1B24

WAVES OPTICS AND ACOUSTICS

REVISION LECTURE 2
Mainly Optics

A.H. Harker
email:[email protected]

April 23, 2002

1 Reflection of Waves
1 Reflection of Waves

1.1 Joined strings

1 Reflection of Waves

1.1 Joined strings

Boundary conditions:
1 Reflection of Waves

1.1 Joined strings

Boundary conditions: continuity of displacement

1 Reflection of Waves

1.1 Joined strings

Boundary conditions: continuity of displacement and force

1 Reflection of Waves

1.1 Joined strings

Boundary conditions: continuity of displacement and force — not just

continuity of slope (though for the string it amounts to the same
thing).
1 Reflection of Waves

1.1 Joined strings

Boundary conditions: continuity of displacement and force — not just

continuity of slope (though for the string it amounts to the same
thing).
Z1 Z2
r=
Z1 + Z2
(1)
1 Reflection of Waves

1.1 Joined strings

Boundary conditions: continuity of displacement and force — not just

continuity of slope (though for the string it amounts to the same
thing).
Z1 Z2
r=
Z1 + Z2
(1)

t=
2 Z 1
:
Z +Z
(2)
1 2
1.1.1 relative signs of incident, reflected and transmitted
waves.
1.1.1 relative signs of incident, reflected and transmitted
waves.

Reflect from a denser medium, change sign

1.1.1 relative signs of incident, reflected and transmitted
waves.

Reflect from a denser medium, change sign (remember case of fixed

end, effectively infinitely dense medium, total displacement zero).
1.1.1 relative signs of incident, reflected and transmitted
waves.

Reflect from a denser medium, change sign (remember case of fixed

end, effectively infinitely dense medium, total displacement zero).
Change of sign is phase change of .
1.2 Acoustic waves in dissimilar media - reflection and
transmission
1.2 Acoustic waves in dissimilar media - reflection and
transmission

1.2.1 a. directly
1.2 Acoustic waves in dissimilar media - reflection and
transmission

1.2.1 a. directly

Typical Part B question

1.2 Acoustic waves in dissimilar media - reflection and
transmission

1.2.1 a. directly

Typical Part B question

1.2.2 b. in terms of impedance

1.2 Acoustic waves in dissimilar media - reflection and
transmission

1.2.1 a. directly

Typical Part B question

1.2.2 b. in terms of impedance

Typical Part A question

1.2 Acoustic waves in dissimilar media - reflection and
transmission

1.2.1 a. directly

Typical Part B question

1.2.2 b. in terms of impedance

Typical Part A question Note that the values of R and T give

R+T = 1; (3)

which expresses the conservation of energy.

1.3 Impedance matching - quarter-wave plates
1.3 Impedance matching - quarter-wave plates

Perfect transmission between two media, with no reflection, may be

achieved by inserting a matching layer
1.3 Impedance matching - quarter-wave plates

Perfect transmission between two media, with no reflection, may be

achieved by inserting a matching layer with an impedance which is
the geometric mean of the impedances of the two original media,
1.3 Impedance matching - quarter-wave plates

Perfect transmission between two media, with no reflection, may be

achieved by inserting a matching layer with an impedance which is
the geometric mean of the impedances of the two original media, and
with a thickness which is one quarter of a wavelength in the matching
medium.
2 Dispersion
2 Dispersion

2.1 Refractive index

2 Dispersion

2.1 Refractive index

speed of light in free space

refractive index = speed of light in material
2 Dispersion

2.1 Refractive index

speed of light in free space

refractive index = speed of light in material
This gives the phase velocity of the light.
2.2 Phase and group velocity
2.2 Phase and group velocity

2.2.1 simple two-frequency treatment

2.2 Phase and group velocity

2.2.1 simple two-frequency treatment

Two waves - mathematics similar to that for beats.

2.2.2 envelope function and carrier
2.2.2 envelope function and carrier

Group velocity
vg
d!
= dk
2.2.2 envelope function and carrier

Group velocity
vg
d!
= dk
Phase velocity
!
vp =
k
2.2.2 envelope function and carrier

Group velocity
vg
d!
= dk
Phase velocity
!
vp =
k
@! @ (vp k) @vp
vg = = = vp + k @k ;
@k @k
2.3 Waves in more than one dimension
2.3 Waves in more than one dimension

2.3.1 Plane waves in three dimensions

2.3 Waves in more than one dimension

2.3.1 Plane waves in three dimensions

Expression for plane wave in three dimensions

2.3 Waves in more than one dimension

2.3.1 Plane waves in three dimensions

Expression for plane wave in three dimensions

(x; t)
2.3 Waves in more than one dimension

2.3.1 Plane waves in three dimensions

Expression for plane wave in three dimensions

(x; t)= Aei(!t )

2.3 Waves in more than one dimension

2.3.1 Plane waves in three dimensions

Expression for plane wave in three dimensions

(x; t)= Aei(!t k:x)

2.3 Waves in more than one dimension

2.3.1 Plane waves in three dimensions

Expression for plane wave in three dimensions

(x; t)= Aei(!t k:x)

for a wave travelling in the direction k=jkj

2.3 Waves in more than one dimension

2.3.1 Plane waves in three dimensions

Expression for plane wave in three dimensions

(x; t)= Aei(!t k:x)

for a wave travelling in the direction k=jkj and with a wavelength

2 =jkj.
2.3.2 cylindrical and spherical waves

Here we have a phase which varies with distance from the source, not
direction (i.e. a kr in place of k:x).
2.3.2 cylindrical and spherical waves

Here we have a phase which varies with distance from the source, not
direction (i.e. a kr in place of k:x).

