Module 2

THE GENERAL TEACHING MODEL

Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define the general teaching model
 Explain the components of the general teaching model
 Identify the four characteristic of a good instructional objective
 Discuss the different types of instructional objectives or learning
outcomes that educators seek to achieve

MODULE OUTLINE

2.1 The general teaching model

a) WHAT DO I TEACH?
2.2. The ABCD of instructional objectives
2.3 Alignment between instruction and assessment
2.4 Determining the behaviours to teach
2.5 Cognitive learning outcomes
2.6 Affective learning outcome
2.7 Psychomotor learning outcomes
b) WHO AM I TEACHING?
c) HOW DO I TEACH?
d) HOW DO I KNOW I HAVE
BEEN EFFECTIVE?
Key Terms
Summary
References

In this module we will discuss about General Teaching Model which is applicable in
teaching any body of knowledge at any level from pre-school until tertiary education.
Focus will be on the four major phases of the teaching process. Most important is
knowing what to teach, how to teach, knowing the learners we are teaching and
finding out whether we have done the right thing; i.e. whether we have achieved our
objectives.

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Curriculum [Content]
 Prior knowledge
Instructional Objectives  Abilities
 Cognitive  Aptitudes
 Affective  Attitudes
 Psychomotor  Values
 Interests

1. WHAT DO
I TEACH? 2. WHO AM I
TEACHING?

Feedback

Feedback

Feedback
4. HOW DO I
KNOW I HAVE 3.HOW DO
BEEN EFFECTIVE? I TEACH?

 Lecture
 Collaborative
Learning
 Role-playing
 Examination Selection of
 Simulations
 Tests Instructional Strategies
 Problem-Bases
 Quiz Learning
 Practicals
 Observation  Whiteboard
 Portfolios  Video clips
Selection of Instructional
 Apparatus
Materials
 Virtual reality

 Introduction
Design & Development of  Set induction
Instructional Sequence  Steps/ Procedures
 Activities
 Closure

Figure 2.1 The General Teaching Model

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2.1 The General Teaching Model

The General Teaching Model is a procedural guide for the design, implementation,
evaluation, and improvement of instruction. The Model is considered applicable to all
levels of education, all subject matters, and any length of instructional unit (Miles and
Robinson, 1971). It consists of four basic components: (see Figure 2.1).

1) instructional objectives [What do I Teach?]

2) pre-assessment [Who am I Teaching?]
3) instructional procedures [How do I Teach?]
4) evaluation [How do I Know I am Effective?]

 The selection and specification of instructional objectives is probably the most

important step in the Model. Once an instructional objective is selected, according
to one of several possible models, it should be specified in behavioural terms
which describe what students are to be able to do upon completing a unit of
instruction.
 Pre-assessment is probably most essential when an instructor is beginning a unit
of instruction and is unfamiliar with his students' skills, knowledge, and attitudes.
 The design of the instructional procedures involves selecting the modes of
instruction which appear most efficient, selecting instructional materials,
preparing new instructional materials when necessary, and developing a sequential
plan.
 The most important thing in designing evaluative measures is that the instrument
measure the identical behaviour specified in the objectives.

2.1 ACTIVITY
Refer to the General Teaching Model
a) To what extent have you used the GTM in your teaching?
b) What kind of pre-assessment have you done to
understand your students?
c) How have you used evaluation results to improve your
teaching?

a) WHAT DO I TEACH?
When educators are asked what should they teach,, the majority would refer to
the curriculum or more specifically the syllabus which stipulate the facts, concepts,
principles, procedures and methods of a subject area. Some would insist that that
skills should be taught especially in subjects such as physical education, art, drama,
music, technical drawing, carpentry, automobile engineering and so forth. Perhaps, a
fewer educators would propose that the socio-emotional behaviour should also be
taught.

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National Philosophy of Malaysian Education

Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the

potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonic, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such as
effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and
competent, who possess high moral standards and who are responsible and
capable of achieving high level of personal well-being as well as being able to
contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and the nation
at large.

[Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia, 1988]

Refer to the National Philosophy of Malaysian Education which has important

implications for instruction and assessment. Theoretically, a comprehensive education
system should seek to develop the holistic personas enshrined in the National
Philosophy of Education.. In other words, teaching and learning in schools should
seek to:
 develop ―the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner‖ ,
 develop students ―intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically‖
 ensure that students are ―knowledgeable and competent‖ and ―possess high
moral standards‖,
 ensure that students have a ―high level of personal well-being‖,
 ensure that students are equipped with abilities and attitudes that will
enable them ―to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family,
society and the nation at large‖.

Yet in practice, teaching and assessment tends to overemphasise intellectual

competence which translates into the teaching and measurement of cognitive learning
outcomes of specific subject areas. The other aspects of the holistic individual are
minimally given attention because of various reasons. For example, teachers find it
difficult to enhance the spiritual and emotional development of students. These are
constructs that are difficult to teach and evaluate and extremely subjective.
Hence, it is no surprise that teaching and assessment of cognitive outcomes
has remained the focus of most teaching and assessment systems all over the world
because it is relatively easier to observe and measure. However, in this Module we
will make an attempt to present a more ―holistic‖ instructional system focusing on
three main types of human behaviour. These are behaviours educator have attempted
to develop and are closely aligned in realising the goals of most education systems.

