Xii Chemistry Notes

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XII
Chemistry
Ch. 1: The Solid State
Points to remember

1. Solid: Solid is a state of matter in which the constituting particles are

arranged very closely. The constituent particles can be atoms,
molecules or ions.
2. Properties of solids:
a. They have definite mass, volume and shape.
b. Intermolecular distances are short and hence the intermolecular
forces are strong.
c. Their constituent particles have fixed positions and can only
oscillate about their mean positions.
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d. They are incompressible and rigid.
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3. Classification of on the basis of the arrangement of constituent
particles:
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a. Crystalline solids: The arrangement of constituent particles is a
regular orderly arrangement. Example: iron, copper, diamond,
graphite
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b. Amorphous solids: The arrangement of constituent particles is an
irregular arrangement. Example: Glass, plastics, rubber
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4. Properties of crystalline solids:

a. They have a definite characteristic geometrical shape
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b. They have a long range order.

c. They have a sharp melting point.
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d. They are anisotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties show

different values when measured along different directions in the
same crystal.
pic
e. When cut with a sharp edged tool, they split into two pieces and
the newly generated surfaces are plain and smooth.
f. They have a definite and characteristic heat of fusion
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g. They are called true solids

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5. Polymorphic forms or polymorphs: The different crystalline forms of a

substance are known as polymorphic forms or polymorphs. For
example: graphite and diamond.
6. Types of crystalline solids:
Type of Constitue Bonding/ Example Physical Electrical Melting

Solid nt Attractive s nature conducti point
Particles Forces vity
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Molecul Molecules
ar
solids
1. Non Dispersion Ar, CCl4, Soft Insulator Very

polar or London H2, I2, low
forces CO2
2. Dipole- HCl, Soft Insulator Low

Polar dipole solid
interaction SO2,
s solid
NH3
3. Hydrogen H2O Hard Insulator Low
Hydrog bonding (ice)
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en
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bonded
Ionic Ions Coulombic NaCl, Hard but Insulator High
solids or MgO, brittle s in solid
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electrostat ZnS, state but
ic CaF2 conducto
rs
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in molten
state and
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in
aqueous
solutions
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Metallic Positive Metallic Fe, Cu, Hard but Conducto Fairly

solids ions in a bonding Ag, Mg malleabl rs high
kM
sea of e and in solid

delocalise ductile state as
d well as in
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electrons molten
state
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Covale Atoms Covalent SiO2(qu Hard Insulator Very

nt or bonding artz), s high
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networ SiC, C
k solids (diamon
d),
AlN
Soft Conducto
C(graphi r
te) (exceptio
n)
7. Characteristics of amorphous solids:
a. They have an irregular shape.

b. They have a short range order.
c. They gradually soften over a range of temperature
d. They are isotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties are the same
in all directions.
e. When cut with a sharp edged tool, they cut into two pieces with
irregular surfaces.
f. They do not have definite heat of fusion
g. They are called pseudo solids or super cooled liquids. This is because
they have a tendency to flow, though very slowly.
8. Crystal lattice: A regular ordered arrangement of constituent particles

in three dimensions is called crystal lattice.
9. Lattice points or lattice sites: The fixed positions on which the
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constituent particles are present are called lattice points or lattice
sites. A group of lattice points which when repeated over and over
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again in 3 dimensions give the complete crystal lattice.
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10. Unit cell: The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit in
space lattice which when repeated over and over again generates the
complete crystal lattice. The crystal can consist of an infinite number
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of unit cells.
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11. Parameters which characterize a unit cell:

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a. Dimensions of the unit cell along the three edges, a, b and c:

These edges may or may not be mutually perpendicular.
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b. Inclination of the edges to each other: This is denoted by the

angle between the edges , , and  respectively.  is the angle
between the edges b and c,  is the angle between the edges a
pic
and c, and  is the angle between a and b.

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12.Seven crystal systems:

a. Cubic: =  =  = 90° , a = b = c
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b. Tetragonal: =  =  = 90° ; a = b  c
c. Orthorhombic: =  =  = 90°; a  b  c
d. Monoclinic: = = 90°,   90°; a  b  c
e. Hexagonal: =  = 90°,  =120°; a = b  c
f. Rhombohedral or trigonal: =  =   90°; a = b = c
g. Triclinic:      90°; a  b  c
13.Types of unit cells:

a. Primitive or simple unit cells have constituent particles only at
its corners.
b. Centred unit cells are those unit cells in which one or more
constituent particles are present at positions in addition to those
present at the corners.
The centred unit cells are of three types:
i. Face centred unit cell: A face centred unit cell consists of
one constituent particle present at the centre of each face
in addition to those present at the corners.
ii. Body centred unit cell: A body centred unit cell consists of
a one constituent particle is present at its body centre in
addition to those present at the corners.
iii. End centred unit cell: An end centred unit cells consists of
one constituent particle present at the centre of any two
opposite faces in addition to those present at the corners.
14.Number of particles at different lattice positions:
m
a. Corner: If an atom is present at any one corner, it is shared by
eight unit cells. So, only one eighth of an atom actually belongs
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to the unit cell.
b. Face centre: If an atom is present at the centre of the face, it is
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shared by two unit cells. So, only half of the atom actually
belongs to the unit cell.
c. Body centre: If an atom is present at the body centre, it is not
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shared by any other unit cell. So, that one atom completely
belongs to the same unit cell.
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d. End centre: If an atom is present at the edge centre, it is shared

by four unit cells. So, only one fourth of an atom belongs to the
unit cell.
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15.Number of atoms in different unit cells:

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a. Primitive unit cell: 1 atom

b. Face centred unit cell: 3 atoms
c. Body centred unit cell: 2 atoms
pic
16.Coordination number is the number of nearest neighbours of a

particle.
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17.Close packed structures:

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a. Close packing in one dimension: Each sphere is in contact with

two of its neighbours. Coordination number is two.
b. Close packing in two dimensions: It is generated by stacking
the rows of close packed spheres in two ways:
i. Square close packing: When the spheres of the second row are
placed exactly above those of the first row. This way the
spheres are aligned horizontally as well as vertically. The
arrangement is AAA type. Coordination number is 4.
ii. Hexagonal close packing: When the spheres of the second row
are placed above the first one in a staggered manner in such a
way that its spheres fit in the depression of the first row. The
arrangement is ABAB type. Coordination number is 6.
c. Close packing in three dimensions: They can be obtained by
stacking the two dimensional layers one above the other. It can
be obtained in two ways:
i. Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional square
close packed layers: Here, The spheres of the upper layer are
placed exactly over the first layer such the spheres of the layers
are perfectly aligned horizontally and vertically. It has a AAAA..
type pattern. The lattice is simple cubic lattice.
ii. Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional
hexagonal close packed layers: There are two steps involved as:
i. Placing the second layer over the first layer: if a two
dimensional layer is considered as A, the second layer
which is placed above the first layer in such a way that
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the spheres of the second layer (considered as B) are
placed in the depressions of the first layer. This gives rise
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to two types of voids: tetrahedral voids and octahedral
voids.
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ii. Placing the third layer over the third layer: There are two
possibilities:
a. Covering the tetrahedral voids: Here, tetrahedral voids
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of the second layer may be covered by the spheres of
the third layer. It gives rise to ABABAB… type pattern.
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The three dimensional structure is called hexagonal

close packed structure. Coordination number is 12.
Example: Mg, Zn
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b. Covering the octahedral voids: Here, octahedral voids

of the second layer may be covered by the spheres of
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the third layer. It gives rise to ABCABCABC… type

pattern. The three dimensional structure is called cubic
close packed structure or face centred cubic structure.
pic
Coordination number is12. Example: Cu, Ag
18.Types of voids:
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a. Tetrahedral voids: This type of void is formed at the centre

when four spheres are joined in the form of a tetrahedron.
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b. Octahedral void: This type of void is surrounded by six spheres.
19.In hcp or ccp arrangement, octahedral and tetrahedral voids are

present. The number of octahedral voids present in a lattice is equal to
the number of close packed particles. The number of tetrahedral voids
is twice the number of octahedral voids.
Example: If the number of close packed particles = n
Number of particles present in octahedral voids = n
Number of particles present in tetrahedral voids = 2n
20.Packing efficiency is the percentage of total space occupied by

constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions)
Volume occupiedby spheres

Packing efficiency= x100%
Total volume of unit cell
a. Packing efficiency for face centred unit cell = 74%
b. Packing efficiency for body centred cubic unit cell = 68%
c. Packing efficiency for simple cubic unit cell = 52.4%
21. Radius ratio in an octahedral void: For an atom to occupy an

octahedral void, its radius must be 0.414 times the radius of the
sphere.
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r
= 0.414
R
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22. Radius ratio for tetrahedral void: For an atom to occupy a tetrahedral
void, its radius must be 0.225 times the radius of the sphere.
r
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= 0.225
R
23.Density of a unit cell is same as the density of the substance.
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24.Relationship between radius of constituent particle (r) and edge
length(a):
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a. Simple cubic unit cell: a= 2r

b. Face centred unit cell: a  2 2 r
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4r
c. Body centred unit cell: a =
3
kM
25.Volume of a unit cell = (edge length)3 = a3

a. Simple cubic unit cell: Volume= (2r)3
pic
b. Face centred unit cell: Volume  (2 2 r)

3
4r 3
c. Body centred unit cell: Volume = ( )
w.
3
26.Number of atoms in a unit cell (z):
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a. Simple cubic unit cell: z = 1

b. Face centred unit cell: z = 4
c. Body centred unit cell: z = 2
27.Density of unit cell:

zM
Density of unit cell=
a3.NA
28.Crystal defects are basically irregularities in the arrangement of
constituent particles.
29.Defects are of two types:

a. Point defects - Point defects are the irregularities or deviations
from ideal arrangement around a point or an atom in a
crystalline substance.
b. Line defects - Line defects are the irregularities or deviations
from ideal arrangement in entire rows of lattice points.
30.Point defects are of three types:

a. Stoichiometric or intrinsic or thermodynamic defects: These are
the point defects that do not disturb the stoichiometry of the
solid.
b. Non – stoichiometric defects: These are the point defects that
disturb the stoichiometry of the solid.
c. Impurity defects: These are the defects in ionic solids due to the
presence of impurities present in them.
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31.Stoichiometric defects for non- ionic solids are of two types:
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Vacancy defect Interstitial defect
A crystal is said to have vacancy A crystal is said to have
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defect when some of the lattice interstitial defect when some
sites are vacant. constituent particles (atoms or
molecules) occupy an interstitial
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site.
This results in decrease in This results in increase in
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density of the substance. density of the substance.
32. Stoichiometric defects for ionic solids are of two types:

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Schottky defect Frenkel or dislocation defect

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In this defect equal number of In this defect, the smaller ion

cations and anions are missing. (usually cation) is dislocated from
its normal site to an interstitial
pic
site.
It is basically a vacancy defect It creates a vacancy defect at its

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in ionic solids. original site and an interstitial

defect at its new location.
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It decreases the density of a It does not change the density of

solid the solid
Schottky defect is shown by Frenkel defect is shown by ionic
ionic substances in which the substance in which there is a
cation and anion are of almost large difference in the size of
similar sizes. ions.
For example: NaCl, KCl, CsCl For example: ZnS, AgCl, AgBr
and AgBr and AgI
33. Non-stoichiometric defects are of two types:
a. Metal excess – This type of defect is due to excess of metal

cations. These may be due to:
i. Anionic vacancies: A compound may have an extra metal
ion if the negative ion is absent from its lattice site. This
empty lattice site is called a hole. To maintain electrical
neutrality this site is occupied by an electron. The hole
occupied by an electron is called f-centre or Farbenzenter
centre . F- centre is responsible for the colour of the
compound.
ii. Presence of extra cations: A compound is said to have
extra cations if a cation is present in the interstitial site.
An electron is present in the interstitial site to maintain
the electrical neutrality.
b. Metal deficiency: This defect arises because of absence of metal
ions from its lattice sites. The electrical neutrality is maintained
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by an adjacent ion having a higher positive charge.
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34. Solids can also be classified into three types based on their electrical
conductivities:
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a. Conductors-The solids with conductivities ranging between 104
to 107 ohm–1m–1 are called conductors.
b. Insulators - These are the solids with very low conductivities
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ranging between 10–20 to 10–10 ohm–1m–1.
a. Semi- conductors - These are the solids with conductivities in
the intermediate range from 10–6 to 104 ohm–1m–1.
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35. Band theory – A metal is characterized by a band structure. The

highest filled band is called valence band and the lowest
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unoccupied band is called conduction band. The gap between

the two bands is called forbidden band.
a. In case of conductors, the valence band and conduction band
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overlap
b. In case of insulators, the forbidden gap is very large and the
electrons are unable to excite to the conduction band.
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c. In case of semiconductors, forbidden gap is small. Therefore,

some electrons may jump to conduction band and show some
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conductivity. Electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases

with rise in temperature, since more electrons can jump to the
conduction band.
36. Types of semiconductors:

a. Intrinsic: These are those semiconductors in which the forbidden
gap is small. Only some electrons may jump to conduction band
and show some conductivity. They have very low electrical
conductivity. Example: Silicon, germanium
b. Extrinsic: When an appropriate impurity is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor. Their electrical conductivity is high.
37.Doping: The process of adding an appropriate amount of suitable

impurity to increase the conductivity of semiconductors.
38.Types of extrinsic semi conductors:
n-type semiconductors p –type semiconductors
They are formed when silicon is They are formed when silicon is
doped with electron rich impurity doped with electron deficient
like group 15 elements. impurity like group 13 elements.
The increase in conductivity is The increase in conductivity is
due to the negatively charged due to the positively charged
electrons. holes.
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39. Diode: It is a combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors
and is used as a rectifier.
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40.Transistors: They are made by sandwiching a layer of one type of
semiconductor between two layers of the other type of
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semiconductor. npn and pnp type of transistors are used to
detect or amplify radio or audio signals.
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41.12- 16 compounds – These compounds are formed by the

combination of group 12 and group 16 compounds. They possess
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an average valency of 4. Example: ZnS, CdS, CdSe and HgTe

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42. 13- 15 compounds – These compounds are formed by the

combination of group 13 and group 15 compounds. They possess
an average valency of 4. Example: InSb, AlP and GaAs
pic
43. Every substance has some magnetic properties associated with

it. The origin of these properties lies in the electrons. Each
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electron in an atom behaves like a tiny magnet. Its magnetic

moment originates from two types of motions (i) its orbital
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motion around the nucleus and (ii) its spin around its own axis.
44.On the basis of their magnetic properties, substances can be

classified into five categories:
a. Paramagnetic: These are those substances which are weakly
attracted by the magnetic field. It is due to presence of one
or more unpaired electrons.
b. Diamagnetic: Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by
a magnetic field. Diamagnetism is shown by those substances
in which all the electrons are paired and there are no
unpaired electrons.
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c. Ferromagnetic: These are those substances which are

attracted very strongly by a magnetic field.
d. Antiferromagnetic: They have equal number of parallel and
anti parallel magnetic dipoles resulting in a zero net dipole
moment.
e. Ferrimagnetic: They have unequal number of parallel and anti
parallel magnetic dipoles resulting in a net dipole moment.
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kM
pic
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Class XII
Chemistry
Ch. 2: Solutions
Top formulae
1. Mass percentage of a component
Mass of component in solution
=  100
Toal mass of solution
Volume of component
2. Volume percentage of a component =  100
Total volume of solution
3. Mole fraction of a component (x)

Number of moles of component
=
Total number of moles of all components
m
Number of parts of component
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4. ppm   106
Total number of parts of all components of solution
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Number of moles of solute
5. Molarity 
Volume of solution in litres
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Number of moles of solute
6. Molality 
Mass of solvent in kilograms
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Number of gram equivalent of solute

7. Normality 
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Volume of solution in litres

kM
p1o  p1
8.  x2
p1o
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9.  T  Tb  Tb0
Kb  1000  w2
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Tb 
M2×w1
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10.  T  Tf 0  Tf
K f  1000  w2
Tf 
M2×w1
11. = CRT
w RT
12. M2= 2
V
11
13.
Normal molar mass
i
Abnormal molar mass
Observedcolligative property

Calculatedcolligative property
Totalnumber of moles of particles after association/dissociation

Totalnumber of moles of particlesbefore association/dissociation
p1o  p1 n2
14.  i.
p1o n1
Kb  1000  w2
15. Tb  i.
M2×w1
K f  1000  w2
16. Tf  i.
m
M2×w1
n2RT
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17.   i.
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Key Learnings
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1. Solutions are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two
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components.
2. Binary solution: A solution having two components is called a binary
solution. Components of a binary solution are solute and solvent.
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a. When the solvent is in solid state, solution is called solid solution.

b. When the solvent is in liquid state, solution is called liquid solution.
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c. When the solvent is in gaseous state, solution is called gaseous

solution.
3. Concentration is the amount of solute in given amount of solution.
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4. Mass by volume percentage (w/v): Mass of the solute dissolved in 100

mL of solution.
pic
5. Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute present in 1kg of solvent.

6. Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute present in 1L of solution.
7. Normality is the number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved per litre
w.
of solution.
8. Solubility is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified
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amount of solvent at a specified temperature.

9. A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature and pressure is called a saturated solution.
10. In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an endothermic
process, solubility increases with increase in temperature.
11. In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an exothermic
process, solubility decreases with increase in temperature.
12. Henry’s Law: The law states at a constant temperature the solubility of
gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of gas. Henry’s
law can also be stated as the partial pressure of gas in vapour phase is
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in the solution.
12
P = KH x
13. When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent, the
vapour pressure of solution is less than that of pure solvent.
14. According to Raoult’s law for a solution of volatile liquids the partial
vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction.
p1 = po1 x1 ; p2 = po2 x2
Using Dalton’s law of partial pressure the total pressure of solution is
calculated.
ptotal=p1o+(p2o -p1o )x2
15. On comparison of Raoult’ law and Henry’s law, it is observed that the
partial pressure of volatile component or gas is directly proportional to
its mole fraction in solution. In case of Henry’s Law the proportionality
constant is KH and it is different from p10 which is partial pressure of
m
pure component. Raoult’s Law becomes a special case of Henry’s Law
when KH becomes equal to p10 in Henry’s law.
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16. Liquid –liquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal
solutions on basis of Raoult’s Law.
Ideal solutions Non- ideal solutions
The solutions that obey Raoult’s
Law over the entire range of ing
When a solution does not obey
Raoult’s Law over the entire range
concentrations are known as ideal of concentration, then it is called
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solutions. non-ideal solution.
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mix H=0 and mixV=0 mix H  0 and mixV  0

The intermolecular attractive The intermolecular attractive
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forces between solute molecules forces between solute molecules

and solvent molecules are nearly and solvent molecules are not
equal to those present between equal to those present between
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solute and solvent molecules i.e. solute and solvent molecules i.e.
A-A and B-B interactions are A-A and B-B interactions are not
nearly equal to those between A-B equal to those between A-B
pic
17. Non- ideal solutions are of two types:

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Non ideal solution showing Non ideal solution showing

positive deviation negative deviation
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The vapour pressure of a solution The vapour pressure of a solution

is higher than that predicted by is lower than that predicted by
Raoult’s Law Raoult’s Law
The intermolecular attractive The intermolecular attractive
forces between solute-solvent forces between solute-solvent
molecules are weaker than those molecules are stronger than those
between solute-solute and between solute-solute and
solvent-solvent molecules i.e. solvent-solvent molecules i.e.
A-B < A-A and B-B interactions A-B > A-A and B-B interactions
13
18. Azeotropes are binary mixtures having same composition in liquid

and vapour phase and boil at constant temperature. Liquids forming
azeotrope cannot be separated by fractional distillation.
19. There are two types of azeotropes called minimum boiling azeotrope
and maximum boiling azeotrope.
20. The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s
law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
21. The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s law
form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
22. Properties of solution which depends on only the number of solute
particles but not on the nature of solute are called colligative
properties.
23. There are four colligative properties:
a. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
b. Eleveation of boiling point
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c. Depression of freezing point
d. Osmotic pressure
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24. Relative lowering of vapour pressure: Difference in the vapour
pressure of pure solvent ( p1o ) and solution ( p1 ) represents lowering in
ing
vapour pressure ( p1o - p1 ). Dividing lowering in vapour pressure by
vapour pressure of pure solvent is called relative lowering of vapour
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po p
pressure ( 1 o 1 ).
p1
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Relative lowering of vapour pressure is directly proportional to mole

fraction of solute. Hence it is a colligative property.
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p1o  p1
 x2
p1o
kM
25. Elevation of boiling point: The difference in boiling points of solution

( Tb ) and pure solvent ( Tb0 ) is called elevation in boiling point
pic
 T  Tb  Tb0 .
For a dilute solution elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to
molal concentration of the solute in solution. Hence it is a colligative
w.
property.
K  1000  w2
ww
Tb  b
M2×w1
26. Depression of freezing point: The lowering of vapour pressure of
solution causes a lowering of freezing point compared to that of pure
solvent.The difference in freezing point of the pure solvent ( Tf 0 ) and
solution ( Tf ) is called the depression in freezing point.  T  Tf 0  Tf
For a dilute solution depression in freezing point is a colligative
property because it is directly proportional to molal concentration of
solute.
14
K f  1000  w2
Tf 
M2×w1
27. Osmosis: The phenomenon of flow of solvent molecules through a
semi permeable membrane from pure solvent to solution is called
osmosis.
28. Osmotic pressure: The excess pressure that must be applied to
solution to prevent the passage of solvent into solution through a semi
permeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the number
of solute particles and not on their identity.
For a dilute solution, osmotic pressure (  ) is directly proportional to
the molarity (C) of the solution i.e.   CRT
29. Osmotic pressure can also be used to determine the molar mass of
w RT
solute using the equation M2= 2
m
V
30. Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature
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are called isotonic solution.
31. If a solution has more osmotic pressure than other solution it is called
hypertonic solution.
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32. If a solution has less osmotic pressure than other solution it is called
hypotonic solution.
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33. Reverse osmosis: The process of movement of solvent through a semi
permeable membrane from the solution to the pure solvent by applying
excess pressure on the solution side is called reverse osmosis.
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34. Colligative properties help in calculation of molar mass of solutes.

