading flow. While characters at display size are clear, at smaller sizes
legibility is compromised.

Ab
In contrast to the example above, Ionic is designed specifically for newspaper
applications; its exaggerated serifs, large open counters and relatively large
x-height means that it is easy to read over extended texts.

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
The fonts above (from top to bottom: Crash, Caustic Biomorph Extra Bold and Barnbrook Gothic Three) may not be the most legible, but in the
right contexts they can inform the reader through their readability - character forms themselves convey an instant message in addition to the words
they spell.

158

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 158 Page:158 5/13/11 11:09 AM
« Vectors and rasters Legibility and readability Texture » Using type

DO WE
PAY MORE
ATTENTION
WHEN UNUSUAL
FONTS ARE
USED?
Emerging research shows that we actually learn better could be argued that they, and any message they carry,
when the learning is made harder. This sounds counter- will simply wash over us. Fonts less frequently seen, such
intuitive, but using fonts that require more effort to read as Dogma, as shown above, could possibly be unusual
can actually force the brain to interpret the information enough to encourage the reader to stop, read and
in a different way. Neuroscientist Jonah Lehrer explains: remember. Lehrer continues: ‘When the part of our brain
‘When we see a font that is easy to read, something like devoted to reading has to exert that extra bit of effort we may
Helvetica, we are able to process it in a very mindless way. actually remember what we are reading even better.’
But when we see an unfamiliar font, a font full of weird
squiggles and curlicues, the visual cortex in the brain has to work
a little bit harder and the extra effort is a signal to the brain that
this is worth remembering.’ Although this may sound odd,
how many times do we see type set in the same few
fonts? Helvetica, Times and Arial are so familiar that it

159

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 159 Page:159 5/13/11 11:09 AM
Texture
Typography is just one element of a design, used in combination with
images, diagrams, photography and other graphic elements. Type forms
part of a larger visual scheme. The vast array of typefaces available means
that type can be used to add a great deal of texture to a design, as the
examples in this spread show.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
The fonts above (from top: Stamp Gothic, Confidential and Flight Case) show how texture can be added to a typeface design. The fonts offer a
facsimile of the patchy nature of other printing methods and are used to add an effect of degradation.

Left
This cover was created by design studio Frost Design and features a single letterpressed
ampersand character at a monumental scale. The inherent texture of the process creates
interest and a point of difference.

Opposite
Texture has been added to this identity for an art gallery on the island of Kea, Greece,
by infilling the counters of the letters, creating a strong visual pattern. The design, by
The Design Shop, is intended to ‘combine the dynamic but simple aesthetics of a
contemporary art space, with the feeling of the island landscape’.

160

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C4.indd 160 Page:160 7/14/11 4:00 PM
Using type

161

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 161 Page:161 5/13/11 11:09 AM
apples to books to comics
to decoration to earrings to
fluffy clouds to giraffes to
handbags to ideas to jigsaws
to kaleidoscopes to loving
to mornings to notebooks to
originality to prints to questions
to rainbows to soaps to time
to umbrellas to vices to wonders
to x-static to you to zebras

Above
In this identity The Design Shop added texture by choosing the right
words. Apples to Zebras sell a range of eclectic gifts, and this identity
is all about selecting and editing. As Mark Twain said: ‘The difference
between the almost-right word and the right word is the difference
between the lightning bug and the lightning!’

162

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 162 Page:162 5/13/11 11:09 AM
« Legibility and readability Texture Type as image » Using type

Left and below

Peter and Paul design studio
added texture to these designs
by overprinting type on the
base image and subtly layering
information.

163

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 163 Page:163 5/13/11 11:09 AM
Type as image
In addition to spelling out words, type is also used as a graphic device
that speaks more through its visual representation than the meanings
of the constituent letters.

Left
This poster was part of the ‘26 Letters: Illuminating
the Alphabet’ poster series for an exhibition at the
British Library in London, developed and curated
by 26, who promote writing in business, and the
International Society of Typographic Designers.
Thomas Manss, of Thomas Manss & Co., and
writer Mike Reed created X using ten stories
featuring the letter (including the discovery of
x-rays, how Malcolm X got his name and Robert
Priest’s short story,The Man Who Broke Out of the
Letter X). The artwork features a rainbow-coloured,
three-dimensional ‘X’ constructed from passages of
the stories.

164

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 164 Page:164 5/13/11 11:09 AM
« Texture Type as image Concrete poetry, typograms, trompe l’œil and calligrammes » Using type

Above and right

All the handwritten type in
this brochure was created by
Webb & Webb design studio
for an exhibition of chairs by
Nicholas Von der Borch and
Jeff Fisher. The result is a mix
of words, drawn symbols,
sketches and mis-spellings
(such as ‘suksesful disine’),
which creates a strong, image-
based visual impression. It also
tips its hat to a surrealist paint-
ing by René Magritte Ceci n’est
pas une pipe (‘This is not a pipe’).

165

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 165 Page:165 5/13/11 11:09 AM
Concrete poetry, typograms, trompe l’œil and calligrammes
Text can have a playful side – and these common ‘tricks’ can add interest
to a design. If used correctly, these approaches can create subtle and
effective additions to a typographer’s arsenal.

Concrete poetry
Concrete poetry is experimental poetry from the
1950-1960s that concentrated on the visual appearance
of words through the use of different typographical
arrangements, such as the use of shaped text blocks and
collage. The intent of the poet is conveyed by the shape
the poem takes rather than a conventional reading of the
words. As concrete poetry is visual, its effect is lost when
a poem is read aloud.

Typograms
A typogram refers to the deliberate use of typography to
express an idea visually, but by incorporating something
more than just the letters that constitute the word. For
example, the word ‘half ’ cut in half and displayed with
only half visible letters would be a typogram.

Trompe l’œil
Meaning ‘trick of the eye’ a trompe l’œil is an optical
illusion in which a design is made to look like something
it is not. Common trompe l’œil tricks include making type
appear as if it is an object, applied to the page, or ‘stuck-
on’.

Calligramme
French writer Guillaume Apollinaire invented calli-
grammes in 1918, which he described as ‘painting with
Above words’. From the Greek, callos, meaning ‘beauty’, and
This book was created by Cartlidge Levene design studio for an exhibition gram/graph, meaning ‘written’ or ‘write’, a calligramme is a
of the work of sound installation artist Bruce Nauman at London’s Tate word, phrase or poem that is written so that it forms an
Modern Gallery. The book features spreads that are set with type patterns image of the subject of the text. A famous calligramme is
referring to his works, in an attempt to visually convey with static text the Il pleut, where the letters rain down thep a
. g e
playfulness of the sounds in his works and their aural repetition. a
r m y v i
l d
xe e i k q
166 h
g p
l w l
Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
038-192 02698_path.indd 166 Page:166 5/13/11 11:09 AM
« Type as image Concrete poetry, typograms, trompe l’œil and calligrammes Humour » Using type

Above and following page

Pictured above and on the
following page is the cover and
inside of an invitation created
by Webb & Webb design studio
for an event at Hogarth’s House
in London. To convey a sense
of the festivities, the name of
the institution is split or
wrapped around from the
cover to the inner to produce
the jolly ‘Ho Ho’ typogram.

