Classroom Management Issues 0

Running head: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ISSUES IN ICT-MEDIATED LEARNING

ENVIRONMENTS

lassroom Management and ICT #ESC515

January 25, 2015rachel.thomason Leave a Comment
Share
Chai, Lim & Pek (2005) outline elements of classroom management that are essential for effective
ICT integration in the classroom. The perceived benefits of using ICT in the classroom such as
collaborative learning and higher order thinking will only impact positively on learning if the teacher
employs effective classroom management practices (Chai, Lim & Pek 2005). Incorporating effective
classroom management practices into my lesson plans will essentially involve considering the
activities that will support the use of ICT and non ICT tools, ensuring there are structured rules and
procedures to adhere to and being aware of the supporting roles of teachers, students and other
assistants within the classroom (Chai, Lim & Pek 2005).
Students will need to have adequate skills to complete the tasks using the ICT tools chosen and as the
teacher I can support this by scaffolding their learning with non ICT tools such as worksheets and
‘how to’ guides (Chai, Lim & Pek 2005). Within the classroom I can consider selecting ‘student
technology leaders’ who can assist their peers with technical or learning assistance and also perform
routine class roles within the lessons. This provides opportunities for me to then assume a role of
facilitator within the classroom and provide assistance to specific learners and teacher direction in
response to the students needs. Finally ensuring there are consistent and communicated rules and
procedures for each ICT lesson will ensure students are aware of the expectations and requirements
of the lesson. Effective rules and procedures will ensure the teacher can facilitate a positive learning
environment that is conducive to learning (Chai, Lim & Pek 2005).

Chai, C., Lim, C., & Pek, M. (2005) Classroom management issues in information and
communication technology (ICT)-mediated learning environments: back to the basics. Journal of
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia. 14(4) p391. Retrieved
from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/ps/i.do?id=GALE
%7CA142339826&v=2.1&u=csu_au&it=r&p=EAIM&sw=w
Classroom Management Issues 1

Classroom Management Issues in ICT-Mediated Learning Environments:

Back to the Basics

Cher Ping, Lim

Meow Sien, Pek

Ching Sing, Chai

National Institute of Education

Nanyang Technological University

1 Nanyang Walk

Singapore 637616
Classroom Management Issues 2

Classroom Management Issues in ICT-mediated Learning Environments:

Back to the Basics

Abstract

Research studies have shown that effective classroom management is a necessary condition for

successful ICT integration in schools. Drawing upon the classroom management practices of

teachers in a Singapore primary school, this paper describes how the elements of classroom

management facilitate the creation of a conducive learning environment to engage students in their

learning with computers. Observations of ICT-mediated lessons, interviews with teachers, and focus
group discussions with students are used in the case study. The classroom management elements that

are identified and discussed include supporting ICT and non-ICT tools for the ICT-mediated

activities, establishment of disciplinary and educational rules and procedures, and division of labor

among teachers, students and technical support staff.

Classroom Management Issues 3

Classroom Management Issues in ICT-mediated Learning Environments:

Back to the Basics

Amidst the emphasis on developing educational use of information and communication

technologies (ICT) in schools, classroom management issues have been somewhat assumed to have

been addressed. Moore, Laffey, Espinosa & Lodree (2002) have pointed out that there is a need for

teachers to learn new models of classroom management before they can harvest the technological

affordances to address curriculum issues. Drawing upon the ‘successful’ and ‘unsuccessful’ ICT-

mediated lessons of a case study, the paper aims to identify classroom management elements that

facilitate or hinder the creation of a conducive learning environment that provides the necessary

condition for the effective integration of ICT in primary schools.

Research on Classroom Management Issues in ICT-mediated Learning Environment

Classroom management usually encompasses teachers’ actions that aim at managing students

behaviors in order to engage students in learning. Specifically, it includes actions like establishing

and maintaining order, providing effective instruction, handling of misbehaviors, attending to

students’ emotional and cognitive needs and managing group processes (Emmer, 2001). Kounin

(1970, p.63) defines effective classroom management as "producing a high rate of work involvement

and a low rate of deviancy in academic setting". It focuses less on overcoming discipline problems

and more on the creation of a positive environment that is conducive to student involvement,

satisfaction and learning (Fraser, 1983).

Research studies have shown that effective classroom management is a necessary condition

for the creation of a conducive learning environment (Hilary, 1991; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg,

1993). By creating a conducive learning environment that is task-oriented and predictable, “students

know what is expected of them and how to succeed" (Sanford, Emmer, & Clements, 1983, p.56).
Classroom Management Issues 4

Students can then be consistently engaged in the learning tasks without interference. Many research

studies have also shown that a conducive classroom environment promotes students academic

achievement (Wong & Watkins, 1998; Griffith, 2002). There is also a positive correlation between

engaged time, appropriate academic activities, and high achievement; thus classrooms must be

structured to promote on-task behavior (Brophy, 1979; Good, 1982).

Although the classroom management principles used in the traditional classrooms seem to be

applicable to any instructional approaches, Brophy (1998) argues that there is a need to adjust the

particulars of implementation. The experiences shared by the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow

(ACOT) project echoed Brophy’s assertion. Many teachers who participated in the ACOT project

did not anticipate the range of student misbehavior, shifts in teachers’ roles, and technical problems

that would accompany the introduction of ICT into the classrooms (Sandholtz, Ringstaff, & Dwyer,

1997).

Teachers should adapt established classroom management principles by determining what

students will need to do in order to maximize their engagement in an ICT environment, then working

backward to determine the managerial instructions needed. This provision ensures that the potential

effects of an instructional system designed to promote active learning, higher order thinking, and the

co-construction of knowledge, will not be undercut by the management system that orients students

toward passivity and compliance with rigid rules (McCaslin & Good, 1992).

Five elements of classroom management issues are identified and discussed in the following

sections. They are the supporting activities for ICT tools, role of teacher (with-it-ness, overlapping,

smoothness of lesson pacing and transitions), role of student helpers, technical support for teachers,

and establishment of rules and procedures.