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2.2 THE ‘ABCD’ OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Before discussing ―WHAT TO TEACH?‖ by focusing on the THREE

BEHAVIOURS, we will elaborate on the construction of INSTRUCTIONAL
OBJECTIVES or Learning Outcomes which is first phase of the General Teaching
Model. According to Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino (2001), well written
objectives should have four parts. They call these parts the ABCD's of instructional
objectives. The A stands for Audience, the B represents Behavior, the C stands for
Condition and the D for Degree of Accuracy. Each instructional objective is written in
sentence format and should contain the A, B, C and D (see Figure 2.2). Let's take a
closer look at each of these.

The AUDIENCE
The Audience is the group of learners that the objective is written for. This is usually
written ―the learner or the student should be able to ……‖ It could also be written
specifically. For example, "The year three primary student" or the ―year four
secondary students should be able to……‖ Remember to make it simple so that the
objective does not get too wordy.

The BEHAVIOUR
The Behaviour is a verb that describes an observable activity – what the student will
do. The behaviour is generally stated as an action verb, such as: solve, compare, list,
explain, evaluate, identify or define (Remember the verbs listed for the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor taxonomies discussed earlier). The behaviour is the verb
that describes what the learner (audience) will be able to do after the instruction. This
is the heart of the objective and MUST be measurable AND observable. In addition,
these verbs MUST be specific. Verbs such as know, understand, comprehend,
appreciate are difficult to measure and are therefore not good choices for specific
objectives.

BEHAVIOUR

AUDIENCE CONDITION DEGREE

Figure 2.2 ABCD Building Blocks for Objectives

The CONDITION
The Condition defines the materials that will be available (or unavailable) when the
objective is assessed. It generally states what the student will be given or not given.
Example of conditions for objectives might include:

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o With the use of a calculator...
o Given a map of Malaysia...
o Given relevant apparatus...

Conditions are the circumstances under which the objective must be completed. Will
the instructor allow the student to use a calculator? a map? class notes? and so forth.
Obviously it would be much more difficult to make calculations without a calculator
than with one!

The DEGREE
The Degree identifies the standard or criterion that the learner must meet to reach
acceptable performance. In other words, what degree of accuracy does the learner
have to meet in order that his or her performance be judged proficient? The degree of
accuracy should be related to real-world expectations. The Degree is the standard that
is used to measure whether or not the objective has been achieved. The criterion
might be stated as a percentage (80% correct), a time limit (within 30 minutes), or any
another measure of mastery.
For example, an objective might be:
"Given a list of twenty Asian countries (condition), the student will identify
(behaviour) at least fifteen (criteria) of the corresponding capital cities."

2.3 ALIGNMENT BETWEEN INSTRUCTION AND ASSESSMENT

After the objectives are written, it is relatively easy to create a corresponding

assessment item. For example, if the objective to be taught is about Newton‘s Laws
of Motion, the test items should be designed to measure specifically the type of
learning specified in the objective and taught to the class (Dwyer, 1991). After writing
learning objectives, you should think about how to assess the students‘ achievement
of the different learning objectives. Learning objectives define the scope and methods
of assessment.
Students need to know what they must do to achieve in a subject area. What
are the assignments or essays they need to write? What projects they need to
undertake? How will they be assessed and graded? What you teach should determine
how you need to assess learning. You should tie your objectives with your assessment
to achieve the expected results. Figure 2.3 which is an adaptation from Dwyer (1991)
shows a mismatch of the objectives, instruction and assessment. In this case:

o Objectives: Objectives were set to problem-solving using analogies (critical

thinking),
o Instruction: Instead lower levels of learning, such as definition of concepts
and principles were taught to students
o Assessment: But the students were assessed with tasks requiring them to solve
problems using analogies.

It is not surprising that students will perform poorly when assessed on the problem-
solving tasks.

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Figure 2.3 Non-Alignment between Instruction and Assessment

The ideal situation would be as shown in Figure 2.4.

o Objectives: The teacher sets the objectives to teach problem-solving.

o Instruction: Instruction is designed for the teaching of problem-solving.
Learning activities are introduced to enable students to practice problem-
solving skills using analogies.
o Assessment: The teacher designs assessment instruments to measure the
problem-solving skills of students using analogies.

Figure 2.4 Alignment between Instruction and Assessment

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EXAMPLE OF ALIGNMENT BETWEEN OBJECIVES AND ASSESSMENT
METHODS FOR A SUBJECT AREA

Table 2.1 shows the appropriate assessment strategy for the various objectives
(King, 1976). As can be seen, the 'cognitive continuum' begins with memorizing and
recall of factual information for which the appropriate form of assessment is an
objective test, in which the learner takes a largely passive role. A series of
progressively higher levels are then identified up to that where the learner is required
to show independent and creative thought, such as in work connected with research
projects.

