Physics IMP

335

Physics
Scalar Quantities
Unit Physical quantities which have magnitude
The chosen standard used for measuring a only and no direction are called scalar
physical quantity is called unit. quantities.
Example: Mass, Speed, Volume, etc.
System of Units
Units depend on choice. Each choice of units Vector Quantities
leads to a new system (set) of units. The Physical quantities which have magnitude
internationally accepted systems are (i) CGS and direction both and which obey triangle
system; (ii) EPS System; (iii) FPS System; law are called vector quantities.
and (iv) SI Units. Example: Displacement, Velocity, etc.
SI Base Units
Base quantity Unit Symbol Kinematics
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg Distance
Time second s Distance is the length of actual path covered
Electric current ampere A by a moving object in a given time interval.
Thermodynamic • Distance is a scalar quantity whereas
kelvin K
temperature disp lacement is a vector quantity both
Amount of having the same unit.
mole mol
substance
Luminous intensity candela cd Displacement
Supplementary Supplementary
• The difference between the final and the initial
Symbol position of an object is called displacement.
Physical Quantity Unit
Plane angle radian rad.
• It is a vector quantity. Its unit is metre.
• The magnitude of displacement may or may
Solid angle steradian Sr
not be equal to the path length traversed by
Standard Units an object.
viscocity pascal second • Displacement may be positive, negative or
zero whereas distance is always positive.
Power dioptre
Inductance henry Speed
Loudness phon • The average speed of a particle for a given
Magnetic inductance tesla interval of time is defined as the ratio of total
Magnetic flux weber distance travelled to the total time taken.
Total distance travelled
Electric charge farad, coulomb Average speed =
Total time taken
336 General Knowledge 2020

• Distance travelled by the moving object in

Motion
unit time interval is called speed. It is scalar
quantity and its SI unit is metre/second If the position of an object changes with time,
(m/s). Velocity of a moving object is defined it is said to be in motion. A particle at rest does
not have the speed and acceleration, while a
as the displacement of the object in the unit
particle in motion has its speed and also may
time interval. It is a vector quantity and its
have some acceleration.
SI unit is metre/second.
Distance Projectile Motion
Speed = • When a particle is so projected that it makes
Time
certain angle with horizontal and moves
Displacement under gravity alone then the motion of the
Velocity =
Time particle is said to be projectile.
• Path of projectile is a parabola.
Uniform Velocity • To achieve maximum range the body should
• An object is said to be moving with uniform be projected at an angle of 45°.
velocity if it undergoes equal displacements • When a body is dropped freely from the top
in equal intervals of time. of the tower and another body is projected
horizontally from the same point, both will
Relative Velocity reach the ground at the same time.
• When two bodies are moving in the straight • If we throw two balls of different masses
line, the speed (or velocity) of one with in horizontal direction then they will again
reach on earth at the same time because
respect to another is known as its relative
both the balls will have zero velocity in
speed (or velocity). vertical direction.
Important Prefixes to Units
Circular motion
tera (T) 1012 giga (G) 109 Mega (M)106 • When an object moves along a circular path,
then its motion is called circular motion e.g.,
kilo (K) 103 hecto (h) 102 deka (da) 10
motion of a top etc.
deci (d) 10 –1
centi (C) 10 –2
mili (m) 10–3 • If an object moves a long a circular path with
uniform speed, its motion is called uniform
Micro (µ) 10–6 nano (n) 10–9 Pilo (P) 10–12
circular motion.
Femp (f) 10–15 atto (a) 10–18 • It is accelerated even if speed of the body
is constant. The motion of satellite is an
Acceleration acclerated motion.
• Acceleration of an object is defined as the
Angular Velocity
rate of change of velocity of the object. It is
The time rate of change of the angular
a vector quantity and its SI unit is metre/
displacement of a particle relative to its origin
second2 (m/s2). If velocity decreases with
is angular velocity. w = q
time then acceleration is negative and is t
called retardation. Newton’s first law of motion
• Accceleration (a) = v – u • Everybody maintains its initial state of rest
t or motion with uniform speed on a straight
• When the velocity of a body increases with line unless an external force acts on it.
time then its acceleration is negative and is • First law is also called law of Galileo or
called retardation or deceleration. law of inertia.
• It gives the definition of force.
Science 337
Inertia Momentum
Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of
which the body opposes change in its initial Momentum is the property of a moving body
state of rest or motion with uniform speed and is defined as the product of mass and
on a straight line. velocity of the body. It is a vector quantity.
Its SI unit is kg m/s.
Some Examples of Inertia
• When a car or train starts suddenly, the Principle of Conservation of
passengers bend backward. Linear Momentum
• When a running horse stops suddenly, the
rider bends forward. If no external force acts on a system of
• When a coat/blanket is beaten by a stick, bodies, the total linear momentum of the
the dust particles are removed. system of bodies remains constant, i.e.,
• First law gives the definition of force. m1u2 + m1u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Impulse
Force • When a large force acts on a body for very
Force is that external cause which when small time, then force is called impulsive
acts on a body, changes or tries to change force. Impulse is defined as the product of
the initial state of the body. force and time.
• Force = mass × acceleration • It is a vector quantity and its direction
is the direction of force. Its SI unit is
v − u Newton second (Ns).
 m = ma
 t 
Centripetal Force
• Its S.I. unit is Newton (kg. m s–2)
A body performing circular motion is acted
Newton’s Second Law of Motion upon by a force which is always directed
• The rate of change of momentum of a towards the centre of the circle. This force
body is directly proportional to the applied is called centripetal force.
force on the body and takes place in the mv 2
direction of force. F=
r
• Newton’s second law gives the magnitude
of force, i.e. Force = mass × acceleration. Cyclist bends his body towards the centre
• Newton’s first law is contained in the on a turn while turning to obtain the
second law. required centripetal force.
Centrifugal Force
Newton’s Third Law of Motion In applying the Newton’s laws of motion,
To every action, there is an equal and we have to consider some forces which
opposite reaction. cannot be assigned to any object in the
• Forces act on two different bodies in surrounding. These forces are called pseudo
opposite directions. force or inertial force. Centrifugal force is
also called a Pseudo force. It is always equal
Examples of third law and opposite to centripetal force.
i. Recoil of a gun; Cream separator, centrifugal driver, etc.
ii. Motion of a rocket; work on the principle of centrifugal force.
iii. Swimming;
iv. While drawing water from the well, if Moment of Force
the string breaks up, the man drawing • The rotational effect of a force on a body
water falls back. about an axis of rotation is described in
terms of moment of force.
• The centre of gravity of a body is that point, • Friction that exists during the relative sliding
through which the entire weight of body acts. or rolling of one surface over the other is
• The weight of a body acts through centre of called dynamic or kinetic fraction.
gravity in the downward direction. • Frictional force does not depend on the
area of contact.
Equilibrium • Kinetic friction is less than static friction.
• If the resultant of all the forces acting on
a body is zero then the body is said to be Advantages and Disadvantages
in equilibrium. of Friction
i. Stable equilibrium: If on slight dis • Walking is possible due to friction.
placement from equilibrium position; • The transfer of motion from one part of
a body has tendency to regain its a machine to other part through belts is
original position, it is said to be in stable possible by friction.
equilibrium. • Brake works on the basis of friction.
ii. Unstable equilibrium: If on a slight • Friction causes wear and tear of the
displacement from equilibrium position, parts of machinery in contact. Thus their
a body moves in the direction of lifetime gets reduced.
displacement and does not regain its
Methods of Reducing Friction
original position, the equilibrium is said
• By polishing, by lubrication, by proper
to be unstable equilibrium.
selection of material, by using ball bearing,
Neutral Equilibrium the friction can be reduced to some extent.
If on slight displacement from equilibrium
position, a body has no tendency to come
Work, Energy and Power
back to its original position or to move in Work
the direction of displacement, it is said to • When a body is displaced by applying a force
be in neutral equilibrium. on it, then work is said to be done.
• The centre of gravity of a body is that point • Work = Force × displacement.
through which the entire weight of the • Its SI unit is joule (kg m2 s–2).
body acts.
Positive Work Done
Conditions for Stable Equilibrium • Positive work means that force is parallel
• For stable equilibrium of a body, the to displacement, i.e. in the direction
following two conditions should be fulfilled. of displacement.
i. The centre of gravity of the body should
Negative Work Done
be at the minimum height.
• Negative work means that force is opposite
ii. The vertical line passing through the
to displacement.
centre of gravity of the body should pass
through the base of the body. Zero Work Done
• If the force is perpendicular to the dis
Friction placement and if either the force or the
• If we slide or try to slide a body over a displacement is zero, work done is zero.
surface, the motion is resisted by a bonding Energy
between the body and the surface. This • Capacity of doing work by a body is called
resistance is called frictional force. its energy.
• The opposite force that comes into play when • Energy is a scalar quantity and its SI unit
one body tends to move over the surface of is joule and CGS unit is erg.
another body but actually motion has yet • Energy developed in a body due to work done
not started is called static friction. is called mechanical energy.
Science 339
Kinetic Energy • In battery, chemical energy changes into

• If a body of mass m is moving with velocity mechanical energy.
v, then kinetic energy • In electric motor, electrical energy changes
1 2 P2 into mechanical energy.
KE = mv =
2 2m
Power
where p is the linear momentum. • Rate of doing work is called power.
• When momentum is doubled, kinetic energy • SI unit of power is watt named as a respect
becomes four times. to the scientist James Watt or Joule Per
• If a body is moving in horizontal circle then
second and it is scalar quantity.
its kinetic energy is same at all points, but if
it is moving in vertical circle, then the kinetic 1 W = 1 J/s
energy is different at different points. 1 kW = 103 W
1 MW = 106 W
Potential Energy
• It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue 1 Watt/s (W–s) = 1 J
of its position. • Horse power is a practical unit of power.
• PE of a body in the gravitational field 1 H.P. = 746 watt.
of earth is mgh. Power is the rate at which work is done. It
where m = mass, g = acceleration due to is the work/time ratio. Mathematically, it is
gravity, h = height of the body from surface computed using the following equation:
of the earth.
• When a body is falling downwards, then Power = Work done
Time taken
its potential energy goes on changing to
kinetic energy. P=W
T
Principle of Conservation of
Energy Gravitation
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Energy can only be transformed from one Definition
form to another form. The sum of all kinds Every body attracts another body by a force
called force of gravitation.
of energies in an isolated system remains
constant at all times. Gravitational Force
Mm
Transformation of Energy • Mathematically, it is represented as: F = G
• In a heat engine, heat energy changes into r2
mechanical energy. Where, F is gravitational force, G is
• In the electric bulb, the electric energy is gravitational constant, M is the mass of first
converted into light energy. particle, m is the mass of second particle and
• In burning coal, oil, etc., the chemical energy r is the distance between them.
changes to heat energy. • This is called Newton’s universal law
• In solar cell, solar energy changes into of gravitation.
electrical energy. • The value of G is 6.67 × 10–11 N m2/kg2.
• In playing sitar, mechanical energy changes Newton’s Law of Gravitation
into sound energy. The force of gravitational attraction between
• In microphone, sound energy changes into two-point bodies is directly proportional to
electrical energy. the product of their masses and inversely
• In loud speaker, electrical energy changes proportional to the square of the distance
into sound energy. between them.
Gravity • The gravitational force of earth (gravity) is

