Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0001
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DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0001
Pricing, Online
Marketing Behavior,
and Analytics
Giampaolo Viglia
Research Fellow, University of Eastern Piedmont, Italy

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0001
pricing, online marketing behavior, and analytics
Copyright © Giampaolo Viglia, 2014.
Foreword © Aurelio G. Mauri, 2014.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2014
All rights reserved.
First published in 2014 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN®
in the United States—a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC,
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.
Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world,
this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke,
Hampshire RG21 6XS.
Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies
and has companies and representatives throughout the world.
Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN: 978–1–137–41327–7 EPUB
ISBN: 978–1–137–41326–0 PDF
ISBN 978-1-349-48988-6 ISBN 978-1-137-41326-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-137-41326-0
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the
Library of Congress.
A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library.
First edition: 2014
www.palgrave.com/pivot
Contents
List of Illustrations vi
Foreword by Aurelio G. Mauri vii
Acknowledgments xiii

Introduction 1
1 Definition of Online Marketing 4
2 Online Marketing Communication
Channels 23
3 Online Marketing Metrics and Analytics 39
4 Online Pricing 48
5 A Peculiar Type of Revenue Management:
Overbooking 68
6 Case Study: Applications for the Hotel
Industry 76
Conclusions 87

References 90
Index 101

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0001 v
List of Illustrations
Tables
1.1 Comparison of traditional and online
marketing 8
1.2 Five-step consumer buying decision model 15
4.1 Matching buyers and sellers as a function
of the market 49
4.2 Types of promotions and different roles 52
5.1 Reservation rights and cancellation rights 70

Figures
4.1 Prospect theory function 60
4.2 Decision weights 61
4.3 Prelec’s curvatures 63
5.1 Overbooking problems 71
6.1 Main online marketing channels used
by hotels 83

vi DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0002
Foreword: Marketing
and Pricing in the
Digital Environment
Aurelio G. Mauri

During the last years radical changes in the global

economy have dramatically affected business strategies
and transformed the habits of customers and firms and
the ways they interact. The nature of competition and
the forms of organizing and managing corporations, as
well as consumer behaviors, have all been significantly
modified. Furthermore, as observed by Philip Kotler
(2000), change is occurring at an accelerating rate.
Globalization, technological advances, and deregulation
are the three fundamental drivers of this rapid and sig-
nificant evolution.
The present book, written by Giampaolo Viglia, deals
with the impact that new information and communica-
tions technologies (ICTs) have on marketing strategies
and tactics. The author gives special attention to the new
marketing and communicative tools that can be used to
interact with customers, and then on pricing issues and
revenue management techniques. Writing the foreward
for this book, fruit of the research work of the author
within Italian and Spanish universities, is an appreci-
ated opportunity for me to remark on some particular
considerations.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0003 vii

viii Foreword

The impact of new ICT technologies

ICT developments and the widespread use of the Internet play a central
role in the new economics of today. The Internet is an effective, efficient,
and ubiquitous information platform that allows both firms and custom-
ers to reduce costs for information seeking (Sharma & Sheth, 2004). As
a matter of fact, a substantial effect of the Internet is a strong reduction
in the costs of information. In consequence of recent progress in mobile
technology and of the fast proliferation of portable devices, the mobile
channel has also arisen as a powerful tool for marketing activities.
The expansion of the digital environment, as noted by Teece (2010),
“require[s] businesses to re-evaluate the value propositions they present
to customers” and “the supply side driven logic of the industrial era
has become no longer viable.” In fact, as indicated by Vargo and Lusch
(2004), the business orientation has shifted from tangibles toward intan-
gibles, such as skills, information, and knowledge, and toward interac-
tivity and connectivity as well as relationships with the co-creation of
value. Moreover, the Internet has permitted the entry into the market of
new players and the use of new distribution channels. In addition, the
Internet offers firms an important opportunity to enlarge their market
base by selling products online. More generally, it is now possible to
enrich the products/markets combinations fulfilled by a company.
The role of computing advances in the economic area and their
implications for business management and marketing have inspired
many publications on the topic, written both by academics and by prac-
titioners. The terms (or labels) used by the numerous authors are varied:
digital marketing, e-marketing, Internet marketing, online marketing,
web marketing, and so forth (Chaffey et al., 2006). Often the choice of a
specific term is influenced by the focus on specific channels and devices
as well as by the emphasis on tactical and technical issues (Merisavo,
2005).

Digital marketing and consumer behavior

Marketing activities belonging in distribution, transaction, and commu-
nication contexts are greatly affected by the digital revolution (Peterson
et al., 1997; Kiang et al., 2000). Digital marketing is based on and takes
advantage of the use of new technologies to collect, manage, elaborate,

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0003
Foreword ix

and provide information so as to communicate with customers and to

conduct economic transactions. Also, marketing metrics for business
performance control can be more insightful and efficient than in the past
because of these new technologies.
The digital framework influences management and marketing at
cultural, strategic, and tactical levels. More widely, the focus has moved
from the producer to the consumer (taking shape as a customer-centric
perspective). Electronic marketplaces support product and communica-
tion personalization/customization. Variegated customer needs can be
fulfilled more easily and less expensively thanks to the lower cost provi-
sion of information and customer solutions. As a consequence, custom-
ers have more numerous and specific product and brand choices, and
the competing alternatives for supply are more transparent. In addition,
the birth of meta-search websites has made it easier for clients to make
comparisons among many different offers. Customer behaviors have
changed. The web has radically changed the manner in which people
research information, communicate, make decisions, and especially the
way they purchase goods and services. In particular, tourism products
have become one of the most suitable product categories for sale through
this digital channel (O’Connor, 2002).
Distribution issues are greatly affected by new technologies, with the
affirmation of multi-channel distribution and the phenomena of disin-
termediation and reintermediation. Thus, the study of how consumers
consider and choose online versus offline channels becomes crucial
across all the successive stages of the buying process, as well as how these
decisions are affected by the consumer’s previous experience. In many
sectors (e.g., tourism) the multi-channel sales approach makes manag-
ing pricing policies more complex. In fact, the so-called “price parity”
among different distribution channels has become a key concern for
managers. Consequently, conflicts among different channels may arise.
New technologies have also deeply impacted corporate commu-
nications. In order to face and manage the variety of media tools and
techniques, integration has become a key concern. Integrated marketing
communications is a comprehensive approach addressed to ensure stra-
tegic and creative integrity across all media (Linton & Morley, 1995).
Furthermore, the Internet is not a means employed only by firms and
organizations, but it is used more and more by individuals in order to
make their personal thoughts, product evaluations, and opinions easily
available to the global community of Internet users. Word-of-mouth,

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0003
x Foreword

an ancient modus operandi within human society, has been further

emphasized and boosted by new technologies. Online feedback mecha-
nisms and customer reviews have a deep impact on customer purchase
intentions (Mauri & Minazzi, 2013).