Objectives Appropriate Assessment Methods

Memorizing factual knowledge Objective tests

Understanding key concepts and Short essays
principles
Ability to think critically Medium or long essays
Independence, creativity and problem- Project or dissertation
solving
Orientations and attitudes Individual and group projects,
dissertations, long essays
Practical skills Continuously assessed practical work
Oral skills Vivas, assessed classroom
presentations, assessed games and
simulations

Table 2.1 Objectives and Assessment methods

The testing of attitudes and orientations is considered when students carry our
projects or long essays either individually or in groups. Practical (motor) skills, a
collective title for a group of skills that are important in subjects such as science,
computer science, geology, geography, physical education, music and other which
demand tests of technical proficiency best achieved by continuously assessed practical
work. In contrast, oral skills, are examined formally through a viva, but are better
assessed through observation of classroom presentations, assessed games and
simulations and other forms of group learning.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
a) What is the consequence of non-alignment between instruction
and assessment?
b) To what extent does this happen?

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2.4 Determining the Behaviours to Teach

THREE TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OR LEARNING

OUTCOMES
Few people will dispute that the purpose of schooling is the development of
the holistic person. In the late 50s and early 60s, a group of psychologists and
psychometricians proposed that schools should seek to develop THREE domains of
learning outcomes (see Figure 2.5):

 Cognitive learning outcomes (knowledge or mental skills),

 Affective learning outcomes (growth in feelings or emotional areas) and,
 Psychomotor learning outcomes (manual or physical skills).

COGNITIVE PSYCHOMOTOR AFFECTIVE

Knowledge (K) Skills (S) Attitude (A) / Values

Figure 2.5 Holistic Assessment of Learners

Domains can be thought of as categories. Educators often refer to these three

domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). Each domain consists of
subdivisions, starting from the simplest behaviours to the most complex forming a
taxonomy of learning outcomes. Each taxonomy of learning behaviours can be
thought of as "the goals of the schooling process." That is, after schooling, the
learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes. However, the
level for each divisions outlined are not absolutes. There are other systems or
hierarchies that have been introduced in education, but these three taxonomies are
probably the most widely used today.
To teach according to the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains, you
have to identify and isolate those behaviours that represent these domains. When we
teach we are seeking to develop a particular aspect of the learner‘s behaviour; e.g. his
or her ability to compare, explain, analyse, solve, draw, pronounce, feel, reflect and so
forth. The term ‗behaviour‘ is used broadly to include the learner‘s ability to think
(cognitive), feel (affective) and perform a skill (psychomotor). For example, when
teach about the ―The Malaysian Rainforest‖ you want students to:
 list the characteristics of the Malaysian rainforest and compare it with the
coniferous forest of Canada.
 have feelings (emotions, attitudes), about the forest and they could
contribute towards conserving the rainforest.

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 have the skill, of reading satellite maps about the changing Malaysian
rainforest using websites from the internet.

2.2 ACTIVITY
Refer to Figure 2.5.
To what extent are affective and psychomotor behaviours or
learning outcomes assessed in you school system.
Explain why?

2.5 COGNITVE Outcomes or Behaviours

When we teach a human being, we are seeking to develop a particular the

behaviour of that person. This might be a bit confusing to some people. Are we not
teaching for understanding of the facts, concepts and principles of a subject area?
Every subject, whether it be history, science, geography, economics, or mathematics
has is unique repertoire of facts, concepts, principles, generalisations, theories, laws,
procedures and methods that is transmitted to learners.

EXAMPLE OF THE CONTENTS OF A

SUBJECT:

Facts Numbers Formulae

Concepts Principles Generalisations History, Science,
Graphs Tables Maps Economics, Mathematics,
Diagrams Pictures Equipment Geography, Commerce,
Artefacts Procedures Sound Biology, Physics, Civics,
Movement Drawings Animation Art, Music, Physical
Education and so forth
Theories Laws Methods

WHAT LEARNERS ARE ABLE

TO DO WITH THE CONTENTS
OF A SUBJECT
 Compare  Analyse  Predict
 Explain  Apply  Reflect
 Evaluate  Draw  Feel
 Solve  Interpret

Figure 2.6 Contents of a Subject that is Taught

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However, when we teach we do not teach only the facts, concepts or principles
of a subject, but rather what learners are able to do with the facts, concept or
principles of a subject area. For example, teach the learner to compare the facts,
explain the concept, analyse a generalisation (or statement) or solve a problem based
on a given principle. In other words, we teach understanding or mastery of a body of
knowledge based upon what learners are able to do with the contents of the subject.
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists and
educationists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour
important to learning. They found that over 95% of teaching and test questions
students encountered required them to think only at the lowest possible level, i.e. the
recall of information. Bloom and his colleagues developed a widely accepted
taxonomy (method of classification on differing levels) for cognitive objectives. This
is referred to as Bloom's Taxonomy (see Figure 2.7). There are six levels in Bloom‘s
classification with the lowest level termed ―knowledge‖. The knowledge level is
followed by five increasingly difficult levels of mental abilities: comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

EVALUATION
Higher Order Learning Outcomes

SYNTHESIS

ANALYSIS

APPLICATION

COMPREHENSION

KNOWLEDGE Lower Order Learning Outcomes

Figure 2.7 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Learning Outcomes

 Knowledge: The behaviours at the knowledge level require students to recall

specific information. The knowledge level is the lowest cognitive level.
Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the knowledge level include the
ability to list, define, name, state, recall, match, identify, tell, label, underline,
locate, recognises, select, and so forth. For example students‘ ability to recite

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the factors leading to World War II, quote formula for density and force, list
laboratory safety rules.

