TYPES OF TEXTS AND READING FOR A PURPOSE

Most of the time a reader can find different types of texts which give specific information according to
her/his needs and interests. These texts can be selected from several sources, from newspapers, books,
magazines to internet. There are texts for every need and purpose, for this reason, the reader has to own
the skills to approach to them and to obtain the required information.

PRACTICE:
Read carefully the following texts and:

1. What are the texts about?

2. What are their sources?
3. What were the clues that helped you to identify their topic?

TEXT 1

Sunday 7 June 2015

Darpa robotics challenge: South Korea's humanoid nets team $2m
By Sam Thielman in Pomona, California

US defense department awards prizes in event that featured robots built and piloted with funding from
sources that included Amazon and Nasa

Team Kaist’s DRC-Hubo robot successfully uses a power hand tool during itsfinal run in the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (Darpa)
Robotics Challenge on 6 June 2015. Photograph: Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images

On Saturday evening, with their sleek humanoid robot DRC-Hubo, a team of roboticists and engineers from
the Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology in Daejeon, South Korea, won $2m from the
R&D arm of the US defense department, Darpa, by outperforming 24 other robots in a simulated nuclear
reactor.

Competitors came from all over the globe to Pomona, California, on Friday and Saturday. The two-day
contest took place at the Fairplex, formerly the Los Angeles County Fairgrounds. The robots were built and
piloted with funding from sources as disparate as the European Union, Amazon and Nasa.

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (Darpa) leadership praised the competitors in a speech
during the prize-giving ceremony.

TEXT 2

[Imagen o fotografía sin título de descripción del trabajo]. Retrieved from [Link]
images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2013/11/15/1384535678809/[Link]
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TEXT 3

 Students must bring recent photo identification (photo ID) and should bring their registration receipt
if they have one.
 Photo ID might be held for the duration of the exam.
 Students should arrive 30-45 minutes before the start of the exam for registration check.
 For security reasons, students may take to their desks only the following items: two pens, their
wallet, the booklet and instruction sheet given to them before they entered the exam room.
 All other items, including coats and jackets, should be put at the side or front of the room.
 Students should turn off all electronic devices, especially cell phones (a cell phone turned to vibrate
is also noisy).
 Students will be required to leave all personal belongings -- including purses, backpacks, and cell
phones -- at the side of the exam room. The College cannot take responsibility for the safety of
these items; students are advised not to bring valuables to the LET. Personal items may be
reclaimed after the exam is finished.
 Once the exam starts, students should not leave the exam room until they have completed and
handed in the exam.

TEXT 4

[Classified ad]. Retrieved from [Link]

[Link]?jobPosition=5

TEXT 5

Gabriel García Márquez

Colombian author
Written by: Roberto González Echevarría

Gabriel García Márquez, (born March 6, 1927, Aracataca, Colombia—died April 17, 2014, Mexico City,
Mexico), Colombian novelist and one of the greatest writers of the 20th century, who was awarded the
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Nobel Prize for Literature in 1982, mostly for his masterpiece Cien años de soledad (1967; One Hundred
Years of Solitude). He was the fourth Latin American to be so honoured, having been preceded by Chilean
poets Gabriela Mistral in 1945 and Pablo Neruda in 1971 and by Guatemalan novelist Miguel Ángel
Asturias in 1967. With Jorge Luis Borges, García Márquez is the best-known Latin American writer in
history. In addition to his masterly approach to the novel, he was a superb crafter of short stories and an
accomplished journalist. In both his shorter and longer fictions, García Márquez achieved the rare feat of
being accessible to the common reader while satisfying the most demanding of sophisticated critics.

READING STRATEGIES

Reading is a process of constructing meaning by interacting with the text so, read effectively is more than
just understand what is written. The reading strategies are reading techniques that help us to cover an
amount of information depending on our specific needs.

1. SKIMMING is a method of rapidly moving the eyes over text with the purpose of getting only the main
ideas and a general overview of the content.

A. Skimming is useful in three different situations:

 Pre-reading--Skimming is more thorough than simple previewing and can give a more accurate
picture of text to be read later.
 Reviewing--Skimming is useful for reviewing text already read.
 Reading--Skimming is most often used for quickly reading material that, for any number of reasons,
does not need more detailed attention.
B. Steps in skimming an article:
 Read the title--it is the shortest possible summary of the content.
 Read the introduction or lead-in paragraph.
 Read the first paragraph completely.
 If there are subheadings, read each one, looking for relationships among them.
 Read the first sentence of each remaining paragraph:
a. The main idea of most paragraphs appears in the first sentence.
b. If the author‘s pattern is to begin with a question or anecdote, you may find the last sentence
more valuable.
 Dip into the text looking for:
a. Clue words that answer who, what, when, why, how
b. Proper nouns
c. Unusual words, especially if capitalized
d. Enumerations
e. Qualifying adjectives (best, worst, most, etc.)
f. Typographical clues--italics, boldface, underlining, asterisks, etc.
 Read the final paragraph completely.

PRACTICE:
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The manager of a large office building had received many complaints about the elevators service.
He hired a group of engineers to study the situation and make recommendations. They suggested
two alternative solutions

1. adding more elevators of the same type

2. replacing the existing elevators with faster ones

The manager decided that both solutions were too expensive, so the firm psychologist offered to
study the problem. He noticed that many people arrived at their offices angry and impatient. The
reason they gave was the length of time they had to wait for the elevator. However the
psychologist was impressed by the fact that they only had to wait a relatively short time. It
occurred to him that the reason for the annoyance was the fact that they were inactive while
waiting for the elevators. He suggested a simple inexpensive solution to the manager. This was
adopted and complaints stopped immediately. The solution was to place a large mirror next to the
elevators.

1. According to the text the psychologist`s solution

a. made people feel confident
b. improve the elevator service
c. caused complaints about the elevator service
d. helped the company save a lot of money

2. The author`s intention is to

a. describe a typical solution in an office building and explain how the manager deals with people
complaints.
b. tell an amazing story about what could happen while you are waiting for the elevator.
c. explain the different steps that have to be taken by a building manager to solve a problem.
d. show the importance of looking at a problem from different perspective in order to find its real
causes

2. SCANNING rapidly covers a great deal of material in order to locate a specific fact or piece of
information.
A. Scanning is very useful for finding a specific name, date, statistic, or fact without reading the entire
article.
B. Steps in scanning an article:
 Keep in mind at all times what it is you are searching for. If you hold the image of the word or idea
clearly in mind, it is likely to appear more clearly than the surrounding words.
 Anticipate in what form the information is likely to appear--numbers, proper nouns, etc.
 Analyze the organization of the content before starting to scan:
a. If material is familiar or fairly brief, you may be able to scan the entire article in a single
search.
b. If the material is lengthy or difficult, a preliminary skimming may be necessary to determine
which part of the article to scan.
 Let your eyes run rapidly over several lines of print at a time.
 When you find the sentence that has the information you seek, read the entire sentence.
C. In scanning, you must be willing to skip over large sections of text without reading or
understanding them.

PRACTICE:
Long- term use increases the risk of developing tumors
Scarlet Pruitt, IDG News Service
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Ten or more years of mobile phone use can dramatically increase the risk of developing a benign
tumor on the auditory nerve, according to the preliminary results of a study conducted by Institute
of Environmental Medicine at Karolinska Institute in Stockholm. The research is being
concentrated in countries that have the longest and highest use of mobile phone, such as
Sweden, the U.K, Denmark, Norway, and Germany.

The study found that the risk of developing the tumors known as acoustic neuromas was almost
doubled for person, who started using their mobile phone at least 10 years before diagnosis

What is more, according to the results of the study released this week the risk was restricted to
the side of the head where the phone was usually held

Researchers point out that only analog phones had been in use for more than a decade at the
time the study was conducted and that however they could not determine if the same results
would apply to the long- term use of digital phones.

READING: WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?

By Nicole Fallon, Business News Daily Assistant Editor December 10, 2014 04:15 pm EST

In the broadest sense of the word, a "leader" is someone who brings people together and guides them
toward a common goal. Anyone can tell others what to do, but effective leadership requires much more
than the ability to assign tasks to a group.

Throughout history, much has been written about what it means to be a leader. Chinese military general
and "Art of War" author Sun Tzu described a leader as one who "cultivates the moral law, and strictly
adheres to proper methods and discipline." Nineteenth-century historian Thomas Carlyle believed leaders
were born and not made, while English philosopher Herbert Spencer argued that leaders were the result of
the society in which they lived.

The decades that followed brought countless studies and research reports that detailed a wide variety of
skills, styles and characteristics related to leadership. Researchers at the University of Michigan identified
three specific types of leaders (task-oriented, participative and relationship-oriented) in the 1940s and '50s.
In the '70s, author Ralph Stogdill named capacity, achievement, responsibility, participation, status and
situation as the six categories of personal factors associated with leadership. Research published in the
Harvard Business Review in 2000 by author and psychologist Daniel Goleman uncovered six different
leadership styles: commanding, visionary, "affiliative," democratic, pace-setting and coaching.

With all of these differing schools of thought, it's clear that there's no single definition of leadership, and that
what works for one leader may not necessarily work for another, depending on the circumstances and
personality type. But there's one thing that nearly every academic, historian and even leaders themselves
agree upon: A true leader must be able to inspire his or her team. [30 Inspiring Leadership Quotes]

Business News Daily spoke with five current business leaders about what leadership means to them, and
how leaders can achieve the ultimate goal of inspiring others.

Leadership requires ambition. "Leaders are described with a mouthful of adjectives, such as passionate,
visionary, charismatic, motivational and encouraging. However, I propose leadership is something simpler.
It is ambition. Ambition creates hard work, determination and an unconditional desire to achieve. It
generates an absolutely contagious energy that people follow and join naturally. If you are a leader in your
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organization, there is only one thing you need to understand about your role: never let your ambition fade."
– Corey Baggett, co-founder of ad technology firm AdBoom Group

Good leaders have a good attitude. "A good leader can hold his or her emotions in check, especially in
tough situations. For example, maybe you lost your best client, or a deal you've been working on falls
through. Regardless, it's important for leaders to guide a team through challenging times, encouraging
them and remaining positive along the way. Team morale is heavily contingent upon a leader's attitude." –
David Moore, regional vice president of the finance and accounting practice at Addison Group staffing firm

Leadership means being in touch with your people. "A leader places the people around him or her in a
position that sets them up for success. This is a difficult task because a leader must have an in-depth
understanding of each individual, such as understanding their career goals and knowing what motivates
them. By being committed to helping each person achieve their own personal goals, the leader sets the
organization up for greatness. Leaders are [also] good listeners. They listen to verbal and nonverbal cues
to understand [what is] occurring in the organization. This allows you to address problems before they
become big issues." – Andor Kovacs, CEO and founder of property restoration brand Restoration 1

Leaders set the right example. "Leadership is setting an example in the way you act each day, while
focusing on the bigger picture. It's about setting the tone for your team and organization in the way you
interact with your own staff, your business partners and your customers. As a leader, it is your responsibility
to establish goals, innovate, motivate and trust. A passionate and compassionate leader can energize a
company. Set an example of cooperation, trust and openness. Focus on solutions and positivity instead of
finding faults and blame for actions." – Richard Kissane, president and CEO of Premium Franchise Brands,
parent company of JAN-PRO and Maid Right Franchising.

Leaders can't stand alone. "The out-and-out leader in today's volatile and uncertain business environment
had better not distance him or herself from the heat of the action. Demonstrating the competence to
assess, decide and execute in a growing business drives confidence in the leader. Similarly, a great leader
of an enterprise stands on the shoulders not of 'managerial Muppets' who obediently do as they are
directed but of other leadership giants who have different and complementary leadership skills. A business
with only one leader will remain forever a small business." – Richard Hytner, deputy chairman of Saatchi &
Saatchi Worldwide, an adjunct professor of marketing at London Business School and author of
"Consiglieri: Leading from the Shadows" (Profile Books, 2014)

Originally published on June 22, 2012. Updated Dec. 10, 2014.

3. INTENSIVE READING: Is a detailed reading strategy aimed to understand the whole

meaning of the text. With this strategy the reader is able to answer comprehension questions,
summarize the author´s ideas and focus on certain aspects of the language. We need to read
intensively if a text is very difficult.

READING: SEVEN KEY WAYS ORGANIC FARMING IS SUPERIOR TO

INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE
Wednesday, November 28, 2012 by: John McKiernan

(NaturalNews) The industrial agriculture system has convinced many Americans that it is a
necessity in order to produce an adequate food supply for the entire country. It operates under the
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assumption that it produces higher yields, more profits and is overall more efficient than organic
farming. In reality, this couldn't be further from the truth. A 30 year side-by-side study published by
the Rodale Institute found that organic farming out performed industrial farming in the areas of
yield, profits, energy usage and greenhouse gasses. In fact, there are seven fundamental ways
that organic farming outperforms industrial systems.

1. Profits - This is one you might think industrial farming would take, since profits are the bottom
line for the companies that comprise the industry. But due to significantly lower input costs
(fertilizers, pesticides, oil, etc.), organic farming revenues are greater. The Rodale study showed
the mean net return for the organic systems was $558/acre/year compared to only $190/acre/year
for the industrial systems.

2. Yield - The 30-year Rodale study concluded that after a three-year conversion period, organic
yields were equivalent to industrial yields. Another study cited by the Organic Consumers
Association states "In a review of 286 projects in 57 countries, farmers were found to have
increased agricultural productivity by an average of 79 percent, by adopting 'resource-conserving'
or ecological agriculture."

3. Employment - Conventional wisdom might convince you that a large scale industrial system has
the potential to create more jobs than a small or medium sized organic system. This is not the
case. Where human hands used to work, now machines take their place. Over the last hundred
years, the EPA says labor efficiency has increased from 27.5 acres/worker to 740 acres/worker.
While this may seem like a positive, it means the same care and attention cannot be paid and
subsequently, crop quality is inferior.

4. Energy efficiency - Oil used to transport and apply fertilizers and pesticides, along with nitrogen
fertilizer representing 41 percent of total energy costs, makes industrial farming far less efficient
than organic. Organic systems consume 45 percent less energy overall than industrial systems,
with production efficiency being a whopping 28 percent higher.

5. Resilience - Organic crops are more resilient during times of drought or climate change. Organic
corn even outperformed GM so called "drought tolerant" varieties by between 18 to 24 percent.

6. Soil health - The Rodale study found that, while industrial systems merely maintained soil health
by utilizing chemical fertilizers, which over time destroys microbial life and weakens soil integrity,
organic systems improved soil quality.

7. Toxic chemicals - With over 17,000 pesticides used today, many of which haven't undergone
any safety testing, dangerous pesticide residue is a given when it comes to industrial farming
systems.

The notion that organic farming is incapable of feeding the world is simply not true. The current
industrial system does not even deliver on its primary goal of increased efficiency. Most troubling,
we are left with nutritionally depleted, highly toxic foods sold at artificially low prices. Organic
farmer, author and speaker Joel Salatin remarked "We spend around 10% of our income on food
and some 16 percent on healthcare, and it used to be the reverse." In other words, we get what
we pay for.
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4. CRITICAL READING: It implies an analytical interpretation of the text, it involves reader´s
knowledge about the topic to identify and analyze the author´s arguments and position. With this
reading strategy the reader will be able to stablish and defend his/her own point of view discussing
the author´s arguments.

READING: THE RISE OF THE BIOBOT: MIXING BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY

By Reuven Cohen

1/10/2014
In a recent article posted on the The Guardian website, author and new-age guru Deepak Chopra
made an interesting observation.

“A cyborg future is coming. Man’s relationship with machine is merging and machines are an
extension of our own intelligence. I’m so into it. I wear all kinds of bio-sensors to tell me what’s
going on inside me. It’s the future,” said Chopra.

Anyone who has read my posts lately will know that I’ve been going through a bit of an obsession,
not just with bitcoin, but with biologically inspired technology. From wearable tech, to medical
implants to complex interfaces between brain, mind and machine, recent developments in
combining machines and organisms of various types is a fascinating subject, but it also gives rise
to some major ethical concerns.