Pricing and revenue management

In the digital environment price has acquired a special and more
important role. New technologies offer new effective managerial
instruments for pricing policies but also make pricing more difficult
and complex to manage. Throughout most of history, prices were set
by negotiation between buyers and sellers (so-called bargaining). But
now, in contrast, setting one price for all buyers is the norm, a rela-
tively new idea developed with mass production and modern retailing.
However, recently the web has been reversing the policy of fixed pric-
ing (“one price for all”). New technological equipment has offered to
online sellers an unprecedented chance to track and analyze customer
behavior and to obtain valuable information about customers’ prefer-
ences (the possibility of customizing products) and greater knowledge
about their price sensitivity and their willingness-to-pay (Hinz et al.,
2011). As a result, differential pricing, or price discrimination, has been
employed. It is a powerful tool that permits sellers to improve their
profits and reduces the consumer surplus held by buyers. Furthermore,
price discrimination enables sellers to supply buyers that would other-
wise be priced out of the market, an outcome that augments economic
efficiency (Bakos, 1998). It is also simpler to monitor and deal with
competitors’ prices by operating dynamically (dynamic pricing). Price
changes are easier, almost inexpensive, and potentially more effective
with dynamic pricing. New technology has made dynamic pricing not
only widely possible but also commercially feasible and more profit-
able (Elmaghraby & Keskinocak, 2002). Furthermore, it allows special
attention to be given to the various psychological dimensions of price
and their impacts on perceived value, fairness, and brand loyalty
(Grewal et al., 2003).
In the last decades revenue management has emerged as a chief topic
in various service industries, especially in tourism businesses. Concisely,
revenue management can be delineated as a collection of coordinated
techniques and business practices utilized for increasing profitability,

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0003
Foreword xi

both by differentiating prices and by managing capacity allocation

(Mauri, 2012). Revenue management is applicable to any business that
has a relatively fixed capacity of perishable inventory with differentiated
demand, has a high fixed-costs structure, and involves varying customer
price sensitivity. Revenue management exploits differences in purchas-
ing behaviors by diverse market segments. Consequently, pricing and
capacity allocation to various market portions are key levers. These are
topics that are constantly evolving with the development of the Internet
and of the continuing progress of the information and communications
technologies. Although the profitability results of revenue management
techniques appear evident, the integration between revenue manage-
ment and customer relationship management is more complex and is
becoming a crucial concern from a long-term view.

References

Bakos, Y. (1998) “The emerging role of electronic marketplaces on the

Internet,” Communications of the ACM, 41(8), pp. 35–42.
Chaffey, D., Mayer, R., Johnson, K., and Ellis-Chadwick, F. (2006)
Internet Marketing: Strategy, Implementation and Practice (3rd ed.),
Harlow: Financial Times/Prentice Hall.
Dellarocas, C. (2003) “The digitization of word of mouth: promise and
challenges of online feedback mechanisms,” Management Science,
49(10), pp. 1401–1424.
Elmaghraby, W., and Keskinocak, P. (2003) “Dynamic pricing in the
presence of inventory considerations: Research overview, current
practices, and future directions,” Management Science, 49(10), pp.
1287–1309.
Frambach, R.T., Roest, H.C.A., and Krishnan, T.V. (2007) “The impact
of consumer Internet experience on channel preference and usage
intentions across the different stages of the buying process,” Journal of
Interactive Marketing, 21(2), pp. 26–l41.
Grewal, D., Iyer, G.R., Krishnan, R., and Sharma, A. (2003) “The
Internet and the price–value–loyalty chain,” Journal of Business
Research, 56(5), pp. 391–398.
Hinz, O., Hann, I., and Spann, M. (2011) “Price discrimination in
e-commerce? An examination of dynamic pricing in name-your-
own-price markets,” MIS Quarterly, 35(1), pp. 81–98.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0003
xii Foreword

Kiang, M.Y., Raghu, T.S., and Huei-Min Shang, K. (2000) “Marketing

on the Internet—Who can benefit from an online marketing
approach?” Decision Support Systems, 27(4), pp. 383–393.
Kotler, P. (2000) Marketing Management, Millenium Edition (10th ed.),
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Linton, I., and Morley, K. (1995) Integrated Marketing Communications,
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Mauri, A.G. (2012) Hotel Revenue Management. Principles and Practices,
Milano: Pearson.
Mauri, A.G., and Minazzi, R. (2013) “Web reviews influence on
expectations and purchasing intentions of hotel potential customers,”
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34(4), pp. 99–107.
Merisavo, M. (2005) “The effects of digital marketing on customer
relationships.” in Saarinen, T., Tinnilä, M., & Tseng, A. (eds),
Managing Business in a Multi-Channel World: Success Factors for
E-Business (pp. 89–104). Hershey: Idea Group Publishing.
O’Connor, P. (2002) “An empirical analysis of hotel chain online pricing
strategies,” Information Technology and Tourism, 5(2), 65–72.
Peterson, R.A., Balasubramanian, S., and Bronnenberg, B.J. (1997)
“Exploring the implications of the internet for consumer marketing,”
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 25, 329–346.
Sharma, A., and Sheth, J.N. (2004) “Web-based marketing. The coming
revolution in marketing thought and strategy”, Journal of Business
Research, 57, pp. 696–702.
Teece, D.J. (2010) “Business models, business strategy and innovation,”
Long Range Planning, 43(2), pp. 172–194.
Vargo, S.L., and Lusch, R.F. (2004) “Evolving to a new dominant logic
for marketing,” Journal of Marketing, 68(1), pp. 1–17.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0003
Acknowledgments
A team of passionate people helped me to produce this
book by offering me updated material and giving their
precious feedback.
Aurelio Mauri, Associate Professor at IULM University
(Milan) gave me great insights on the more rigorous
academic part. His genuine piece of advice was constant
throughout the development of this work.
If this book can push the boundaries of a strictly
academic audience the merit is of Maria Manolioudi,
Marketing Associate at Vista Print and Farhan Malik, an
experienced hospitality manager who patiently guided me
through the latest communication channels (Chapter 2)
and the application of theory to the hotel industry
(Chapter 6), respectively. Without their contribution I
could never have used this applied lens alone.
The anonymous reviewers of a first draft of the book
were constructive and generous with their proactive ideas
to improve the quality of the manuscript.
Roberta Minazzi, Assistant Professor at University
of Insubria, wrote an interesting section on the effect of
reviews on consumer preferences within the framework of
social media (Section 2.5.1).
Lilija Spiglazovaite (Msc) and Sara Karimi Davar (Msc)
provided research assistance and helpful comments.
Leila Campoli and Sarah Lawrence, Associate Editor and
Editorial Assistant of Palgrave Macmillan, respectively,
showed understanding and offered me flexibility during
the whole process.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0004 xiii

xiv Acknowledgments

Other people, David Morris Hamilton-Ely, Stefanie Guillard and

Francesc Tribò, assisted me with proofreading and organizational issues.
Last but not least, my family tolerated the unpredictability of a typical
academic life.
I’m endlessly grateful to you all.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0004
Introduction
Viglia, Giampaolo. Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior,
and Analytics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
doi: 10.1057/9781137413260.0005.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0005 
 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