• The acceleration due to gravity is the rate called acceleration due to gravity (denoted
of increase of velocity of a body falling freely as g) and its value is 9.8 m/s2.
towards the earth. It is represented by • Acceleration due to gravity is independent of
GM e shape, size and mass of the body.
g=
R e2
Weight
where Me is the mass of the earth and Re is • The weight of a body is the force with which it is
the radius of the earth. attracted towards the centre of Earth.
• The value of g at the surface of earth is • It is measured by a spring balance.
9.8 m/s2. • It is not constant and it changes from
• The value of g on the Moon is 1/6th of that on
place to place.
the earth.
Variation in the Value of Gravity Weight of a Body in a Lift

• When we go above the surface of the earth, i. If the lift is stationary or moving with
the acceleration due to gravity goes on uniform speed (either upward or
decreasing. downward), the apparent weight of a
• When we go below the surface of the earth, body is equal to its true weight.
the acceleration due to gravity goes on ii. If the lift is going up with acceleration
decreasing and becomes zero at the centre of (a), the apparent weight of a body
is more than the true weight, i.e.
the earth.
R = m(g + a)
• On increasing the rotational motion of earth,
iii. If the lift is going down with acceleration,
the value of g decreases.
the apparent weight of the body is less
• Decreasing the rotational motion of earth,
than the true weight. i.e. R = m(g – a)
the value of g increases.
iv. If the cord of the lift is broken, it falls
• When we go from the equator towards the
freely under gravity. In this situation,
poles, the value of g goes on increasing.
weight of a body in the lift becomes
• If earth stops its rotation about its own axis
zero.
then at the equator the value of g increases
v. While going down, if the acceleration
and consequently the weight of body lying of lift is more than acceleration due to
there increases. gravity, a body in the lift goes in contact
Variation in g of the ceiling of lift.
i. Value of g decreases with height or •
depth from earth’s surface.
ii. g is maximum at poles.
iii. g is minimum at equator.
Satellite
iv. g decreases due to rotation of earth. • The heavenly body which revolves round the
v. g decreases if angular speed of earth planets is called satellite. Moon is a natural
increases and increases if angular speed satellite of earth, while INSAT-I1B is an
of earth decreases. artificial satellite of earth.
• If angular speed of earth becomes 17 times • The speed of a satellite does not depend upon
its present value, a body on the equator the mass of the satellite.
becomes weightless. • A satellite revolving very close to earth’s
Centre of Gravity surface has a period of revolution about 84
• The centre of gravity of a body is that point min and its speed is nearly 8 km/s.
at which the whole weight of the body • Artificial satellites are of two types: Geo
appears to act. stationary and Polar satellites.
Science 341
• The orbital speed of a satellite revolving near

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion the surface of earth is 7.9 km/sec.
i. All planets move around the sun in
elliptical orbits, with the sun being at Period of Revolution of Satellite
rest at one focus of the orbit. Time taken by a satellite to complete one
ii. The position vector of the planet with revolution in its orbit is called its period of
sun at the origin sweeps out equal area revolution.
in equal time. i. Period of revolution of a satellite depends
iii. The square of the period of revolution upon the height of satellite from the
of a planet around the sun is directly
surface of earth. The greater the height,
proportional to the cube of main distance
the more will be the period of revolution.
of planet from the sun.
ii. Period of revolution of a satellite is
independent of its mass.
GeoStationary Satellite • The period of revolution of satellite revolving
If a satellite revolves in equatorial plane in near the surface of earth is 1 hour 24
the direction of earth’s rotation, i.e. from minutes (84 minute).
west to east with a period of revolution equal
to time period of rotation of earth on its own General Properties of Matter
axis, i.e. 24 hours, then the satellite will
appear stationary relative to earth. Such a Elasticity
satellite is called a geostationary satellite. • It is that property of the material of a body
by virtue of which the body opposes any
Such a satellite revolves around the earth
change in its shape or size when deforming
at a height of 36,000 km. The orbit of
forces are applied to it, and recovers its
geostationary satellite is called parking orbit.
original state as soon as the deforming
Polar satellites revolve around the earth in forces are removed.
polar orbits at a height of approximately
800 km. The time period of these satellites is Plasticity
approximately 84 minutes. These satellites • The property of a body, by virtue of which
are used for weather forecasting. it does not regain its original configuration
after the removal of deforming force, is
Escape Velocity called plasticity.
• The minimum velocity of the body that Stress
should be given to the body to enable it to • The internal restoring force acting per unit
escape away from earth’s gravitational field area of cross-section of the deformed body
is called escape velocity. Its value on the is called stress.
earth’s surface is 11.2 km/s.
Strain
Vesp = 2Gm • The change in length, volume, shape of the
R body under the application of the deforming
force is called strain.
Orbital Speed of a Satellite • Hooke’s law and modulus of elasticity: The
i. Orbital speed of a satellite is independent ratio of stress to strain is a constant for the
of its mass. Hence satellites of different material and is called modulus of elasticity.
masses revolving in the orbit of same Stress
radius have same orbital speed. E=
ii. Orbital speed of a satellite depends upon Strain
the radius of orbit (height of satellite • It is also called hooke’s law, which states
from the surface of earth). Greater the that within the limit of elasticity the strain
radius of orbit, lesser will be the orbital produced in a body is directly proportional
speed. to the stress applied to it.
Pressure • Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press, hydraulic

brake work on the basis of Pascal’s law.
• Pressure is defined as force acting normally • Cohesive force: It is the intermolecular force
on unit area on the surface. SI unit of of attraction acting between the molecules
pressure is N/m2 also called Pascal (Pa). of same substance.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. • Adhesive force: It is intermolecular force of
attraction acting between the molecules of
Normal force different substances.
Pressure =
Area Effect of Pressure on Melting Point and
Boiling Point:
• Atmospheric pressure of 1 atm = 1.01 × 10–5
i. The M.P. of substances which expands
N/m2 = 760 torr
on fusion increases with the increase
Atmospheric Pressure in pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is that pressure which ii. The M.P. of substances which contracts
is exerted by a mercury column of 76 cm on fusion decreases with the increase in
length at 0°C at 45° latitude at sea-level. temperature.
iii. Boiling point of all the substances
• Atmospheric pressure decreases with
altitude (height from earth surface). This is increases with the increase in pressure.
why (i) It is difficult to cook on the mountain.
(ii) The fountain pen of a passenger leaks in Floatation
an aeroplane at a height.
Buoyant Force
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by
When a body is immersed partly or wholly
barometer.
in a liquid, a force acts on the body by the
• Sudden fall in barometric reading is the liquid in the upward direction. This force is
indication of storm.
called buoyant force or force of buoyancy or
• Slow fall in barometric reading is the upthrust. It is equal to the weight of liquid
indication of rain. displaced by the body and acts at the centre
• Slow rise in the barometric reading is the of gravity of displaced liquid.
indication of clear weathers.
Archimedes’ Principle
Pressure in liquid When a body is immersed partly or wholly
Force exerted on unit area of wall or base of in a liquid, there is an apparent loss in the
the container by the molecules of liquid is weight of the body which is equal to the
the pressure of liquid. weight of liquid displaced by the body.
i. In a static liquid at same horizontal
level, pressure is same at all points.
Law of Floatation
ii. Pressure at a point in a static liquid has A body floats in a liquid if–
same value in all directions. i. Density of material of body is less than
iii. Pressure at a point in a liquid is or equal to the density of liquid.
proportional to the depth of the point ii. If density of material of body is equal
from the free surface. to density of liquid, the body floats
iv. Pressure at a point in a liquid is fully submerged in liquid in neutral
proportional to the density of the liquid. equilibrium.
iii. When body floats in neutral equilibrium,
Pascal’s Law the weight of the body is equal to the
• The pressure exerted anywhere at a weight of displaced liquid.
point of confined fluid is transmitted iv. The centre of gravity of the body and
equally and undiminished in all directions centre of gravity of the displaced liquid
throughout the liquid. should be in one vertical line.
Science 343
Centre of Buoyancy • Bubbles of soap solution are big because

The centre of gravity of the liquid displaced addition of soap decreases the surface
by a body is called centre of buoyancy. tension of water.
• Due to the surface tension, rain drops are
Meta Centre
spherical in shape.
When a floating body is slightly tilted from
• When kerosene oil is sprinkled on water, its
equilibrium position, the centre of buoyancy
shifts. The point at which the vertical line surface tension decreases. As a result, the
passing through the new position of centre larvae of mosquitoes floating on the surface
of buoyancy meets with the initial line is of water die due to sinking.
called Meta Centre. • Small drops of mercury are spherical while
Conditions for stable equilibrium of Floating large are flat.
body: • Formation of lead shots.
• Relative density is measured by Hydrometer. • Warm soup is tasty because at high
• The density of sea water is more than that temperature its surface tension is low
of normal water. and consequently the soup spreads on all
• When ice floats in water, its part remains parts of the tongue.
outside the water.
• If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, the Capillarity
level of water in the vessel does not change.
• Purity of milk is measured by lactometer.
Capillary Tube
Surface Tension A tube having very narrow (fine) and uniform
bore is called a capillary tube.
• It is the force (F) acting normally to a unit If a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, liquid
length (l) of an imaginary line drawn on the ascends or descends in the capillary tube.
surface of liquid. This phenomenon is called capillarity.
F The height by which liquid ascends or
i.e. T = descends in a capillary tube depends upon
l the radius of the tube.
Surface tension is the property of a liquid The capillarity depends on the nature of
by virtue of which it has the tendency to liquid and solid both. The liquid which wets
have the area of its free surface minimum. the wall of tube rises in the tube and the
• Surface tension of a liquid decreases with liquid which does not wet the wall of tube
the increase of temperature and becomes descends in the tube.
zero at critical temperature.
Cohesive Force: The force of attraction Illustrations of Capillarity
between the molecules of same substance i. A piece of blotting paper soaks ink
is called cohesive force. Cohesive force is because the pores of the blotting paper
maximum solids. Cohesive force is negligible serve as capillary tubes.
in cases of gages. ii. The root hairs of plants draw water from
Adhesive Force: Force of attraction between the soil through capillary action.
the molecules of different substances is iii. To prevent loss of water due to capillary
called adhesive force. action, the soil is loosened and split into
• If a clean and dry needle is very slowly kept pieces by the farmers.
on the surface of water, it floats due to iv. If a capillary tube is dipped in water in
surface tension. an artificial satellite, water rises up to
• The addition of detergent or soap decreases other end of tube because of its zero
the surface tension of water and, thus, apparent weight, how long the tube
increases the cleaning ability. may be.
v. Action of leaves in soaking up water • Viscosity of gases is much less than that of
from the body is due to capillary action liquids. There is no viscosity in solids.
of cotton in the towel. • Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero.
vi. Melted wax, in a candle rises up to wick • With rise in temperature, viscosity of liquids
by capillary action. decreases and that for gases increases.
• The kerosene oil in a lantern and the melted • Viscosity of a fluid is measured by its
wax in a candle, rise in the capillaries formed coefficient of viscosity. Its SI unit is (N sm–2)
in the cotton wick and thus they burnt. or Pascal-second. It is generally denoted by n.
• Writing nib is split in the middle so that
a fine capillary is formed in it. When it is Terminal Velocity
dipped in ink the ink rises in the capillary. When a body falls in a viscous medium, its
• The water given to the fields rises in the velocity first increases and finally becomes
innumerable capillaries formed in the stems constant. This constant velocity is called
of plants and trees and reaches the branches terminal velocity.
and the leaves. Streamline Flow
• The farmers plough their fields after rains If a fluid is flowing in such a way that velocity
so that the capillaries formed in the soil are of all the fluid particles reaching a particular
broken and the water remains in the lower point is same at all time, then the floor of
layers of the soil. fluid is said to be streamlined flow.
Density Critical Velocity

