i or V

Alternating Current 87
+

t
–

An alternating quantity (current i or voltage V) is one whose magnitude changes

continuously with time between zero and a maximum value and whose direction reverses
periodically.

Some graphical representation for alternating quantities

i or V i or V i or V i or V
+ +
+ +
t t t
t
– – –

Sinusoidal Triangular Rectangular ac super imposed on

dc

Equation of Alternating Quantities (i or V).

When a coil is rotated rapidly in a strong magnetic field, magnetic flux linked with the coil
changes. As a result an emf is induced in the coil and induced current flows through the circuit.
These voltage and current are known as alternating voltage and current
(1) Equation : Alternating current or voltage varying as sine function can be written as
2 V0 or i0
Positive
i = i0 sint = i0 sin 2 t = i0sin t i or V
half cycle
T +
 2
2
and V  V0 sin t  V0 sin 2t  V0 sin t 0
T/4
t or 
T T/2 – Negative
where i and V = Instantaneous values of current and voltage, half cycle
T
i0 and V0 = Peak values of current and voltage
 = Angular frequency in rad/sec,  = Frequency in Hz and T = time period
(2) About cycle
(i) The time taken to complete one cycle of variations is called the periodic time or time
period.
(ii) Alternating quantity is positive for half the cycle and negative for the rest half. Hence
average value of alternating quantity (i or V) over a complete cycle is zero.
(iii) Area under the positive half cycle is equal to area under negative cycle.
(iv) The value of alternating quantity is zero or maximum 2  times every second. The
direction also changes 2 times every second.
(v) Generally sinusoidal waveform is used as alternating current/voltage.
T
(vi) At t  from the beginning, i or V reaches to their maximum value.
4
88 Alternating Current

Note :  If instantaneous current i (or voltage V) becomes 1/n times of it's peak value in
T 1 
time t then t  sin 1   second.
2π n
Important Values of Alternating Quantities.
(1) Peak value (i0 or V0)
The maximum value of alternating quantity (i or V) is defined as peak value or amplitude.

(2) Mean square value ( V 2 or i 2 )

The average of square of instantaneous values in one cycle is called mean square value. It is
1 T V02 i2
always positive for one complete cycle. e.g. V 2 
T 
0
V 2 dt 
2
or i 2  0
2
(3) Root mean square (r.m.s.) value
Root of mean of square of voltage or current in an ac circuit for one complete cycle is called
r.m.s. value. It is denoted by Vrms or irms
T
 i dt
2
i12  i22  ...... i0
irms   i2  
0
T
= 0.707 i0 = 70.7% of i0
 dt
n 2
0

V0
similarly Vrms   0.707 V0  70 .7% of V0
2
(i) The r.m.s. value of alternating current is also called virtual value or effective value.
(ii) In general when values of voltage or current for alternating circuits are given, these are
r.m.s. value.
(iii) ac ammeter and voltmeter are always measure r.m.s. value. Values printed on ac
circuits are r.m.s. values.
(iv) In our houses ac is supplied at 220 V, which is the r.m.s. value of voltage. It's peak
value is 2  200  311 V .
(v) r.m.s. value of ac is equal to that value of dc, which when passed through a resistance
for a given time will produce the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current
when passed through the same resistance for same time.

Note :  r.m.s. value of a complex current wave (e.g. i = a sin t + b cos t) is equal
to the square root of the sum of the squares of the r.m.s. values of it's individual
components i.e.
2 2
 a   b  1  2
irms         a  b 2  .
 2  2 2 

(4) Mean or Average value (iav or Vav)

Alternating Current 89

The average of instantaneous values of current or voltage in one cycle is called it's mean
value. The average value of alternating quantity for one complete cycle is zero.
The average value of ac over half cycle (t = 0 to T/2)
T /2

iav 
 0
i dt

2i0
 0 .637 i0  63 . 7 % of i0, Similarly Vav 
2V0
 0.637 V0  63 .7% of V0.
T /2
 
 0
dt

Specific Examples

Currents Average value Peak value r.m.s. value Angular

(For complete frequency
cycle)
i = i0 sin t 0 i0 i0 
2

i = i0 sin t cos  t 0 i0 i0 2
2 2 2

i = i0 sin t + i0 0 2 i0 i0 
cos t

(5) Peak to peak value

It is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of positive and negative peak values
 Peak to peak value = V0 + V0 = 2V0  2 2 Vrms  2.828 Vrms
(6) Peak factor and form factor
The ratio of r.m.s. value of ac to it's average during half cycle is defined as form factor. The
ratio of peak value and r.m.s. value is called peak factor

Nature of Wave form r.m.s averag Form factor Peak factor

wave . e value r.m.s. value Peak value
Rf  Rp 
form valu Average value r.m.s. value
e
Sinusoida i or V
l +
i0 
 2 2
0 i0  1 .11 2  1 . 41
2  2 2
–

Half wave
i or V
rectified + + i0 i0 
 1 .57 2
 2 2  2
90 Alternating Current

Full wave
i or V
rectified + + i0 2i0 
2
 2 2  2 2

Square or
i or V
Rectangul +
ar i0 i0 1 1
–

Phase.
Physical quantity which represents both the instantaneous value and direction of
alternating quantity at any instant is called it's phase. It's a dimensionless quantity and it's unit
is radian.
If an alternating quantity is expressed as X  X 0 sin( t   0 ) then the argument of sin( t   )
is called it's phase. Where  t = instantaneous phase (changes with time) and  0 = initial phase
(constant w.r.t. time)
(1) Phase difference (Phase constant)
The difference between the phases of currents and voltage is called phase difference. If
alternating voltage and current are given by V  V0 sin( t  1 ) and i  i0 sin( t   2 ) then phase
difference  = 1 – 2 (relative to current) or    2   1 (relative to voltage)

Note :  Phase difference, generally is given relative to current.