Online marketing is a necessity in today’s competitive environment. It

has played a central role during the last decade in changing how the
customer relates to business and vice versa. The goal for the present and
the future for online marketers is to know how to make your presence
known, not simply to be online.
Marketing practices have dramatically shifted with the sudden growth
of social media and the proliferation of devices, platforms, and applica-
tions. This rapidly changing environment presents new opportunities
and challenges for marketers. Marketers need to stay up to date on the
evolution of e-marketing. Undoubtedly, online marketing is in full swing,
and more is yet to come. This book aims to be a useful tool for research-
ers, practitioners, business students, or anyone who has a keen interest in
online marketing specifically—not just general marketing. A background
in business, advertising, or marketing is required to get the most of the
content as it is based on marketing and economic theories, frameworks,
practices, and pricing strategies. Having said that, the material in this
text is targeted toward an academic audience. The aim of the author is
to instruct the reader in the theories and practices of online marketing;
the characteristics, consumer behavior, differences between platforms,
analytics, and pricing strategies of new media will be explored in depth.
This book covers many different aspects of how online marketing
works, its tools and its continuous evolution. The case studies and exam-
ples are used to illustrate the theory and explain the characteristics of
the elements in a practical way. There is a supportive literature review
to highlight what was previously done. Throughout the book, the use of
mathematics is narrow. Only Chapter 5, which analyzes the overbooking
practice in an analytical way, requires a working knowledge of math-
ematical functions and basic statistics.
We introduce online marketing in the first chapter, its history and
evolution as well as its characteristics. Also, we make a comparison
between online and traditional marketing, and we present the different
product categories and the profile of the online consumer in view of the
factors that make him or her buy. Targeted marketing gives a significant
competitive advantage, so companies struggle to segment and create the
right profiles of their customers. Accordingly, we present metrics and
analytics in the third chapter to help companies understand their audi-
ence and thus create successful campaigns.
The second chapter focuses on the communication channels that
span from online display to mobile and affiliate marketing, and older

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0005
Introduction 

ones such as e-mail and social media marketing. Using new tools and
techniques, users will be better able to maximize profits and optimize
their online presence.
The third chapter presents web metrics and analytics and discusses
how they can improve marketing performance. There is also an inter-
esting digression on the role of ethics and security for consumers when
paying online. This last topic is gaining importance due to the increase
of online fraud.
The fourth chapter focuses on revenue management theories and
strategies, including reference and dynamic pricing, giving a clear view
of the economic aspects of online marketing and helping the reader
understand what is behind the online marketing process.
In the last two chapters we present applications: Chapter 5 formally
presents the advantages and risks of overbooking, a revenue manage-
ment technique, while Chapter 6 discusses a case study of the hotel
industry with specific examples of the explained terms and information
in the previous chapters. The hotel industry has witnessed a significant
impact by Internet marketing, and, as a result, a breakthrough in tourism
has occurred. The majority of the customers these days do not search
for hotels in yellow pages or call to book rooms, but instead they book
directly via the Internet or through a global distribution system of travel
agents. Traditional methods of cold calling and making appointments
to increase hotel bookings still work, but hotels need to have a virtual
presence, as explained in the Chapter 6.
This book, balanced between a consumer and a professional lens, tries
to fill all these gaps and give the necessary insights on online marketing
and its future evolution.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0005
1
Definition of Online
Marketing
Abstract: Starting with an introduction on the relevance
of online marketing today, Chapter 1 defines the product
categories and classifications generally used in the market.
To support the argument, a literature review of the
different key concepts, such as experience, search, and
utilitarian and hedonic products, is provided. The goal is
to re-discuss the entire subject of traditional marketing in
light of the new features in online marketing, clarifying in
the process how online marketing remains a complement
to, not a substitute for, traditional marketing. Finally, the
chapter investigates the drivers of consumer segmentation.
The different segments are discussed in detail, highlighting
their peculiarities. In particular, a great deal of attention is
devoted to the demographic characteristics of the Internet
shopper.

Viglia, Giampaolo. Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior,

and Analytics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
doi: 10.1057/9781137413260.0006.

 DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0006
Definition of Online Marketing 

1.1 What is online marketing?

The telephone took four decades to reach 50 million people.
Comparatively, the Internet has managed to invade millions of house-
holds within just a few years (Gay et al., 2007). The speed and the dif-
fusion of the Internet along with its low cost make it a powerful tool in
marketers’ hands.
It was 1990 when Tim Berners-Lee created the first World Wide Web
server and browser, and 1991 when it opened for commercial use. In
1994 e-commerce burst onto the scene with the creation of secure online
banking and the convenient opening of an online pizza shop by Pizza
Hut. During that same year, Netscape introduced SSL encryption of data
transferred online, which has become essential for secure online shop-
ping. Also in 1994 the German company Intershop introduced its first
online shopping system. In 1995 Amazon launched its online shopping
site, and in 1996 eBay appeared.
Nowadays the online shopping market grew 10 and 11 per year
in the United States and Western Europe, respectively, and researchers
forecast that online sales will continue to grow at that rate through the
next decades (Sehgal, 2010). This growth is not surprising given the
many advantages that online shopping offers to consumers: apparent
privacy, low search cost, time saving, full product information, and no
time restriction on shopping hours. Certainly Internet shopping is more
convenient than in-store shopping for specific products.
With approximately 2.3 billion users accessing the World Wide Web in
2012 for search purposes it is imperative to understand the dynamics of
online marketing. Just a few years after its massive diffusion, electronic
communication by way of the Internet has become an integral part of
our day-to-day life. We usually start and finish our day by checking our
e-mails and are accustomed to communicating rapidly with other people
around the word. No one could have imagined this even a decade or so
ago.
Social networks have increased and expanded swiftly. Communicating,
posting, exchanging ideas, advertising, finding information, and mak-
ing transactions are just some of the activities of Internet users. As for
online shopping, search engine tools allow people to quickly find almost
anything they need or desire from among the millions of services and
goods available. Plus, they can easily stay informed about online orders,
technical features, recommendations, prices, and online stores.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0006
 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

Moreover, starting from the end of 1990s, the impact of new informa-
tion and communications technology (ICT) tools and techniques has
significantly affected the way firms and institutions approach and com-
municate with their stakeholders. This phenomenon has led to a wide
stream of studies developed both by academics and practitioners. While
many studies have focused on specific tools and their employment, oth-
ers have addressed changes in the marketing concept itself, highlighting
the strength of the Internet-fostered connection between firms and
consumers. As we will briefly discuss, this connection is a new aspect of
the already established relational marketing.
The widespread use of the Internet has enabled greater convenience
and flexibility. Customers can shop when they want, at any hour of
the day or night, shifting power away from brick-and-mortar retailers.
Digital technologies also provide mobile convenience for consumers
and for businesses with Wi-Fi. It should be emphasized that the “new”
consumers who focus on online shopping value their time a lot, know
what they want, and do the research necessary before purchasing in
order to avoid being disappointed or exploited. The Internet offers the
flexibility they like, increasing the level of competition for sellers, as
there are no physical boundaries in online shopping. Furthermore, the
Internet provides a new transparency regarding price, promotions and
new products.
We can say that online or Internet marketing refers to marketing
practices that use the web to drive sales and enhance brand awareness.
Mohammed et al. (2001) provided a more formal definition: “the proc-
ess of building and maintaining customer relationships through online
activities to facilitate the exchange of ideas, product and services that
satisfy the goals of both parties.” Online marketing works in conjunc-
tion with traditional types of outbound marketing such as advertising
on television and sponsorship. There are different types of online
marketing depending on the channel: e-mail marketing, social media
marketing, mobile marketing, and so forth. Different terms are used
for the overall subject of online or Internet marketing—digital mar-
keting, web marketing and e-marketing—but these are all essentially
synonyms.
As mentioned earlier, the new ICT technologies have significantly
impacted many aspects of marketing strategies and tactics, revealing
new patterns, models, and habits of consumer behavior. We will focus
particularly on two topics:

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0006
Definition of Online Marketing 

 Product categories and their classifications in relation to different

consumer uses and behavior.
 Description of online consumer behavior.