2.3.3 energy fluxes

p
Leads to the 1=(kr) for spherical waves, 1= kr for cylindrical waves.
2.3.2 cylindrical and spherical waves

Here we have a phase which varies with distance from the source, not
direction (i.e. a kr in place of k:x).

2.3.3 energy fluxes

p
Leads to the 1=(kr) for spherical waves, 1= kr for cylindrical waves.

2.3.4 Curvature of Wavefront

Negligible at large distances (Fraunhofer limit).

3 Moving sources and Receivers
3 Moving sources and Receivers

The treatment we adopt assumes that the wave is propagated in some

medium, with respect to which the source, or the observer, or both, are
moving.
3 Moving sources and Receivers

The treatment we adopt assumes that the wave is propagated in some

medium, with respect to which the source, or the observer, or both, are
moving. This will introduce an asymmetry between the source and the
observer.
3 Moving sources and Receivers

The treatment we adopt assumes that the wave is propagated in some

medium, with respect to which the source, or the observer, or both, are
moving. This will introduce an asymmetry between the source and the
observer. Although we shall use this same formalism when we discuss
light: this is an approximation, as we know from the principle of
relativity that there is no preferred frame of reference, and that all that
matters is the relative motion of the source and the observer.
3 Moving sources and Receivers

The treatment we adopt assumes that the wave is propagated in some

medium, with respect to which the source, or the observer, or both, are
moving. This will introduce an asymmetry between the source and the
observer. Although we shall use this same formalism when we discuss
light: this is an approximation, as we know from the principle of
relativity that there is no preferred frame of reference, and that all that
matters is the relative motion of the source and the observer.
Nevertheless, as long as the velocities involved are not too close to
light speeds, our result will be quite accurate for light.
3.1 Doppler effect
3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

Source moving with velocity vs towards an observer

3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

Source moving with velocity vs towards an observer in a medium in

which the wave speed is c.
3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

Source moving with velocity vs towards an observer in a medium in

which the wave speed is c. If the frequency of the source is f , in a
time t it will have emitted ft waves,
3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

Source moving with velocity vs towards an observer in a medium in

which the wave speed is c. If the frequency of the source is f , in a
time t it will have emitted ft waves, but in the region in front of the
(
source these will have been emitted into a distance c vs t. )
3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

Source moving with velocity vs towards an observer in a medium in

which the wave speed is c. If the frequency of the source is f , in a
time t it will have emitted ft waves, but in the region in front of the
( )
source these will have been emitted into a distance c vs t. Thus the
wavelength is
0= ( c vs t )
ft
3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

Source moving with velocity vs towards an observer in a medium in

which the wave speed is c. If the frequency of the source is f , in a
time t it will have emitted ft waves, but in the region in front of the
( )
source these will have been emitted into a distance c vs t. Thus the
wavelength is
0= ( c vs t )
ft
or
(c vs )
f:
3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

Source moving with velocity vs towards an observer in a medium in

which the wave speed is c. If the frequency of the source is f , in a
time t it will have emitted ft waves, but in the region in front of the
( )
source these will have been emitted into a distance c vs t. Thus the
wavelength is
0 = (c vs t )
ft
or
(c vs )
f:
In a time t a stationary observer will receive the waves in a distance
ct,
3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

Source moving with velocity vs towards an observer in a medium in

which the wave speed is c. If the frequency of the source is f , in a
time t it will have emitted ft waves, but in the region in front of the
( )
source these will have been emitted into a distance c vs t. Thus the
wavelength is
0 = (c vs t )
ft
(c vs )
or

f:
In a time t a stationary observer will receive the waves in a distance
ct, which will be ct=0 wavelengths,
3.1 Doppler effect

3.1.1 Moving source, stationary observer

Source moving with velocity vs towards an observer in a medium in

which the wave speed is c. If the frequency of the source is f , in a
time t it will have emitted ft waves, but in the region in front of the
( )
source these will have been emitted into a distance c vs t. Thus the
wavelength is
0= ( c vs t )
ft
or
(c vs )
f:
In a time t a stationary observer will receive the waves in a distance
ct, which will be ct=0 wavelengths, so the observed frequency will be
f 0 = fc=(c vs ):
3.2 Stationary source, moving observer
3.2 Stationary source, moving observer

In a time t an observer moving away from the source with speed vo

will receive the waves in a distance ct vo t,
3.2 Stationary source, moving observer

In a time t an observer moving away from the source with speed vo

will receive the waves in a distance ct vo t, which will be
( )
ct vo t = wavelengths,
3.2 Stationary source, moving observer

In a time t an observer moving away from the source with speed vo

will receive the waves in a distance ct vo t, which will be
( )
ct vo t = wavelengths, so the observed frequency will be
f 0 = f (c vo )=c:
3.2 Stationary source, moving observer

In a time t an observer moving away from the source with speed vo

will receive the waves in a distance ct vo t, which will be
( )
ct vo t = wavelengths, so the observed frequency will be
f 0 = f (c vo )=c:

3.2.1 Both source and observer moving

3.2 Stationary source, moving observer

In a time t an observer moving away from the source with speed vo

will receive the waves in a distance ct vo t, which will be
( )
ct vo t = wavelengths, so the observed frequency will be
f 0 = f (c vo )=c:

3.2.1 Both source and observer moving

f 0 = f (c vo )=(c vs );
3.2 Stationary source, moving observer

In a time t an observer moving away from the source with speed vo

will receive the waves in a distance ct vo t, which will be
( )
ct vo t = wavelengths, so the observed frequency will be
f 0 = f (c vo )=c:

3.2.1 Both source and observer moving

f 0 = f (c vo )=(c vs );
taking a positive velocity as being along the source-observer
distance.
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

.
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

4.1 Young’s slits

.
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

4.1 Young’s slits

Constructive interference when path length difference is an integer

number of wavelengths .
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

4.1 Young’s slits

Constructive interference when path length difference is an integer

number of wavelengths, and assume small angles .
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

4.1 Young’s slits

Constructive interference when path length difference is an integer

number of wavelengths, and assume small angles, so bright lines at
yh
x
= m;
.
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

4.1 Young’s slits

Constructive interference when path length difference is an integer

number of wavelengths, and assume small angles, so bright lines at
yh
x
= m;
y is distance from centre of screen.
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

4.1 Young’s slits

Constructive interference when path length difference is an integer

number of wavelengths, and assume small angles, so bright lines at
yh
x
= m;
y is distance from centre of screen, h is slit spacing.
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

4.1 Young’s slits

Constructive interference when path length difference is an integer

number of wavelengths, and assume small angles, so bright lines at
yh
x
= m;
y is distance from centre of screen, h is slit spacing, x is slit-to-screen
distance.
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

4.1 Young’s slits

Constructive interference when path length difference is an integer

number of wavelengths, and assume small angles, so bright lines at
yh
x
= m;
y is distance from centre of screen, h is slit spacing, x is slit-to-screen
distance, is wavelength.
4 Interference - Basic phenomena

4.1 Young’s slits

Constructive interference when path length difference is an integer

number of wavelengths, and assume small angles, so bright lines at
yh
x
= m;
y is distance from centre of screen, h is slit spacing, x is slit-to-screen
distance, is wavelength, m is an integer.
4.2 sum of signals from several sources
4.2 sum of signals from several sources

In general, more increasing the number of regularly spaced interfering

signals sharpens the interference pattern.
4.2 sum of signals from several sources

In general, more increasing the number of regularly spaced interfering

signals sharpens the interference pattern. If we have a large number
of sources, we can add them together using the phasor
4.2 sum of signals from several sources

In general, more increasing the number of regularly spaced interfering

signals sharpens the interference pattern. If we have a large number
of sources, we can add them together using the phasor or the complex
number picture.
4.2 sum of signals from several sources

In general, more increasing the number of regularly spaced interfering

signals sharpens the interference pattern. If we have a large number
of sources, we can add them together using the phasor or the complex
number picture. This is one of several places (Fabry-Perot, matched
filter are others) where adding signals gives a geometric progression.
4.2 sum of signals from several sources

In general, more increasing the number of regularly spaced interfering

signals sharpens the interference pattern. If we have a large number
of sources, we can add them together using the phasor or the complex
number picture. This is one of several places (Fabry-Perot, matched
filter are others) where adding signals gives a geometric progression.
Far from array, looking at an angle off axis
4.2 sum of signals from several sources

In general, more increasing the number of regularly spaced interfering

signals sharpens the interference pattern. If we have a large number
of sources, we can add them together using the phasor or the complex
number picture. This is one of several places (Fabry-Perot, matched
filter are others) where adding signals gives a geometric progression.
Far from array, looking at an angle off axis, with sources h apart
4.2 sum of signals from several sources

In general, more increasing the number of regularly spaced interfering

signals sharpens the interference pattern. If we have a large number
of sources, we can add them together using the phasor or the complex
number picture. This is one of several places (Fabry-Perot, matched
filter are others) where adding signals gives a geometric progression.
Far from array, looking at an angle off axis, with sources h apart,
phase difference between successive sources will be
2
= h sin :

The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be
The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =
The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =Aei!t
The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =Aei!t +Aei(!t+)

The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =Aei!t +Aei(!t+)

+Aei !t
(
+2 )
The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =Aei!t +Aei(!t+)

+Aei !t
(
+2 )
:::
The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =Aei!t +Aei(!t+)

+Aei !t
(
+2 )
:::
which is a geometric series
The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =Aei!t +Aei(!t+)

+Aei !t
(
+2 )
:::
which is a geometric series with common ratio ei
The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =Aei!t +Aei(!t+)

+Aei !t
(
+2 )
:::
which is a geometric series with common ratio ei , so

Rei(!t+) = Ae 1
i!t 1 eNi
ei
The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =Aei!t +Aei(!t+)

+Aei !t
(
+2 )
:::
which is a geometric series with common ratio ei , so

Rei(!t+) = Ae 1
i!t 1 eNi
ei
which results in

Rei(!t+) = Aei(!t+(N 1) =2) sin(N=2) :

sin(=2)
The total signal from N regularly spaced sources will be

Rei(!t+) =Aei!t +Aei(!t+)