The maximum velocity up to which fluid
• The density of a substance (ρ) is defined as
motion is streamlined is called critical
the ratio of its mass (M) to its volume (V).
velocity. Clearly, if the velocity of flow is
Mass below critical velocity, flow is streamlined
i.e. Density =
Volume and of the velocity is above the critical

velocity, flow is turbulent.
• Density of water is maximum at 4°C.
• The relative density is defined as the ratio Bernoulli’s Theorem
of the density of the substance to the density • When an incompressible and non-viscous
of water at 4°C. liquid (or gas) flows in streamlined motion
• Ice floats on water surface as its density from one place to another, then at every
(0.92 g/cm3) is lesser than the density of point of its path the total energy per unit
water (1g/cm3). volume (pressure energy + kinetic energy +
• If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, the potential energy) remains constant.
level of water in the vessel does not change. • Venturi Meter, Pitot tube, Bunsen’s burner,
• The density of sea water is more than that of atomizer, filter pump and magnus effect are
normal water. This explains why it is easier based on the Bernoulli’s theorem.
to swim in sea water.
Simple Harmonic Motion (shm)
Viscosity If a particle repeats its motion about a fixed
point after a regular time interval in such
Viscous Force a way that at any moment the acceleration
The force which opposes the relative motion of the particle is directly proportional to its
between different layers of liquid or gases is displacement from the fixed point at the
called viscous force. moment and is always directed towards the
Viscosity is the property of a liquid by virtue fixed point at that moment and is always
of which it opposes the relative motion directed towards the fixed point then the
between its different layers. motion of the particle is called simple
Science 345
harmonic motion. The fixed point is called • If a simple pendulum is suspended in a lift
mean point or equilibrium point. descending down with acceleration, then
time period of pendulum will increase.
Characteristics of SHM If lift is ascending, then time period of
When a particle executing SHM passes pendulum will decrease.
through the mean position: • If a lift falling freely under gravity, then the
i. No force acts on the particle. time period of the Pendulum will be infinite.
ii. Acceleration of the particle is zero.
iii. Velocity is maximum. Wave
iv. Kinetic energy is maximum. • A wave is a disturbance which propagates
v. Potential energy is zero. energy from one place to the other without
When a particle executing SHM is at the the transport of matter.
extreme end, then: • These are of two types:
i. Acceleration of the particle is maximum. i. Mechanical waves
ii. Restoring force acting on particle is ii. Electromagnetic waves
maximum.
Mechanical Waves
iii. Velocity of particle is zero.
• The waves which require material medium
iv. Kinetic energy of a particle is zero. (solid, liquid or gas) for their propagation are
v. Potential energy is maximum. called mechanical waves or elastic waves.
Periodic Motion These are of two types:
Any motion which repeats itself after regular i. Longitudinal waves
interval of time is called periodic or harmonic ii. Transverse waves
motion. Longitudinal Waves: If the particles of
the medium vibrate in the direction of
Oscillatory Motion propagation of wave, the wave is called lon
• If a particle repeats its motion after a regular gitudinal wave. Waves on springs or sound
time interval about a fixed point, motion is waves in air are examples of longitudinal
said to be oscillatory or vibratory. waves.
• Motion of piston in an automobile engine Transverse Waves: If the particles of the
and motion of balance wheel of a watch are medium vibrate perpendicular to the
the examples of oscillatory motion. direction of propagation of wave, the wave
is called transverse wave.
Time Period
Waves on strings under tension, waves
Time taken in one complete oscillation is
on the surface of water are examples of
called time period.
transverse waves.
Frequency is the number of oscillations
completed by oscillating body in unit time Electromagnetic waves
interval. Its SI unit is Hertz. • The waves which do not require medium for
their propagation, i.e. which can propagate
Simple Pendulum
even though the vacuum are called non-
• It is a heavy point mass suspended from
mechanical waves. Light and heat are
a rigid support by means of an elastic
the examples of non-mechanical wave.
inextensible string.
In fact all the electromagnetic waves are
l non-mechanical.
• Time period of simple pendulum = T = 2p
g • All the electromagnetic waves consist of
• Where l is the length of simple pendulum photons.
and g is the acceleration due to gravity. • The wavelength range of electromagnetic
waves is 10–4 m to 104 m.
Properties of Electromagnetic • The longitudinal mechanical waves having

Waves frequencies greater than 2000 Hz are called
Following waves are not electromagnetic: ultrasonic waves.
i. Cathode rays
ii. Canal rays Applications of Ultrasonic Waves
iii. Sound waves 1. For sending signals.
iv. Ultrasonic waves 2. For measuring the depth of sea.
3. For cleaning clothes, aeroplanes and
))
Note: Electromagnetic waves of wavelength machinery parts of clocks.
range 10–3 m to 10–2 m are called microwaves. 4. For removing lamp-shoot from the
chimney of factories.
Important Terms 5. In sterilising of a liquid.
6. In ultrasonography.
Amplitude
Amplitude is defined as the maximum
Speed of Sound
displacement of the vibrating particle on
either side from the equilibrium position. • I n a m e d i u m , t h e s p e e d o f s o u n d
basically depends upon elasticity and
Wavelength density of medium.
Wavelength is the distance between any two • When sound enters from one medium to
nearest particles of the medium, vibrating in another medium, its speed and wavelength
the same phase. It is denoted by the Greek changes but frequency remains unchanged.
letter lambda. • In a medium the speed of sound is
In transverse wave distance between two independent of frequency.
consecutive crests or troughs, and in • Speed of sound is maximum in solids and
longitudinal wave, distance between two minimum in gases.
consecutive compressions or refractions is • The speed of sound is more in humid air
equal to wavelength. than in dry air because the density of humid
air is less than the density of dry air.
Frequency
• Frequency of vibration of a particle is defined • The unit of loudness is decibel (dB).
as the number of vibrations completed by Effect of pressure on speed of sound: The
the particle in one second speed of sound is independent of pressure.
1 Effect of temperature on speed of sound:
Frequency (f) = The speed of sound increases with the
Time period (T)
increase of temperature of the medium.
Velocity of wave (v) = frequency (f) ×
Intensity of Sound
wavelength l
Area Kind of Intensity Intensity
Sound Wave Code area during the at night
day (decibel) (decibel)
• It is longitudinal mechanical.
• The longitudinal mechanical waves which lie A Industrial 75 70
area
in the range 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz are called
audible or sound waves. B Commercial 65 55
• T h e l o n g i t u d i n a l m e c h a n i c a l w a v e s area
having frequencies less than 20 Hz are C Residential 55 45
called infrasonic. These are produced by area
earthquakes, volcanic, eruption, Ocean D Peaceful 50 40
waves, elephants, and whales. area
Science 347
Effect of humidity on speed of sound: The Velocity of source

speed of sound is more in humid air than in Mach number =
Velocity of sound
dry because the density of humid air is less
than the density of dry air. Echo: The sound waves received after being
reflected from a high tower or mountains is
Characteristics of sound waves called echo.
1. Intensity: Intensity of sound at any point • To hear echo, the minimum distance
in space is defined as amount of energy between the observer and reflector should
passing normally per unit area head held be 17m (16.6m).
around that point per unit time. • Persistence of ear (effect of sound on ear)
Due to intensity, a sound appears loud is 1/10 sec.
or faint to the ear. Actually, the sensation • Due to refraction, sound is heard at longer
of a sound perceived by ear is measured in nights than in day.
by another term called loudness which Resonance: If the frequency of imposed
depends on intensity of sound and periodic force is equal to the natural
sensitiveness of the ear. Unit of loudness frequency of a body, the body oscillates with
is bel. A practical unit of loudness is very large amplitude. This phenomenon is
decibel (dB) which is equal to 1/10th of called resonance.
bel. Another unit of loudness is phon. • A group of soldiers on a bridge are advised
2. Pitch: Pitch is that characteristic of not to walk in steps because their movement
sound which distinguishes a sharp (or causes the bridge to vibrate. If they walk
shrill) sound from a grave (dull or flat) in step, the frequency of vibration may
sound. Higher the frequency, higher match the natural frequency of the bridge
will be the pitch and shriller will be the structure, and thus causing resonance.
sound. Lower the frequency, lower will This resonance of frequency can cause the
be the pitch and grave will be the sound. bridge to collapse.
The pitch of female voice is higher than Interference of sound: The modification
the pitch of male voice. redistribution of energy at a point due to
The pitch of sound produced by superposition of two (or more) sound waves
roaring of lion is lower whereas the of same frequency is called interference of
pitch of sound produced by mosquito sound.
whisper is high. Diffraction of Sound
3. Quality: Quality is that characteristic of Wavelength of sound is of the order of 1 m. If
sound which enables us to distinguish an obstacle of that range appears in the path
between sounds produced by two sources of sound, sound deviates the edge of obstacle
having the same intensity and pitch. The
and propagates forward. This phenomenon
quality depends upon number, frequency
is called diffraction of sound.
and relative intensities of overtones.
Doppler’s Effect
Shock waves
If there is a relative motion between source
• A body moving with supersonic speed in air
leaves behind it conical region of disturbance and observer, the apparent frequency of
which spreads continuously. Such a sound heard by the observer is different
disturbance is called shock wave. from the actual frequency of sound emitted
• These waves carry huge energy and may by the source. This phenomenon is called
even make cracks in window panes. Doppler’s effect.
• The speed of supersonic wave is measured When the distance between the source and
in mach number. One mach number is the observer decreases, the apparent frequency
ratio of speed of source to the speed of sound. increases and vice‑versa.
Uses Thermometers
i. By police to check over speeding vehicles. Scale Minimum Maximum
ii. At airport to guide the aircraft. Temperature Temperature
iii. To study heart beats and blood flow in (Boiling Point)
different parts of the body. Centigrade or 0°C 100°C
celsius
Mach Number
It is defined as the ratio of speed of sound Fahrenheit 32°F 212°F
source to the speed of sound in the same Reumer 0°R 80°R
medium under the same condition of
temperature and pressure.
• If mach number > 1, body is called supersonic. Relation between temperatures
• If mach number > 5, body is called hypersonic. on different scales
• If mach number < 1, the body (source) is
said to be moving with subsonic behind Total Radiation Pyrometer
it a conical region of disturbance which When a body is at high temperature, it
spreads continuously. Such a disturbance glows brightly and the radiation permitted
is called shock waves. by the body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of absolute temperature of
Heat the body. Radiation pyrometer measures
Heat is that form of energy which flows from the temperature of a body by measuring the
one body to other body due to difference radiation emitted by the body.
of temperature between the bodies. The
amount of heat contained in a body depends Specific Heat Capacity
upon the mass of the body. Specific heat capacity of a material is
• It is due to the kinetic energy of the the amount of heat required to raise the
molecules constituting the body. temperature of unit mass of substance
• Its units are calorie (cal), kilocalorie (kcal) through 1°C. Its SI unit is J/kg C°. It is given
or joule (J). ∆Q
by S = where m is the mass and ΔQ is
• 1 cal = 4.18 Joule, 1 kcal = 1000 cal m ∆θ
Temperature amount of heat given and Δθ is change in
Temperature is that physical cause which temperature.
• One calorie of heat is required to raise the
decides the direction of flow of heat from one
temperature of 1 gram of water through
body to other body. Heat energy always flows
1°C. Hence, specific heat capacity of water
from body at higher temperature to body at
is 1 cal/gram°C.
lower temperature.
• For most substances, the specific heat
• The normal temperature of a human body
increases with rise in temperature and
is 37°C or 98.4 °F.
assumes a constant value a high temperature.
• Triple point is the state at which all the three
• Th e specific h eat of water h owever
states of matter co-exist. The triple point of
decreases with rise in temperature from
water is 273.16 K.
0°C to about 4°C, after which it increases
The device which measures the temperature
with temperature.
of a body is called thermometer.
• Hot water burns are less severe than
The inter-conversion relation for celsius,
that of steam burns because steam has
Fahrenheit and Reumer scale is :
high latent heat.
C F − 32 R • Ice at 0°C appears colder than that water at
= =
5 9 4 0°C, because ice absorbs more heat.
Science 349
Thermal Expansion Radiation