 The quantity with higher phase is supposed to be leading and the other quantity is
taken to be lagging.
(2) Graphical representation

V i
i e

 t  t

Voltage (V) = V0 sin  t Voltage (V) = V0 sin  t

Current (i) = i0 sin ( t –  ) Current (i) = i0 sin ( t +  )
Phase difference = 0 – (– ) = +  Phase difference = 0 – (+ ) = – 
i.e. voltage is leading by an angle (+ ) w.r.t. i.e. voltage is leading by an angle (– ) w.r.t.
current current

(3) Time difference

Alternating Current 91

If phase difference between alternating current and voltage is  then time difference
between them is given as
T
T.D.  
2
(4) Phasor and phasor diagram
The study of ac circuits is much simplified if we treat alternating current and alternating
voltage as vectors with the angle between the vectors equals to the phase difference between
the current and voltage. The current and voltage are more appropriately called phasors. A
diagram representing alternating current and alternating voltage (of same frequency) as
vectors (phasors) with the phase angle between them is called a phasor diagram.
While drawing phasor diagram for a pure element (e.g. R, L or C) either of the current or
voltage can be plotted along X-axis.
But when phasor diagram for a combination of elements is drawn then quantity which
remains constant for the combination must be plotted along X-axis so we observe that
(a) In series circuits current has to be plotted along X-axis.
(b) In parallel circuits voltage has to be plotted along X-axis.

Specific Examples

Equation of V and i Phase difference  Time difference T.D. Phasor diagram

V = V0 sin t V
i = i0 sin t 0 0 or
V i
i

V = V0 sin t i
i
  T /2
i  i0 sin(t  )  or
2 2 4 /2
V
V

V = V0 sin t V V
  T /2
i  i0 sin(t  )  or
2 2 4 /2
i i

V = V0 sin t i i
 T /3
  or
i  i0 sin(t  ) 3 6 /3
3 V V

Measurement of Alternating Quantities.

92 Alternating Current

Alternating current shows heating effect only, hence meters used for measuring ac are
based on heating effect and are called hot wire meters (Hot wire ammeter and hot wire
voltmeter)
ac measurement dc measurement
(1) All ac meters read r.m.s. value. (1) All dc meters read average value
(2) All ac meters are based on heating effect of (2) All dc meters are based on magnetic effect of
current. current
(3) Deflection in hot wire meters :   irms
2 (3) Deflection in dc meters :   i

(non-linear scale) (Linear scale)

Note :  ac meters can be used in measuring ac and dc both while dc meters cannot be
used in measuring ac because the average value of alternating current and voltage
over a full cycle is zero.
Terms Related to ac Circuits.
(1) Resistance (R) : The opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of current through it
is defined as the resistance of that conductor. Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance
1
(G) i.e. G 
R
(2) Impedance (Z) : The opposition offered by the capacitor, inductor and conductor to the
V V
flow of ac through it is defined as impedance. It’s unit is ohm(). Z  0  rms
i0 irms
(3) Reactance (X) : The opposition offered by inductor or capacitor or both to the flow of
ac through it is defined as reactance. It is of following two type –
Inductive reactance (XL) Capacitive reactance (XC)

(i) Offered by inductive circuit (i) Offered by capacitive circuit

(ii) X L  L  2 L 1 1
(ii) X C  
C 2C
(iii)  dc  0 so for dc, XL = 0 (iii) For dc XC = 

(iv) XL- Graph XL (iv) XC -  GraphXC

 

Note :  Resultant reactance of LC circuit is defined as X = XL ~ XC .

Alternating Current 93

 1
(4) Admittance (Y) : Reciprocal of impedance is known as admittance  Y  . It’s unit is
 Z
mho.
 1
(5) Susceptance (S) : the reciprocal of reactance is defined as susceptance  S  . It is of
 X
two type
1 1
(i) inductive susceptance SL   and (ii) Capacitive susceptance,
X L 2 L
1
SC    C  2 C .
XC
Power and Power Factor.
The power is defined as the rate at which work is being done in the circuit.
In dc circuits power is given by P = Vi. But in ac circuits, since there is some phase angle
between voltage and current, therefore power is defined as the product of voltage and that
component of the current which is in phase with the voltage.
Thus P  V i cos  ; where V and i are r.m.s. value of voltage and current.
(1) Types of power
There are three terms used for power in an ac circuit
(i) Instantaneous power : Suppose in a circuit V  V0 sin  t and i  i0 sin( t   ) then
Pinstantane ous  Vi  V0 i0 sin  t sin( t   )
(ii) Average power (True power) : The average of instantaneous power in an ac circuit over
a full cycle is called average power. It's unit is watt i.e.
2
V i 1 V R
Pav  Pinst  Pav  Vrms irms cos   0 . 0 cos   V0 i0 cos   irms
2
R  rms2
2 2 2 Z
(iii) Apparent or virtual power : The product of apparent voltage and apparent current in
an electric circuit is called apparent power. This is always positive
Vi
Papp  Vrms irms  0 0
2
(2) Power factor : It may be defined as
(i) Cosine of the angle of lag or lead
R Resistance
(ii) The ratio 
Z Impedance
True power W kW
(iii) The ratio    cos 
Apparent power VA k VA
Note :  Power factor is a dimensionless quantity and it's value lies between 0 and 1.
 For a pure resistive circuit R = Z  p.f. = cos = 1
Wattless Current.
In an ac circuit R = 0  cos = 0 so Pav = 0 i.e. in resistance less circuit the power
consumed is zero. Such a circuit is called the wattless circuit and the current flowing is called
the wattless current.
94 Alternating Current

or
The component of current which does not contribute to the average power dissipation is
called wattless current i cos 
V