Above
This is a poster created for an architecture exhibition by Chilean design studio Y&R. It features
a capital ‘A’ drawn like a solid structure, representing architecture. The crossbar in the form of an
eye refers to the fact that at an exhibition a visitor looks at things.

167

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C2.indd
02698_path.indd 167
167 Page:167 5/13/11
6/3/11 11:09
1:47 PM
AM
Left
See previous page.

Below
This logo by Thomas Manss &
Co. for Metamorphosis hints at
the transformation of a
caterpillar to a butterfly.

168

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd
02698_C3.indd 168
168 Page:168 5/13/11
7/13/11 11:09
10:24 AM
« Type as image Concrete poetry, typograms, trompe l’œil and calligrammes Humour » Using type

Right
This poster was created by
Angus Hyland at Pentagram for
the London College of Printing
to promote an exhibition of
logos created by the design
studio. The word ‘Symbol’ has
been turned into a logotype to
illustrate the nature of what
logotypes can become.

169

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 169 Page:169 5/13/11 11:09 AM
Humour
We tend to think of typography as being a serious subject, concerned
with detail, measurements and relationships, and to a certain extent it is.
But typography also has a unique place in our lives, we interact with it
in so many different ways. Humour is often employed as a persuasion
technique in advertising and design, and can be subtle and sophisticated,
as the examples on this spread demonstrate.

Above
This invitation was created by Turnbull Grey design studio for private
equity firm Bain & Company. The ascenders have been extended to
appear like drinking straws. This shows how type can be constantly
altered, and new meanings formed. It is also a reminder that type is
there to inform, but it can also amuse and entertain.

Right
This is the cover of a property brochure created by Studio Myerscough
design studio for the Sweeps Building development in Clerkenwell,
London. It features hand-drawn script letterforms reflecting the name
of the development.

170

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 170 Page:170 5/13/11 11:10 AM
« Concrete poetry, typograms, trompe l’œil and calligrammes Humour Environmental typography » Using type

Above and right

This identity by Mouse Graphics
for the body responsible for
promoting Greek design abroad
makes use of the ‘hidden’ ‘gr’
(for Greece) in the word design.
This makes a statement about
Greece becoming a more
prominent force in modern
graphic design. This is an
example of a two-in-one, a
common form of typographic
humour, where two messages are
conveyed in a single unit.

171

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 171 Page:171 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Environmental typography
Type can be larger than life, adopting a physical presence in the
environment, as the examples on this spread show.

Left
This signage at London
Barbican was created by design
studios Studio Myerscough and
Cartlidge Levene. The large-
scale signage wraps around the
building like a second skin, with
apertures cut away that allow
the building to show through.

Above
The DIN-Schrift typeface is used on German road signage. As this is The images above show the original typeface and how it looks in poor
often reversed out of black and viewed in poor conditions, the visibility (left) and the enhanced typeface and how it looks in poor
letterforms have been tweaked to add clarity. For example, the counter visibility (above).
of the ‘o’ has been made more oval, letters have been lengthened, and
the umlaut diacritical mark has been made circular rather than square.

172

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 172 Page:172 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Using type

Above
This installation was created by Gavin Ambrose for the Design Council
to reduce complex statistical information to single ‘facts’ that invite the
viewer to interact with them. The explanation or significance of each
number is screen printed on the side of its constructed form and
viewers are actively encouraged to sit on and explore the letterforms.

Left
This design by Studio Myerscough and architectural practice Allford
Hall Monaghan Morris uses type at a large scale to indicate specific
areas for children’s activities such as netball, football and basketball. It is
intended to be fun, engaging and ultimately informative.

173

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 173 Page:173 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Vernacular
Vernacular is the everyday language spoken by a group of people,
including slang and regional phrasing. It is the language of the street,
no matter where that street is. To a certain extent, the textures of
vernacular can be communicated in text through the use of typography.
Type has personality, and from the typographic choices made, text can
be instilled with the personality of the typeface, whether conservative,
authoritarian, young or rebellious.

Many fonts have a heritage that can be traced back to physical objects in the environment,
some of which are shown below.

The Tape Type font utilizes the

random patterns and irregular
lines of packaging tape to create
a clumsy and textured effect.
Tape Type
Inspired by electronic display
systems, the LED font is based on
a simplified grid of seven bars. LED
Stencil, created by Gerry Powell
in 1938, looks industrial and
durable, possibly mass produced
or shipped from afar.
stencil
Crud font looks like a typewriter
font that has been used extensively
and has badly deteriorated.
Crud Font
174

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 174 Page:174 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Using type

This page
This signage at London’s Tea
Building was created by
Studio Myerscough and
features the simple beauty of a
bespoke font. The rawness of
the application is apt for the
building, which contains many
textures and exposed materials.

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 175 Page:175 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Appropriation
Appropriation is the borrowing of aesthetic elements from a particular
epoch, style or movement and using them as part of another.
Appropriated elements frequently have denotive and/or cognitive meanings
that continue to function in their new role; placing them in a different
historical context can subvert those meanings or the new context.

The new context can be so overwhelming that the Romans, Aztecs, Persians and ancient Jewish peoples.
original source of the appropriation is forgotten. Perhaps Appropriated by Nazi Germany, it became a symbol
the most infamous example of this is the swastika. For of power and fear, representing the struggle for Aryan
3,000 years it was a symbol of good luck and prosperity supremacy.
for societies including Hindus, Buddhists, Greeks,

Left and below

These exhibition stands
by Studio Myerscough
demonstrate the power of
appropriated typography.
The bright show lights and
glamour for the Rock Style
exhibition appropriate the
graphics and technology of
the time.

176

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 176 Page:176 5/13/11 11:10 AM
« Vernacular Appropriation Ownership » Using type

Left
Type can occupy unexpected
places in the environment,
as this exhibition for Archigram
created by Studio Myerscough
design studio shows, with
deckchair canvas used as the
substrate. This appropriation
of one medium by another
demonstrates that you
shouldn’t be limited in your
use of typography.

177

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 177 Page:177 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Ownership
Designs and typography can be so successful that they become inextricably
linked to the products, organizations or events that they were created for.
For this reason, many companies may consistently use the same font to
enforce a sense of identity and ownership.