When a body is heated, its length, surface In this method, transfer of heat takes place
area and volume increases. with the speed of light without affecting the
Almost every liquid expands with the increase intervening medium.
in temperature. But when temperature of
water is increased from 0°C to 4°C, its volume Newton’s Law of Cooling
decreases. If the temperature is increased • The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly
above 4°C its volume starts increasing. proportional to the difference in temperature
Clearly, density of water is maximum at 4°C between the body and the surrounding.
as its volume is minimum at 4°C. • According to Kirchhoff’s law, the ratio of
emissive power to absorptive power is same
for all surfaces at the same temperature and
Some Practical Applications is equal to emissive power of black body at
of Thermal Expansion that temperature.
• Telephone wires are given enough gaps to • Kirchhoff’s law signifies that good absorbers
allow the wires for contraction in winter. are good emitters. If a shining metal ball
• An ordinary pendulum clock runs faster with some black spot on its surface is
in winter but slower in summer, because in heated to a high temperature and seen in
summer the length of pendulum increases, dark, the shining ball becomes dull but
while in winter it decreases. the black spot shines brilliantly, because
• In the Construction of bridges, ends of black spot absorbs radiation during heating
steel girders are not fixed but placed on rolls and emit in dark.
to allow free expansion and contraction in • Black body absorbs all the radiations
summer and winter respectively to avoid any incident on its surface. It always appear black
damage to the bridge. despite the colour of radiation incident on it.
• A gap is provided between the iron rails
of the railway track so that rails can easily Stefan’s Law
expand during summer and do not bend. The radiant energy emitted by a black body
per unit area per unit time (i.e. emissive
transmission of heat power) is directly proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature.
Conduction
In this process, heat is transferred from Fusion
one place to other place by the successive The process by which a substance is
vibrations of the particles of the medium changed from solid state to liquid state is
without bodily movement of the particles of called fusion. Fusion takes place at a fixed
the medium. In solids, heat transfer takes temperature called melting point (MP).
place by conduction.
Freezing
Convection The process by which a substance is
In this process, heat is transferred by the changed from liquid state to solid state is
actual movement of particles from one place called freezing. Freezing takes at a fixed
to other place. Due to movement of particles, temperature called freezing point (FP). For
a current of particles sets up, which is called a substance MP = FP.
convection current. • Melting point of substances which contract
In liquids and gases, heat transfer takes in the process of fusion (as ice) decreases
place by convection. with the increase in pressure. Melting
• Earth’s atmosphere is heated by convection. point of substances which expand in the
process of fusion (as wax) increases with the ii. Latent heat of vapourisation: It is the
increase in pressure. amount of heat required to change unit
• With the addition of impurity (as salt in ice), mass of a substance from liquid state
melting point of a substance decreases. to vapour state at its boiling point. For
Vaporisation water at 100°C it is about 2230 joules
The process by which a substance is (536 cal per gram).
changed from liquid state to vapour state is Sublimation
called vaporisation.
Sublimation is the process of conversion of
Evaporation a solid directly into vapour.
The process of vapourisation which takes • Sublimation takes place when boiling point
place only from the exposed surface of is less than melting point.
liquid and that at all temperatures is called • Sublimation is shown by camphor or ice
evaporation. in vacuum.
Evaporation causes cooling. This is why
water in an earthen pot gets cooled in Hoar Frost
summer. • Hoar frost is just the reverse process of
Boiling sublimation i.e. it is the process of direct
The process of vapourisation which takes conversion of vapour into solid.
place at a fixed temperature and from • Steam produces more severe burn than
whole part of liquid is called boiling. The water at same temperature because internal
temperature at which boiling takes place is energy of steam is more than that of water
called boiling point. at same temperature.
• The amount of water vapour in air is
Condensation
called as humidity.
The process by which a substance is
changed from vapour state to liquid state is • The amount of water vapour present in 1 m3
called condensation. air is called its absolute humidity.
• Boiling point of a liquid increases with the
Relative Humidity
increase in pressure.
• Boiling point of a liquid increases with the Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of
addition of impurity. amount of water vapour present in a given
volume of atmosphere to the amount of
Latent Heat or Heat of water vapour required to saturate the same
Transformation volume at same temperature.
• Relative humidity is measured by Hygrometer.
The amount of heat required to change the
• Relative humidity increase with the increase
state of unit mass of substance at constant
of temperature.
temperature is called latent heat.
S.I. unit of latent heat is Joule/kilogram. Air conditioning
i. Latent heat of fusion : It is the amount
of heat energy required to convert unit For healthy and favourable atmosphere of
mass a substance from solid state human being, the conditions are as follows:
to liquid state at melting point. The i. Temperature: from 23°C to 25°C.
latent heat of fusion of ice at 0°C is ii. Relative humidity: from 60% to 65%.
approximately 334 joules (79.7 calories) iii. Speed of air: from 0.75 metre/minute
per gram. to 2.5 metre/minute.
Science 351
Thermodynamics engine. Steam engine is an example of

external combustion engine (efficiency
First law of Thermodynamics = 20%).
Refrigerator Heat Pump: A refrigerator is
The amount of heat given to a system is used
an apparatus which transfer heat energy
up in two ways, first to increase the internal
from cold to a hot body at the expanse of
energy and second to do the external work.
energy supplied by an external agent. The
Second Law of Thermodynamics working substance here is called refrigerant.
The second law of thermodynamics is In actual refrigerator, vapours of Freon (CCl2 F2)
the outcome of human experience under acts as refrigerant.
which heat energy can be converted into
mechanical energy. Light
Light is a form of energy which is propagated
Isothermal Process as electromagnetic waves. In the spectrum
If the changes are taking place in a system in of electromagnetic waves it lies between
such a way that temperature of the system ultra-violet and infra-red region and has
remains constant throughout the change, wavelength between 3900 Å to 7800 Å.
then the process is said to be an isothermal. • Electromagnetic waves are transverse, hence
light is transverse wave.
Adiabatic Process • Wave nature of light explains rectilinear
If the changes are taking place in a system propagation, reflection, refraction, inter
in such a way that there is no exchange of ference, diffraction and polarisation of
heat energy between the system and the light.
surrounding, then the process is said to be • Clearly light behaves as wave and particle both.
an adiabatic process. • Speed of light is maximum in vacuum and
• If carbon dioxide is suddenly expanded, it air (3×108 m/s).
• It is a transverse wave.
is changed into dry ice. This is an example
• It takes 8 min 19 s to reach on the earth from
of adiabatic process.
the sun.
Kelvin’s Statement • The light reflected from moon takes 1.28 s
Whole of the heat can never be converted to reach earth.
into work. Refractive Index
Refractive Index of a medium is defined as
Claudius Statement the ratio of speed or light in vacuum to the
Heat by itself cannot flow from a colder body speed of light in the medium.
to a hotter body. • Velocity of light is larger in a medium which
has small refractive index.
Types of Combustion Engine • Light takes 8 minute 19 second (499 second)
Combustion Engine is a device which to reach from sun to the earth.
converts heat energy into mechanical work • The light reflected from moon takes 1.28
continuously through a cyclic process. second to reach earth.
i. Internal Combustion Engine: In this
engine, heat is produced in the engine Luminous Bodies
Those objects which emit light by themselves
itself. Example: Otto engine or petrol
are called luminous bodies.
engine (efficiency = 52%), Diesel engine
(efficiency = 64%). Non-luminous Bodies
ii. External Combustion Engine: In this Those objects which do not emit light by
engine heat is produced outside the themselves but are visible by the light falling
on them emitted by the luminous bodies are Reflection at spherical surface

called non-luminous bodies. • Spherical mirrors are the mirrors in which
A material can be classified as: reflecting surface side is spherical.
i. Transparent: The bodies which allow There are two types of spherical mirrors:
most of the incident light to pass i. convex mirror
through them are called transparent ii. concave mirror
bodies, e.g., glass and water.
1 1 1 2
ii. Translucent: The bodies which allow Mirror formula is given by + = =
a part of incident light to pass through v u f r
them are called translucent bodies, e.g., u = Object distance
pied paper.
v = Image distance
iii. Opaque: The substances which do not
f = Focal length of the mirror.
allow the incident light to pass through
them are called opaque bodies, e.g., r = radius of curvature
mirror, metal, wood, etc. Uses of Concave Mirror
Reflection of Light i. As a shaving glass.
• The return of light into the same medium ii. As a reflector for the headlights of a
after striking a surface is called reflection. vehicle, search light.
There are two laws of reflection. iii. In ophthalmoscope to examine eye, ear,
i. The angle of incidence is always equal nose by doctors.
to angle of reflection. iv. In solar cookers.
ii. The incident ray, normal at the point of
incidence and reflected ray, all lie in the Uses of Convex Mirror
same plane. i. As a rear view mirror in vehicles because
it provides the maximum rear field of
Reflection From Plane Mirror view and image formed is always erect.
i. The image is virtual and laterally inverted. ii. In sodium reflector lamp.
ii. The size of image is equal to that of
object. Image formation by concave mirror
iii. The distance of image from the mirror Position Position Size of Nature of
is equal to distance of object from the of object of image image image
mirror.
iv. If an object moves towards (or away At infinity At F Highly Real and
diminished inverted
from) a plane mirror with speed u,
relative to the object, the image moves Between Between Diminished ”
towards (or away) with a speed of 2u. infinity F and C
v. If a plane mirror is rotated by an angle and C
θ, keeping the incident ray fixed, the At C At C Same size ”
reflected ray is rotated by an angle 2θ.
vi. To see his full image in a plane mirror, a Between F Between Enlarged ”
person requires a mirror of at least half and C infinity
of his height. and C
vii. The total number of images formed by At F At Highly ”
two plane mirrors inclined an angle infinity enlarged
360 Between F Behind Enlarged Virtual
‘q’ = − 1.
θ and P the mirror and erect
Where (c) is centre of curvature
))
Note: Image formed by a convex mirror is P is pole of the mirror
always virtual, erect and diminished. F is focus.
Science 353
Image formation by convex mirror iv. An object in a denser medium, when seen
Position of Position Size of Nature of
from a rarer medium, appears to be at a
object of image image image smaller distance.
• Due to refraction, rivers appear shallow,
At infinity At f Highly Erect and
coin in a beaker filled with water appears
dimished virtual
raised, pencil in the beaker appears broken.
Between Between Diminished Erect and • At sunset and sunrise, due to refraction,
infinity and F and P virtual sun appears above horizon while it is
pole actually below horizon.
• The duration of day appears to be increased by
Refraction of Light
nearly 4 minute to atmospheric refraction.
When a ray of light propagating in a medium
• Writing on a paper appears lifted when a
enters the other medium, it deviates from
glass slab is placed over the paper.
its path. This phenomenon of change in
• The refractive index of a medium is maximum
the direction of propagation of light at the
for violet colour of light and minimum for red
boundary, when it passes from one medium
colour of light.
to other medium, is called refraction of light.
• Refractive index decreases with rise in
When a ray of light enters from rarer medium
the temperature.
to denser medium from water to glass) it
Critical angle: In case of propagation of
deviates towards the normal drawn on the
light from denser to rarer medium through a
boundry of two media at the incident point.
plane boundary, critical angle is the angle of
Similarly, in passiing from denser to rarer
medium, a ray deviates away from the incidence for which angle of refraction is 90°.
normal. If light is incident normally on the total IntErnal rEFlECtIon oF lIGHt
boundary, i.e. parallel to normal, it enters • If the angle of incidence in denser medium
the second medium undeviated. is greater than critical angle (C), then the
ray is reflected back into the first rarer
Laws of Refraction medium, this phenomenon is called total
i. Incident ray, refracted ray and normal internal reflection.
drawn at incident point always lie in the • In a desert, the phenomenon of mirage
same plane. occurs due to total internal reflection.
ii. Snell’s law: For a given colour of light,
the ratio of sine of angle of incidence Illustrations of Total Internal
to the sine of angle of refraction is a Reflection
constant. i. Sparkling of diamond.
• The refractive index of a medium decreases ii. Mirage and looming.
with the increase in wavelength of light. iii. Shining of air bubble in water.
• The refractive index of a medium decreases iv. Increase in duration of sun’s visibility.
with an increase in temperature. v. Shining of a smoked ball or a metal ball
• When a ray of light enters from one medium on which lamp stool deposited when
to other medium, its frequency and phase
dipped in water.
do not change but wavelength and velocity
vi. Optical Fibre.
changes.
Some Illustrations of Refraction Applications