+Aei !t
(
+2 )
:::
which is a geometric series with common ratio ei , so

=
Rei(!t+) Aei!t
e 1
Ni
1
ei
which results in

Rei(!t+) = Aei(!t+(N 1) =2) sin(N=2) :

sin(=2)
Finally,
2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7
I () = I (0) 4 5 :
N sin h
sin()
2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7
I () = I (0) 4 5 :
N sin h
sin()
2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7
I () = I (0) 4 5 :
N sin h
sin()
Whenever

sin = m h
where m is any integer, there is a peak of intensity I (0).
2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7
I () = I (0) 4 5 :
N sin h
sin()
Whenever

sin = m h
where m is any integer, there is a peak of intensity I (0).

4.2.1 Diffraction grating

Resolving power is
2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7
I () = I (0) 4 5 :
N sin h
sin()
Whenever

sin = m h
where m is any integer, there is a peak of intensity I (0).

4.2.1 Diffraction grating

Resolving power is

()min
2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7
I () = I (0) 4 5 :
N sin h
sin()
Whenever

sin = m h
where m is any integer, there is a peak of intensity I (0).

4.2.1 Diffraction grating

Resolving power is

()min = mN;
2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7
I () = I (0) 4 5 :
N sin h
sin()
Whenever

sin = m h
where m is any integer, there is a peak of intensity I (0).

4.2.1 Diffraction grating

Resolving power is

()min = mN;
where m is the order of diffraction
2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7

I () = I (0) 4 5 :
N sin h
sin()
Whenever

sin = m h
where m is any integer, there is a peak of intensity I (0).
4.2.1 Diffraction grating

Resolving power is

()min = mN;
where m is the order of diffraction and N is the number of lines in
the grating.
5 Diffraction
5 Diffraction

5.1 Huygens’s principle

5 Diffraction

5.1 Huygens’s principle

Every point on a primary wavefront serves as the source of spherical

secondary wavelets
5 Diffraction

5.1 Huygens’s principle

Every point on a primary wavefront serves as the source of spherical

secondary wavelets, such that the primary wavelet at a later time is the
envelope of these secondary wavelets.
5 Diffraction

5.1 Huygens’s principle

Every point on a primary wavefront serves as the source of spherical

secondary wavelets, such that the primary wavelet at a later time is the
envelope of these secondary wavelets. The wavelets advance with a
speed and frequency which are equal to those of the primary wave at
every point in space.
5.2 Huygens-Fresnel principle
5.2 Huygens-Fresnel principle

Every point on a primary wavefront serves as the source of spherical

secondary wavelets.
5.2 Huygens-Fresnel principle

Every point on a primary wavefront serves as the source of spherical

secondary wavelets.The amplitude of the field at any point is the
superposition of all these wavelets
5.2 Huygens-Fresnel principle

Every point on a primary wavefront serves as the source of spherical

secondary wavelets.The amplitude of the field at any point is the
superposition of all these wavelets, taking account of their amplitudes
and phases.
5.3 Fraunhofer diffraction

The range at which wavefront curvature becomes important, the

Rayleigh distance, for an aperture of width d is d2 =.
Ignoring the variation of amplitude with distance
Ignoring the variation of amplitude with distance, and absorbing the
phase change on the average path length D into the constant term
Ignoring the variation of amplitude with distance, and absorbing the
phase change on the average path length D into the constant term, we
have the comparatively simple result
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0;
S
Ignoring the variation of amplitude with distance, and absorbing the
phase change on the average path length D into the constant term, we
have the comparatively simple result
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0;
S
where the integral is over the area of the aperture which is in the x0 y 0
plane,
Ignoring the variation of amplitude with distance, and absorbing the
phase change on the average path length D into the constant term, we
have the comparatively simple result
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0;
S
where the integral is over the area of the aperture which is in the x0 y 0
plane, or Z
E = constant e i (kx0 +ky 0 )
S0 d
S
Ignoring the variation of amplitude with distance, and absorbing the
phase change on the average path length D into the constant term, we
have the comparatively simple result
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0;
S
where the integral is over the area of the aperture which is in the x0 y 0
plane, or Z
E = constant e i (kx0 +ky 0 )
S0 d
S
where and are the direction cosines of the ray travelling from the
aperture to the point of observation.
5.4 slit diffraction pattern
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0:
S
To derive the intensity pattern

5.4 slit diffraction pattern
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0:
S
To derive the intensity pattern

from above, assume constancy over y 0

5.4 slit diffraction pattern
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0:
S
To derive the intensity pattern

from above, assume constancy over y 0

integrate over x0 from d=2 to d=2 where d is the slit width

5.4 slit diffraction pattern
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0:
S
To derive the intensity pattern

from above, assume constancy over y 0

integrate over x0 from d=2 to d=2 where d is the slit width

take square modulus of result
5.4 slit diffraction pattern
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0:
S
To derive the intensity pattern

from above, assume constancy over y 0

integrate over x0 from d=2 to d=2 where d is the slit width

take square modulus of result

refer to straight-through intensity I (0)