In a recent paper published in the renowned journal Angewandte Chemie International Edition,
German scientists discuss the state of the art of research, opportunities, and risks facing so called
“Cyborgs.” Although published in German, the paper explores the latest developments at the
interface between technical systems and living organisms.

First a bit of background, a “cyborg” is an acronym for a cybernetic organism. More simply, it
describes a kind of chimera, a living organism combined with a machine. For many this may sound
like some far-fetched Sci-fi novel, but today many people use intracorporeal medical systems
(occurring within the body) such as pacemakers, complex prostheses or cochlear and retinal
implants. In a technical sense, many humans can already be considered as cyborgs.

The report’s authors note that in recent years, the current needs in the field of biomedicine and the
enormous advances in micro-and nanotechnology have driven the original idea of cybernetic
organism to new levels. They describe a compound yet functional interaction between living tissue
and technical systems that have reached an astonishing level of complexity. Modern man made
systems are now able to interact or even replace central body functions. One common example is
the frequently of implanted cardiac pacemakers. These types of implants help to compensate for
diminished sensory abilities, for example using cochlear implants for hearing. Often they can
complement nonfunctional body structures, such as arms or legs that can be partially or
completely replaced by technical prostheses that can interact directly with your brain.
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The use of prostheses or implants certainly isn’t a new idea. Humans have been using implanted
technical aids of various types for thousands of years to compensate for defects and impairments
caused by traumatic events or illnesses or just vanity. Back as far back as Roman times, artificial
dentures made of forged iron were used as dental implants to replace lost teeth

Today, when a technical system or machine is used to replace a complex function within the body,
such as gripping a hand, it is essential that the system be closely related to the living organism.
Ideally, the system itself should be capable of receiving and sending the appropriate signals for the
movement and control directly from the central nervous system and especially the brain itself.
Such “hardware / wetware interfaces” are typically referred to as brain-machine interfaces. They
represent the interface to receive control commands from the technical systems and to which they
may return feedback or stimulation.

Low-cost brain-machine interfaces make interfacing with our central nervous systems more
accessible then ever before even for laymen. One example is the SpikerBox that is commercially
sold by Backyard Brains. The company describes the product as “a great way to get introduced to
hands-on neuroscience.” Technically it is a” bioamplifier” that allows you to hear and see spikes
(i.e. action potentials) of real living neurons in invertebrates (cricket, earthworm, or cockroach)
which you can order from us or pick up in a local pet store or backyard. The company even offers
a Smartphone Cable to plug your SpikerBox into your smartphone or tablet to look at the neurons
firing in real time.

Needless to say, there are some pretty serious ethical concerns when you start talking about
experimenting on backyard invertebrates. Ethical concerns aside, interfacing directly with lower
forms of life opens up the potential for variety of interesting usages. The brains of lower
organisms, such as insects, are much less complex. They allow us to more easily understand how
a certain movements are programmed, such as running or flying. The use of autonomous
electronics implanted with in insects has enabled researchers with the able to remotely control
insects for up to 3 hours. In many ways, insects provide the gold standard in terms of
aerodynamics, sustainability, energy efficiency and biochemical sensor capabilities.

By understanding these core biological processes, the opportunity for so-called biobots, (i.e. large
insects with implanted electronic and microfluidic control units) can be used in a new generation of
tools, such as small flying objects for monitoring or even autonomous drones, which can based
upon real life processes found within organisms. Moreover, these systems could also be powered
by the organism’s own thermal, kinetic, electric or chemical energy making them extremely energy
efficient.

Grasping the fundamental way our biological processes work offers a huge potential to tap into
some of the efficiencies we as humans enjoy. One such example is the energy efficiency of the
human brain. It is both the most powerful and most efficient computer ever created. Running on
just 23.3 watts, the brain makes up 2% of a person’s weight. Despite this, even at rest, the brain
consumes 20% of the body’s energy. The brain consumes energy at 10 times the rate of the rest
of the body per gram of tissue. Even though your brain is the most energy intensive organ in your
body, by computing technology standards, your brain uses extremely low amount of energy for an
estimated 1exaFLOP (exaSCALE) computing capability. Theoretically, an exaSCALE computing
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system – 100 times more computing capability than today’s fastest systems – could be built with
only more common x86 processors, but it would require as much as 2 gigawatts of power or
roughly the peak power generation of the Hoover Dam. In terms of bang for your computing buck,
your brain is by far the winner, at the rate of about 86,956,521 times more power efficient than
conventional computing systems.

Some believe that the relationship between technology and biology may provide the next step in
our evolution. For me this both fascinating and terrifying.

COGNATES

Cognates are words in both English and Spanish that share a similar meaning, spelling and
pronunciation due to their Latin or Greek root (these are called TRUE COGNATES), however there
are words similar in form but with different meaning from the other language that are called FALSE
COGNATES. By knowing cognates the reader can expand his/her vocabulary and improve his/her
reading comprehension.

EXAMPLES OF TRUE COGNATES:

ENGLISH SPANISH

Family Familia

Organization Organización

Class Clase

Gorilla Gorila

Example Ejemplo

EXAMPLES OF FALSE COGNATES:

ENGLISH SPANISH

Actual Real

Current Actual

Pie Pastel

Policy Política

Large Grande

READING: NESTLE JOINS CLEAN FOOD MOVEMENT WITH REMOVAL OF

ARTIFICIAL FLAVORS FROM 250 PRODUCTS
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Monday, June 08, 2015 by: Jennifer Lilley

(NaturalNews) Nestle, which is considered a snack food and frozen pizza leader, has announced
that it will remove artificial flavors from over 250 of its products by the end of 2015. In that same
time frame, the food giant also plans to reduce the salt content in its frozen pizzas by 10 percent.
The brands involved are Digiorno, Tombstone, California Pizza Kitchen, Jack's, Hot Pockets and
Lean Pockets.(1)

According to a Nestle press release, all artificial flavors "from every product within these brands"
will be removed, and sodium content among these same brands will be lessened by 10 percent as
compared to 2013 levels. Another effort that's keeping up with consumers' growing desire to eat
healthier is their announcement that, by the end of the year, Nestle will also implement "guidance
tools on packaging across these brands" in an effort to further assist consumers in making
informed nutritional and portion size decisions. For example, the importance of adding more fruits
and vegetables will be a focus in many instances.(2)

● Nestle wants consumers to "feel good" about eating healthier foods

"We know people want to feel good about the foods they eat, and they're seeking foods made with
fewer artificial ingredients and less sodium," said John Carmichael, president of the Nestle Pizza &
Snacking Division, Nestle USA. "As one of the nation's largest food companies, Nestle is listening
to consumers and delivering on their desire for convenient, great-tasting foods that have an
improved nutritional profile."(2)

Cassie Hoover, RDN, nutrition, health and wellness manager of the Nestle Pizza & Snacking
Division, Nestle USA, is poised to be an instrumental part of this process. In a press release, she
said, "Portion guidance is our way of making it easier for consumers to make informed choices
that are right for them and their family," and that the great taste people have come to enjoy won't
be compromised due to these changes.(2)

The company's move parallels that of many others before them in recent times. With an increased
public focus and interest in GMOs, artificial ingredients and overall health, several other
companies have also sought ways to change their foods for the better.

● Numerous companies and restaurants focusing on health, food improvements

For example, Chipotle went completely GMO-free, and Panera recently made public its "No-no"
list which includes about 150 artificial preservatives, sweeteners, colors and flavors they're
removing. Panera is aiming to have all such additives removed from their food by 2016. Already,
the likes of cellulose gel has been removed from their poppyseed dressing, as has the soy protein
and propylene glycol alginate in their Greek salad dressing. Pizza Hut has also jumped on the
healthy bandwagon; they're slated to remove all artificial colors and flavors by the end of July
2015.(1,3)

Additionally, Kraft has mentioned plans to remove artificial dyes from their macaroni and cheese,
while PepsiCo is set to remove aspartame from Diet Pepsi.(3)
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Even McDonald's, which not too long ago came out with an anti-kale ad that poked fun at health-
minded people, may now add the leafy green to its menu. "As we continue to listen to our
customers, we're always looking at new and different ingredients that they may enjoy," said
McDonald's spokeswoman Lisa McComb in response to inquires about the fast food chain's
possible addition of kale to its foods.(4)

● Not everyone thinks companies jumping on healthy bandwagon is good idea

While these shifts demonstrate a move towards creating a healthier society, not everyone is on
board. Especially in the case of McDonald's, some joke that the changes are simply not enough,
suggesting that it's hardly making a dent in health considering the calories or sugar that's still sold
or consumed despite there being kale or fewer additives on the menu. Some opponents also
argue that the fears which people have about some ingredients are not justified, and therefore
they feel that these so-called healthy reactions are not entirely necessary.

While opponents to such changes do bring up some valid points -- and let's not forget that sales
are likely more top-of-mind than health, and therefore a driving force behind these new
approaches -- it's still good to know that many companies are at least making an effort that leans
towards cleaner eating.

Sources:
(1) [Link]
(2) [Link]
(3) [Link]
(4) [Link]

CONTEXT CLUES

When reading a text readers can find some unfamiliar words and, in some cases, the dictionary
isn´t helpful enough so, it´s necessary for the readers to pay attention to the words (familiar or
known) that surround the unknown ones to infer or deduce their meaning. This is what we call
Context Clues. Developing this guessing ability is important for the readers who won´t spend much
time looking for words in a dictionary.
Here are six types of context clues used by authors to help the reader understand the meanings of
words. An example is provided for each.

1. Definition context clue

The author includes a definition to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. In the
following example, "tainted" is defined as having a disease.
● The people of the town were warned not to eat the tainted fish. The local newspaper
published a bulletin in which readers were clearly told that eating fish that had a disease
could be very dangerous. This was especially true for fish caught in Lake Jean.

2. Synonym context clue

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The author includes a synonym to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. A synonym
is a word that means the same as or nearly the same as another word. In the following example,
the synonym "pity" helps the reader understand the meaning of "compassion."
● After seeing the picture of the starving children, we all felt compassion or pity for their
suffering.

3. Antonym context clue

The author includes an antonym to help the reader understand the meaning of a word. An
antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. In the following example, the
antonym "eager" helps the reader understand the meaning of "reluctant."
● Joe was reluctant to take on the position of captain of the basketball team. He was afraid
that the time it would take would hurt his grades. On the other hand, Billy was eager for the
chance to be captain. He thought that being captain of the team would make him very
popular in school.

4. Description context clue

The author includes one or more descriptions to help the reader understand the meaning of a
word. In the following example, descriptions of President Kennedy as having charm, enthusiasm,
and a magnetic personality help the reader understand the meaning of "charismatic."
● John Fitzgerald Kennedy, our 35th president, improved human rights and equal rights for all
people. He was a very charismatic president. People were attracted to his charm and
enthusiasm. His personality was described as magnetic.

5. Summary context clue

The author makes a number of statements that help the reader understand the meaning of a word.
In the following example, statements about being rude, showing no respect, having poor manners,
and being impolite help the reader understand the meaning of "impertinent."
● Andrea was a very impertinent young lady. She was so rude that she talked while her
teacher was explaining a lesson. She showed no respect for other students. Her manners
were very poor. Even her parents thought that Andrea was impolite.

6. Visual context clue

The author includes a picture, drawing, chart, graph, or other type of visual to help the reader
understand the meaning of a word. In the following example, the picture and its caption that is
close to the sentence helps the reader understand that "exultant" means great joy.

Peggy had an exultant look on her face.

PRACTICE:

Read the following text and think of a synonym in Spanish of the words in bold.

El griego Pythtias fue condenado a óbito__________,por combatir al tirano que gobernada a la

sazón____________
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Pythias impetró_______que antes de palmar________le permitieran visitar a su esposa y a sus
vastagos___________.pequeños aún, para despedirse de ellos. Pero el tirano
cogitó___________que Pythias quería afufarse_______y no lo dejó ir.
Entonces un quillotro_______de infancia de Pythias llamado Damón, se ofreció de garantía. Si
Pythias no regresaba del viaje, Damón aceptaba que lo atocinaran__________en lugar de su
quillotro________.El tirano aceptó.
Cuando llego el día de la ejecución Pythias no habia recudido_________. Ya iba el verdugo a
atocinar________a Damón cuando se apareció Pythias soleteando__________a todo lo que
daban sus piernas y cayó en el huello___________medio palmado____________por todo lo que
habia tenido que soletear__________.
El tirano sorprendidó al ver aquella prueba de amistad le indulgó________ y
manumitó________a los dos.

PRACTICE:

Read the following paragraphs and guess the meaning of the words in bold from the context:

● I have always lived in cubbyholes. After moving away from home, my first apartment was just a
cubbyhole in a large building. It was no more that 8' by 12' and had a bed in one corner. My second
was no more that a large walk-in closet. My current one is about 10 feet long by 12 feet wide, but it
at least has two rooms.

● The floors of the restaurant were extremely scuzzy. They were covered with spilled grease, crumbs
of food, and cigarette butts.

● The department store carries a variety of breeches, for example they carried Levis, Wranglers, and
even some plain unlabeled brands made of cotton.

● Josie received a bauble for Christmas from her great aunt. This she put with her others, a pair of
imitation earrings, a fake emerald pendant, and a ring that looked like a ruby.

USING THE DICTIONARY

1. A dictionary will give you the following information about a word:

a. How to spell the word and its special plural form.
b. Whether or not the word is capitalized or abbreviated.
c. How to break the word into syllables.
d. How to pronounce the word.
e. The part of speech of a word.
f. Different meanings that the word has, as well as synonyms (same meaning) and antonyms
(opposite meaning)
g. A sentence or expression with the word used correctly
h. The meanings of important prefixes and suffixes
i. The special uses of the word
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j. The history of the word
k. Other words derived from the main word

2. Special sections in some dictionaries tell you about:

a. Foreign words and phrases
b. Abbreviations
c. Addresses of colleges or government offices
d. The population of cities and countries

3. Applying the following pointers will save time when you use a dictionary:
a. Know and use proper alphabetical order
b. Use guide words to save time
c. Check all abbreviations and symbols in the special sections
d. If at first you don’t succeed in finding the word, don’t give up. You might need to check
several possible spellings before finding the word
e. Substitute the meaning you find for the word in the sentence. Be sure you select the most
appropriate meaning, not merely the first one you come to
f. Try saying the word aloud after you look at the pronunciation key.
PRACTICE:

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
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1. NOUN: A noun is a word used to name things, people or place, for example: car, woman, dog,
problem.
 Daniel buys an expensive car.

2. VERB: A verb is a word used to describe actions or situations, for example: run, write, stay, take.
 Lina and Andrea write a song for the contest.

3. ADJECTIVE: It´s a word used for modifying or describing the noun, it is a quality, e.g.: wonderful,
easy, expensive, small.
 The students made a beautiful performance.

4. ADVERB: An adverb is a word that describes or modifies an adjective, a verb or another abverb, for
example: quickly, badly, very, much.
 I need to answer this mail quickly.

5. PREPOSITION: It´s a word used to connect nouns, pronouns and phrases, for instance: about, by,
over, on, without.
 Cesar is spending his money without regrets.

6. PRONOUN: It´s a word that can replace a noun like: he, they, these, that, hers.
 We are learning about new technologies and their uses.

READING: WHAT ARE ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES?

Alternative energy encompasses all those things that do not consume fossil fuel. They are widely available
and environment friendly. They cause little or almost no pollution. There have been several alternative
energy projects running in various countries to reduce our dependence on traditional fossil fuels. There are
many impressive options that you can take into consideration. Here in you will learn more about alternative
energy sources that you can take into consideration.

 Solar Energy
Solar is the first energy source in the world. It was in use much earlier before humans even
learn how to light a fire. Many living things are dependent on solar energy from plants,
aquatic life and the animals. The solar is mostly used in generating light and heat. The solar
energy coming down to the planet is affected by the orbital path of the sun and its variations
within the galaxy. In addition, it is affected by activity taking place in space and on the sun.
It was this energy that is believed to have been responsible for the breaking of ice during
the ice age, which creates the separation of lands and sea.