i. Bending of a linear object when it is i. For transmitting optical signals and the
partially dipped in a liquid inclined to the two dimensional picture.
surface of the liquid. ii. For transmitting electrical signals by
ii. Twinkling of stars. first converting them to light.
iii. Oval shape of sun in the morning and iii. For visualising the internal sites of the
evening. body by doctors in endoscopy.
Refraction of Light through Lens lenses

• When a lens is thicker at the middle than • Lens is a transparent medium bounded by
at the edges, it is called convex lens or a two curved surfaces. Lenses are of two types:
converging lens. When the lens is thicker i. Concave or divergent lens.
at edge than in the middle, it is called as ii. Convex or convergent lens
concave lens or diverging lens. Lenght (height) of image v
Magnification (m) = =
Length (height) of object u
Image Formation by a Convex Lens.

Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image
At infinity At F2 Highly diminished Real and inverted
Beyond 2 F1 Between F2 and 2 F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2 F1 At 2 F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between 2 F1 and F1 Beyond 2 F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At F1 At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between F1 and lens Behind the object on the Enlarged Virtual and erect
same side of the object
Power of a Lens medium. As a result, the refractive index of

Power of a lens is its capacity to deviate a ray. a medium is different for different colours
It is measured as the reciprocal of the focal of light.
length in metres. Unit of power is dioptre (D). • The velocity of light in a medium is maximum
• Power of a convex lens is positive and that for that colour for which refractive index
of a concave lens is negative. is minimum.
• If two lenses are placed in contact, then the Rainbow
power of combination is equal to the sum of Rainbow is formed due to dispersion of sun
powers of individual lenses. light by the suspended water droplets.
Dispersion of Light • Primary rainbow is formed due to two
refractions and one total internal reflection
When a ray of white light (or a composite
of light falling on the raindrops.
light) is passed through a prism, it gets
• Secondary rainbow is formed due to two
splitted into its constituent colours. This refractions and two internal reflections of
phenomenon is called dispersion of light. light falling on raindrops.
The coloured pattern obtained on a screen
after dispersion of light is called spectrum. Theory of Colours
• The dispersion of light is due to different Colour is the sensation perceived by the rods
deviation suffered by different colours of in the eye due to light.
light. The deviation is maximum for violet Primary Colours
colour and minimum for red colour of The spectral colours blue, green and red are
light. The different colours appeared in the called primary colours because all the colours
spectrum are in the following order: violet, can be produced by mixing these colours
Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and in proper proportion.
red (VIBGYOR). Secondary Colours
• The dispersion of light is due to different The colour produced by mixing any two
velocities of light of different colours in a primary colours is called a secondary colour.
Science 355
There are three secondary colours, yellow, • The most spectacular illustration of
magenta and cyan. dispersion is the rainbow. The beautiful
When the three secondary colours are mixed, colours of the rainbow are due to the
white colour produced. dispersion or sunlight by water droplets
Colours produced by mixing lights of primary suspended in the air after rain. In each
colours can be obtained from the colour droplet there is dispersion as well as total
triangle. internal reflection.
Red
Scattering of Light
• When light passes through a medium, in
which particles are suspended, whose sizes
Magenta are of the order of wavelength of light, then
light on striking these particles, deviates in
White different directions. This phenomenon is
called scattering of light.
• Red colour of light is scattered least and
Green Cyan Blue violet colour of light is scattered most. Blue
colour of sky is due to scattering of light. The
Thus, Red + Green = Yellow brilliant red colour of rising and setting sun
Red + Blue = Magenta is due to scattering of light.
Green + Blue = Cyan • Clouds appear white due to scattering of light.
Also, Green + Magenta = White • The air bubbles in glass paper white appear
Red + Cyan = White silvery white due to total internal reflection.
Blue + Yellow = White • Sparkling of diamonds is due to multiple
total internal reflections taking place inside
Complementary Colours the diamond.
Any two colours when added produced white
light, are said to be complementary. Interference of Light
• In coloured television, the three primary When two light waves of exactly the same
colours are used. frequency and a constant phase difference
Colour of Bodies travel in same direction and superimpose,
The colour of a body is the colour of light then the resultant intensity in the region
which it reflects or transmits. An object is of superposition is different from the sum
white if it reflects all the components of white of the intensities of individual waves. This
light and it is black if it absorbs the entire modification in the intensity of light in the
light incident over it. region of superposition is called interference
of light. Interference is of two types:
Dispersion i. Constructive interference
• White light consists of seven colours-violet,
ii. Destructive interference
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red, in
Diffraction of Light: diffraction is the
ascending order of their wavelength or from
process by which a beam of light or other
maximum frequency to minimum frequency.
• In glass, violet light travels the slowest while systems of wave is spread out as a result of
red light travels the fastest. passing through a narrow opening or across
• When a narrow beam of white light passes an edge.
through a glass prism, it is split up into its Polarisation of light: Polarisation is the
constituent colours. This separation of light only phenomenon which proves that light
into colours is called dispersion. is a transverse wave. Polarisation is the
• The red light is deviated least and violet phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of
light the maximum. a light in a particular direction in a place
perpendicular to the direction of propagation Defects of Human Eye and the

of wave. Remedies
• The visible effect of light is only due to electric
1. Myopia or short sightedness: A person
field vector.
suffering from myopia can see the near
objects clearly while far objects are
Human Eye not clear.
• The human eye is more or less like a It is caused due to :
photographic camera. (i) increase in the length of eye ball
• The eye ball is almost spherical in shape (ii) decrease in the focal length of the eye
having a diameter of about 2.3 cm. lens.
• The front transparent part of the eye is Remedy: Diverging or concave lens is
called cornea which serves as window of used.
the eye for light. 2. Hyperopia or hypermetropia or long
• Behind the cornea, is a circular diaphragm sightedness: A person suffering from
called iris with a hole in its centre. The hole hypermetropia can see the distant
is called pupil of the eye. objects clearly but not the near objects.
• The function of iris is to control and It is caused due to :
regulate the amount of light entering the (i) decrease in length of the eye ball
eye by adjusting the size of the pupil. When (ii) increase in the focal length of eye
intensity of light is high, the pupil contracts lens.
and vice-versa. Remedy: A converging or convex lens is
• Behind the pupil, is a double convex lens, used.
called the eye lens. 3. Presbyopia: This defect is generally
• Ciliary muscles adjust the focal length found in elderly person. Due to stiffening
of eye lens. When the ciliary muscles are of ciliary muscles, eye looses much of
relaxed, eye lens becomes thin. Its focal its accommodating power. As a result,
the distant as well as the nearby objects
length increases and converging power
cannot be seen.
decreases. When the ciliary muscles are
Remedy: For its remedy, two separate
tense, converging power increases, as focal
lenses or a bifocal lens are/is used.
length decreases.
4. Astigmatism: This defect arises due to
• Behind the eye lens, there is a screen called
difference in the radius of curvature of
retina on which image of the object is formed. cornea in the different planes. As a result
• In retina there are light sensitive cells in the rays from an object in one plane are
form of rods and cones. brought to focus by eye in another plane.
• The rod type cells respond to intensity of For its remedy cylindrical lens is used.
light and cone type cells respond to the
colour of light. Cataract
• An eye lid in front of human eye acts like a • In this defect, an opaque, white membrane is
shutter in a camera. developed on cornea due to which a person
• The image of any object seen persists on loses power of vision partially or completely.
the retina for 1/16th of a second, even This defect can be removed by removing this
after the removal of object. It is called membrane through surgery.
persistence of vision. • There are two kinds of vision cells in the
• Colour blindness is said to occur when a retina. They are called rods and cones
person cannot distinguish between different on account of their peculiar shape. Rods
colours (red-green). It is a genetic disorder decide the intensity of light whereas cones
which occurs by inheritance. distinguish colour of light.
Science 357
Simple Microscope This is why surface density of charge

This is simply a convex lens of small focal is maximum at the pointed parts of the
length. The object to be enlarged is placed conductor.
within the focus of lens.
Conductor
Compound Microscope Conductors are those materials which allow
It consists of two convex lenses coaxially electricity (charge) to pass through them.
fitted in a hollow tube. The lens facing Examples: (a) Metals like silver, iron,
the object is called objective and the lens copper, (b) Earth (especially the most part)
towards the eye is called eyepiece. acts like a huge conductor.
Insulator or Dielectric: Insulators are those
Telescope
materials which do not allow electricity to
• Astronomical telescope consists of two
flow through them.
convex lenses placed coaxially in a hollow
tube. The lens facing the object is called Examples: Wood, paper.
objective and the lens towards the eye is
called eyepiece. Coulomb’s Law
• The objective has large aperture so that the According to Coulomb’s law, the attraction
rays from the object can be easily collected. or repulsion between two point charges at
rest is directly proportional to the product of
• The focal length of objective is larger than
the magnitudes of the charges and inversely
that of eyepiece. proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Electricity
Charge Electric Field