178

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 178 Page:178 5/13/11 11:10 AM
« Appropriation Ownership Case study » Using type

Above and left

The identity of branding and
communications agency
Osmosis has no definable logo.
Instead, it features a series of
‘O’s in different typefaces that
change with each application.
This is part of a strategy to
develop ownership of the letter
over a period of time, as it
becomes an intrinsic part of
Osmosis’ visual identity. Three-
dimensional ‘O’s were created
in a range of colours to be
photographed in different
environments and used on
business cards and literature.
Design agency Peter and Paul
were tasked with the brief to
‘create a visual identity bigger
and deeper than a logo, colour,
typeface and visual style; an
identity that was individual,
unique and memorable, that
was inspiring, challenging and
engaging. In short, “we want
to own the letter ‘O’”.
The resulting design by
Peter and Paul is both
memorable, and successful,
in that it does begin to take
ownership of a letterform.

179

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 179 Page:179 5/13/11 11:10 AM
180

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 180 Page:180 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Using type

This page and opposite

This identity and packaging design for an experimental fashion label, by design agency Creasence, shows
the power of using a simple element in a consistent manner. Taking ownership of the letter (the ubiquitous
Helvetica ‘R’) or the colour (a straight Pantone Red), is always going to be hard, but by combining these
elements the identity becomes distinct enough to become ‘ownable’.

181

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 181 Page:181 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Case study
Triton Global – Webb & Webb, UK

Project description several companies involved operate, both individually and

This identity by Webb & Webb for holding company with each other, not only helped us and the clients see
Triton has been developed to reflect the nature of the how they operate but also formed a key part of the initial
businesses it contains. These professional indemnity and design process. The final outcome is a combination of
insurance law companies do not share the traditional several routes: the idea of ‘global time’ – that with several
formal image of solicitors and insurance brokers. The international offices, Triton would be at the centre; that
angular typography implies a slightly ‘quirkier’ nature to one group company was both an individual specialist and
the business, while the rings formed by the converging also several parts of a whole; and a pictorial representation
‘o’s imply evolution and change, and are also a reference of the name (Triton being the largest orbiting moon of
to the global nature of the business. Neptune). Yes, the ‘gift’ works well and appears to be the
most natural idea but it was only by working through all
In discussion with James Webb, of Webb & Webb the other routes that we ended up with this.
GA The identity features what one might call a ‘gift’,
with the two words of the identity both containing a GA The work of the studio could be said to have certain
letter ‘o’, that enables you to make a connection, themes running through it. There is often a subtle sense
linguistically and visually. Do you look for these visual of humour, and you often seem to find a particular quirk,
connections? Or is it a case of allowing them to surface? or facet, that others may miss, like looking at a problem
JW When we started working on Triton Global we from a slightly different angle. When using typography do
needed to understand as much about the company you have a particular approach or stance? The beauty of
(and companies) as we did about the nature of the job. this project is that it manages to say two things in one,
Drawing a simple diagram (below) to show how the for example.

Left
Diagram showing the relative positions held by the range of
companies the identity is trying to bring together.

Above
Experiments relating to the themes of time and the reference to
the moon of Neptune, called Triton.

182

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 182 Page:182 5/13/11 11:10 AM
« Ownership Case study Typography task » Using type

Above Above
Early ‘positioning’ of the brand. Experiments in angles and convergence.

JW We really try to steer clear of an approach that could JW At the beginning of a project the whole studio
be called a studio style (although it is impossible not to will work on ideas, and the client will always have their
be affected by current trends in art, design and even the favourite approach. In this instance they were keen on
political climate). Being communicators, we always try the idea behind the ‘Global Time’ approach but liked
to put forward a clear message or idea within our work. the ‘crescent moon’ shape in the pictorial approach so
When the project calls for it we might make the message a combination of ideas by two designers was brought
deliberately difficult to work out! together into one identity. After that the application of
the identity onto other items such as stationery, website,
GA How do you feel the choice of font here has had signage, etc. is usually put together by one person but
an influence on the design? we never stop asking within the studio group ‘which
JW Our use of a particular font is influenced by the works better?’.
client or specific job – modern friendly communications
need a look that reflects the message, for example. In this GA There seems to be a snobbery in some typographic
case I think it would be difficult to identify insurance circles that certain typefaces or approaches can’t be used.
specialists with a particular font and the choice is more Does the studio have any rules, or feel constrained?
about finding a typeface that has a visual harmony with JW It’s impossible not to have favourite fonts or
the more complicated ‘o’ ring system. We used a slightly typographic styles and working for a lot of our
redrawn version of New Johnston, with a straight set of clients over long periods of time and on a multitude
characters – finding a good R and G was important. of different jobs means we get to learn their style or
have to follow styles set by ourselves or other design
GA How did you develop the project typography into companies. But we are never afraid to challenge the
the final form? Is this a collaborative process in the studio, client with something new.
and did this process have much input from the client/s?

183

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 183 Page:183 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Above
The final typographic logo (above), and its expansion onto web (right) and moving image (top).

184

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 184 Page:184 5/13/11 11:10 AM
« Case study Typography task Using type

Typography task

Thinking in words

Premise Other common techniques include using alliteration,

Often, identities are created from ‘hidden’ details. An where the first syllable sound is repeated, such as in the
example is the Federal Express logo, which forms an computer games Prince of Persia and Warrior Within).
arrow in the negative space where the ‘E’ and ‘x’ meet. Substitution, addition and modification are also common
techniques of which portmanteau words are an example.
In these word combinations, two or more words are
used to create a new but linked word. Indeed, FedEx
(shown opposite) is a portmanteau of ‘Federal’ and
‘Express’. Many of these words have since come into
Others exploit the shape of words. For example, Baskin common parlance, for example blog (web & log) or
Robbins make 31 flavours of ice cream – this is cleverly brunch (breakfast & lunch). Often, when these
highlighted in the stems of the ‘B’ and the ‘R’. Oil portmanteau words are brought together, the two
company Mobil, uses the ‘o’ in its name to represent an original words are still identifiable, and are often
oil pipe and wheel. marked by an upper-case letter. This technique of using
an upper-case letter in the middle of a word is called
Camel Case or Inter Cap. Although unconventional in
normal prose, this approach has become relatively
common in the creation of identities and brands.

You can also make use of the sound of words – for Exercise
example this identity for oil producer, Kuwait 1 Select a company, real or fictitious, and simply
Petroleum International (Q8). using the characters of its name, experiment how it
can be articulated using some or all of the devices
described on this page.
2 Think about the pattern of the letters, the sound
and the meaning. Does it have a pattern of
ascenders and descenders, does it have a particular
rhyming pattern, can you form a ‘picture’ out of
Sometimes, it is worth encouraging the viewer to work any of the characters?
it out, in the form of a rebus, or puzzle – for example 3 Consider how these effects can be used to enhance
the ubiquitous ‘I Love New York’ logo by Milton Glaser a logo or typographic marque.
4 Produce an identity/series of identities using these
principles.