 Comprehension: The behaviours at the comprehension level which is a

higher level of mental ability than the knowledge level requires understanding
of the meaning of concepts and principles, translation of words and phrases
into one‘s own words, interpolation which involves filling in missing
information, and interpretation which involves inferring and going beyond the
given information. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the
comprehension level are explain, distinguish, infer, interpret, convert,
generalise, defend, estimate, extend, paraphrase, retell in using own words,
predict, rewrite, summarise, translate and so forth. For example, students are
able to explain in one‘s own words the meaning of a poem, interpret graphs
and tables, able to estimate the cost of advertising.

 Application: The behaviours at the application level require the learner to

apply a rule or principle learned in the classroom into novel or new situations
in real world. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the application level
are apply, change, compute, demonstrate, discover, manipulate, modify, give
an example, operate, predicts, prepare, produce, relate, show, solve, use and
so forth. For example, students are able to use the formula for projectile
motion to calculate the maximum distance a long jumper can jump; apply laws
of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test, predict the
consequences of government subsidies.

 Analysis: The behaviours at the analysis level require the learner to identify
component parts and describe their relationship; break down material or
concepts into its component parts, distinguishes between facts and
inferences. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the analysis level are
analyse, break down, compare, contrast, diagram, deconstruct, examine,
dissect, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, identify, illustrate, infer,
outline, relate, select, separate. For example, students are able to troubleshoot
a piece of equipment by using logical deduction, recognise logical fallacies in
reasoning, gather information from a company and determine needs for
training.

 Synthesis: The behaviours at the analysis level require the learner to build a
structure or pattern from diverse elements, put parts together to form a whole
with emphasis on creating new meaning, structure, object or procedure.
Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the synthesis level are categorise,
combine, compile, compose, create, devise, design, explain, generate, modify,
organise, plan, rearrange, reconstruct, relate, reorganise, find an unusual
way, formulate, revise, rewrite, summarise, tell, write and so forth. For
example, students are able to write a creative short story, design a method to
perform a specific task, integrate ideas from several sources to solve a
problem, revise and process to improve the outcome.

 Evaluation: The behaviours at the analysis level require the learner at the
evaluation level to make a judgment about events, materials and methods; and

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make judgment about the value of ideas or materials. Examples of verbs
describing behaviours at the evaluation level are appraise, compare, conclude,
contrast, criticise, critique, defend, describe, rank, give your own opinion,
discriminate, evaluate, explain, interpret, value, justify, relate, summarise,
support and so forth. For example, students are able to evaluate and decide on
the most effective solution to a problem, justify the choice of a new procedure
or course of action.

“THE HELPFUL HUNDRED”

Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino (2001) suggested 100 verbs that highlight
performance or behaviours that may be taught. This is not to say that these 100 verbs
are the only ones but they definitely are a great reference for educators. Table 2.2
below displays the verbs that would be appropriate to use when you are writing
instructional objectives at each level of Bloom‘s taxonomy.

add compute drill label predict state

alphabetise conduct estimate locate prepare subtract
analyse construct evaluate make present suggest
apply contrast explain manipulate produce swing
arrange convert extrapolate match pronounce tabulate
assemble correct fit measure read throw
attend cut generate modify reconstruct time
bisect deduce graph multiply reduce translate
build defend grasp name remove type
cave define grind operate revise underline
categorise demonstrate hit order select verbalise
choose derive hold organise sketch verify
classify describe identify outline ski weave
color design illustrate pack solve weigh
compare designate indicate paint sort write
complete diagram install plot specify
compose distinguish kick position square

Table 2.2 “The Helpful Hundred”

2.3 ACTIVITY
a) Do you agree that that Bloom‘s taxonomy is a hierarchy
of cognitive abilities, which means one level should follow
before another?
b) How useful is the ‗helpful hundred‘ for learning outcomes
in you subject area?

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REVISED VERSION OF BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

In 2001, Krathwohl and Anderson modified the original Bloom‘s Taxonomy

(`1956) and identified and isolated the following list of behaviours that an
instructional system should address (see Table 2.3).

Categories and Cognitive Alternative Names

Processes

1. Remember
1.1 Recognising Identifying
1.2 Recalling Retrieving

2. Understand
2.1 Interpreting Clarifying, paraphrasing, representing, translating
2.2 Exemplifying Illustrating, instantiating
2.3 Classifying Categorizing, subsuming
2.4 Summarizing Abstracting, generalizing
2.5 Inferring Concluding, extrapolating, interpolating, predicting
2.6 Comparing Contrasting, mapping, matching
2.7 Explaining Constructing models

3. Apply
3.1 Executing Carrying out
3.2 Implementing Using

4. Analyse
4.1 Differentiating Discriminating, distinguishing, focusing, selecting
4.2 Organizing Finding coherence, integrating, outlining, structuring
4.3 Attributing Deconstructing

5. Evaluate Coordinating, detecting, monitoring, testing

5.1 Checking Judging
5.2 Critiquing

6. Create
6.1 Generating Hypothesising
5.2 Planning Designing
6.3 Producing Constructing

Table 2.3 Revised Version of Bloom’s Taxonomy

Note that the sequencing of some of the levels has been rearranged and also
renamed. The first two original levels of ‗knowledge‘ and ‗comprehension‘ were
replaced with ‗remember‘ and ‗understand‘ respectively. The ‗synthesis‘ level was
renamed with the term ‗create‘. Note that in the original taxonomy the sequence was

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‗synthesis‘ followed by ‗evaluate‘. In the modified taxonomy, the sequence was
rearranged to ‗evaluate‘ followed by ‗create‘.