Supporting Activities for ICT Tools

Classroom Management Issues 5

Like their teachers, students are faced with technical difficulties that commonly accompany

ICT-mediated activity (Selywn & Bullon, 2000) and they have to possess the right skills in order to

use a computer on their own (Tanda, 2002). Richards (1999) observes that students who are less

advanced in using computers could be overwhelmed by the ICT-mediated activity and they are likely

to be turned off. Teachers should therefore model the process and developing the product together

with the students. Providing step-by-step printed instructions for frequently performed tasks such as

saving to a disk, printing and importing graphics can also help is this aspect (Lowther & Morrison,

1998). Teachers can also demonstrate one or two, necessary new skills before the start of each lesson

(Hudson & Notman, 2001).

Role of Teacher

ICT provides opportunities for students to work individually or in small groups at their own

pace rather than working in unison on the same material at a pace set by the teacher. This shift in

classroom dynamics brings about changes in the teachers' role and management style (Tiene & Luft,

2002). The traditional role of teacher as information provider may have to be changed to the “guide

on the side” (Frand, 2000). Although, this new classroom dynamic reduces some of the pressures

associated with managing student behavior, teachers have to constantly monitor the ICT environment

to ensure order and task accomplishments. This can be achieved by exhibiting qualities of effective

classroom managers and practicing some of the strategies that Kounin (1970) discovered.

The effective managers are constantly aware of what is happening in the classroom and they

communicate this awareness to students (Kounin, 1970). Teachers achieved with-it-ness by

monitoring the classroom regularly; stationing themselves physically so that they can see all the

students and scan all parts of the classroom continuously. Practicing “with-it-ness” in ICT-mediated

lessons is crucial because the computer monitors can block the students from the teacher’s view
Classroom Management Issues 6

(Wong, 2000). To enhance with-it-ness, overlapping strategy should be employed (Brophy &

Putnam, 1978). Teacher should give just enough guidance to groups experiencing difficulties while

ensuring the rest of the class is on-task. As there are different groups of students doing different

activities, smoothness of lesson pacing and transitions become critical for orderly environment. This

implies that the teachers need to establish routines that promote efficiency in changing activities. The

teacher may use a designated signal that reminds students who are still working on their task that

they have a few minutes to end their activity and they should put all materials from it away and get

ready any needed material for the next activity (Doyle, 1986). This will prevent any discontinuities

during transition that may ruin the flow of the lesson and give rise to restlessness, confusion, and

other problems in the class (Brophy & Putnam, 1978).

Role of Student Helpers and Technical Assistants

Feedback from teachers in the ACOT project revealed that numerous technical problems were

encountered because of the amount of equipment such as the printer and scanner they dealt with

every day (Sandholtz et. al, 1997). These technical problems upset both their daily and long-range

plans. Another common problem face by teachers when conducting ICT-mediated lessons is students

encountering technical problems (Wong, 2000). Beside technical problems, routine procedures such

as distributing and collecting materials could also slow down the pace of lesson. Randolph, Scolari

and Bedient (2000) recommend that teachers assign students to take care of these routine tasks.

Another useful suggestion is to suggest enlist the knowledgeable students to provide technical or

learning assistance to their peers. Students can also be trained to assist other students in solving

simple technical problems (Marcovitz, Hamza and Farrow, 2000).

In the Ameritech classroom project, participating teachers commented that the availability of

a technical assistant in the room at all times had significantly improved the technological literacy of
Classroom Management Issues 7

their students and their ability to work proficiently with the hardware and software (Tiene & Luft,

2002). Technical support helps teachers to focus on the lesson. The momentum and continuity of the

lesson is thus better preserved.

Establishment of Rules and Procedures

According to Evertson and colleagues (1981), the primary function of rules is to set

perimeters for behavior by clearly stating the expectation and using it as a cue or signal. They

provide the context in which students can operate successfully or unsuccessfully in classrooms

(Evertson & Anderson, 1979). Like rules, procedures or routines also communicate expectations for

behavior. Usually they are applied in a specific activity and are directed at accomplishing something

rather in an efficient way (Evertson, Emmer, Clements, & Woesham, 1997).

Many rules established in the traditional classrooms can be applied in the ICT learning

environments (Wong, 2000). To cope with the complexities of ICT-mediated lesson, Hudson and

Notman (2001) suggest having additional routines. They recommend that at the start of the lesson,

teachers should exert greater control on entry to the computer room than in other subject areas

because of the rush to get a computer. During lessons, students should move their seats away from

their computers to encourage eye contact and listening. After initial instructions have been given,

teachers should go round each student to check that they understand what they are doing and ensure

that they are engaged on task. This demonstrates with-it-ness. Routines that provide an orderly end to

the lesson must also be established, which include, giving a short deadline for the students to save

their work and log off, getting students to sit away from the keyboard in any question and answer

session, and letting students exit the computer room in groups of five or six at a time with best

behaving group going first.

Although many studies have been conducted in the area of classroom management and
Classroom Management Issues 8

organization, there needs to be more study done to provide accounts of effective classroom

management in the ICT-mediated learning environment. In this paper, the following questions guide

the investigation of how a conducive learning environment is created to support the effective

integration of ICT in primary school classrooms:

1. What are the supporting activities for ICT tools that create a conducive ICT-mediated

learning environment?

2. What are the roles taken up by the participants to create a conducive ICT-mediated

learning environment?

3. How do the rules and procedures established mediate the creation of a conducive ICT-

mediated learning environment?

To study the elements that facilitate the creation of a conducive ICT-mediated learning

environment the case study approach is adopted.

Research Design and Methods

The case for the study is a primary school in Singapore. To ensure confidentiality,

pseudonyms are used. The school is referred to as Central Primary School. This school was selected

based on its high degree of ICT integration reported in a questionnaire survey of all Singapore

schools conducted by National Institute of Education (Singapore). A total of 328 schools (87.2% of

the target population) responded to the questionnaire, out of which 168 were primary schools.

Background Information of the School

The study in Central Primary School was carried out from 17 September to 2 October 2001.