This chapter will address the role of online marketing compared with
traditional marketing, then the type of product categories available
online that consumers have been shown to value most (Beatty & Smith,
1987), and finally online behavior as viewed from a consumer lens.

1.2 Traditional versus online marketing

It has been said that the advent of online marketing has undermined
the role of traditional marketing, but the correctness of this statement
depends on the type of industry and the practices used. In this work,
we aim to clarify, as well developed by Kotler and Keller (2011), how
online marketing is a complement and not a substitute for traditional
marketing—and that, as a consequence, the theories, frameworks, and
notions of marketing in general remain almost unaltered.
The new digital marketplace has exacerbated the fluidity of the mar-
keting environment. Although online marketing bases its foundation on
traditional marketing techniques, it can be more precisely considered
as its evolution—but not one that makes traditional marketing extinct.
The two types of marketing, traditional and online, are best integrated
in order to achieve the most success. Thus a marketer should decide in
the case of each product or service whether to launch a mix of online
and traditional marketing practices or to offer them singly through one
or the other venue. For example, a possible danger of using only online
marketing would be losing the loyalty of pre-existing customers of tra-
ditional marketing. A new area of research conducted by Gummesson
and Gronroos (2012) highlights how relationship marketing is relevant
to retain both traditional and online customers and prevent customer
dissatisfaction in both.
Table 1.1 lists some of the differences between traditional and online
marketing to serve as a basis for discussing the characteristics of some
specific strategies. Though the categories are not exhaustive, they are
those most indicative for comparison.
However, the Internet has additional characteristics that make market-
ing different from the traditional approach: (1) the ability to inexpensively

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0006
 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

table 1.1 Comparison of traditional and online marketing

Traditional marketing Online marketing

Field sales staff Computer sales staff

Ads in newspapers of local and other Ads in online versions of domestic and
cities in same country foreign newspapers
Physical banners in various locales Banners in websites to attract target market
Local TV/cable ads Ads in online streaming websites (use of geo
targeting)
Telemarketing from Yellow Pages Mass e-mailing using e-mail auto software
Direct mail to target market E-mailing target market by buying e-mail
database
Promotions by postal mail or Using websites to sell products
telephone
Press conferences Updating website with press releases
Static pricing Dynamic pricing and revenue management

store vast amounts of information at different virtual locations, (2) the

ability to provide information on demand, and (3) relatively low entry
and establishment costs for sellers.
Online marketing created a new set of rules for marketing in general
by offering greater transparency, more consumer power and choice,
and added cost efficiencies. Established businesses have had to adjust to
these changes as they have been forced into a high level of online com-
mitment in order to compete. In every case, marketers have to focus on
the consumer and what is important to him or her. Even when consumer
appears only as customer reference numbers or as codes on the dataset,
successful businesses try their utmost to keep close communication with
them by the most appropriate means. Technology plays a crucial role
here. Merging technology and marketing competencies is desirable to
classify consumers and keep track of them. “Technology” in this context
means the adoption and use of digital technologies across internal and
external business functions and processes.
After the initial explosion of the Internet era has come a phase of
maturity in which marketers are aware of the benefits of technology but
often don’t have the vision or technological understanding to optimize
and integrate the Internet’s potential. In the future this integration will
be necessary in order to meet the overall goal of keeping the old tradi-
tional models updated on the changing business and social environment
brought about by the new online world.

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1.3 Product categories in online marketing

Previous research suggests that the type of merchandise purchased has
a significant influence on shopping preferences (Korgaonkar, Silverblatt,
& Girard, 2006; Eastlick & Feinberg, 1999; Akaah & Korgaonkar, 1988).
What is more, product type affects consumer attitude toward shopping
online (Bhatnagar et al., 2000; Liao & Cheung, 2001; Peterson et al.,
1997). Following is a discussion of three product types—search products,
experience products, and credence products—as regards three criteria:
(1) important features of the product; (2) affective or cognitive outcome
from the product; and (3) price, frequency of purchase, and tangible
versus intangible condition of the product.

1.3.1 Product classification based on important features

of the product
Our first categorization is based on the study by Korgaonkar et al. (2006)
on online retailing, product classification, and consumer preferences. This
study tested whether consumer online shopping preferences differ based
on the product type irrespective of online retail store type. It pointed
out that by analyzing the differences between product categories we can
better understand how consumers make their purchase decisions in the
online context. Also, some traditional product classification schemes
can be useful to comprehend online purchase behavior. One of the most
helpful product classifications is that based on the work of Klein (1998),
who categorizes products as search, experience and credence products, a
scheme that we use in this discussion.
This product alignment takes into account product characteristics
that influence consumers in the purchase decision-making process.
The implication here is that marketers and e-retailors can adapt the way
they give relevant information to their customers to enhance sales. The
search, experience, and credence product classification system has been
used as an accurate approach to evaluating consumer behavior in many
areas related to marketing, psychology, and sales. The key features of
these three product groups are as follows:

1. Search products
Search products are those with features and characteristics that allow full
and satisfactory information to be easily obtained by consumers without

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using or touching the product before purchase. Examples of products

belonging to this category are tools, such as a camera, for which the
consumer knows the quality and value before consumption.

2. Experience products:
In contrast with search products, experience products are those that
cannot be fully evaluated before consumption or use. Korgaonkar et al.
(2006) suggest two subgroups in the experience products category based
on the aforementioned Klein’s (1998) work: first, products for which full
information on important features cannot be obtained without actual
personal experience; and, second, products for which obtaining full
information on important features by searching would be more costly or
difficult than acquiring actual product experience. A bottle of wine is a
classical example of an experience product.

3. Credence products:
Finally, credence products, also called post-experience goods, are those that
are difficult to evaluate not only before but even after initial consumption
or use. This issue increases the uncertainty for consumers and their need
for third-party information. The usefulness of this classification has been
recently validated by Girard and Dion (2010). Vitamins are an example
of a product belonging to this category.
It is important to remark that in the online shopping context consumers
do not behave in the same manner when they buy products of different
categories (search, experience, credence) due to the product perceived
risk, price levels, and replacement rate associated with each category.