SELF-CHECK 2.3
a) Explain the difference between ‗analysis‘ and ‗synthesis‘
according to Bloom‘s Taxonomy.
b) How is the revised version of Bloom‘s Taxonomy different
From the original 1956 version?

2.6 AFFECTIVE Outcomes or Behaviours

Affective characteristics involve the feelings or emotions of a person.

Attitudes, values, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, interests, aspirations and
anxiety are all examples of affective characteristics. Unfortunately, affective
outcomes have not been a central part of instruction and assessment in schooling,
even though they are arguably as important perhaps even more important than
cognitive or psychomotor learning outcomes. Some possible reasons for the historical
lack of emphasis on affective outcomes include:

 The belief that development of appropriate feelings is the task of the family and
religion.
 The belief that feelings, emotions and values develop automatically from
knowledge and experience with content and thus do not require any special
pedagogical focus.
 Attitudinal and value-oriented instruction are difficult to develop and assess
because:
1. affective objectives and outcomes
are intangible.
2. affective objectives and outcomes
cannot be attained in the typical
periods of instruction offered in
schools.
3. affective behaviours are considered
private and not to be made public.
4. the methods for obtaining
information about affective
behaviours are less reliable
compared to cognitive measurement
instruments.

However, some educationists, psychologists and

psychometricians have argued that affective Figure 2.6 Affective behaviours
goals are no more intangible than cognitive ones. can be developed in the classroom
In terms of developing affective behaviours,
some have claimed that affective behaviours can
be developed automatically when specific knowledge are taught (see Figure 2,6).

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Others argue that affective behaviours have to be explicitly developed through special
programmes. Affective goals do not necessarily take longer to achieve in the
classroom than cognitive goals. All that is required is to state a goal more concretely
and behaviourally oriented so that and it can be assessed and monitored.
There is also the belief that affective characteristics are private and should not
be made public. There is a conflict between privacy and right to information. If the
information gathered is needed to make a decision, than gathering of such information
is not generally considered an invasion of privacy. For example, if the assessment is
used to determine if a student needs further attention such as special education, than
gathering such information is not an invasion of privacy. On the other hand, if the
information gathered is not relevant to the stated purpose, then gathering of such
information is likely to be an invasion of privacy.
Similarly, information about affect can be used for good or ill. For example, if
a mathematics teacher discovers a student has a high level of anxiety towards
mathematics, and ridicules that student in front of the class, then the information has
been misused. But if the teacher uses the information to change his or her
instructional methods so as to help the student develop a more positive attitude
towards mathematics, then the information has been used wisely. Krathwohl, Bloom
and Bertram and his colleagues developed the affective domain in 1973 which deals
with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms,
motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories listed the simplest behaviour to
the most complex: receiving, responding, valuing, organisation and characterisation
(see Figure 2.8).

THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

CHARACTERISATION Complex - Behaviour becomes

part of one’s value system

ORGANISATION

VALUING

RESPONDING

Simplest - One becomes aware of

RECEIVING the behaviour

Figure 2.8 Krathwohl, Bloom & Bertram’s Taxonomy of Affective

 Receiving: The behaviours at the receiving level require the learner to be

aware, willing to hear and focus attention. Examples of verbs describing

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behaviours at the receiving level are asking, choosing, describing, following,
giving, holding, locating, naming, pointing to, selecting, replying, and so forth.

For example, the student

o listens to others with respect,
o listens and remembers the names of other students.

 Responding: The behaviours at the responding level requires the learner to be

an active participant, attend to and react to a particular phenomenon, willing to
respond and gaining satisfaction in responding (motivation). Examples of
verbs describing behaviours at the responding level are answers, assists, aids,
complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices,
presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.

For example, the student

o participates in class discussion,
o gives a presentation,
o questions new ideas, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand
them.

 Valuing: This level relates to the worth or value a person attaches to a

particular object, phenomenon, or behaviour. This ranges from simple
acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the
internalisation of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are
expressed in the learner as overt behaviour and are often identifiable.
Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the valuing level are
demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins,
justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

For example, the student

o demonstrates belief in the democratic process,
o is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value
diversity),
o shows the ability to solve problems,
o proposes a plan to social improvement
o follows through with commitment.

 Organisation: At this level, a person organises values into priorities by

contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an
unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and
synthesizing values. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the level of
organisation are adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes,
defends, explains, formulates, generalises, identifies, integrates, modifies,
orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesises.

