Introduction Analog system representation Types of Filters Transfer Function References

Analog Filter Design

(Subject Code - EET 3132)

Dr. Kundan Kumar

PhD (IIT Kharagpur)
Associate Professor
ECE Department (Cabin - 139)

Faculty of Engineering (ITER)

S‘O’A Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India-751030
c 2018 Kundan Kumar, All Rights Reserved
Introduction Analog system representation Types of Filters Transfer Function References

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Analog system representation

3 Types of Filters

4 Transfer Function

5 References

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Introduction Analog system representation Types of Filters Transfer Function References

Fundamentals

• Analog active filters: Special class of electrical circuits.

• These filters make use of resistance, R, capacitance, C, and

inductance, L. In addition to the above, we use active devices like
OPAMPs to obtain gain.
• Inductors are rarely used in filters as their size makes it difficult to
be implemented in integrated circuits.
• In general, we need resistances, capacitances and OPAMPs to
create an analog filter.

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Introduction Analog system representation Types of Filters Transfer Function References

Analog systems representation

• Two separate representations of two-port networks.

Figure: Two-port network: floating input and output ports

Figure: Two-port network: input and output have a common ground1

1
Rolf Schaumann and Mac Elwyn Van Valkenburg. Design of analog filters. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press New
York, 2001. 3/22
Introduction Analog system representation Types of Filters Transfer Function References

Analog systems representation

• Time domain:
The time domain representation is given as follows.

v1 (t) = V1 cos(ωt + θ1 ) (1)

v2 (t) = V2 cos(ωt + θ2 ) (2)

• Phasor:
The phasor notation of the same is given as

V¯1 = |V¯1 |ejθ1 = V1 ∠θ1 (3)

V¯2 = |V¯2 |ejθ2 = V2 ∠θ2 (4)

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Introduction Analog system representation Types of Filters Transfer Function References

Analog systems representation

• Laplace transform:
Many a times the input and output quantities are expressed using
Laplace Transforms as V1 (s) and V2 (s) where s = σ + jω is the
complex frequency variable.

• V¯1 and V¯2 are complex numbers which can be represented using
their magnitude and phase angle as follows.

V¯1 = V¯1 (s)s=σ+jω = |V¯1 (jω)|ejθ1 (ω) (5)

V¯2 = V¯2 (s)s=σ+jω = |V¯2 (jω)|ejθ2 (ω) (6)

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Introduction Analog system representation Types of Filters Transfer Function References

Analog systems representation

• Transfer Function:
The ratio of the individual Laplace transforms can be used to find
the transfer function of the system.

V¯2 (s) Output quantity

T (s) = ¯ = (7)
V1 (s) Input quantity

• Frequency response:
The frequency response can be written as
V¯2 (jω) |V¯2 (jω)|ejθ2 (ω)
T (jω) = V¯1 (jω)
= |V¯1 (jω)|ejθ1 (ω)
(8)
|V¯2 (jω)|
|T (jω)| = |V¯1 (jω)|
(9)
∠T (jω) = θ(ω) = θ2 (ω) − θ1 (ω) (10)
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Decibels
• When |T (jω)| > 1 ⇒ amplifier.
• When |T (jω)| < 1 ⇒ attenuation.

• The amplification factor or gain, α(ω), is defined as

α(ω) = 20 log(|T (jω)|) dB (11)

• Hence, when |T (jω)| > 1, α(ω) > 0 dB (positive) → Gain
when |T (jω)| < 1, α(ω) < 0 dB (negative). → Loss
• We can rewrite the above as

|T (jω)| = 10α(ω)/20
|T (jω)| = 100.05α(ω)

• Can you find the half-power attenuation?

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Introduction Analog system representation Types of Filters Transfer Function References

Decibels
• The following relationship while using the dB notation.
-1 dB implies approximately 10 % decrease in the value of |T |.
-2 dB implies approximately 20 % decrease in the value of |T |.
-3 dB implies approximately 30 % decrease in the value of |T |.
-6 dB implies approximately 50 % decrease in the value of |T |.
-20 dB implies approximately? 90 % decrease in the value of |T |.

Loss Gain
α (dB) |T (jω)| α (dB) |T (jω)|
-100 10−5 100 105
-60 10−3 60 103
-20 10−1 20 10
-6 0.501 6 1.995
-3 0.707 3 1.414
-1 0.891 1 1.122
-0.1 0.989 0.1 1.011
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Four common type filters

Figure: The four basic types of filters: Ideal (solid lines) and practical (dashed lines)
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Introduction Analog system representation Types of Filters Transfer Function References

Four common type filters

• Low pass filter- Passband: ω = 0 to ω = ωc ,

Stopband: ω = ωc to ω = ∞
• High pass filter- Passband: ω = ωc to ω = ∞,
Stopband: ω = 0 to ω = ωc
• Band pass filter- Passband: ω = ω1 to ω = ω2 ,
Stopband: ω = 0 to ω = ω1 and ω = ω2 to ω = ∞. (ω1 < ω2 )
• Band stop filter-
Passband: ω = 0 to ω = ω1 and ω = ω2 to ω = ∞,
Stopband: ω = ω1 to ω = ω2 . (ω1 < ω2 )
These filters are also sometimes referred to as notch filters.
In practice there exist different type of filters other than these listed
four. But filtering action can usually be visualized in terms of these
four basic filter types.
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Types of filters and descriptive technology

• Filters are classified the way they work.