(i) The average of wattless component over one cycle is zero

(ii) Amplitude of wattless current = i0 sin 
i
i0
and r.m.s. value of wattless current = irms sin   sin  .
2 i sin
It is quadrature (90o) with voltage
Note :  The component of ac which remains in phase with the alternating voltage is
defined as the effective current. The peak value of effective current is i0 cos and
i
it's r.m.s. value is irms cos   0 cos  .
2

Concepts

 If ac is produced by a generator having a large number of poles then it's frequency

Number of poles  rotation per second P n
 
2 2
Where P is the number of poles; n is the rotational frequency of the coil.
 Alternating current in electric wires, bulbs etc. flows 50 times in one direction and 50 times in the opposite
direction in 1 second. Since in one cycle the current becomes zero twice, hence a bulb lights up 100 times and is
off 100 times in one second (50 cycles) but due to persistence of vision, it appears lighted continuously.
 ac is more dangerous than dc.
 The rate of change of ac is minimum at that instant when they are near their peak values.
 ac equipments such as electric motors, are more durable and convenient compared to dc equipments.
 Skin Effect
A direct current flows uniformly throughout the cross-section of the conductor. An alternating current, on

the other hand, flows
mainly along the surface of the conductor. This effect is known as skin effect. the reason is Iac = 0

that when alternating current flows through a conductor, the flux changes in the inner part
of the conductor are higher. Therefore the inductance of the inner part is higher than that
of the outer part. Higher the frequency of alternating current, more is the skin effect.
The depth upto which ac current flows through a wire is called skin depth ( ).
 Comparison of electricity in India and America
India America
50 Hz 60 Hz
220 V 110 V
VR2
R R/4 R  R  VR2 (VR = rated voltage, PR = rated power)
PR

Example
s
Example: 1 The equation of an alternating current is i  50 2  sin 400 t ampere then the frequency and
the root mean square of the current are respectively
(a) 200 Hz, 50 amp (b) 400  Hz, 50 2 amp (c) 200 Hz, 50 2 amp (d) 50 Hz, 200 amp
Alternating Current 95

Solution: (a) Comparing the given equation with i  i0 sin  t

i0 50 2
  = 400   2 = 400   = 200 Hz. Also irms   = 50 A.
2 2

Example: 2 If the frequency of an alternating current is 50 Hz then the time taken for the change from
zero to positive peak value and positive peak value to negative peak value of current are
respectively
(a) 1/200 sec, 1/ 100 sec (b) 1/ 100 sec, 1/200 sec (c) 200 sec, 100 sec(d)
T 1 1 1
Solution: (a) Time take to reach from zero to peak value t     sec
4 4 4  50 200
T 1 1 1
Time take for the change from positive peak to negative peak t '     sec .
2 2 2  50 100
Example: 3 What will be the equation of ac of frequency 75 Hz if its r.m.s. value is 20 A
20
(a) i  20 sin 150  t (b) i  20 2 sin(150  t) (c) i  sin(150  t) (d) i  20 2 sin(75  t)
2

Solution: (b) By using i  i0 sin  t  i0 sin 2 t  irms 2 sin 2 t  i  20 2 sin(150  t) .
1
Example: 4 At what time (From zero) the alternating voltage becomes times of it's peak value. Where
2
T is the periodic time
T T T T
(a) sec (b) sec (c) sec (d) sec
2 4 8 12
V0 2 t 1  2    2 
Solution: (c) By using V  V0 sin  t   V0 sin   sin  t  sin  sin t
2 T 2  T  4  T 
 2 T
  t  t  sec .
4 T 8
Example: 5 The peak value of an alternating e.m.f. E is given by E  E 0 cos t is 10 volts and its
1
frequency is 50 Hz . At time t  sec , the instantaneous e.m.f. is
600
(a) 10 V (b) 5 3 V (c) 5 V (d) 1V
1 
Solution: (b) By using E  E 0 sin  t = 10 cos 2 t = 10 cos 2  50   E = 10 cos 5 3V
600 6
Example: 6 The instantaneous value of current in an ac circuit is i  2 sin(100  t   / 3)A. The current at
the beginning (t  0 ) will be
3
(a) 2 3 A (b) 3A (c) A (d) Zero
2

  3
Solution: (b) At t = 0, i  2 sin 0    2   3A .
 3  2
Example: 7 The voltage of an ac source varies with time according to the equation V = 100 sin(100t)
cos(100t) where t is in seconds and V is in volts. Then
(a) The peak voltage of the source is 100 volts (b) The peak voltage of the source is 50
volts
96 Alternating Current

(c) The peak voltage of the source is 100 / 2 volts (d) The frequency of the
source is 50 Hz
Solution: (b) The given equation can be written as follows
V  50  2 sin 100  t cos 100  t  50 sin 2 (100  t)  50 sin 200  t (  sin 2 = 2 sin cos )
200 
Hence peak voltage V0  50 volt and frequency   100 Hz .
2
Example: 8 If the frequency of ac is 60 Hz the time difference corresponding to a phase difference of
60o is
1 1
(a) 60 sec (b) 1sec (c) sec (d) sec
60 360
T T  T 1 1 1
Solution: (d) Time difference T.D.     T.D.       sec
2 2 3 6 6 6  60 360
 
