Laboratory Method of Teaching

Laboratory activities have long had a distinctive and central role in the science
curriculum and science educators have suggested that many benefits accrue from
engaging students in science laboratory activities (Hofstein and Lunetta, 2004;
Hofstein, 2004). Agbogun, (1991) reported that; Laboratory method is a unique
source of quality teaching and learning in science because science students are
able to observe and manipulate materials to demonstrate certain aspects of the
subject matter which has been learnt in class through lectures, discussions and
textbooks. Hence, laboratory method provides students with opportunities to engage
in processes of investigation and inquiry which is believed to enhance quality
education.

Origin/Proponent of Laboratory Method of Teaching

Early instances of "laboratories" recorded in English involved alchemy and the

preparation of medicines. The emergence of Big Science during World War II
increased the size of laboratories and scientific equipment, introducing particle
accelerators and similar devices. The earliest laboratory according to the present
evidence is a home laboratory of Pythagoras of Samos, the well-known Greek
philosopher and scientist. This laboratory created when Pythagoras conducted an
experiment about tones of sound and vibration of string.

As a method of teaching, the laboratory method of teaching is rooted in the Piaget’s

Theory of Cognitive Development (McLeod, 2015). Piaget's theory of cognitive
development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He
disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive
development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction
with the environment. Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where
his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He
became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the

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questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers
revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive

development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive
development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of
simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities. What Piaget wanted
to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as
a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which
fundamental concepts like the very idea of number, time, quantity, causality, justice
and so on emerged.

Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are
merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think
in strikingly different ways compared to adults. According to Piaget, children are
born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which
all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the
infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think
using hypotheses. To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive
reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and
environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around
them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what
they discover in their environment.

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to
form a mental representation of the world. Piaget (1952) defined a schema as: "a
cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly
interconnected and governed by a core meaning."

In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent
behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas
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as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects,
actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.

Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and

described how they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set
of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and
to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these mental
representations and apply them when needed.

What Laboratory Method of Teaching Entails

This method is one of the important methods of teaching science and languages and
it forms an integral part of effective science teaching. Under this method, teacher
encourages the students to derive various scientific laws and principles on their own
by getting personally involved in the experiment work.

For this, provision of a well- equipped laboratory is made by the teacher. Along with
such materials and facilities, proper instructions are being provided by the teacher to
the students by which they can carry out their experiments self-independently. They
carry on the experiments and record the observation properly, on -the basis of which
they infer their results or draw conclusions.

Entire work of the students is being supervised and controlled by the teacher, as a
result of which, probability of meeting with any kind of accident reduces to
considerable extent. Not only has this, with this, students performed their work
without conducting any kind of mistake.

For science teaching, this method is used to maximum possible extent by the
teachers, as a result of which, some experts have divided it into various categories,
some of which are as follows:

Inductive Laboratory Method: Through this method, students get the opportunity
to form various scientific concepts and principles on their own as in this method they
have to take part in various project functions.

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Verification and Deduction Method: Through this method, teachers illustrate
various scientific concepts, principles and laws in front of students.

Technical Skill Oriented Method: This method stresses to acquire various kinds of
manipulative skills which involve the development of hand-eye coordination.

Science Process Oriented Method: Through this method, teachers develop the
science process skills of various kinds in the students.

Thus, any form of laboratory method can be used by the teacher. But, it is very
necessary to plan and organise laboratory activities carefully. Pre-laboratory
instructions should be provided by the science teacher well in advance of time as
through it students will get prepared for taking active part in laboratory activities.

Through such kind of pre-laboratory instructions, students will become oriented to

the objectives to be attained and the procedures or methods to be adopted.

Necessary directions for actual laboratory work should be provided by the teacher to
the students, which should highlight the precautions which they are required to be
observed. Teacher can provide the instructions to the students either in' written form
or orally. If these are provided in the written form, then there should be proper
provision of black-board and instruction cards in the classroom, as without it, this
function cannot be performed properly.

Laboratory Method Utilizes raw data or material things to produce better

understanding of the subject matter or lesson Learning by doing Using reality
instead of symbols. - reality has more vividness Investigatory or experimental

Laboratory Demonstrations

It begins by demonstrating key techniques or equipment operation or describing the

location and handling of special materials. The students are gathered close to focus
them on what you are doing and to ensure that everyone can see and hear. Again,
they are focused on the key terms and functions that are in the procedures, and use

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the demonstration to generate excitement about the laboratory. The teacher should
not attempt to demonstrate equipment he has not practiced using.