5.4 slit diffraction pattern
Z
E = constant e i(kx x0 +ky y0 ) dS 0:
S
To derive the intensity pattern
from above, assume constancy over y 0
integrate over x0 from d=2 to d=2 where d is the slit width
take square modulus of result
refer to straight-through intensity I (0)
2 32
6 sin kx d
7
I () = I (0) 4
2
5 :
k d=2
x
2 32
6 sin kx d
7
I () = I (0) 4
2
5 :
xk d=2
2 32
6 sin kx d
7
I () = I (0) 4
2
5 :
k d=2
x

2 32
6 sin d sin()
7
I () = I (0) 4 d 5 :
sin()
5.5 grating
5.5 grating

The grating is a pattern of N slits

5.5 grating

The grating is a pattern of N slits, each of width d

5.5 grating

The grating is a pattern of N slits, each of width d, and spaced at a

distance h between their centres
5.5 grating

The grating is a pattern of N slits, each of width d, and spaced at a

distance h between their centres, and the diffracted amplitude from
the grating is the product of the pattern from the arrangement of slits
and the pattern from each slit.
5.5 grating

The grating is a pattern of N slits, each of width d, and spaced at a

distance h between their centres, and the diffracted amplitude from
the grating is the product of the pattern from the arrangement of slits
and the pattern from each slit.

I ( ) =
5.5 grating

The grating is a pattern of N slits, each of width d, and spaced at a

distance h between their centres, and the diffracted amplitude from
the grating is the product of the pattern from the arrangement of slits
and the pattern from each slit.

I () =I (0)
5.5 grating

The grating is a pattern of N slits, each of width d, and spaced at a

distance h between their centres, and the diffracted amplitude from
the grating is the product of the pattern from the arrangement of slits
and the pattern from each slit.
2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7
I () =I (0)4 5
N sin h
sin()
5.5 grating

The grating is a pattern of N slits, each of width d, and spaced at a

distance h between their centres, and the diffracted amplitude from
the grating is the product of the pattern from the arrangement of slits
and the pattern from each slit.
2 32 2 32
6 sin Nh sin()
7 6 sin d sin()
7
I () =I (0)4 5 4 5 :
N sin h
sin() d
sin()
6 Resolution of images

6.1 Rayleigh criterion for slit

Rayleigh’s criterion
6 Resolution of images

6.1 Rayleigh criterion for slit

Rayleigh’s criterion states that two similar diffraction patterns can just
be separated if the first zero of one pattern falls on the central peak of
the other
6 Resolution of images

6.1 Rayleigh criterion for slit

Rayleigh’s criterion states that two similar diffraction patterns can just
be separated if the first zero of one pattern falls on the central peak of
the other – this gives an adequate dip in intensity.
6 Resolution of images

6.1 Rayleigh criterion for slit

Rayleigh’s criterion states that two similar diffraction patterns can just
be separated if the first zero of one pattern falls on the central peak of
the other – this gives an adequate dip in intensity. For slits this
requires an angular separation > =d.
6 Resolution of images

6.1 Rayleigh criterion for slit

Rayleigh’s criterion states that two similar diffraction patterns can just
be separated if the first zero of one pattern falls on the central peak of
the other – this gives an adequate dip in intensity. For slits this
requires an angular separation > =d.

6.2 Rayleigh for circular aperture

6 Resolution of images

6.1 Rayleigh criterion for slit

Rayleigh’s criterion states that two similar diffraction patterns can just
be separated if the first zero of one pattern falls on the central peak of
the other – this gives an adequate dip in intensity. For slits this
requires an angular separation > =d.

6.2 Rayleigh for circular aperture

For a circular aperture, the diffraction is circular, and the first zero
1 22
occurs at an angle of : =d, where d is now the diameter of the
aperture.
7 Reflection and Refraction
7 Reflection and Refraction

7.1 Snel’s law

n1 sin(1 ) = n2 sin(2 )
7 Reflection and Refraction

7.1 Snel’s law

n1 sin(1 ) = n2 sin(2 )

7.2 phase change on reflection

7 Reflection and Refraction

7.1 Snel’s law

n1 sin(1 ) = n2 sin(2 )

7.2 phase change on reflection

For small angles of incidence,

7 Reflection and Refraction

7.1 Snel’s law

n1 sin(1 ) = n2 sin(2 )

7.2 phase change on reflection

For small angles of incidence, zero for reflection from a less optically
dense material
7 Reflection and Refraction

7.1 Snel’s law

n1 sin(1 ) = n2 sin(2 )

7.2 phase change on reflection

For small angles of incidence, zero for reflection from a less optically
dense material, for reflection from a more optically dense material.
7.3 Slab
7.3 Slab

Slab of refractive index n2 with a medium of refractive index n1 on

each side,
7.3 Slab

Slab of refractive index n2 with a medium of refractive index n1 on

each side, light is incident at an angle 1 ,
7.3 Slab

Slab of refractive index n2 with a medium of refractive index n1 on

each side, light is incident at an angle 1 , then the optical path
difference between rays reflected at the front and back of the slab is
7.3 Slab

Slab of refractive index n2 with a medium of refractive index n1 on

each side, light is incident at an angle 1 , then the optical path
difference between rays reflected at the front and back of the slab is
2 dn
= cos( ) (1 sin ( )) = 2n d cos( ):
2 2
2 2 2
2
7.4 thin film
7.4 thin film