Solar energy is one the alternative energy source that is used most widely across the globe.
About 70% of the sunlight gets reflected back into the space and we have only 30% of
sunlight to meet up our energy demands. While solar energy is used for producing solar
energy, it is also used for drying clothes, used by plants during the process of
photosynthesis and also used by human beings during winter seasons to make their body
temperature warm. Solar energy can be extracted either by Solar Thermal or using
Photovoltaic (PV) Cells.
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There are two kinds of solar energy the active solar energy and the passive solar energy.
Passive solar energy basically uses duration, position and sun’s rays intensity to its
advantage in heating a particular area. It also uses it to induce airflow from an area to the
next. Active solar energy uses electrical technology and mechanical technology like
collection panels in capturing, converting and storing of energy for future use.

Solar energy does not create any pollution and is widely used by many countries. It is
renewable source of power since sun will continue to produce sunlight all the years. Solar
panels, which are required to harness this energy can be used for long time and require
little or no maintenance. Solar energy proves to be ineffective in colder regions which don’t
receive good sunlight. It cannot be used during night and not all the light from sun can be
trapped by solar panels. Solar energy advantages are much more than its disadvantages
which make it as a viable source of producing alternative energy.

 Wind Energy
This is one of the energy sources that have been in use for a very long time and for
centuries. It was used in powering sailing ships, which made it possible for explorers to sail
around their trade routes in distant lands. A single windmill can power the crop irrigation,
and the family energy needs, water pumping and electric lights. However, in the present
time there are several windmills that are used to generate required energy mostly for
industrial uses. Many of the wind turbines can capture much power all at once before
feeding it to the power grid. This is commonly known as wind farms and has been in use for
many years all round the world. It is only the United States that is going slow in terms of
accepting this alternative energy source.

Wind power is renewable source of energy and reduces our alliance on foreign countries for
supply of oil and gas. It does not cause any air pollution and have created several jobs in
last few decades. Advancement in technologies has brought down the cost of setting up
wind power plant. Wind energy can only be used in areas which experience high winds
which mean that it cannot be used as a source to extract energy anywhere on earth. They
sometimes create noise disturbances and cannot be used near residential areas. These
disadvantages have made the use of wind energy to particular regions only.

 Geothermal Energy
‘Geo’ means Earth and ‘thermal’ means energy. Geothermal energy means energy drawn
or harnessed from beneath the earth. It is completely clean and renewable. Geothermal
energy has been in used since last several years. The earth contains a molten rock called
magma. Heat is continuously produced from there. The temperature increases about 3
degrees Celsius, for every 100 meters you go below ground. Below, 10,000 meters the
temperature is so high, that it can be used to boil water. Water makes its way deep inside
the earth and hot rock boils that water. The boiling water then produces steam which is
captured by geothermal heat pumps. The steam turns the turbines which in turn activates
generators.

Geothermal energy can be found anywhere on the earth. Most countries tap this energy to
generate electricity and power millions of homes. The areas which have high underground
temperatures are the ones which are the ones which are prone to earthquakes and
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volcanoes. The United States produces more Geothermal electricity than any other country
in the world. Most hot water geothermal reservoirs are located in the western states,
Alaska, and Hawaii. Geothermal energy is totally renewable as earth will continue to
produce heat as long as we are all are here. If these resources are tapped and are utilized
effectively, they can provide solution to the world’s power problems.

Geothermal energy produces no pollution, reduces our alliance on fossil fuels. It also
results in significant cost savings as no fuel is required to harness energy from beneath the
earth. These advantages make geothermal energy as one the best alternative energy
source. But, geothermal has its downsides too. It is suitable to particular region and cannot
be harnessed everywhere. The earth may release some harmful gases while releasing the
heat which may prove adverse from mankind. Also, the areas where this energy is
harnessed are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes. Apart from that, setting up of
geothermal power stations requires huge installation cost.

 Hydroelectric Energy

Solar energy is produced by sun and wind energy is produced by moving of winds. The
heat caused by sun drives the wind. The movement of winds is then captured by wind
turbines. Both wind and sun cause water to evaporate. The water vapor then turns into rain
or snow and flows down to sea or oceans through rivers or streams. The energy of the
moving water can then be captured and called as hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric power
stations capture the kinetic energy of moving water and give mechanical energy to turbines.
The moving turbines then convert mechanical energy into electrical energy through
generators. Dams around the world have been built for this purpose only. Hydropower is the
largest producer of alternative energy in the world.

There are different types of hydropower plants. The selection of hydropower plant depends
on many volume and flow of water. Hydropower is renewable, constant, predictable and
controllable source of energy. They emit no greenhouse gases and are environment
friendly. On the negative side, they may cause adverse effect on aquatic life, reduce flow of
water which may affect agriculture, require huge costs to build and may cause havoc if they
get breakdown.

 Biomass Energy

This is the process by which an alternative energy is generated through conversion of

biological materials and wastes into forms that can be used as energy sources for heating,
power generation and transportation. Those carbon based substances or materials
converted over a long period of time to fossil fuels are not regarded as biomass. However,
in their original state they are regarded as biomass. This is because of the separation of the
carbon they previously contained from the carbon cycle. This makes them figure differently
affecting carbon dioxide levels in air.

Biomass energy has been around since ancient times when people use to burn wood or
coal to heat their homes or prepare food. Wood still remains the most common source to
produce biomass energy. Apart from wood, the other products that are used to create
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biomass energy include crops, plants, landfills, municipal and industrial waste, trees and
agricultural waste. Biomass is renewable source of energy as we would be able to produce
it as long as crops, plants and waste exist. It does not create any greenhouse gases and is
can be easily extracted through the process of combustion. Another advantage of biomass
is that it helps to reduce landfills. Biomass is comparatively ineffective as compared to fossil
fuels. They release methane gases which can be harmful to the environment.

 Ocean Energy
The earth promises many power sources. Just like the geothermal and solar energy, which
have long been used in heating homes and lighting as well when harnessed. Even in the
last century these forms of energy was in use. Due to massive size of oceans, this energy
can be used on much wider scale than other alternative sources of energy. The waves
produced by the ocean and tides that hit the sea shore has enormous potential in them. If
they are harnessed with full capacity they can go a long way in reducing world’s energy
problems. There are 3 ways i.e. Tidal energy, Wave energy and Ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC) via which ocean energy can be harnessed.

Tidal power basically involves using kinetic energy from the incoming and outgoing tides.
The difference in high tides and low tides are also important in this respect. There is a lot of
energy that can be harnessed from waves for use. It is another form of hydropower. The
rise and fall of ocean tides are captured by tidal energy generators which turn turbines. The
movement of turbines is responsible for producing electricity. In short, tidal energy
generator captures the kinetic motion of the tides and converts them into electrical energy.
The main advantage of tidal energy is that it is completely renewable and are much more
predictable than wave energy.

 Hydrogen Energy

Hydrogen is the most abundant element available on earth but it is rarely alone. Even water
contains two third of hydrogen. It is usually available with other elements and have to
separated before we can make use of it. Hydrogen has tremendous potential and can be
used to power up homes, vehicles and even space rockets. It takes a lot of energy to
separate hydrogen from other elements and therefore it proves to quite expensive to extract
it. Take a close look at hydrogen energy and see how it works.

The main benefit of hydrogen energy is that it is clean source of fuel and does not leave
any waste elements behind except water. There are no harmful emissions and is
environment friendly. It is completely renewable and can be produced over and over again
on demand. Hydrogen can also be used to make bombs like the ones used by America on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki which makes it highly inflammable. Dependency on fossil fuels still
remains as we need them to extract hydrogen from other elements. Also, it is quite
expensive to produce and store.
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These are some of the alternative energy sources that can be taken into consideration
when planning your energy production and usage. You can harness any of these and you
will satisfy your power needs.
References:
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BASIC TENSES

1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

We use Simple Present Tense to talk about things that happen regularly or to talk about facts, for example:

 You play football everyday.

 We talk Spanish and English.
 They don´t understand the rules.
 She watches TV.

We form the Simple Present like this:

POSITIVE FORM NEGATIVE FORM

I work I don´t work
You work You don´t work
He/She/It works He/She/It doesn´t work
We work We don´t work
You work You don´t work
They work They don´t work

Take into account for third singular person (He/She/It)

 We add -s for third singular person (He/She/It)

I buy---------He/She/It buys

 If a verb ends in -ch, -o, -sh, -ss, we have to add -es after He/She/It
I wash-------He/She/It washes
They do-----He/She/It does
You go------He/She/It goes

 If a verb ends in a consonant plu -y (study) we drop the -y and add -ies
I fly--------------------He/She/It flies

PRACTICE:
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1. Complete the sentences using the following verbs, remember to add -s, -es or -ies if
necessary:

Watch work finish study drink brush

a. I _______________ green tea twice a day.

b. He _______________ his teeth after lunch.
c. My mother _______________ news all day long.
d. They _______________ work at six o´clock.
e. The policeman _______________ everyday.
f. We _______________ a new language in the college.

2. SIMPLE PAST TENSE

We use the Simple Past to talk about things happened in the past, for example:

 I visited Mexico last year.

 Arnold played tennis yesterday.
 We arrived at the airport at four o´clock.
 He worked in Bogotá.
 She gave a present to our father.

We form the Simple Past like this:

POSITIVE FORM NEGATIVE FORM

I I
You You
He/She/It played He/She/It
We We didn´t play
You You
They They

 Note many verbs in simple past end in -ed because they are regular verbs, although some
change their spelling if they end in -y or consonant plus vowel, like:
cry-------cried stop------stopped

 Besides the irregular verbs change completely in simple past tense:

take--------took do--------did go--------went

come------came make----made eat--------ate
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Complete the text using the simple past tense of the verbs in brackets.

THE FOUNDER OF IBM

Thomas J. Watson Senior (1) _______________ (begin) his business career as a sewing
machine salesman and later, when he (2) _______________ (become) President of IBM, he (3)
_______________ (use) his sales techniques to promote the company´s name.

There (4) _______________ (be) IBM anthems, IBM songbooks, IBM regulation clothes, and the
company motto, “Think” (5) _______________ (appear) on every wall in the organization. When
Watson (6) _______________ (join) IBM in 1914, the company (7) _______________ (be) almost
broke. Under his leadership, it (8) _______________ (grow) beyond all expectations, and (9)
_______________ (establish) a leading position in the information-processing industry. So how
did he do it?

Watson (10) _______________ (believe) that the way to win a man´s loyalty is to build up his self-
respect. So under his management, IBM employees (11) _______________ (earn) above-
average salaries and good pensions. In return, he (12) _______________ (demand) loyalty and
enthusiasm. Everyone (13) _______________ (work) long hours.

Until the 1950s, IBM never (14) _______________ (sell) machines. They just (15)
_______________ (rent) them to customers. Watson (16) _______________ (insist) on this
policy, and it (17) _______________ (help) the company to survive the Depression of the 1930s.
He (18) _______________ (have) a strong personality and (19) _______________ (make) all the
major decisions himself. As many as forty top people (20) _______________ (report) him
personally. Watson (21) _______________ (think) that a manager should be an assistant to his
men, and IBM (22) _______________ (run) no management training schools in his day. The only
advice he (23) _______________ (give) was: “You´re promoted to Assistant Manager. Be careful
with people, don´t swear, and wear a white shirt.”

3. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." We use “be going to”

1. To talk about things we have decided to do in the future:

 I´m going to visit my aunt tomorrow.

 We are going to take a bus.

2. To predict the future according to the information we know now:

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 I´ve studied so much, I´m going to pass the test.
 Look at the time! We are going to be late.

We use “will”

1. To talk about things we think will happen in the future:

 You are an excellent employee; you will get the salary increase.
 He will love the new house.

2. When we make a decision to do something:

 (The phone rings)....I will answer it.
 A. These books are very heavy for me.
B. I will carry some of them.

PRACTICE:

Complete the sentences with “will” or “going to”

1. Be careful! That tree _______________ fall.

2. Bye! I _______________ be back!
3. I'm all dressed up in my new football kit because I _______________ play today.
4. I _______________ see you sometime this evening.
5. I _______________ have dinner with you because I booked a table for two.
6. The President _______________ arrive at 6:00pm.
7. I _______________ be late tomorrow.
8. Jane _______________ have a baby in the summer.
9. Bye for now. Perhaps I _______________ see you later.

READING: 5 SIMPLE WAYS TO BECOME A BETTER LEADER

By Nicole Fallon, Business News Daily Assistant Editor August 27, 2013

As a leader, it's your job to guide your team towards accomplishing specific goals. You might
successfully reach those goals, but could your leadership still use some improvement? Are you
able to relate to your team? Do you help your team members relate to one another? Do you simply
organize and direct, or do you influence and inspire? Here are five tips to help you evaluate and
improve your effectiveness as a leader.

Connect and communicate

Leading a group of people requires a mutual sense of trust and understanding between leader and
team members. As a first step toward that goal, leaders should learn to connect.

"Building a real personal connection with your teammates is vital to developing the shared trust
necessary to build a strong culture of accountability and exceptional performance," said Terry
'Starbucker' St. Marie, a leadership writer and consultant. "With that culture in place, the team can
achieve a successful business, a happy team and a fulfilled leader."
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St. Marie believes that being what he calls a "more human" leader requires positivity, purpose,
empathy, compassion, humility and love. These key traits will put you on the road to genuine
connections with the members of your team.

Luke Lorio, president and CEO of the Institute for Professional Excellence in Coaching (iPEC),
says that leaders also need to be aware of the way they communicate.

"They need to understand how to not only clearly communicate their particular directions, but how
to do it in a way that makes sense to the people they're talking to," Lorio told BusinessNewsDaily.

Focus on the positives

As much as leaders wish that their team's day-to-day operations could run smoothly all the time,
they're bound to run into the occasional obstacle. Whether it's a minor miscommunication or a
major error, the way a leader handles a negative situation says a lot about his or her leadership
skills. Robert Mann, author of "The Measure of a Leader" (iUniverse, 2013), recommends focusing
on the good in any set of circumstances.

"Look at three positive things about a problem before you identify what makes it dissatisfying,"
Mann said. "The more you look at the positives in a problem, the more positively people react with
one another."

In his research, Mann has found that, after individuals point out things they're happy with in a
problematic situation, they don't feel so strongly about the problem and are better able to think
clearly and solve it. The same is true when a leader needs to improve his or her strategy. If you or
a team member notices a particular course of action you've taken that just isn't working, figure out
some things you've done in similar situations that have worked. Dr. Peter Fuda, author of
"Leadership Transformed" (New Harvest, 2013), says that leaders can learn to focus on the
positive by shifting from 'critic to cheerleader' of their teams.

"This strategy involves moving from a focus on what is going wrong to what is going right," Fuda
said. "Shining a light on issues and problems is an important part of transformation, but it must not
become a leader's default setting. An important mantra I have shared with almost every leader I
have met is, 'Don't let perfect get in the way of better.'"

Show, don't tell

Fuda also recommends showing others what is required rather than simply telling them. Iorio
endorses a similar approach, noting that leaders should coach their team members toward a more
collaborative, committed work environment — without coaxing them.

"[If you are] controlling people to do certain things in certain ways, you're not going to get the level
of engagement that you're looking for," Lorio said. "Coaching is about helping the people you lead
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recognize the choices they have in front of them. People will [then] take a great deal of ownership
over the direction of the project."

St. Marie offers a list of questions that leaders can ask themselves to address this point, including:
-Am I being a teacher and not just a "teller"?
-Am I building trust and respect, rather than ruling by fear?
-Am I connecting my teammates' work to a higher common purpose that gives their work
meaning?
-Am I using the right metrics to measure and motivate my team?
-Am I enabling my team to fulfill their greatest potential?

Ask for feedback

An honest self-assessment of your own leadership can be difficult. This is why feedback from
mentors, fellow professionals and team members is invaluable in evaluating your effectiveness.
According to St. Marie, talking to friends and peers often brings needed perspective on your
leadership approach and style. Leadership coaching can also help you discover areas that need
improvement. A professional who helps you develop a plan to achieve your leadership goals can
be more motivational than books and seminars alone.

"Coaching allows leaders to make the connection and apply [changes] in a real-life setting," Iorio
said. "You need time to integrate process and reflect, and unless you go through those steps, you
won't have sustainable change."