There were 2118 students, consisting of boys and girls with ages ranging from 7 to 12. Most of the

students were from lower to middle income families. The average class size was 40. Students do
Classroom Management Issues 9

subjects like English, Mathematics, Mother Tongue (Chinese, Malay, or Tamil), Science, Health

Education, Social Studies, Art and Craft, Music and Physical Education.

The school had a staff strength of 80 teachers and 10 support personnel. There were 2 fully

air-conditioned computer rooms and a music laboratory. Certain areas in the school were converted

to free access corners with a total of 12 computers for students to engage in independent learning

during breaks. A technical assistant was available to address technical problems in the computer

rooms. Some of the ICT learning packages that were used in Central Primary School included

Midisaurus for Music, I-Micro and RoboLab for Science, Crayola for Art, and CD-ROMs such as

Curriculum Alive for English and MathBlaster for Mathematics.

To provide triangulation of the data in the case study, multiple methods of data collection

were used. Methods such as observation of ICT-mediated lessons, face-to-face interviews with

teachers and focus group interviews with students were used to gather accounts of different realities

that have been constructed by various groups and individuals in the school. The use of multiple

strategies improved the accuracy of the conclusion drawn and hence, enhanced reliability and

validity of the study.

Observation of ICT-mediated lessons

14 ICT-mediated lessons were observed over two weeks. The ICT-mediated lessons were in

different subject areas. A semi-structured approach towards observation was adopted to enable a

more open exploration of the learning environment. The lesson observations focused on the elements

highlighted in the literature review that included the roles of the participants, the rules and

procedures established and the ICT and non-ICT tools employed. In addition, an observation

checklist that comprised of layout of the computer room, lesson objectives, lesson sequence, types of

ICT and non-ICT tools used, rules and roles of the participants was used during observation to record
Classroom Management Issues 10

events.

The analysis of data took place alongside the data collection and data processing. The

observer’s own feelings, reactions to the experience and reflections about the meaning and

significance of what has occurred were included. These preliminary analytical notes acted as a

reminder for future enquiry and were used to develop the analysis and provided a structure for future

observations. Additional references collected such as lesson handouts and worksheets.

Face-to-Face Interviews with Teachers

An unstructured interview format was adopted to allow for narrative recounting by the

teachers to encourage meaning making. The focuses were similar to that of the observations with the

addition of reasons for using ICT and non-ICT tools for the ICT-mediated lessons. The interviews

were conducted in conducive environment without interruption. 3 teachers were interviewed after the

observation of their ICT-mediated lessons during their free time. Each interview session lasted 45

minutes.

Analysis of data was carried out alongside transcription. The interview data was interpreted

and analyzed against the background of the context in which the interview was conducted. The data

from the interviews were compared against and analyzed alongside that of other sources.

Focus Group Interviews with Students

The focus group interviews were conducted in the classrooms or the computer rooms as these

places were familiar to the students. These rooms provided a comfortable physical setting and put the

students at ease. The students in the focus group interviews were briefed about the purpose of the

discussion. Three groups of six students, grouped according to their levels (namely, primary two,

three, and four), were interviewed. Jargons that were specific to their age group and cultural domain
Classroom Management Issues 11

were used to clarify student’s comprehension of terminology and concepts developed for the study.

For example, the term ‘computer lesson’ instead of ‘ICT-mediated lesson’ was used during the

discussion.

The foci of the group interviews were similar as the observation. We began with more general

questions before inquiring about specific areas. Interview notes were reviewed immediately

following the interview so that data collected could be used for later expansion into more

comprehensive detail of what was said in the interviews. Data were transcribed immediately after the

discussion. Data collected was analyzed alongside the other data sets. In conducting the analysis, the

body language, the emotional level associated with responses, intensity of comments, the choice and

meaning of words, the context that gave rise to these words and whether participants’ responses were

consistent throughout the interview were taken into considerations.

Data Analysis

The procedure for data analysis was an adaptation of naturalistic inquiry (Lincoln & Guba,

1985). Data were analyzed inductively to identify recurrent themes and patterns. The data collected

was continually subjected to a filtering system. From the data collected, units of information that

would later become the basis for defining categories were identified. Only information that met the

criteria of better informing the research question was considered to be a unit. The size of a unit of

information could vary from a phrase to a sentence or a paragraph.

Several copies of the transcript from interviews and observations were made. The relevant

information units, which formed the basis for defining categories, were then highlighted for easy

identification. The units were coded to record the relevant subject and transcript location information.

Next, they were then sorted according to categories or recurring themes. Categorizing brought

together the information units that were related to the same content. Rules that describe category
Classroom Management Issues 12

properties were defined to justify the inclusions of units into that category. When all information

units that were directly related to the category have been identified, they were carefully reviewed

against the rules or criteria for inclusion into that category to ensure accuracy. As the analysis was

ongoing, new categories were identified, developed, redefined, or redeveloped from the analysis of

each observation and each interview. Once all of the information units have been exhausted,

categories were reviewed for overlap and completeness. Categories that had similar properties were

collapsed into a broader category that included all of the information in the previously separate

categories. Thus, the categories generated were then examined to establish the extent to which they

fitted into the research design and literature review.

Findings

Supporting Activities by ICT and Non-ICT Tools

Tanda (2002) comments that students have to possess the right skills to use a computer on

their own. It is thus essential to provide supporting activities to ensure that the students possess the

necessary skills to operate and navigate through the ICT packages and the learning skills to learn in

the ICT environment. In addition Lowther and Morrison (1998) suggested that non-ICT tools such as

worksheets and handouts can guide students in accomplishing the assigned instructional tasks and

ensure that they are able to carry out the frequently performed tasks such as saving their work to a

disk.

Most of the teachers observed in the study employed ICT and non-ICT tools to support ICT-

mediated activities. Such practices were observed at the various stages of the ICT-mediated lessons:

pre-instructional activities, instructional activities and post-instructional activities.