If the teacher made mistake during his demonstration, it is instructionally important

to describe how he made the mistake, it is good to familiarize him with the
equipment operation prior to the demonstration. (Allen, D., O’Connell, R., Percha,
B., Erickson, B., Nord, B., Harper, D., Bialek, J., & Nam E., 2009.

Advantages of Laboratory Method of Teaching

i. Advantages Students learn by doing and come in contact with raw data or
material objects in the teaching-learning process.
ii. Develops the power of observation and reasoning.
iii. Develops the scientific attitude.
iv. Gives an understanding of what research is and how to apply the scientific
method of research
v. Gives training in organizing data gathered from real material objects and
how these objects are manipulated to attain the objectives.
vi. Since students come in contact with real life situations, it can be a
preparation for solving real life problems.

Disadvantages of Laboratory Method of Teaching

i. It is an uneconomical way of learning in time and material.

ii. It does not give much training in verbal expression and when the same
equipment is used most of the time,
iii. Its use becomes mechanical i.e., used without much thinking anymore

Where Laboratory Method is Suitable

This method is one of the important methods of teaching science subjects as a lot of
experiments are carried out. It can also be applied in the teaching of:

i. Languages;

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ii. Music; and
iii. Vocational subjects

The following strategies were adopted as they relate to laboratory method of

teaching

Personal View of Laboratory Method

The use of the laboratory method in teaching especially the sciences but sometimes,
teachers do not usually find it convenient to make laboratory work the center of their
instruction. More often than not, materials and equipment needed to carry out
practical work is not available and even when they are available, it is possible that
some of these materials and equipment may be locked up in the school laboratory
store without teachers being aware of their existence. Also, a large class size does
not encourage teachers to use the laboratory method to teach students. Lastly some
of the laboratory equipments require the use of electricity and since electricity is a
challenge especially in rural areas, this method becomes impossible to use in such
situations. (Abimbola, & Danmole, 1995).

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Discussion Method of Teaching
The word discussion means exchanging views and debate. Here the discussion can
be among the group of students as a whole group. Discussion method is an
organized teaching/learning process. By this method, the class may be arranged in
groups or panels. The class may remain together to exchange views, opinions or
ideas on pre-determined topics. This is a method in which the students are actively
involved if the groups are in small numbers and heterogeneous.

Origin/Proponent of Discussion Method of Teaching

The Discussion Method, also called the Socratic Method after the Ancient Greek
philosopher Socrates, who would engage his students with questions and dialogue.
Because the class is small, the tutor is able to determine each student’s progress,
and students have ample occasion to make their difficulties known.

The Socratic method, also can be known as method of elenchus, elenctic method,
or Socratic debate, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between
individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking
and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions. It is a dialectical method,
involving a discussion in which the defense of one point of view is questioned; one
participant may lead another to contradict themselves in some way, thus weakening
the defender's point. This method is named after the Classical Greek philosopher
Socrates and is introduced by him in Plato's Theaetetus as midwifery (maieutics)
because it is employed to bring out definitions implicit in the interlocutors' beliefs, or
to help them further their understanding.

Elenchus (meaning argument of disproof or refutation, cross-examining, testing,

scrutiny for purposes of refutation) is the central technique of the Socratic method.
The Latin form elenchus (plural elenchi ) is used in English as the technical
philosophical term. In Plato's early dialogues, the elenchus is the technique

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Socrates uses to investigate, for example, the nature or definition of ethical concepts
such as justice or virtue. According to Vlastos, it has the following steps:

 Socrates' interlocutor asserts a thesis, for example "Courage is endurance of

the soul", which Socrates considers false and targets for refutation.
 Socrates secures his interlocutor's agreement to further premises, for
example "Courage is a fine thing" and "Ignorant endurance is not a fine thing".
 Socrates then argues, and the interlocutor agrees, that these further premises
imply the contrary of the original thesis; in this case, it leads to: "courage is
not endurance of the soul".
 Socrates then claims that he has shown that his interlocutor's thesis is false
and that its negation is true.

(Vlastos, 1983).