• Over the frequency range of interest, a filter has some passbands
and stopbands.
• For the ideal filter, over a passband the filter gain |T | = 1, so the
input is passed without any attenuation or gain.
• But over a stopband |T | = 0, which means that the transmission is
blocked completely.
• In practice, it is not possible to realize the ideal transfer functions.
• Real filters transfer function consisting of a finite number of
elements.

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Transfer function constraints

For real circuits, the transfer function takes the following form:

N (s) bm sm + bm−1 sm−1 + ... + b1 s + b0

T (s) = = (12)
D(s) an sn + an−1 sn−1 + ... + a1 s + a0
Here the following conditions are to be met for a practically realizable
filter.
1. The coefficients ai , i = 1, ...n and bj , j = 1, ...m have to be real
numbers.
2. The coefficients bj , j = 1, ...m can be positive, negative or zero,
but ai , i = 1, ...n must be all positive. If these restrictions are
violated then the circuit will oscillate and the transfer function can
not be realized with positive elements.
3. The degree of denominator must satisfy n ≥ m so that the circuit
can be realized using finite number of elements.
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Attenuation characteristics
The filter response can be visualized both in linear magnitude or gain
characteristics T (jω) or through the logarithmic attenuation
characteristics α(ω).
1. In a passband the tolerance
is always less than a
maximum attenuation
designated as αmax .
2. In a stopband the tolerance
is always more than a
minimum attenuation
designated as αmin .
3. Bands between passbands
and stopbands are known as
transition bands.
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Filter Specifications
• On previous slide, the attenuation characteristics of a lowpass filter
is shown.
• Here the terms αmax , αmin , ωp , and ωs are known as the filter
specifications.
Given the four quantities αmax , αmin , ωp and ωs ,
find an attenuation specification that satisfies all four requirements.
• Design process determines the transfer function T (s) in such a way
that α(ω) meets all four requirements.
• For the lowpass filter it means α(ω) ≤ αmax in ω ≤ ωp and
α(ω) ≥ αmin in ω ≥ ωs .

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Why analog filters?

Analog filters are widely used for the following reasons.

• Well established theoretical and mathematical foundation (since
1915).
• High degree of perfection.
• Variable gain by use of active devices.
• Inexpensive yet accurate.
• Can be integrated into ICs for high frequencies.
• Can be used in a range of frequencies.
• Provides a sound base for design of stable digital IIR filters.

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Magnitude and Frequency Scaling

• Allows us to design filters with critical frequencies near to

ω = 1 rad/s.
• It permits us to deal with dimensionless specifications and
components without being worried for units.
• Also design of filters require extensive use of design tables.
• These design tables contain data for the so-called normalized
filters. A normalized LPF is defined to have passband frequency ω
in 0 ≤ ω ≤ ωp = 1 and stopband in 1 ≤ ωs ≤ ω ≤ ∞.
• These prototype filters are designed with normalized dimensionless
components from which actual components are obtained by using
denormalization.

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Magnitude and Frequency Scaling

• The relationship between physical elements R, L and C and

normalized representations Rn , Ln and Cn are:

ωS 1
Ln = L, Cn = ωS RS C, Rn = R (13)
RS RS
RS 1
L= Ln , C= Cn , R = RS Rn (14)
ωS ωS RS
• Here RS is an arbitrary scaling resistor (Ohms) that normalizes the
impedance level and ωS is the angular velocity that scales and
normalizes the frequency axis, such that ω/ωS = 1 at the passband
corner.

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Example

Question 01: Assume that a prototype filter was designed, and

design tables indicate that Rn = 1, Ln = 3.239, and Cn = 1.455 are
the required normalized components. If the impedance level is
selected as Rs = 1, 200Ω and the frequency was normalized by
ωs = 10.8M rad/s = 10, 800.000rad/s,
Then compute, real inductor, resister, and capacitor values.

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Home work

1. Calculate the rate of attenuation in dB/octave and dB/decade as

f approaches zero and infinity in the following function.

3s2 (s2 + 36)

T (s) = (15)
s4 + 2.344s3 + 1.824s2 + 1.267s + 0.987
2. An engineer is asked to build a filter to realize the following
transfer function.
3s6 + 2s2 − 0.8s + 1
T (s) = (16)
S 5 + 2.5s4 + (1.8 + 3i)s2 − 1.388s + 0.6

The engineer objects that the function is not realizable. List all the
items that are wrong in the function as stated.

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Home work

1. The normalized component values of an LC filter are

L1 = 1.2547, L2 = 0.9873, L3 = 0.8765, C1 = 2.5632 and
C2 = 1.5764. The impedance level is normalized by R0 = 300Ω
and the normalizing frequency is f0 = 10.8 MHz. Find the values
of denormalized components.
2. According to a design table, the normalized components of an
active filter are computed as
R1 = 1.243, R2 = 1.677, R2 = 1.677, C1 = 0.765 and C2 = 0.765.
The amplifier gain is required to be K = 1.93, the normalizing
frequency is required to be f0 = 360kHz. Choose the impedance
level such that the filter can be built with C = 0.05 nF capacitors.
Determine the remaining elements of the circuit, including the final
value of amplifier gain.

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References

[1] Rolf Schaumann and Mac Elwyn Van Valkenburg. Design of

analog filters. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press New York, 2001.

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