What's your motivation?

If a person in a leadership position views what he or she is doing as "just a job," it's going to show.
In order to be an effective leader, you need to have the right motivation. Is it the money or the
prestige you care about, or do you sincerely want to inspire people to do their best? St. Marie
advises leaders to really ask themselves why they want to lead.

"I look at leadership as an honor and a vocation," he told BusinessNewsDaily. "If in your heart you
feel leadership is your destiny, and how you'll make a difference in this world, then you are
certainly starting from the right place."

DERIVATION AND WORD FORMATION

1. DERIVED WORDS
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Prefixes and suffixes are grammatical affixes (particles) that we add to a word stem to change its
meaning and/or its grammatical function. Prefixes are affixed before and suffixes after the main
part of a word.
Prefixes are particles we add before of a word to make a new word with a different meaning.
Prefixes can create a new word opposite in meaning to the word stem. They can also make a
word negative or express relations of time, place or manner. Here are some examples:

Word Stem Prefixed Word Type of meaning

Complete In-complete Opposite

Existent Non-existent Negation/Opposite

History Pre-history Time

Cab Mini-cab Size

Planetary Inter-planetary Location

Channel multi-channel Number

LIST OF THE MOST COMMON PREFIXES

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

anti- against/opposed to anti-government, anti-racist,
anti-war

auto- self autobiography, automobile

de- reverse or change de-classify, decontaminate,

demotivate

dis- reverse or remove disagree, displeasure,

disqualify

down- reduce or lower downgrade, downhearted

extra- beyond extraordinary, extraterrestrial

hyper- extreme hyperactive, hypertension

il-, im-, in-, ir- not illegal, impossible, insecure,

irregular

inter- between interactive, international

mega- very big, important megabyte, mega-deal, megaton

mid- middle midday, midnight, mid-October

mis- incorrectly, badly misaligned, mislead, misspelt

non- not non-payment, non-smoking

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over- too much overcook, overcharge, overrate

out- go beyond outdo, out-perform, outrun

post- after post-election, post-war

pre- before prehistoric, pre-war

pro- in favour of pro-communist, pro-democracy

re- again reconsider, redo, rewrite

semi- half semicircle, semi-retired

sub- under, below submarine, sub-Saharan

super- above, beyond super-hero, supermodel

tele- at a distance television, telepathic

trans- across transatlantic, transfer

ultra- extremely ultra-compact, ultrasound

un- remove, reverse, not undo, unpack, unhappy

under- less than, beneath undercook, underestimate

up- make or move higher upgrade, uphill

Suffixes are particles we add after a word stem to create a new word with a different grammatical function.
For example:

Word Stem Suffix New Word/Gram. Function

Manage -ment Management/Noun

Logical -ly Logically/Adverb

Use -ful Useful/Adjective

COMMON SUFFIXES
Noun suffixes

Suffix Examples of nouns

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-age baggage, village, postage

-al arrival, burial, deferral

-ance/-ence reliance, defence, insistence

-dom boredom, freedom, kingdom

-ee employee, payee, trainee

-er/-or driver, writer, director

-hood brotherhood, childhood, neighbourhood

-ism capitalism, Marxism, socialism (philosophies)

-ist capitalist, Marxist, socialist (followers of

philosophies)

-ity/-ty brutality, equality, cruelty

-ment amazement, disappointment, parliament

-ness happiness, kindness, usefulness

-ry entry, ministry, robbery

-ship friendship, membership, workmanship

-sion/-tion/-xion expression, population, complexion

Adjective suffixes

Suffix Examples of adjectives

-able/-ible drinkable, portable, flexible

-al brutal, formal, postal

-en broken, golden, wooden

-ese Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese

-ful forgetful, helpful, useful

-i Iraqi, Pakistani, Yemeni

-ic classic, Islamic, poetic

-ish British, childish, Spanish

-ive active, passive, productive

-ian Canadian, Malaysian, Peruvian

-less homeless, hopeless, useless

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-ly daily, monthly, yearly

-ous cautious, famous, nervous

-y cloudy, rainy, windy

Verb Suffixes

Suffix Examples of verbs

-ate complicate, dominate, irritate

-en harden, soften, shorten

-ify beautify, clarify, identify

-ise/-ize economise, realise, industrialize (-ise is most

common in British English; -ize is most
common in American English)

Adverb Suffixes

Suffix Examples of adverbs

-ly calmly, easily, quickly

-ward(s) downwards, homeward(s), upwards

-wise anti-clockwise, clockwise, edgewise

PRACTICE:

As early as the 18th century, doctors noticed that workers whose jobs required them to maintain
certain body positions for long periods of time developed musculoskeletal problems. In the last 20
years, research has clearly established the connection between certain job tasks and repetitive
stress injuries, or RSI’s.

Two elements are at work here: “static work” and “force.” “Static work” refers to the
musculoskeletal effort required to hold a certain position, even a comfortable one. For example,
when we sit and work at computers, keeping our head and torso upright requires either small or
great amounts of static work depending upon the efficiency of the body positions we choose.
“Force” refers to the amount of tension our muscles generate. For example, tilting your head
forward or backward from a neutral, vertical position quadruples the amount of force acting on
your lower neck vertebra. This increase of force is due to the increase in muscular tension
necessary to support your head in a tilted position.

The term “ergonomics” is derived from two Greek words: “erg,” meaning work and “nomoi,”
meaning natural laws. Ergonomists study human capabilities in relationship to work demands. In
recent years, ergonomists have attempted to define postures which minimize unnecessary static
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work and reduce the forces acting on the body. All of us could significantly reduce our risk of injury
if we could adhere to the following ergonomic principles:

1. All work activities should permit the worker to adopt several different, but equally healthy
and safe postures

2. Where muscular force has to be exerted it should be done by the largest appropriate
muscle groups available.

3. Work activities should be performed with the joints at about mid-point of their range of
movement. This applies particularly to the head, trunk, and upper limbs. (Cortlett, 1983)

Here, however, we arrive at a problem: In order to put these recommendations into practice, a
person would have to be a skilled observer of his or her own joint and muscle functioning and
would have to be able to change his or her posture to a healthier one at will. No one develops this
sort of highly refined sensory awareness without special training. Therefore, in order to derive the
benefits of ergonomic research, we must learn how to observe our bodies in a new way.

2. -ING SUFFIX

Words ending in -ing can be gerunds, verbal nouns, or present participles. Distinguishing between
these and using them correctly is not always easy – until you understand these three simple rules:

1. The gerund is a verb which is used as if it were a noun. Since it is a verb, it can not be qualified
by an adjective, nor preceded by an article, but it can be modified by an adverb and take a
complement, for example:
a. Seeing is believing.
b. Living in New York is exciting but rather expensive.
2. A verbal noun is a noun formed from a verb; some of these end in -ing. It can take a
determiner, and be qualified by adjectives, for example:
a. The book was easy reading.
b. He managed to make a good living.
3. A participle is an adjective qualifying a noun or a pronoun, for example:
a. This is an interesting book.
b. The winning team will go through the finals.

A participle it is also used to form the progressive forms of verb tenses:

a. I'm taking my brother to the station tonight.

b. The man was phoning his friend, when the lights went out.

READING: WHAT IS EXERGY?

Exergy is a concept in the thermodynamics field of physics that has come to replace entropy as a
more accurate representation of what happens to energy when it is used in an open system, such
as in industrial or biological processes on Earth. Simply stated, exergy represents the amount of
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energy present in a system that is available for useful work. As the system performs its function,
exergy is used in the process and can never be recovered.

In this sense, the use of exergy contributes to the overall entropy of the universe itself. This is
because entropy represents a trend towards a maximum distribution of energy to the point where it
is no longer possible for change to take place, which is more succinctly referred to as heat death.
The concept of heat death represents a period in the far future for the entire universe, which is
considered a closed system where outside energy never enters. Ultimately, energy in the
fundamental form of heat is projected to be equally distributed throughout space, creating an
entirely homogenous environment where life itself would be impossible. An analysis of exergy
energy is, therefore, a method of taking the natural, widespread process of entropy and looking at
it on a smaller, local scale for machines or any ordered process or creature that consumes energy
to function or live in a higher state of order.

Measuring chemical exergy can be important as it is a way to represent the consumption of

natural resources and the inevitable loss of a part of the mass of these resources on Earth as they
are converted to heat, which is lost to space. An automobile engine is a good example of a system
that consumes exergy to work. As the energy in the fuel that the engine burns is converted to heat
and pressure in the engine, this energy is vented to the outside environment in waste heat and
mechanical motion, which eventually is carried into space and is no longer recoverable for useful
work.

Exergy in this way complies with the second law of thermodynamics, which states that different
energy levels between systems or bodies have a tendency to equalize over time. The first law of
thermodynamics is also consistent with the principle, where it states that matter can neither be
created or destroyed. Since exergy analysis is a method of describing the available energy in a
system that can perform work, it does not claim that energy has been destroyed, but instead
merely that it has reached a state where the system can no longer make use of it.

Calculating the exergy development for a system can be done with a variety of mathematical
formulas. They are dependent on to what use energy is put in the system, whether to produce
exergy heat, pressure, sound, light, or other forms of useful energy-based work. One formula used
in an attempt to represent all factors is:

Ε = U – Ueq + po(V -Veq) – Τo(S – Seq) - Σμo(ni – nieq)i.

In the formula, U, V, S, and ni all represent factors within an ordered system like a machine or life
form that include its internal energy level, mass by volume, and inherent entropy. Its size as
measured by its molecular weight. The values represented by po, To, and uo are placeholders for
the external environment, including pressure, temperature, and chemical interactions. The value of
eq stands for thermodynamic equilibrium, which all systems trend towards with their surrounding
environment.
While the increase in exergy and entropy are both considered to be an ultimate example of how
any increased order brought to matter will eventually be undone, such a concept is based on the
idea that the universe is a closed system. Like a clock that is gradually winding down, all ordered
processes are considered to be headed for a state of maximum entropy and randomness. If the
universe, however, is an open system where outside energy enters as continually occurs on Earth
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by the energy of the Sun, then increasing order can be prolonged indefinitely. Both physics
theories that postulate the presence of a multiverse of multiple parallel, interacting universes, or
that of a higher power overseeing the cosmos suggest the universe could be an open system
where energy enters from outside and exergy is replenished.

3. WORD FAMILIES
Word families are groups of words that are closely related to each other to form a 'family'.They
have similar form and result from the addition of different affixes to their stem.

Here are some examples of form-based word families:

❖ Family_________________NOUN ❖ Industry___________ NOUN

❖ Familiar________________ADJECTIVE ❖ Industrial__________ ADJECTIVE
❖ Unfamiliar______________ADJECTIVE ❖ Industrialize.________VERB
❖ Familiarity______________NOUN ❖ Industrialization______NOUN
❖ Familiarise______________VERB
❖ Industrialized________ADJECTIVE

❖ Reforest________________VERB ❖ Contaminate_________VERB
❖ Reforestation____________NOUN ❖ Contamination________NOUN
❖ Reforestated_____________ADJECTIVE ❖ Contaminated________ADJECTIVE

❖ Added_________________ADJECTIVE ❖ Employ_____________VERB
❖ Addition_______________NOUN ❖ Employer____________NOUN
❖ Additional______________ADJECTIVE ❖ Employee____________NOUN
❖ Additionally____________ADVERB ❖ Employment__________NOUN
❖ Unemployed__________ADJECTIVE

Each of these families is bonded by a common root word, although the resultant connections of
meaning are also an important bonding feature.

-Why are word families important?

Form-based families are important because an understanding of word families allows to be guess
either the form or the meaning of unfamiliar words with some confidence.

PRACTICE:
VIOLENT CRIME
1-Violent crime has increased as a result of a great accessibility to weapons combined with the
fact that large numbers of young people are unemployed with very few prospects of finding a job.
In my opinion, there are several solutions to the problem.
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2-An effective solution is for the government to have greater control over guns and other
dangerous weapons. Therefore, new laws should be passed to restrict citizens from owing fire
arms.

3-Another suggestion is to help young people finding work. The problem of unemployment could
be helped if the government created jobs and work programs for young people.

4- An important part of deterring young people from violent crime is better education. If taught that
violence is not the answer to their problems, young people would be less likely to turn to crime.

5- To sum up, perhaps the best solution to the problem of violent crime is better, more vigilant
policing, which will ensure that more criminals are caught. The importance of this was emphasized
by the Earl of Arran when he said “It is not the people in prison who worry me. It’s the people who
aren´t”. Creating longer prison sentences for convicted criminals would also deter most would be
offenders from committing a violent crime

Questions: 1. What is the text about?

2. Complete the table below making word families.
VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB
Violentize Violent

Suggest

Government

Effective Effectively

Crime

READING: THE EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION ON HUMANS

By A.L. Kennedy

Soil pollution occurs when soil contains chemicals that are toxic or otherwise dangerous for
humans and other living things. The chemicals may be foreign to the area, or they may be
naturally occurring materials that pollute the soil by being present in dangerously high amounts.
Soil pollution can have a number of harmful effects on human health. The harmful effects of soil
pollution may come from direct contact with polluted soil or from contact with other resources,
such as water, that have come in direct contact with the polluted soil.
Organ Damage
The presence of heavy metals in soil in toxic amounts can cause irreversible developmental
damage in children, according to the website Tropical Rainforest Animals. High concentrations of
metals like lead and mercury may cause damage to the developing brains of young children,
which in turn may lead to neurological problems. Humans of any age may also suffer from kidney
or liver damage for instance, due to exposure to excessive mercury in soil
Bioaccumulation
Soil that is not significantly polluted may still harm humans indirectly, according to Pollution Issues.
One way such soil pollution can harm humans is by bioaccumulation. Plants that are grown in
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lightly polluted soil continuously absorb molecules of the pollutants. Since the plants cannot get rid
of these molecules, they accumulate in the plant, causing higher amounts of pollution to exist in
the plant than in the soil. Animals who eat many of these polluted plants take on all the pollution
those plants have accumulated. Larger animals who eat the plant-eating animals take on all the
pollution from the animals they eat. Humans who eat plants or animals that have accumulated
large amounts of soil pollutants may be poisoned, even if the
Many common soil pollutants are carcinogenic, or cancer-causing. According to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, humans who are exposed to these pollutants are far more likely
to develop cancer than humans who are not exposed to them. For example, regular exposure to
benzene is known to cause leukemia in both children and adults. Exposure to polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) is linked to liver cancer.
Economic Losses
In addition to endangering human health, soil pollution can also cause economic damage. For
instance, in some parts of China, soil that is polluted with heavy metals is nevertheless used to
grow grain. The grain grown in these soils is often polluted with heavy metals. According to China
Dialogue, an estimated 12 million tons of polluted grain must be disposed of each year, costing
Chinese farmers up to 20 billion yuan, or about $2.57 billion U.S.

READING: PLASTIC BAG SYNDROME

Believe it or not but plastic bags are becoming a serious environmental problem. So serious that
many countries globally have imposed charges for all bags now paper and plastic. You’d probably
think that even with a charge of say a few dollars the consumer would keep the bag and then
reuse it. However some do many do not. Regardless of the charges imposed production of
plastic bags and purchasing still continues. As human population increases so will demand for
shopping accessorizes.

Two hundred and sixty seven different species of animals and plants have been known to be
affected by plastic bag wastage. Over 100,000 marine animals, including highly intelligent,
adorable sea turtles, whales and dolphins, die every year because of plastic bags. The die
because of your selfishness. While conservation organisations are helping to clean the seas,
beaches and lands of your waste the production of bags continues at a staggering rate. To be
precise every five seconds sixty thousand plastic bags are produced every “five seconds” just in
the United States alone. That’s one hell of a lot of bags.