Example: 9 In an ac circuit, V and i are given by V  100 sin(100 t) volts, and i  100 sin 100 t   mA . The
 3
power dissipated in circuit is
(a) 10 4 watt (b) 10 watt (c) 2.5 watt (d) 5 watt
1 1  
Solution: (c) P V0 i0 cos    100  (100  10  3 )  cos    2 . 5 watt.
2 2 3
Example: 10 In a circuit an alternating current and a direct current are supplied together. The
expression of the instantaneous current is given as i  3  6 sin t . Then the r.m.s. value of
the current is
(a) 3A (b) 6A (c) 3 2 A (d) 3 3 A
Solution: (d) The given current is a mixture of a dc component of 3A and an alternating current of
maximum value 6A
2
 6 
Hence r.m.s. value  (dc)  (r.m.s. value of ac)
2 2
 (3)  
2

  (3)2  (3 2 ) 2  3 3 A .
 2
Example: 11 The r.m.s. value of the alternating e.m.f. E = (8 sin t + 6 sin 2 t) V is
(a) 7.05 V (b) 14.14 V (c) 10 V (d) 20 V
10
Solution: (a) Peak value V0  (8)2  (6)2  10 volt so v rms   5 2  7 .05 volt .
2
   
Example: 12 Voltage and current in an ac circuit are given by V  5 sin 100  t   and i  4 sin 100  t  
 6  6
[Kerala (Engg.) 2001]
(a) Voltage leads the current by 30° (b) Current leads the voltage by 30°
(c) Current leads the voltage by 60° (d) Voltage leads the current by 60°
  
Solution: (c) Phase difference relative to current     
6 6 3
In degree    60 o i.e. voltage lag behind the current by 60o or current leads the voltage
by 60o.
Example: 13 The instantaneous values of current and potential difference in an alternating circuit are
i  sin  t and E  100 cos  t respectively. r.m.s. value of wattless current (in amp) in the
circuit is
(a) 1 (b) 1 / 2 (c) 100 (d) Zero
Alternating Current 97

i0
Solution: (b) r.m.s. value of wattless current  sin 
2
 1
In this question i0 = 1 A and   . So r.m.s. value of wattless current  A
2 2
Example: 14 The r.m.s. current in an ac circuit is 2 A. If the wattless current be 3 A , what is the power
factor
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 2 2 3

3 1
Solution: (c) iW L  irms sin   3  2 sin   sin      60 o so p.f.  cos   cos 60 o  .
2 2
Example: 15 r.m.s. value of alternating current in a circuit is 4 A and power factor is 0.5. If the power
dissipated in the circuit is 100W, then the peak value of voltage in the circuit is
(a) 50 volt (b) 70 volt (c) 35 volt (d) 100 volt

Solution: (b) P  Vrms irms cos   100  Vrms  4  0.5  Vrms  50 V so V0  2  50  70 volt

Example: 16 The impedance of an ac circuit is 200  and the phase angle between current and e.m.f is
60 o . What is the resistance of the circuit

(a) 50  (b) 100  (c) 100 3  (d) 300 

R R 1 R
Solution: (b) By using cos    cos 60 o     R  100 .
Z 200 2 200

Tricky example: 1

An ac voltage source of E = 150 sin 100 t is used to run a device which offers a
resistance of 20 and restricts the flow of current in one direction only. The r.m.s.
value of current in the circuit will be
(a) 1.58 A (b) 0.98 A (c) 3.75 A (d) 2.38 A
Solution : (c) As current flows in a single direction, the device allows current only during positive
half cycle only
i0 V 150
 irms   0   3 .75 A .
2 2 R 2  20

Tricky example: 2

Two sinusoidal voltages of the same frequency are shown in the diagram. What is the
frequency, and the phase relationship between the voltages
Frequency in Hz Phase lead of N over M in radians
(a) 0.4  / 4 V
M N

(b) 2.5  / 2
O
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 
(c) 2.5  / 2

(d) 2.5  / 4

/2
98 Alternating Current


Solution : (b) From the graph shown below. It is clear that phase lead of N over M is  . Since
2
time period (i.e. taken to complete one cycle) = 0.4 sec.

1
Hence frequency    2 .5 Hz
T

Different ac Circuit.
(1) R, L and C circuits
Circuit Purely resistive Purely inductive Purely capacitive
characteristics circuit circuit circuit
(R-circuit) (L-circuit) (C-circuit)
(i) Circuit R L C

i i i

V  V0 sin t V  V0 sin t V  V0 sin t

(ii) Current i  i0 sin t    

i  i0 sin t  
i  i0 sin t  
 2  2

(iii) Peak current V0 V0 V V0 V0

i0  i0   0  i0   V0 C  V0 (2 C)
R XL L 2 L XC

(iv) Phase difference  

 = 0o   90 o (or  )   90 o (or  )
2 2
(v) Power factor cos   1 cos   0 cos   0

(vi) Power V0 i0
P  Vrms irms  P=0 P=0
2
(vii) Time difference T T
TD = 0 TD  TD 
4 4
(viii) Leading
Both are in same phase Voltage Current
quantity
(ix) Phasor diagram
V i
90o
V i 90o
i V

(2) RL, RC and LC circuits

Alternating Current 99

Circuit RL-circuit RC-circuit LC-circuit

characterstics
(i) Circuit R L R C L C

VR VL VR VC VL VC
i
i i

VR = iR , VL = iXL VR = iR, VC = iXC VL = iXL, VC = iXC

V  V0 sin  t V  V0 sin  t V  V0 sin  t
 
(ii) Current i  i0 sin  t    i  i0 sin  t    i  i0 sin   t  
 2
(iii) Peak current V0 V0 V0 V0 V0 V0
i0   i0   i0  
Z R 
2
X L2 Z R  2
X C2 Z XL  XC
V0
V0 V0 
  1
R 2  4 2 2 L2 1 L
R  2
C
4  2 2 C 2
(iv) Phasor diagram VR VL
VL V  i V= (VL – VC)
90o
 VC V i
VC
VR i