Outcome
To encourage experimental thinking in relation to
words and sounds. To think about type in a new way.

185

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 185 Page:185 5/13/11 11:10 AM
& 186

038-192 02698_path.indd 186

038-192
Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
Page:186 5/13/11 11:10 AM
conclusion
Typography is an essential communication and Typography can be a complex subject, with its
design element that has evolved over several own technical terms and jargon. These have been
centuries, and continues to evolve as tastes defined and explained to facilitate more precise
change and technology makes it easier to develop communication of requirements.
new typefaces.
We would like to thank everyone who has been
Type plays a fundamental role in the involved in the production of this volume,
communication process as much through the especially all the designers and design studios that
shapes and styling of the letterforms as the actual generously contributed examples of their work.
words that they form. And a final big thank you to Caroline Walmsley,
Brian Morris and Leafy Robinson at AVA Publishing
This volume has attempted to outline the origins of for all their help and support.
type and show how it has developed through time
to provide a base of information that can be used All reasonable attempts have been made to clear
to inform typographical decision making. This permissions and credit the copyright holders of the
volume has also attempted to show how type can works reproduced in this book. However, if any
be used creatively to enhance communication and have been inadvertently omitted, the publisher
produce visual impact, in addition to identifying will endeavour to incorporate amendments in
key norms to guide type usage. future editions.

187

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 187 Page:187 5/13/11 11:10 AM
glossary
Apex Chin Drop capital Gravure
The point formed at the top of The terminal angled part of the A capital letter set in a larger A high volume intaglio printing
a character such as ‘A’ where the ‘G’. point size and aligned with the process in which the printing
left and right strokes meet. top of the first line. area is etched into the printing
Condensed plate.
Bar A narrower version of the Ear
The horizontal stroke on Roman cut. Decorative flourish on the upper Hairline
characters ‘A’, ‘H’, ‘T’, ‘e’, ‘f ’, ‘t’. right side of the ‘g’ bowl. The thinnest stroke in a typeface
Sometimes called a crossbar on Counter that has varying widths. Also
‘A’ and ‘H’ or arm on ‘F’, ‘T’, ‘E’ The empty space inside the Em refers to a 0.25pt line, the
and ‘K’ upstroke. body stroke surrounded by the Unit of measurement derived thinnest line that can be
bowl. from the width of the square confidently produced by
Baseline body of the cast upper case ‘M’. printing processes.
The baseline is an imaginary Cross stroke An em equals the size of a given
line upon which a line of text Horizontal stroke that crosses type, i.e. the em of 10 point type Hand drawn
sits and is the point from which over the stem. is 10 points. Typography that is hand made.
other elements of type are
measured including x-height and Crotch Emboss Hierarchy
leading. Where the leg and arm of the A design stamped without ink A logical, organized and visual
‘K’ and ‘k’ meet. or foil giving a raised surface. guide for text headings that
Blackletter indicates different levels of
A typeface based on the ornate Cursive En importance.
writing prevalent during the Inclined typeface exhibiting Unit of measurement equal to
Middle Ages. Also called block, calligraphic qualities. Used to half of one em. Hook
gothic, old English, black or describe true italics, as opposed Serif at the top of a stem.
broken. to slanted obliques of Roman Extended
forms. A wider version of the Roman Ink trapping
Body text cut. The adjustment of areas of
Body text or copy is the text Deboss colour, text or shapes to account
that forms the main part of a As emboss but recessed into Eye for misregistration on the
work. It is usually between 8 the substrate. A counter, specifically of ‘e’. printing press by overlapping
and 14 points in size. them.
Descender Font
Bold The part of a letter that falls The physical attributes needed Intaglio
A version of the Roman with a below the baseline. to make a typeface, be it film, A technique that describes the
wider stroke. Also called medium, metal, wood or PostScript printing of an image from a
semibold, black, super or poster. Die cut information. recessed design that is incised or
Special shapes cut into a substrate etched into the surface of a
Boldface type by a steel rule. Foot plate. The ink lies recessed below
A thick, heavy variety of type Serif at the bottom of the stem the surface of the plate, transfers
used to give emphasis. Display type that sits on the baseline. to the stock under pressure and
Large and/or distinctive type stands in relief on the stock.
Bowl intended to attract the eye. Geometric
The stroke that surrounds and Specifically cut to be viewed Sans serif fonts that are based on Italic
contains the counter. from a distance. geometric shapes identifiable by A version of the Roman cut that
round ‘O’ and ‘Q’ letters. angles to the right at 7-20
Bracket Dot gain degrees.
The curved portion of a serif Dot gain describes the enlarging Golden Section / golden
that connects it to the stroke. of ink dots on the printing stock ratio Kerning
and is something that occurs A division in the ratio 8:13 The removal of unwanted space
Character naturally as the ink is absorbed that produces harmonious between letters.
An individual element of type into the stock. proportions.
such as a letter or punctuation Kerning pairs
mark. Down stroke Gothic Letter combinations that
The heavy stroke in a type A typeface without serifs. Also frequently need to be kerned.
character. called sans serif or lineale.

188

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 188 Page:188 5/13/11 11:10 AM
Glossary Index »