35. Molar mass that is either lower or higher than expected or normal
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molar mass is called as abnormal molar mass.

36. van’t Hoff factor (i)accounts for the extent of dissociation or
association .
kM
Normal molar mass

i
Abnormal molar mass
pic
Observedcolligative property

Calculatedcolligative property
Totalnumber of moles of particles after association/dissociation
w.

Totalnumber of moles of particlesbefore association/dissociation
ww
Value of i is less than unity in case solute undergo association

Value of i is greater than unity in case solute undergo dissociation
37. Inclusion of van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative
properties as:
p1o  p1 n
o
 i. 2
p1 n1
Kb  1000  w2
Tb  i.
M2×w1
K f  1000  w2
Tf  i.
M2×w1
15
n2RT
  i.
V
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
16
Class XII
Chemistry
Ch:3 Electrochemistry
Key Learnings
1. Oxidation is defined as a loss of electrons while reduction is defined as

a gain of electrons.
2. In a redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction reaction takes place
simultaneously.
3. Direct redox reaction: In a direct redox reaction, both oxidation and
reduction reactions take place in the same vessel. Chemical energy is
converted to heat energy in a direct redox reaction.
4. Indirect redox reaction: In indirect redox reactions, oxidation and
reduction take place in different vessels. In an indirect redox reaction,
m
chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
5. In an indirect redox reaction, the device which converts chemical
.co
energy into electrical energy is known as an electrochemical cell.
6. In an electrochemical cell:
ing
a. The half cell in which oxidation takes place is known as
oxidation half cell
b. The half cell in which reduction takes place is known as
ch
reduction half cell.
c. Oxidation takes place at anode which is negatively charged and
oa
reduction takes place at cathode which is positively charged.

d. Transfer of electrons takes place from anode to cathode while
electric current flows in the opposite direction.
yC
e. An electrode is made by dipping the metal plate into the

electrolytic solution of its soluble salt.
kM
f. A salt bridge is a U shaped tube containing an inert electrolyte

in agar-agar and gelatine.
7. A salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality and allows the flow of
pic
electric current by completing the electrical circuit.

8. Representation of an electrochemical cell:
a. Anode is written on the left while the cathode is written on the
w.
right.
b. Anode represents the oxidation half cell and is written as:
ww
Metal/Metal ion (Concentration)

c. Cathode represents the reduction half cell and is written as:
Metal ion (Concentration)/Metal
d. Salt bridge is indicated by placing double vertical lines between the
anode and the cathode
e. Electrode potential is the potential difference that develops
between the electrode and its electrolyte. The separation of charges
at the equilibrium state results in the potential difference between
the metal and the solution of its ions. It is the measure of tendency
of an electrode in the half cell to lose or gain electrons.
17
9. When the concentration of all the species involved in a half cell is

unity, then the electrode potential is known as standard electrode
potential. It is denoted as EΘ.
10. According to the present convention, standard reduction
potentials are now called standard electrode potential.
11. There are 2 types of electrode potentials: Oxidation potential
and reduction potential.
12. Oxidation potential is the tendency of an electrode to lose
electrons or get oxidized.
13. Reduction potential is the tendency of an electrode to gain
electrons or get reduced.
14. Oxidation potential is the reverse of reduction potential.
15. The electrode having a higher reduction potential has a higher
tendency to gain electrons. So, it acts as a cathode.
16. The electrode having a lower reduction potential acts as an
m
anode.
17. The standard electrode potential of an electrode cannot be
.co
measured in isolation.
18. According to convention, the Standard Hydrogen Electrode is
ing
taken as a reference electrode and it is assigned a zero potential at all
temperatures.
19. Standard calomel electrode can also be used as a reference
ch
electrode.
20. Standard hydrogen electrode consists of a platinum wire sealed
oa
in a glass tube and carrying a platinum foil at one end. The electrode is
placed in a beaker containing an aqueous solution of an acid having 1
Molar concentration of hydrogen ions. Hydrogen gas at 1 bar pressure is
yC
continuously bubbled through the solution at 298 K. The oxidation or

reduction takes place at the Platinum foil. The standard hydrogen
kM
electrode can act as both anode and cathode.

If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as an anode:
H2 (g) → 2H+ (aq) + 2e-
pic
If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as a cathode:

2H+ (aq) + 2e-→ H2 (g)
21. In the electrochemical series, various elements are arranged as
w.
per their standard reduction potential values.

22. A substance with higher reduction potential value means that it
ww
has a higher tendency to get reduced. So, it acts as a good oxidising

agent.
23. A substance with lower reduction potential value means that it
has a higher tendency to get oxidised. So, it acts as a good reducing
agent.
24. The electrode with higher reduction potential acts as a cathode
while the electrode with a lower reduction potential acts as an anode.
18
25. The potential difference between the 2 electrodes of a galvanic

cell is called cell potential and is measured in Volts.
26. The cell potential is the difference between the reduction
potential of cathode and anode.
E cell = E cathode – E anode
Cell potential is called the electromotive force of the cell (EMF) when no
current is drawn through the cell.
27. Nernst studied the variation of electrode potential of an
electrode with temperature and concentration of electrolyte.
28. Nernst formulated a relationship between standard electrode
potential Eө and electrode potential E.
2.303RT 1
m
E = Eө - log n+
nF [M ]
.co
0.059 1
E = Eө - log n+ (At 298 K)
n [M ]
29.
ing
Electrode potential increases with increase in the concentration
of the electrolyte and decrease in temperature.
ch
30. Nernst equation when applied to a cell:
2.303RT [Anode ion]
oa
Ecell = Eөcell - log

nF [Cathode ion]
yC
This helps in calculating the cell potential

31. At equilibrium, cell potential Ecell becomes zero
kM
32. Relationship between equilibrium constant Kc and standard cell

potential Eө cell :
pic
0.059
Eө cell = log K c (At 298 K)
n
w.
33. Work done by an electrochemical cell is equal to the decrease in Gibbs

energy
ww
∆Gө = -nFEө cell
34. The substances which allow the passage of electricity through

them are known as conductors.
35. Every conducting material offers some obstruction to the flow of
electricity which is called resistance. It is denoted by R and is measured in
ohm.
36. The resistance of any object is directly proportional to its length
l and inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.
l
R=ρ
A
19
ρ is called specific resistance or resistivity. Its SI unit is ohm metre.

37. The inverse of resistance is known as conductance, G
1
G=
R
Unit of conductance is ohm-1 or mho. It is also expressed in Siemens
denoted by S.
38. The inverse of resistivity is known as conductivity. It is
represented by the symbol . The SI unit of conductivity is Sm-1. But it is
also expressed in Scm-1
1 1 l l
κ=  ( ) =G
ρ R A A
So, conductivity = Conductance × Cell constant
39. For measuring the resistance of an ionic solution, there are 2
m
problems:
a) Firstly, passing direct current changes the composition of the solution
.co
b) Secondly, a solution cannot be connected to the bridge like a metallic
wire or a solid conductor.
ing
44. This can be resolved by using a source of alternating current and the
second problem is resolved by using a specially designed vessel called
conductivity cell.
ch
45. A conductivity cell consists of 2 Pt electrodes coated with Pt black.
They have area of cross section A and are separated by a distance l.
oa
Resistance of such a column of solution is given by the equation:

l 1 l
R=ρ =
yC
A  A
l
is called cell constant and is denoted by the symbol G*
kM
A
46. Molar conductivity of a solution is defined as the conducting power of
all the ions produced by dissolving 1 mole of an electrolyte in solution.
pic
  1000
Molar conductivity  m =
M
w.
Where κ = Conductivity and M is the molarity

Unit of Molar conductivity is Scm2 mol-1
ww
47. Equivalent conductivity is the conductivity of all the ions produced by

dissolving one gram equivalent of an electrolyte in solution.
  1000
Equivalent conductivity e =
N
Unit of equivalent conductivity is S cm2 (g equiv) -1
48. Kohlrausch’s Law of independent migration of ions: According to this

law, molar conductivity of an electrolyte, at infinite dilution, can be
20
expressed as the sum of individual contributions from its individual ions.

If the limiting molar conductivity of the cations is denoted by λo and
that of the anions by λo then the limiting molar conductivity of
electrolyte is:
0
m  νλ0  vλ0
Where v+ and v- are the number of cations and anions per formula of
electrolyte
49. Degree of dissociation: It is ratio of molar conductivity at a specific
concentration ‘c’ to the molar conductivity at infinite dilution. It is
denoted by .
c
α m0
m
m
c α2
50. Ka  where Ka is acid dissociation constant , ‘c’ is concentration
1α
.co
of electrolyte, α is degree of ionization.
51. Faraday constant: It is equal to charge on 1 mol of electrons. It is
equal to 96487 C mol-1 or approximately equal to 96500 C mol-1.
ing
52. Faraday’s first law of electrolysis: The amount of substance
deposited during electrolysis is directly proportional to quantity of
electricity passed.
ch
53. Faraday’s second law of electrolysis: If same charge is passed through
different electrolytes, the mass of substance deposited will be
oa
proportional to their equivalent weights.

54. Products of electrolysis: The products of electrolysis depend upon the
yC
nature of electrolyte being electrolyzed and the nature of electrodes. If

electrode is inert like platinum or gold, they do not take part in
chemical reaction i.e. they neither lose nor gain electrons. If the
kM
electrodes are reactive then they will take part in chemical reaction and
products will be different as compared to inert electrodes.
The products of electrolysis also depend upon the electrode potentials
pic
of oxidizing and reducing species. Some of the electrochemical

processes although feasible but slow in their rates at lower voltage,
w.
these do not take place. They require extra voltage, i.e. over voltage at
which these processes will take place. The products of electrolysis also
ww
differ in molten state and aqueous solution of electrolyte.

55. Primary cells. A primary cell is a cell in which electrical energy is
produced by the reaction occurring in the cell, e.g. Daniell cell, dry cell,
mercury cell. It cannot be recharged.
56. Dry Cell:
At anode : Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
At cathode : MnO2(s) + NH4+(aq) +e-  MnO(OH) + NH3
The net reaction:
Zn + NH4+ (aq) + MnO2 (s) → Zn2+ + MnO (OH) + NH3
57. Mercury Cell. The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO.
At anode : Zn (Hg) + 2OH- → ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e-
21
At cathode : HgO(s) +H2O + 2e- → Hg(l) + 2OH-

The net reaction :
Zn (Hg) + HgO(s) → ZnO(s) + Hg(l)
58. Secondary cells. Those cells which are used for storing electricity, e.g.,
lead storage battery, nickel – cadmium cell. They can be recharged.
59. Lead storage battery:
Anode : Pb(s) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2e-
Cathode: PbO2(s) + SO42-(aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 2e-  PbSO4(s)+ 2H2O (l)
The overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq)  2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
On recharging the battery, the reaction is reversed.
60. Nickel cadmium cell: It is another type of secondary cell which has
longer life than lead storage cell but more expensive to manufacture.
The overall reaction during discharge is
Cd(s) + 2 Ni(OH)3(s) → CdO(s) + 2Ni(OH)2(s) + H2O(l)
m
61. Fuel cells:
.co
At anode : 2 H2(g) + 4OH- (aq) → 4H2O(l) + 4e-
At cathode : O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- → 4 OH-(aq)
Overall reaction:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
62. Corrosion:
Oxidation
ing
: Fe(s) → Fe2+ (aq) + 2e-
ch
Reduction : O2(g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e- → 2H2O(l)
Atmosphere oxidation:
oa
2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + ½ O2(g) Fe2O3(s) 4H+(aq)

63. Galvanization. It is a process of coating zinc over iron so as to protect
yC
it from rusting.
64. Cathodic protection: Instead of coating more reactive metal on iron,
the use of such metal is made as sacrificial anode.
kM
pic
w.
ww
22
Top Formulae
1. E cell =E cathode –E anode
0.059 1
2. E = Eө - log n+ (At 298 K)
n [M ]
2.303RT [Anode ion]
3. Ecell = Eөcell - log
nF [Cathode ion]
0.059
4. Eөcell = log K c (At 298 K)
n
5. ∆Gө = -nFEөcell
l 1 l
6. R=ρ
m
=
A  A
.co
1
7. G=
R
8. Conductivity = Conductance × Cell constant
9.
1 1 l
κ =  ( ) =G
ρ R A
l
A
ing
ch
10. Cell constant and is denoted by the symbol G*
Specific conductance 
oa
11. m = =
Molarity C
 x1000
yC
m =
C
Remember:
kM
unit of Λm in above formula is Scm2mol-1

c
m
12. α  0
pic
m
c α2
13. Ka 
w.
1α
14. m  ZIt
ww
w w w
15. 1  2  3  ...
E1 E2 E3
23
Class XII
Chemistry
Ch. 4: Chemical Kinetics
Chapter Notes
Key learnings:
1. Chemical kinetics: The branch of chemistry that deals with the study of
reaction rates and their mechanisms is called chemical kinetics.
2. Rate of reaction: It is defined as the change in concentration of
reactant (or product) in unit time. Unit of rate of reaction is mol L-1s-1.
3. Average rate: The rate of reaction measured over a long time interval
m
is called average rate of reaction. It is equal to ∆x/∆t.
.co
4. Instantaneous rate: It is the rate of reaction when the average rate is
taken over a particular moment of time. It is equal to dx/dt.
5.
reaction with concentration of
ing
Rate law or rate equation: It is the expression which relates the rate of
the reactants. The constant of
ch
proportionality ‘k’ is known as rate constant.
oa
6. Rate constant: When the concentration of reactants is unity, then the

rate of reaction is known as rate constant. It is also called specific
yC
reaction rate.
7. Molecularity of a reaction: Total number of atoms, ions or molecules of
kM
the reactants involved in the reaction is termed as its molecularity. It

is always in whole number. It is never more than three. It cannot be
pic
zero.
w.
8. Order of a reaction: The sum of the exponents (power) of the

concentration of reactants in the rate law is termed as order of the
ww
reaction. It can be in fraction. It can be zero also.

9. Half- life of a reaction: The time taken for a reaction, when half of the
starting material has reacted is called half- life of a reaction. For first
0.693
order reaction t 1  , where k is rate constant.
k
2
It is independent of initial concentration for first order reaction.
24
10. Pseudo first order reaction: The reaction which is bimolecular but order
is one is called pseudo first order reaction. This happens when one of
the reactants is in large excess. E.g., acidic hydrolysis of ester (ethyl
acetate).
H
CH3COOC2H5  H2O  CH3COOH  C2H5OH
11. Activation energy (Ea): It is extra energy which must be possessed by

reactant molecules so that collision between reactant molecules is
effective and leads to the formation of product molecules.
12. Arrhenius equation of reaction rate: It gives the relation between rate
of reaction and temperature.
m
k = AeEa /RT
.co
where k = rate constant, A = frequency factor,
ing
Ea = energy of activation
R = gas constant, T = temperature in Kelvin,
ch
ln k = ln A - Ea/RT
Ea
oa
log k = log A -
2.303RT
yC
13. Mechanism of reaction: The sequence of elementary processes leading

to the overall stoichiometry of a chemical reaction is known as
kM
mechanism of a reaction.
14. Activated complex: It is defined as unstable intermediate formed
pic
between reacting molecules. It is highly unstable and readily changes

into product.
w.
15. Rate determining step: The slowest step in the reaction mechanism is
ww
called rate determining step.

16. The number of collisions per second per unit volume of the reaction
mixture is known as collision frequency (Z).
25
Top Formulae:
dx
1. Instantaneous rate = , where dx is small change in conc. and dt
dt
is the smallest interval of time.
x
2. Average rate = , where x is change in concentration and t is
t
large interval of time.
3. A+B→C+D
d[A]
Rate of disappearance of A  , where d[A] is small change in
dt
m
conc. of ‘A’ and dt is small interval of time
.co
d[B]
Rate of disappearance of B  ,
dt
Rate of appearance of C 
d[C]
dt ing
ch
d[D]
Rate of appearance of D 
dt
oa
d[A] d[B] d[C] d[D]

Rate    
dt dt dt dt
yC
Unit of rate of reaction = mol L-1s-1

kM
4. Order of reaction:
If rate law expression for a reaction is

pic
Rate = k [A]x [B]y

w.
Order of reaction = x + y
ww
Remember: Order cannot be determined with a given balanced

chemical equation. It can be experimentally determined.
5. Integrated rate law for zero order reaction:
R→P
dx
 k[R]0
dt
Unit of ‘k’ is mol L-1s-1
26
[R o ] - [R]
k=
t
If we plot a graph between concentration of R vs time, the graph is a
straight line with slope equal to -k and intercept is equal to [Ro]
6. Half- life reaction for a for zero order reaction:
[R 0 ]
t½ 
2k
7. Rate law for Ist order reaction:

RP
2.303 [R ]
k log o
m
t [R]
.co
where ‘k’ is rate constant or specific reaction rate, [Ro] is initial molar
conc., [R] is final molar conc. after time‘t’
ing
If we plot a graph between ln[R] with time, we get a straight line
whose slope  k and intercept ln[Ro]
ch
2.303 a
k log
t ax
oa
where ‘a’ is initial conc. in mol L-1, x mol L-1 have reacted in time ‘t’
yC
final conc., after time ‘t’ is (a – x)

8. Half- Life for a first order reaction is:
kM
0.693
t½ 
k
pic
9. Formula to calculate rate constant for first order gas phase reaction
of the type
A(g)  B(g) + C(g)
w.
2.303 pi
k= log
t (2pi -p t )
ww
Where:
pi is initial pressure of A
pt is total pressure of gaseous mixture containing A , B, C
Remember:
pt = pA + pB + pC
10. Arrhenius equation:
k = A e-Ea /RT
27
k2 Ea  T2  T1 
11. log   
k1 2.303 R  T1T2 
Ea
12. Rate  P ZAB.e RT
Where:
ZAB represents the collision frequency of reactants, A and B
Ea
e represents the fraction of molecules with energies equal to or
RT
greater than Ea
P is called the probability or steric factor
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
28
Class XII
Chemistry
Ch 5: Surface Chemistry
Chapter Notes
Top Concepts / Key learnings:

1. Adsorption: The accumulation of molecular species at the surface
rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid is termed as adsorption.
2. Adsorbate: The substance which is being adsorbed on the surface of
another substance is called adsorbate.
3. Adsorbent: The substance present in bulk, on the surface of which
m
adsorption is taking place is called adsorbent.
.co
4. Desorption: The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a
surface on which it is adsorbed is called desorption.
5.
ing
Absorption: It is the phenomenon in which a substance is uniformly
distributed all over the surface.
ch
6. Difference between adsorption and absorption:
oa
Absorption Adsorption
(i) It is the phenomenon in which a (i) The accumulation of molecular
yC
species at the surface rather than

substance is uniformly distributed
in the bulk of a solid or liquid is
throughout the bulk of the solid. termed as adsorption.
kM
(ii) It is a surface phenomenon.

(ii) It is a bulk phenomenon.
pic
(iii) The concentration is uniform (iii) The concentration of

throughout the bulk of solid. adsorbate increases only at the
surface of the adsorbent.
w.
7. Sorption: When adsorption and absorption take place simultaneously,

ww
it is called sorption.
8. Enthalpy or heat of adsorption: Adsorption generally occurs with
release in energy, i.e., it is exothermic in nature. The enthalpy change
for the adsorption of one mole of an adsorbate on the surface of
adsorbent is called enthalpy or heat of adsorption.
9. Types of adsorption:
29
a. Physical adsorption or physisorption: If the adsorbate is held on

a surface of adsorbent by weak van der Waals’ forces, the
adsorption is called physical adsorption or physisorption.
b. Chemical adsorption or chemisorption: If the forces holding the
adsorbate are as strong as in chemical bonds, the adsorption
process is known as chemical adsorption of chemisorption.
10. Difference between Physical and chemical adsorption:
Physical adsorption Chemical adsorption
(Physisorption) (Chemisorption)
(i) It is non-specific (i) It is highly specific
(ii) It is reversible (ii) It is irreversible
m
(iii) The amount of gas depends upon (iii) The amount of gas adsorbed is not
nature of gas, i.e., easily liquefiable related to critical temperature of the
.co
gases like NH3, CO2, gas adsorbed to gas.
greater extent than H2 and He.
Higher the critical temperature of
gas, more will be the extent of
adsorption.
(iv) The extent of adsorption
ing
(iv) It also increases with increase in
ch
increases with increase in surface surface area.
area, e.g. porous and finely divided
oa
metals are good adsorbents.