(v) Applied voltage V  VR2  VL2 V  VR2  VC2 V  VL  VC

(vi) Impedance Z  R 2  X L2  R 2   2 L2 2 Z  XL  XC  X
 1 
Z  R 2  X C2  R 2   
 C 
 R 2  4 2 2 L2

(vii) Phase XL L XC 1  = 90o

  tan 1  tan 1   tan 1  tan 1
difference R R R CR
(viii) Power factor R R cos   0
cos   cos  
R 2  X L2 R 2  X C2

(ix) Leading quantity Voltage Current Either voltage or

current

Note :  In LC circuit if XL = XC  VL = VC then resonance occurs and resonant

1 1
frequency (natural frequency  0  rad/sec or  0  Hz .
LC 2 LC

Example
s
100 Alternating Current

Example: 17 In a resistive circuit R = 10  and applied alternating voltage V = 100 sin 100  t. Find the
following
(i) Peak current (ii) r.m.s. current (iii) Average current (iv)
(v) Time period (vi) Power factor (vii)
(viii) Time difference
V0 100
Solution: (i) Peak current i0    10 A
R 10
i0 10
(ii) r.m.s. current irms    5 2A
2 2
2 2
(iii) Average current iav  .i0   10  6 . 37 A
 
 100 
(iv) Frequency     50 Hz
2 2
1 1
(v) Time period T    0 .02 sec
 50
(vi) Phase difference in resistive circuit   0 so p.f. = cos = 1
1 1
(vii) Power dissipated in the circuit P  V0 i0 cos    100  10  1  500 W
2 2
T T
(viii) Time difference T.D.    0  0
2 2
100
Example: 18 In a purely inductive circuit if L   10  3 H and applied alternating voltage is given by V =

100 sin 100  t. Find the followings
(i) Inductive reactance (ii) Peak value, r.m.s. value
and average value of current
(iii) Frequency and time period (iv) Power factor and
power
(v) Time difference between voltage and current
100
Solution: (i) X L   L  100    10  3  10 

V0 100 10 2
(ii) i0    10 A; irms   5 2 A and iav   10 = 6.37 A
XL 10 2 
100  1
(iii) Frequency    50 Hz and T   0 .02 sec
2 50
(iv) In purely L-circuit  = 90o so p.f. cos = 0
T  T
(v) Time difference T.D.    .
2 2 4
Example: 19 An alternating voltage E  200 2 sin(100 t) is connected to a 1 microfaracd capacitor through
an ac ammeter. The reading of the ammeter shall be
(a) 10 mA (b) 20 mA (c) 40 mA (d) 80 mA
Vrms
Solution: (b) Ammeter reads r.m.s. value so irms   Vrms    C
XC
Alternating Current 101

 200 2 
 irms     100  (1  10 6 )  2  10  2  20 mA .
 
 2 
Example: 20 An 120 volt ac source is connected across a pure inductor of inductance 0.70 henry. If the
frequency of the source is 60 Hz, the current passing through the inductor is
(a) 4.55 amps (b) 0.355 amps (c) 0.455 amps (d) 3.55 amps
V V 120
Solution: (c) irms  rms  rms   0 .455 A .
XL 2 L 2  60  0 .7
1
Example: 21 The frequency for which a 5 F capacitor has a reactance of ohm is given by
1000
100 1000 1
(a) MHz (b) Hz (c) Hz (d) 1000 Hz
  1000
1 1 1 100
Solution: (a) XC      MHz .
2 C 2X C (C) 1 6 
2   5  10
1000
Example: 22 Let frequency  = 50 Hz, and capacitance C = 100F in an ac circuit containing a capacitor only.
If the peak value of the current in the circuit is 1.57 A. The expression for the instantaneous
voltage across the capacitor will be

(a) E = 50 sin (100 t – ) (b) E = 100 sin (50 t) (c) E = 50 sin (100 t)(d)
2
i0 1.57
Solution: (a) Peak value of voltage V0  i0 X C    50 V
2 C 2  3.14  50  100  10 6
Hence if equation of current i  i0 sin  t then in capacitive circuit voltage is
 
V  V0 sin   t  
 2

   
 V  50  sin 2  50 t    50 sin 100  t  
 2  2

Example: 23 In an LR-circuit, the inductive reactance is equal to the resistance R of the circuit. An e.m.f.
E  E 0 cos( t) is applied to the circuit. The power consumed in the circuit is

E02 E02 E 02 E02

(a) (b) (c) (d)
R 2R 4R 8R
E R
2
E rms R
Solution: (c) Power consumed P  E rms irms cos   E rms  rms   P ; where Z  R 2  X L2
 Z Z Z2

E0 E 02
Given X L  R  Z  2 R also E rms   P .
2 4R
Example: 24 A coil of resistance 300 ohm and self inductance 1.5 henry is connected to an ac source of
100
frequency Hz . The phase difference between voltage and current is

(a) 0 o (b) 30 o (c) 45 o (d) 60 o
100
2   1 .5
X 2 L 
Solution: (c) By using tan   L   tan    1   = 45o.
R R 300
102 Alternating Current

Example: 25 The current and voltage in an ac circuit are respectively given by i  sin 314 t and
e  200 sin (314 t   / 3) . If the resistance is 100, then the reactance of the circuit is

(a) 100 / 3  (b) 100 3  (c) 200  (d) 200 3 

200
Solution: (b) From the given equation i0  1 A and V0  200 volt . Hence Z   200  also Z 2  R 2  X L2
1
 (200 )2  (100 )2  X L2  X L  100 3 .
Example: 26 A bulb of 60 volt and 10 watt is connected with 100 volt of ac source with an inductance
coil in series. If bulb illuminates with it's full intensity then value of inductance of coil is
(= 60 Hz) [RPMT 1995]