Knockout Measure Registration Surprint

Where an underlying colour has The length of a line of text The alignment of printing plates See Overprint.
a gap inserted where another expressed in picas. to create a cohesive image or
colour would overprint it. The reproduction. Tail
bottom colour is knocked out Minuscules Descending stroke on ‘Q’, ‘K’ or
to prevent colour mixing. Characters originated from the Roman ‘R’. Descenders on ‘g’, ‘j’, ‘p’, ‘q’,
Carolingian letters. Also called The basic letterform. and ‘y’ may also be called tails.
Leading lower case.
The space between lines of type Sans serif Terminal
measured from baseline to Monospaced A font without decorative serifs. A curve such as a tail, link, ear
baseline. It is expressed in points Where each character occupies a Typically with little stroke or loop, also called finial. A ball
and is a term derived from hot space with the same width. thickness variation, a larger terminal combines a tail dot or
metal type printing when strips x-height and no stress in circular stroke with a hook at
of lead were placed between Oblique rounded strokes. the end of a tail or arm. A beak
lines of type to provide line A slanted version of Roman terminal is a sharp spur at the
spacing. whose letterforms are essentially Script end of an arm.
those of the Roman form. A typeface designed to imitate
Leg Mistakenly called italics. handwriting. Tracking
The lower, down sloping stroke The adjustable amount of space
of the ‘K’, ‘k’ and ‘R’. Sometimes Old Style Serif between letters.
used for the tail of a ‘Q’. Old Style, Antiqua, Ancient, A small stroke at the end of a
Renaissance, Baroque, Venetian main vertical or horizontal Typeface
Legibility or Garalde is a typeface style stroke. Also used as a The letters, numbers and
The ability to distinguish one developed by Renaissance classification for typefaces that punctuation marks of a type
letter from another due to typographers that was based on contain such decorative design.
characteristics inherent in the Roman inscriptions. It was rounded, pointed, square, or slab
typeface design. created to replace the Blackletter serif finishing strokes. Typeface family
type and is characterized by low A series of typefaces sharing
Ligatures stroke contrast, bracketed serifs, Shoulder or body common characteristics but with
The joining of two or three and a left inclining stress. The arch formed on the ‘h’. different sizes and weights.
separate characters to form a
single unit to avoid interference Old Style figures Slab serif Type styles
between certain letter Numerals that vary in height A font with heavy, squared-off The different visual appearances
combinations. and do not sit on the same finishing strokes, low contrast and of typefaces.
baseline. few curves.
Light Uppercase
A version of the Roman cut with Overprint Small caps See Majuscules.
a lighter stroke. Where one printing ink is Small caps are majuscules that are
printed over another. close in size to the minuscules Upstroke
Lining numerals of a given typeface. The finer stroke of a type
Lining figures are numerals that Pica character.
share the same height and rest A measurement for specifying Spine
on the baseline. line lengths. One pica is 12 The left to right curving stroke Vertex
points (UK/US) or 4.22mm. in ‘S’ and ‘s’. The angle formed at the bottom
Link There are six picas to an inch. where the left and right strokes
The part that joins the two Spur meet, such as with the ‘V’.
counters of the double-storey ‘g’. Point system The end of the curved part of
The measurement for specifying ‘C’ or ‘S’. X-height
Loop typographical dimensions. The The height of the lowercase ‘x’
The enclosed or partially British and American point is Stem of a given typeface.
enclosed lower counter in a 1/72 of an inch. The European The main vertical or diagonal
Roman e.g. double-storey ‘g’. Didot system provides similar stroke of a letter.
Sometimes used to describe the size values.
cursive ‘p’ and ‘b’. Stress
PostScript The direction in which a curved
Lower case A page description language stroke changes weight.
See Minuscules. used by laser printers and
on-screen graphics systems. Stroke
Majuscules The diagonal portion of
Capital letters. Also called upper Quad letterforms such as ‘N’, ‘M’, or
case. A non-printing metal block ‘Y’. Stems, bars, arms, bowls
used as a spacing device. etc. are collectively referred to as
Meanline strokes.
Imaginary line that runs across Readability
the tops of non-ascending The overall visual representation Substrate
characters. of the text narrative. Any surface or material that is
to be printed upon.

189

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 189 Page:189 5/13/11 11:10 AM
index
Page numbers in italics refer to calligrammes 166 die cut 139, 188 glyphic fonts 90, 93
illustrations. Canadian paper sizes 59 dingbats 82 Golden Section 24, 52–4, 188
capital letters 79 diphthongs 84 Gothic typefaces 20, 21, 87, 188
8:13 ratio see Golden Section see also majuscules display type 110, 119, 188 see also sans serif fonts
22 magic signs 13 captions 51, 56, 128 division of page 54–7 graphic design 20, 30–3
Caslon, William 19, 20 dotless i 82 Graphic typefaces 87, 90, 93
absolute measurements 42–4 centred text 107 drop capitals 79, 188 gravure 138, 188
accents 77, 82 characters Greek alphabet 10, 14, 82
alignment 51, 107–11, 125 apex of 41, 188 ear, definition 41, 188 Greek design 62, 63–4, 171
alphabets 10–17, 82, 103 definition 188 ellipsis 78 grids 50–1, 55–7, 68–71, 148–9
American paper sizes 59 extending beyond em 44 em 44, 188 Gutenberg, Johannes 18
ampersand 16 line length 103 dashes 80
anchor points 55 spacing 81 fractions 74 hairline strokes 73, 188
apex of characters 41, 188 specials 81–2 emboss 139, 143, 188 hand drawing 133, 151, 165,
apostrophes 78 vertical alignment 111 en 44, 188 188
appropriation 176, 177 chin, definition 41, 188 dashes 80 hanging indents 120
Arabic language 16, 17 Chinese script 11, 12 fractions 74 hanging punctuation 78
Aramaic language 11, 15 Clarendon fonts 72, 92 environmental type 172–4, 173, harmony, typeweights 71
ARCA Architects 62, 63–4 classification systems 87–93 175 head margins 56
arm/bar of characters 41, 188 colour 134–6, 135, 137, 139 equivalents, fonts 145 header text 51, 129
Arts and Crafts Movement 21 commercial art 20 European printing 18–19 Helvetica font 24, 69, 70, 106
ascenders 41, 45 computerisation 25, 26–7 expert sets 82 hierarchy 128–33, 188
asymmetrical grids 57 concrete poetry 166 extended types 68, 71, 188 hieroglyphs 12
asymmetrical leading 119 condensed types 68, 71, 188 historical change 9–37
automated kerning tables 106 constructivism 22, 23 fake small capitals 83 horizontal alignment 107
counters 41, 94, 160, 161, 188 Fibonacci sequence 53 horizontal fractions 74
bar of characters 41, 188 cross alignment 51 finial characters 41, 82 hot metal type 138
barb, definition 41 cross stroke/crossbar 41, 188 first-line indents 120 HTML design 144
baseline 45, 47, 188 crotch, definition 41, 188 Flash design 144 humanist fonts 24, 90, 93
grid 50–1 cultural factors 9–37, 134 fluorescents 139 humour 170, 171
shift 50 cuneiform tablets 11 foil blocking 139, 142–3 hyphens 44, 80, 111–13
Bauhaus movement 22, 23 Cyrillic alphabet 15 folio numbers 56
beak of characters 41 fonts 7, 48, 159 icons 11
Bembo typeface 19, 45, 74 definition 40, 188 ideograms 11, 12
Blackletter typefaces 18, 88, 188 Dadaism 23 development 18–19 images 56, 164, 165
block typefaces 87 dashes 80 grids and 148–9 indents 120–1
blocks of text 55, 120 see also hyphens hierarchy 131 indexes 121
body text 128, 188 date classification 88 leading 114 Industrial Revolution 20
boldface type 20, 23, 68, 188 De Stijl movement 22 screen text 145 inferiors 75
bounding boxes 46 deboss 139, 188 see also typefaces ink wells 94
boustrophedon writing 14 decorative capitals 79 foot margins 56 intaglio 138, 188
bowl, definition 41, 188 descenders 41, 45, 188 footnotes 75 International Organization for
braces 78 The Design Shop study 62, fractions 74 Standardization (ISO) 58–9
bracketed serifs 72–3, 92 63–4 Frutiger’s grid 68–71 International Typeface Corp.
brackets 41, 78, 188 detailing 113 (ITC) 26
bullets 82, 111 diacritical marks 77 generated characters 75, 77, 78, Ionic font 95, 158
diagonal fractions 74 83, 150–1, 152–3 ISO paper sizes 58–9