One elenctic examination can lead to a new, more refined, examination of the
concept being considered, in this case it invites an examination of the claim:
"Courage is wise endurance of the soul". Most Socratic inquiries consist of a series
of elenchi and typically end in puzzlement known as aporia.

What Discussion Method Entails

Discussion methods are a variety of forums for open-ended, collaborative exchange

of ideas among a teacher and students or among students for the purpose of
furthering students thinking, learning, problem solving, understanding, or literary
appreciation. Participants present multiple points of view, respond to the ideas of
others, and reflect on their own ideas in an effort to build their knowledge,
understanding, or interpretation of the matter at hand.

The discussion groups may be in three forms, i.e., the whole class, small groups or
a panel discussion. The teacher should guide the students, ensuring that students

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speak only when allowed, they learn to respect the views of others and they avoid
personal or verbal attacks during and after discussions.

Discussions may occur among members of a dyad, small group, or whole class and
be teacher-led or student-led. They frequently involve discussion of a written text,
though discussion can also focus on a problem, issue, or topic that has its basis in a
“text” in the larger sense of the term (e.g., a discipline, the media, a societal norm).
Other terms for discussions used for pedagogical purposes are instructional
conversations (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988) and substantive conversations (Newmann,
1990).

A defining feature of discussion is that students have considerable agency in the

construction of knowledge, understanding, or interpretation. In other words, they
have considerable “interpretive authority” for evaluating the plausibility or validity of
participants responses.

Classroom discussions involve a free verbal interchange of ideas for all pupils as a
whole. Here the teacher is the leader who guides the discussion. Through
conducting the discussion process, ask questions and decides on who should
speak.

Steps of Discussion
1. Preparation:
To make discussion a success the teacher as well as the student must make
a careful preparation. The teacher should do in depth reading of the topic.
She should do critical reading, should understand the arguments well and
know the gist of the lesson.
2. Conducting Discussion:
In this stage the teacher initiates the discussion. He controls process and
keeps the students disciplined and keeps the discussion under control or on
the right tract.

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Characteristics of Group Discussions

Some of the salient features common to all group discussions are as follows:

i. Interface: A basic feature of group discussions is the interaction among the

various members of the group. They see, hear and communicate with each
other orally by paying attention to each other.
ii. Leader and Members: Group discussions are effective only when there is a
group of members and a leader. The leader has to summarize facts and
information, integrate them, stimulate thinking and agree to a unanimous
solution of the problem. The members of the group become actively related to
each other in their respective roles.
iii. Participation: The effectiveness and efficiency of a group discussion depend,
to a large extent, upon the active participation of the members.
iv. Interpersonal Attraction: Another characteristic feature of a group
discussion is interpersonal attraction. As long as interaction continues, the
likes, dislikes, behavior and temperament of members are known to each
other. Among them, empathy develops and as such they share each others
problems.
v. Pressure to Conform: In a group discussion, there is always an element of
pressure to conform to norms. The pre-defined and established standards are
always enforced and followed.

Examples of Where Discussion Method Are Suitable

This method can be suitably used in the first stage of child book child approach.
This is where the teacher asks about the assumed knowledge through reviewing
pupils' experiences .For example: Do you have friends? Why do you need friends
for? Do you sometimes quarrel with them? What do you do after have a quarrel with
a friend?.

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Discussion method can also be used:

 To elicit previous or prior knowledge of a topic from pupils

 When teachers needs to evaluate students’ progress.
 When there is the need to solve a problem, or do thinking and analytical
activity in the class.

Personal View of Discussion Method of Teaching

One of the most challenging teaching methods, leading discussions can also be one
of the most rewarding. Using discussions as a primary teaching method allows you
to stimulate critical thinking. As you establish a rapport with your students, you can
demonstrate that you appreciate their contributions at the same time that you
challenge them to think more deeply and to articulate their ideas more clearly.
Frequent questions, whether asked by you or by the students, provide a means of
measuring learning and exploring in-depth the key concepts of the course.

Also, small group discussion is better managed and gives room for everybody to
contribute than a whole class discussion. It encourages more pupils to give their
own views through open participation. Pupils are divided into small groups of
between four and eight and given questions or task to discuss and then report back.