The commonest situation in which we see interference effects is in oil

on the surface of puddles
7.4 thin film

The commonest situation in which we see interference effects is in oil

on the surface of puddles, or in thin soap films
7.4 thin film

The commonest situation in which we see interference effects is in oil

on the surface of puddles, or in thin soap films — assume normal
incidence.
7.4 thin film

The commonest situation in which we see interference effects is in oil

on the surface of puddles, or in thin soap films — assume normal
incidence. For oil on water, we have constructive interference for a
film of thickness h if
7.4 thin film

The commonest situation in which we see interference effects is in oil

on the surface of puddles, or in thin soap films — assume normal
incidence. For oil on water, we have constructive interference for a
film of thickness h if
1
2h = (p + 2 ) oil
7.4 thin film

The commonest situation in which we see interference effects is in oil

on the surface of puddles, or in thin soap films — assume normal
incidence. For oil on water, we have constructive interference for a
film of thickness h if
1 1
2h = (p + 2 ) = (p + 2 ) n air
;
oil
oil
7.4 thin film

The commonest situation in which we see interference effects is in oil

on the surface of puddles, or in thin soap films — assume normal
incidence. For oil on water, we have constructive interference for a
film of thickness h if
1 1
2h = (p + 2 ) = (p + 2 ) n air
;
oil
oil

where p is an integer.
7.5 Newton’s rings
7.5 Newton’s rings

The geometry is fairly simple

7.5 Newton’s rings

The geometry is fairly simple: take care over phase changes on

reflection
7.5 Newton’s rings

The geometry is fairly simple: take care over phase changes on

reflection, especially if there is a liquid inserted between the lens and
the plate.
7.5 Newton’s rings

The geometry is fairly simple: take care over phase changes on

reflection, especially if there is a liquid inserted between the lens and
the plate. Circular fringes are formed.
7.5 Newton’s rings

The geometry is fairly simple: take care over phase changes on

reflection, especially if there is a liquid inserted between the lens and
the plate. Circular fringes are formed.

7.6 wedge
7.5 Newton’s rings

The geometry is fairly simple: take care over phase changes on

reflection, especially if there is a liquid inserted between the lens and
the plate. Circular fringes are formed.

7.6 wedge

Straight fringes.
8 Michelson Interferometer

Arrangement:
8 Michelson Interferometer

Arrangement: light from a source (which may be extended)

8 Michelson Interferometer

Arrangement: light from a source (which may be extended) is divided

by a partly-silvered mirror
8 Michelson Interferometer

Arrangement: light from a source (which may be extended) is divided

by a partly-silvered mirror, travels to two mirrors
8 Michelson Interferometer

Arrangement: light from a source (which may be extended) is divided

by a partly-silvered mirror, travels to two mirrors, and is recombined
again by the beam-splitter.
8 Michelson Interferometer

Arrangement: light from a source (which may be extended) is divided

by a partly-silvered mirror, travels to two mirrors, and is recombined
again by the beam-splitter. Any path length difference gives rise to
interference.
8 Michelson Interferometer

Arrangement: light from a source (which may be extended) is divided

by a partly-silvered mirror, travels to two mirrors, and is recombined
again by the beam-splitter. Any path length difference gives rise to
interference. Dark fringes given by

cos() = p 2d :
8 Michelson Interferometer

Arrangement: light from a source (which may be extended) is divided

by a partly-silvered mirror, travels to two mirrors, and is recombined
again by the beam-splitter. Any path length difference gives rise to
interference. Dark fringes given by

cos() = p 2d :

8.1 compensating plate for white light

Gives equal path lengths through glass for the two optical paths.
8.2 measuring refractive index

Putting a different material (e.g. a different gas) into one arm alters
the optical path length.
8.2 measuring refractive index

Putting a different material (e.g. a different gas) into one arm alters
the optical path length.

8.3 precise measurements of wavelength

8.2 measuring refractive index

Putting a different material (e.g. a different gas) into one arm alters
the optical path length.

8.3 precise measurements of wavelength

Visibility of fringes varies with path length difference for a doublet

source.
9 Fabry-Perot Interferometer
9 Fabry-Perot Interferometer

Basic idea is to allow multiple reflections within a thin film.

9 Fabry-Perot Interferometer

Basic idea is to allow multiple reflections within a thin film. The

arrangement of the Fabry-Perot interferometer uses two glass plates to
form the reflecting surfaces.
9 Fabry-Perot Interferometer

Basic idea is to allow multiple reflections within a thin film. The

arrangement of the Fabry-Perot interferometer uses two glass plates to
form the reflecting surfaces. The pair of parallel plates is called an
etalon.
With reflection and transmission coefficients for the two sides of the
etalon r, r0 , t and t0 ,
With reflection and transmission coefficients for the two sides of the
etalon r, r0 , t and t0 , and a phase difference for light passing through
the gap at an angle to the normal
With reflection and transmission coefficients for the two sides of the
etalon r, r0 , t and t0 , and a phase difference for light passing through
the gap at an angle to the normal given by
2
= 2d cos() + 2

With reflection and transmission coefficients for the two sides of the
etalon r, r0 , t and t0 , and a phase difference for light passing through
the gap at an angle to the normal given by
2
= 2d cos() + 2