(v) There are weak van der Waals’ (v) There is strong force of attraction
yC
forces of attraction between similar to chemical bond.

adsorbate and adsorbent.
(vi) It has low enthalpy of adsorption (vi) It has enthalpy heat of adsorption
kM
(20 – 40 kJ mol-1) (180 – 240 kJ mol-1)

(vii) Low temperature is favourable. (vii) High temperature is favourable.
pic
(viii) No appreciable activation (viii) High activation energy is

energy is needed. sometimes needed.
(ix) It forms multimolecular layers. (ix) It forms unimolecuar layers.
w.
11. Factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids:

ww
a. Nature of adsorbate: Physical adsorption is non-specific in

nature and therefore every gas gets adsorbed on the surface of
any solid to a lesser or greater extent. However, easily
liquefiable gases like NH3. HCl, CO2, etc. which have higher
critical temperatures are absorbed to greater extent whereas H 2,
O2, N2 etc. are adsorbed to lesser extent. The chemical
adsorption being highly specific, therefore, a gas gets adsorbed
30
on specific solid only if it enters into chemical combination with

it.
b. Nature of adsorbent: Activated carbon, metal oxides like
aluminum oxide, silica gel and clay are commonly used
adsorbents. They have their specific adsorption properties
depending upon pores.
c. Specific area of the adsorbent: The greater the specific area,
more will be the extent of adsorption. That is why porous or
finely divided forms of adsorbents adsorb larger quantities of
adsorbate. The pores should be large enough to allow the gas
m
molecules to enter.
.co
d. Pressure of the gas: Physical adsorption increases with increase
in pressure.
12.
ing
Adsorption isotherm: The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by
the adsorbent with pressure at constant temperature can be expressed
ch
by means of a curve is termed as adsorption isotherm.
oa
x
13. Freundlich Adsorption isotherm: The relationship between and
m
yC
pressure of the gas at constant temperature is called adsorption

isotherm and is given by
kM
x
 k P 1 /n (n  1)
m
pic
Where x- mass of the gas adsorbed on mass m of the adsorbent and

the gas at a particular temperature
w.
k and n depends upon the nature of gas and the solid

ww
x
first increases with increase in pressure at low pressure but becomes
m
independent of pressure at high pressure.
31
Taking logarithm on both sides, we get,
m
x 1
log = log k + logP
.co
m n
x
If we plot a graph between log and log P, we get a straight line.
ing
ch m
oa
yC
kM
pic
1
The slope of the line is and intercept will be equal to log k.
w.
n
14. Catalyst: Substances which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and
ww
themselves remain chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the

reaction are known as catalysts and the phenomenon is known as
catalysis.
15. Promoters: Those substances which increase the activity of catalyst
are called promoters. Example: Mo is promoter whereas Fe is catalyst
in Haber’s Process.
Fe(s)
    
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)    2NH3 (g)
Mo(s)
32
16. Catalytic poisons (Inhibitors): The substances which decrease the

activity of catalyst are called catalytic poisons or inhibitors e.g.,
arsenic acts as catalytic poison in the manufacture of sulphuric acid by
‘contact process.’
17. Types of catalysis:
a. Homogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants
are in the same phase, this kind of catalytic process is known as
homogeneous catalysis.
b. Heterogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants
are in different phases, the catalytic process is said to be
m
heterogeneous catalysis.
.co
18. Activity of catalyst: The ability of a catalyst to increase the rate of a
chemical reaction is called activity of a catalyst.
19.
ing
Selectivity of catalyst: It is the ability of catalyst to direct a reaction to
yield a particular product (excluding others).
ch
For example:
oa
CO and H2 react to form different products in presence of different

catalysts as follows:
yC
Ni
a) CO(g)  3H2(g)   CH4(g)  H2O(g)
kM
Cu / ZnOCr O
2 3  CH OH(g)
b) CO(g)  2H2(g)  3
Cu
c) CO(g)  H2(g)  HCHO(g)
pic
20. Shape – selective catalysis: The catalysis which depends upon the
w.
pore structure of the catalyst and molecular size of reactant and

product molecules is called shape- selective catalysis. E.g. Zeolites are
ww
shape – selective catalysts due to their honey- comb structure.

21. Enzymes: Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds which
are produced by living plants and animals. They are actually protein
molecules of high molecular mass. They are biochemical catalysts
22. Steps of enzyme catalysis:
(i) Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex
    ES
E+S 
33
ii) Decomposition of the activated complex to form product

E S → E + P
23.Characteristics of enzyme catalysis:
i) They are highly efficient. One molecule of an enzyme can transform
106 molecules of reactants per minute.
ii) They are highly specific in nature, e.g., urease catalysis hydrolysis
of urea only.
iii) They are active at optimum temperature (298 – 310 K). The rate of
enzyme catalysed reaction becomes maximum at a definite
temperature called the optimum temperature.
m
iv) They are highly active at a specific pH called optimum pH.
.co
v) Enzymatic activity can be increased in presence of coenzymes
which can be called as promoters.
vi)
ing
Activators are generally metal ions Na+, Co2+ and Cu2+ etc. They
weakly bind to enzyme and increase its activity.
ch
vii) Influence of inhibitors (poison): Enzymes can also be inhibited
oa
or poisoned by the presence of certain substances.

yC
24. Distinction between true solution, colloids and Suspension.

kM
True solution Colloids Suspension

It is homogeneous It appears to be It is heterogeneous
homogeneous but is
pic
actually heterogeneous
The diameter of the The diameter of the The diameter of the
particles is less than 1 particles is 1 nm to particles are larger that
w.
nm 1000 nm 1000 nm
It passes through filter It passes through It does not pass through
ww
paper ordinary filter paper but filter paper

not through ultra-filters
Its particles cannot be Its particles can be seen Its particles can be seen
seen under a by a powerful even with naked eye
microscope microscope due to
scattering of light
34
25. Colloids: A colloid is a heterogeneous system in which one substance is

dispersed as very fine particles in another substance called dispersed
medium.
26. Dispersed phase: The substance which is dispersed as very fine
particles is called dispersed phase.
27. Dispersion medium: The substance present in larger quantity is called
dispersion medium.
28. Classification of colloids on the basis of the physical state of dispersed
phase and dispersion medium:
m
Dispersed Dispersion
Name Examples
phase medium
.co
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust
Solid Liquid Sol Paints
ing
Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured gem tones
Liquid Solid Gel Jellies, cheese
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, hair cream
ch
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, mist, cloud
Pumice stone, foam
Gas Solid Solid sol
oa
rubber
Whipped cream,
Gas Liquid Foam
froth
yC
kM
29. Classification of colloids on the basis of nature of interaction between

dispersed phase and dispersion medium :
pic
Lyophobic sols Lyophilic sols

w.
These colloids are liquid hating. These colloids are liquid loving.
In these colloids the particles of In these colloids, the particles of
ww
dispersed phase have no affinity dispersed phase have great

for the dispersion medium. affinity for the dispersion medium.
They are not stable. They are stable.
They can be prepared by mixing They cannot be prepared by
substances directly. mixing substances directly. They
are prepared only by special
methods
35
They need stabilizing agents for They do not need stabilizing

their preservation. agents for their preservation.
They are irreversible sols. They are reversible sols.
30. Classification of colloids on the basis of types of particles of the

dispersed phase:
a. Multimolecular colloids: The colloids in which the colloidal
particles consist of aggregates of atoms or small molecules. The
diameter of the colloidal particle formed is less than 1 nm.
b. Macromolecular colloids: These are the colloids in which the
m
dispersed particles are themselves large molecules (usually
.co
polymers). Since these molecules have dimensions comparable
to those of colloids particles, their dispersions are called
ing
macromolecular colloids, e.g., proteins, starch and cellulose
form macromolecular colloids.
ch
c. Associated colloids (Micelles): Those colloids which behave as
oa
normal, strong electrolytes at low concentrations, but show

colloidal properties at higher concentrations due to the
yC
formation of aggregated particles of colloidal dimensions. Such

substances are also referred to as associated colloids.
kM
31. Kraft Temperature (Tk): Micelles are formed only above a certain
temperature called Kraft temperature.
pic
32. Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC): Micelles are formed only above a
w.
particular concentration called critical micelle concentration.

33. Soaps: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids e.g.,
ww
sodium stearate CH3(CH2)16COO-Na+

34. Methods of preparation of colloids:
a. Chemical methods: Colloids can be prepared by chemical
reactions leading to the formation of molecules. These
molecules aggregate leading to formation of sols.
b. Electrical disintegration or Bredig’s Arc method: In this method,
electric arc is struck between electrodes of the metal immersed
36
in the dispersion medium. The intense heat produced vaporizes

the metal which then condenses to form particles of colloidal
size.
c. Peptization: Peptization may be defined as the process of
converting a precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it with
dispersion medium in the presence of a small amount of
electrolyte. The electrolyte used for this purpose is called
peptizing agent.
35.Purification of colloids:
a. Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from
m
a colloidal solution by means of diffusion through a suitable
.co
membrane.
b. Electro dialysis. The process of dialysis is quite slow. It can be
ing
made faster by applying an electric field if the dissolved
substance in the impure colloidal solution is only an electrolyte.
ch
c. Ultrafiltration: Ultrafiltration is the process of separating the
colloidal particles from the solvent and soluble solutes present in
oa
the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters, which are

permeable to all substances except the colloidal particles.
yC
d. Ultracentrifugation: In this process, the colloidal solution is

taken in a tube which is placed in ultracentrifuge. On rotating
kM
the tube at very high speed, the colloidal particles settle down
at the bottom of the tube and the impurities remain in solution.
pic
The settled particles are mixed with dispersion medium to

w.
regenerate the sol.

36.Properties of colloids:
ww
a. Colour: The colour of colloidal solution depends upon the

wavelength of light scattered by the colloidal particles which in
turn depends upon the nature and size of particles. The colour
also depends upon the manner in which light is received by the
observer.
37
10
b. Brownian movement: Colloidal particles move in zig – zag path.

This type of motion is due to colliding molecules of dispersion
medium constantly with colloidal particles.
c. Colligative properties: The values of colligative properties
(osmotic pressure, lowering in vapour pressure, depression in
freezing point and elevation in boiling point) are of small order
as compared to values shown by true solutions at the same
concentrations.
d. Tyndall effect: The scattering of a beam of light by colloidal
particles is called Tyndall effect. The bright cone of light is called
m
the Tyndall cone.
.co
e. Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an
electric charge. The nature of this charge is the same on all the
ing
particles in a given colloidal solution and may be either positive
or negative.
ch
Positively charged colloids Negatively charged colloids
Hydrated metallic oxides such as Metallic sulphides like As2S3, Sb2S3
oa
Fe2O3.xH2O, Cr2O3.xH2O, Al2O3.xH2O sols

Basic dye stuff like malachite green, Acid dye stuff like eosin, methyl
yC
methylene blue sols orange, Congo red sols

Starch sol, gum, gelatin, clay,
Haemoglobin (blood)
charcoal, egg albumin, etc.
kM
f. Helmholtz electrical double layer: When the colloidal particles

pic
acquire negative or positive charge by selective adsorption of

one of the ions, it attracts counter ions from the medium
w.
forming a second layer. The combination of these two layers of

ww
opposite charges around colloidal particles is called Helmholtz

electrical double layer.
g. Electrokinetic potential or zeta potential: The potential
difference between the fixed layer and the diffused layer of
opposite charges is called electrokinetic potential or zeta
potential.
38
11
h. Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles under an

applied electric potential is called electrophoresis.
i. Coagulation or precipitation: The process of settling of colloidal
particles as precipitate is called coagulation.
Hardy – Schulze rules:
i) Oppositely charged ions are effective for coagulation.
ii) The coagulating power of electrolyte increases with
increase in charge on the ions used for coagulation, e.g.
Al3+ > Ba2+ > Na+ for negatively charged colloids.
[Fe (CN)6]4- > PO43- > SO42- > Cl- for positively charged colloids
m
37.Types of emulsions:
.co
a. Water dispersed in oil: When water is the dispersed phase and oil is
the dispersion medium. E.g. butter
ing
b. Oil dispersed in water: When oil is the dispersed phase and water is
the dispersion medium. E.g. milk
ch
38.Emulsification: The process of stabilizing an emulsion by means of an
oa
emulsifier.
39.Emulsifying agent: The substances which are added to stabilize the
yC
emulsions are called emulsifying agents or emulsifiers. E.g. soaps,

gum
kM
40. Demulsification: The process of breaking an emulsion into its

constituent liquids is called demulsification by freezing, boiling,
pic
centrifugation or some chemical methods.

w.
ww
39
Class XII
Chemistry
Ch 6: General Principles & Processes
Of Isolation of Elements
Top concepts:
1. Minerals: The naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth’s

crust which are obtained by mining are known as minerals. Metals may
or may not be extracted profitably from them.
2. Ores: The rocky materials which contain sufficient quantity of mineral
so that the metal can be extracted profitably or economically are
m
known as ores.
3. Gangue: The earthy or undesirable materials present in ore are known
.co
as gangue.
ing
4. Metallurgy: The entire scientific and technological process used for
isolation of the metal from its ores is known as metallurgy.
ch
5. Chief Ores and Methods of Extraction of Some Common Metals:
Metals Occurrence Extraction Method Remark
oa
Sodium Rock salt: NaCl Electrolysis of fused Sodium is highly

Feldspar:Na3AlSi3O8 NaCl or NaCl/ CaCl2 reactive, it reacts with
yC
water
Copper Copper pyrites:CuFeS2 Roasting of sulphide It is self reduction in a
Malachite:CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 partially and reduction specially designed
kM
Cuprite: Cu2O 2Cu2O + Cu2S → 6 Cu converter. Sulphuric

Copper glance: Cu2S +SO2 acid leaching is also
employed.
pic
Aluminium Bauxite: AlOx(OH)3-2x Electrolysis of Al2O3 A good source of

where 0<x<1 dissolved in molten electricity is needed in
w.
Cryolite: Na3AlF6 cryolite or in Na3AlCl6 the extraction of Al

Kaolinite: [Al2(OH)4Si2O5]
ww
Zinc Zinc blende or Sphalerite: Roasting and then The metal may be
ZnS reduction with C purified by fractional
Zincite: ZnO distillation.
Calamine: ZnCO3
Lead Galena: PbS Roasting of the sulphide Sulphide ore is
ore and then reduction concentrated by froth
of the oxide floatation process
Silver Argentite: Ag2S Sodium cyanide leaching It involves complex
of the sulphide ore and formation and
finally replacement of Ag displacement
by Zn
40
Gold Native, small amounts in Cyanide leaching, same Gold reacts with cyanide
many ores such as those of as in case of silver to form complex
copper and silver
Iron Haematite: Fe2O3 Reduction with the help Limestone is added as
Magnetite: Fe3O4 of CO and coke in blast flux which removes SiO2
Siderite: FeCO3 furnace. as calcium silicate (slag)
Iron pyrites: FeS2 floats over molten iron
and prevents its
oxidation. Temperatures
approaching 2170 K is
required.
6. Steps of metallurgy:
a. Concentration of ore
m
b. Conversion of concentrated ore to oxide
.co
c. Reduction of oxide to metal
d. Refining of metal
7.
ing
Concentration of ore: The process of removal unwanted materials like
sand, clay, rocks etc from the ore is known as concentration, ore –
ch
dressing or benefaction. It involves several steps which depend upon
oa
physical properties of metal compound and impurity (gangue). The

type of metal, available facilities and environmental factors are also
yC
taken into consideration.

kM
8. Hydraulic washing (or gravity separation): It is based on difference in

densities of ore and gangue particles. Ore is washed with a stream of
pic
water under pressure so that lighter impurities are washed away

whereas heavy ores are left behind.
w.
9. Magnetic separation: This method is based on the difference in

ww
magnetic and non – magnetic properties of two components of ore

(pure and impure). This method is used to remove tungsten ore
particles from cassiterite (SnO2). It is also used to concentrate
magnetite (Fe3O4), chromite (FeCr2O4) and pyrolusite (MnO2) from
unwanted gangue.
10. Froth Floatation Process: The principle of froth floatation process is
that sulphide ores are preferentially wetted by the pine oil, whereas
the gangue particles are wetted by the water. Collectors are added to
41
enhance the non-wettability of the mineral particles. Examples are

pine oil, fatty acids and xanthates are added to it. Froth stabilizers are
added to stabilize the froth. Examples are cresols, aniline. If two
sulphide ores are present, it is possible to separate the two sulphide
ores by adjusting proportion of oil to water or by adding depressants.
For example- In the case of an ore containing ZnS and PbS, the
depressant used is NaCN. It selectively prevents ZnS from coming to
froth but allows PbS to come with the froth.
11. Leaching (Chemical separation): It is a process in which ore is treated
with suitable solvent which dissolves the ore but not the impurities.
m
12. Purification of Bauxite by Leaching: Baeyer’s process:
.co
Step 1:
Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 3H2O (l) → 2Na[Al(OH)4](aq)
Step 2:
ing
2Na[Al  OH4 ](aq)  CO2  g  Al2O3.xH2O(s)  2NaHCO3 (aq)
ch
Step 3:
 Al2O3  s  xH2O(g)
oa
Heat at1470K
Al2O3.xH2O(s) 
13. Concentration of Gold and Silver Ores by Leaching:

yC
4M(s)  8CN (aq)  2H2O(aq)  O2 (g)  4[M(CN)2 ]- (aq) + 4OH- (aq)

kM
2[M(CN)2 ]- (aq)  Zn(s)  [Zn(CN)4 ]2- (aq)  2M(s)

Where :
pic
[M  Ag or Au]
14. Conversion of ore into oxide: It is easier to reduce oxide than sulphide
w.
or carbonate ore. Therefore, the given ore should be converted into

ww
oxide by suitable method:

Roasting Calcination
It is a process in which ore is It is a process of heating ore in
heated in a regular supply of air limited supply of air so as to
at a temperature below melting convert carbonate ores into
point of the metal so as to oxides.
convert the given ore into oxide
42
ore.
Sulphide ores are converted into Carbonate ores are converted into
oxide by roasting oxide by roasting
It is also used to remove It is also used to remove moisture
impurities as volatile oxides and volatile impurities
E.g.: 2ZnS+ 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2 heat
E.g.: CaCO3   CaO  CO2
15. Reduction of oxide to metal: The process of converting metal oxide

into metal is called reduction. It needs a suitable reducing agent
depending upon the reactivity or reducing power of metal. The
m
common reducing agents used are carbon or carbon monoxide or any
.co
other metals like Al, Mg etc.
16. Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy: Some basic concepts of
ing
thermodynamics help in understanding the conditions of temperature
and selecting suitable reducing agent in metallurgical processes:
ch
a. Gibbs free energy change at any temperature is given by ΔG =
oa
ΔH – TΔS where ΔG is free energy change, ΔH is enthalpy

change and ΔS is entropy change.
yC
b. The relationship between ΔGӨ and K is ΔGӨ = –2.303 RT log K

kM
where K is equilibrium constant. R = 8.314 JK-¹ mol-1, T is

temperature in Kelvin.
pic
c. A negative ΔG means +ve value of K i.e., products are formed

more than the reactants. The reaction will proceed in forward
w.
direction.
ww
d. If ΔS is +ve, on increasing temperature the value of TΔS

increases so that TΔS > ΔH and ΔG will become negative.
17. Coupled reactions: If reactants and products of two reactions are

put together in a system and the net ΔG of two possible reactions
is –ve the overall reaction will take place. These reactions are
called coupled reactions.
43
18. Ellingham diagrams: The plots between ΔfGӨ of formation of oxides

of elements vs. temperature are called Ellingham diagrams. It
provides a sound idea about selecting a reducing agent in reduction
of oxides. Such diagrams help in predicting the feasibility of a
thermal reduction of an ore. ΔG must be negative at a given
temperature for a reaction to be feasible.
19. Limitations of Ellingham Diagrams: It does not take kinetics of
reduction into consideration, i.e., how fast reduction will take place
cannot be determined.
20. Reduction of iron oxide in blast furnace: Reduction of oxides takes
m
place in different zones.
.co
At 500 – 800 K (lower temperature range in blast furnace)
3Fe2O3 + CO  2Fe3O4 + CO2
Fe3O4 + 4CO  3Fe + 4CO2
Fe2O3 + CO  2FeO + CO2
ing
ch
At 900 – 1500 K (higher temperature range in blast furnace)
oa
C + CO2  2CO
FeO + CO  Fe + CO2
yC
Limestone decomposes to CaO and CO2

heat
CaCO3   CaO  CO2
kM
Silica (impurity) reacts with CaO to form calcium silicate which

pic
forms slag. It floats over molten iron and prevents oxidation of

iron.
w.
CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3

Calcium silicate
ww
(Slag)
21. Types of iron:
a. Pig iron: The iron obtained from blast furnace is called pig iron. It is
impure from of iron contains 4% carbon and small amount of S,.P,
Si and Mn. It can be casted into variety of shapes.
44
b. Cast iron: It is made by melting pig iron with scrap iron and coke
using hot air blast. It contains about 3% of carbon content. It is
extremely hard and brittle.
c. Wrought iron: It is the purest form of commercial iron. It is also
called malleable iron.
It is prepared by oxidative refining of pig iron in reverberatory
furnace lined with haematite which oxidises carbon to carbon
monoxide.
Fe2O3 + 3C  2Fe + 3CO
The substance which reacts with impurity to form slag is called flux
m
e.g. limestone is flux.
.co
S + O2  SO2
4P + 5O2  2P2O5
Si + O2  SiO2
CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3 (slag)
ing
ch
3CaO + P2O5  Ca3(PO4)2 (slag)
oa
The metal is removed and freed from slag by passing through rollers.
22. Electrolytic Reduction (Hall – Heroult Process): Purified bauxite ore is
yC
mixed with cryolite (Na3AlF6) or CaF2 which lowers its melting point
and increases electrical conductivity. Molten mixture is electrolysed
kM
using a number of graphite rods as anode and carbon lining as

cathode.
pic
The graphite anode is useful for reduction of metal oxide to metal.

w.
2Al2O3 + 3C  4Al + 3CO2

electrolysis
Al2O3  2 Al³  3 O²
ww
At cathode: Al³+ (melt) + 3e-  Al (l)

At anode: C(s) + O²- (melt)  CO (g) + 2e-
C(s) + 2O²- (melt)  CO2 (g) + 4e-
Graphite rods get burnt forming CO and CO2. The aluminium thus
obtained is refined electrolytically using impure Al as anode, pure Al as
cathode and molten cryolite as electrolyte.
45
At anode: Al  Al³+ + 3e-

(Impure)
At cathode: Al³+ + 3e-  Al (pure)
23. Electrolysis of molten NaCl:
NaCl  Na++ Cl-
(Molten)
At cathode: Na++ e-  Na
At anode: 2Cl-  Cl2 + 2e-
Thus sodium metal is obtained at cathode and Cl2 (g) is liberated at
anode.
24. Refining: It is the process of converting an impure metal into pure
m
metal depending upon the nature of metal.
.co
25. Distillation: It is the process used to purify those metals which have
low boiling points, e.g., zinc, mercury, sodium, potassium. Impure
ing
metal is heated so as to convert it into vapours which changes into
pure metal on condensation and is obtained as distillate.
ch
26. Liquation: Those metals which have impurities whose melting points
oa
are higher than metal can be purified by this method. In this method,
Sn metal can be purified. Tin containing iron as impurities heated on
yC
the top of sloping furnace. Tin melts and flows down the sloping
kM
surface where iron is left behind and pure tin is obtained.