190

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C3.indd 190 Page:190 6/21/11 5:29 PM
« Glossary Index Contacts »

italic type 68, 86, 88, 188 non-numerical marks 78 Roman numerals 17 tail, definition 41, 189
ITC fonts 26 numbering systems 70 Roman type 68, 87, 189 technology 6, 20
Ixvar Inc. case study 96, 97–8 numerals 17, 70, 74, 76, 81, 189 run-in indexes 121 terminal, definition 41, 189
nut fractions 74 running heads 56 text blocks 55, 120
Japanese script 12 running indents 120 texture 160, 161–3
justified text 107, 112 oblique type 86, 189 Russian alphabet 15 thermography 139
OCR-A/OCR-B fonts 25, 148 Times New Roman 95, 102,
kerning 47, 74, 104–6, 188 Officina font 28, 178 sans serif fonts 20, 21, 46, 72, 88, 178
knockout 136, 137, 189 Old Style typefaces 76, 88, 90, 93 title text 53, 128
92, 102, 189 definition 189 tracking 46, 104, 112, 189
language 6, 9–37 optical amendments 50 logotypes 84, 85 Trajan typeface 16, 48
Latin alphabet 10, 13, 16–17 Optical Character Recognition Officina 28, 178 transitional typefaces 88, 90, 92
Lawson’s classification 88 (OCR) 25, 148 scientific notation 75 Triton Global study 182–3, 184
leading 42, 47, 50, 114–19, 116– orphans, widows and 113, 121 screen type 144–5, 146–7 trompe l’œil 166
17, 189 overprint 136, 137, 163, 189 script typefaces 87–8, 90, 93, true characters 75, 78, 83, 86
leg, definition 41, 189 ownership 178, 179–81 189 type classification 87–93
legibility 94–5, 158–9, 189 secondary text 51 type detailing 113
letter, definition 13 page design 60–1 Semitic language 15 type families 68, 189
letterforms 66–99, 187 page division 54–7 serif fonts 20, 46, 88, 92 type realization 138–9, 140–3
letterpress 138, 140–1, 142, 143 paper sizes 58–9 definition 41, 189 type size 42, 102–4, 106, 114,
letterspacing see tracking paragraphs 100–25 Officina 28, 178 118
ligatures 28, 41, 82, 84, 85, 189 parentheses 78, 111 typefaces
types of 72–3 anatomy 41
light type 68, 71, 189 PCs, fonts for 145 see also slab serifs definition 40, 189
line length (measure) 46, 102–3, Phoenician script 10–11, 13–15 set width 49 diversity 7
189 phonemes 13 shoulder, definition 41, 189 families of 68, 189
lineale fonts 90 phonograms 11 signage 172, 175 measure 102–3
see also sans serif fonts photocomposition 26 using 126–85
silk screen printing 138 see also fonts
lining numerals 76, 189 PI characters 82 slab serifs 20, 72, 88, 90–1, 92, typeweights 69, 71, 128, 130
link, definition 41, 189 picas 43, 103, 189 189 typograms 166, 167–8
lithography 20 pictograms 10, 11–12 slur serifs 73 typography
logotypes 84, 85, 96, 97–8, 146– pluralism 30 small capitals 83, 189 context 9–37, 176,
7, 168–9, 184 poetry 166 177
spacing evolution 6, 9, 187
Lonsdale Boys Club 34–5, 36 point indents 120 characters 81 terminology 38–65
loop, definition 41, 189 point system 43, 189 Greek 14
lower-case line length 103 pop art 25 numerals 76, 81 unbracketed serifs 72–3
see also minuscules portmanteau words 185 page division 54 uppercase see majuscules
PostScript 43, 189 US paper sizes 59
words 44, 47, 112
McCormack classification 87 primes 78 see also kerning; leading Van de Graaf Canon 54–5
Macintosh computers 27, 145 printing 6, 9, 18–20, 138–9, special characters 81, 82 varnishes 139
majuscules 16, 48, 79, 189 140–3 vectors 154–5, 156–7
special colours 139
mathematical line lengths 103 proportional type 49 vernacular 174, 175
spine, definition 41, 189
meanline of characters 45, 189 punctuation 78 verso pages 61
spot UV varnish 139 vertex, definition 41, 189
measure (line length) 46, 102–3,
spur, definition 41, 189 vertical alignment 107, 108–9,
189 quotation marks 78 standardization 49, 58–9, 145 111
measurement systems 42–7, vowels 14
standing capitals 79
102–3 rags 113 Vox classification 90, 92–3
stem, definition 41, 189
Mercy agency 34–5, 36, 156–7 rasters 154, 156–7
Stojanovic, Slavimir 122, 123–4 Webb & Webb agency 182–3,
minuscules 16, 48, 189 readability 158–9, 189
stresses 41, 77, 189 184
Modern typefaces 88, 90, 92 reader’s ‘journey’ 60–1
subscript/superscript 75 websites 144–5
modernism 22–3 reading direction 11 wedge serifs 73
surprint 136
monospaced type 49, 189 real small capitals 83 weights see typeweights
see also overprint
morphemes 13 recto pages 61 widows and orphans 113, 121
swash characters 41, 82 word spacing 44, 47, 112
movable type 18 relative measurements 42–4
syllables 13
reverse 136, 137
naming conventions 69, 94 symbols 11 x-height 45, 94, 189
rivers 113
negative leading 42, 50, 115, 115 symmetrical grids 57
Roman alphabet 10, 16 Compiled by Indexing
newspaper text faces 94–5 see also Latin alphabet Specialists (UK) Ltd

191

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_C3.indd 191 Page:191 6/21/11 5:29 PM
contacts
Design agency Website Page
Cartlidge Levene [Link] 166, 172
Creasence [Link] 30, 96–98, 116–117, 144, 146–147,
180–181
Faydherbe / De Vringer [Link] 139
Frost Design [Link] 60–61, 109, 137, 160
Gavin Ambrose [Link] 173
George & Vera – 30, 110–111, 130, 132, 155
MadeThought [Link] 129, 139
Mercy [Link] 34–36, 156–157
Mouse Graphics [Link] 171
Neville Brody/Research Studios [Link] 27, 28, 151
Parent [Link] 105, 137, 139
Pentagram [Link] 89, 169
Peter and Paul [Link] 85, 163, 179
Planning Unit [Link] 131, 152–153
Sagmeister [Link] 29
SEA Design [Link] 138, 139, 143
Slavimir Stojanovic [Link] 122–124
Still Waters Run Deep [Link] 139
Studio KA [Link] 73
Studio Myerscough [Link] 31, 133, 139, 150, 170, 172, 173, 175,
176–177
The Design Shop [Link] 32–33, 62–64, 155, 160–161, 162
Thomas Manss & Co. [Link] 142, 164, 168
Turnbull Grey [Link] 139, 170
Untitled [Link] 110, 115, 128
Vasava Artworks [Link] 91
Webb & Webb [Link] 79, 138, 140–141, 165, 167–168, 182–184
Why Not Associates [Link] 31
Y&R Diseño [Link] 85, 133, 167

All reasonable attempts have been made to trace, clear and credit the copyright holders of the images reproduced in this book.
However, if any credits have been inadvertently omitted, the publisher will endeavour to incorporate amendments in future editions.