(a) 1.28 H (b) 2.15 H (c) 3.27 H (d) 3.89 H

60  60
Solution: (a) Resistance of the bulb R   360  .
10
L
For maximum illumination, voltage across the bulb VBulb  VR  60 V 60V,
10W
By using V  VR2  VL2  (100 )2  (60)2  VL2  VL  80 V

10 1
Current through the inductance (L) = Current through the bulb   A100V, 60Hz
60 6
VL 80
Also VL  iX L  i(2 L)  L    1 .28 H .
(2  )i 1
2  3 .14  60 
6
Example: 27 When 100 volt dc is applied across a solenoid, a current of 1.0 amp flows in it. When 100
volt ac is applied across the same coil, the current drops to 0.5 amp. If the frequency of ac
source is 50 Hz the impedance and inductance of the solenoid are
(a) 200 ohms and 0.5 henry (b) 100 ohms and 0.86
henry
(c) 200 ohms and 1.0 henry (d) 100 ohms and 0.93
henry
V 100 V 100
Solution: (a) When dc is applied i   1  R = 100. When ac is applied i   0 .5  Z
R R Z Z
= 200.

Hence Z  R 2  X L2  R 2  4 2 2 L2  (200 ) 2  (100 ) 2  4 2 (50 ) 2 L2  L = 0.55H.

Example: 28 In an ac circuit, containing an inductance and a capacitor in series, the current is found to
be maximum when the value of inductance is 0.5 henry and a capacitance of 8 F . The
angular frequency of the input ac voltage must be equal to
(a) 500 rad/sec (b) 5  10 4 rad/sec (c) 4000 rad/sec (d) 5000 rad/sec
1
Solution: (a) Current is maximum i.e. the given circuit is in resonance, and at resonance  0 
LC
1 1
 0    500 rad / sec .
0.5  8  10 6 2  10 3
Example: 29 A resistance of 40 ohm and an inductance of 95.5 millihenry are connected in series in a 50
cycles/second ac circuit. The impedance of this combination is very nearly
Alternating Current 103

(a) 30 ohm (b) 40ohm (c) 50 ohm (d) 60 ohm

Solution: (c) X L  2 L  2  3.14  50  95 .5  10 3  29 .98   30 

Impedance Z  R 2  X L2  (40 ) 2  (30 ) 2  50 

2 .5
Example: 30 F capacitor and 3000-ohm resistance are joined in series to an ac source of 200 volt

and 50 sec 1 frequency. The power factor of the circuit and the power dissipated in it will
respectively
(a) 0.6, 0.06 W (b) 0.06, 0.6 W (c) 0.6, 4.8 W (d) 4.8, 0.6 W
2
 1  1
Solution: (c) Z R2     (1000 ) 2   Z  (3000 )2  (4000 ) 2  8  10 3 
 2 C   2 .5 
2
 2  50   10 6 
  

R 3000 2
Vrms cos 
So power factor cos     0 .6 and power P  Vrms irms cos   
Z 5  10 3 Z
(200 ) 2  0 . 6
P  4 .8W
5  10 3
Example: 31 A telephone wire of length 200 km has a capacitance of 0.014 F per km. If it carries an ac of
frequency 5 kHz, what should be the value of an inductor required to be connected in series
so that the impedance of the circuit is minimum
(a) 0.35 mH (b) 35 mH (c) 3.5 mH (d) Zero
Solution: (a) Capacitance of wire C  0.014  10 6  200  2.8  10 6 F  2.8 F
1
For impedance of the circuit to be minimum X L  X C  2 L 
2 C
1 1
 L  6
 0 .35  10  3 H  0 .35 mH
4  C
2 2
4 (3 .14 )  (5  10 )  2 .8  10
2 3 2

Tricky example: 3

When an ac source of e.m.f. e  E0 sin(100 t) is connected across a circuit, the phase

difference between the e.m.f. e and the current i in the circuit is observed to be  / 4 ,
as shown in the diagram. If the circuit consists possibly only of RC or LC in series,
find the relationship between the two elements
i or e [IIT-JEE (Screening) 2003]
i e
(a) R  1k, C  10 F

(b) R  1k, C  1F

(c) R  1k, L  10 H

(d) R  1k, L  1H

 XC
Solution : (a) As the current i leads the voltage by , it is an RC circuit, hence tan   
4 R
104 Alternating Current

 1
tan 
4  CR

1
  CR  1 as  = 100 rad/sec  CR  sec 1 .
100
From all the given options only option (a) is correct.

Series RLC Circuit.

R L C
VL
(VL – V
VR VL VC
i i V C)

VR i
V = V0 sint
VC
VR = iR, VL = iXL, VC = iXC Phasor
diagram

V0
(1) Equation of current : i  i0 sin( t   ) ; where i0 
Z

(2) Equation of voltage : From phasor diagram V  VR2  (VL  VC )2

2
 1 
(3) Impedance of the circuit : Z  R  ( X L  X C )  R   L 2

2 2

 C 

(4) Phase difference : From phasor diagram

1 1
L 2 L 
VL  VC X  XC C 2 C
tan    L  
VR R R R

(5) If net reactance is inductive : Circuit behaves as LR circuit

(6) If net reactance is capacitive : Circuit behave as CR circuit

(7) If net reactance is zero : Means X  X L  X C  0  XL = XC . This is the condition of
resonance
(8) At resonance (series resonant circuit)
(i) XL = XC  Zmin = R i.e. circuit behaves as resistive circuit
(ii) VL = VC  V = VR i.e. whole applied voltage appeared across the resistance
(iii) Phase difference :  = 0o  p.f. = cos = 1
1
(iv) Power consumption P = Vrms irms  V0 i0
2
Alternating Current 105