27. Electrolytic refining: In this method, impure metal is taken as anode,
pic
pure metal is taken as cathode, and a soluble salt of metal is used as

electrolyte. When electric current is passed, impure metal forms metal
w.
ions which are discharged at cathode forming pure metal.

At anode: M  Mⁿ+ + ne-
ww
(Impure)
At cathode: Mⁿ++ ne-  M
(Pure)
28. Zone refining: It is based on the principle that impurities are more
soluble in the melt than in the solid state of the metal.
The impure metal is heated with the help of circular heaters at one end
of the rod of impure metal. The molten zone moves forward along with
46
the heater with impurities and reaches the other end and is discarded.
Pure metal crystallizes out of the melt.
The process is repeated several times and heater is moved in the same
direction. It is used for purifying semiconductors like B, Ge, Si, Ga and
In.
29. Vapour phase refining: Nickel is purified by Mond’s process. Nickel,
when heated in stream of carbon monoxide forms volatile Ni(CO)4
which on further subjecting to higher temperature decomposes to give
pure metal.
450 – 470K
 Ni CO4
330  350K
Ni + 4 CO  Ni + 4 CO
m
Impure Pure
.co
30. van- Arkel method: It is used to get ultra pure metals. Zr and Ti are
ing
purified by this process. Zr or Ti are heated in iodine vapours at about
870 K to form volatile ZrI4 or TiI4 which are heated over tungsten
ch
filament at 1800K to give pure Zr or Ti.
oa
Ti + 2I2 
 TiI4 
 Ti  2I2
Impure Pure
yC
Zr + 2I2 
 ZrI4 
 Zr  2I2
kM
Impure Pure
31. Chromatographic method: It is based on the principle of separation or
pic
purification by chromatography which is based on differential

adsorption on an adsorbent. In column chromatography, Al2O3 is used
w.
as adsorbent. The mixture to be separated is taken in suitable solvent

ww
and applied on the column. They are then eluted out with suitable
solvent (eluant). The weakly adsorbed component is eluted first. This
method is suitable for such elements which are available only in
minute quantities and the impurities are not very much different in
their chemical behaviour from the element to be purified.
47
Class XII
Chemistry
Chapter 7:
The p-Block Elements
Top concepts:
1. p-Block elements: Elements belonging to groups 13 to 18 of the

periodic table are called p-block elements.
2. General electronic configuration of p-block elements: The p-

block elements are characterized by the ns2np1-6 valence shell
electronic configuration.
3. Representative elements: Elements belonging to the s and p-blocks
m
in the periodic table are called the representative elements or main
group elements.
.co
4. Inert pair effect: The tendency of ns2 electron pair to participate in
bond formation decreases with the increase in atomic size. Within a
ing
group the higher oxidation state becomes less stable with respect to
the lower oxidation state as the atomic number increases. This trend is
called ‘inert pair effect’. In other words, the energy required to unpair
ch
the electrons is more than energy released in the formation of two
additional bonds.
oa
5. Nitrogen family: The elements of group 15 – nitrogen (N),

phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi) belong
yC
to configuration is ns2np3.
kM
6. Oxygen family: Group 16 of periodic table consists of five elements –

oxygen (O), sulphur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te) and polonium
(Po). Their general electronic configuration is ns2np4.
pic
7. The halogen family: Group 17 elements, fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl),

bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At), belong to halogen family.
w.
Their general electronic configuration is ns2np5.
8. Group 18 elements: Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton

ww
(Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn) are Group 18 elements. They are
also called noble gases. Their general electronic configuration is ns 2np6
except helium which has electronic configuration 1s2. They are called
noble gases because they show very low chemical reactivity.
GROUP 15 ELEMENTS
9. Atomic and ionic radii: Covalent and ionic radii increase down the
group. There is appreciable increase in covalent radii from N to P.
48
There is small increase from As to Bi due to presence of completely

filled d or f orbitals in heavy elements.
10. Ionisation energy: It goes on decreasing down the group due to

increase in atomic size. Group 15 elements have higher ionisation
energy than group 14 elements due to smaller size of group 15
elements. Group 15 elements have higher ionization energy than
group 16 elements because they have stable electronic configuration
i.e., half filled p-orbitals.
11. Allotropy: All elements of Group 15 except nitrogen show allotropy.
12. Catenation: Nitrogen shows catenation to some extent due to triple

bond but phosphorus shows catenation to maximum extent. The
tendency to show catenation decreases down the group.
m
13. Oxidation states: The common oxidation states are +3, +5, –3. The
tendency to show –3 oxidation state decreases down the group due to
.co
decrease in electronegativity which is due to increase in atomic size.
The stability of +5 oxidation state decreases whereas stability of +3
ing
oxidation state increases due to inert pair effect.
Nitrogen shows oxidation states from –3 to +5.

ch
Nitrogen and phosphorus with oxidation states from +1 to +4 undergo
oa
oxidation as well as reduction in acidic medium. This process is called

disproportionation.
yC
3 HNO2  HNO3 + H2O + 2 NO
14. Reactivity towards hydrogen: All group 15 elements from

kM
trihydrides, MH3. Hybridisation - sp3
The stability of hydrides decrease down the group due to decrease in

pic
bond dissociation energy down the group.
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3

w.
Boiling point: PH3 < AsH3 < NH3 < SbH3 < BiH3
ww
Boiling point increases with increase in size due to increase in van der
Waals forces. Boiling point of NH3 is more because of hydrogen
bonding.
Bond angle: NH3 (107.8°) > PH3 (99.5°) > AsH3 (91.8°) ≈ SbH3
(91.3°) > BiH3 (90°)
Electronegativity of N is highest. Therefore, the lone pairs will be

towards nitrogen and hence more repulsion between bond pairs.
Therefore bond angle is the highest. After nitrogen, the
electronegativity decreases down the group.
49
Basicity decreases as NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 < BiH3.
This is because the lone pair of electrons are concentrated more on

nitrogen and hence the basicity will be maximum in the case of NH 3. It
will decrease down the group as the electronegativity decreases down
the group.
The reducing power of hydrides increases down the group due to

decrease in bond dissociation energy down the group.
15. Reactivity towards oxygen: All group 15 elements from trioxides

(M2O3) and pentoxides (M2O5).
Acidic character of oxides decreases and basicity increases down the

group. This is because the size of nitrogen is very small. It has a
strong positive field in a very small area. Therefore, it attracts the
m
electrons of water’s O-H bond to itself and release H+ ions easily. As
we move down the group, the atomic size increases and hence the
.co
acidic character of oxides decreases and basicity increases down the
group.
16.
ing
Reactivity towards halogen: Group 15 elements form trihalides and
pentahalides.
ch
Trihalides – covalent compounds and become ionic down the group.
oa
sp3 hybridisation , pyramidal shape
Pentahalides - sp3d hybridisation, TBP shape

yC
They are lewis acids because of the presence of vacant d – orbitals.

kM
PCl5 + Cl-  [PCl6]-
PCl5 is ionic in solid state and exist as [PCl4]+ [PCl6]-

pic
In PCl5, there are three equatorial bonds and two axial bonds. The
axial bonds are longer than equatorial bonds because of greater
w.
repulsion from equatorial bonds.

ww
Nitrogen does not form pentahalides due to absence of d- orbitals.
17. Reactivity towards metals: All elements react with metals to form
binary compounds in –3 oxidation state.
18. Anomalous behaviour of nitrogen: The behaviour of nitrogen

differs from rest of the elements.
Reason:
i. It has a small size.
50
ii. It does not have d – orbitals
iii. It has high electronegativity
iv. It has high ionization enthalpy
19. Dinitrogen:
Preparation:
heat
NH4Cl(aq)  NaNO2 (aq) 
N2(g)  2H2O(l)  NaCl(aq)
NH4 2 Cr2O7 

heat
N2  4H2O  Cr2O3
Ba N3 2 
heat
 Ba  3 N2
m
Properties:
.co
It is a colouless, odourless, tasteless and non – toxic gas. It is
chemically un-reactive at ordinary temperature due to triple bond in
ing
N ≡ N which has high bond dissociation energy.
ch
20. Ammonia: Ammonia molecule is trigonal pyramidal with nitrogen
atom at the apex. It has 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair. N is sp3
hybridised.
oa
Preparation:
yC
Haber’s process:
kM
N2 (g)  3H2 (g)     2 NH3 (g)  fHo   46.1 kJ mol1

Pr essure  200 x105 Pa
pic
Temperature  773 K
Catalyst is FeO with small amounts of K2O and Al2O3
w.
21. Nitric Acid:

ww
a. Ostwald Process:
Pt /Rhgauge
4NH3  5O2 
500 K,9bar
 4NO  6H2O ......(i)
2NO  O2     2NO2 ......(ii)
3NO2 (g)  H2O(l)  2HNO3 (aq)  NO(g) ......(iii)
51
NO thus formed is recycled and the aqueous HNO3 can be

concentrated by distillation upto ~ 68% by mass. Further
concentration to 98% can be achieved by dehydration with
concentrated H2SO4.
Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent in the concentrated as well as in

the dilute state.
22. Phosphorus:
a. It shows the property of catenation to maximum extent due to

most stable P – P bond.
b. It has many allotropes, the important ones are :
i. White phosphorus
m
ii. Red phosphorus
.co
iii. Black phosphorus
White phosphorus Red phosphorus ing Black phosphorus

ch
oa
Discrete tetrahedral Polymeric structure Exists in two forms - 

P4 molecules consisting of chains of P4 black P and  black P
units linked together
yC
Very reactive Less reactive than white P Very less reactive

kM
Glows in dark Does not glow in dark -
Translucent waxy Has an iron grey luster Has an opaque

pic
solid monoclinic or
rhombohedral crystals
w.
Soluble in CS2 but Insoluble in water as well as -

insoluble in water CS2
ww
It has low ignition - -

temperature,
therefore, kept under
water
52
Preparation:
m
.co
23. Phosphine:
Preparation:
i.
Ca3P2  6H2O 
ing
3Ca(OH)2  2PH3
ch
 calcium   calcium 
   water    phosphine
oa
 phosphide   hydroxide 
Ca3P2  6HCl  3CaCl2  2PH3

yC
phosphine
kM
ii.
pic
P4  3NaOH  3H2O  3NaH2PO2  PH3

w.
 sodium 
  phosphine
 hypophosphite 
ww
Phosphine is highly poisonous, colourless gas and has a smell of rotten

fish.
24. Chlorides of Phosphorous:
PCl3 PCl5
Colourless oily liquid Yellowish white powder
53
P4  6 Cl2  4PCl3 P4  10 Cl2  4PCl5
P4  10 SO2Cl2  4PCl5  10 SO2

P4  8 SOCl2  4PCl3  4 SO2  2 S2Cl2
Is hydrolysed in the presence of PCl5  H2O 

 POCl3  2HCl
moisture
POCl3  3 H2O 
 H3PO4  3HCl
PCl3  3H2O 
H3PO3  3HCl
3 CH3COOH + PCl3  3 CH3COCl + 3 CH3COOH + PCl5  CH3COCl +
m
H3PO3 POCl3 + HCl
.co
3 C2H5OH + PCl3  3 C2H5Cl + H3PO3 C2H5OH + PCl5  C2H5Cl + POCl3 +
HCl
Pyramidal shape, sp3 hybridisation
-
ing
TBP geometry, sp3d hybridisation
2Ag + PCl5  2 AgCl + PCl3

ch
Sn + 2 PCl5  SnCl4 + 2 PCl3
oa
yC
GROUP 16 ELEMENTS
kM
25. Oxidation states: They show -2, +2, +4, +6 oxidation states.
Oxygen does not show +6 oxidation state due to absence of d –
pic
orbitals. Po does not show +6 oxidation state due to inert pair effect.
The stability of -2 oxidation state decreases down the group due to

w.
increase in atomic size and decrease in electronegativity.

ww
Oxygen shows -2 oxidation state in general except in OF2 and O2F2
The stability of +6 oxidation state decreases and +4 oxidation state

increases due to inert pair effect.
26. Ionisation enthalpy: Ionisation enthalpy of elements of group 16 is

lower than group 15 due to half filled p-orbitals in group 15 which are
more stable. However, ionization enthalpy decreases down the group.
27. Electron gain enthalpy: Oxygen has less negative electron gain
enthalpy than S because of small size of O.
54
From S to Po electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative to Po

because of increase in atomic size.
28. Melting and boiling point: It increases with increase in atomic

number. Oxygen has much lower melting and boiling points than
sulphur because oxygen is diatomic (O2) and sulphur is octatomic (S8).
29. Reactivity with hydrogen:
All group 16 elements form hydrides.
Bent shape
m
.co
ing
Acidic nature: H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
This is because the H-E bond length increases down the group.
ch
Therefore, the bond dissociation enthalpy decreases down the group.
oa
Thermal stability: H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2Po
yC
Reducing character: H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2Po
kM
pic
30. Reactivity with oxygen: EO2 and EO3

w.
Reducing character of dioxides decreases down the group because

oxygen has a strong positive field which attracts the hydroxyl group
ww
and removal of H+ becomes easy.
Acidity also decreases down the group.
SO2 is a gas whereas SeO2 is solid. This is because SeO2 has a chain
polymeric structure whereas SO2 forms discrete units.
31. Reactivity with halogens: EX2 EX4 and EX6
55
The stability of halides decreases in the order F- > Cl- > Br- > I-. This
is because E-X bond length increases with increase in size.
Among hexa halides, fluorides are the most stable because of steric
reasons.
Dihalides are sp3 hybridised, are tetrahedral in shape.
Hexafluorides are only stable halides which are gaseous and have
sp3d2 hybridisation and octahedral structure.
H2O is a liquid while H2S is a gas. This is because strong hydrogen
bonding is present in water. This is due to small size and high
electronegativity of O.
m
32. Oxygen:
.co
Preparation:
ing
heat
2KClO3 
MnO
 2KCl  3O2
2
finely divided metals
2H2O2 (aq) 
 2H2O(l)  O2(g)
ch
oa
heat
2Ag2O(s) 
 4Ag(s)  O2 ( g )
yC

2HgO(s) 
 2Hg(l)  O2 (g)
kM

2Pb3O4 (s) 
 6PbO(s)  O2 ( g )
(Re d lead)
pic

2PbO2 (s) 
 2PbO(s)  O2 (g)
w.
33. Oxides:
The compounds of oxygen and other elements are called oxides.

ww
Types of oxides:
a. Acidic oxides: Non- metallic oxides are usually acidic in nature.
SO2  H2O 

 H2SO3 (sulphurous acid)
b. Basic oxides: Metallic oxides are mostly basic in nature. Basic

oxides dissolve in water forming bases e.g.,
56
10
Na2O  H2O 

 2NaOH
K2O  H2O 
 2KOH
CaO  H2O 

 Ca(OH)2
c. Amphoteric oxides: They show characteristics of both acidic as

well as basic oxides.
Al2O3  6HCl( aq) 

 2 AlCl3 ( aq)  3H2O
Al2O3  6NaOH( aq)  3H2O(l) 
 2Na3[Al(OH) 6]( aq)
d. Neutral oxides: These oxides are neither acidic nor basic.
Example: Co, NO and N2O
m
.co
34. Ozone:
ing
Preparation:
i. It is prepared by passing silent electric discharge through pure

ch
and dry oxygen 10 – 15 % oxygen is coverted to ozone.
 2O3(g); H  142 kJ mol1

3O2(g) 
oa
Structure of Ozone: Ozone has angular structure. Both O = O bonds

yC
are of equal bond length due to resonance.
35. Sulphur:
kM
Sulphur exhibits allotropy:

pic
a. Yellow Rhombic ( - sulphur):
b. Monoclinic (- sulphur):

w.
369 K
  Sulphur         Sulphur
ww
At 369 K both forms are stable. It is called transition temperature.
Both of them have S8 molecules. The ring is puckered and has a crown
shape.
Another allotrope of sulphur – cyclo S6 ring adopts a chair form.
S2 is formed at high temperature ( 1000 K). It is paramagnetic

because of 2 unpaired electrons present in anti bonding * orbitals like
O2
57
11
36. Sulphuric acid:
Preparation: By contact process
1
S8  O2 
 SO2
8
V O2 5  2 SO ( g )
2 SO2 ( g )  O2 ( g ) 
2bar 3 H   196.6kJ mol1
720K
Exothermic reaction and therfore low temperature and high pressure
are favourable
SO3(g)  H2SO4 

 H2S2O7 (Oleum)
m
H2S2O7  H2O 
 2 H2SO4
(96  98%)
.co
It is dibasic acid or diprotic acid.
It is a strong dehydrating agent.

ing
It is a moderately strong oxidizing agent.
ch
oa
GROUP 17 ELEMENTS
yC
37. Atomic and ionic radii: Halogens have the smallest atomic radii in
their respective periods because of maximum effective nuclear charge.
kM
38. Ionisation enthalpy: They have very high ionization enthalpy

because of small size as compared to other groups.
pic
39. Electron gain enthalpy: Halogens have maximum negative electron

gain enthalpy because these elements have only one electron less than
stable noble gas configuration.
w.
Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down the group because
ww
atomic size increases down the group.
40. Eelctronegativity: These elements are highly electronegative and

electronegativity decreases down the group. They have high effective
nuclear charge.
41. Bond dissociation enthalpy:
Bond dissociation enthalpy follows the order Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2
This is because as the size increases bond length increases.
58
12
Bond dissociation enthalpy of Cl2 is more than F2 because there are

large electronic repulsions of lone pairs present in F 2.
42. Colour: All halogens are coloured because of absorption of radiations

in visible region which results in the excitation of outer electrons to
higher energy levels.
43. Oxidising power: All halogens are strong oxidisinga gents because
they have a strong tendency to accept electrons.
Order of oxidizing power is F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
44. Reactivity with H2:
Acidic strength: HF < HCl < HBr < HI
m
Stability: HF > HCl > HBr > HI
.co
This is because of decrease in bond dissociation enthalpy.
Boiling point: HCl < HBr < HI < HF
ing
HF has strong intermolecular H bonding
As the size increases van der Waals forces increases and hence boiling
ch
point increases.
oa
% Ionic character: HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Dipole moment: HF > HCl > HBr > HI

yC
Electronegativity decreases down the group.