192

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

038-192 02698_path.indd 192 Page:192 5/13/11 11:10 AM
F
Lynne Elvins/Naomi Goulder

of Typography
The Fundamentals
Working with ethics

Pantone Yellow Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
193-200 [Link] 193 Page:193 5/14/11 9:15 AM
456C
Publisher’s note Introduction

The subject of ethics is not new, yet Ethics is a complex subject that
its consideration within the applied visual interlaces the idea of responsibilities to
arts is perhaps not as prevalent as it society with a wide range of considerations
might be. Our aim here is to help a new relevant to the character and happiness
generation of students, educators and of the individual. It concerns virtues of
practitioners find a methodology for compassion, loyalty and strength, but
structuring their thoughts and reflections also of confidence, imagination, humour
in this vital area. and optimism. As introduced in ancient
Greek philosophy, the fundamental ethical
AVA Publishing hopes that these
question is: what should I do? How we
Working with ethics pages provide
might pursue a ‘good’ life not only raises
a platform for consideration and
moral concerns about the effects of
a flexible method for incorporating ethical
our actions on others, but also personal
concerns in the work of educators,
concerns about our own integrity.
students and professionals. Our approach
consists of four parts: In modern times the most important
and controversial questions in ethics
The introduction is intended to be an
have been the moral ones. With growing
accessible snapshot of the ethical
populations and improvements in mobility
landscape, both in terms of historical
and communications, it is not surprising
development and current dominant
that considerations about how to structure
themes.
our lives together on the planet should
The framework positions ethical come to the forefront. For visual artists and
consideration into four areas and poses communicators, it should be no surprise
questions about the practical implications that these considerations will enter into
that might occur. Marking your response the creative process.
to each of these questions on the scale
shown will allow your reactions to
be further explored by comparison.

The case study sets out a real project

and then poses some ethical questions
for further consideration. This is a focus
point for a debate rather than a critical
analysis so there are no predetermined
right or wrong answers.

A selection of further reading for you

to consider areas of particular interest in
more detail.

Pantone Yellow Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
193-200 [Link] 194 Page:194 5/14/11 9:15 AM
456C
Some ethical considerations are Is promoting ethical consequences
already enshrined in government laws justified even when it requires ethical
and regulations or in professional codes sacrifices along the way? Must there be
of conduct. For example, plagiarism a single unifying theory of ethics (such as
and breaches of confidentiality can be the Utilitarian thesis that the right course
punishable offences. Legislation in various of action is always the one that leads to
nations makes it unlawful to exclude the greatest happiness of the greatest
people with disabilities from accessing number), or might there always be many
information or spaces. The trade of ivory different ethical values that pull a person
as a material has been banned in many in various directions?
countries. In these cases, a clear line has
As we enter into ethical debate and
been drawn under what is unacceptable.
engage with these dilemmas on a personal
But most ethical matters remain open and professional level, we may change
to debate, among experts and lay-people our views or change our view of others.
alike, and in the end we have to make The real test though is whether, as we
our own choices on the basis of our own reflect on these matters, we change the
guiding principles or values. Is it more way we act as well as the way we think.
ethical to work for a charity than for Socrates, the ‘father’ of philosophy,
a commercial company? Is it unethical proposed that people will naturally do
to create something that others find ugly ‘good’ if they know what is right. But this
or offensive? point might only lead us to yet another
question: how do we know what is right?
Specific questions such as these may
lead to other questions that are more
abstract. For example, is it only effects
on humans (and what they care about)
that are important, or might effects on
the natural world require attention too?

Working with ethics

Pantone Yellow Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
193-200 [Link] 195 Page:195 5/14/11 9:15 AM
456C
A framework for ethics

You Your client

What are your ethical beliefs? What are your terms?
Central to everything you do will be Working relationships are central
your attitude to people and issues around to whether ethics can be embedded
you. For some people, their ethics are into a project, and your conduct on
an active part of the decisions they make a day-to-day basis is a demonstration
every day as a consumer, a voter or of your professional ethics. The decision
a working professional. Others may think with the biggest impact is whom you
about ethics very little and yet this does choose to work with in the first place.
not automatically make them unethical. Cigarette companies or arms traders are
Personal beliefs, lifestyle, politics, often-cited examples when talking about
nationality, religion, gender, class or where a line might be drawn, but rarely are
education can all influence your ethical real situations so extreme. At what point
viewpoint. might you turn down a project on ethical
grounds and how much does the reality
Using the scale, where would you place
of having to earn a living affect your ability
yourself? What do you take into account
to choose?
to make your decision? Compare results
with your friends or colleagues. Using the scale, where would you place
a project? How does this compare to your
personal ethical level?

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10

Pantone Yellow Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
193-200 [Link] 196 Page:196 5/14/11 9:15 AM
456C
Your specifications Your creation
What are the impacts of your What is the purpose of your work?
materials?
Between you, your colleagues and
In relatively recent times, we are an agreed brief, what will your creation
learning that many natural materials are achieve? What purpose will it have in
in short supply. At the same time, we are society and will it make a positive
increasingly aware that some man-made contribution? Should your work result
materials can have harmful, long-term in more than commercial success or
effects on people or the planet. How much industry awards? Might your creation help
do you know about the materials that save lives, educate, protect or inspire?
you use? Do you know where they come Form and function are two established
from, how far they travel and under what aspects of judging a creation, but there
conditions they are obtained? When your is little consensus on the obligations of
creation is no longer needed, will it be visual artists and communicators toward
easy and safe to recycle? Will it disappear society, or the role they might have in
without a trace? Are these considerations solving social or environmental problems.
your responsibility or are they out of If you want recognition for being the
your hands? creator, how responsible are you for
what you create and where might that
Using the scale, mark how ethical your
responsibility end?
material choices are.
Using the scale, mark how ethical the
purpose of your work is.