Pre-Instructional Activities
Classroom Management Issues 13

12 out of 14 teachers started off their lessons by reviewing previous concepts and making

links to the concepts to be covered in the ICT-mediated lessons. Before getting the students to work

on the computers, teachers demonstrated the key features and the navigation buttons. In addition, ICT

and non-ICT tools such as the whiteboard, visualizer, teacher’s computer, overhead projector, and

data projector were also employed to facilitate the demonstration to ensure that students acquired the

basic skills to navigate through the ICT learning package. For example, during a mathematics lesson,

the teacher demonstrated the ICT learning package and briefed the students on the ICT-mediated

activities using PowerPoint slides at the teacher's computer and projected onto the screen. The

teacher, mediated by these tools, created a conducive environment for learning.

To help students accomplish the assigned tasks, handouts that contained step-by-step

instructions for carrying out the ICT-mediated activities were usually provided. Moreover, teachers

were observed to go through these instructions with the students by having PowerPoint slides

projected onto the screen via the teachers' computer. In addition, they set aside a question-and-answer

time for the students to clarify their doubts before they were allowed to work on the computers. By

so doing, students were observed to be task-oriented and motivated as they were clear about the

tasks. By communicating information and directions in a clear, comprehensible manner, students

would understand the instructions and expectations for behavior more readily, and this in turn,

ensured that the momentum of the lesson is not lost and some degree of orderliness were maintained.

The findings of the study were consistent with the findings of the studies discussed in the literature

review (Brophy & Putnam, 1978; Doyle,1986).

Two out of the 14 lessons observed were found to lack a conducive learning environment.

Students in these two lessons were found to display deviant behaviors. In one of the lessons, the

deviant behaviors might have stemmed from unclear instructions during the pre-instructional phase.

In this lesson, the objectives of the ICT-mediated lesson as well as the number of activities the
Classroom Management Issues 14

students had to accomplish were not mentioned. Hence the students were not clear about the tasks

they had to complete. In addition, the learning was not progressive as the students were allowed to

start off with any of the activities in the software. At any point in time, different students were

working on different activities. In between the lesson, the teacher would demonstrate to the class on

how to handle these activities. These interruptions had resulted in further confusion in the students as

they might not be working on the activity that their teacher was currently demonstrating.

Instructional Activities

In addition to the pre-instructional activities, most teachers provided scaffolding activities for

their ICT-mediated lessons. To guide students through the activities, worksheets were distributed to

them. Worksheets were used as a scaffolding tool to ensure that students were able to successfully

engaged in the tasks and complete them. For example, in one of the science lessons, the teacher

employed the 'learning station' strategy whereby students had to complete different activities at

different learning stations within a stipulated time. At each station, students were required to search

for and analyze information based on the questions on the worksheet to construct their own meaning

of scientific concepts. Besides worksheets, the teachers also posed many guided questions verbally to

scaffold students' learning processes.

Besides scaffolding tools, a red cup was placed next to the computer for students to signal for

help when they encountered technical and instructional problems. The teacher or the technical

assistant (if present) would then assist them accordingly. The purpose of having this 'red alert' cup

was to ensure that students’ learning processes would not be disrupted and the completion of their

tasks would not be delayed. Students from the focus groups interview revealed that they were well-

informed about the function of the red cup. In three of the 14 lesson observations, the red cup did not

help some students who were seeking technical assistance because (a) the position that the cups were
Classroom Management Issues 15

placed might not have been obvious and (b) the teachers might lack with-it-ness. However, in most

of the lessons, it had served as an effective tool for students seeking help. Therefore, the red cup

mediated between the rule and the participants and that created a conducive environment.

Post-Instructional Activities

In all the 14 lessons observed, the teachers carried out post-instructional activities to round up

the ICT-mediated lessons. They provided link for the concepts learnt to the next lesson. For example,

one teacher used a concept-mapping software, Inspiration, to engage her students in the reflection of

the concepts learnt in the science lesson. She constructed the concept map on her computer, had the

data projected on the projector screen, together with her students. In instances where students could

not accomplish the assigned task within the ICT-mediated lesson, the teacher would provide clear

instruction on the tasks to be completed by the next lesson.

Most of the tools used during post-instructional activities were similar to those used in the

pre-instructional activities. Employing ICT and non-ICT tools in the ICT-mediated activities ensured

that students were task-oriented and motivated and thereby engaged in their learning processes.

These tools, employed by the teachers to support the ICT-mediated activities, facilitated the creation

of a conducive environment for learning.

Different Roles of Participants

Literature on effective classroom management has identified the 'with-it-ness' skills, the

overlapping skills and skills that ensure smoothness in lesson pacing and transition as the necessary

classroom management skills that teachers should possess in order to effectively manage the ICT

environment. In addition, effective classroom management is facilitated by a system whereby

teachers enlist the help of students and technical assistant in everyday housekeeping tasks and
Classroom Management Issues 16

providing technical support respectively. When these resources are used efficiently, the momentum

and signal continuity of the lesson are not disrupted; teachers can then concentrate on conducting the

actual lessons. The study had revealed that although teachers played a crucial role in orchestrating

and managing the ICT-mediated activities, the student helpers and the technical assistant also played

crucial roles in establishing a conducive learning environment.

Role of Teacher

Most of the lessons observed were student-centered with little direct teaching. Some of the

activities for these student-centered lessons included students working with CD-ROMs, using

PowerPoint to create repeated patterns in an Art lesson, composition writing and editing using Word

and searching for information from the Internet and presenting their findings. The teachers were

observed to be facilitators, helping and guiding their students in their learning. Teachers were able to

spend more time working with the weaker students, guiding them and providing them with more

scaffolds. About 60% ICT-mediated lessons observed involved pair work or group work.

Besides being facilitators, teachers were observed to orchestrate and regulate the activities in

the ICT environment to ensure that students were on task. For example, to ensure that students were

task-oriented and be able to carry out the activities in the ‘learning stations’ during the science lesson,

as well as the smooth running of the different ICT-mediated activities, the teacher made the necessary

preparation and coordination in advance. An informal interview with her revealed that before the

students were brought to the computer room for the ICT-mediated lesson, they were briefed on the

ICT-mediated lesson activities and were divided into six groups. Then the respective groups were

briefed on the movement from one learning station to another and the activities involved for each

learning station. These rules and procedures, which were communicated clearly, ensured a smooth
Classroom Management Issues 17

transition from one activity to another and kept students on task. In addition, student helpers were

engaged to ensure that the learning stations were ready. During the instructional activities, clear

signals were given when the students were required to proceed on to the next learning station; in-time

help and guidance were also provided when needs arise.