Charge is the basic property associated • The region around an electric charge in
with matter due to which it produces and which the electric effect can be experienced
experiences electric and magnetic effects. is called the electric field.
• It is something that a body attains when it • Electric field intensity inside a charged
loses or gains the electrons. hollow conductor is zero.
• Its S.I. unit is coulomb C.
• Electricity is associated with the charge. Electric Field Intensity
• Similar charges repel each other and Electric field intensity at a point in an
opposite charges attract each other. electric field is the force experienced by a
• The proton possesses positive charge (+ e) unit positive charge placed at that point.
and electron possesses an equal negative Electric Field of hollow conductor: Electric
charge (– e). field intensity inside a charged hollow
• Charging of bodies takes place due to transfer conductor is zero. Charge given to such
of electrons from one body to other body. a conductor (or conductor of any shape)
• Human body and earth act like a conductor. remains on its surface only.
Silver is the best conductor. This explains why a hollow conductor acts as
• The surface density of charge at a point an electrostatic shield. For this reason it is
on the surface of conductor depends upon safer to sit in a car or bus during lightning.
the shape of conductor and presence of
Electric Potential: Electric potential at a
other conductors or insulators near the
point in an electric field is the work done in
given conductor.
bringing a unit positive charge from infinity
• The surface density of charge at any part of
to that point. SI unit of electric potential
the conductor is inversely proportional to the
is volt.
radius of curvature of the surface of that part.
Potential Difference: Work done in bringing Resistance: The opposition offered by a

a unit positive charge from one point to other conductor to the flow of current through it
point is the potential difference between is called resistance. Its SI unit is ohm.
the two points. Its SI unit is volt and it is a
scalar quantity. Ohm’s Law
If physical conditions like temperature,
Electric Capacity intensity of light, etc. remains unchanged
Electric capacity of a conductor is defined as then electric current flowing through a
the charge required to increase the potential conductor is directly proportional to the
of the conductor by unity. Its SI unit is potential difference across its ends.
farad (F).
Ohmic Resistance: The resistances of such
conductors which obey Ohm’s law are called
Electrochemical Cell
ohmic resistances. For example, resistance
Electrochemical cell is a device which of melanin wire.
converts chemical energy into electrical Non-ohmic resistance: The resistances of
energy. such materials which do not obey ohm’s law
are called non-ohmic resistances.
Primary Cell
In primary cell electrical energy is obtained Example: Resistance of diode valve,
from the irreversible chemical reaction resistance of triode valve.
taking place inside the cell. Conductance
Examples: Voltaic Cell, Leclanche Cell,
Daniel Cell, Dry Cell, etc. Reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is
called its conductance.
Secondary Cell Its SI unit is ohm –1 (also called mho or
A secondary cell is that which has to be siemen.)
charged at first from an external electric • The resistance of a conductor is directly
source and then can be used to draw proportional to its length and inversely
current. proportional to its cross sectional area.
• In voltaic cell zinc rod is used as cathode
Specific conductance or conductivity:
and copper rod is used as anode. These
rods are placed in sulphuric acid kept in The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is
a glass vessel. called its conductivity (s). Its SI unit is mho
• In a Leclanche cell, carbon rod acts as anode m–1 or siemen metre (sm–1).
and zinc rod acts as cathode. These rods • In series combination, the equivalent
are placed in ammonium chloride kept in resistance is equal to the sum of the res
a glass vessel. istances of individual conductors. (R = R1 +
• The emf of Leclanche cell is 1.5 volt. R2 +............Rn)
• Leclanche cell is used for intermittent works. • In parallel combination, the reciprocal of
• In a dry cell, mixture of MnO2, NH4Cl and equivalent resistance is equal to the sum
carbon is kept in zinc vessel. A carbon rod is
of the reciprocal of individual resistances.
placed in the mixture which acts as anode.
The zinc vessel itself acts as cathode. • Specific resistance or Resistivity depends
only on the material of conductor and
Electric Current its temperature. Resistivity increases
Electric current is defined as the rate of flow with temperature.
of charge or charge flowing per unit time • If a wire is stretched or doubled on itself,
interval. Its direction is the direction of flow its resistance will change, but its specific
of positive charge. Its SI unit is ampere (A). resistance will remain unaffected.
Science 359
Electric Power Electric Motor

The rate at which electrical energy is con It is a device which coverts electrical energy
sumed in a circuit is called electric power. into mechanical energy.
Its SI unit is watt.
1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 × 106 joule Microphone
It converts sound energy into electrical
Ammeter energy and works on the principle of
Ammeter is a device which is used to measure electromagnetic induction.
electric current in a circuit. It is connected
in series in the circuit. Magnetism
• The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero. • Magnet is a piece of iron or other material that
can attract iron containing objects and that
Voltmeter
points north and south when suspended.
Voltmeter is a device used to measure the
potential difference between two points in Directive Property
a circuit. It is connected in parallel to the When a magnet is freely suspended, it
circuit. aligns itself in the geographical north-south
• The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite. direction.
• Natural magnet is oxide of iron.
Electric Fuse • The magnets made by artificial methods
Electric fuse is a protective device used in are called artificial magnets or manmade
series with an electric appliance to save it magnets. They may be of different types like
from being damaged due to high current. bar magnet, horse shoe magnet, Robinson’s
In general, it is a small conducting wire of ball ended magnet, magnetic needle,
alloy of copper, tin and lead, having low electromagnet, etc.
melting point. • The two points near the two ends of a magnet
• Pure fuse is made up of tin. where the attracting capacity is maximum
are called magnetic poles.
Galvanometer • The imaginary line joining the two poles of a
Galvanometer is a device used to detect and magnet is called magnetic axis of the magnet.
measure electric current in a circuit. • Similar poles repel each other and dissimilar
poles attract each other.
Shunt
• When magnetic substance is placed near a
Shunt is a wire of very small resistance.
magnet, it gets magnetised due to induction.
• A galvanometer can be converted into an
ammeter by connecting shunt parallel to it. Magnetic Field
• A galvanometer can be converted into Region in space around a magnet where
a voltmeter by connecting a very high the magnet has its magnetic effect is called
resistance in its series. magnetic field of the magnet.
Transformer Intensity of Magnetic Field or

Transformer is a device which converts low Magnetic Flux Density
voltage A.C. into high voltage A.C. and high Magnetic flux density of a point in a magnetic
field is the force experienced by a north pole
voltage A.C. into low voltage A.C. It is based
of unit strength placed at that point.
on electromagnetic induction and can be
Its SI unit is Newton/ampere-metre Weber/
used only in case of alternating current.
metre or tesla (T).
A.C. Dynamo (or Generator) Magnetic Lines of Force
It is device used to convert mechanical The magnetic lines of force are imaginary
energy into electrical energy. It works on current which represent a magnetic field
the principle of electromagnetic induction. graphically.
Magnetic Substance then a beam of electrons emerges from the

i. Diamagnetic substance: Diamagnetic cathode, which is called cathode rays.
substances are such substances which,
when placed in a magnetic field, acquire Properties of Cathode Rays
feeble magnetism opposite to the i. Cathode rays are invisible and travel in
direction of the magnetic field. straight line.
Examples: Bismuth, Zinc, Copper. ii. These rays carry negative charge and
ii. Paramagnetic Substance: Paramagnetic travel from cathode to anode.
substances are such substances which iii. These rays emerge perpendicular to the
when placed in a magnetic field acquire cathode surface and are not affected by
a feedback magnetised in the direction the position of anode.
of field. iv. Cathode rays travel with very high
Examples: Iron, Cobalt. velocity (1/10th the velocity of light).
v. These rays are deflected by electric and
Curie Temperature magnetic fields.
As temperature increases, the magnetic vi. These rays can ionise gases.
property of ferromagnetic substance vii. These rays heat the material on which
decreases and above a certain temperature they fall.
the substance changes into paramagnetic viii. They can produce chemical change and
substance. This temperature is called Curie thus affect a photographic plate.
temperature. ix. These rays can penetrate through thin
• Permanent magnets are made of steel, cobalt metal foils.
steel, alcomax or alnico. x. The source of emf used in the production
• Electromagnets, cores of transformers, of cathode rays is induction coil.
telephoediaphragms and motors are made xi. When they strike a target of heavy
of soft iron, mu-metal and stalloy. metals such as tungsten, they produce
x-rays.
Terrestrial Magnetism
xii. The nature of cathode rays is independent
Our earth behaves as a powerful magnet
of nature of cathode and the gas in the
whose south pole is near the geographical
discharge tube.
North Pole and whose North Pole is near the
geographical South Pole. Positive or Canal Rays
i. Declination: The acute angle between If perforated cathode is used in a discharge
magnetic meridian and geographical tube, it is observed that a new type of rays
meridian at a place is called the angle are produced from anode moving towards
of declination at that place. the cathode and passed through the holes
ii. Dip or Inclination: Dip is the angle of cathode. These rays are positively charged
which the resultant earth’s magnetic and are called positive rays or canal rays or
field at a place makes with the horizontal. anode rays.
At poles and equator, dip is 90° and 0°
respectively. Properties of Canal Rays
i. The positive rays consist of positively
Atomic and Nuclear Physics charged particles.
ii. These rays travel in straight line.
Cathode Rays iii. These rays can exert pressure and thus
If the gas pressure in a discharge tube is 10–2 possess kinetic energy.
to 10–3 mm of Hg and a potential difference iv. These rays are deflected by electric and
of 104 volt is applied between the electrodes, magnetic fields.
Science 361
v. These rays are capable of producing • With the emission of α particle, atomic
physical and chemical changes. number is decreased by 2 and mass member
vi. These rays can produce ionisation in is decreased by 4.
gases. • With the emission of a β particle atomic
number is increased by one and mass
X-Rays number does not change.
• These rays are electromagnetic in nature.
• The effect on the mass number and atomic
Properties of X-Rays number with the emission of α, β and γ rays
• X-rays travel in straight line. is decided by Group‑displacement law or
• Speed of X-rays is equal to speed of light. Soddy Fagan Law.
These are not deflected by electric and • Radioactivity is detected by G.M. Counter.
magnetic fields. • The time in which half nuclei of the element
• These produce illumination on falling on is decayed is called half life of the radio
fluorescent substances. active substance.
• X-rays penetrate through different depth • Cloud chamber is used to detect the presence
into different substances. and kinetic energy of radioactive particles.
• X-rays shows photoelectric effect. It was discovered by CRT Wilson.
• X-rays are used in surgery, radio-therapy, • Transmutation: The changing of one element
engineering department and searching. into another is called transmutation. It is of
Photoelectric Cell two types-natural transmutation going on in
• It is a device based on phenomena of the form of natural radioactivity and artificial
photoelectric effect which converts light transmutation by bombarding elements
energy directly into electric energy. with highly energetic projectiles, electrons
and protons etc. Artificial transmutation
Applications of Photoelectric has been used to obtain elements with
Cells atomic number greater than 92 (called
• In reproduction of sound in cinema, television transuranic elements).
and photo-telegraphy. • Radioactive Isotopes: These are produced
• To control the temperature in furnace and by irradiating substances with neutrons in
in chemical processes. a nuclear reactor.
• In automatic doors. • Carbon Dating: This is the technique of
• In photoelectric counter. estimating the age of the remains of a
• In automatic switches for street lights. once-living oragnism, by measuring the
• In photoelectric sorters. radioactivity of the carbon-14 content.
• Uranium Dating: The dating of older
Radioactivity but non-living things such as rocks, is
• Radioactivity was discovered by Henry accomplished with radioactive minerals
Becquerel, Madame Curie and Pierre such as uranium.
Curie for which they jointly won Nobel • Application in Medicine: Gamma rays
Prize. from radioactive cobalt-60 are used for
• γ -rays are emitted after the emission cancer therapy.
of α and β rays. Radioisotopes are used to study the process
• Alpha rays are positively charged helium
of digestion. Radioisotopes are used to
nuclei (1/2 He), beta rays are negatively
measure the volume of blood circulating in
charged electrons and gamma rays are
chargeless photons. the body of a patient.
• The end product of all natural radioactive • In Agriculture: Radioisotopes are used to
elements after emission of radioactive measure the fertilizer consumption of plants
rays is lead. by using the tracer technique.
Nuclear Fission and Fusion be water, heavy water, or gas like He

Nuclear Fission: The nuclear reaction in or CO2.
which a heavy nucleus splits into two nuclei Fast Breeder Reactor: A nuclear reactor
of nearly equal mass is called nuclear fission. which can produce more fissionable fuel
than it consumes is called a fast breeder
235
92 U + 01n → 141
56 Ba +
92
36Kr + 3 01n reactor.