V0
(v) Current in the circuit is maximum and it is i0 
R
(vi) These circuit are used for voltage amplification and as selector circuits in wireless
telegraphy.
(9) Resonant frequency (Natural frequency)
1 1 rad 1
At resonance X L  X C   0 L   0   0  Hz (or cps)
0 C LC sec 2 LC
(Resonant frequency doesn't depend upon the resistance of the circuit)
(10) Different graphs
(i) i -  graph (ii) z -  graph (iii) Y -  graph
i z Y
imax Ymax
XC >XL XL >XC

zmin = R

 = 0   = 0   = 0 

(iv) (XL , XC) -  graph (v) X -  graph

XL XL – XC

0 0

 

XC

(11) Half power frequencies and band width : The frequencies at which the power in the
circuit is half of the maximum power (The power at resonance), are called half power
frequencies.
(i) The current in the circuit at half power frequencies Pmax
1 Pmax
(HPF) is P
2 P 2

or 0.707 or 70.7% of maximum current (current at 1 0 2 

resonance).
(ii) There are two half power frequencies.

(a)  1  called lower half power frequency. At this frequency the circuit is capacitive.

(b)  2  called upper half power frequency. It is greater than  0 . At this frequency the
circuit is inductive.
106 Alternating Current

(iii) Band width () : The difference of half power frequencies  1 and  2 is called band
R
width () and    2   1 . For series resonant circuit it can be proved    
L
(12) Quality factor (Q - factor) of series resonant circuit
The characteristic of a series resonant circuit is determined by the quality factor (Q - factor)
of the circuit.
It defines sharpness of i -  curve at resonance when Q - factor is large, the sharpness of
resonance curve is more and vice-versa.
Q - factor also defined as follows
Maximum energy stored 2 Maximum energy stored Resonant frequency  0
Q - factor  2     
Energy dissipatio n T Mean power dissipated Band width 

VL V  L 1 1 L
Q - factor  or C  0 or  Q - factor 
VR VR R  0 CR R C

i R=0
Q - factor =
Infinity
R = Very low
Q- factor = large
R = low
Q- factor =
Rnormal
= High
Q- factor = low
0 
Resonance
curve

Choke Coil.
Choke coil (or ballast) is a device having high inductance and negligible resistance. It is
used to control current in ac circuits and is used in fluorescent tubes. The power loss in a circuit
containing choke coil is least.
Iron
core

Starter
Coil of Cu
wire Choke
coil
Choke coil Application of choke L, R
coil

(1) It consist of a Cu coil wound over a soft iron laminated core.

(2) Thick Cu wire is used to reduce the resistance (R) of the circuit.
(3) Soft iron is used to improve inductance (L) of the circuit.
Alternating Current 107

(4) The inductive reactance or effective opposition of the choke coil is given by XL =  L =
2 L
(5) For an ideal choke coil r = 0, no electric energy is wasted i.e. average power P = 0.
(6) In actual practice choke coil is equivalent to a R – L circuit.
(7) Choke coil for different frequencies are made by using different substances in their
core.
For low frequency L should be large thus iron core choke coil is used. For high frequency ac
circuit, L should be small, so air cored choke coil is used.
Parallel RLC Circuits.
V0
iR   V0 G
R iC
V = V0 sint

i iR iL iC i
V0
iL   V0 S L R L C

XL
iR V
iL
V0
iC   V0 S C
XC

(1) Current and phase difference

From phasor diagram current i  iR2  (iC  iL )2 and phase difference

(iC  iL ) (S  S L )
  tan 1  tan 1 C
iR G

(2) Admittance (Y) of the circuit

2
V   V V 
2
V0
From equation of current   0    0  0  
Z  R   XL XC 
2
 1 1 
2
1 1
 Y         G 2  (S L  S C ) 2
Z R  L
X X C 

(3) Resonance
V V
At resonance (i) iC  iL  imin  iR (ii)   SC  S L S  0
XC XL

V
(iii) Z max  R (iv)   0  p.f. = cos = 1 = maximum (v) Resonant frequency
iR
1
 
2 LC
(4) Current resonance curve
108 Alternating Current

i Z Zmax = R

imin

0  

(5) Parallel LC circuits

If inductor has resistance (R) and it is connected in parallel with capacitor as shown

(i) At resonance
R L
1 L
(a) Z max  
Y min CR C

V0 CR i
(b) Current through the circuit is minimum and imin 
L V = V0
1 1 sint
(c) S L  S C    X 
XL XC
1 R 2 rad 1 1 R2
(d) Resonant frequency  0   2 or  0   2 Hz (Condition for parallel resonance
LC L sec 2 LC L
L
is R  )
C
1 1
(e) Quality factor of the circuit  . . In the state of resonance the quality factor
1 CR
R2

LC L2
of the circuit is equivalent to the current amplification of the circuit.
(ii) If inductance has no resistance : If R = 0 then circuit becomes parallel LC circuit as
shown L
i
iC
C

V
iR
V = V0 iL
sint

V V
Condition of resonance : iC  iL    X C  X L . At resonance current i in the
XC XL
1
circuit is zero and impedance is infinite. Resonant frequency :  0  Hz
2 LC
Note :  At resonant frequency due to the property of rejecting the current, parallel
resonant circuit is also known as anti-resonant circuit or rejecter circuit.
 Due to large impedance, parallel resonant circuits are used in radio.
Alternating Current 109

Concepts

 Series RLC circuit also known as acceptor circuit (or tuned circuits or filter circuit) as at resonance it most
readily accepts that current out of many currents whose frequency is equal to it's natural frequency.
 The choke coil can be used only in ac circuits not in dc circuits, because for dc frequency  = 0 hence XL = 2L = 0,
only the resistance of the coil remains effective which too is almost zero.
 Choke coil is based on the principle of wattless current.