The damage plastic bags cause to our wildlife is catastrophic as one can see in the picture below.
Even when animals that have died and decomposed digest plastic bag particles or whole plastic
bags the bag still remains intact. It takes over one hundred years or more for your average plastic
bag to decompose. In that time the digested plastic bag has most likely poisoned another animal
or killed a further whale or even a Tiger or Lion. Even Africa’s pristine parks are not safe from
littering so don’t think for one moment that plastic bag refuse is just confined to our oceans.
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The picture above depicts a dead decomposing seabird. Look closely though. You can make out
many different plastic particles. Lighters, bottle tops and pieces of plastic bag garbage that would
most likely have led to this animals painful death. And as explained marine animals are not the
only species threatened by plastic bag garbage. The picture below depicts cattle that have also
fallen prey to the plastic bag menace. Digesting such toxic plastics can lead to many physical
complaints that can lead to eventual death.

READING: BIOREMEDIATION

Bioremediation uses microorganisms to degrade organic contaminants in soil, groundwater,

sludge, and solids. The microorganisms break down contaminants by using them as an energy
source or cometabolizing them with an energy source. More specifically, bioremediation involves
the production of energy in a redox reaction within microbial cells. These reactions include
respiration and other biological functions needed for cell maintenance and reproduction. A
delivery system that provides one or more of the following is generally required: an energy
source (electron donor), an electron acceptor, and nutrients. Different types of microbial electron
acceptor classes can be involved in bioremediation, such as oxygen-, nitrate-, manganese-, iron
(III)-, sulfate-, or carbon dioxide-reducing, and their corresponding redox potentials. Redox
potentials provide an indication of the relative dominance of the electron acceptor classes (EPA
2000). Generally, electron acceptors and nutrients are the two most critical components of any
delivery system (EPA 2004).

To stimulate and enhance microbial activity, microorganisms (bioaugmentation) or amendments

(biostimulation), such as air, organic substrates or other electron donors/acceptors, nutrients,
and other compounds that affect and can limit treatment in their absence can be added.
Biostimulation can be used where the bacteria necessary to degrade the contaminants are
present but conditions do not favor their growth (e.g., anaerobic bacteria in an aerobic aquifer,
aerobic bacteria in an anaerobic aquifer, lack of appropriate nutrients or electron
donors/acceptors). Bioaugumentation can be used when the bacteria necessary to degrade the
contaminants do not occur naturally at a site or occur at too low of a population to be effective.
Biostimulation and bioaugmentation can be used to treat soil and other solids, groundwater, or
surface water (EPA 2006).

Bioremediation may be conducted in situ or ex situ. In situ processes treat soil and groundwater
in place, without removal or transportation offsite. This approach may be advantageous since the
costs of materials handling and some environmental impacts may be reduced. However, in situ
processes may be limited by the ability to control or manipulate the physical and chemical
environment during bioremediation. Ex situ processes, on the other hand, involve the removal of
the contaminated media to a treatment area (EPA 2006).

The first step of any bioremediation program is to develop a conceptual site model (CSM) to
evaluate the potential for applying bioremediation at a site. The CSM takes into account the
nature and extent of contamination and site characteristics; site hydrogeology, geochemistry and
oxidation-reduction conditions; biodegradation potential; contaminant fate and transport; and
receptor and exposure pathways. Once a CSM is established and refined, a characterization of
the existing microbial community, or the characteristics necessary for the establishment of an
appropriate microbial community, can be determined. Activities undertaken prior to the
implementation of a bioremediation program often involve treatability studies, examination of soil
comparability and the structure and function of the microbial community to ensure that
undesirable reactions with the contaminants or their degradation products are prevented. The
success of a bioremediation application highly depends on characterization and monitoring
completed before and during its implementation (Hazen 2010).
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4. COMPOUND WORDS

In English, words, particularly adjectives and nouns, are combined into compound structures in a
variety of ways.

There are three forms of compound words resulting from the union of two or more simple words:

❖ The closed form: In which the words are melded together, such as: secondhand,
crosstown, redhead, keyboard, makeup, notebook, policeman, boyfriend, workforce, nationwide,
marketplace, database, goodwill, fundraiser, sometimes, policymaker, storyteller, webpage,
workwoman.

❖ The hyphenated form: the words are united by a hyphen, such as; daughter-in-law,
master-at-arms, over-the-counter, six-pack, six-year-old, mass-produced, dining-table, front-
runner, frame-up, free-for-all, get empty-handed,self-service, follow-up, life-size, call-back,
hanger-on, work-flow, deep-blue.

❖ And the open form: As two separate words such as; post office, real estate, middle class,
full moon, half sister, attorney general, fish tank, health care, voice mail, waiting room, word
processing, vice president, global warming, greenhouse effect, sea level, artic ice.

More Examples: Breakdown, outbreak, cutback, breakfast, driveway ,feedback, hangover,

upstairs, jumpsuit , girlfriend, filmmaking, makeup, output, set-back, stand-in, hold-up, in-law,
know-how, drop-out, African American, after all ,cash flow, child care, life span, school year.

PRACTICE:

Part 1: Circle the compound word in each sentence.

1. The girls were playing softball at Veteran's Park.

2. Amelia bought some balloons for Samuel's birthday.
3. Will somebody please help me clean the dining room?
4. Susan made some delicious cupcakes.
5. Dominic got a sunburn when he was swimming in the pool.

Part 2: Circle the compound word in each group.

 building sunglasses computer jumped
 happiness thunder snowflake puppy
 peanut butter picture coloring
 cooked monkey dragonfly plastic
 bee singer mailbox shirts

Part 3: Directions: Combine the word on the left with another word in the list to make a compound
word

Example: butter + _fly_ up corn fly compound word: _butterfly__

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a. hand + __________ shake fingers glove compound word:
_______________________________
b. week + __________ ness end ly compound word:
_______________________________
c. basket + ________ eggs ball straw compound word:
_______________________________
d. high + __________ speed sky way compound word:
_______________________________
e. gold + __________ road en fish compound word:
_______________________________
f. tea + ___________ shirt pot warm compound word:
_______________________________
h. side + __________ walk door house compound word:
_______________________________
i. bed + __________ ding soft room compound word:
_______________________________
j. fire + ___________ hot ing place compound word:
_______________________________

READING

CONCERNS GROW OVER CHILDREN USING TABLET COMPUTERS

Electronic tablets like the iPad are a revolutionary educational tool and are becoming part of
childhood, but should be watched carefully so that overuse doesn't lead to learning or behavioral
problems, experts say.
Electronic tablets like the iPad are a revolutionary educational tool and are becoming part of
childhood, but should be watched carefully so that overuse doesn't lead to learning or behavioral
problems, experts say.
"It's a topic that really emerged in the last two years. You can't pull it from their hands," Warren
Buckleitner, editor of Children's Technology Review, said this week at a New York panel titled
"Baby Brains and Video Games."
According to a late 2011 survey of 2,200 parents and children in Britain and the United States, 15
percent of kids between three and eight had used their parents' iPad. Nine percent had their own
iPad, while 20 percent had their own iPod.
The same study, by the marketing agency Kids Industries, found 77 percent of parents believed
that using tablets was beneficial for their children and the same number thought the gadgets
helped develop creativity.
Amid warnings from some researchers that tablets can cause developmental difficulties and
problems including autism or attention deficit disorder, experts at the forum recommended not
rushing to judgment.
"Technology maybe fosters some things and dampens others," Rosemarie Truglio, from the
children's TV producers Sesame Workshop, said. "It's definitely about balance."
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Lisa Guernsey, director of the Early Education Initiative at the New American Foundation, said that
critics blaming devices like the iPad for child developmental problems should differentiate
"between a cause and an association."
Still, Guernsey, author of "Screen Time: How Electronic Media -- From Baby Videos to Educational
Software -- Affects Your Young Child," urged parents to establish limits on use of electronic
devices.
"Can they focus on a conversation, not look a screen for 30 minutes?" she asked.
Truglio noted that "researchers have proven they need adult-child interaction," in addition to the
electronic helper. "Interactive doesn't mean educational," she said.
Annie Murphy Paul, author of "How the Nine Months Before Birth Shape the Rest of Our Lives,"
said there's no need to panic.
"Your brain is changing all the time, each time you learn something new," she said.
But Paul said she strictly controls her own offspring's access to such devices and remains
concerned "about the value" for small children.
For Buckleitner, it's all a question of balance. Don't let the iPad become an electronic babysitter.
But it can be "a shelf of toys. It could be a lot of things," she said. "Trust your gut."

PRACTICE:

Re-read text and match the two columns with the correct Compound Words.
1. Tablet A. Tablets
2. Baby B. Brain
3. Behavioral C. Difficulties
4. Off D. Be
5. Children E. Games
6. New F. Producers
7. Marketing G. Tool
8. Electronic H. Deficit disorder
9. Baby I. Shop
10. May J. Initiative
11. Developmental K. Agency
12. Educational L. Technology review
13. Video M. Foundation
14. Attention N. Time
15. TV Computers
16. Work P. Media
17. Early education Q. Spring’s
18. New American R. York
19. Screen T. Sitter
20. Electronic U. Problems

READING: WHAT IS SOCIAL NETWORKING?

Social Networking. . . It's the way the 21st century communicates today. It is the grouping of individuals into
specific groups, like small rural communities or a neighborhood. Although social networking is possible in
person, especially in the workplace, universities, and high schools, it is most popular online. This is
because unlike most high schools, colleges, or workplaces, the internet is filled with millions of individuals
who are looking to meet other people, to share information and experiences about topics like golfing,
5
gardening, aesthetics and cosmetic surgery, developing friendships or professional alliances, finding
employment, business-to-business marketing, etc. The topics and interests are as varied and rich as the
story of our world.

When it comes to online social networking, websites are commonly used. These websites are known as
social sites. Social networking websites function like an online community of internet users. Depending on
the website in question, many of these online community members share common interests in hobbies,
religion, or politics. Once you are granted access to a social networking website you can begin to socialize.
This socialization may include reading the profile pages of other members and possibly even contacting
them.

Social Networking is a nice form of entertainment that can be a very effective business technique for
entrepreneurs, writers, actors, musicians or artists. It is also great for meeting people with similar interests.
Most of us have hobbies, or things which we are keenly interested in such as books, television, video
games or movies. Social networks allow us to reach out to others that have the same interests.

The friends who you can make are just one of the many benefits to social networking online. Another one of
those benefits includes diversity because the internet gives individuals from all around the world access to
social networking sites. This means that although you are in the United States, you could develop an online
friendship with someone in Denmark or India. Not only will you make new friends, but you just might learn a
thing or two about new cultures or new languages and learning is always a good thing.

The most prevalent danger though often involves online predators or individuals who claim to be someone
that they are not. Although danger does exist with networking online, it also exists with networking out in the
real world, too. Just like you're advised when meeting strangers at clubs and bars, school, or work -- you
are also advised to proceed with caution online. You should be very careful by being aware of your cyber-
surroundings and who you are talking to, you should be able to safely enjoy social networking online. Just
use common sense and listen to your inner voice; it will tell you when something doesn't feel right about the
online conversations taking place.

CONTEXTUAL REFERENCES

Every text has a structure. It is not just a random collection of sentences. The parts that make up
the text are related in a meaningful way to each other. Recognising the way in which a text has
been organised will help you to understand it better. In order to understand the text, it is necessary
to understand how the sentences are related. Words like "it", "this", "that", "here", "there" etc. refer
to other parts of the text. You need to understand these connections or links.

Contextual References

The term Contextual Reference is used to refer to a system of creating cohesion in a text. Refer
back to people, objects and ideas that have been mentioned earlier, or refer forward to people,
objects and ideas that will be mentioned later. You use contextual references to show the
connections between ideas, giving greater cohesion and clarity to your writing.

In the majority of cases, the word has already occurred in the text i.e. the reference word is
pointing backwards.

Examples
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In this sentence, these is a (Contextual Reference) pointing back to phases (Referent) in the
preceding sentence.

In this sentence, those is a reference word pointing forwards to the changes requiring only a
moderate level of financial support.

References are important because they are another way you can strengthen the connections
between different elements of your text and clarify the progression of ideas. Certain items of
language in English have the property of reference. That is, they do not have meaning
themselves, but they refer to something else for their meaning.

TYPES OF CONTEXTUAL REFERENCES

1. Personal Pronouns : I, you, she, he, it, we, they.

Because an impersonal style of writing is strongly favoured by most academic disciplines,

you may rarely find yourself using pronouns like I, you and we.

The most commonly used personal pronouns in academic writing are it (referring to things)
and they (referring to either things or people). In academic writing, ‘things’ are usually
phenomena and abstract nouns, and people are usually previous researchers. He and
she may also be used, usually to refer to authors previously mentioned in the text.

 Jane couldn't find the [Link] knew it was somewhere on the left.
 The act is very important because it protects animals and plants.

2. Possessive Pronouns and Possesive Adjectives: The possessive pronouns and possessive
adjectives show a relationship of ownership or ‘belonging to’. They are: My, mine, your, yours,
his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs.

As with personal pronouns, my and our are not commonly used in academic writing. The most
used possessive pronouns in academic writing are its, their, his, her.

 Jack has two sisters. Their names are Jane and Judith
 Kate is not in my bedroom. She is in hers

3. Comparatives: Comparatives are sometimes used as pronouns and sometimes as adjectives.

You do not need to be able to distinguish the two because, in both cases, they are being used to
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refer to something or someone in the text. Comparatives include words like: another, other,
both, similar, the same, better, more, earlier, later, previous, subsequent.

 We don't like these curtains. Could you show us some others.

 He can speak both English and French very well.

4. Demonstratives: Demonstratives are similar to personal and possessive pronouns in that they
refer to nouns usually already present in the text. However, they have a stronger pointing quality –
they identify (point at) exactly which thing or things are being referred [Link] most common
demonstratives are: this, that (singular), these, those (plural), such.

 When we speak of technology today, we normally mean industrial technology. This was born
around 200 years ago with the coming of the steam engine, factories, and the mass production
of goods.

 The International Women`s Day was celebrated in [Link] these early days, this event
assumed global dimensions.

5. Object pronouns: Object pronouns are used instead of nouns, usually because we already
know what the object is. It makes the sentence easier to read and understand and avoids
repetition. We normally use object pronouns after a verb or a preposition.

Examples:

 You have to know the rules of the classroom because paying attention to them is very
important.
 Jimmy is bad at physics. I'm very good at it.

6. Relative Pronouns: A relative pronoun is used as a contextual reference and as a word that
connects a phrase to a noun or pronoun. You see them used everyday with the most common
relative pronouns being: Who, Whom, Which, Whoever, Whomever, Whichever, and That.

Function in RELATIVE PRONOUNS Reference to

the sentence People Things / Concepts Place Time Explanation
Subject Who, that Which,That
Object (That, Who, Whom)* (Which, That)* Where When What/Why
Possessive Whose Whose, of Which
Examples:

 Grandma remembers a time when radio shows were popular.

 William Shakespeare is the grand literary figure of the Western World who wrote one of the
most important books of history.

7. More Contextual References: Expressions like: First, Second, third, the former, the latter,
one, other, another, both…and can also be used as references.
Examples:

 Some students read slowly and know it; others read slowly and don’t know it. The former can
be helped more easily than the latter.
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 DELPHIE’S Hobby Shop is an online service which has two special-interest areas: one on
classic vehicles and one on new cars and technology.

 There is no best answer to the question which online service is the best. Rating a particular
online service over another is entirely subjective. Price is important to some people, while the
number of files available for download is important to others.

 Students should be both considerate and courteous in their classrooms.

PRONOUNS
PERSONAL POSSESIVE DEMONSTRATIVE POSSESIVE OBJECT RELATIVE
PRONOUN PRONOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES PRONOUN PRONOUNS

I MINE THIS MY ME WHICH

YOURS THESE YOUR WHO

YOU YOU
(Plural)
HE HIS THAT HIS HIM WHOSE

HERS THOSE HER WHOM

SHE (Plural) HER

IT ITS ITS IT THAT

WE YOURS OUR US WHAT

YOU OURS YOUR WHOEVER
YOU
(plural)
THEY THEIRS THEIR THEM

PRACTICE:

Exercise #1: Read the passage and identify what each underlined word refers to:

A computer, like any other machine, is used because it does certain jobs better and more
efficiently than humans. It can receive more information and process it faster than any human.
The speed at which a computer works means it can replace weeks or even months of pencil-and-
paper work. Therefore, computers are used when the time saved offsets their cost, which is one
of the many reasons they are used so much in business industry, and research.
5
Exercise #2: Read the following passage then, find out the contextual references and write their
references:

Many people think the sandwich comes from England in the eightenth century. Others say
sandwiches are an American invention. The true is that this type of food has been with us for
thousands of years. It is only its name that is not very old.