1.3.2 Product classification based on affective or cognitive

outcome from products
Another useful product classification system is based on affective or
cognitive outcome. Such outcomes have either hedonic (affective) or
utilitarian (cognitive) value to the consumer, distinguished from one
another as follows (Dhar & Wertenbroch, 2000):
 Hedonic products: Consumption is primarily characterized by an
affective and sensory experience of aesthetic or sensual pleasure.
 Utilitarian products: Consumption is more cognitively driven and
accomplishes a functional or practical task.
Hedonic shopping value reflects the outcome of the multisensory, fan-
tasy, and emotive aspects of the shopping experience, whereas utilitarian
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shopping value—resulting from the acquisition of products and/or

information in an efficient manner—reflects a task-oriented, cognitive,
non emotional outcome of shopping (Babin et al., 1994; Holbrook &
Hirschman, 1982). Put another way, utilitarian shopping reflects the
task-related value of a shopping experience; hedonic shopping reflects
the value found in the shopping experience itself, independent of task-
related activities (Babin & Attaway, 2000).
The relative importance of information sources is greater for utilitarian
products than for hedonic products in the online context. Hedonic prod-
ucts offer experiential enjoyment while utilitarian products give practi-
cal and functional benefits. Consumers are typically less certain about
hedonic products’ evaluation than about utilitarian products’ evaluation
solely on the basis of online descriptions. The explanation for this argu-
ment is that when consumers buy online, they cannot touch, feel, smell,
or try the product, so they cannot use their senses. As a consequence, if
they are buying hedonic products, such as flowers, consumers will not
make their decisions based on the information they can get through
Internet; rather, they will prefer to go to a physical store to assess and try
the product before the purchase (Cheema & Papatla, 2009).
Contrarely, when customers are searching for information to buy an
utilitarian product, such as a microwave, they can get all information they
need to take a decision, in this way saving cost, time, and effort through the
Internet. They can also read reviews from other customers that make online
information more valuable than information from the offline channel.

1.3.3 Product classification based on price, frequency of

purchase, and tangible or intangible condition
A third taxonomy, proposed by Peterson et al. (1997), suggested that in
the context of the Internet, a more relevant classification system is neces-
sary for classifying products online. Based on the special characteristics
of the Internet, this study proposed a classification system designed
especially for online products and services.
Below we analyze, based on previous literature, three product char-
acteristics: price, frequency of purchase, and tangible or intangible
condition. And, as with the previous product classification, we offer
examples of each category. In a study conducted by Jiunn-Woei and Tzu-
Ming (2007), “books” are used as an example of tangible, low-outlay,
frequently purchased goods. “Online news and magazines” are used to
represent intangible, low-outlay, frequently purchased goods. “TV gam-
ing consoles” are used to represent tangible, high-outlay, infrequently
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purchased goods. Finally, “computer games” are adopted as an example

of intangible, high-outlay, infrequently purchased goods. We discuss the
most suitable category combinations next.

1 Low-outlay, frequently purchased, tangible products:

This group of products is characterized by the most prevalent positive
attitude toward shopping online, and this attitude is positively affected
by consumer product involvement and negatively affected by individual
privacy concerns.
These products have characteristics of convenience goods, defined as
those that customers purchase frequently and immediately and that are
often low priced and widely available. Products like groceries and office
supplies can be included in this category. Buyers of this group perceive
low risk because they spend a small amount of money. According to
Thirumalai and Sinha (2009), from a customer standpoint, these
goods are the lowest in terms of effort and risk and, consequently, the
purchase behavior is largely habitual or impulse driven (Murphy &
Enis, 1986).
Online purchases of convenience goods tend to be in high volume,
with a variety of products at low unit cost, allowing customers to look
for an easy and convenient purchase. If we take books for an example,
we can see that this product category shares a commonality, which is
that full information of the product can be evaluated before purchasing.
People with computer skills can easily search for information about the
product, compare it with other similar products, and finally buy it on the
Internet. Eventually they are confident about buying this kind of product
online, especially because of the low price, so they have a positive atti-
tude toward online shopping.

2 High-outlay, infrequently purchased, tangible products:

The clearest example of this group is video game consoles. That being
said, according to the analytics, people’s attitude toward online shop-
ping in this category is positively affected by web security as well. These
products are similar to those in the previous category in the sense that
they are tangible products, but they differ by being expensive products:
so only people who perceive the web as secure are willing to buy these
products on the online channel.
In this group of high-priced, infrequently purchased, tangible prod-
ucts, we can make a deeper analysis based on the characteristics of

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shopping goods and specialty goods, which together with convenience

goods are the well-known and time-tested product classifications pub-
lished by Copeland (1923):
a. Shopping goods are those that customers usually purchase after
comparison of alternatives based on suitability, quality, price, and style
(American Marketing Association, 2009). In the purchase of shopping
goods, customers are inclined to spend a significant amount of time and
money searching and evaluating (Murphy & Enis, 1986). The benefits
from such comparisons are perceived to be large relative to the search
costs. Customers also perceive increased levels of risk for these high-
involvement products. The customer purchase behavior changes from
routine shopping to moderate levels of decision making, depending on
the amount of risk involved. According to Thirumalai and Sinha (2009),
online purchases of shopping goods tend to be in moderate volumes,
with relatively low variety, compared to convenience goods.
b. Specialty goods are defined by the American Marketing Association
(2009) as those for which customers are usually willing to make a special
purchasing effort. For these goods, customers do not shop for alterna-
tives but focus mainly on what they are searching for. Compared to
convenience and shopping goods, customers spend the highest amount
of time and money looking for specialty goods and perceive significant
levels of risk. The customer purchase behavior involves extensive decision
making. During the purchase of specialty goods, the customer is looking
for the right product to satisfy certain specific requirements and needs.
Examples of specialty goods are desktop and notebook computers and
wedding gowns. Thirumalai and Sinha (2009) concluded that the online
purchase of specialty goods such as computers tends to be in relatively
low volumes (often just one product), and the distribution of these goods
will be selective, with greater reliance on personal selling, characteristics
that might make consumers buy this kind of product offline.

3 Low-outlay, frequently purchased, intangible products:

Based on the Lian and Lin (2008) study, only product involvement sig-
nificantly and positively affects attitudes toward purchasing these products.
Meanwhile, the other four variables proposed in this study are insignificant.
This can be explained by the fact that products in this group, such as online
news and magazines, are very cheap, so there is no high risk associated with
them in terms of amount of money spent. In fact, for these products the
only thing consumers are concerned with is news and magazine content.

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4. High-outlay, infrequently purchased, intangible products:

Products in this category are positively affected by the perception of web
security and product involvement (Lian & Lin, 2008). It is easy to believe
this given that a consumer who spends a significant amount of money
will put importance on web security. Besides, this represents the profile
of people who are willing to try new information technology.

1.4 Online consumer behavior

The field of consumer behavior is interdisciplinary. The definition of
consumer buying behavior provided by Kotler and Keller (2011) is “it is
the study of the ways of buying and disposing of goods, services, ideas
or experiences in order to satisfy needs and wants.” What makes con-
sumer research exclusive from other decision-making disciplines is the
interaction of the situation and the individual that leads to behavior. It is
relevant for research to analyze specific factors influencing the patterns
of consumer purchases. Egan (2007) points out that better awareness of
consumer buying behavior gives a positive contribution to the country’s
economic state. In fact, it should be considered that the online marketing
is an international market.
It is tricky to identify the exact consumer decision-making process
because consumers sometimes make purchasing decisions based on
their emotional beliefs which even they themselves are not aware of.
In addition, the web experience adds complexity with its new tools
and methods for enhancing customers’ online experience. Previous
research has identified trust and price, especially in terms of conven-
ience (Constantinides, 2004), as mayor drivers influencing the online
consumer. What we add here is identification and a study of the different
segments of online customers.
The nature of buying behavior varies from buying basic products—such
as bread, milk, and mobile phone cards—to higher valued products, such
as selecting a holiday or buying a car. Gay et al. (2007) show that there is
a link between the type of consumer purchase and the implications for
the website design. A commonly accepted process model of consumer
buying decisions, shown in Table 1.2, is composed of five steps: (1) meet-
ing a need or a want, (2) searching for information on solutions to that
problem, (3) evaluating the alternatives, (4) making the purchase decision
and, finally, (5) evaluating the process (buying and consumption).