Chain Reaction: When uranium atom is Nuclear Fusion: When two or more light
bombarded with slow neutrons, fission takes nuclei combined together to form a heavier
place. With the fission of each uranium nucleus, tremendous energy is released.
nucleus, on an average, three neutrons and A typical fusion reaction is:
large energy are released. These neutrons
cause further fission. Clearly, a chain of
2
1H + 13H → 24He + 01n + E

fission of uranium nucleus starts which • The energy released by sun and other stars
continues till whole of uranium is exhausted. is by nuclear fusion.
This is called chain reaction. Hydrogen bomb: Hydrogen bomb was made
Atom bomb: Atom bomb is based on nuclear by American scientists in 1952. This is based
fission. U-235 and Pu-239 are used as on nuclear fusion. It is 1000 times more
fissionable material. This bomb was first powerful than atom bomb.
used by USA against Japan in Second World
War (6 August 1945 at Hiroshima and 9 Mass-Energy Relation
August 1945 at Nagasaki). • Albert Einstein established a relation
Nuclear reactor: Nuclear reactor is an between mass and energy on the basis of
special theory of relativity in 1905. According
arrangement in which controlled nuclear
to this mass can be converted into energy
fission reaction takes place.
and vice-versa.
• First nuclear reactor was established in
i.e., E = mc2
Chicago University under the supervision
Where, c is the velocity of light and E is the
of Prof. Fermi. energy equivalent of mass m.
These are several components of nuclear
reactor which are as follows: Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
i. Fissionable Fuel: U-235 or U-239 is • Zinc sulphide exhibits the phenomena of
used. phosphorescence.
ii. Moderator: Moderator decreases the
energy of neutrons so that they can Electronics
be further used for fission reaction.
Heavy water and graphite are used as Diode valve: Designed by J.A. Fleming in
moderator. 1904, diode valve consists of two electrodes
iii. Control Rod: Rods of cadmium or boron placed inside an evacuated glass envelope.
are used to absorb the excess neutrons One electrode is called cathode which is
produced in fission of uranium nucleus made up of tungsten on which this is a
so that the chain reaction continues to thin layer of barium oxide. When heated,
be controlled. cathode emits electrons. These electrons flow
iv. Coolant: A large amount of heat towards the other electrode called anode,
is produced during fission. Coolant a plate, which is a positive potential. As a
absorbs that heat and prevents excessive result, an electric current is established in
rise in the temperature. The coolant may the circuit.
Science 363
• Diode valve acts a rectifier. • The electrical conductivity of a semi

Rectifier is a device which converts alter conductor increases with the increase
nating voltage (current) into direct voltage in temperature.
(current).
Important Points
Triode Valve: Designed by Lee de Forest • When the energy of the Satellite is negative,
in 1907, triode valve is a modified form of it moves in either a circular or an elliptical
usual diode. It consists of a usual anode- orbit.
cathode pair and one more electrode called • When the energy of satellite is zero, it escapes
control grid. away from its orbit and its path becomes
• Triode valve can be used as amplifier, parabolic.
oscillator, transmitter and detector. • When the energy of a satellite is positive,
it escapes from the orbit following a
Semiconductor hyperbolic path.
• The substances, in which electric conduction • When the height of the satellite is in
is not possible at a low temperature but creased, its potential energy increases and
on increasing the temperature, electric kinetic energy decreases.
• Highly polished surfaces are bad absorbers
conduction becomes possible, are called the
and bad emitter but they are good reflectors.
semiconductors.
• Standing in double-decker buses, particularly
• Germanium and silicon are the two important
on the upper floor, is not allowed because
semiconductors. on tilting, the centre of gravity of the bus get
• A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic changes and it is likely to overturn.
semiconductor and to increase its con • A rose appears red when day light falls on
ductivity a chemical process is performed it because it absorbs all the constitutent
on it which is called Doping. colours of white light except red, which it
• An impure semiconductor is called extrinsic reflects to us.
semiconductor.
Nanotechnology
N-Type Semiconductor
• Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology deals
• If pentavalent impurity atom (such as with structures sized developing materials
antimony, arsenic, phosphorus, etc.) is or devices within that size.
added to the pure germanium or silicon • Molecular nanotechnolgy, sometimes
crystal, the crystal so obtained is called the called molecular manufacturing, describes
n-type semiconductor. engineered nanosystems (nanoscale
• Pentavalent impurities are called donor. machines) operating on the molecular scale.
P-Type Semiconductor • Spintronics is a technology that exploits
the intrinsic spin of the electron and its
• If trivalent impurity atom (such as alum associated magnetic moment, in addition
inium, boron, gallium, etc.) is added to to its fundamental electronic charge, in
the pure germanium or silicon crystal, the solid-state devices.
crystal so obtained is called p-type • Diamondoids: Non-scale molecules with
semiconductor. characteristic diamond structure isolated
• Trivalent impurities are called accepter. from petroleum.
• LEDs are specially designed diode made • Grey Goo is hypothetical end-of-the-
of GaAsP, GaP and are used in electronic world scenario involving molecular nan
gadgets and indicator light. otechnology, in which out of control self-
Doping: Adding of chemical impurity to a replicating robots consume all matter on
pure semi-conductor is called doping. earth, while building more of themselves.
List of Scientific Instruments Instrument Use

Instrument Use Dynamo It converts mechanical
Altimeter It measures altitudes and energy into electrical
is used in aircrafts. energy.
Ammeter It measures strength Endoscope It examines internal parts

of electric current (in of the body.
amperes). Eudiometer Glass tube for measuring
Anemometer It measures force and volume changes in
velocity of wind. chemical reactions
between gases.
AudioPhone It is used for improving
Electrometer It measures electricity.
imperfect sense of
hearing. Electroscope It detects presence of an
electric charge.
Audiometer It measures intensity of
sound. Fathometer It measures the depth of
the ocean.
Barometer It measures atmospheric
pressure. Galvanometer It measures the electric
current of low magnitude.
Binocular It is used to view distant
objects. Hydrometer It measures the specific
gravity of liquids.
Bolometer It measures heat
radiation. Hygrometer It measures humidity in
air.
Barograph It is used for continuous
recording of atmospheric Hydrophone It measures sound under
pressure. water.
Cinematography It is an instrument used in Kymograph It graphically records

cinema-making to throw physiological movements
on screen and enlarged (blood pressure and
image of photograph. heartbeat).
Crescograph It measures the growth in Lactometer It determines the purity of

plants. milk.
Manometer It measures the pressure
Cyclotron A charged particle
of gases.
accelerator which can
accelerate charged Mariner’s Compass It is an instrument used
particles to high energies. by the sailors to determine
the direction.
Calorimeter It measures quantity of
heat. Microphone It converts the sound
waves into electrical
Carburetor It is used in an internal
vibrations and to magnify
combustion engine for
the sound.
charging air with petrol
vapour. Microscope It is used to obtain
magnified view of small
Cardiogram It traces movements of objects.
the heart, recorded on a
cardiograph. Photometer The instrument compares
the luminous intensity of
Chronometer It determines longitude of the source of light.
a place kept onboard ship.
Periscope It is used to view objects
Dynamometer It measures electrical above sea level (used in
power. submarines).
Science 365
Instrument Use Instrument Use

Potentiometer It is used for comparing Stethoscope An instrument which is
electromotive force of cells. used by the doctors to
Odometer An instrument by which hear and analyze heart
the distance covered and lung sounds.
by wheeled vehicles is Stroboscope It is used to view rapidly
measured. moving objects.
Phonograph An instrument for Tachometer An instrument used
producing sound. in measuring speeds
Pyrometer It measures very high of aeroplanes and
temperature. motorboats.
Radar It is used for detecting Teleprinter This instrument receives
the direction and range and sends typed messages
of an approaching from one place to another.
plane by means of radio Telescope It views distant objects in
microwaves. space.
Rain Gauge An apparatus for Theodolite It measures horizontal
recording rainfall at a and vertical angles.
particular place.
Thermometer This instrument is used
Radiometer It measures the emission for the measurement of
of radiant energy. temperatures.
Refractometer It measures refractive Thermostat It regulates the
index. temperature at a
Saccharimeter It measures the amount of particular point.
sugar in the solution. Viscometer It measures the viscosity
Seismograph It measures the intensity of liquids.
of earthquake shocks. Voltmeter It measures the electric
Salinometer It determines salinity of potential difference
solution. between two points.
Speedometer It is an instrument placed
in a vehicle to record its
speed. Invention and Discovery
Sphygmomanometer It measures blood Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/
pressure. Discoveries Person
Spherometer It measures the Archimedean Screw Archimedes
curvatures of surfaces. Atom Neils Bohr
Stereoscope It is used to view two Atomic Number Mosley
dimensional pictures.
Atomic Physics Enrico Fermi
Sextant This is used by navigators
to find the latitude of Atomic Structure Bohr and Rutherford
a place by measuring Atomic Theory Dalton
the elevation above the
Automatic Gearbox Hermann Fottinger
horizon of the sun or
another star. Adding Machine Pascal
Spectrometer It is an instrument for Aeroplane Wright brothers
measuring the energy Air Brake George Westinghouse
distribution of a particular
type of radiation. Air Pump Otto von Guericke
Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/ Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/

Discoveries Person Discoveries Person
Airship (rigid) G. Ferdinand von Camera George Eastman
Zeppelin Carburettor Gottlieb Daimler
Aniline Dyes Hoffman Cell Doctrine Rudolf Virchow
Antiseptic Surgery Lord Joseph Lister Celluloid A. Parker
Arc Lamp C. F. Brush Cement Joseph Aspdin
Automobile Daimler Chromosomal Thomas Hunt Morgan
Automobiles using Karl Benz Theory of Heredity
gasoline Chronometer John Harrison
Avogadro’s Avogadro Cine Camera Friese-Greene
Hypothesis
Cinematography Thomas Alva Edison
Bacteriology Robert Koch
Classical Field Michael Faraday
Bakelite Leo H Baekeland Theory
Balloon Jacques and Joseph Clock (machanical) Hsing and Ling-Tsan
Montgolfier
Clock (pendulum) C. Hugyens
Ball-Point Pen John J. Loud
Coloured Lippman
Barometer Evangelista Torricelli Photography
Beri-Beri Eijkman Computer Charles Babbage
Bicycle Kirkpatrick Macmillan Cosmic Rays R.A.Millikan
Bicycle Tyre J.B. Dunlop Crescograph J.C.Bose
Bacteriophage Max Delbruck Crystal Dynamics C.V.Raman
Bifocal Lens Benjamin Franklin Cyclotron Lawrence
Binomial Carl Linnaeus Deuterium (Heavy H.C. Urey
Nomenclature Water)
Biogenetic Principle Ernst Haeckel Diesel Engine Rudolf Diesel
Bismuth Valentine Diesel Oil Engine Rudolf Diesel
Bomb Edward Teller Difference Engine Charles Babbage
Boson S.N.Bose Electrons J.J. Thomson
Boyle’s law Boyle Solar System Copernicus (1540)
Braille Louis Braille Specific Gravity Archimedes
Breaking up the Rutherford Dynamite Alfred B. Nobel
Nucleus of an atom Dynamo Michael Faraday
Cinema A.L. and J.L. Lumiere Effect of Pressure Meghnad Saha
Centrigrade scale A. Celsius on Trough Bodies
Chemical Structure August Kekule Eightfold Way Murray Gell-Mann
Chemotherapy Paul Ehrlich Electric Battery Alessandro Volta
Chloroform James Harrison and Electrical Waves Heitz
James Young Simpson Electricity Faraday
Cholera Bacillus Robert Koch Electromagnet William Sturgeon
Calculating Pascal Electromagnetic James Clerk Maxwell
Machine Field
Science 367