kM
Reducing power: HF < HCl < HBr < HI
45. Reactivity with metals: Halogens react with metals to form halides.
pic
Ionic character: MF > MCl > MBr > MI

w.
Halides in higher oxidation state will be more covalent than the one in
the lower oxidation state.
ww
46. Interhalogen compounds: Reactivity of halogens towards other

halogens:
Binary compounds of two different halogen atoms of general formula
X X’n are called interhalogen compounds where n = 1, 3, 5, or 7
These are covalent compounds.
All these are covalent compounds.
59
13
Interhalogen compounds are more reactive than halogens because X-

X’ is a more polar bond than X-X bond.
All are diamagnetic.
Their melting point is little higher than halogens.
XX’ (CIF, BrF, BrCl, ICl, IBr, IF) (Linear shape)
XX’3 (CIF3, BrF3, IF3, ICl3) (Bent T- shape)
XX’5 – CIF5, BrF5, IF5, (square pyramidal shape)
XX’7 – IF7 (Pentagonal bipyramidal shape)
47. Oxoacids of halogens:
m
Fluorine forms only one oxoacid HOF (Fluoric (I) acid or hypofluorous
acid) due to high electronegativity.
.co
Acid strength: HOCl < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
Reason: HClO4  H+ + ClO4-
most stable
ing
ch
Acid strength: HOF > HOCl > HOBr > HOI
oa
This is because Fluorine is most electronegative.

yC
GROUP 18 ELEMENTS:
kM
48. Ionisation enthalpy: They have very high ionization enthalpy

because of completely filled orbitals.
pic
Ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group because of increase in

size.
w.
49. Atomic radii: Increases down the group because number of shells
increases down the group.
ww
50. Electron gain enthalpy: They have large electron gain enthalpy
because of stable electronic configuration.
51. Melting and boiling point: Low melting and boiling point because
only weak dispersion forces are present.
52. XeF2 is linear, XeF4 is square planar and XeF6 is distorted octahedral.
KrF2 is known but no true compound of He Ne and Ar are known.
53. Compounds of Xe and F:
60
14
673 K, 1bar
Xe  F2  XeF2
873 K
Xe  2F2 
7bar
XeF4
573 K
Xe  3F2 
60  70 bar
 XeF6
XeF4  O2F2 

 XeF6  O2
XeF2, XeF4 and XeF6 are powerful fluorinating agents.
54. Compounds of Xe and O:
6 XeF4  12H2O 

 4 Xe  2 XeO3  24HF  3O2
m
XeF6  3 H2O 
 XeO3  6HF
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
61
Class XII
Chemistry
Chapter 8
The d and f-Block Elements
Top Concepts
1. d -Block elements: The elements lying in the middle of periodic table

belonging to groups 3 to 12 are known as d – block elements. Their
general electronic configuration is (n – 1)d1-10 ns1-2 where (n – 1)
stands for penultimate (last but one) shell.
2. Transition element: A transition element is defined as the one which
m
has incompletely filled d orbitals in its ground state or in any one of its
.co
oxidation states.
3. Zinc, cadmium, mercury are not regarded as transition metals due to
4.
completely filled d – orbital.
ing
f-Block elements: The elements constituting the f -block are those in
ch
which the 4 f and 5 f orbitals are progressively filled in the latter two
oa
long periods.
5. Lanthanoids: The 14 elements immediately following lanthanum, i.e.,
yC
Cerium (58) to Lutetium (71) are called lanthanoids. They belong to

kM
first inner transition series. Lanthanum (57) has similar properties.

Therefore, it is studied along with lanthanoids.
pic
6. Actinoids: The 14 elements immediately following actinium (89), with

atomic numbers 90 (Thorium) to 103 (Lawrencium) are called
w.
actinoids. They belong to second inner transition series. Actinium (89)

has similar properties. Therefore, it is studied along with actinoids.
ww
7. Four transition series:

a. 3d – transition series. The transition elements with atomic
number 21(Sc) to 30(Zn) and having incomplete 3d orbitals is
called the first transition series.
b. 4d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic
number 39(Y) to 48 (Cd) and having incomplete 4d orbitals. It is
called second transition series.
62
c. 5d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic

number 57(La), 72(Hf) to 80(Hg) having incomplete 5d orbitals.
It is called third transition series.
d. 6d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic
number 89(Ac), 104(Rf) to 112(Uub) having incomplete 6d
orbitals. It is called fourth transition series.
8. General Characteristics of transition elements:
a. Metallic character: All transition elements are metallic in nature,
i.e. they have strong metallic bonds. This is because of presence
of unpaired electrons. This gives rise to properties like high
m
density, high enthalpies of atomization, and high melting and
.co
boiling points.
b. Atomic radii: The atomic radii decrease from Sc to Cr because
ing
the effective nuclear charge increases. The atomic size of Fe,
Co, Ni is almost same because the attraction due to increase in
ch
nuclear charge is cancelled by the repulsion because of increase
oa
in shielding effect. Cu and Zn have bigger size because the

shielding effect increases and electron electron repulsions
yC
repulsion increases.
c. Lanthanoid Contraction: The steady decrease in the atomic and
kM
ionic radii of the transition metals as the atomic number

increases. This is because of filling of 4f orbitals before the 5d
pic
orbitals. This contraction is size is quite regular. This is called

w.
lanthanoid contraction. It is because of lanthanoid contraction

that the atomic radii of the second row of transition elements
ww
are almost similar to those of the third row of transition

elements.
d. Ionisation enthalpy: There is slight and irregular variation in
ionization energies of transition metals due to irregular variation
of atomic size. The I.E. of 5d transition series is higher than 3d
and 4d transition series because of Lanthanoid Contraction.
63
e. Oxidation state: Transition metals show variable oxidation

states due to tendency of (n-1)d as well as ns electrons to take
part in bond formation.
f. Magnetic properties: Most of transition metals are paramagnetic
in nature due to presence of unpaired electrons. It increase s
from Sc to Cr and then decreases because number of unpaired
and then decrease because number of unpaired electrons
increases from Sc to Cr and then decreases.
g. Catalytic properties: Most of transition metals are used as
catalyst because of (i) presence of incomplete or empty d –
m
orbitals, (ii) large surface area, (iii) varuable oxidation state,
.co
(iv) ability to form complexes, e.g., Fe, Ni, V2O3, Pt, Mo, Co and
used as catalyst.
ing
h. Formation of coloured compounds: They form coloured ions due
to presence of incompletely filled d – orbitals and unpaired
ch
electrons, they can undergo d – d transition by absorbing colour
oa
from visible region and radiating complementary colour.

i. Formation of complexes: Transition metals form complexes due
yC
to (i) presence of vacant d – orbitals of suitable energy (ii)

smaller size (iii) higher charge on cations.
kM
j. Interstitial compounds: Transition metals have voids or

interstitials in which C, H, N, B etc. can fit into resulting in
pic
formation of interstitial compounds. They are non –

w.
stoichiometric, i.e., their composition is not fixed, e.g., steel.

They are harder and less malleable and ductile.
ww
k. Alloys formation: They form alloys due to similar ionic size.

Metals can replace each other in crystal lattice, e.g., brass,
bronze, steel etc.
9. Preparation of Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7):

It is prepared by fusion of chromate ore (FeCr2O4) with sodium carbonate in
excess of air.
64
4FeCr2O4 + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2 

 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2
2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 

 Na2Cr2O7 + H2O + Na2SO4
Sodium Sodium
chromate dichromate
Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl 

 K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl
10. Effect of pH on chromate and dichromate ions: The chromates and

dichromates are interconvertible in aqueous solution depending upon pH of
the solution. The oxidation state of chromium in chromate and dichromate is
the same.
m
2 CrO42- + 2H+  Cr2O72- + H2O
Cr2O72- + 2 OH-  2 CrO42-+ H2O
.co
11. Potassium dichromate acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic
medium.
Cr2O72- +14 H+ + 6e-  2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
12. ing
Preparation of Potassium permanganate (KMnO4):
ch
a. Potassium permanganate is prepared by fusion of MnO4 with alkali metal
oa
hydroxide (KOH) in presence of O2 or oxidising agent like KNO3. It produces

yC
dark green K2MnO4 which undergoes oxidation as well as reduction in neutral

kM
or acidic solution to give permanganate.
2MnO2  4KOH  O2 

 2K2MnO4  2H2O
pic
4H  3MnO2 
4 

 2MnO4  MnO2  2H2O
w.
Or
ww
Commercially it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2

followed by the electrolytic oxidation of manganate (Vl).
fused with KOH
MnO2 
in the presence of O or KNO
 MnO24
2 3
manganate ions
electrolytic oxidation in alkaline medium
MnO24  MnO4

Green P urple 
65
(ii) In laboratory, Mn²+ salt can be oxidized by peroxodisulphate ion

to permanganate ion.
2Mn2++ 5S2O2-  2MnO4  10SO24  16H

8 +8H2O 
13. Potassium permanganate acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic,

neutral or faintly basic medium.
In acidic medium.
MnO4- + 8 H+ + 5 e-  Mn2+ + 4 H2O
In neutral or faintly basic medium,
MnO4- + 3 e- + 2 H2O  MnO2 + 4OH-
14. Properties of Lanthanoids and Actinoids.
m
.co
Lanthanoids Actinoids
+3 oxidation state is most common Actiniods also show higher oxidation
along with +2 and +4
ing
states such as +4, +5, +6 and +7.
ch
They are more reactive
Except Promethium, they are non – They are radioactive
oa
radioactive.
yC
The magnetic properties of The magnetic properties of the

kM
lanthanoids are less complex than actinoids are more complex than
actinoids. those of the lanthanoids
pic
15. Mischmetall - It is a well known alloy which consists of a lanthanoid metal

w.
(~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al. A good deal of
mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
ww
lighter flint.
66
Class XII:
Chemistry
Chapter 9:
Coordination Compounds
1. Difference between coordination compound and double bond:
Coordination compound Double salt

A coordination compound contains a When two salts in stoichiometric ratio
central metal atom or ion surrounded are crystallised together from their
by number of oppositely charged ions saturated solution they are called
m
or neutral molecules. These ions or double salts
.co
molecules re bonded to the metal
atom or ion by a coordinate bond.
Example: K4[Fe(CN)6]
ing
Example:FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O
(Mohr’s salt)
ch
They do not dissociate into simple They dissociate into simple ions when
oa
ions when dissolved in water. dissolved in water.

yC
2. Coordination entity: A coordination entity constitutes a central metal

kM
atom or ion bonded to a fixed number of ions or molecules. Example:

in K4[Fe(CN)6], [Fe(CN)6]4- represents coordination entity.
pic
3. Central atom or ion: In a coordination entity, the atom/ion to which

a fixed number of ions/groups are bound in a definite geometrical
w.
arrangement around it, is called the central atom or ion. E.g.: in

ww
K4[Fe(CN)6], Fe²+ is the central metal ion.

4. Ligands: A molecule, ion or group that is bonded to the metal atom or
ion in a complex or coordination compound by a coordinate bond is
called ligand. It may be neutral, positively or negatively charged.
Example: H2O, CN-, NO+ etc.
5. Donor atom: An atom of the ligand attached directly to the metal is
called the donor atom. For example: in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6],
carbon is a donor atom.
67
6. Coordination number: The coordination number (CN) of a metal ion

in a complex can be defined as the number of ligand donor atoms to
which the metal is directly bonded. For example: in the complex
K4[Fe(CN)6], the coordination number of Fe is 6.
7. Coordination sphere: The central atom/ion and the ligands attached
to it are enclosed in square bracket and is collectively termed as the
coordination sphere. For example: in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6],
[Fe(CN)6]4- is the coordination sphere.
8. Counter ions: The ions present outside the coordination sphere are
called counter ions. For example: in the complex K4[Fe(CN)6], K+ is the
m
counter ion.
.co
9. Coordination polyhedron: The spatial arrangement of the ligand
atoms which are directly attached to the central atom/ ion defines a
ing
coordination polyhedron about the central atom. The most common
coordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and tetrahedral.
ch
For example: [PtCl4]2- is square planar, Ni(CO)4 is tetrahedral while
[Cu(NH3)6]3+ is octahedral.
oa
10. Charge on the complex ion: The charge on the complex ion is equal
yC
to the algebraic sum of the charges on all the ligands coordinated to

the central metal ion.
kM
11. Denticity: The number of ligating (linking) atoms present in ligand is

called denticity.
pic
12. Unidentate ligands: The ligands whose only one donor atom is
w.
bonded to metal atom are called unidentate ligands. Example: H2O,

NH3, CO, CN-
ww
13. Didentate ligands: The ligands which contain two donor atoms or
ions through which they are bonded to the metal ion. For example:
ethylene diamine (H2NCH2CH2NH2) has two nitrogen atoms, oxalate ion
 C OO 
|  has two oxygen atoms which can bind with the metal atom.
 COO 
 
14. Polydentate ligand: When several donor atoms are present in a
single ligand, the ligand is called polydentate ligand. For example: in
68
N(CH2CH2NH2)3, the ligand is said to be polydentate.

Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA4–) is an important hexadentate
ligand. It can bind through two nitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a
central metal ion.
15. Chelate: An inorganic metal complex in which there is a close ring of
atoms caused by attachment of a ligand to a metal atom at two points.
An example is the complex ion formed between ethylene diamine and
cupric ion, [Cu(NH2CH2NH2)2]2+.
16. Ambidentate ligand: Ligands which can ligate (link) through two
different atoms present in it are called ambidentate ligand. Example:
m
NO2-,and SCN-. NO2- can link through N as well as O while SCN- can
.co
link through S as well as N atom.
17. Werner’s coordination theory: Werner was able to explain the
ing
nature of bonding in complexes. The postulates of Werner’s theory
are:
ch
a. Metal shows two different kinds of valencies: primary valence
oa
and secondary valence.

Primary valence Secondary valence
yC
This valence is normally ionisable. This valence is non – ionisable.

It is equal to positive charge on The secondary valency equals the
kM
central metal atom. number of ligand atoms coordinated

to the metal. It is also called
pic
coordination number of the metal.

w.
These valencies are satisfied by It is commonly satisfied by neutral

negatively charged ions. and negatively charged, sometimes
ww
by positively charged ligands.

Example: in CrCl3, the primary
valency is three. It is equal to
oxidation state of central metal ion.
69
b. The ions/ groups bound by secondary linkages to the metal

have characteristic spatial arrangements corresponding to
different coordination numbers.
c. The most common geometrical shapes in coordination
compounds are octahedral, square planar and tetrahedral.
18. Oxidation number of central atom: The oxidation number of the
central atom in a complex is defined as the charge it would carry if all
the ligands are removed along with the electron pairs that are shared
with the central atom.
19. Homoleptic complexes: Those complexes in which metal or ion is
m
coordinate bonded to only one kind of donor atoms. For example:
.co
[Co(NH3)6]3+
20. Heteroleptic complexes: Those complexes in which metal or ion is
ing
coordinate bonded to more than one kind of donor atoms. For
example: [CoCl2(NH3)4]+, [Co(NH3)5Br]2+
ch
21. Isomers. Two or more compounds which have same chemical formula
oa
but different arrangement of atoms are called isomers.

22. Types of isomerism:
yC
a. Structural isomerism
i. Linkage isomerism
kM
ii. Solvate isomerism or hydrate isomerism

iii. Ionisation isomerism
pic
iv. Coordination isomerism

w.
b. Stereoisomerism
i. Geometrical isomerism
ww
ii. Optical isomerism

23. Structural isomerism: This type of isomerism arises due to the
difference in structures of coordination compounds. Structural
isomerism, or constitutional isomerism, is a form of isomerism in
which molecules with the same molecular formula have atoms bonded
together in different orders.
70
a. Ionisation isomerism: This form of isomerism arises when the

counter ion in a complex salt is itself a potential ligand and can
displace a ligand which can then become the counter ion. Example:
[Co(NH3)5Br] SO4 and [Co(NH3)5 SO4] Br
b. Solvate isomerism: It is isomerism in which solvent is involved as
ligand. If solvent is water it is called hydrate isomerism, e.g.,
[Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 and [CrCl2(H2O)4] Cl2. 2H2O
c. Linkage isomerism: Linkage isomerism arises in a coordination
compound containing ambidentate ligand. In the isomerism, a
ligand can form linkage with metal through different atoms.
m
Example: [Co(NH3)5ONO]Cl2 and [Co(NH3)5NO2]Cl2
.co
d. Coordination isomerism: This type of isomerism arises from the
interchange of ligands between cationic and anionic entities of
different metal ions
ing
present in a
[Co(NH3)6][Cr(C2O4)3] and [Cr(NH3)6][Co(C2O4)3]
complex. Example:
ch
24. Stereoisomerism: This type of isomerism arises because of different
oa
spatial arrangement.
a. Geometrical isomerism: It arises in heteroleptic complexes
yC
due to different possible geometrical arrangements of ligands.

b. Optical isomerism: Optical isomers are those isomers which
kM
are non superimposable mirror images.

25. Valence bond theory:
pic
According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of
ligands can use its (n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation
w.
to yield a set of equivalent orbitals of definite geometry such as octahedral,

tetrahedral, and square planar.
ww
These hybridised orbitals are allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can
donate electron pairs for bonding.
Coordination number Type of hybridisation Distribution of hybrid

orbitals in space
4 sp3 tetrahedral
4 dsp2 Square planar
5 sp3d Trigonal bipyramidal
71
6 sp3d2 (nd orbitals are Octahedral

involved – outer orbital
complex or high spin or
spin free complex)
6 d2sp3((n-1) d orbitals are Octahedral
involved –inner orbital or
low spin or spin paired
complex)
26. Magnetic properties of coordination compounds: A coordination
m
compound is paramagnetic in nature if it has unpaired electrons and
.co
diamagnetic if all the electrons in the coordination compound are
paired.
ing
Magnetic moment   n n  2 where n is number of unpaired
electrons.
ch
27. Crystal Field Theory: It assumes the ligands to be point charges and
oa
there is electrostatic force of attraction between ligands and metal

atom or ion. It is theoretical assumption.
yC
28. Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination complexes:

kM
pic
w.
ww
29. Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination complexes:
72
30. For the same metal, the same ligands and metal-ligand distances, the
m
difference in energy between eg and t2g level is
4
.co
t   0
9
31. Metal carbonyls. Metal carbonyls are homoleptic complexes in which
ing
carbon monoxide (CO) acts as the ligand. For example: Ni(CO)4
The metal – carbon bond in metal carbonyls possesses both  and 
ch
characters. The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls possess both s
oa
and p character. The M–C σ bond is formed by the donation of lone

yC
pair of electrons from the carbonyl carbon into a vacant orbital of the
metal. The M–C  bond is formed by the donation of a pair of electrons
kM
from a filled d orbital of metal into the vacant antibonding * orbital of

carbon monoxide. The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic
pic
effect which strengthens the bond between CO and the metal.

w.
ww
73
Class XII
Chemistry
Chapter 10
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
1. Nature of C-X bond in alkyl halides: X is more electronegative than
carbon. So, the C-X bond is polarized with C having a partial positive
charge and X having a partial negative charge
2. Preparation of haloalkanes:
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
3. Preparation of haloarenes:
a. By elecrophilic substitution reaction:
74
b. Sandmeyer’s reaction:
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
c. Gattermann reaction:
pic
w.
ww
d.
75
e. Balz – Schiemann reaction:
4. Physical properties of haloalkanes:
m
a. Solubility. Although haloalkanes are polar in nature, yet they are
.co
practically very slightly soluble in water. In order for a
haloalkane to dissolve in water, energy is required to overcome
ing
the attractions between the haloalkane molecules and break the
ch
hydrogen bonds between water molecules. However
oa
Haloalkanes are not able to form hydrogen bonds with water

yC
and therefore, less energy is released when new attractions are
set up between the haloalkane and the water molecules because

kM
these are not as strong as the original hydrogen bonds in water

pic
molecules. As a result, solubility of haloalkanes in water is low.

w.
b. Density:
 Simple fluoro and chloroalkanes are lighter than water

ww
while bromides and polychloro devrivatives are heavier
than water.
 With the increase in number of carbon atoms, the
densities go on increasing.
76
 With the increase in number of halogen atoms, the
densities go on increasing.
 The densities increase in the order:
 Fluoride < chloride < bromide < iodide
 The density also increases with increasing number and
atomic mass of the halogen.
c. Method and Boiling points:
 Molecules of organic halogen compounds are generally polar.
m
Due to the polarity as well as higher molecular mass as
.co
compared to the parent hydrocarbon, the intermolecular
ing
forces of attraction (dipole – dipole and van der Waals)
ch
between the molecules are stronger in halogen derivatives of
oa
alkanes. As a result melting and boiling points of chlorides,
bromides and iodides are considerably higher than those of

yC
the parent hydrocarbon of comparable molecular mass.

kM
 Amongst themselves, the following trends are observed:

pic
o For the same alkyl group the boiling points of alkyl

chlorides, bromides and iodides follow the order RI > RBr
w.
> RCl > RF where R is an alkyl group. This is because

with the increase in the size of the halogen, the
ww
magnitude of van der Waals force increase.