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table 1.2 Five-step consumer buying decision model

Step Decision

Problem A website should prompt a consumer’s interest in the online

recognition: store (Huang and Christopher, ). For most users, the
meeting a need web is a tool to solve a problem
or a want
Information search Behavioral research identifies the key information triggers
that lead to purchase, such as incentives, detailed product
information, or independent customer reviews. One key tool
in the information search is the quality of search engines to
optimize web pages and help consumers in finding product
or service information
Evaluating the Although it may be argued that the evaluation takes place in
alternatives the mind of the potential consumer, online technology can
help. For example, some websites allow saving information
on products and then showing them on one page. Other
websites allow for comparisons, showing similar products on
the same page to make comparison easy
Purchase decision To avoid consumer frustration and ensure that the consumer
completes the transaction, functionality— through the
shopping cart, and checkout and payment procedures—is
critical. In addition, online security, brand familiarity,
management of personal data, and efficient process of
distribution build customer confidence and satisfaction. Gay
et al. () discuss how an easy return policy or money-
back guarantee can also be effective at this stage
Evaluating the Virtual communities discuss the need for online consumers
process (post- to share post-purchase reassurance. The speed and diffusion
purchase of customer feedback need careful management in order
evaluation) to retain customer satisfaction and build long-term
relationships. In this final step, a bad delivery could impact
on the evaluation of the vendor, decreasing the overall quality
of the experience of the customer

Online shopping has witnessed significant increases over the last few
years as more and more shoppers use this channel to make their pur-
chases due to the convenience, speed, price comparisons, and reviews
that it offers. It is a form of electronic commerce whereby consumers
directly buy goods or services from a seller over the Internet without
an intermediary service. An online shop, e-shop, e-store, Internet shop,
web shop, web store, online store, or virtual store evokes the physical
analogy of buying products or services at a brick-and-mortar retailer or
shopping center. The process is called business-to-consumer (B2C) online
shopping. When a business buys from another business, it is called
business-to-business (B2B) online shopping.

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The online shopping market has increased the complexity of its

segmentation due to the changes in consumer behavior, fast evolution
of technology, online marketing strategies, and attitudes toward online
shopping. What is more, attitudes toward online shopping have been
evolving very quickly because of changes in lifestyle, channel and prod-
uct risk perceptions, increased convenience, and growing consumer use
of the Internet among other factors.
Given the significant growth in online retailing, the online retailer
needs to understand the particular reasons why consumers choose
to shop online. This need is particularly relevant for the increasingly
competitive online grocery retail market, in which many firms compete
among themselves as well as against brick-and-mortar stores within a
relatively static market.
We now turn to identifying consumer motivations and consider
a segmentation of online consumers based on these criteria as well as
demographic profiles in order to understand the variables that affect
online sales.

1.5 Consumers’ segmentation in the online

shopping market
Many studies have attempted to identify consumers’ shopping orienta-
tions in order to understand their preferences for shopping from retail
outlets, home, catalog or mail orders, or the Internet (see as a review
Darley et al., 2010). Several criteria have been used to classify the online
shopper, ranging from consumer’s motivations to lifestyles. Now we will
describe in more detail the individual’s characteristics, motivations, and
elements that influence consumer acceptance of online shopping so as to
understand the criteria used in this book to classify online consumers.

1.5.1 Drivers
Previous literature converges on the drivers that influence the construc-
tion of the customers’ segmentation:
 Shopping convenience: Convenience is anything that is intended
to save time or energy resources or frustration. Given that the
online channel is already eliminating the effort and resources
(time, distance) spent in moving to a physical store, we define

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convenience in the online shopping context as a general saving of

effort and energy when purchasing online.
 Information seeking: Online shopping offers an infrastructure
by which the consumer is able to search, compare, and access
information much more easily and at deeper levels than within the
brick-and-mortar retail structure (Alba et al., 1997; Lynch & Ariely,
2000). What is more, given the tools developed by web pages, now
the information delivered can be customized according to the
needs and desires of each consumer.
 Immediate possession: Brick-and-mortar retailers offer customers
the capacity to purchase and obtain goods at the same time. Online
channels cannot offer this advantage for tangible products, so
consumers motivated by a desire for immediate possession may
choose to shop in physical retail stores rather than in the online
context. It is important to mention that there are exceptions; the
most common is the case of digital goods, such as newspaper and
digital magazines, in which the only thing that consumers are
concerned about is content.
 Social interaction and shopping enjoyment: The concept of
social interaction refers to a relationship between two, three, or
more individuals. In the shopping context, studies have concluded
that social motives help influence shopping behavior. These
motives include social interaction, reference group affiliation, and
communicating with others having similar interests (Tauber, 1972).
For example, when a consumer needs to receive advice or feedback
from a seller, this consumer will be motivated to shop in the offline
context as opposed to the online context. The individuals who value
the social interaction are also called recreational shoppers by many
authors.
 Variety seeking: The desire to seek variety is a positive motive
to shop online given that in the online context consumers
can compare and establish their level of stimulation, such as
an interpersonal motive for novelty, complexity, or change as
consumer behavior researchers suggest. Through the Internet
it is possible to get information and obtain valuable and unique
products for each individual consumer.
 Loyalty: The American Marketing Association defines brand loyalty
as the degree to which a consumer consistently purchases the same
brand within a product class.

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 Price sensitivity: We can understand consumer price sensitivity

as the degree to which the price of a product affects consumers’
purchasing behaviors. Price sensitivity is defined as the price
elasticity of demand. It is a measure used in economics to show
the responsiveness, or elasticity, of the quantity demanded of a
good or service to a change in its price. More precisely, it gives
the percentage change in quantity demanded in response to a 1
change in price (holding constant all the other determinants of
demand, such as income). It was devised by Alfred Marshall.
 Trust: Trust is the situation where one party, in this case the
consumer, is willing to rely on the actions of another party, in this
case the e-store. The situation is directed toward the future, and
the consumer (voluntarily or forcedly) abandons control over
the actions performed by the e-store. Trust can determine the
willingness to buy in an online store, and this is the reason why
trust is used to segment the online shopping market.
 Perceived risk: Aligned with the concept of trust, perceived
risk can also explain consumers’ purchase decision making and
it how it differs by product category. Channel risk refers to the
uncertainty associated with online transactions and is negatively
associated with consumers’ attitudes and intention to purchase
online (Forsythe & Shi, 2003; Forsythe et al., 2006). Product risk is
associated with product categories, so each product category sold
online determines when customers are more willing to buy on the
Internet. Finally, O’Cass and Fenech (2003) showed that perceived
web security describes individual awareness of web security when
providing and sending personal or financial information.
 Personal innovativeness of information technology (PIIT): This is
defined as the willingness of an individual to try new information
technology (Agarwal & Prasad, 1998).
 Internet self-efficacy: This is defined in the Jiunn-Woeiand and
Tzu-Ming (2007) study for online perspective as the belief of
individuals in their capability to organize and successfully execute
Internet use.
 Privacy Concern: The privacy of personal information is a
significant issue for some consumers. Different legal jurisdictions
have different laws concerning consumer privacy, as well as
different levels of enforcement. Many consumers wish to avoid the
spam and telemarketing that could result from supplying contact

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information to an online merchant. In response, many merchants

promise not to use consumer information for these purposes, or
they provide a mechanism to opt out of such contacts. Privacy
concern can be divided into four subcategories: data collection,
errors, unauthorized secondary use, and improper access (Smith &
Milberg, 1996).
 Product involvement: This refers to the relevance that a product
has to consumers’ needs and values.