Besides orchestrating and regulating the activities, the teacher also made conscientious efforts

to maintain orderliness to ensure that the environment was conducive for learning. Consistent with

Kounin’s (1970) findings, most of the teachers who had effectively managed their ICT-mediated

lessons were observed to display high degree of ‘with-it-ness’, overlapping skills and skills that

ensure smoothness in lesson pacing and transition. These skills were essential for the creation of a

conducive learning environment for ICT-mediated lessons.

From the lesson observations, it was noted that teachers encountered some difficulties

practicing ‘with-in-ness’ in the ICT learning environment. The problems posed by the computer

monitors further intensify the existing management problems. For example, during an ICT-mediated

lesson observation with a primary 2 class, about half the class had problems following the teacher’s

demonstration on the projector screen as the computer monitors were blocking their view. Having

‘lost in cyberspace’, students were observed to be approaching their neighbors for help or displaying

the red cup to signal ‘help’. As a result, other students’ concentration and the teacher’s demonstration

were disrupted. These off-task activities escalated into disruption eventually.

'With-it-ness' skills were more successful when applied to the students nearer to the front than

to students at the back of the computer room. For example, a group of students who were seated at

the far end of the computer room carried on with their task while the rest of their classmates were

with their teacher in front of the computer room without their teacher’s awareness. The computer

monitor might have effectively blocked the view of the teacher. Subsequently, when she realized that

this group of students was inattentive, she instructed them to shut down their computers. But two
Classroom Management Issues 18

students carried on with their work as they realized that the teacher was not “with-it”.

As noted by Brophy and Putnam (1982), “overlapping” helps to promote “with-it-ness’ in the

classroom. The two examples illustrated the importance of overlapping skills in managing the ICT-

mediated lesson. While delivering the ICT-mediated lesson to the whole class, teachers need to

monitor the class regularly, stationing themselves where they could see all of the students (with-it-

ness) and at the same time, continue to monitor events going on in the rest of the computer room

(overlapping). Thus, teachers should possess the necessary overlapping skills to ensure that ICT-

mediated lessons were manageable. From the lesson observations, it was noted that teachers who

better managed the ICT-mediated lessons were those who kept students attentive by posing

stimulating questions to different students at different corners of the room and placing students who

usually misbehaved near them.

In addition, positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement were consistently

administered. These teachers acknowledged students' effort through the use of praises which seemed

to encourage further responses. Any misbehavior was meted out with verbal warning or through the

use of eye contact to communicate disapproval. In the group work setting, situations of misbehaviors

were minimized by holding the group accountable for the action of any misbehaved members. For

example, when a group told their teacher that they had not received the activity worksheets after she

had begun briefing the class on the activity, the group was reprimanded for its members'

inattentiveness.

These teachers were also observant and sensitive to any form of distraction in the

environment. They would ensure that the students were comfortably seated and the computer

monitors or their classmates did not obstruct their view. Some of the students sitting at the back of

the computer room were asked to sit in front. In instances where the sound generated from the

computer was too distracting, they would adjust it to an acceptable volume so that both the students
Classroom Management Issues 19

and teacher could be heard and by so doing, the learning environment was again conducive for the

instructional activities.

The teachers in the study employed a variety of instructional strategies to ensure smoothness

in the transition from one activity to another. For example, to keep the student audience occupied

during the transition between individual group presentations, one teacher requested her students to

write down their feedback on a prescribed feedback form after every group presentation. When one

of the groups presenting needed more time to get ready, the teacher, who possessed good overlapping

skills and the flexibility in managing activities, initiated some general discussions with the student

audience. The students were invited to share with the class their feedback of the previous

presentation while waiting for the presentation group to be ready. This also provided an opportunity

for the teacher to check and ensure that the student audience was attentive during the presentation,

thereby establishing ‘with-it-ness’.

Most of the teachers were observed to place great emphasis on time management in their ICT-

mediated lesson. These teachers informed the students the time they had to complete the tasks so that

they could move on to the next instructional activity briskly. To keep students task-oriented when

working at their computers, they provided constant reminders of the time at various points. However,

in most of the ICT-mediated lesson observed, students were not able to complete their tasks within

the given time. This could be due to teachers having unrealistically planning too many activities and

the occurrence of unanticipated non-instructional activities such as technical problems.

In essence, as noted in the literature review, classroom management skills such as ‘with-it-

ness’, overlapping and smoothness of lesson pacing and transitions are the essential management

principles that a teacher should possess when managing the ICT environment. These principles form

an integral part of effective classroom management that creates a conducive learning environment for

ICT-mediated lessons.
Classroom Management Issues 20

Role of Students

Most of the teachers had student helpers to assist them in housekeeping tasks. Besides

housekeeping tasks, some teachers also involved their student helpers in providing simple technical

support such as loading the software, navigating the screen to the required one and adjusting the

volume of the computers so that it would not cause distraction.

These student helpers were seated at the first row of the computer room. Besides seeking help

from the teacher and the student helpers, it was observed that most students approached their

classmates nearby for help when they encountered problems, including the two lessons that lacked

conducive learning environment. The close proximity of their classmates helped to address their

problems promptly, especially when they were seated at the extreme end of the computer room where

raising of hands or putting up the red cup might not capture the teacher’s attention.

As noted in the literature review, these student helpers facilitated the smooth running of the

lesson. They helped relief some of the burden of the teachers, thus enabling them to focus their

attention on the conduct and management of ICT-mediated lessons. Besides appointing student

helpers to perform housekeeping tasks, teachers also defined roles for individual students when pair

work or group work was involved. When students were clear about their assigned role during group

work and the expectations and the tasks they needed to perform, they were more likely to be engaged

in their learning process. When students engaged actively in their learning, the tendency for

misbehavior would be minimized. This in turn facilitated the creation of a conducive learning

environment.