o In general, the boiling points of chloro, bromo and iodo
compounds increase with increase in the number of
halogen atoms.
o For the same halogen atom, the boiling points of
haloalkanes increase with increase in the size of alkyl
groups.
77
o For isomeric alkyl halides, the boiling points decrease with

branching. This is because branching of the chain makes
the molecule more compact and, therefore, decrease the
surface area. Due to decrease in surface area, the
magnitude of van der Waals forces of attraction decreases
and consequently, the boiling points of the branched
chain compound is less than those of the straight chain
compounds.
5. Physical Properties of Haloarenes:
m
a. These are generally colourless liquids or crystalline solids.
.co
b. These are heavier than water.
c. Melting and boiling points of haloarenes:

ing
Melting and boiling points of haloarenes are nearly the same
as those of alkyl halides containing the same number of
ch
carbon atoms.
oa
 The boiling points of monohalogen derivatives of benzene are

in the order: iodo > bromo > chloro > fluoro
yC
 For the same halogen atom, the melting and boiling points
increase as the size of the aryl group increases.
kM
 The melting point of para isomer is quite higher than that of

ortho or meta isomers. This is due to the fast that is has
pic
symmetrical structure and there fore, its molecules can

w.
easily pack loosely in the crystal lattice. As a result

intermolecular forces of attraction are stronger and
ww
therefore, greater energy is required to break its lattice and

it melts at higher temperature.
5. Chemical properties of haloalkanes:

a. Nucleophilic substitution reaction:
78
Mechanism:
SNI SNII
First order reaction Second order reaction
Rate =k [RX]
Rate =k [RX] [Nu]
Racemic mixture Inversion of configuration
m
One step reaction Two step reaction
.co
Order : Order :
CH3X < 1o < 2o < 3o
ingCH3X > 1o > 2o > 3o
ch
R – X + aq. KOH  R-OH + KX
oa
R – X + NH3  R- NH2 + HX
yC
R – X + KCN  R-CN + KX
R – X + AgCN  R-NC + KX
kM
b. Elimination reaction: Dehydrohalogentaion(  - elimination):

pic
When a haloalkane with β-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic solution of

potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen atom from β-carbon
w.
and a halogen atom from the α-carbon atom. As a result, an alkene is formed
as a product.
ww
Zaitsev rule (also pronounced as Saytzeff) is followed.It states that “In

dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that alkene which
has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the doubly bonded
carbon atoms.”
c. Reaction with metals:

 Reaction with Magnesium: Grignard’s reagent is formed:
dry ether
R  X  Mg  
 RMgX
 Wurtz reaction:
R-X + 2 Na + X-R → R-R + 2 NaX
79
6. Chemical properties of haloarenes:

Dow’s process:
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
80
m
.co
Fittig reaction:
Ar-X + 2 Na + X-Ar → Ar-Ar + 2 NaX ing
ch
Wurtz – fittig reaction:
R-X + 2 Na + X-Ar → R-Ar + 2 NaX
oa
7. Some important reactions for conversions:

yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
From Grignard’s reagent:
81
dry ether
R  X  Mg  
 RMgX
RMgX  CO2 

 RCOOH
RMgX  HCHO 

 Pr imary alcohol
RMgX  RCHO 

 Secondary alcohol
O
ll
RMgX  R CR 
 Tertairy alcohol
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
82
Class XII
Chemistry
Chapter: Alcohols, Phenols And Ethers
Top concepts:
1. Structure of alcohols, phenols and ethers:
m
.co
ing
ch
2. Preparation of alcohols:
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
3. Preparation of phenols:
83
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
4. Physical properties of alcohols and phenols:

yC
a. Boiling points:
 Boiling points of alcohols and phenols are higher in
kM
comparison to other classes of compounds, namely

hydrocarbons, ethers, haloalkanes and haloarenes of
comparable molecular masses. This is because the –OH
pic
group in alcohols and phenols is involved in intermolecular

hydrogen bonding.
w.
ww
 The boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with

increase in the number of carbon atoms. This is because of
increase in van der Waals forces with increase in surface
area.
84
In alcohols, the boiling points decrease with increase of

branching in carbon chain. This is because of decrease in van
der Waals forces with decrease in surface area.
b. Solubility:
 Solubility of alcohols and phenols are soluble in water due to
their ability to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
m
 The solubility of alcohols decreases with increase in size of
.co
alkyl/aryl (hydrophobic) groups.
ing
5. Chemical properties of alcohols:
a. Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond: Alcohols react as
ch
nucleophiles:
b. Reactions involving cleavage of carbon – oxygen (C–O) bond in
oa
Alcohols: Protonated alcohols react as electrophiles:

yC
c. Dehydration
d. Oxidation
kM
6. Reactions of alcohols and phenols involving cleavage of O–H

pic
bond:
a. Reaction with metals:
w.
ww
85
b. Esterification:
7. Reactions of alcohols involving cleavage of carbon – oxygen
m
(C–O) bond:
.co
a. Reaction with hydrogen halides:
ing
conc.HCl  ZnCl
2  RX + H O
ROH + HX 
Lucas reagent 2
ch
b. Reaction with phosphorus trihalides:
oa
3 ROH + PX3 → 3 R-X + H3PO3 (X = Cl, Br)

yC
c. Dehydration:
kM
pic
w.
d. Oxidation:
ww
86
Cu,573K
or
CrO3
or
PCC
Pr imary alcohol  Aldehyde
Cu,573K
or
CrO3
Secondary alcohol   Ketone
Cu,573K
or
KMnO4
Tertiary alcohol  Alkene
Acidified potassium permanganate

Alcohol   Carboxylic acid
m
.co
8. Chemical properties of phenols:
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
9. Acidic nature:
a. Phenol > H2O > Primary alcohol > Secondary alcohol > Tertiary
alcohol
87
The acidic character of alcohols is due to the polar nature of O–H bond.
Alkyl group is an electron-releasing group (–CH3, –C2H5) or it has electron

releasing inductive effect (+I effect).
Due to +I effect of alkyl groups, the electron density on oxygen increases.
This decreases the polarity of O-H bond.
And hence the acid strength decreases.
b. Phenol is more acidic than alcohol because:
 In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the sp2 hybridised
m
carbon of benzene ring which acts as an electron withdrawing group.
Whereas in alcohols, the hydroxyl group is attached to the alkyl group
.co
which have electron releasing inductive effect.
 In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the sp2 hybridised
carbon of benzene ring. Whereas in alcohols, the hydroxyl group is
ing
attached to the sp3 hybridised carbon of the alkyl group. The sp2
hybridised carbon has higher electronegativity than sp3 hybridised
ch
carbon. Thus, the polarity of O–H bond of phenols is higher than those
of alcohols. Hence, the ionisation of phenols id higher than that of
alcohols.
oa
 The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:

yC
kM
pic
In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen while in

phenoxide ion, the charge is delocalised.
w.
ww
The delocalisation of negative charge makes phenoxide ion more

stable and favours the ionisation of phenol. Although there is also
charge delocalisation in phenol, its resonance structures have charge
88
separation due to which the phenol molecule is less stable than

phenoxide ion.
c. In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing groups such

as nitro group enhances the acidic strength of phenol. On the other hand,
electron releasing groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, decreases the
acid strength.
It is because electron withdrawing groups lead to effective delocalisation of
m
negative charge in phenoxide ion.
.co
10. How to distinguish between some important pair of organic
compounds:
a. Phenol and alcohol:

ing
Phenol on reaction with neutral FeCl3 gives purple colour whereas alcohols do
ch
not give purple colour.
oa
6 C6H5OH + Fe3+ → [Fe(OC6H5)6]3- + 6 H+

Purple colour
yC
b. Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol:

Lucas reagent test:
kM
conc.HCl  ZnCl
2  RCl + H O
ROH + HCl 
Lucas reagent 2
pic
If it is a primary alcohol, no turbidity appears at room temperature. Turbidity

appears only on heating.
If it is a secondary alcohol, turbidity appears in 5 minutes.
w.
If it is a tertiary alcohol, turbidity appears immediately.

ww
c. Methanol and ethanol:

Iodoform test:
Ethanol when reacted with (I2 and NaOH) or NaOI gives yellow ppt of
iodoform since it has the presence of CH3-CH (OH)- group.
C2H5OH +4I2+ 6NaOH  CHI3 + 5NaI + 5H2O + HCOONa

Yellow ppt.
CH3OH + I2+ NaOH  NO YELLOW PPT
11. Preparation of ethers:
89
m
.co
12. Physical properties of ethers:
a. Miscibility: ing
ch
Miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of the
same molecular mass. This is due to the fact that just like alcohols,
oxygen of ether can also form hydrogen bonds with water
oa
molecule.
yC
kM
b. Boiling points:
pic
Ethers have much lower boiling points than alcohols. This is due to
the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols. Hydrogen bonding is
w.
absent in ethers.
ww
13. Chemical properties of ethers:

a. Cleavage of C–O bond in ethers:
R-O-R’ + HX → R-X + R’OH

Excess
 The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows:
90
HI > HBr > HCl

 Alkyl halide formed is always the lower alkyl group.
 But if a tertiary alkyl group is present, the alkyl halide is always
tertiary.
 In case of phenolic ethers, the cleavage occurs with the formation of
phenol and alkyl halide.
b. Electrophilic substitution reaction in aromatic ethers:
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
14. Some important reactions for conversions:

ww
a. Conversion 1:
91
10
m
.co
b. Conversion 2:
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
3. From Grignard’s reagent:
ROH  R 'MgX 

 R 'H  Mg(X)OH
92
Chapter: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acids
Top concepts
Aldehydes:
1. Definition: Aldehydes are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group
is attached to one hydrogen atom and one alkyl or aryl group.
2. General formula:
m
.co
R can be an alkyl or aryl group
3. Preparation of aldehydes:
ing
1. By oxidation of alcohols: Oxidation of primary alcohols in presence of
ch
oxidizing agent like K2 Cr2 O7 / H2 SO4 , KMnO4 , CrO3 gives aldehydes
oa
yC
2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols: Vapours of primary alcohol when passed

kM
heated copper at 573 K forms aldehyde

pic
3. By hydration of alkynes: Ethyne on hydration with HgSO4 / dilH2SO4 at

w.
333 K forms acetaldehyde

ww
93
4. By Rosenmund reduction: Hydrogenation of acyl chloride over palladium

on barium sulphate gives aldehyde
5.By reduction of nitriles:

(a)Stephen Reaction: Reduction of nitriles in presence of stannous chloride in
presence of HCl gives imine which on hydrolysis gives corresponding
aldehyde.
m
.co
(b) Nitriles are selectively reduced by DIBAL-H (Diisobutylaluminium hydride)
to aldehydes
ing
ch
oa
6. By reduction of ester: Esters are reduced to aldehydes in presence of

yC
DIBAL-H (Diisobutylaluminium hydride)

kM
pic
8. From Hydrocarbons:
w.
(i)By oxidation of methyl benzene:

ww
(a) Etard Reaction: Chromyl chloride ( CrO2 Cl2 ) oxidizes methyl group to a
chromium complex, which on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde
94
(b)Use of chromium oxide(CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene is converted

to benzylidene in presence of chromic oxide in acetic anhydride.
(ii)By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis: Side chain halogenation

of toluene gives benzal chloride which on hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde
m
.co
(iii) Gatterman –Koch reaction: Benzene or its derivatives on treatment with
carbon monoxide and HCl in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride or
cuprous chloride (CuCl) gives benzaldehyde or substituted benzaldehydes
ing
ch
oa
yC
Ketones:
kM
1. Definition: Ketones are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is

attached to two alkyl group or aryl group or both alkyl and aryl group
pic
2. General formula:
w.
ww
R, R’ may be alkyl or aryl
3. Preparation of ketones:
1. By oxidation of alcohols: Oxidation of secondary alcohols in presence of
oxidizing agent like K2 Cr2 O7 / H2 SO4 , KMnO4 , CrO3 gives ketones
95
2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols: When the vapours of a secondary alcohol

are passed over heated copper at 573 K, dehydrogenation takes place and a
ketone is formed
3. By hydration of alkynes:
m
Hydration of alkynes other than acetylene yields ketone. For example
propyne on hydration with HgSO4 / dilH2SO4 at 333 K forms propanone.
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
4. From acyl chloride: Acyl chloride on treatment with dialkyl cadmium

(prepared by reaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent) gives
kM
ketone
pic
w.
5. From nitriles: Nitriles on treatment with Grignard reagent followed by

ww
hydrolysis gives ketones
96
6. By Friedel Crafts acylation reaction: Benzene or substituted benzene on

treatment with acid chloride in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride
forms ketone
7.Preparation of aldehydes and ketones by ozonolysis of alkenes:
m
.co
ing
Reactions of aldehydes and ketones:
Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in nucleophilic addition
reactions due to steric and electronic reasons (or inductive effect).
ch
Electronic Effect: Relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones in
oa
nucleophilic addition reactions is due the positive charge on carbonyl carbon.

Greater positive charge means greater reactivity. Electron releasing power of
two alkyl groups in ketones is more than one in aldehyde. Therefore positive
yC
charge is reduced in ketones as compared to aldehydes. Thus ketones are

less reactive than aldehydes.
kM
Stearic Effect: As the number and size of alkyl group increase, the hindrance
to the attack of nucleophile also increases and reactivity decreases. In
pic
aldehydes there is one alkyl group and one hydrogen atom, whereas in
ketones there are two alkyl groups (same or different).
w.
1. Nucleophilic addition reactions of aldehydes and ketones:

ww
(a)Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to form cyanohydrins:
97
(b)Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite (NaHSO3) to form bisulphate addition

compound:
(c)Addition of Grignard reagent (RMgX) to form alcohol
m
.co
(d)Addition of alcohol:
(i) Aldehydes on addition of monohydric alcohol in presence of dry HCl forms
hemiacetal and acetal
ing
ch
oa
yC
(ii)Ketones do not react with monohydric alcohols. Ketones react with

ethylene glycol under similar conditions to form cyclic products known as
kM
ethylene glycol ketals

pic
w.
ww
(e)Addition of ammonia and its derivatives:
98
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
2. Reduction of aldehydes and ketones:

(a) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones on catalytic hydrogenation
yC
in presence of Ni, Pt or Pd by using lithium aluminium hydride ( LiAlH4 ) or

sodium borohydride ( NaBH4 ) forms primary and secondary alcohols
kM
respectively
pic
w.
ww
99
(b) Reduction to hydrocarbons:

(i) Clemmensen reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is
reduced to CH2 group on treatment with zinc amalgam and concentrated
hydrochloric acid
(ii) Wolff-Kishner reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is

reduced to CH2 group on treatment with hydrazine followed by heating with
sodium or potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene
glycol
m
3. Oxidation of aldehydes and ketones:
.co
(i) Aldehydes are oxidized to acids in presence of mild oxidising agents HNO 3,
K2Cr2O7, KMnO4
ing
ch
(ii) Ketones are generally oxidized under drastic conditions i.e. with powerful
oxidising agents like conc. HNO3, KMnO4/ H2SO4 , K2Cr2O7/ H2SO4 at
oa
elevated temperature
yC
kM
pic
w.
Important Note: In case of unsymmetrical ketones cleavage occurs in such a

way that keto group stays with smaller alkyl group. This is known as Popoff’s
rule.
ww
(iii)Haloform reaction: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl

group linked to the carbonyl carbon atom i.e. methyl ketones are oxidised by
sodium hypohalite to sodium salts of corresponding carboxylic acids having
one carbon atom less than that of carbonyl compound. The methyl group is
converted to haloform.
100
4. Reactions of aldehydes and ketones due to  -hydrogen:

(i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one  -
hydrogen undergo a self condensation in the presence of dilute alkali as
catalyst to form  -hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or  -hydroxy ketones (ketol),
respectively.
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
(ii) Cross aldol condensation: Aldol condensation between two different

aldehydes and ketones is called aldol condensation. If both of them contain
 -hydrogen atoms, it gives a mixture of four products.
w.
ww
101
m
.co
ing
5. Canizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an  -hydrogen atom
undergo self oxidation and reduction (disproportionation) reaction on
treatment with concentrated alkali to form alcohol and salt of acid.
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
Test to distinguish aldehydes and ketones

1) Tollen’s test: When an aldehyde is heated with Tollen’s reagent it forms
silver mirror. Tollen’s reagent is ammoniacal solution of AgNO3
Ketones do not form silver mirror and hence do not give this test
102
2) Fehling’s test: When an aldehyde is heated with Fehling’s reagent it forms

reddish brown precipitates of cuprous oxide.
Fehling’s reagent: Fehling solution A (aqueous solution of CuSO 4) + Fehling
solution B (alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartarate)
Ketones do not give this test
Carboxylic Acids:
1. Definition: Carboxylic acids are the compounds containing the carboxyl
functional group (-COOH)
m
2. General Formula
.co
ing
ch
3. Preparation of carboxylic acid:
oa
(i) From alcohols: Primary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids
with common oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in
yC
neutral, acidic or alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K 2Cr2O7) and

chromium trioxide (CrO3) in acidic media.
kM
pic
w.
(ii) From aldehydes: Oxidation of aldehydes in presence of mild oxidizing

agents like Tollen’s reagent (ammoniacal solution of AgNO 3) or Fehling
ww
reagent (Fehling solution A (aqueous solution of CuSO4) + Fehling solution B

(aqueous solution of sodium potassium tartarate)) forms carboxylic acids
103
(iii)From alkylbenzenes: Aromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by

vigorous oxidation of alkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline
potassium permanganate.
(iv)From alkenes: Suitably substituted alkenes are oxidised to carboxylic
m
acids on oxidation with acidic potassium permanganate or acidic potassium
.co
dichromate

KMnO /H
R  CH  CH  R  4
2R  COOH

KMnO4 /H
R  CH  CH  R1  R  COOH  R1  COOH
ing
(v)From Nitriles: Nitriles on hydrolysis in presence of dilute acids or bases
ch
forms amide which on further hydrolysis gives carboxylic acid.
oa
yC
(vi) From Grignard reagent: Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry
ice) to form salts of carboxylic acids which on hydrolysis forms carboxylic
kM
acids
pic
w.
ww
(vii) From acyl halides and anhydrides: Acid chlorides when hydrolysed with
water give carboxylic acids .On basic hydrolysis carboxylate ions are formed
which on further acidification forms corresponding carboxylic acids.
Anhydrides on hydrolysis forms corresponding acid(s)
104
(viii)From esters: Acidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids

while basic hydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give
corresponding carboxylic acids.
m
.co
ing
ch
4. Physical properties of carboxylic acids:
oa
(i)Solubility: As the size of alky group increases solubility of carboxylic acid

decreases because non-polar part of the acid increases
yC
(ii)Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids than aldehydes, ketones and
even alcohols of comparable molecular masses. This is due to extensive
kM
association of carboxylic acid molecules through intermolecular hydrogen

bonding
pic
w.
ww
105
5. Acidity of carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols.
Strength of acid depends on extent of ionization which in turn depends on
stability of anion formed.
(i)Effect of electron donating substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:
Electron donating substituent decreases stability of carboxylate ion by
intensifying the negative charge and hence decreases acidity of carboxylic
acids.
(ii)Effect of electron withdrawing substituent on the acidity of carboxylic

acids: Electron withdrawing group increases stability of carboxylate ion by
delocalizing negative charge and hence increases acidity of carboxylic acid
The effect of the following groups in increasing acidity order is
Ph < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO2 < CF3
m
(a)Effect of number of electron withdrawing groups: As the number of
.co
electron withdrawing groups increases –I effect increases, increasing the acid
strength
ing
(b)Effect of position of electron withdrawing group: As the distance between
electron withdrawing group and carboxylic group increases, electron
withdrawing influence decreases.
ch
6. Reaction of carboxylic acids:
oa
(a) Reactions involving cleavage of C-OH bond: Carboxylic acids on heating

with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with P2O5 give corresponding anhydride
(i) Anhydride formation:
yC
kM
pic
w.
(ii) Esterification: Carboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols in the presence
of a mineral acid such as concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst
ww
(iii) Carboxylic acids react with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2 to form acyl chlorides
106
(iv) Reaction with ammonia (NH3): Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to
give ammonium salt which on further heating at high temperature gives
amides.
(b) Reactions involving COOH group:

(i)Reduction: Carboxylic acids are reduced to alcohols in presence of LiAlH 4 or
m
B2H6 .
.co
ing
(ii)Decarboxylation : Sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids on
heating with soda lime (NaOH + CaO in ratio of 3:1) gives hydrocarbons
which contain one carbon less than the parent acid.
ch
oa
(c)Reactions involving substitution reaction in hydrocarbon part:

yC
(i) Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction: Carboxylic acids having an  -hydrogen

are halogenated at the  -position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in
kM
the presence of small amount of red phosphorus to give  -halocarboxylic

acids)
pic
w.
ww
(ii)Ring substitution in aromatic acids: Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo

electrophilic substitution reactions. Carboxyl group in benzoic acid is electron
withdrawing group and is meta directing.
107
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
108
Chapter: Amines
Top concepts
1. Amines are regarded as derivatives of ammonia in which one, two or all

three hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl group
2. Classification of amines:
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
3. Preparation of amines:
(i)By reduction of nitro compounds:
pic
Nitro compounds can be catalytically reduced by passing hydrogen gas in

presence of Raney Ni, finely divided Pt or Pd as catalyst at room
temperature.
w.
Ni, Pt or Pd
R  NO2  3H2  R  NH2  2 H2O
ww
Ni, Pt or Pd
Ar  NO2  3H2  Ar  NH2  2 H2O
Nitro compounds can also be reduced with active metals such as Fe, Sn, Zn
etc. with conc. HCl
Sn / HCl
R  NO2  3H2 
or Fe / HCl
 R  NH2  2H2O
Sn / HCl
Ar  NO2  3H2 
or Fe / HCl
 Ar  NH2  2H2O
109
(ii)By Hoffmann’s method (Ammonolysis of alkyl halides): Reaction of alkyl

halides with an ethanolic solution of ammonia in a sealed tube at 373 K
forms a mixture of primary, secondary and tertiary amine and finally
quarternary ammonium salt. Process of cleavage of C-X bond by ammonia is
called ammonolysis.
The free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment with a
strong base:
  NaOH  
NH3  RX  RNH3 X  RNH2  H2O  Na X
m
o
(1 amin e)
.co
  NaOH  
RNH2  RX  R 2NH2 X   R 2NH  H2O  Na X
o
(2 amin e)
R2NH  RX  R 3NH X
  NaOH
 
ing
o
R 3N
(3 amin e)
 H2O  Na X
 
ch
Order of reactivity of halides is: RI> RBr> RCl
oa
Larger the size of halogen atom easier is the cleavage of R-X bond
yC
Limitations of Hoffmann’s method:

Method gives mixture of amines which are difficult to separate in a laboratory
kM
Methods to get only one product by Hoffmann’s method:

(i)When ammonia is taken in excess primary amine is formed as main
product
pic
(ii)When alkyl halide is used in excess quarternary ammonium salt is formed

as main product
w.
Important Note: Method is not suitable for preparation of aryl amines

because aryl amines are relatively less reactive than alkyl halides towards
ww
nucleophilic substitution reactions
(iii) By reduction of nitriles: Nitriles can be reduced to amines using

H2 / Ni , LiAlH4 or Na(Hg ) / C2H5OH
110
(iii)By reduction of amides: Amides are reduced to corresponding amines by

LiAlH4
m
(iv) By Gabriel phthalimide synthesis: Gabriel synthesis is used for the
preparation of primary amines. Phthalimide on treatment with ethanolic
.co
potassium hydroxide forms potassium salt of phthalimide which on heating
with alkyl halide followed by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding
primary amine
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
Important Note: Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this

w.
method because aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution with

potassium phthalimide
ww
(v) By Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction: Primary amines can be

prepared from amides by treatment with Br2 and KOH. Amine contains one
carbon atom less than the parent amide
111
4. Physical properties of amines:
(i)Solubility: Lower aliphatic amine is soluble in water because they can form
hydrogen bonding with water. Solubility decreases with increases in molar
mass of amines due to increase in size of hydrophobic group
(ii)Boiling points: Among the isomeric amines primary and secondary amines
have high boiling point because they can form hydrogen bonding. Tertiary
amine cannot form hydrogen bonding due to the absence of hydrogen
atom available for hydrogen bond formation. Hence order of boiling of
isomeric amines is Primary>Secondary> Tertiary
5. Chemical properties of amines:

(a)Basic character of amines:
Amines have an unshared pair of electrons on nitrogen atom due to which
m
they behave as Lewis base. Basic character of amines can be better
understood in terms of their K b and pKb values
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
Greater K b value or smaller pKb indicates base is strong

w.
(b)Comparison of basic strength of aliphatic amines and ammonia:

Aliphatic amines are stronger bases than ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl
ww
groups leading to high electron density on the nitrogen atom
112
(c) Comparison of basic strength of primary, secondary and tertiary amines

(i)The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous phase follows the expected
m
order on the basis of +I effect: tertiary amine > secondary amine > primary
.co
amine > NH3
(ii)In aqueous solution it is observed that tertiary amines are less basic than
either primary or secondary amines. This can be explained on basis of
following factors:
ing
(a) Solvation effect: Greater is the stability of the substituted ammonium
ch
cation formed, stronger is the corresponding amine as a base. Tertiary
ammonium ion is less hydrated than secondary ammonium ion which is less
oa
hydrated than primary amine. Thus tertiary amines have fewer tendencies to
form ammonium ion and consequently are least basic.
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
On the basis of solvation effect order of basicity of aliphatic amines should be

primary amine>secondary amine>tertiary amine.
(b) Steric factor: As the crowding of alkyl group increases from primary to
tertiary amine hinderance to hydrogen bonding increases which eventually
decreases the basic strength. Thus there is a subtle interplay of the inductive
effect, solvation effect and steric hinderance of the alkyl group which decides
the basic strength of alkyl amines in the aqueous state.
113
When the alkyl group is small like CH3 there is no steric hindrance to
hydrogen bonding. In this case order of basicity in aqueous medium is
When alkyl group is ethyl group order of basicity in aqueous medium is
(c)Comparison of basic strength of aryl amines and alkanamines:

Generally aryl amines are considerably less basic than alkyl amines .Taking
an example of aniline and ethylamine it is observed that ethyl amine is more
basic than aniline. In aniline –NH2 group is directly attached to benzene
ring. Hence unshared pair of electron on nitrogen is less available for
protonation because of resonance. Below mentioned are resonating
structures of aniline.
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
In the above resonating structures there is a positive charge on nitrogen

atom making the lone pair less available for protonation. Hence aniline is less
yC
basic than ethyl amine which has no resonating structures. Less basicity of
aniline can also be explained by comparing the relative stability of aniline and
kM
anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton. Greater the number of

resonating structures, greater is the stability of that species.
pic
Aniline is resonance hybrid of five resonating structures whereas anilinium

ion has only two resonating structures.
w.
ww
Thus aniline has less tendency to accept a proton to form anilinium ion.
114
(d)Effect of substituent on basic character of amines:

Electron donating or electron releasing group/groups (EDG) increases basic
strength.
Electron withdrawing (EWG) decreases basic strength
m
.co
ing
ch
6. Reactions of amines:
oa
(a) Acylation Reaction: Aliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines
(which contain replaceable hydrogen atoms) react with acid chlorides,
anhydrides and esters to form substituted amide. Process of introducing an
yC
acyl group (R-CO-) into the molecule is called acylation. The reaction is
carried out in the presence of a stronger base than the amine, like pyridine,
kM
which removes HCl formed and shifts the equilibrium to the product side
Base
R  NH2  RCOCl   RNHCOR  HCl
pic
Ac id Substituted
chloride amide
w.
O O
|| ||
ww
Base
R ' NH2  R C OC R   R 'NHCOR  RCOOH
Ac id Substituted
anhydride amide
Base
R 2NH  RCOCl   R 2NCOR  HCl
Important Note: Since tertiary amine do not contain replaceable hydrogen

atom they do not undergo acylation reaction
115
(b) Carbylamine reaction: Only aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on

heating with chloroform and ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides
or carbylamines
Important Note: Secondary and tertiary amines do not give the above test
(c)Reaction of primary amine with nitrous acid:
(i)Primary aliphatic amine on reaction with nitrous acid (HNO2) forms

aliphatic diazonium salt which being unstable decomposes to form alcohol
and evolve nitrogen
m
.co
(ii)Primary aromatic amines on reaction with nitrous acid (HNO2) in cold
(273-278 K) forms diazonium salt
ing
ch
oa
yC
(d)Reaction with benzene sulphonyl chloride: Hinsberg’s reagent-

Benzenesulphonyl chloride (C 6H5SO2Cl) reacts with primary and secondary
amines to form sulphonamides
kM
pic
w.
ww
The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide formed by primary

amine is strongly acidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing
sulphonyl group. Hence, it is soluble in alkali.
116
Since sulphonamide formed by secondary amine does not contain any

hydrogen atom attached to nitrogen atom, so it is not acidic. Hence it is
insoluble in alkali.
7. Ring substitution in aromatic amine: Aniline is more reactive than benzene

and undergoes electrophilic substitution reaction preferably at ortho and para
position.
m
(i) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room temperature to
.co
give a white precipitate of 2, 4, 6-tribromoaniline
ing
ch
oa
Important Note: In order to stop reaction at monosubstitution activating

yC
effect of –NH2 group is reduced by acetylation. This prevents di and tri

substituted products. Acetyl group is removed by hydrolysis.
kM
pic
w.
ww
(ii) Nitration:
(a)Under strongly acidic medium aniline gets protonated to form anilinium
ion, which is deactivating group and is meta directing. Hence minitroaniline is
also formed in 47 % along with ortho and para products.
117
Important Note: Aromatic amines cannot be nitrated directly because

HNO3 being a strong oxidising agent oxidises it forming black mass
(b) Nitration by protecting the –NH2 group by acetylation reaction with acetic
m
anhydride:
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
(iii) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with conc. H2SO4 to form anilinium

kM
hydrogensulphate which on heating with sulphuric acid at 453-473K produces

p-aminobenzene sulphonic acid, commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the
major product
pic
w.
ww
118
8. Reactions of benzene diazonium chloride:

(a) Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
(b) Reactions involving retention of diazo group, coupling reactions:

Diazonium ion acts as an electrophile because there is a positive charge on
terminal nitrogen. Therefore benzene diazonium chloride couples with
electron rich compounds like phenol and aniline to give azo compounds. Azo
compounds contain –N=N- bond and reaction is coupling reaction.
119
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
120
Chapter : Biomolecules
Top Concepts:
1. Definition of carbohydrates: Polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy

ketones or compounds which give these on hydrolysis.
2. Classification of carbohydrates:
a. Monosaccharides
 Simplest carbohydrates
 Cannot be hydrolysed into simpler compounds
m
 E.g. Glucose, mannose
.co
b. Oligosaccharides

ing
Carbohydrates which give 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis
E.g. Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

ch
c. Polysaccharides
oa
 Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharide

units.
yC
 E.g. Cellulose, starch

kM
3. Anomers: Such pairs of optical isomers which differ in configuration only

around C1 atom are called anomers. E.g. -D-glucopyranose and -D-
glucopyranose
pic
4. Epimers: Such pairs of optical isomers which differ in configuration

around any other C atom other than C1 atom are called epimers. E.g. D-
w.
glucose and D- mannose are C2 epimers.

ww
121
5. Preparation of glucose (also called dextrose, grape sugar):
a. From sucrose:

H
C12H22O11  H2O  C6H12O6  C6H12O6
Sucrose Glu cos e Fructose
b. From starch:

C6H10O5  n  nH2O 
H
393K ;2 3 atm
 nC6H12O6
Sucrose Glu cos e
m
or
cellulose
.co
6. Structure elucidation of glucose:
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
122
m
.co
HNO3
COOH
|
ing
ch
Glucose 
(C HOH)4 
 Thi s in dicates the presence of
|
COOH primary alcoholic group in glu cos e
oa
Saccharic acid
yC
CHO
kM
|
5 (CH3CO)2 O
Glu cos e 
ZnCl
 (C HOCOCH3 )4  5 CH3COOH 
 Shows the presence
2 |
CH2OCOCH3 of 5  OH groups
pic
Penta acetyl glu cos e

w.
Unusual reactions of glucose: (Presence of ring structure)

ww
123
Glucose does not give Schiff’s test and does not react with sodium bisulphite
m
and NH3.
.co
Pentaacetyl glucose does not react with hydroxyl amine. This shows the
absence of –CHO group and hence the presence of ring structure.
ing
ch
7. Cyclic structure of glucose:
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
ww
124
8. Cyclic structure of fructose:
m
.co
9. Reaction of Glucose with Phenyl hydrazine: Formation of Osazone:
ing
ch
oa
yC
kM
pic
w.
Glucose and fructose gives the same osazone because the reaction takes
place at C1 and C2 only.
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125
10. Lobry De Bruyn Van Ekenstein Rearrangement:
CHO CH2OH CHO H  C  OH

| | | ||
NaOH NaOH
H  C OH   C|  O
       HO  C|  H
         C OH
| |
(CHOH)3 (CHOH)3 (CHOH)3 (CHOH)3
| | | |
C H2OH C H2OH C H2OH C H2OH
D-Glucose D-Fructose D-Mannose ene diol
 Same results are obtained when fructose or mannose is reacted with an

alkali.
 It is because of form of ene - diol intermediate.
 It explains why fructose acts as a reducing sugar.
m
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11. Mutarotation: The spontaneous change in specific rotation of an
optically active compound is called mutarotation. E.g. -D-glucose (m.p. =
146°C) with specific rotation []D = +111° and -D-glucose (m.p. = 150°C)
ch
with specific rotation []D =+19.2° When either form is dissolved in water &
allowed to stand, the specific rotation of the solution changes slowly and
oa
reaches or constant value of +52.5°.
-D-glucose 
    open chain form     -D-glucose
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sp. rotⁿ = 111° sp. rotⁿ = +52.5° sp. rotⁿ = +19°

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pic
12. Haworth projection: Representation for ring structure:
6 membered ring is called pyranose ring.

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5 membered ring is called furanose ring.

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How to write the projection: Groups projected to the right in the Fischer
projection are written below the plane and those to the left are written above
the plane.
Haworth projection of Glucose:
126
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Haworth projection for Fructose:

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pic
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127
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13. Glycosidic linkage: The oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water
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molecule when two monosaccharides are joined together through oxygen
atom is called glycosidic linkage.
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14. Sucrose (invert sugar): Sucrose is dextrorotatory but on hydrolysis it
gives dextrorotatory & laevorotatory and the mixture is laevorotatory.
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
H
C12H22O11 + H2O  C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
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Sucrose D – glucose D – fructose

[]D = + 66.5° []D = +52.5° []D = -92.4°
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Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because the two monosaccharide units are

held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of -glucose and C2 of -
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fructose. Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in
glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
pic
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Haworth Projection of Sucrose:
128
15. Maltose: Maltose is composed of two -D-glucose units in which C1 of

one glucose is linked to C4 of another glucose unit. The free aldehyde group
can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing
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properties so it is a reducing sugar.
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H O
Maltose: Maltose 2 
 Glucose + Glucose
C1  C1 
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Haworth projection of maltose:
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pic
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129
16. Lactose (Milk sugar): It is composed of β-D-galactose and

β-D-glucose. The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of
glucose. Hence it is also a reducing sugar.

H O
Lactose 2 
 Glucose + Glucose
C4 β C1 β
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Haworth projection of lactose:

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pic
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130
17. Starch: It is a polymer of -glucose and consists of two components —

Amylose and Amylopectin.
Amylose Amylopectin
Water soluble component Water insoluble component
It is a long unbranched chain polymer It is a branched chain polymer
Contains 200 – 1000 -D-(+)- It is a branched chain polymer of -

glucose units held by  - glycosidic D-glucose units in which chain is
linkages involving C1 – C4 glycosidic formed by C1–C4 glycosidic linkage
linkage whereas branching occurs by C1–C6
glycosidic linkage.
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Constitutes about 15-20% of starch Constitutes about 80- 85% of starch
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18. Amino acids:
R  CH  COOH ing
Where R – Any side chain
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|
NH2
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Most naturally occurring amino acids have L – Config.
COOH COOH
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H NH2 [D] H2N H [L]

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R R
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19. Essential amino acids: Those amino acids which cannot be synthesised
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in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known as essential amino
acids. Example: Valine, Leucine
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20. Non- essential amino acids: The amino acids, which can be
synthesised in the body, are known as non-essential amino acids. Example:
Glycine, Alanine
131
21. Zwitter ion form of amino acids: Amino acids behave like salts rather
than simple amines or carboxylic acids. This behaviour is due to the presence
of both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino group) groups in the same
molecule.
In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton and amino group
can accept a proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is
neutral but contains both positive and negative charges.
In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as they react
both with acids and bases.
 
OH  OH 
R  C H  COOH     
 R  C H  COO     
 R  C H  COO
| H | H |
 
NH3 NH3 NH2
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zwitter ion
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22. Isoelectronic point: The pH at which the dipolar ion exists as neutral
ion and does not migrate to either electrode cathode or anode is called
isoelectronic point.
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23. Proteins: Proteins are the polymers of  -amino acids and they are
connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide linkage. A polypeptide
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with more than hundred amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher
than 10,000u is called a protein.
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24. Peptide linkage: Peptide linkage is an amide linkage formed by

condensation reaction between –COOH group of one amino acid and –NH2
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group of another amino acid.

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pic
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25. Primary structure of proteins: The sequence of amino acids is said to

be the primary structure of a protein.
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26. Secondary structure of proteins: It refers to the shape in which long

polypeptide chain can exist. Two different types of structures:
a.  – Helix:
 Given by Linus Pauling in 1951
 It exists when R- group is large.
 Right handed screw with the NH group of each amino acid residue H –
bonded to – C = O of adjacent turn of the helix.
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 Also known as 3.613 helix since each turn of the helix has
approximately 3.6 amino acids and a 13 – membered ring is formed by
H – bonding.
 C = O and N – H group of the peptide bonds are trans to each other.
 Ramchandran angles ( and ) -  angle which C makes with N – H

and  angle which C makes with C = O.
b.  – pleated sheet:
 Exists when R group is small.
 In this conformation all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly

maximum extension and then laid side by side which are held
together by hydrogen bonds.
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27. Tertiary structure of proteins: It represents the overall folding of the
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polypeptide chain i.e., further folding of the 2° structure.
Types of bonding which stablise the 3° structure –
i. Disulphide bridge (-S – S-)

ing
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ii. H – bonding – (C = O … H – N)
iii. Salt bridge (COO– … +NH3)

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iv. Hydrophobic interactions

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v. van der Waals forces
Two shapes are possible:

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pic
Fibrous proteins Globular proteins
When the polypeptide chains run This structure results when the
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parallel and are held together by chains of polypeptides coil around to

hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then give a spherical shape.
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fibre– like structure is formed.
Such proteins are generally insoluble These are usually soluble in water.
in water
Examples: keratin (present in hair, Examples: Insulin and albumins

wool, silk) and myosin (present in
muscles), etc
133
28. Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the proteins are composed

of two or more polypeptide chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial
arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is known as
quaternary structure of proteins.
29. Denaturation of proteins:

The loss of biological activity of proteins when a protein in its native form, is
subjected to physical change like change in temperature or chemical change
like change in pH. This is called denaturation of protein. Example:
coagulation of egg white on boiling, curdling of milk
30. Nucleoside:
Base + sugar
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31. Nucleotide:
Base + sugar + phosphate group
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32. Nucleic acids (or polynucletides): Long chain polymers of

pic
nucleotides. Nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester linkage between 5’ and

3’ C atoms of a pentose sugar.
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33. Two types of nucleic acids:

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Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
It has a double stranded -helix It has a single stranded -helix

structure in which two strands are structure.
coiled spirally in opposite directions.
Sugar present is –D–2-deoxyribose Sugar present is –D–ribose
Bases: Bases:
Purine bases: Adenine (A) and Purine bases: Adenine (A) and
Guanine (G) Guanine (G)
Pyrimidine bases : Thymine (T) and Pyrimidine bases: Uracil (U) and
134
cytosine (C) cytosine (C)

It occurs mainly in the nucleus of the It occurs mainly in the cytoplasm of
cell. the cell.
It is responsible for transmission for It helps in protein synthesis.
heredity character.
34. Double helix structure of DNA:
 It is composed of 2 right handed helical polynucleotide chains coiled

spirally in opposite directions around the same central axis.
 Two strands are anti-parallel i.e. their phosphodiester linkage runs in

opposite directions.
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 Bases are stacked inside the helix in planes  to the helical axis.
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 Two strands are held together by H – bonds (A = T, G  C).
 The two strands are complementary to each other because the
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hydrogen bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases. Adenine
forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen
bonds with guanine.
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 Diameter of double helix is 2 nm.
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 Double helix repeats at intervals of 3.4 nm. (One complete turn)

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 Total amount of purine (A + G) = Total amount of pyramidine (C + T)
35. Vitamins: Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small
kM
amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of

optimum growth and health of the organism.
pic
36. Classification of vitamins: Vitamins are classified into two groups

depending upon their solubility in water or fat.
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Fat soluble vitamins Water soluble vitamins

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These vitamins are soluble in fat and These vitamins are soluble in water.
oils but insoluble in water.
They are stored in liver and adipose Water soluble vitamins must
(fat storing) tissues be supplied regularly in diet because
they are readily excreted in urine and
cannot be stored (except vitamin
B12) in our body.
Example: Vitamin A, D, E and K Example: Vitamin C, B group
vitamins
135
37. Important vitamins, their sources and their deficiency diseases:
Name of vitamin Source Deficiency diseases

Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, erophthalmia
butter and milk (hardening of cornea of
eye)
Night blindness
Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of
(Thiamine) vegetables and cereals appetite,
retarded growth)
Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, liver, Cheilosis (fissuring at
(Riboflavin) kidney corners of mouth and
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lips), digestive disorders
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and burning sensation
of the skin.
Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions
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(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and Pernicious anaemia
curd (RBC deficient in
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haemoglobin)
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding gums)
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(Ascorbic acid) green leafy vegetables

Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, Rickets (bone
fish and egg yolk deformities
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in children) and
osteomalacia
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(soft bones and

joint pain in adults)
Vitamin E Vegetable oils like Increased fragility of
pic
wheat RBCs and muscular

germ oil, sunflower oil, weakness
etc.
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Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting

time
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136
Chapter : Polymers
Top concepts
1. Polymers are high molecular mass substance consisting of large number of

repeating structural units. As polymers are single, giant molecules i.e. big size
molecules, they are also called macromolecules
2. Simple molecules which combine to form polymers are called monomers
3. Process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is called

polymerization
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4. Classification of Polymers
No. Classification Types Examples
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based on
1. Natural polymers: Polymers obtained Cellulose, starch, etc.
from nature,mostly plants and animals
1. Source of
availability in laboratory
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2. Synthetic polymers: Polymers prepared Teflon,
Nylon 6,6 ,
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Synthetic rubber (Buna -
S) etc.
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3. Semi synthetic polymers: Polymers Rayon (cellulose

derived from naturally occurring acetate),
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polymers by carrying out chemical cellulose nitrate, etc.

modifications
2. Structure of 1. Linear polymers: Polymer consist of High density polythene,
kM
polymer long and straight chains polyvinyl chloride, etc.