(where accounts for any phase change on reflection - if the mirrors
are coated so as to increase the reflection coefficients may be
between 0 and )
With reflection and transmission coefficients for the two sides of the
etalon r, r0 , t and t0 , and a phase difference for light passing through
the gap at an angle to the normal given by
2
= 2d cos() + 2

(where accounts for any phase change on reflection - if the mirrors
are coated so as to increase the reflection coefficients may be
between 0 and ) we find
2
I = I0
T 1 ;
1 R 1 + F sin (=2)
2
With reflection and transmission coefficients for the two sides of the
etalon r, r0 , t and t0 , and a phase difference for light passing through
the gap at an angle to the normal given by
2
= 2d cos() + 2

(where accounts for any phase change on reflection - if the mirrors
are coated so as to increase the reflection coefficients may be
between 0 and ) we find
2
I = I0
T 1 ;
1 R 1 + F sin (=2)
2

where
T = tt0 R = rr0 F=
4 R
:
(1 R) 2
The resolving power may be increased by increasing the reflection
coefficient.
The resolving power may be increased by increasing the reflection
coefficient. This can be done by silvering or by using appropriate
dielectric layers
The resolving power may be increased by increasing the reflection
coefficient. This can be done by silvering or by using appropriate
dielectric layers — just as blooming a lens can reduce reflection, so
appropriate coating can increase reflectivity.
The resolving power may be increased by increasing the reflection
coefficient. This can be done by silvering or by using appropriate
dielectric layers — just as blooming a lens can reduce reflection, so
appropriate coating can increase reflectivity.
d p
min =
F:
10 Geometric Optics
10 Geometric Optics

Note that throughout our treatment of curved mirrors and lenses we

assume small angles, i.e. we make the paraxial approximation.
10 Geometric Optics

Note that throughout our treatment of curved mirrors and lenses we

assume small angles, i.e. we make the paraxial approximation.

10.1 Sign Conventions for Reflection and Refraction

10 Geometric Optics

Note that throughout our treatment of curved mirrors and lenses we

assume small angles, i.e. we make the paraxial approximation.

10.1 Sign Conventions for Reflection and Refraction

We choose a so-called Cartesian convention, in which

10 Geometric Optics

Note that throughout our treatment of curved mirrors and lenses we

assume small angles, i.e. we make the paraxial approximation.

10.1 Sign Conventions for Reflection and Refraction

We choose a so-called Cartesian convention, in which

origin is located at the vertex of the curved boundary or mirror,

and at the centre of a thin lens, with the x axis directed along the
optical axis from left to right.
10 Geometric Optics

Note that throughout our treatment of curved mirrors and lenses we

assume small angles, i.e. we make the paraxial approximation.

10.1 Sign Conventions for Reflection and Refraction

We choose a so-called Cartesian convention, in which

origin is located at the vertex of the curved boundary or mirror,

and at the centre of a thin lens, with the x axis directed along the
optical axis from left to right.

object, image, and centre of curvature distances are defined to be

the x coordinates of the y; z planes which contain them.
10 Geometric Optics

Note that throughout our treatment of curved mirrors and lenses we

assume small angles, i.e. we make the paraxial approximation.

10.1 Sign Conventions for Reflection and Refraction

We choose a so-called Cartesian convention, in which

origin is located at the vertex of the curved boundary or mirror,
and at the centre of a thin lens, with the x axis directed along the
optical axis from left to right.
object, image, and centre of curvature distances are defined to be
the x coordinates of the y; z planes which contain them. Thus
distances to points or planes to the right of the vertex or lens
centre are positive, those to the left are negative.

light sources and objects are placed to the left of the first surface
in the system,
light sources and objects are placed to the left of the first surface
in the system, so that the light rays travel from left to right,
light sources and objects are placed to the left of the first surface
in the system, so that the light rays travel from left to right, but
the object has a negative x coordinate and the object distance will
thus be negative.
light sources and objects are placed to the left of the first surface
in the system, so that the light rays travel from left to right, but
the object has a negative x coordinate and the object distance will
thus be negative.

angles are taken to be positive or negative dependent on whether

their tangents are positive or negative.
11 Refraction at spherical surfaces
11 Refraction at spherical surfaces

n1 n2 n1 n2
l1 l2
= r
:

We need to insert the signs appropriate to our sign convention.

11 Refraction at spherical surfaces

n1 n2 n1 n2
l1 l2
= r
:

We need to insert the signs appropriate to our sign convention.

11.1 Lenses

1 1 = (n 1) 1 1 = 1:
v u r 1 r
2 f
11.2 principal foci and focal length
11.2 principal foci and focal length

In drawing ray diagrams, there are three principal rays:

11.2 principal foci and focal length

In drawing ray diagrams, there are three principal rays:

one enters parallel to the optical axis and is refracted so as to pass

directly or by projection through the second focal point;
11.2 principal foci and focal length

In drawing ray diagrams, there are three principal rays:

one enters parallel to the optical axis and is refracted so as to pass

directly or by projection through the second focal point;

one passes directly or by projection through the first focal point,

and emerges parallel to the optical axis;
11.2 principal foci and focal length

In drawing ray diagrams, there are three principal rays:

one enters parallel to the optical axis and is refracted so as to pass

directly or by projection through the second focal point;

one passes directly or by projection through the first focal point,

and emerges parallel to the optical axis;

one passes undeviated through the centre of the lens (where the
lens surfaces are locally parallel).
11.3 Magnifying glass
11.3 Magnifying glass

With the image at infinity

11.3 Magnifying glass

With the image at infinity

with distances in mm.