Role of Technical Assistant

The technical assistant was present in most of the lessons. Teachers who were interviewed
Classroom Management Issues 21

acknowledged the crucial role of the technical assistant in ICT-mediated lessons. One teacher stated

that “full time lab technician (technical assistant) helps to make sure that all computers are working

when I am teaching”. Another teacher mentioned that when the technical assistant was not around,

the momentum of the ICT-mediated lesson was interrupted: “(when computers are) not working

properly,…the children will (approach the teacher),...(which) sort of disturb the lesson”. Thus, the

role of the technical assistant was crucial for the smooth running of an ICT-mediated lesson. The

presence of technical assistant freed the teachers from attending to technical problems, the

momentum of the lesson was not disrupted, and they could then concentrate on conducting and

managing the ICT-mediated lesson.

Although the presence of the technical assistant helped relief the teachers from attending to

technical-related issues, most of them would try to attend to the technical problems themselves or

enlist the help of their students when simple technical support such as loading the software and

adjusting the volume of the computers was needed. One teacher commented that her IT monitors

(student helpers) helped to prepare the logistics for the ICT-mediated lessons. However, when

everything else failed, they would still need the support of the technical assistant. This finding is

consistent with the findings in the ACOT and Ameritech classroom projects discussed in literature

review.

In brief, the division of labor among the participants (the teachers, students and technical

assistant) helped to define the roles of the participants in the ICT-mediated lesson. With these well-

defined roles, teachers were then able to achieve the object of managing the lesson. When the ICT-

mediated lesson was well-managed, a conducive learning environment was created and that provided

the necessary condition for the effective integration of ICT in the primary school classroom.

Establishment of Rules and Procedures

Classroom Management Issues 22

Classroom rules and procedures are vital for conducive and manageable classroom learning.

Teachers apply specific rules and procedures at different stages of their lesson to deal with the

characteristics of the ICT-mediated lesson. These practices were observed in most of the ICT-

mediated lessons. Most teachers in the study established both the discipline-specific rules and

procedures and the educational ones for use in the ICT-mediated lessons. Discipline-specific rules

and procedures included rules and procedures for room use, moving in and out of the room, teacher-

led instructions and housekeeping tasks such as distribution of CD-ROMs and the collection of

worksheets. Educational rules and procedures were rules and procedures for educational activities

such as group work and the completion of tasks.

Discipline-Specific Rules and Procedures

The discipline- specific rules were clearly displayed on the wall in the computer rooms. They

included no water bottles, no running about in the computer room, no playing of games unless the

teacher gave permission and no unauthorized installation of program. Most of the students in the

focus group interviews were familiar with these rules and commented that such rules ensured that

“we pay attention and learn well”.

Besides setting rules, procedures were also established to keep students on task and minimize

the occurrence of misbehavior among students. Some discipline specific-procedures were observed

in the 14 ICT-mediated lesson observations. These procedures could be broken down into three

stages of an ICT-mediated lesson: procedures for pre-instructional activities, procedures during

instructional activities and procedures for post-instructional activities.

Procedures for Pre-Instructional Activities

The start of the lesson began outside the computer room. Student entered the computer room
Classroom Management Issues 23

in an orderly manner according to their index number. As all the computers were indexed with the

index number of the students, student with index number 1 would work on the computer indexed by

the number 1, and so on. This facilitated the procedure of entry into the computer room, as each

student knew their assigned seats and there would not be a need to rush. In addition, the indexing

also facilitated the monitoring of the ICT tools, as one teacher during the interview commented:

Every computer is labeled with index, and the student of that index number will use

that particular computer …even the CD-ROMs are also tagged with numbers, so that

we can check any breakdown, or any mischief done to the computer. And before they

[the students] leave, they have to turn the mouse over, so that the track ball …you can

see that the track ball is still inside.

Besides using the index numbers, some classes entered in groups of three or five. Once

seated, the teacher would call out for the next group to enter. In all the lessons observed, students

were reminded of the discipline–specific rules such as "no touching of the computers, mouse or

keyboard" and "keep quiet".

Procedure during Instructional Activities

Teachers walked around the computer room before the start of their ICT-mediated lessons to

make sure that all the students were ready. During activity time, they made routine check on the

students to ensure that they were on task and did not encounter any problems. To ensure that the

students were attentive to the instructions and explanations, some teachers would remind their

students to fold their arms when they were explaining a concept or giving instructions. Students

seated at the back of the room were asked to move to the front of the room and away from the

computers. Some teachers would get the students to turn off their computer monitor. Computers were

turned on only when the teacher gave instructions to.

Classroom Management Issues 24

Beside stated rules and procedures, cue such as a raise of hand or a hand clap was commonly

used as a signal to gain students’ attention. These were proven to be useful in the computer room

because it was much larger than the traditional classroom and with different activities bustling at the

same time (a characteristic of ICT-mediated lessons), it might be difficult for the teacher to be heard.

One teacher effectively made use of hand signals to manage the ICT activities, which involved

moving different groups of students to different learning stations. With a hand clap, every group

proceeded on to the next designated learning station for the next instructional activity in an orderly

fashion.

When pair work or group work was involved, an arrangement was made to pair or group

students who needed more support in using ICT with those with ICT skills. For example, in a

primary four Mother Tongue (Malay) lesson, the teacher paired students who were weak in typing

with those who could type well in a composition writing lesson. This arrangement minimized the

frequency for these students who were weak in ICT skills to interrupt the teacher for help and at the

same time facilitated the learning process. With peer support, students were better engaged in the

task.

Procedure for Post-Instructional Activities

In terms of procedures at the end of the lesson, students were given a short deadline to wrap

up their work and log off. To ensure that everything was in place, student helpers were instructed to

help out in some housekeeping tasks such as checking that the ball track in the mouse was intact and

ensuring all ICT resources such as CD-ROMs were accounted for. Like the procedure for entry into

the computer room, teachers let their students exited in an orderly fashion.