For example the student

o recognises the need for balance between freedom and responsible
behaviour,
o accepts responsibility for his or her behaviour,
o explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems,

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o accepts professional ethical standards,
o creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs,
o prioritises time effectively to meet the needs of the organisation,
family and self.

 Characterisation: At this level, a person‘s value system controls his or her

behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most
importantly, characteristic of the learner. Examples of verbs describing
behaviours at this level are acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens,
modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves,
solves, verifies.

For example the student

o shows self-reliance when working independently,
o cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork)
o uses an objective approach in problem solving
o displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis
o revises judgment and changes behavior in light of new evidence.
o values people for what they are not how they look.

2.4 ACTIVITY
a) To what extent are affective learning outcomes assessed
in your school system?
b) Do you think that the development of the affective
domain should be given priority?

AN EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION OF THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

Table 2.4 shows how the affective taxonomy may be applied to a value such
as ‗honesty‘. It traces the development of an affective attribute such as honesty from
the ‗receiving‘ level until the ‗characterisation‘ level where the value becomes a part
of the individual‘s character. At the ―receiving‖ level, the individual is aware that
certain actions are honest while others are dishonest. This is followed by the
―responding‖ level in which the individual acknowledges and tell others what is
honest and what is dishonest. At the ―valuing‖ level, the individual tries to show
honest behaviour but may not be consistent. At the ―organisation‖ level, the individual
exhibits honest behaviour in many different situations. At the final level, which is
―characterisation‖, honesty becomes part of his or her value system and is honest in
all situations and expects others to be honest.

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An Affective Taxonomy for Honesty
 Receiving (attending)
o Aware that certain things are honest/dishonest
 Responding
o Saying honesty is better & behaving accordingly
 Valuing
o Consistently (but not always) telling the truth
 Organization
o Being honest in a variety of situations
 Characterization by a Value or Value Complex
o Honest in most situations — expects others to be honest —
interacts with others fully honestly

Table 2.4 An Affective Taxonomy of Honesty

2.5 ACTIVITY
a) What is meant when a student is operating at the
‗responding‘ and ‗valuing‘?
b) Select any one value and design a taxonomy using
Krathwohl, Bloom and Bertram‘s Taxonomy of Affective
Outcomes.

2.7 PSYCHOMOTOR Outcomes or Behaviour

The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use

of motor-skill. Development of these skills requires practice and is taught in terms of
speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major
categories listed from the simplest behaviour to the most complex are shown in Figure
2.10. The Taxonomy of Psychomotor Behaviours was introduced by Simpson in
1972.

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ORIGINATION
Complex Behaviour

ADAPTATION

OVERT RESPONSE

MECHANISM

GUIDED RESPONSE

SET

PERCEPTION Simplest Behaviour

Figure 2.10 The Taxonomy of Psychomotor Learning Outcomes

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

 Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This
ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.
Example of verbs describing these types of behaviours are choose, describe,
detect, differentiate, distinguish, identify, isolate, relate, select.

For example the student:

o detects non-verbal communication cues from the coach.
o estimates where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to
the correct location to catch the ball
o adjusts heat of the stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of
food.
o adjusts the height of the ladder in relation to the point on the wall.

 Set: It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are
dispositions that predetermine a person‘s response to different situations
(sometimes called mindsets). Examples of verbs describing ‗set‘ are begin,
display, explain, move, proceed, react, show, state, volunteer.

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For example the student:
o knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process
o recognises his or her abilities and limitations
o shows desire to learn a new process (motivation).

NOTE: This subdivision of the Psychomotor domain is closely related

with the "Responding" subdivision of the Affective domain.

 Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes
imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by
practicing. Examples of verbs describing ‗guided response‘ are copies, traces,
follows, react, reproduce, responds.

For example the student:

o performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated
o follows instructions when building a model of a kampong house
o responds to hand-signals of the coach while learning to learn
gymnastics.

 Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex

skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be
performed with some confidence and proficiency. Examples of verbs
describing ‘mechanism’ include assembles, calibrate, construct, dismantle,
display, fasten, fix, grind, heat, manipulate, measure, mend, mix, organise.

For example, the student:

o uses a computer
o repairs a leaking tap,
o fixes a three-pin electrical plug,
o rides a motorbike.

 Complex Overt Response: The skilful performance of motor acts that involve
complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and
highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This
category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic
performance. For example, players often utter sounds of satisfaction or
expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball (like Maria Sharpova and Serena
Williams!) or hit a golf ball (Golfers immediately know they have hit a bad
shot!), because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.
Examples of verbs describing ‗complex overt responses’ are assemble, build,
calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, fasten, fix, grind, heat, manipulate,
measure, mend, mix, organise, sketch.

For example, the student:

o drives a car into a tight parallel parking spot,
o operates a computer quickly and accurately,
o displays competence while playing the piano.

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NOTE that many of the verbs are the same as ‗mechanism‘, but will have adverbs
or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate,
etc.

 Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify
movement patterns to fit special requirements. Examples of verbs describing
‗adaptation‘ are adapt, alter, change, rearrange, reorganise, revise, vary.

For example the student:

o responds effectively to unexpected experiences,
o modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners,
o perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do
(machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new
task).