1.5.2 Segments
We have analyzed the drivers that influence buyers and the motivations
that can be powerful predictors of Internet sales. Based on previous
literature, we group online shoppers in the following segments based on
the defined drivers: the convenience shopper, the balanced buyer, the
loyal shopper, the variety seeker, and the active shopper.

1. Convenience shopper:
As presented earlier in this chapter, convenience shopping is defined as
shopping that saves time, effort, and money.
Rohm and Swaminathan (2004) developed a typology based on moti-
vations for shopping online that identified one of his four types as “the
convenience shopper,” Jayawardhena et al. (2007) also labeled one of the
shopping groups “convenience shoppers.”
The convenience shopper, as the term implies, is motivated more than
other segments by the prospects of overall online shopping convenience.
This segment also exhibits less of a physical store orientation (e.g., is
motivated less by the prospect of immediate possession of goods or
services purchased and social interaction) as well as less variety-seeking
behavior across retail channels (Rohm & Swaminathan, 2004).

2. Balanced buyer:
Like the convenience shopper, the balanced buyer is characterized by a
desire for convenience. However, according to Rohm and Swaminathan
(2004), the balanced buyer shows a tendency to plan the shopping task
or seek information and is moderately motivated as well by the desire to
look for variety. Balanced buyers are active in their shopping behavior,
display brand-loyal behaviors, and are prepared to engage in com-
parison shopping to find the best bargains. Yet they have an inclination
for obtaining their purchases in a convenient manner. The difference

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between this segment and the convenience buyer is that the balanced
buyer is more active and price sensitive than the convenience buyer.

3. Loyal shopper:
This segment is high in brand and size loyalty, and low in price sensitiv-
ity. Loyal shoppers may use the Internet as their supplementary shop-
ping channel and the physical store as their primary channel (they are
households with online expenditures of less than 25). Such shoppers
may visit the online store only in some special circumstances such as
when under extreme time pressure. In those circumstances, they will
be less likely to do in-store search, more likely to use the customized
lists, and more willing to pay a price premium for the convenience and
time-saving advantages of online shopping (Putrevu & Ratchford, 1997).
Since they do not shop much in the online store, they have little incen-
tive to search because they do not benefit much from intensive search.
Therefore, they will be more brand loyal, more size loyal, and less price
sensitive in the online store.
Jayawardhena et al. (2007) also identify this cluster; in their cluster
analysis this segment has high values on loyalty and low values on price
sensitivity and convenience. In conclusion, loyal shoppers are non-active
online buyers, who shop online only to complement their traditional
in-store purchases. As a consequence, they are motivated more by brand
and size loyalty than other segments because they don’t invest time in
searching and comparing in the online channel, so choosing known
brands and size makes them feel confident. Besides, they can be risk
averse, and buying known brands decreases their product and channel
risk perception. What is more, given that online stores are not their
primary channel, they are willing to pay more.

4. Variety seeker:
This type of shopper is moderately motivated by online shopping
convenience, is careful and reserved, and has a positive attitude toward
online shopping. Again, as the term implies, variety seekers have a
desire for variety in their retail choices of products and brands (Rohm
& Swaminathan, 2004). But, as Rohm and Swaminathan (2004) con-
clude, this segment places high value on information use and planning
in shopping as well as variety seeking. In addition, this segment has a
high propensity to shop online, given that its shopping motive in the
physical store orientation is low. Barnes et al. (2007 call this group the

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“reserved information seekers” and observe that they have a positive

attitude toward online shopping, reasonable trust in Internet stores, and
a relatively high willingness to buy. However, they have high perceived
risk values, making them reserved in their online purchase decisions.

5. Active shopper:
This is the segment with the highest willingness to buy on the Internet.
Consumers belonging to this group show characteristics such as low
perceived risk, trust in online vendors, willingness to buy online, positive
attitude toward online shopping, low brand and size loyalty, and high
price sensitivity.
According to Barnes et al. (2007) the people in this cluster are open-
minded to new things. The respondents in their study showed the lowest
perceived risk when shopping online and at the same time the highest
trust in online vendors. They value shopping pleasure highly and, again,
show a strong affinity for online shopping (Bauer, Neumann, & Haber,
2006).
Jayawardhena et al. (2007) found that the active shopper was the one
with the lowest loyalty ratio. Chu et al. (2010) name this segment the
“heavy online shoppers,” defined as those who are highly involved with
the Internet channel. They view the Internet as the primary channel
and the physical stores as the supplementary channel, shopping at the
Internet store regularly and visiting physical stores only on special cir-
cumstances such as when they run out of certain categories of products.
Having built our five-segment model, we can see the main character-
istics of the various types of consumer, but in order to better identify
the five different buyers’ profiles, we need to study their demographic
characteristics, although it still remains difficult and continuous effort is
required.

1.5.3 Demographic characteristics of Internet shoppers

The research findings on Internet shoppers’ characteristics remain mixed
and inconclusive. For example, Rohm and Swaminathan (2004) found no
significant differences among age, income, and education distributions
between the offline and online samples. Jayawardhena et al. (2007) found
that only gender and prior purchase had an effect on purchase intention.
Internet use has historically been considered as male dominated (Liff
& Shepherd, 2004). Internet studies by Verdict (2000–2006), however,

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show that this gender bias is weakening, and in the UK there is now an
approximate balance. About 64 percent of UK women and 71 percent
of men are Internet users. Given the preponderance of women in the
overall population, this translates to 48 of Internet users being women.
Despite the ratio above, people who shop online are mainly females and,
on top of it, women are outspending compared to men when purchasing
on the Internet (Verdict, 2000–2006). Nevertheless, there are still con-
siderable gender differences in Internet use (Jayawardhena et al., 2007).
Yet, gender is not significantly related to shopping preference for the
credence products such as vitamins and water purifiers. In addition, edu-
cation is positively related to preference to shop on the Internet for the
search products such as books and personal computers. Finally, house-
hold income is positively related to preference to shop online for experi-
ence products such as cellular phones and televisions (Jayawardhena
et al., 2007).
By addressing the changing customers’ characteristics, organizations
have a chance to prosper in the competitive digital world.

1.5.4 A note on gender

Work and everyday activities such as the process of buying and of
consumption are gendered. Men are associated with strong food and
symbols of light and domination, while women are associated with soft
food, concealment, and closeness to the world of domesticated animals
(Bourdieu, 1998). Interestingly, there are areas and time periods of social
life where these male-female differences are blurred: in childhood and
old age, for example, when masculine virility is missing. This fact is
reflected in advertising that increases the differences in consumption
between middle-aged men and women.
Within a historical perspective, we see that the origins of the gendered
division of labor were in the Industrial Revolution, which separated
male outdoor labor from female household work. Before, although with
distinct activities, men and women worked together on the various tasks
that were the basis of daily economic life. The emergence of female wage
earners and the fact that women could find employment outside the
home represented a sort of independence for women and increased their
purchasing power, creating the different marketing needs that we have
discussed in these various classifications.