Out of the 14 ICT-mediated lessons observed, there were two that lacked a conducive

learning environment. In the first case, there was a lack of discipline-specific rules and procedure to
Classroom Management Issues 25

guide the students. For example, upon reaching the computer room, many students were seen rushing

for a seat and they were not seated according to their index numbers. In the other case, the problem

stemmed from the lack of educational rules and procedures for carrying the instructional activities.

This would be discussed in the next section.

Educational Rules and Procedures

Besides the establishment of discipline-specific rules and procedures, educational rules and

procedures should be established to facilitate pair work and group work and ensure that the students

completed their instructional task. For example, in one of the two lessons that lacked a conducive

learning environment, educational rules and procedures were not communicated to the students for

their group work activity. As a result, one or two students dominated the discussions and tasks. The

rest of the group members displayed off-task behaviors such as talking among themselves, walking to

other groups to find out what they were doing or engaging in another task other than the task at

hands.

This example illustrated the importance of establishing educational rules and procedures to

facilitate group work. They included assigning roles such as group leader, recorder, and computer

person to every member in the group, and clearly defining their duties to ensure individual

accountability. In one of the lessons, a leader whose duties included collecting worksheets for the

group was inattentive when instructed to do so. As a result, the group could not proceed with the ICT

activity. Basic social rules and procedures for group work such as "one person talk at a time" and

"pay attention when others talk" were also observed during group discussion and presentation.

In addition to the establishment of educational rules and procedures for group work, it was

also necessary for teachers to have rules and procedures to facilitate the completion of tasks. These

rules and procedures were in the form of step-by-step instruction found in handouts and guided
Classroom Management Issues 26

questions on the worksheets.

In brief, rules and procedures, both discipline-specific and educational ones are essential for

the creation of a conducive learning environment. These clearly defined rules and procedures

mediated between the participants and the objective of a well-managed ICT-mediated lesson.

Discussion

The summary of the key findings will be discussed with respect to the issues raised in the

literature review, namely, the role of the teacher, ICT and non-ICT tools employed, rules and

procedures established, and the roles among the participants in the ICT learning environment. Based

on the research analysis, it is suggested that a conducive learning environment is the necessary

condition for an effective integration of ICT in the computer rooms. In particular, the whole

configuration of the classroom management-related activities during ICT-mediated lesson is the key

to the creation of this conducive learning environment. The essential elements in the classroom

management-related activities include supporting activities by ICT and non-ICT tools, establishment

of the rules and procedures to facilitate the smooth running of the instructional and management

activities, and division of labor among teachers, students and technical assistant.

The teacher, as a facilitator for learning and an executive in the classroom, plays a crucial role

in the creation of a conducive environment for ICT-mediated learning. A conducive ICT learning

environment is a by-product of a well-managed ICT-mediated lesson, which is characterized by

students consistently engaged in their learning tasks and classroom activities that their teachers have

set for them and very few student behaviors interfere with those tasks and activities (Emmer &

Evertson, 1981). In this conducive ICT-mediated environment, besides helping and guiding the

students in their learning, the teacher is also consistently and actively involved in orchestrating and

managing activities to ensure that the students are actively engaged in their learning tasks. As there
Classroom Management Issues 27

are many activities going on at the same time in the ICT learning environment, management skills

such as the ‘with-it-ness’ skills, overlapping skills and skills that ensure smoothness in lesson pacing

and transition, are essential for the effective management of such environment.

To facilitate the effective management of the ICT-mediated lessons, teachers employ ICT and

non-ICT tools such as computers, educational software, peripherals such as earphones and digital

cameras, data projector and whiteboard to support the ICT-mediated activities. As it cannot be

assumed that students are ‘expert’ learners in the ICT learning environment, that is, they are able to

engage in their learning using ICT independently, supporting activities are provided to ensure that the

students have the necessary skills to operate and navigate through the ICT learning package and the

learning skills to learn in the ICT-mediated environment. In addition, scaffolding tools in the form of

worksheets and checklists are used to guide the students to complete their tasks.

Besides the scaffolding tools, to maintain the momentum of the ICT-mediated lesson and

ensure that the students’ learning processes will not be disrupted and the completion of their tasks

will not be delayed, a red cup is introduced to the students. Students who encounter technical or

instructional problems use the ‘red alert’ cup to provide signal to their teacher or the technical

assistant (if present) who will then assist them accordingly.

In the process of managing the ICT-mediated lesson, rules and procedures, both the

discipline-specific and the educational ones are established by the teacher. The discipline-specific

rules and procedures aim at keeping students on task and minimizing the occurrence of misbehavior

among them while the educational ones are used to facilitate collaborative activities such as pair

work or group work as well as to guide and ensure that the students complete the assigned tasks.

These rules and procedure must be communicated clearly to the students, routinized and enforced to

achieve students’ work accomplishment and therefore the teacher’s object of a well-managed lesson

that creates a conducive environment for learning.

Classroom Management Issues 28

Although teachers play a crucial role in ensuring a conducive learning environment, the

students and the technical assistant must also play their part well to make the ICT-mediated

environment conducive for learning. To effectively manage the ICT learning environment, there is a

division of work among the teacher, the students and the technical assistant. Student helpers, guided

by rules and procedures to carry out their roles, are appointed to assist the teachers in housekeeping

tasks while the technical assistant is employed by the school to provide the necessary technical

support. They relief some of the burdens of the teachers, enabling them to focus on the conduct and

management of ICT-mediated lessons and therefore facilitate the creation of a conducive learning

environment.

In essence, all these elements, namely, the planning and implementation of supporting

activities by the ICT and non-ICT tools, the establishment of the rules and procedures to facilitate the

smooth running of the instructional and management activities, and the division of labor among

teachers, students and technical assistant, form an integral part of effective classroom management

that creates a conducive environment for learning.

Conclusion

Managing ICT-mediated lessons is not very different from managing non-ICT based ones.