 Origination: Creating new movement or pattern to fit a particular situation or

specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasise creativity based upon highly
developed skills. Examples of verbs describing ‗origination‘ are: arrange, build,
combine, compose, construct, create, design, initiate, make, originate.

For example the student:

o constructs a new theory,
o develops a new technique for goalkeeping,
o creates a new gymnastic routine.

SELF-CHECK 2.4
c) Explain the difference between ‗adaptation‘ and ‗guided
response‘ according to the Psychomotor Taxonomy of
Learning Outcomes .
d) ‗Student operating at the origination level. Explain
From the original 1956 version?

2.6 ACTIVITY
In the table below, instructional objectives for several subjects
are given. Classify them according to the three domains,
namely cognitive, affective and psychomotor (and the r
respective domain levels). State your reasons or rationale for
your answer.

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Examples of Instructional Subject Domain Domain Reason/
Objectives Classification Level Rationale

At the end of the lesson the

student will be able to Biology
describe the wavelength,
diffraction, absorption,
reflection, transmission,
refraction and intensity of
light, and explain how each
concept is important to
human vision.
At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to define Biology
synapse, neurotransmitter
and action potential and
describe how neurons
communicate with each
other.
At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to Physics
discuss the evidence for light
as waves and as particles.
At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to sketch Physics
and interpret the
characteristic graph for a
metallic conductor at
constant temperature and for
a filament lamp
At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to Chemistry
identify the physical
properties of matter or
physical changes occurring
in a sample of matter
At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to Chemistry
appreciate the balance of
benefits and risks of
chemicals in our world
At the end of the lesson the
student will be able to Geography
Analyze geographic
information obtained from
maps, graphs, and tabular
data

At the end of the lesson the

student will be able to Geography
distinguish the world-wide
spatial distributions of major
demographic, cultural,
political, and economic

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Examples of Instructional Subject Domain Domain Reason/
Objectives Classification Level Rationale

attributes

At the end of the lesson the English

student will be able to
differentiate between regular
and irregular past verbs.

At the end of the lesson the English

student will be able to
identify and correctly use
prepositions

At the end of the lesson the History

student will be able to
identify important dates,
events, places, and persons,
that led to Malaysian
Independence.

At the end of the lesson the History

student will be able to relate
World War II to its most
probable causes

At the end of the lesson the

student will be able to apply Mathematics
rounding algorithms to
whole numbers, and
decimals including money.

At the end of the lesson,

given a series of written Mathematics
computation and word
problems involving whole
numbers, the student will
complete them with 80
percent accuracy as
measured by teacher-made
tests. The series of written
computations will be:
1. Adding to three digits with
regrouping,
2. Subtracting to three digits
with regrouping
3. Multiplying three digits by
three digits with
regrouping
4. Dividing by two digits

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b) WHO AM I TEACHING?

The second phase of the General Teaching Model is determining the

characteristics of students to be taught or pre-assessment. Pre- assessment is closely
related to prior knowledge. A quick pre-assessment of students‘ content knowledge
helps determine whether they have the necessary prior knowledge to make the
intellectual connections expected. If the pre-assessment indicates that students are
missing key content, then the course can be modified to meet their academic needs.
Pre-assessments need not be long and usually are not graded; they serve as a tool for
both student and teacher reflection. In short pre-assessment is used before formal
instruction begins for a particular topic and helps the teacher to decide where to begin.
Pre-assessment can be carried out before each topic and also at the beginning of a
course or school year for a particular subject.
The techniques for pre-assessment can be varied. For example to determine
what skills then the students have previously acquired with regards to using a
microscope can be easily determined by a simple observation by the teacher. To
determine how much the students know about the topic of multiplication, the teacher
can give a short oral or written quiz. Other techniques such as a short essay, a short
multiple choice item test can be employed.

One of the most important variables with learning is a student's prior

knowledge. By tapping into what students already know, teachers help
with the learning process. This is because learning is relating the new
information, or concepts, to what we already know. Activating prior
knowledge is like preparing the soil before sowing the seeds of
knowledge. (MOE, New Zealand, 2008)

Students come to the classroom with a wide range of information in their heads. This
is because of their daily experiences as they grow. Students also enter the classroom
with their own unique beliefs, attitudes and skills that they have acquired from their
early years. This prior knowledge is very important for continuous learning. Learning
theories show that this existing prior knowledge has its effect on new learning. Why is
this so?

Knowledge is a complex network of ideas, facts, principles, actions

and scenes. Therefore, prior knowledge is more than a building
block of information. It can facilitate, inhibit or transform a
common learning task. What kinds and amounts of knowledge one
has acquired before engaging a specific topic in a discipline affect
how one constructs meaning. (CDTL, Singapore, 2008)

Therefore, it is important for teachers to assess and ascertain what is this prior
knowledge in the teaching process.

Why is it important to help students activate their prior knowledge and connect
it to their reading materials?

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In general, the more students know about a topic, the better they comprehend and
learn from the passages. Because prior knowledge and ability to comprehend are
highly correlated, instruction that focuses on activating students' prior knowledge and
helping them relate their prior knowledge to the texts that they will read improves
comprehension.

How do we help children to activate their prior knowledge?