11.3 Magnifying glass

With the image at infinity

h0
M = h
with distances in mm.
11.3 Magnifying glass

With the image at infinity

h0 250
M = =
h f
;
with distances in mm.
11.3 Magnifying glass

With the image at infinity

h0 250
M = =
h f
;
with distances in mm. With the image at the near point
11.3 Magnifying glass

With the image at infinity

h0 250
M = =
h f
;
with distances in mm. With the image at the near point

M=
250 250
=1+ :
u f
11.4 Cardinal or Principal points of thick lens system
11.4 Cardinal or Principal points of thick lens system

Same basic quantities as before – focal points and vertices of lenses

11.4 Cardinal or Principal points of thick lens system

Same basic quantities as before – focal points and vertices of lenses –

but where do we measure them from?
11.4 Cardinal or Principal points of thick lens system

Same basic quantities as before – focal points and vertices of lenses –

but where do we measure them from? We define the so-called
Cardinal Points or Principal Points as follows:
11.4 Cardinal or Principal points of thick lens system

Same basic quantities as before – focal points and vertices of lenses –

but where do we measure them from? We define the so-called
Cardinal Points or Principal Points as follows:

two focal points, defined in terms of entry or exit rays parallel to

the axis;

principal planes, defined by the locus of the points of intersection
of the incident ray through the focus and the exit ray parallel to
Q Q
the axis ( 1 and 2 );
principal planes, defined by the locus of the points of intersection
of the incident ray through the focus and the exit ray parallel to
Q Q
the axis ( 1 and 2 );

the principal points, being the intersections of the principal planes

with the axis;
principal planes, defined by the locus of the points of intersection
of the incident ray through the focus and the exit ray parallel to
Q Q
the axis ( 1 and 2 );

the principal points, being the intersections of the principal planes

with the axis;

the nodal points where the ray through the optical centre of the
lens (the ray which emerges parallel to its incident direction)
intersects the axis.
11.5 Compound lenses
11.5 Compound lenses

Simply work through the analysis of the system step by step - as on

problem sheet P20.
11.5 Compound lenses

Simply work through the analysis of the system step by step - as on

problem sheet P20. Take the first lens, find the image it produces
11.5 Compound lenses

Simply work through the analysis of the system step by step - as on

problem sheet P20. Take the first lens, find the image it produces, take
that image as the object for the second lens
11.5 Compound lenses

Simply work through the analysis of the system step by step - as on

problem sheet P20. Take the first lens, find the image it produces, take
that image as the object for the second lens and calculate its position
relative to the second lens taking into account the distance between
the lenses.
11.5 Compound lenses

Simply work through the analysis of the system step by step - as on

problem sheet P20. Take the first lens, find the image it produces, take
that image as the object for the second lens and calculate its position
relative to the second lens taking into account the distance between
the lenses. Plug this result, adjusted where necessary in accordance
with the sign convention, into the lens formula for the second lens
11.5 Compound lenses

Simply work through the analysis of the system step by step - as on

problem sheet P20. Take the first lens, find the image it produces, take
that image as the object for the second lens and calculate its position
relative to the second lens taking into account the distance between
the lenses. Plug this result, adjusted where necessary in accordance
with the sign convention, into the lens formula for the second lens –
and the job is done.
11.5 Compound lenses

Simply work through the analysis of the system step by step - as on

problem sheet P20. Take the first lens, find the image it produces, take
that image as the object for the second lens and calculate its position
relative to the second lens taking into account the distance between
the lenses. Plug this result, adjusted where necessary in accordance
with the sign convention, into the lens formula for the second lens –
and the job is done. Similarly, the overall magnification is the product
of the magnifications produced by the individual lenses.
12 Optical Instruments
12 Optical Instruments

Have a look at the diagrams for these, just to get an idea of what to
expect if you want to draw ray diagrams, locate images, for these
systems.
12 Optical Instruments

Have a look at the diagrams for these, just to get an idea of what to
expect if you want to draw ray diagrams, locate images, for these
systems.

12.1 compound microscope

12 Optical Instruments

Have a look at the diagrams for these, just to get an idea of what to
expect if you want to draw ray diagrams, locate images, for these
systems.

12.1 compound microscope

12.2 astronomical telescope

12 Optical Instruments

Have a look at the diagrams for these, just to get an idea of what to
expect if you want to draw ray diagrams, locate images, for these
systems.

12.1 compound microscope

12.2 astronomical telescope

12.3 terrestrial telescope

12 Optical Instruments

Have a look at the diagrams for these, just to get an idea of what to
expect if you want to draw ray diagrams, locate images, for these
systems.

12.1 compound microscope

12.2 astronomical telescope

12.3 terrestrial telescope

12.4 telephoto lens

12 Optical Instruments

Have a look at the diagrams for these, just to get an idea of what to
expect if you want to draw ray diagrams, locate images, for these
systems.

12.1 compound microscope

12.2 astronomical telescope

12.3 terrestrial telescope

12.4 telephoto lens

NOTE: the question will give you information about the arrangement
of lenses — you don’t have to remember them.