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10

Working with ethics

Pantone Yellow Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
193-200 [Link] 197 Page:197 5/14/11 9:15 AM
456C
Case study Graffiti

An aspect of typography that may raise Graffiti has been found around the world
ethical issues is its capacity to make and throughout history, from the
information accessible or understandable catacombs of Rome to the Mayan temple
to the reader. Creative use of typography walls of Tikal in Mesoamerica. Graffiti found
can emphasise meaning and embed in Pompeii, with its messages of political
emotion in words. In this way, typography rhetoric or Latin curses, provides us with
can facilitate verbal and visual insights into the daily lives of people during
communication, and in turn give rise to the first century. Graffiti continues to tell us
fundamental questions about the role of a about life today, as well as directly
given piece of text. reflecting the writer’s views of society.

Will the text instruct, inform or helpfully In France during the student protests and
guide the receiver towards beneficial general strike of May 1968, revolutionary
information of some kind? Or might it anarchist and situationist slogans covered
confuse, frighten or alienate all but a select the walls of Paris, articulating the spirit of
few? Does a typographer have a the age. In the US, around the same time,
responsibility to always be as clear, street gangs were using graffiti as a means
informative and legible as possible? Or are to mark territory. Signatures or ‘tags’, rather
there occasions where the decorative than slogans, were used by writers such as
treatment of script is far more important TOPCAT 126 and COOL EARL.
than the ability to read the words? How CORNBREAD, credited by some as the
much responsibility should the typographer father of modern graffiti, began his career
assume for the message, as well as for the by writing ‘Cornbread loves Cynthia’ all
means by which it is delivered? over his school. In the early 1970s, graffiti
moved to New York and writers such as
TAKI 183 began to add their street number
to their nickname. Tags began to take on a
calligraphic appearance in order to stand
out, and also began to grow in size and
include thick outlines. Bubble lettering was
initially popular before ‘wildstyle’ – a
complicated creation of interlocking letters
using lots of arrows and connections –
came to define the art of graffiti.

Pantone Yellow Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
193-200 [Link] 198 Page:198 5/14/11 9:15 AM
456C
The use of graffiti as a portrayal of If it is illegal, is it also unethical to
rebellious urban style made it attractive to graffiti on someone else’s property?
creatives operating within mainstream
Are companies exploiting graffiti if
culture. In 2001, fashion designer and artist
they use it to sell commercial goods?
Stephen Sprouse, in collaboration with
fellow designer Marc Jacobs, designed a Would you be prepared to be
limited-edition line of Louis Vuitton bags imprisoned to communicate a
that featured graffiti scrawled over the message?
company’s monogrammed pattern.

Despite the fact that graffiti has now

become both a familiar and accepted
artistic form within everyday society, it
A word is not a crystal, transparent
remains controversial. There is a clear
and unchanged; it is the skin of a
distinction between graffiti employed
living thought, and may vary greatly
typographically by a designer or artist, to
in color and content according to
graffiti that is applied to either public or
the circumstances and the time in
private property. In most countries,
which it is used.
defacing property without permission is
deemed to be vandalism and is therefore Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr
punishable by law. Governments spend
vast sums of public money removing
graffiti. A 1995 study by the National Graffiti
Information Network estimated that the
cost of cleaning up graffiti in the US
amounted annually to approximately
USD$8 billion.

Pantone Yellow Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
193-200 [Link] 199 Page:199 5/14/11 9:15 AM
456C
Further reading

AIGA
Design Business and Ethics
2007, AIGA
Eaton, Marcia Muelder
Aesthetics and the Good Life
1989, Associated University Press
Ellison, David
Ethics and Aesthetics in European Modernist Literature:
From the Sublime to the Uncanny
2001, Cambridge University Press
Fenner, David E W (Ed)
Ethics and the Arts:
An Anthology
1995, Garland Reference Library of Social Science
Gini, Al and Marcoux, Alexei M
Case Studies in Business Ethics
2005, Prentice Hall
McDonough, William and Braungart, Michael
Cradle to Cradle:
Remaking the Way We Make Things
2002, North Point Press
Papanek, Victor
Design for the Real World:
Making to Measure
1972, Thames & Hudson
United Nations Global Compact
The Ten Principles
[Link]/AboutTheGC/TheTenPrinciples/[Link]

Pantone Yellow Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)
193-200 [Link] 200 Page:200 5/14/11 9:15 AM
456C
Publisher’s note

F
Gavin Ambrose/Paul Harris
The Fundamentals of Typography

Gavin Ambrose/Paul Harris

another in the AVA Academia series...

Ethical practice is well known, taught This second edition of The Fundamentals Gavin Ambrose studied at Central St
and discussed in the domains of medicine, of Typography is an update to the popular Martins and is a practising graphic
law, science and sociology but was, first edition and offers an incisive insight designer. Gavin’s current commercial
until recently, rarely discussed in terms into typographic theory and practice. practice includes clients from the arts
of the Applied Visual Arts. Yet design Subjects covered include a comprehensive sector, publishers and advertising
is becoming an increasingly integral part introduction to the history of typography, agencies. He is the co-author and
of our everyday lives and its influence on typographic detailing and the use of designer of several books on branding,
our society ever-more prevalent. creative typography in print and online. packaging and editorial design.
AVA Publishing believes that our world This volume also demonstrates the power Paul Harris studied at the London
needs integrity; that the ramifications and variety of typography – from basic College of Printing and has gone on to
of our actions upon others should be manipulation to artistic expression – become a freelance writer, journalist
for the greatest happiness and benefit across a range of media. Fundamental and editor. Paul writes for international
of the greatest number. We do not set principles are presented through detailed magazines and journals in London and
ourselves out as arbiters of what is explanations, expanded illustrations and New York, including Dazed & Confused.
‘good’ or ‘bad’, but aim to promote historical and contemporary examples from He is co-author of and collaborator on
discussion in an organized fashion for leading practitioners around the world. several books about graphic design.
an individual’s understanding of their
The second edition features new content
own ethical inclination.
including case studies, student exercises
By incorporating a ‘working with ethics’ and a selection of exciting new imagery.
section and cover stamp on all our

of Typography
The Fundamentals
titles, AVA Publishing aims to help a new
generation of students, educators and
practitioners find a methodology for
‘ I will adopt this book, it is concise and
structuring their thoughts and reflections
approachable for students and I like
in this vital area.
the visual examples that are not in
other texts.’
David Peacock, Seattle Pacific University

ISBN-13: 978-2-940411-76-4 ava publishing sa

[Link]
[Link]
enquiries@[Link]
sales@[Link]

9 782940 411764
£26.50

Job: 02698 Title: Fund of Typoraphy (2nd edition) (AVA)

cover 02698_C3.indd 1 UK 6/29/11 5:19 PM
Page:Cover