Advantages of Discussion Method of Teaching

i. Emphasis on Learning instead of Teaching: Discussion Method

emphasises pupil-activity in the form of discussion, rather than simply
telling and lecturing by the teacher. Thus, this method is more effective.
ii. Participation by Everybody; In this method, everybody participates in the
discussion, and therefore thinks and expresses himself. This is a sure way
of learning.
iii. Development of Democratic way of Thinking: Everybody cooperates in the
discussion, and the ideas and opinions of everybody are respected. Thus,

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there is a development of democratic way of thinking and arriving at
decision.
iv. Training in Reflective Thinking; Students, during the course of discussion,
get training in reflective thinking, which leads to deeper understanding of
the historical problem under discussion.
v. Training in Self-expression: During discussion, everybody is required to
express his ideas and opinions in a clear and concise manner. This
provides ample opportunities to the students for training in self-expression.
vi. Spirit of Tolerance is inculcated: The students learn to discuss and differ
with other members of the group. They learn to tolerate the views of others
even if they are unpleasant and contradictory to each others' views. Thus,
respect for the view points of others is developed.
vii. Learning is made Interesting: History is considered to be a dry subject.
The learning of history is made interesting through Discussion Method.
More effective learning is possible when the students discuss, criticise and
share ideas on a particular problem. Active participation by the students in
the discussion makes learning full of interest for the students. This also
ensures better and effective learning.

Disadvantages of Discussion Method of Teaching

i. All types of topics cannot be taught by Discussion Method.

ii. This method cannot be used for teaching small children.
iii. The students may not follow the rules of discussion.
iv. Some students may not take part while others may try to dominate.
v. The teacher may not be able to guide and provide true leadership in the
discussion.

In spite of these limitations, discussion method is a very useful and effective method
for the teaching of History.

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Conclusion

The discussion method demands that students come to class well prepared.
Compelling them to think out their arguments in advance and to answer their peers’
questions and counter-arguments, it sharpens their powers of reason, analysis, and
articulation. It thus provides them with fundamental skills necessary for success in
any discipline or profession.

Group discussions are a very important aspect of group communication. Group

discussions are a creative and dynamic activity which stimulates reflective thinking
among the members. Group discussions may be defined as an activity in which a
small number of persons meet face to face and exchange and share ideas freely or
attempt to reach a decision on a common issue.

Group discussions are unstructured and less formal compared to meetings or

conferences wherein specific roles are assigned to the participants. In a group
discussion, an individual's thought process is influenced by the views and opinions
of the other members. It also depends on where and in which direction the mood of
the discussion moves. In a group discussion, each participant is free to speak his
views. A successful discussion involves both listening and speaking

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Folklore Method of Teaching

Folklore is the expressive body of culture shared by a particular group of people; it

encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These
include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes. They include material
culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the
group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations
such as Christmas and weddings, folk dances and initiation rites. Each one of these,
either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as
the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one
region to another or from one generation to the next. For folklore is not taught in a
formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are
passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal
instruction or demonstration (Wikipedia, 2017)

Origin/Proponent of Folklore in Teaching

The best known researchers of the field of using folklore to teach children were
Peter and Iona Opie. Iona Margaret Balfour Opie, and Peter Mason Opie were a
married team of folklorists, who applied modern techniques to children's literature,
summarised in their studies The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (1951) and
The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren (1959). They were also noted
anthologists, and assembled large collections of children's literature, toys, and
games.

Opie and Opie demonstrate that the culture of children is quite distinctive and is as
unnoticed by the sophisticated world, and quite as little affected by it. (Tucker,
2008). Opie stated that the words of one game (Buck buck) had survived from the
time of Nero. The conservatism of childlore contrasts with the way adult folklore is
rapidly modified to fit changing circumstances.

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The couple met during World War II and married on 2 September 1943. They
worked together closely, from their home near Farnham, Surrey, conducting primary
fieldwork, as well as library research, and interviewing thousands of children. In
pursuing the folklore of contemporary childhood they directly recorded rhymes and
games as they were currently being played. They collaborated on several celebrated
books and, combined, produced over 30 works. They worked in their home in Alton,
Hampshire. The couple were jointly awarded the Coote Lake Medal in 1960. The
medal is awarded by The Folklore Society "for outstanding research and scholarship
(Bishop, 2013).