Electromagnetic Maxwell Helium Gas Lockyer
Theory Hovercraft Christopher Cockerell
Electron Joseph J. Thomson Hydrogen Cavendish
Electron Theory Bohr Hydrophobia Louis Pasteur
Electronic Dr. Alan M. Turing Intelligence Test Binet
Computer
Internal Otto
Elevator Elisha G. Otis Combustion Engine
Energy of the Sun Hans Bethe Jeans Levi Strauss
‘Equal’ sign (=) Robert Recorde Jet Engine Sir Frank Whittle
Ethology Konrad Lorenz Jet Propulsion Frank Whittle
Eugenics Francis Galton Kala-azar Fever U.N. Brahmachari
Fahrenheit Scale Fahrenheit Kaleidoscope David Brewster
Film and Goods Kodak Laboratory Gas Robert Wilhelm von
Photographic Burner Bunsen
Electric Flat Iron H.W. Seeley I.Q. Test Alfred Binet
Electric Furnace William Siemens In Number Theory Ramanujam
Electric Generator Michael Faraday Incandescent Bulb Edison
Electric Guitar Adolph Rickenbacker Induction Coil Rohm Korff
Electric iron H.W. Seeley Induction of Electric Faraday
Electric Lamp Thomas Alva Edison Current
Electric Gauss Insulin F. Banting
Measurement Laughing Gas Priestley
Electric Motor (AC) Nikola Tesla Law of Electrolysis Faraday
Electric Razor Jacob Schick Law of Gases Gay Lussac
Film (with sound) Dr. Lee de Forest Laws of Electrical Ohm
Fundamental Coulomb Resistance
Laws of Electric Laws of Gravitation Newton
Attraction
Laws of Heredity Gregory Mandel
Galvanometer Andre-Marie Ampere
Laws of Inheritance Gregory Mendel
Gas Lighting William Murdoch
Laws of Motion Newton
Gasoline Engine Karl Benz
Laws of Multiple Dalton
Genetic Code Frederick Sanger Proportion
Glider Sir George Caley Laws of Natural Darwin
Gramophone Thomas Alva Edison Selections
Gun Powder Rogei Bacon Logarithms John Napier
Heavens William Herschel Machine Gun Dr. Richard Gatling
Heavy Hydrogen Urey Malarial Parasite Ronald Ross
Helicopter Broquett Match (safety) J.E. Lurdstrom
Heliocentric Nicolaus Copernicus Mathematical Astro- Chandrasekhar
Universe physics

Mathematical Carl Gauss (Karl Friedrich New Astronomy Tycho Brahe
Genius Gauss) New Science Galileo Galilei
Mauve Dye Perkin Newtonian Pierre Simon de Laplace
Measurement of Joule, James Prescoft Mechanics
Electrical Energy Modern Computer John von Neumann
Mechanical Joules Modern Geology Charles Lyell
Equivalent of Heat
Modern Physiology William Bayliss
Mercury Fahrenheit
Thermometer Modern Synthesis Theodosius Dobzhansky
Meson Hideki Yakawa Modern Telescope Edwin Hubble
Microphone Johann Phillip Reis, Molecular Biology Francis Crick
Alexander Graham Bell, Molecular Ramanathan
Elisha Gray, Amos E. Scattering of Light
Dolbear, and Thomas in Fluid
Edison
Montessori Method Maria Montessori
Microscopic Marcello Malpighi
Anatomy Newtonian Isaac Newton
Revolution
Life Boat Henry Great Head
Nuclear Fission Otto Hahn, Bohr and
Lift E.g., Otis Fermi
Lift (Elevators) Otis Nylon Dr. Wallace H. Carothers
Lightning Benjamin Franklin Nylon Plastic Carothers
Conductor
Organic Chemistry Emil Fischer
Line of Demarcation Plimsoll
Origin of Species Charles Darwin
(Ship)
Oxygen Priestly
Linotype Mergenthaler
Paints Shalimar
Liquid Oxygen Dewar
Paper Clip Johann Vaaler
Locomotive Richard Trevithick
Parking Meter Carlton Mcgee
Logarithmic Tables John Napier
Penicillin Alexander Fleming
Modern Franz Boas
Anthropology Periodic Law Mendeleef
Modern Astronomy Arthur Eddington Periodic Table of Dmitri Mendeleev
Elements
Motion of the Johannes Kepler
Planets Pharmacology Gertrude Belle Elion
Motor Car (Petrol) Karl Butler Phonograph Edison
Movie Projector Thomas Alva Edison Photograph Dauguerre
Neon Gas Ramsay, Travers Photography (paper) W.H. Fox Tablot
Neon Lamp G. Claude Quantum Theory Werner Heisenberg
Neurophysiology Charles Sherrington Quantum Theory Max Plank
Neutron Chadwick Raazor (safety) K.G. Gillete
New Anatomy Andreas Vesalius Rabies Vaccine Louis Pasteur
Science 369

Radar Dr. A.H. Taylor and L.C. Razor (electric) Col. J. Schick
Young
Refrigerator James Harrison,
Radio G. Marconi Alexander Catlin
Phototherapy N.R. Finsen Replacing Human Christian Barnard
Heart
Pneumatic Tyres John Boyd Dunlop
Revolution in Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
Positive Electrons Anderson Chemistry
Power Loom Edmund Cartwright Revolver Samuel Colt
Powerloom Cartwright Rise of German Hermann von Helmholtz
Principle for lever Archimedes Science
(S.P. Gravity) Rubber (vulcanized) Charles Goodyear
Printing for the Braille Rubber (waterproof) Charles Macintosh
Blind
Safety Lamp Sir Humphrey Davy
Printing Press Johannes Gutenberg Safety Pin William Hurst
Psycho-analysis Dr. Sigmund Freud Seismograph Roberts Mallet
Psychology of the Sigmund Freud Sewing Machine Thomas Saint
Unconscious
Sextant Hadley
Quanta Max Planck
Ship (steam) J.C. Perier
Quantum Stephen Hawking Ship (turbine) Sir Charles Parsons
Cosmology
Soviet Genetics Trofim Lysenko
Quantum Richard Feynman
Electrodynamics Space Flying Braun, Dr. Wernher von
Quantum Max Born Spectroscope Bunsen

Mechanics Spectroscopy Gustav Kirchhoff
Radio Transmitter Alexanderson Spinning Frame Sir Richard Arkwight
Radioactive Dating Willard Libby Spinning Jenny James Hargreaves
Radioactivity Marie Curie Stainless Steel Harry Brearley
Radioactivity of Henry Becquerel Shorthand Sir Isaac Pitman
Uranium Sociobiology Edward O. Wilson
Radium Madame Curie Steam Boat Fulton
Railway Engine Stephenson Steam Engine James Watt
Raincoat Charles Macintosh Steam Engine James Watt
(condenser)
Raman Effect C.V. Raman
Steam Engine Thomas Newcome
Rare Gas Cavandish
(piston)
Safety Razor King C. Gillette Steam Turbine Parsons
Salk Vaccine Salk Stress Concept Hans Selye
Saxophone Antoine Joseph Sax Structural Claude Levi-Strauss
Scooter G. Bradshaw Anthropology
Rayon American Viscose Co. Structure of DNA James Watson

Structure of the Ernest Rutherford Thermodynamics Ludwig Boltzmann
Atom Vaccination Edward Jenner
Submarine David Bushnell Valve of Radio Sir J.A. Fleming
Sulpha Drugs Domagk Vitamins Hopkins and Funk
Steel Melting Bessemer Vitamin A Elmer V. McCollum and
Process M. Davis
Steel Production Henry Bessemer Vitamin B Elmer V. McCollum
Stethoscope Dr. William Stokes, Rene Vitamin B1 Casimir Funk
Laennec
Vitamin B2 D. T. Smith, E. G.
Superconductivity Heike Kamerlingh Hendrick
Symbiosis Theory Lynn Margulis Vitamin Niacin Conrad Elvehjem
Telegraph Samuel Morse Vitamin Folic acid Lucy Wills
Telegraphic Code Samuel Morse Vitamin B6 Paul Gyorgy
Telephone Sir Alexander Graham Vitamin C James Lind
Bell
Vitamin D Edward Mellanby
Telescope Galileo
Vitamin E Herbert Evans and
Television Baird
Katherine Bishop
Television John Logie Baird
Vulcanised Rubber Charles Goodyear
(mechanical)
Tempo of Evolution George Gaylord Simpson Washing Soda Lablanc
Terylene J. Whinfield and H. Watch A.L. Breguet

Dickson Waterproof Rubber Charles Macintosh
The Long Playing Peter Goldmark Wave Mechanics Erwin Schrodinger
Microgroove Record
Wave Theory of Christiaan Huygens
T.N.T. llly Brandt Light
Talkies Lee-de-Frost Wave/Particle Louis Victor de Broglie
Tank Sir Ernest Swington Duality
Theory of Pavlov Wireless Oliver Lodge
Conditioned Reflex Communication
Theory of Evolution Darwin Wireless Telegraphy Marcony
Theory of Relativity Einstein World Wide Web Tim Berners Lee
Thermometer Galileo Gallei and Hypertext
Markup Language
Thermos Flasks Dewar
X-rays Roentgen
Tractor J. Froelich
X-ray Wilhelm Reontgen
Transformer Michael Faraday
X-ray Max von Laue
Transistor Bardeen, Shockley,
Crystallography
Brattain
Zerox Machine Chester Carlson
Typewriter C. Sholes
Uranium Fusion Oho Hahn Zip Fastener W.L. Judson
Theory of the Atom John Dalton Zipper B.F. Goodrich

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335

• Distance travelled by the moving object in

Kinetic Energy • In battery, chemical energy changes into

Gravity • The gravitational force of earth (gravity) is

Variation in the Value of Gravity Weight of a Body in a Lift

• The orbital speed of a satellite revolving near

Pressure • Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press, hydraulic

Centre of Buoyancy • Bubbles of soap solution are big because

Density Critical Velocity

Properties of Electromagnetic • The longitudinal mechanical waves having

Effect of humidity on speed of sound: The Velocity of source

Thermal Expansion Radiation

Thermodynamics engine. Steam engine is an example of

on them emitted by the luminous bodies are Reflection at spherical surface

Some Illustrations of Refraction Applications

Refraction of Light through Lens lenses

Image Formation by a Convex Lens.

Power of a Lens medium. As a result, the refractive index of

perpendicular to the direction of propagation Defects of Human Eye and the

Simple Microscope This is why surface density of charge

Charge Electric Field

Potential Difference: Work done in bringing Resistance: The opposition offered by a

Electric Power Electric Motor

Transformer Intensity of Magnetic Field or

Magnetic Substance then a beam of electrons emerges from the

Nuclear Fission and Fusion be water, heavy water, or gas like He

• Diode valve acts a rectifier. • The electrical conductivity of a semi­

List of Scientific Instruments Instrument Use

Ammeter It measures strength Endoscope It examines internal parts

Cinematography It is an instrument used in Kymograph It graphically records

Crescograph It measures the growth in Lactometer It determines the purity of

Instrument Use Instrument Use

Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/ Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/

Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/ Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/

Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/ Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/

Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/ Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/

Quantum Max Born Spectroscope Bunsen

Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/ Inventions/ Name of the Scientist/

Terylene J. Whinfield and H. Watch A.L. Breguet

Theory of the Atom John Dalton Zipper B.F. Goodrich

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• Diode valve acts a rectifier. • The electrical conductivity of a semi