2.Branched chain polymers: Polymers
contains linear chains having some Low density polythene
pic
branches
3.Cross linked or network polymers:
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Polymers in which monomer units are Bakelite, melamine, etc.

cross linked together to form a 3
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dimensional network polymers

3. Mode of 1.Addition polymers 1.Homopolymers:
polymerisation :Polymers are Polymers formed by
formed by the the polymerisation Polythene,
repeated addition of of a single Polystyrene
monomers with monomeric species
double and triple 2.Copolymers:
bonds Polymers formed by
addition Buna-S,
polymerisation of Buna -N
two different
137
monomers
Condensation polymers: Polymers formed

by repeated condensation reaction Nylon 6, 6,
between two different bi-functional or tri- Nylon 6
functional monomeric units with
elimination of simple molecules
4. Molecular forces 1. Elastomers: Polymer chains are held Buna – S,
together by weakest intermolecular Buna – N,
forces. Polymers are rubber – like solids Neoprene
with elastic properties
2. Fibre: Polymers have strong Nylon 6, 6,
intermolecular force like hydrogen Polyesters
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bonding. Fibres are the thread forming
solids which possess high tensile strength
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and high modulus
3. Thermoplastic polymers: Polymers are Polythene,
ing
held by intermolecular forces which are in Polystyrene
between those of elastomers and fibres.
These polymers are capable of repeated
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softening on heating and hardening on
cooling
4. Thermosetting polymers: Polymers are Bakelite,
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cross linked or heavily branched Urea-formaldelyde resins

molecules, which on heating undergo
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extensive cross linking in moulds and

eventually undergoes a permanent
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5. Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation: Most common

pic
mechanism for addition polymerisation reactions is free radical mechanism

Steps involved are:
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Step 1: Chain initiating step: Organic peroxides undergo homolytic fission to

ww
form free radicals which acts as initiator. Initiator adds to C-C double bond of
an alkene molecule to form a new free radical
138
Step 2: Chain propagating step: Free radicals formed by homolytic cleavage

adds to a double bond of monomer to form a larger free radical. Radical
formed adds to another alkene molecule to form a larger free radical. This
process continues until the radical is destroyed. These steps are called
propagation steps.
Step 3: Chain terminating step: For termination of the long chain, free
radicals combine in different ways to form polythene. One mode of
termination of chain is shown as under:
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Addition polymerisation is called chain growth polymerisation because it
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takes place through stages leading to increase in chain length and each stage
produces reactive intermediates for use in next stage of the growth of chain
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6 .Important Addition Polymers:

No. Name of polymer Polymerisation Reaction & Uses
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1 Low density
kM
polythene (LDP)
pic
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Uses: It is used in the insulation of electricity carrying

wires and manufacture of squeeze bottles, toys and
flexible pipes
2 High density
polythene(HDP)
139
Uses: It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins,

bottles, pipes, etc.
3 Polytetrafluoroethene
(Teflon)
Uses: It is used in making oil seals and gaskets and also

used for non – stick surface coated utensils
4 Polyacrylonitrile
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Uses: It is used as a substitute for wool in making
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commercial fibres as orlon or acrilan
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7. Condensation Polymerisation or Step Growth polymerization:

Polymerisation generally involves a repetitive condensation reaction between
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two bi-functional monomers. In condensation reactions, the product of each

step is again a bi-functional species and the sequence of condensation goes
on. Since, each step produces a distinct functionalised species and is
pic
independent of each other, this process is also called as step growth

polymerisation.
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8 .Important Condensation Polymers:

1. Polyamides: Polymers possess amide linkage (-CONH-) in chain. These
ww
polymers are popularly known as nylons.

Examples:
(a) Nylon 6, 6: It is prepared by the condensation polymerisation of
hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid under high pressure and at
high temperature.
140
Uses: Nylon 6, 6 is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and in textile
industry
(b) Nylon 6: It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at a high

temperature
Uses: Nylon 6 is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and ropes
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(2) Polyesters: These are the polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids
and diols
Example: Terylene or Dacron
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Terylene or Dacron: It is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene
glycol and terephthalic acid at 420 to 460 K in the presence of zinc acetate-
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antimony trioxide catalyst
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pic
Uses: Dacron fibre (terylene) is crease resistant and is used in blending with
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cotton and wool fibres and also as glass reinforcing materials in safety
helmets, etc.
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3. Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and related polymers)
Bakelite: These are obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with

formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid or a base catalyst. The initial
product could be a linear product – Novolac used in paints.
141
Novolac on heating with formaldehyde forms Bakelite
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Uses: It is used for making combs, phonograph records, electrical switches

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and handles of various utensils
4. Melamine – formaldehyde polymer: Melamine formaldehyde polymer is

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formed by the condensation polymerisation of melamine and

formaldehyde
pic
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142
Uses: It is used in the manufacture of unbreakable crockery
9. Rubber
(i) Natural rubber: Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-
1, 3-butadiene) and is also called as cis - 1, 4 - polyisoprene.
m
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Vulcanisation of rubber: Process of heating a mixture of raw rubber with
sulphur and an appropriate additive in a temperature range between 373 K
ch
to 415 K to improve upon physical properties like elasticity, strength etc.
oa
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kM
pic
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(ii) Synthetic rubber: Synthetic rubbers are either homopolymers of 1, 3 -

butadiene derivatives or copolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene or its derivatives
with another unsaturated monomer
Examples of synthetic rubber:

No. Name of Polymerisation Reaction and uses
polymer
1 Neoprene or
polychloropre
ne
143
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Uses: It is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and
hoses
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2 Buna – N
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kM
pic
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144
Uses: It is used in making oil seals, tank lining, etc. because it is

resistant to the action of petrol, lubricating oil and organic solvents
3 Buna – S
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10. Biodegradable Polymers: Polymers which are degraded by

microorganisms within a suitable period so that biodegradable polymers and
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their degraded products do not cause any serious affects on environment

kM
pic
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Examples of biodegradable polymer:

1. Poly -  -hydroxybutyrate – co-  -hydroxy valerate (PHBV): It is obtained
ww
by the copolymerisation of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3 - hydroxypentanoic

acid
145
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Uses: PHBV is used in speciality packaging, orthopaedic devices and in
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controlled release of drugs
2. Nylon 2–nylon 6: It is an alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine
ing
(H2N–CH2–COOH) and amino caproic acid (H2N (CH2)5 COOH)
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pic
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146
11. Some commercially important polymers along with their structures and
uses
Name of Monomer Structure Uses
Polymer
Polypropene Propene Manufacture of
ropes, toys, pipes,
fibres, etc.
Polystyrene Styrene As insulator,

wrapping
material,
manufacture
of toys, radio and
television cabinets
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Polyvinyl Vinyl chloride Manufacture of rain
chloride coats, hand bags,
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(PVC) vinyl flooring, water
pipes
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Glyptal (a) Ethylene Manufacture of
glycol paints and lacquers
Manufacture
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of
(b) Phthalic
acid
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pic
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147
Chapter : Chemistry in Everyday Life
Top concepts
1. Drugs are low molecular mass (  100-500 u) substances which interact

with targets in the body and produce a biological response
2. Medicines are chemicals that are useful in diagnosis, prevention and

treatment of diseases
3. Desirable or beneficial effect of a drug like treatment of symptoms and

cure of a disease on a living body is known as therapeutic effect
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4. Proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts in the body are
called enzymes
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5. Functions of enzymes:
ing
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(i) The first function of an enzyme is to hold the substrate for a chemical
reaction. Active sites of enzymes hold the substrate molecule in a suitable
pic
position, so that it can be attacked by the reagent effectively
(ii) The second function of an enzyme is to provide functional groups that will
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attack the substrate and carry out chemical reaction

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6. Main role of drugs is to either increase or decrease role of enzyme

catalysed reactions. Inhibition of enzymes is a common role of drug action.
Enzyme inhibitor is drug which inhibits catalytic activity of enzymes or blocks
the binding site of the enzyme and eventually prevents the binding of
substrate with enzyme. Drug can inhibit attachment of substrate on active
site of enzymes in following ways.
148
(a) Competitive Inhibition: Competitive Inhibitors are the drugs that compete
with the natural substrate for their attachment on the active sites of enzymes
m
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(b) Non-Competitive Inhibition: Some drugs do not bind to the enzyme’s
active site, instead bind to a different site of enzyme called allosteric site.
This binding of inhibitor at allosteric site changes the shape of the active site
ing
in such a way that substrate cannot recognise it. If the bond formed between
an enzyme and an inhibitor is a strong covalent bond and cannot be broken
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easily, then the enzyme is blocked permanently. The body then degrades the
enzyme-inhibitor complex and synthesizes the new enzyme
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pic
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149
7. Receptors as Drug Targets:

Proteins which are vital for communication system in the body are called
receptors. In the body, message between two neurons and that between
neurons to muscles is communicated through chemical messengers. They
are received at the binding sites of receptor proteins. To accommodate a
messenger, shape of the receptor site changes which brings about the
transfer of message into the cell. Chemical messenger gives message to the
cell without entering the cell
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Receptors show selectivity for one chemical messenger over the other
because their binding sites have different shape, structure and amino acid
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composition.
Drugs that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural function are called
antagonists. These are useful when blocking of message is required. Drugs
pic
that mimic the natural messenger by switching on the receptor are called
agonists. These are useful when there is lack of natural chemical messenger.
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8. Therapeutic action of different classes of drugs

(i) Antacid: Chemical substances which neutralize excess acid in the gastric
ww
juices and give relief from acid indigestion, acidity, heart burns and gastric
ulcers
Examples: Eno, gelusil, digene etc.
(ii) Antihistamines: Chemical substances which diminish or abolish the effects

of histamine released in body and hence prevent allergic reactions
Examples: Brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (Seldane)
150
(iii) Neurologically Active Drugs: Drugs which have a neurological effect i.e.
affects the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor
(a) Tranquilizers: Chemical substances used for the treatment of stress and
mild or severe mental diseases
Examples: Derivatives of barbituric acids like veronal, amytal, nembutal,
luminal, seconal
(b) Analgesics: Chemical substances used to relieve pain without causing any
disturbances in the nervous system like impairment of consciousness, mental
confusion, incoordination or paralysis etc.
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Classification of Analgesics:
Non-narcotic Narcotic analgesics:
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analgesics:
They are non-addictive When administered in

drugs
ing
medicinal doses, these
drugs relieve pain and
produce sleep
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Examples: Aspirin, Examples: Morphine
Ibuprofen, Naproxen, and its derivatives
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Dichlofenac Sodium
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(iv) Antimicrobials: Drugs that tends to destroy/prevent development or

inhibit the pathogenic action of microbes such as bacteria (antibacterial
drugs), fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral agents), or other parasites
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(antiparasitic drugs) selectively
Types of antimicrobial drugs

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(a) Antibiotics: Chemical substances produced by microorganisms that kill or

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prevent the growth of other microbes

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Classification of antibiotics on basis of mode of control of microbial diseases:

Bactericidal Bacteriostatic
Drugs that kills organisms in body Drugs that inhibits growth of
organisms
Examples: Examples:
Penicillin, Aminoglycosides, Erythromycin, Tetracycline,
Ofloxacin Chloramphenicol
151
Classification of antibiotics on basis of its spectrum of action:

Broad spectrum antibiotics Narrow spectrum Limited spectrum
antibiotics antibiotics
Antibiotics which kill or Antibiotics which are Antibiotics effective
inhibit a wide range of effective mainly against a single
Gram-positive and Gram- against Gram-positive organism or disease
negative bacteria or Gram-negative
bacteria
Examples: Examples:
Ampicillin and Amoxycillin Penicillin G
(b) Antiseptics: Chemical substances that kill or prevent growth of

microorganisms and can be applied on living tissues such as cuts, wounds
m
etc.
Examples: Soframicine, dettol
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(c) Disinfectants: Chemical substances that kill microorganisms but cannot
be applied on living tissues such as cuts, wounds etc.
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Examples: Chlorine (Cl2), bithional, iodoform etc.
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(v) Antifertility Drugs: Chemical substances used to prevent conception or
fertilization
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Examples: Norethindrone, ethynylestradiol (novestrol)

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9. Food additives are the substances added to food to preserve its flavour or
improve its taste and appearance
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Different types of food additives:

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No. Name of food additive Examples
1 Artificial Sweetening Agents: Chemical Aspartame, Sucrolose

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compounds which gives sweetening effect to and Alitame

the food and enhance its flavour
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2 Food preservatives: Chemical substances Sugar, Salts, Sodium

which are added to food material to prevent benzoate
their spoilage due to microbial growth
3 Food colours: Substances added to food to Allura Red AC,

increase the acceptability and attractiveness Tartrazine
of the food product
4 Nutritional supplements: Substances added Vitamins, minerals etc.

to food to improve the nutritional value
152
5 Fat emulsifiers and stabilizing agents: Egg yolk (where the

Substances added to food products to give main emulsifying
texture and desired consistency chemical is Lecithin)
6 Antioxidants :Substances added to food to Butylated Hydroxy

prevent oxidation of food materials Toluene (BHT),
Butylated Hydroxy
Anisole (BHA)
10. Soaps:
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(i)Soap: It is a sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids like
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stearic, oleic and palmitic acid.
The process of making soap by hydrolysis of fats or oils with alkalies is
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known as Saponification
Detergents
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(ii)Saponification: The process of making soap by hydrolysis of fats or oils

with alkalies
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(iii)Types of soaps
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No. Descriptions
2. Medicated soaps: These soaps are the soft soaps containing substances
pic
with medicinal properties. Neem soap, carbolic soaps are some

common examples of medicated soaps.
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3. Shaving soaps: These soaps are potassium sodium stearates and

produce lasting lather. These contain glycerol to prevent rapid drying. A
gum called rosin is added in these soaps which forms sodium rosinate
ww
which lathers well
4. Transparent soaps: These soaps are prepared by dissolving the soap in

ethanol and then evaporating the excess solvent
5. Floating soaps: These soaps float in water and are prepared by beating
tiny air bubbles into the product before it hardens
6. Soap chips: These are prepared by running a thin sheet of melted soap
onto a cool cylinder and scrapping off the soaps in small broken pieces
153
7. Soap granules: These are dried miniature soap bubbles
8. Soap powder and scouring soaps: These substances contain some

soap, a scouring agent (abrasive) such as powdered pumice or finely
divided sand and builders like sodium carbonate and trisodium
phosphate. Builders help the soaps in its cleaning action
(iv) Advantages of using soaps: Soap is a good cleansing agent and is 100%
biodegradable i.e., microorganisms present in sewage water can completely
oxidize soap. Therefore, soaps do not cause any pollution problems
(v) Disadvantages of using soaps:
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 Soaps cannot be used in hard water because hard water contains
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metal ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+ which react with soap to form white
precipitate of calcium and magnesium salts
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ch
oa
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kM
pic
These precipitates stick to the fibres of the cloth as gummy mass and
block the ability of soaps to remove oil and grease from fabrics.
Therefore, it interferes with the cleansing ability of the soap and makes
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the cleansing process difficult.

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 In acidic medium, the acid present in solution precipitate the insoluble

free fatty acids which adhere to the fabrics and hence block the ability
of soaps to remove oil and grease from the fabrics. Hence soaps
cannot be used in acidic medium
154
11. Detergents:
(i)Detergents are sodium salts of long chain of alkyl benzene sulphonic acids
or sodium salts of long chain of alkyl hydrogen sulphates
m
.co
ing
(ii)Classification of detergents:
(a)Anionic detergents:
Anionic detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain alcohols or
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hydrocarbons. Alkyl hydrogensulphates formed by treating long chain alcohols
with concentrated sulphuric acid are neutralised with alkali to form anionic
oa
detergents. Similarly alkyl benzene sulphonates are obtained by neutralising

alkyl benzene sulphonic acids with alkali
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kM
Example:
pic
w.
ww
Anionic detergents are termed so because a large part of molecule is an

anion.
Uses: They are used in household cleaning like dishwasher liquids, laundry
liquid detergents, laundry powdered detergents etc.
155
Advantage: They are effective in slightly acidic solutions where soaps do not
work efficiently
(b)Cationic detergents: Cationic detergents are quarternary ammonium salts

of amines with acetates, chlorides or bromides as anions. Cationic parts
possess a long hydrocarbon chain and a positive charge on nitrogen atom.
Example:
m
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ing
Cationic detergents are termed so because a large part of molecule is a
cation
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Use: Since they possess germicidal properties, they are used as germicides
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Advantage: They has strong germicidal action

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Disadvantage: These detergents are expensive

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(c) Non- ionic detergents: They do not contain any ion in their constitution.
pic
They are like esters of high molecular mass.

Example: Detergent formed by condensation reaction between stearic acid
w.
reacts and polyethyleneglycol

ww
Use: Making liquid washing detergents
Advantage: They have effective H- bonding groups at one end of the alkyl
chain which make them freely water soluble.
156
12. Biodegradable detergents: Detergents having straight hydrocarbon

chains that are easily decomposed by microorganisms.
Example: Sodium lauryl sulphate
13. Non-Biodegradable detergents: Detergents having branched hydrocarbon

chains that are not easily decomposed by microorganisms
m
.co
ing
ch
oa
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kM
pic
w.
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157

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1. Solid: Solid is a state of matter in which the constituting particles are

4. Properties of crystalline solids:

b. They have a long range order.

d. They are anisotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties show

g. They are called true solids

5. Polymorphic forms or polymorphs: The different crystalline forms of a

6. Types of crystalline solids:

Type of Constitue Bonding/ Example Physical Electrical Melting

1. Non Dispersion Ar, CCl4, Soft Insulator Very

2. Dipole- HCl, Soft Insulator Low

Metallic Positive Metallic Fe, Cu, Hard but Conducto Fairly

sea of e and in solid

Covale Atoms Covalent SiO2(qu Hard Insulator Very

7. Characteristics of amorphous solids:

a. They have an irregular shape.

8. Crystal lattice: A regular ordered arrangement of constituent particles

9. Lattice points or lattice sites: The fixed positions on which the

11. Parameters which characterize a unit cell:

a. Dimensions of the unit cell along the three edges, a, b and c:

b. Inclination of the edges to each other: This is denoted by the

and c, and  is the angle between a and b.

12.Seven crystal systems:

13.Types of unit cells:

14.Number of particles at different lattice positions:

d. End centre: If an atom is present at the edge centre, it is shared

15.Number of atoms in different unit cells:

a. Primitive unit cell: 1 atom

16.Coordination number is the number of nearest neighbours of a

17.Close packed structures:

a. Close packing in one dimension: Each sphere is in contact with

The three dimensional structure is called hexagonal

b. Covering the octahedral voids: Here, octahedral voids

the third layer. It gives rise to ABCABCABC… type

Coordination number is12. Example: Cu, Ag

a. Tetrahedral voids: This type of void is formed at the centre

b. Octahedral void: This type of void is surrounded by six spheres.

19.In hcp or ccp arrangement, octahedral and tetrahedral voids are

20.Packing efficiency is the percentage of total space occupied by

Volume occupiedby spheres

21. Radius ratio in an octahedral void: For an atom to occupy an

a. Simple cubic unit cell: a= 2r

25.Volume of a unit cell = (edge length)3 = a3

b. Face centred unit cell: Volume  (2 2 r)

a. Simple cubic unit cell: z = 1

27.Density of unit cell:

29.Defects are of two types:

30.Point defects are of three types:

density of the substance. density of the substance.

32. Stoichiometric defects for ionic solids are of two types:

Schottky defect Frenkel or dislocation defect

In this defect equal number of In this defect, the smaller ion

It is basically a vacancy defect It creates a vacancy defect at its

in ionic solids. original site and an interstitial

It decreases the density of a It does not change the density of

33. Non-stoichiometric defects are of two types:

a. Metal excess – This type of defect is due to excess of metal

35. Band theory – A metal is characterized by a band structure. The