What Folklore Teaching Method Entails

Folklore as a teaching method includes the use of rhymes and games played in the
school playground. The subject matter of folklore includes the traditions of children
between the ages of about 6 and 15 such as games, riddles, rhymes, jokes, pranks,
superstitions, magical practices, wit, lyrics, guile, epithets, nicknames, torments,
parody, oral legislation, seasonal customs, tortures, obscenities, codes, etc. as well
as individual activities such as solitary play, daydreaming, fantasies, imaginary
companions and heroes, collections, scrapbooks, model worlds, comic reading,
mass media interests, dramatizations, stories, art, etc. (Tucker, 2008)

As a branch of folklore, childlore is concerned with those activities which are learned
and passed on by children to other children. The stories and games taught by adults
to children are not considered childlore except insofar as the children adapt and
make them their own. In western culture most folklorists are concerned with children
after they join their peers in elementary school or kindergarten. The traditions of
childhood generally stop after the child enters intermediate school, which coincides
with puberty and adolescence.

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Advantages using Folklore as a Method of Teaching

Telling folklore is innate in the human being. Nevertheless, what makes the
difference is the way and the resources that a person uses in order to achieve a
meaningful teaching-learning process. The use gestures and changes in voice can
be applied to engage students in the story and make them feel part of it. In this way,
children are introduced in new expressions, contents and vocabulary that must be
supported by scaffolding given by the teacher. In this case, the use of realia could
be a very powerful tool to introduce the vocabulary and make understanding easier.
Therefore, using folklore is an excellent way to initiate a new topic in a very original
way.

Another important aspect about folklore is its versatility to teach lots of different
contents: science, music, history, geography, English and even values. Furthermore,
folklore is full of stories with many morals that remain in our minds. Taking this into
account, it is fair to say that folklore is not limited only to children, but something that
accompanies us along our lives and leaves a mark on us that we cannot forget.

Disadvantages of using Folklore as a Method of Teaching

There are two main challenges to retelling folklore, myths and legends for children:
making the story suitable and fun for the child audience (listeners or readers), and
being as faithful and sensitive as possible to the original story.

First of all, as the first disadvantage using folklore method of teaching is that some
children do not see the relationship between what the teacher is narrating and the
content taught. That is why this tool must be followed by a cognitive process in
which the teacher asks them to reflect about it. By doing this, students will be aware
about the importance of folklore with an educational purpose.

Another weak point is the difficulty of creating and telling a good story successfully.
As the title says, this is an art, and all artists need practice in order to improve their

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works of art. A good teacher needs to practice a lot their gestures and expressions,
and he or she is expected to be creative in order to make new challenging and
innovating stories for their students. Thus, if a teacher would like to employ this in
his/her teaching, he/she must be prepared to improve day by day. This means that
he/she has to use different resources in order to engage pupils in the fol. Folklore.
Otherwise, children could feel bored if the teacher is monotonous and do not allow
them being part of it.

Examples of Where Folklore Method are used

- Folklore is necessary in the teaching of language and literature

- Folklore shared during work and leisure time and in school can be used to
introduce topics in civics, literature, government etc.
- Folklore materials and resources which are closely related to the interests and
experiences of students can be used in illustrating concepts

Personal View on Folklore Method of Teaching

Connecting with students and activating background knowledge about their origin
are both important components of teaching students. One way teachers can connect
with students is by understanding the cultural knowledge they bring with them into
your classroom, including the stories, proverbs, and legends they have learnt. By
using the folklore stories that students know, teachers can incorporate that
knowledge into their lessons. Also, sharing of folklore is also important as it
increases knowledge and appreciation of other cultures.

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References

Allen, D., O’Connell, R., Percha, B., Erickson, B., Nord, B., Harper, D., Bialek, J., &
Nam E. (2009). University of Michigan Physics Department: GSI training
course. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Physics Department.

Bishop, J. C. (2013). The Working Papers of Iona and Peter Opie. Oral Tradition, 28
(2), p. 205-216

Brookfield, S. D. and Stephen P. (2005). Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools

and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.

Kofo. A. A., (2012). Laboratories and Sustainable Teaching and Learning About
Senior Secondary School (SSS) Geography. Nigeria Journal of Educational
and Social Research 2 (4), 99-121

McLeod, S. A. (2015). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.

org/piaget.html

Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York,
NY: International University Press.

Tucker, E. (2008). Children's Folklore : A handbook. Westport, CT: Greenwood

Press.

Vlastos, G. (1983). The Socratic Elenchus. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy I,

27–58

Wikipedia (2018). Folklore. Online retrieved @https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore

09/01/2018

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