Example
s
Example: 32 In a series circuit R  300 , L  0.9 H , C  2.0 F and   1000 rad / sec . The impedance of the
circuit is
[MP PMT 1995]
(a) 1300  (b) 900  (c) 500  (d) 400 
2 2
 1   1 
Solution: (c) Z R    L 
2
  (300 ) 2   1000  0 .9    Z  (300 )2  (400 )2  500  .
  C   6
1000  2  10 
Example: 33 In LCR circuit, the capacitance is changed from C to 4C. For the same resonant frequency,
the inductance should be changed from L to
(a) 2L (b) L/2 (c) L/4 (d) 4L
1 1 L' C C L
Solution: (c) By using  0   L     L'  .
2 LC C L C' 4 C 4
Example: 34 An LCR series circuit is connected to an external e.m.f. e  200 sin 100 t . The values of the
capacitance and resistance in the circuit are 2 F and 100  respectively. The amplitude of
the current in the circuit will be maximum when the inductance is
(a) 100 Henry (b) 50 /  2 Henry (c) 100  Henry (d) 100   2 Henry
1
Solution: (b) Current will be maximum in resonance i.e. XL = XC  100   L  
100   2  10 6
50
L Henry .
2
Example: 35 In the circuit shown below, what will be the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter
100 

(a) 800 V, 2A
(b) 300 V, 2A A V
300 300
(c) 220 V, 2.2 A V V
220 V, 50
(d) 100 V, 2A Hz

Solution: (c) VL = VC; This is the condition of resonance and in resonance V = VR = 220 V.
Vrms 220
In the condition of resonance current through the circuit i    2 .2 A.
R 100
Example: 36 In the circuit shown in the figure the ac source gives a voltage V  20 cos(2000 t) . Neglecting
source resistance, the voltmeter and ammeter reading will be
6
A
(a) 0 V , 0 .47 A
5mH 50 F
4

V
110 Alternating Current

(b) 1.68 V, 0.47 A

(c) 0 V , 1.4 A
(d) 5 .6 V , 1 .4 A
1
Solution: (d) X L   L = 2000  5  10–3 = 10  and X C   10 
2000  50  10 6
Total impedance of the circuit  6  (R) 2  (X L  X C ) 2  6  (4 ) 2  0  10 
Vrms 20 / 2
Ammeter reads r.m.s. current so it's value irms    2  1 . 41 A
Total impedance 10
Since XL = XC ; this is the condition of resonance and in this condition V = VR = iR = 1.4  4 =
5.6 V.
Example: 37 In a series resonant LCR circuit, if L is increased by 25% and C is decreased by 20%, then
the resonant frequency will
(a) Increase by 10% (b) Decrease by 10% (c) Remain unchanged (d)Increase by 2.5 %
1 L 5L
Solution: (c) 0   In this question L'  L  25 % of L  L   and C'  C  20% of C
2 LC 4 4
C 4C
C 
5 5
1 1 1
Hence  0'    0
2 L' C ' 5L 4C 2 LC
2 
4 5
Example: 38 The self inductance of a choke coil is 10 mH. When it is connected with a 10V dc source,
then the loss of power is 20 watt. When it is connected with 10 volt ac source loss of power
is 10 watt. The frequency of ac source will be
(a) 50 Hz (b) 60 Hz (c) 80 Hz (d) 100 Hz

(10 ) 2  5
2
V2 (10 ) 2 Vrms R
Solution: (c) With dc : P   R  5; With ac : P   Z2   50  2
R 20 Z2 10

Also Z 2  R 2  4 2 2 L2  50  (5) 2  4 (3 .14 ) 2  2 (10  10 3 ) 2    80 Hz .

Example: 39 An ideal choke takes a current of 8A when connected to an ac source of 100 volt and 50Hz.
A pure resistor under the same conditions takes a current of 10A. If two are connected in
series to an ac supply of 100V and 40 Hz, then the current in the series combination of
above resistor and inductor is

(a) 10A (b) 8A (c) 5 2 amp (d) 10 2 amp

Vrms 100 1 100
Solution: (c) XL    2  50  L  L  Henry and R   10 
irms 8 8 10
So impedance of the series RC circuit at a frequency of 40 Hz is
2
 1 
Z   2  40   10 2  10 2
 8 
E 100 10
Hence current in the RC circuit now i     5 2A .
Z 10 2 2
Alternating Current 111

Example: 40 In the following circuit diagram inductive reactance of inductor is 24 and capacitive
reactance of capacitor is 48, then reading of ammeter will be
ac
(a) 5 A ammeter

(b) 2.4 A L
240 V C
(c) 2.0 A
(d) 10 A
240 i
Solution: (a) iL   10 A
24 iL iC
XC = 48
240
iC   5A 240 V
XL =24
48
Hence i  iL  iC  5 A

Tricky example: 4

In an LCR circuit R  100 ohm. When capacitance C is removed, the current lags
behind the voltage by  / 3 . When inductance L is removed, the current leads the
voltage by  / 3 . The impedance of the circuit is
(a) 50 ohm (b) 100 ohm (c) 200 ohm (d) 400 ohm

XL
Solution : (b) When C is removed circuit becomes RL circuit hence tan 
.....(i)
3R
 X
When L is removed circuit becomes RC circuit hence tan  C .....(ii)
3 R
From equation (i) and (ii) we obtain XL = XC. This is the condition of resonance
and in resonance Z = R = 100.