 Prompt students to think about what they know about the topic prior to
reading.
 Ask students to predict what the text may be about based on the title.
 Ask students to predict what the text may be about based on the illustrations

c) HOW DO I TEACH?

These will be discussed in Module 2 to 8. The selection of teaching or instructional

methods will depend on the instructional objectives or the learning desired.
 For example, if you want students to understand certain basic concepts, the
Direct Teaching Method (discussed in Module 1) may be appropriate,
especially if you have large classes.
 On the other hand if you want to encourage students to construct their own
knowledge and take charge for their own learning, then Problem-Based
Learning (discussed in Module 7) may be more appropriate.
 If you want students to develop group skills and learn to respect each others
opinions, perhaps collaborative learning techniques may be more appropriate
(discussed in Module 3).
 If you want students to experience the real-world and be able to apply the
concepts and principles learned in the subject, perhaps an Internship
(discussed in Module 6) would be relevant.

d) HOW DO I KNOW I HAVE BEEN EFFECTIVE?

At the end of any teaching, you would like to know how you have done. You
certainly do not want to leave it hanging, though educators are contended with just
teaching and leaving the learning to the students. Well, I have done my part and it is
left to the students to determine whether they have grasped what was taught! A good
teacher will want to know how he or she has done. Are the concepts well understood?
Can students apply the principles learned? Are the teaching methods appropriate? Did
the instructional materials I used helped students learn?
To be able to answer these questions, the teacher must make an effort to
evaluate student learning. More specifically, it seeks to assess whether the
instructional objectives or learning outcomes have been achieved. Only through the
evaluation process will the teacher be able to determine, for example, whether
students are able to apply the principles learned to real-world situations.
Among the common evaluation methods are examinations, tests, quizzes,
essays, projects, portfolios and others. The data obtained from these evaluation
instruments are analysed and the information obtained provides feedback to the
following (see Figure 2.1: The General Teaching Model):

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 The extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved.
Which objectives have been achieved? Which objectives have not been
achieved?
 It provides an insight into the teacher‘s earlier perception on their
students‘ prior knowledge, abilities, interests and skills. For example, it
is realised that students do not have background knowledge about the
topic being taught or students already know about the topic and scored
very high in the test.
 It provides information on the extent to which the instructional
methods used were effective. For example, the teacher used small
group discussion techniques but it proved ineffective because the
majority of students did not have sufficient knowledge about the topic
to be able to discuss it in small groups. Perhaps, a direct teaching
method would have been more appropriate to explain the basic
concepts and principles.
 Information from evaluation also provides an insight into the
instructional materials used. Were the learning materials too difficult?
Were the articles students were required to read too advanced?

SUMMARY

 The General Teaching Model is a procedural guide for the design,

implementation, evaluation, and improvement of instruction.

 In practice, teaching and assessment tends to overemphasise intellectual

competence which translates into the teaching and measurement of cognitive
learning outcomes of specific subject areas.

 Every subject area has is unique repertoire of facts, concepts, principles,

generalisations, theories, laws, procedures and methods that is transmitted to
learners.

 There are six levels in Bloom‘s Taxonomy of Cognitive Learning Outcomes

with the lowest level termed knowledge followed by five increasingly difficult
levels of mental abilities: comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation.

 Affective characteristics involve the feelings or emotions of a person.

Attitudes, values, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, interests,
aspirations and anxiety are all examples of affective characteristics.

 The five major categories of the Affective Domain from the simplest
behaviour to the most complex are receiving, responding, valuing,
organisation and characterisation.

 The Psychomotor Domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use

of the motor-skill areas.

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 The seven major categories of the Psychomotor Domain from the simplest
behaviour to the most complex are perception, set, guided response,
mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation and origination.

 Well written objectives should have four parts: Audience, Behavior, Condition
and Degree of Accuracy.

 The ideal situation is an alignment between objectives, instruction and

assessment.

KEY TERMS

The general teaching model Cognitive domain Analysis

Pre-assessment Affective domain Synthesis
Instructional objectives Psychomotor domain Characterisation
Learning outcomes Prior knowledge Valuing
Instructional strategies Helpful hundred Origination

REFERENCES

 Bengamin S. Bloom, Bertram B. Mesia, and David R. Krathwohl (1964).

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (two vols: The Affective Domain & The
Cognitive Domain). New York. David McKay.

 Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The

Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc.

 Dave, R. H. (1975). Developing and Writing Behavioural Objectives. New

York: Educational Innovators Press.

 Dwyer, F. M. (1991). A paradigm for generating curriculum design oriented

research questions in distance education. Second American Symposium
Research in Distance Education, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State
University.

 King, R. L. (1976) Assessment in geography: approaches to the formulation of

objectives, Studies in Higher Education, 1: 223-32.

 Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Bertram, B. M. (1973). Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II:
Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.

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 Harrow, A. (1972) A taxonomy of psychomotor domain -- a guide for
developing behavioral objectives. New York: David McKay.

 Heinich, R., M. Molenda, J. Russell, S. Smaldino (2001). Instructional Media

and Technologies for Learning, 7th Edition. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall,
Inc

 Simpson E. J. (1972). The Classification of Educational Objectives in the

Psychomotor Domain. Washington, DC: Gryphon House

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