A British nobleman named John Montagu, the Earl of Sandwich (1717- 1792) loved to play cars
and didn´t like to stop his game for meals. When he was hungry, he asked his servant to bring him
a piece of meat between two slices of bread; this way he didn´t have to use a fork and knife, and
his hands stayed clean. He gave the sandwich its name, and this way of eating soon became
popular in Europe.
Long before then, however, the ancient Romans enjoyed eating meat between two slices of bread.
For centuries people in the Middle East have stuffed barbecued lamb and other tasty things into
pita, a type of flat bread with a pocket. A long time before the Spaniards arrived in the New World
in the sixteenth century; Mexican had their own version of the sandwich: thin round tortillas filled
with beans, eggs and cheese and then rolled up.

What country do you think of when you hear the words Hot dog and hamburger? The United
States? These kinds of sandwiches are very popular in the U.S, but they were not born there.

Historians disagree on the origen of the hamburger. One story is that in the nineteenth century
many Europeans immigrated to America on the German ship Hamburg - America, which served a
famous kind of Hamburg beef. The beef was hard, so it was usually chopped up before it was
cooked. Nobody knows how the “Hamburg” steak got between two pieces of bread, but the
hamburger has been part of the American diet since the beginning of the twentieth century.

The hot dog also came from Germany. During the Middle Ages, European sausage makers
developed local recipes and named their sausage after their cities. In 1852, the butchers of
Frankfurt created the frankfurter, also called the dachshund sausage because it looked like a pet
dog of one of the butchers. When the frankfurter traveled to America both its names went with it.
Vendors sold it at the baseball games, shouting: “Get your red- hot dachshund sausage!” A
cartoonist called Tad Dorgan drew one for his newspaper in 1906. He couldn´t spell the word
dachshund, so he wrote hot dog instead. The name quickly replaced the others

READING: WHAT ARE THE USES OF GMOS?

By: Marni Wolfe

Genetically modified organisms, or GMOs, are organisms whose genetic makeup has been
artificially altered through a process known as recombinant DNA technology. According to the
Human Genome Project, GMOs are created when scientists select specific genes within one
5
organism and insert them into a different species. Scientists generally design GMOs to convey
some sort of improvement or benefit to the organism. Genetic modification has been widely used
for the last two decades in a variety of industries.

 Agriculture
Plant crops, including both food and fiber harvests, have been subject to several types of genetic
modification. Genes used to increase yields include those conveying drought, pest and disease-
resistance. Genetically modified seeds have been grown in the U.S. since 1996, with the trend
towards using GMO seeds steadily increasing. According to the GMO Compass website, in 2009
more than 88 percent of U.S.-produced corn, soybean and cotton crops were genetically
modified.
GMO animals are also frequently seen in agriculture. Genes for increased milk and egg
production, disease-resistance and higher meat proportions are among those introduced into
these populations.

 Medicine
The inception of genetic modification has transformed the field of medicine. According to the
Institute for Traditional Medicine, one of the first applications of genetic modification was the
creation a bacterial strain capable of producing human insulin. Insulin, the hormone lacking in
people with diabetes, was previously isolated from pig pancreas. Recombinant insulin offers
many advantages over pig insulin, including cost savings, fewer allergic reactions and putting an
end to the practice of euthanizing pigs for their insulin. Other examples of GMOs used in
medicine include pharmaceutical agents produced in sheep's milk and vaccines grown in chicken
eggs.
 Bioremediation
Bioremediation describes any process by which living organisms are used to clean up
contaminated soil or water. Bioremediation generally uses microorganisms, small bacteria and
yeasts, which ingest the contaminants in a given site and render them inert through the cells'
own metabolic processes. Although certainly advantageous, bioremediation has had limited use
because the organisms must be able to survive, and indeed thrive, in a contaminated
environment in order to do their work. According to the BioBasics website, factors affecting their
survival could include temperature, pH, oxygen levels and nutrients. Genetic modification makes
it possible to engineer bacteria that will be robust within a given environment, by inserting genes
that will ensure their survival.

GAMES:

CONTEXTUAL REFERENCES
O O T F Q R C G S T D A V F Y
X B Z H H M F Z B A G Z V N O
Z P X S O N A T R H U V X R U
M B Q S H S H T E T S R I F D
C P T C Q E E J T O M I N E X
H G I R I S A E T K N I G U N
A H K R E N W X A T H E S E T
W S E B O M S H L O C O H Q C
W X V T D E R N O T B I E Q H
5
V R H D N X I O M H M W M U Y
D E Z O R O H P F E G U L V U
R C D Y A I V B F R K K J L K
D N O C E S H G I D W U K I M
P F G S B H U T Y B O M P A I
R W B P S O U J W B T L A T Q
WORDS: ANOTHER / FIRST / FORMER/ HIM/ LATTER/ MINE / ONES / OTHER / SECOND /
THAT/ THEIR/ THESE/ THIRD/ THOSE/ WHICH / WHO/ YOU/.

CONNECTORS

Connecting expressions (commonly referred as transition words, connectives or simply

connectors) are classified into groups according to the logical connection they introduce between
different ideas within the text. The connectors indicate what kind of relationship exists between
these ideas: contrast, addition, purpose, etc.

Understanding these expressions will be very helpful to understand semantic relationships in the
reading and locate specific answers for the comprehension questions.

Some of them are very common in written English, some others, though important, are rarely
common. Likewise, some connectors may have the same form but express different relation. In
any case, the function of any connector depends on the context of the reading.

Examples:

 Lydia likes to sing and dance when she is happy.

 We can paint our house red or white but we must select a good painter.

 Harry is intelligent however he is lazy. He must wake up or he will regret it.

 I left the party because I was bored, moreover it was quite late.

 You will do well if you study hard.

 He was rowing the boat while I slept.

 The bridge fell though it was made of stones.

5
PRACTICE:

Choose the best word or phrase to complete the gap from the choices below.

1. It is snowing today ______ there are no buses and I can't come to school.
a) Because b) but c) so d) whereas

2. Andrea watched the football match _______ her country's team was playing.
a) So b) but c) because d) whereas

3. The England team won the match ________ the other team had very good players.
a) So b) but c) because d) although

4. In classroom G we have a view of the road _______ in classroom E we have a view of the
garden.

a) So b) because c) whereas d) that's why

5. Marco wrote his homework very quickly ___ he didn't make any mistakes.
a) So b) but c) because d) that's why

6. It is Sunday today. __________ the school is closed.

a) But b) because c) whereas d) that's why

7. Maria is only fourteen years old __ she isn't allowed to go into the pub. (The minimum age is
eighteen.)
a) So b) but c) because d) although

8. Mazen didn't eat anything at the party ________ he was very hungry.

a) So b) whereas c) because d) although

9. Bristol has two football stadiums _______ Bath has a rugby stadium.

a) So b) because c) whereas d) that's why

10._______ the Spanish team won the match, all the Spanish students were happy.

a) So b) because c) that's why d) whereas

READING: ACID RAIN

The contamination of the atmosphere is a logical effect of industrialization and technological

progress, and has negative consequences for individuals, ecosystem and the environment in
general. Together with the greenhouse effect, acid rain constitutes one of the changes lately
observed in our planet.

Let us see how this phenomenon is produced. There are two important aspects to consider with
respect to acid rain: the process that causes it and the effects it has on the environment. First of
all, the process starts when coal, petrol and oil are burned to provide us we the confort we enjoy
every day, such as electricity, cars, etc. During this stage, gases such as sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide are produced. Sulphur and nitrogen are absorved in the air; then they are
5
transported by the wind to faraway places. Next, these gases are disolved in the air, and fall in the
form of acid precipitations (acid rain). These precipitations are solid depositions (snow or hail),
rain, or a group of little drops of fog which fall on the soil and bodies of water such as sulphuric
acid and nitric acid.

Wind transports the pollution substances over long distances- often for one country to another. A
country which produces a large quantity of pollutants might not be affected at all, while a
neighboring country which produces only small amounts of pollutants might be badly affected.
Acid rain in some places has been recorded to have the same Ph as battery acid and there has
been fog with the same pH as lemon juice. Besides this, acid rain in certain lakes has the same
pH value of cola. This, of course, affects the wildlife dependent on water resources and destroys
or weathers some building materials such as marble and concrete faster than normal. Finally, it
contributes to the increase of the greenhouse effect.

Since acidification is an international problem, agreement pacts on control of atmospheric pollution

have been signed all over the world. Hopefully, countries will understand their responsabilities and
care for the general wellbeing of human kind, because new generation deserve a world where
they can live in the conditions they are longing for

There is a growing body of evidence which informs us that diet is a significant component of a
healthy lifestyle. What determines “good nutrition”, has been and will continue to be a subject of
much debate. Heredity must also be considered, but since you have no control over your heredity,
we will be concentrating on something you do have total control over, what goes into your mouth!

Eating well, along with exercise and relaxation, is vitally important to physical well- being. Rich
western diets are more a function of availability than what is really healthy. Certainly one could
point out that our physiology suggests our bodies were designed for a plant based diet. However
the real problem comes from an overindulgence of unhealthy foods and “feasting” at virtually every
meal.

There are practical reasons for vegetarianism and the elimination of dairy products and added oils.
Refined products, animal products, lard and vegetable oils fail to be health supporting foods, That
they are lacking in the components of good nutrition: fiber, complex carbohydrates, many vitamins
and essential minerals isn´t the problem because other foods can supplement what´s lacking. The
problem is that these foods contain too much of the potentially good nutrients and an over
abundance of the harmful un-healthy non- nutrients. A diet centered around these foods creates
imbalances and excesses in the body and soon reacts with symptoms we recognize as disease.

Foods from animal sources contain excessive amounts of fats, playing a major role in heart
disease, obesity and cancer. The burden of surplus protein can damage the kidneys, liver and
bones. Refined and processed foods are nutritionally empty and can contain oils, salt and sugar in
quantities that tax the body and provide virtually no benefit.

Fortunately for our species, we are survivors. We have survived in spite of a diet that is contra-
indicated for our species! So what kind of diet is best suited to us humans? A starch based diet
made up of potatoes, pasta, rice, corn and beans. Add to that fresh or frozen fruits and vegetables,
and you will be eaten the type of food our bodies are designed to utilize. These foods provide
essential fat

PRACTICE: Re-Read the text and:

1. What is the main idea of the text?

2. What are the characteristics of a flash mob?
3. Make the connectors table with the undelined words or expressions.
5
READING: 5 FACTS ABOUT BULLYING IN COLLEGE
What parents should know about college bullying

By Sherri Gordon

For years, people thought bullying was a childhood issue that kids would not have to deal with
once they left middle school. But growing research suggests that bullies are growing up and
infiltrating college campuses and even the workforce.

In fact, bullying is an issue that people of all ages must be prepared to deal with. If you have a
high school student about to enter college, or a young adult already in college, here are five facts
about bullying in college that every parent should know.

1. Bullying doesn’t end in high school.

While a majority of bullying peaks in middle school and subsides by high school, new research
indicates that bullying may never completely go away. In fact, if bullies are not taught to take
responsibility for their actions or are not disciplined for bullying others, this will become a pattern of
behavior for them especially if it gets them the results they desire.

Consequently, parents of college students need to be sure they are still discussing bullying issues
with their kids even as their kids leave for college. They also need to continue to build self-esteem,
resiliency, social skills and assertiveness skills so their kids can deal with bullying issues in college
and later in the workforce. Being confident and resilient is half the battle when it comes to dealing
with bullying
2. Cyberbullying in college is on the rise.
Research indicates that cyberbullying is increasing at the college level. And much of the
cyberbullying that college kids experience revolves around relationship issues.

For example, many times cyberbullying encompasses gossip and rumors, slut shaming and sexual
bullying.
Often mean girls will engage in this behavior as a way to climb to the social ladder or to intimidate
other girls. They also may use cyberbullying to stake their claim on boys they are interested in.
Meanwhile, boys may cyberbully other boys as a way of humiliating them and exerting their own
dominance. Or, they may use cyberbullying to get revenge after being dumped.

3. College bullying presents some unique challenges.

5
Unlike bullying in middle school and high school, many college students must face the bullying
without the support of family and friends nearby because they are living on campus miles from
home. What’s more, it also can feel harder to escape the bullying climate especially if the bully is a
roommate or a dorm mate.

College students also must deal with the possibility of hazing, which still occurs on some college
campuses. While most people assume only fraternities and sororities participate in hazing, just
about any group could have hazing rituals including sports teams and other campus groups. Be
sure to talk to your child about the dangers of hazing and how to respond to hazing rituals.

4. Bullied college students often feel alone and isolated.

The consequences of bullying are steep for anyone who is impacted. But research indicates that
college students can feel even more alone and isolated especially if they are underclassmen at the
university. Every college student needs a circle of support, but bullied college students are in even
greater need for support.

If your child is being bullied at college, take steps to reduce the feelings of loneliness and isolation.
For instance, visit your student if you can. Encourage her to get involved in activities that might
make her feel more connected to other people. And talk to campus experts about getting your
child a mentor. Just one or two friends can go a long way in easing the sense of isolation that
victims of bullying can experience.

5. Bullied college students often keep silent about the torment they are experiencing.
Many college students who are bullied never tell anyone what they are experiencing. There are
several reasons behind their silence. First, many times victims of bullying are embarrassed by
what they are experiencing. To talk about the bullying requires them to share the embarrassing
details of what other people are saying or doing.

Additionally, college students may feel more pressure than middle school or high school students
to respond to bullying on their own. The mindset is that now that they are becoming adults, they
need to learn to handle issues on their own. And while this is true to a certain degree, bullying is
complex issue that often requires a support system. Parents can provide help and insight
especially if the bullying they are experiencing involves actions that are against the law.
5
GAMES:

CRYPTOGRAM

FUNCTIONS CONNECTORS
For Example, For Instance, In This Case, In Another Case, On This
Occasion, In This Situation, Take The Case Of, To Demonstrate, To
EXEMPLIFICATION
Illustrate, As An Illustration, ( e.g.) To Illustrate, ( i.e.), Like, As An
Example, Such as.
Like, Either…Or, As…As, In The Same Manner, Similarly, Likewise,
SIMILARITY/ COMPARISON
Just As…As, The Same As, As, In A Similar Way, Just As.
ALTERNATIVE Or
EXPLANATION That means, In other words, that is.
PURPOSE For, To, In Order To, For (Verb)- ing.
The former, The latter, First (ly) , Prior to, First, Second, Third, And
So Forth, In/ At the beginning, To begin with, From, Since, Then, And
TIME /SEQUENCE
Then Next, Later, After, Afterwards, The following, Eventually,
OR ORDER
Subsequently, Consequently, At last, Lastly, Ultimately, At the end,
Finally.

In Brief, On The Whole, Summing Up, To Conclude, In

SUMMARY OR CONCLUSION Conclusion, As I Have Shown, As I Have Said, Consequently, In
Summary, In Resume.
By Means Of, Through, By (Before a noun) By + (Verb) + ing.
MEANS OR MANNER
Definitely, Extremely, Obviously, In Fact, Indeed, In Any
EMPHASIS/ Case, Absolutely, Positively, Naturally, Surprisingly, Always,
REINFORCEMENT Forever, Never, Emphatically, Unquestionably, Without A
Doubt, Certainly, Undeniably.
CONDITION
If, In Case Of, Whether, When, Unless That, Supposing That.
SIMULTANEITY As, At The Same Time, While.
Not…Nor, By No Means, Not At All, Not
NEGATION
Neither, In No Way.
Because Of, In View Of , On Account Of, Due To,
REASON/CAUSE
Because, Since, Now That, In View Of The Fact
That,
Due To The Fact That.
Therefore, Hence, Consequently, As A Result, So That, For This
EFFECT/ RESULT Reason, As A Consequence, Resulting In, With The Result That, In This
Sense, Thus, So.
However, Nevertheless, On The Other Hand, On The Contrary, But,
Although, Meanwhile, In Contrast, While, Though, Unlike, Despite, In
CONTRAST / OPPOSTION
Spite Of, (Even) Though, Despite The Fact That, Nonetheless,
Nevertheless, Whereas, Yet, Instead of.
And, Again, And Then, In Addition to, Besides, Equally Important,
Furthermore, Too, What Is More, Moreover, As Well, Plus, both…
ADDITION
and, Also.