Principles of good classroom management developed for use in the traditional classrooms appear to

be just as applicable to the ICT learning environment. However, the particulars of their

implementation may need to be adjusted to take into account the establishment of rules and

procedures, supporting ICT and non-ICT tools for the ICT-mediated activities, and the division of

labor among the teachers, students and technical assistant. These elements are essential in a well-

managed ICT-mediated lesson. When the ICT-mediated lesson is well-managed, a conducive learning

environment is created that provides the necessary condition for the effective integration of ICT in
Classroom Management Issues 29

the classroom.

The findings will be useful to teachers who will be embarking on the journey of integrating

ICT in education and managing the ICT learning environment. Reaping the benefits of using ICT in

education, such as higher order thinking skills and collaborative learning, will entail teacher

management effectiveness. In essence, effective classroom management that created a conducive ICT

learning environment will set up the necessary condition and provide the foundation for the effective

integration of ICT in schools.

Recommendations for Future Research

In this paper, the context is primary schools. The classroom management style of the teachers

and the management issues that they encounter may be different from their teacher counterparts who

are teaching in the secondary schools and junior colleges. Comparison can be made between the

classroom management style of teachers teaching in the primary schools and teachers teaching in the

secondary schools and junior colleges.

Currently, all the lessons are conducted in a physical classroom. With the advancement of

technology, students no longer need to be in the classroom physically; they may be learning in a

virtual classroom. It will be interesting to embark on a study into classroom management in a virtual

environment. Further studies can also be conducted to find out which classroom management model,

the physical classroom or the virtual classroom can produce a better environment for in developing

skills such as higher-order thinking and collaborative learning.

With the emergent of new technologies and small devices such as the handheld computers,

research can be done to explore the potential of using handheld computers as a teaching (as well as

classroom management) and learning tool in the primary schools. In addition, we can also examine

the benefits and limitations of handheld computers in the classroom.

Classroom Management Issues 30

References

Brophy, J. (1979). Teacher behavior and its effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71,

733-750.

Brophy, J. (1998). Classroom management as socializing students into clearly articulated

roles. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 33(1), 1-4.

Brophy, J.E., & Putnam, J.G. (1978). Classroom management in the elementary school.

Institute for Research on Teaching, College of Education, Michigan State University.

Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M.C. Wittrock (Ed.),

Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 392-431). New York: Macmillan.

Emmer, E.T. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with

implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103-113.

Evertson, C.M., & Anderson, L.M. (1979). Beginning school. Educational Horizons, 57, 164-

168.

Evertson, C.M., Emmer, E.T., Clements, B.S., & Worsham, M.E. (1997). Classroom

management for elementary teachers (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Fraser, B.J. (1983). Managing positive classroom environments. In B.J. Fraser (Ed.),

Classroom management (pp.36-47). Western Australian Institute of Technology, Faculty of

Education.

Frand, J.L. (2000). The information age mindset: changes in students and implications for

higher education. Educause Review, 25(1), 15-24.

Good, T. (1982). Classroom research: what we know and what we need to know (R&D report

no. 9018). Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, University of Texas at Austin.

Griffith, J. (2002). A multilevel analysis of the relation of school learning and social
Classroom Management Issues 31

environments to minority achievement in public elementary schools. The Elementary School

Journal, 102(5), 349-367.

Hilary, M. (1991). Teachers and classroom management in a computer learning environment.

International Journal of Instructional Media, 18(1), 19-28.

Hudson, R., & Notman, H. (2001). Challenges of ICT resourced classes and helpful routines:

lessons from teaching practice. Computer Education, 99.

Kounin, J.S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. New York: Holt,

Rinehart & Winston.

Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE

Publications.

Lowther, D.L., & Morrison, G.R. (1998). The NteQ model: A framework for ICT integration.

TechTrends: For Leaders in Education and Training, 43(2), 33-38.

Marcovitz, D.M., Hamza, M.K., & Farrow, V.R. (2000). Students and support for ICT in the

elementary classroom. Computers in the Schools, 16(3/4), 213-225.

McCaslin, M., & Good, T. (1992). Compliant cognition: The misalliance of management and

instructional goals in current school reform. Educational Researcher, 21, 4-17.

Moore, J.L., Laffey, J.M., Espinosa, L.M., & Lodree, A.W. (2002). Bridging the digital divide

for at-risk.

Randolph, T., Scolari, J., & Bedient, D. (2000). Too few computer and too many kids.

Learning and Leading with Technology, 27(5), 28-30.

Richards, R.T. (1999). Lessons learned from teaching with technology: a critical perspective.

TechTrends:For Leaders in Education and Training, 43(4), 31-33.

Sandholtz, J., Ringstaff, C., & Dwyer, D.C. (1997). Teaching with Technology. Teachers
Classroom Management Issues 32

College Press, New York.

Sanford, J.P., Emmer, E.T., & Clements, B.S. (1983). Improving Classroom Management.

Educational Leadership, 40(7), 56-60.

Tanda, R. (2002). Children’s use of computer. Computer Education, 101.

Tiene, D., & Luft, P. (2002). Classroom dynamics in a technology-rich learning environment.

Learning & Leading with Technology, 29(4), 10-13.

Wang, M., Haertel, G., & Walberg, H. (1993). Toward a knowledge base for school learning.

Review of Educational Research, 63(3), 249-294.

Wong, P. (2000). Managing IT classrooms. In M.D. Williams (Ed.), Integrating skill into

teaching and learning (pp.121-139). Prentice Hall, Singapore.

Wong, N.Y. & Watkins, D. (1998). A longitudinal study of the psychosocial environmental

and learning approaches in the Hong Kong classroom. The Journal of Educational Research, 91(4),

247-255.
Classroom Management Issues 33

Author Note

This case study is part of a grant-maintained project on the “Effective Integration of ICT in

Singapore Schools: Pedagogical and Policy Implications”. It is funded by the Ministry of Education

(Singapore). The first and third authors are education researchers from the National Institute of

Education. The former is the principal investigator of the project. The second author is a research

student attached to the project, and is now a teacher at a primary school in Singapore.