CONECTORS

READING: WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY AND WEARABLE

DEVICES
5
Everything you need to know

The terms “wearable technology“, “wearable devices“, and “wearables” all refer to electronic
technologies or computers that are incorporated into items of clothing and accessories which can
comfortably be worn on the body. These wearable devices can perform many of the same
computing tasks as mobile phones and laptop computers; however, in some cases, wearable
technology can outperform these hand-held devices entirely. Wearable technology tends to be
more sophisticated than hand-held technology on the market today because it can provide
sensory and scanning features not typically seen in mobile and laptop devices, such as
biofeedback and tracking of physiological function.

Generally, wearable technology will have some form of communications capability and will allow
the wearer access to information in real time. Data-input capabilities are also a feature of such
devices, as is local storage. Examples of wearable devices include watches, glasses, contact
lenses, e-textiles and smart fabrics, headbands, beanies and caps, jewelry such as rings,
bracelets, and hearing aid-like devices that are designed to look like earrings.

While wearable technology tends to refer to items which can be put on and taken off with ease,
there are more invasive versions of the concept as in the case of implanted devices such as
micro-chips or even smart tattoos. Ultimately, whether a device is worn on or incorporated into the
body, the purpose of wearable technology is to create constant, convenient, seamless, portable,
and mostly hands-free access to electronics and computers.

The implications and uses of wearable technology are far reaching and can influence the fields of
health and medicine, fitness, aging, disabilities, education, transportation, enterprise, finance,
gaming and music. The goal of wearable technologies in each of these fields will be to smoothly
incorporate functional, portable electronics and computers into individuals’ daily lives. Prior to their
presence in the consumer market, wearable devices were primarily used in the field of military
technology and had the biggest implications for healthcare and medicine. In fact, just 10 years
ago, medical engineers were talking about wearable devices which could unobtrusively monitor
the health and well being of patients in the form of a “Wearable Motherboard™” or the “Smart
Shirt,” aimed at monitoring vital signs and sending that biofeedback information to a hub station in
real time (Park and Jayaraman, 2003).

Even though wearable technology could potentially have the most impact in the fields of health
and fitness, the technology also promises great influence on gaming and entertainment.
Augmented reality and wearable technology can combine to create a much more realistic and
immersive environment in real time. The concept is not necessarily new, as augmented reality
5
through the use of wearable devices has been discussed since the late 1990s; however, the
prototypes are moving away from bulky technology such as large goggles and backpacks, to
smaller, lightweight and more mobile systems. If the more polished designs of mobile phones and
digital cameras currently on the market are any indication for the future of wearable devices, then
fashion, practicality, function and design will all be taken into account as these products advance.
This consideration for both technology and aesthetics is already evident in devices such as
Google Glass, which has a very sleek, lightweight, unobtrusive design.

As the potential uses in various fields continues to grow, the sociological and cultural impact
wearable technology will have in the future should not be minimized. Developers and analysts
predict that wearable technology will very quickly change the technological and cultural
landscapes once again, and may even change the nature of mobile phones and other hand-held
devices entirely.

READINGS AND EXERCISES FOR SELF PRACTICE

Choose the correct answer A,BC,D,E according to the information that is stated or implied
in the text.

Computers are machines that can help us in many ways. But they cannot think or do things on
their own. Humans have to feed them with information and tell them what to do with it. They
cannot come up with any new information. But they can save much time and work. For example,
all the information and the office files can be stored in a computer's "memory". If a clerk were to
trace any information from a particular file, the computer would only take seconds to find it. It
would take a clerk days or even weeks to go through every file if no computers were used.

The first computers were huge and costly. They filled up almost the whole floor of large offices.
Later, because of the usefulness and demand for computers in business, scientists soon found
ways to produce cheaper and smaller computers. They invented chips which made it possible to
store more information in less space.

Today, computers are not only cheaper, but also more compact. They can just be placed on top of
an ordinary writing table. They can even be carried from place to place easily. Computers are not
only used in offices by companies, but they are also used at home, by families who can afford
them.

Robots, on the other hand, are not mechanical people. They are only moving parts controlled by a
computer. A robot can do the same work for twenty four hours, and yet, it does not complain or get
tired. In the United States robots are computers that tell them where to guard and what to do.
These robots are programmed to listen for certain noises and signals for help in case of trouble or
danger.
5
In Japan and in some places in America, robots are used in factories to assemble cars. As
computers become more common businesses and factories, people fear that one day computers
and computer controlled robots will put human workers out of work.

[Link] do humans have to feed the computers with information and tell them what to do ?

[Link] computers can save time and work.

[Link] computers cannot think or do things on their own.

c.-Because computers can store office information in their memory.

[Link] computers can help us in many ways.

[Link] did the first computers fill up almost the whole floor ?

[Link] they were huge and costly.

[Link] of the usefulness and demand for computers in businesses.

[Link] the office floor was small.

[Link] they were huge.

[Link] a word in the passage that has the same meaning as more compact.

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link] of the following statements in NOT TRUE ?

[Link] are controlled by a computer.

[Link] are mechanical people.

[Link] do not get tired of working.

[Link] guard factories and museums in the United States.

[Link] fear that one day computers and robots

[Link] busier than humans.

[Link] cleverer than humans.

[Link] make humans jobless.

[Link] make humans listen to certain noise.

[Link] BEST title for this passage would be

[Link] and Robots

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[Link] and New Computers

[Link] are Security Guards

[Link] Electronic Invention

READING: STRATEGIES FOR GROWING YOUR BUSINESS

Do you want to grow your business and expand into new markets? What should you think about
before committing to a growth strategy? And how can marketing help you drive business growth?

Some small business owners are content to maintain a small operation they can run themselves in
return for a decent, but limited, income. Others, however, are driven by the challenge of growing
their business into a high-profit venture with a larger market share. Although higher risk, this path
can generate greater personal rewards - including the pay-off that might come from selling a
profitable concern.

The implications of business growth

A larger firm is likely to be more complex, demanding and time-consuming. It will probably require
greater commitment; and you are likely to have to spend more time doing things you don't really
enjoy, such as financial planning.

You will probably also have to concede some responsibility or control to others and invest in
greater resources, such as larger premises, more equipment and more employees. As the
business grows, your costs and management burdens will increase.

Depending on your growth strategy, you may well need funding. Your bank is a starting point but
there are other options too:

Public sector bodies distribute grants linked to social objectives, such as providing employment in
deprived areas.
Business support organizations give out grants and loans for similar reasons. The Carbon Trust,
for example, offers an interest-free Energy-Efficiency Loan for investment in energy-efficient
improvements.
Private investors (business angels) could invest in your firm in return for a part-share in the
business. They will tend to expect quick returns.
Friends and family might be willing to lend money.
Crowd-funding or peer-to-peer lending could be another way to raise finance.
Asset finance companies will buy your equipment and lease it back to you.
Invoice finance companies will buy your unpaid invoices from you, helping you raise a lump sum.
When to expand your business?

Don't make the mistake of attempting to grow too soon, but wait until you have a period of
successful trading behind you to provide evidence that your business model works. This, perhaps
along with some basic market research, will also tell you whether there is enough demand to
justify expansion and give you time to put the systems in place to cope with an increase in scale.

Working to a development strategy will help you measure your progress. It should set out your
methods, costs, targets and a realistic schedule and you should revise your business plan to
incorporate it.
5
Fast growth is easier to achieve in sectors driven by innovation, and launching new products or
services can fuel considerable growth quickly. Most businesses opt for gradual, organic growth
that is more manageable and involves less risk. There are a number of well-established strategies:

Sell more to existing customers. This may involve working harder to build relationships and taking
on more sales staff.
Attract new customers through increased investment in promotion and advertising.
Expand existing sales channels, or create new ones. This might include, for example, developing
an online sales channel.
Enter new markets. Exporting could be an option, selling beyond your region or aiming your offer
at an entirely new set of customers. This may also involve opening up new outlets.
Introducing new products or services to your marketplace can give you an instant edge - providing
you have researched your market thoroughly and have a clear product strategy.
Introduce new technology to your business. Better equipment can increase your capacity and has
the potential to free up staff time if used efficiently.
Create partnerships with other businesses. Sharing resources and expertise with another business
will enable you both to flourish without overstretching yourselves. It also opens the door to public
sector contracts.
Successfully tendering for contracts can stimulate the growth that takes your business to a new
level. As you increase your resources, you will be in a better position to win more contracts.
Networking can introduce you to potential customers, business partners, investors and mentors.
These strategies are:
 Your marketing plan
Marketing plan sets out how you are going to put your marketing strategy into practice. The
marketing plan ensures that everyone in the business knows what you are trying to do and what
they need to do to make it happen. Include objectives, budgets and deadlines in your marketing
plan
An effective marketing plan must set clear objectives that will help you towards your longer-term
strategic goals.
You should make sales forecasts and targets a key part of your marketing plan and feed them into
your overall business plan. But other performance measures could be just as important. For
example, you might set targets for numbers of enquiries, numbers of new customers, average
transaction value, and so on. Or you might simply wish to maintain positive cash flow.
Planning your marketing
Your marketing plan should set out when and how you will do this. Start building a schedule by
identifying key times of the year - for example, when business customers plan the next year's
budget or seasonal purchasing peaks (such as Christmas). Time your marketing campaigns to fit
with these dates and look for other opportunities, such as trade exhibitions, that you can take
advantage of.
Marketing mix
As well as marketing communications, your marketing plan should span the full mix of marketing
activities. Developing new products and building your distribution network might be important parts
of your strategy, for example. You will also need to plan carefully for any price increases or tactical
moves such as an end-of-season sale.
You might also want to strengthen your marketing capabilities. Note in your marketing plan
whether you intend to give staff sales training or introduce new customer relationship management
(CRM) technology. Maybe you need to introduce more efficient systems or measure customer
satisfaction. Including activities like these in your marketing plan helps ensure that they are
identified as priorities and that you dedicate time and money to them.
 Product development
Product development Delivering the right products or services at the right cost with strong
marketing support will ensure you're competitive. To stay competitive, you'll need to keep your
offer fresh - that means keeping up with trends in your market, emerging technology and
refinements to existing products.
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 Marketing recruitment and management
Your company's sales and marketing function requires you to take some of your most critical
staffing decisions. For small businesses, the employment of average or poor salespeople can
have a disproportionately harmful effect. The smaller the firm, the fewer the resources to manage
and develop under-achievers. Getting the recruitment process right can be critically important at
this level; managing and training your marketing and sales staff may require more of your time
than you have budgeted for.
 Cost-effective marketing
Marketing tools and opportunities are more accessible and more affordable than ever for small
businesses. But any marketing activity takes time and for the cash-strapped small business owner,
time is money.
There are so many ways to do-it-yourself when it comes to marketing your business today – from
social media and pay-per-click advertising to e-newsletters and events. However, cost-effective
marketing is about testing and fine-tuning; and getting a measureable return on the time and
money you spend on marketing.
 SWOT analysis
Knowledge is key to running a successful business - knowledge about your customers, your
competitors, your own operation and the wider business environment. A SWOT analysis will help
you gather the information you need to make a proper assessment of your business and your
market. A SWOT analysis is a simple but powerful tool for identifying the strengths and
weaknesses of your operation and the opportunities and threats you face in your market. It will
give you a clear picture of how well your business is running and the wider marketing and sales
environment you are operating in.
 Branding
Your brand is one of your greatest assets. It's not just your logo, slogan and design scheme, but
your customers' total experience of your business. Your brand is in your customer promise, your
business values, your personality, the way you talk to your customers. It's in the way you package
your service and answer your phone.
Communicating your brand clearly and honestly to your customers will spread confidence and
goodwill. It is a badge of trust that will set you apart from competitors and can give you a lasting
competitive edge.
 Exporting
Exporting can open up new opportunities, fuel growth and dramatically boost your takings and
profits. Selling your goods and service abroad can massively increase your customer base - and
your profits. But successful exporting relies on understanding where good sales opportunities lie
and how best to take advantage of them. A good distribution strategy will identify the best sales
channels for your firm and tell you how to exploit them.
 Your target market
Trying to satisfy a wide range of different needs is rarely effective. Splitting your customers into
different groups of similar people will enable you to market your products or services specifically to
the ones that will be most profitable to you.
 Pricing
Getting your pricing right will make an enormous difference to your turnover and your profits. But
it's a difficult art — set it too high and your customers will flock to cheaper competitors; set it too
low and people will assume your product or service is low quality and steer clear.
 Retail
Independent retailers are a pretty tough bunch. They have survived seismic shifts on the high
street, responded to rapidly changing consumer behavior and grasped new opportunities online
with both hands.

And as more shoppers discover small retailers online and increasingly choose to buy from local
independents, shopkeepers of all kinds are more confident about the future than they might have
realistically expected to be just a few years ago.
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But that’s not to say there aren’t serious challenges to face. A broken business rates system,
planning laws and even parking controls are all making life hard for high street retailers.

READING: EATING GARBAGE: BACTERIA FOR BIOREMEDIATION

Date: June 25, 2012

University of Illinois College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences

A 150-foot-high garbage dump in Colombia, South America, may have new life as a public park.
Researchers at the University of Illinois have demonstrated that bacteria found in the dump can be
used to neutralize the contaminants in the soil.

Jerry Sims, a U of I associate professor of crop sciences and USDA-Agricultural Research Service
research leader and Andres Gomez, a graduate student from Medellín, Colombia, have been
working on a landfill called "El Morro" in the Moravia Hill neighborhood of Medellín, which served
as the city dump from 1972 to 1984. In that period, thousands of people came to the city from the
rural areas to escape diverse social problems. There was no housing or employment for them, so
they made a living picking up trash from this dump and built their homes upon it.

"There are some frightening pictures of this site on the Internet," said Sims. "At one point, close to
50,000 people lived there. They grew vegetables on the contaminated soil and hand-pumped
drinking water out of the garbage hill."

In recent years, the Colombian government decided to relocate the people to different
neighborhoods with better conditions. Then they decided to see if it was possible to clean up the
area and turn it into a park. Unfortunately, the most reliable solution -- digging up the garbage and
treating it -- is not economically feasible in Colombia.

Another problem was that there were no records of exactly what was in the dump.

"Apparently, hydrocarbon compounds were one of the main sources of contamination," said
Gomez. "Phenyls, chlorinated biphenyls, and all kinds of compounds that are sometimes very
difficult to clean up."

Three professors from The National University of Colombia in Medellin -- Hernan Martinez, Gloria
Cadavid-Restrepo and Claudia Moreno -- considered a microbial ecology approach. They
designed an experiment to determine whether bioremediation, which uses biological agents such
as bacteria or plants to remove or neutralize contaminants, could be used to clean the site.

Gomez, who was working on his master's thesis at the time, collaborated with them. He was
charged with finding out if there were microorganisms living in the soil that could feed on the
carbon in the most challenging contaminants.

This was not a trivial task. As Sims explained, "There are maybe 10,000 species of bacteria and a
similar number of fungi in a gram of soil."
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Gomez's work was further complicated by the fact that the material in the hill was loose and
porous with air spaces and voids that resulted from dirt being thrown over layers of garbage.
Because of the unusual physical structure and the contaminant levels, it was unclear if the
indigenous bacterial community would be as complex, and thus as effective at bioremediation, as
those normally found in soils.

Gomez analyzed bacteria at different depths in the hill down to 30 meters. He found microbial
communities that appeared to have profiles typical of bacteria involved in bioremediation. The
communities seemed to contain a robust set of many organisms that could be expected to weather
environmental insults or manipulations.

Gomez then came to Sims's lab at the U of I on a grant from the American Society for Microbiology
to perform stable isotope probing, a test to link diversity and function that he was not able to do in
Colombia. Contaminants are labeled with a heavy isotope that serves as a tracer that can be
detected in the end products of biodegradation.

His results confirmed that the bacterial communities had, in fact, been carrying out bioremediation
functions. In collaboration with assistant professor of microbial ecology Tony Yannarell who
assisted with the microbial diversity analysis, he determined that the organisms involved changed
at every depth.

Based on these results, the Colombian government decided to go ahead with the bioremediation
project using the indigenous organisms. One of the professors who worked on the pilot study is
looking at ways to provide the microorganisms with extra nutrients to speed up the process.
Another project takes a phytoremediation approach, which uses plants to absorb heavy metals.

Gomez has gone back to his first love, animal microbiology. While he was at U of I, he met animal
sciences professor Bryan White and is now working on a Ph.D. studying the microflora of
primates.

Story Source:

The above story is based on materials provided by University of Illinois College of Agricultural, Consumer and
Environmental Sciences. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.

READING: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

The conventional sources of energy, especially coal and oil are not only causing an irreparable
damage to the environment but are also getting very expensive. Alternative energy offers a
solution for the rising demand for energy but it is also posing a number of challenges.

Advantages of Alternative Energy

Environmental benefits. Low or zero carbon emission is without a doubt the main advantage of
alternative energy over fossil fuels. Solar and wind power virtually produce zero carbon emissions,
while wood is providing a sustainable, environmentally friendly and inexpensive energy for
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heating, of course under condition that the firewood is sourced in sustainably managed forests and
burned in efficient wood burning stoves.

Increased energy security. Fossil fuels are unequally distributed and make the global economy
dependent on a few exporting countries. Utilisation of alternative energy thus significantly reduces
dependence from the international energy supplies which in turn increases energy security by
providing a stable and cost-effective energy supply.

Sustainability. Unlike the traditional types of energy which are non-renewable, alternative forms of
energy are renewable which means that they offer sustainable and stable energy supply in the
long term. The Sun will not stop shining, the wind will not stop blowing, trees that are cut down for
wood can easily be replaced, etc..

Disadvantages of Alternative Energy

High cost. Unfortunately, the technologies that utilise alternative sources of energy remain
relatively expensive. This of course has a major influence on the prices of energy which in turn
causes concerns about adverse economic effects. A large segment of industry depends heavily on
cheap energy in order to be able to keep up with the fierce global competition.

Low efficiency. Alternative energy technologies are relatively new in offices and are not particularly
efficient. This poses a problem with feasibility because the investment may not return, even in the
long term. As a result, the interest of private investors for green technologies remains relatively
low, while the Government can finance only a certain amount investments at a time.

Issues with the stability of the system. The energy sector is not only seeking for alternative
solutions to lower carbon dioxide emissions but to meet the rising demand for energy as well. In
order for the energy supply system to remain stable, it is crucial for the supply to meet the
demand. And with current technologies available, alternative types of energy – especially the most
desirable ones such as solar energy – are unable to produce enough energy to meet the demand.

READING: BIOSAFETY ISSUES

Under Biosafety programme main emphasis has been given to facilitate and implement biosafety
procedures and guidelines for ensuring safety from the use of Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs) and products thereof in research and application to the users as well as to the
environment. The institutions and industries involved in recombinant DNA work are carrying out
their activities with the approval from Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBSCs), Monitoring-cum-
Evaluation Committee (MEC) and Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) and other
institutional structures. The Department had reconstituted the Review Committee on Genetic
Manipulation (RCGM) to monitor the safety related aspects in respect of ongoing r-DNA projects &
activities involving Genetically Engineered Organisms/Hazardous organisms and controlled field
experiments of transgenic crops, in compliance with the Rules-1989 of Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 (EPA-1986). The RCGM was actively involved in clearing and guiding public and private
institutions in the development of transgenic crops and RDNA therapeutics.
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Apart from considering the applications submitted by various organizations involved in the r-DNA
technology, RCGM has taken several policy decisions such as standardization of protocol for
conduct of multi-location field trials, data collection parameters, nomenclature of transgenic
crop/gene/event, and new monitoring mechanism for Bt. cotton. In the area of recombinant
pharma sector, the Department actively participated in finalization of report for the Task Force on
"Recombinant Pharma Sector" constituted by the Ministry of Environment & Forests. The
recommendations of the Department on protocols for different kind of r-DNA pharma products
based on indigenous development and marketing, import and marketing, purified materials from
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) as products for commercialization and GMOs as
products were included in the final report. The Department had actively provided inputs on
rationalization of biosafety regulatory procedures on transgenic crops and recombinant DNA
therapeutics to several committees set up by Government of India M/s Bitoech Consortium India
Ltd. New Delhi has been supported by the Department to organize workshops on National
Consultation on Biosafety aspects related to Genetically Modified Organisms' to apprise the
members of the IBSCs on biosafety Rules, Regulations & Procedures.
For making available transgenic crops and recombinant DNA therapeutics to the society at the
earliest and at the same time not compromising on the safety of the products, the rationalized
Biosafety guidelines and procedures were followed. A dedicated dynamic & interactive website on
Biosafety reflecting National and International Guidelines, National Rules & Procedures with
dynamic interaction with Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBSC) has been developed and
launched. Another website on "Indian GMO Research Information System (IGMORIS)" aimed to
provide information on research work going on in Indian laboratories, has also been launched. A
handbook for members of IBSCs was prepared by the Department and distributed to all IBSCs.
The Department had played an active role for the environmental release of four Bt. Cotton events
expressing cry1Ac (Mon 531 event); cry1Ac & cry2Ab (Mon 15985 event) and GFM cry1A and
cry1Ac (event No. 1) genes by different seed companies/industries based on the
recommendations of Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) and Monitoring-cum-
Evaluation Committee (MEC). About 320 IBSCs have been constituted so far at various public
funded institutions, universities, private R&D institutions and industries. Keeping in view the recent
Orders of the Hon. Supreme Court, the Department has been making efforts to ensure that the
conditions laid out in the Orders are adhered to, while taking any decision on the applications for
various research field trials.

GRAMMAR FOLDER
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS
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Infinitivo Pasado Participio Traducción
arise arose arisen surgir
awake awoke awoken despertar(se)
bear bore borne soportar
beat beat beaten golpear
become became become convertirse en
begin began begun empezar
bend bent bent doblar(se)
bet bet bet apostar
bid bid bid pujar
bind bound bound encuadernar
bite bit bitten morder
bleed bled bled sangrar
blow blew blown soplar
break broke broken romper
breed bred bred criar
bring brought brought traer
build built built construir
burn burnt burnt quemar(se)
burst burst burst estallar
buy bought bought comprar
cast cast cast tirar
catch caught caught coger
choose chose chosen elegir
cling clung clung aferrarse
come came come venir
cost cost cost costar
creep crept crept arrastrar
cut cut cut cortar
deal dealt dealt tratar
dig dug dug cavar
do did done hacer
draw drew drawn dibujar
dream dreamt dreamt soñar
drink drank drunk beber
drive drove driven conducir
eat ate eaten comer
fall fell fallen caer(se)
feed fed fed alimentar
feel felt felt sentirse
fight fought fought pelearse
find found found encontrar
flee fled fled huir
fly flew flown volar
forbid forbade forbidden prohibir
forget forgot forgotten olvidar(se)
forgive forgave forgiven perdonar
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freeze froze frozen helar(se)
get got got conseguir
give gave given dar
go went gone irse

grind ground ground moler

grow grew grown crecer
hang hung hung colgar
have had had haber, tener
hear heard heard escuchar
hide hid hidden esconder(se)
hit hit hit golpear
hold held held agarrar(se)
hurt hurt hurt hacer daño
keep kept kept guardar
kneel knelt knelt arrodillarse
know knew known saber, conocer
lay laid laid poner
lead led led llevar
lean leant leant apoyarse
leap leapt leapt brincar
learn learnt learnt aprender
leave left left dejar
lend lent lent prestar
let let let permitir
lie lay lain echarse
light lit lit encender(se)
lose lost lost perder
make made made hacer
mean meant meant significar
meet met met encontrar(se)
overcome overcame overcome vencer
pay paid paid pagar
put put put poner
read read read leer
ride rode ridden montar
ring rang rung sonar
rise rose risen levantarse
run ran run correr
saw sawed sawn serrar
say said said decir
see saw seen ver
seek sought sought buscar
sell sold sold vender(se)
send sent sent enviar
set set set poner
sew sewed sewn coser
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shake shook shaken agitar
shear sheared shorn esquilar
shine shone shone brillar
shoot shot shot disparar
show showed shown mostrar
shrink shrank shrunk encoger(se)
shut shut shut cerrar(se)
sing sang sung cantar

sink sank sunk hundir(se)

sit sat sat sentar(se)
sleep slept slept dormir
slide slid slid resbalar
smell smelt smelt oler
sow sowed sown sembrar
speak spoke spoken hablar
speed sped sped acelerar
spell spelt spelt deletrear
spend spent spent pasar, gastar
spill spilt spilt derramar
spit spat spat escupir
split split split hender
spoil spoilt spoilt estropear(se)
spread spread spread extender(se)
stand stood stood estar de pie
steal stole stolen robar
stick stuck stuck pegar(se)
sting stung stung picar
stink stank stunk apestar
strike struck struck golpear
strive strove striven esforzarse
swear swore sworn jurar
sweep swept swept barrer
swim swam swum nadar
swing swung swung balancear(se)
take took taken tomar(se)
teach taught taught enseñar
tear tore torn romper(se)
tell told told contar, decir
think thought thought pensar
throw threw thrown lanzar
tread trod trodden pisar
undergo underwent undergone sufrir
understand understood understood entender
upset upset upset afligir
wake woke woken despertar(se)
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wear wore worn llevar (puesto)
weave wove woven tejer
weep wept wept llorar
win won won ganar
wind wound wound enrollar
withdraw withdrew withdrawn retirar(se)
wring wrung wrung torcer
write wrote written escribir

LIST OF FALSE COGNATES

English Spanish Spanish English
Actual Real Actual Present, Current
Actually En realidad, en efecto Actualmente Nowadays, at present
Advise Aconsejar Avisar Warn
Advertise Anunciar Advertir Warn
Actividades, programa del
Agenda Agenda Diary
día
Anxious Inquieto, nervioso Ansioso (deseoso) Eager, greedy
Arena Estadio Arena Sand
Argument Discusión, debate Argumento Plot, topic, issue
Assist Ayudar, auxiliar Asistir Attend
Attend Asistir a, ir a Atender Pay attention, take care of
Attempt Intento Atentado Terrorist Attack
Avocado Aguacate Abogado Lawyer
Card Tarjeta Carta Letter
Años de trabajo, promoción Race (cars) University
Career Carrera
laboral studies
Carpet Alfombra Carpeta Folder, file
Casual Informal, desenfadado Casual Accidental
Cigar Puro Cigarro Cigarette
Collar Cuello (de camisa) Collar Necklace
College Facultad (Universidad) Colegio Primary School
Cobrador de autobús,
Conductor Conductor Driver
director de orquesta
Conference Congreso Conferencia Lecture
Conservatory Invernadero Conservatorio Music academy
Constipated Estreñido Constipado A cold
Crime Acto delictivo Crimen Murder, serious crime
Content Satisfied Contento Happy
Discussion Conversación Discusión Argument
Disgust Repugnancia Disgusto Annoyance
Divert Desviar Divertir Enjoy, have a good time
Educated With a good education Educado Polite
Embarrassed Avergonzado Embarazada Pregnant
Eventually Finalmente Eventualmente Temporarily, by chance
Exit Salida Exito Success
Fabrics Tela, Textil Fábrica Factory
Expresión idiomática, frase
Idiom Idioma Language
hecha
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Informal desenfadado Informal Irresponsible
Large Grande Largo Long
Lecture Conferencia Lectura Reading
Library Biblioteca Librería Bookshop
Mayor Alcalde Mayor Main, bigger, older
Notice Aviso Noticia News
Parcel Paquete Parcela Plot of land
Parent Madre o padre Pariente Relative
Particular Special Particular Private
Preservative Conservante Preservativo Condom
Presume Asumir, pretender Presumir Show off
Pretend Fingir Pretender Intend, try, seek
Prove Demostrar Probar Try, try on
Quiet Callado Quieto Still, motionless
Realize Darse cuenta Realizar Carry out, implement
Remove Quitar Remover Stir
Resume Continuar, reanudar Resumir Summarize
Sensible Sensato Sensible Sensitive
Signature Firma Asignatura Subject
Spectacles Gafas Espectáculos Shows
Suburb Barrio residencial Suburbio Slum
Success Éxito Suceso Event
Sympathetic Comprensivo Simpático Nice, friendly
Sympathy Compasión, pésame Simpatía Affection, kindness
Topic Tema Tópico Cliché
Vicious Malvado, saludable Vicioso Addict, depraved

SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

REGULAR NOUNS
 Most singular nouns form the plural by adding -s.

EXAMPLES
Singular Plural
Boat boats
House houses
Cat cats
River rivers
 A singular noun ending in s, x, z, ch, sh makes the plural by adding-es.

EXAMPLES
Singular Plural
Bus buses
Wish wishes
Pitch pitches
Box boxes

 A singular noun ending in a consonant and then y makes the plural by dropping the y and adding-ies.

EXAMPLES

Singular Plural
Penny pennies
Spy spies
Baby babies
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City cities
Daisy daisies

IRREGULAR NOUNS
 There are some irregular noun plurals. The most common ones are listed below.

EXAMPLES
Singular Plural
Woman women
Man men
Child children
Tooth teeth
Foot feet
Person people
Leaf leaves
Mouse mice
Elf elves
Loaf loaves
Potato potatoes
Tomato tomatoes

Singular Plural

Fungus fungi
Nucleus nuclei
Syllabus syllabi/syllabuses
Analysis analyses
Diagnosis diagnoses
Oasis oases
Thesis theses
Crisis crises
Phenomenon phenomena
Criterion criteria
Datum data

 Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.

EXAMPLES
Singular Plural
Sheep sheep
Fish fish
Deer deer
Species species
Aircraft aircraft

IRREGULAR VERB/NOUN AGREEMENT

 Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.

Plural nouns used with a singular verb Sentence

News The news is at 6.30 p.m.
Athletics Athletics is good for young people.
Linguistics Linguistics is the study of language.
Darts Darts is a popular game in England.
Billiards Billiards is played all over the world.
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Some nouns have a fixed plural form and take a plural verb. They are not used in the singular, or they have a different
meaning in the singular. Nouns like this include: trousers, jeans, glasses, savings, thanks, steps, stairs, customs,
congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits

Plural noun with plural verb Sentence

Trousers My trousers are too tight.
Jeans Her jeans are black.
Glasses Those glasses are his.

WH QUESTIONS
 If you'd like to make a 'wh' question, you just put the question word at the front:

Wh Questions
Where am I ?
What are you ?
Why is he ?
Who is she ?
When are we ?
How are they ?

THE ARTICLES: DEFINED ARTICLE

It is omitted:
a ) With abstract nouns unkless they are used with a particular sense.
 Justice is the basis of any political system
 In Spain the justice works very slowly
b) before names of sports:
 He plays tennis (football)

c) Before generic nouns in plural:

 Sport cars are always expensive
 Men practise sport more than women
 Children learn foreign languages more easily than adults
 In Spain dentists are very well paid

e) With nouns "bed" / "church" / "prison" / "school"/"university"... when we refer to their basic function:
To go to bed (to sleep)
To go to church / to come back from church (to pray)
To be in hospital / to leave hospital (as a patient)
To stay in prison (as a prisoner)
To be back from university / to leave school (as a student)
When you talk about those places for different reasons you use the article:
 I went to the hospital to visit my wife
 I went to the university to ask for information

UNDEFINIDED ARTICLE: A / AN
It is omitted a) Before a noun in plural
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 a car / cars
 a house / houses
You can see a house over there / You can see houses over there
b) Before generic nouns of substances (wine, milk, gold, wood, silver, petrol, blood...): c) Before abstract nouns
(happiness, justice, fear, help, love, future, hope...):
d) Before names of food: breakfast, lunch, dinner,... Except before an adjective: What a delicious dinner you have
prepared!