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2
Online Marketing
Communication Channels
Abstract: This chapter presents the different online
marketing channels. It starts with display advertising and
moves on to the subject of search engine optimization.
These tools, along with e-mails with personalized
newsletters, are necessary for companies to have a strong,
effective presence on the Internet. Also, the completely new
framework represented by social media, which has become
relevant in recent years, is discussed. Finally, the chapter
describes the new frontier of online marketing—mobile
marketing—that is capturing new market segments.

Viglia, Giampaolo. Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior,

and Analytics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
doi: 10.1057/9781137413260.0007.

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 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

2.1 Introduction
There are some industries such as e-commerce where the use of online
marketing communication channels is imperative. The challenge is to
combine the most appropriate channels to maximize benefits and reduce
the cost of their use (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010). Continuous monitor-
ing plays a crucial role in detecting the needs of the market and adapting
the products to those needs (push-pull).
There are many different online marketing channels that companies
use nowadays that are presented in this chapter. The evolution of technol-
ogy and the speed of change forces companies to adapt and to innovate.
Every day we find new features in each of the channels that enhance
consumer satisfaction, or new marketing channels develop rapidly and
become quite popular within a few months. The speed of development
varies depending on the channel and its use; moreover, the diffusion has
become much faster over the last few years compared with the past.
As mentioned by Pendleton et al. (2012), the new web environment
needs to account for the active role of the consumer, using “pull” strate-
gies to capture interest through new technologies. In particular, the
so-called Generation Y, the generation of consumers who go online in
great numbers, has to be considered in view of their computer experi-
ence and considerable spending power (McMahan et al., 2009). We need
therefore to identify the extent of the transformations in the traditional
channel structure due to the addition of digital value.

2.2 Display advertising

A common medium of online advertising is the use of web ads (such
as banners, pop-ups, buttons) because they function as both image and
direct-response advertisements. Web ads help advertisers maximize their
online presence, and their characteristics can affect the viewer’s recall
and decision to click, as they can not only attract users by a product or
service, but also might be targeted to the viewer’s interests.
Strauss and Frost (1999) classified web ads as static, animated, or
interactive. Static web ads are simple images that offer no movement or
user interaction and are hyperlinked to an advertiser’s site. Animated web
ads are online images that use graphic format GIF or Flash and thus can
provide more information than static ads. The animated web ad consists

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of different moving images that appear on the web one after another
repetitively. Interactive web ads seek interaction with the users through
various element implementations such as numerous tools and games.
An example is “scrolling” and seeing the different options.
Other types of online advertisement ads, such as video and expanding
ads, have been developed recently and they provide features that web
ads do not. Video ads are short videos that can be programmed to play
automatically when a webpage opens or can be user-activated (Google
Adsense, 2009). Expanding ads are rich media ads that can expand
beyond the original size of the ad unit, allowing advertisers to offer
more information without forcing the user to visit their website (Google
Adsense, 2009). When the user clicks on the ad, it automatically expands
to provide more information.

2.3 Search engine optimization (SEO) and search

engine marketing (SEM)

SEO and SEM are methodologies for getting good natural results from
search engines. SEO is about optimizing the information in the web to
gain better positions in the search engines. SEM is about purchasing
advertised positions in search engines (e.g., Adwords in Google). These
methodologies are very important because search engines account for
up to 80 of all web traffic (Net Market Share, 2012). If, for example, a
customer searches for “hotels in Bangkok” on Google, the website that is
most relevant to the words “hotel” and “Bangkok” together will be shown
in the results. Chances are that the hotel website that is on top of the page
will be clicked first by the user and may get more bookings than a hotel
that is listed on results page number 3. Nearly 80 of people searching
for information online type phrases into a search engine’s search box.
Google alone fields over 91 million searches per month worldwide (Saks,
2006). Potential customers tend to click on a website that appears on
the first to third page of search results (Xiang and Gretzel, 2010). So if
the website is not in top 20 results of the search engine, there is a great
chance that it will not be clicked.
Although SEO is a communication strategy that tries to improve the
position in search engines, it is not considered advertising. Branding is
one element of the SEO objectives. One goal is that search sites show
the company’s information in first places when the customer types some

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keywords in an online engine (e.g. Google). Companies sometimes

provide SEO support for 6 to 12 months until they can create their own
brand. Reputation is another key element that can be created by success-
ful implementation of SEO as it lets the search engines rate a company’s
website along with its competitors’ websites. This is a new subject being
studied by marketing firms to keep their customers’ websites on top of
their competitors’ websites. Relationship is still another domain of SEO
that is implemented over time by word of mouth, referrals, and reviews.
As mentioned earlier, SEM is the branch of web marketing that pro-
vides companies with better positions in search engines by offering them
the opportunity to purchase advertisements in them. The principal goals
of search engine marketing are (1) monitoring the evolution of the brand,
(2) database building (i.e., creating a customer database for further mar-
keting activities), (3) e-commerce, and (4) online customer support.
The final objective is to attract as many visitors as possible to the target
website.

2.4 E-mail
E-mail, which refers to “electronic mail,” began basically for the purpose
of personal communication. E-mails do more or less the same job as
letters or text messages but are sent to recipients through the Internet.
Their major characteristics are that they
– are roughly free of charge;
– specify sender, recipient, subject, date, and time of sending;
– provide for the possibility of having more than one recipient for the
same message;
– provide for the possibility of storing the mailing history; and
– are easy and fast—practically instantaneous.
These advantages, accompanied by some others, have made e-mail
thoroughly universal and useful all over the world. For a long time after
its first appearance, e-mail was utilized mostly for personal one-to-one
communication, but overtime it has evolved as a medium with a wider
range of applications. The possibility of sending the same message to an
infinite number of recipients for free and at any time instantaneously
made business people think about how they could utilize it to facili-
tate processes and grow their business. Marketing was one of the first

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departments attracted to the idea that e-mail might be used as a tool

to increase the effectiveness of processes. Due to its characteristics and
potentiality, e-mail, it has an enormously effective application to market-
ing activities (Farabegoli, 2014). There are a lot of popular and unpopular
ways that e-mail is being used in marketing today, but its main use is
communicating with the target audience (customers or potential cus-
tomers) of a service or product.
Going back to the definition of marketing; in each organization, there
are several marketing goals and objectives. As the customer part always
plays the most critical role in every marketing plan, communication
turns out to be one of the most important factors in any tool that is used
to reach the marketing objectives. This communication might be said
to involve the following steps: inform, impress, reach, introduce, attract,
satisfy, and (post purchase) care for customers to keep them in the com-
munication cycle as long as possible.
E-mail as a tool has the potential to cover all these components of cus-
tomer communication with very low cost and high efficiency. Through
e-mail, we can inform possible customers about us, we can reach them by
recognizing the segment they belong to and thus impress them by giving
them the proper message, invite them to try our product or service, and
keep contact with them. We can also improve the customer database and
increase customer satisfaction. Next we explain the use of newsletters as
a form of e-mail marketing.

2.4.1 Newsletters
Newsletters form the largest part of e-mail marketing. A newsletter
by definition is a frequent publication, distributed on a daily, weekly,
monthly, quarterly, or annual basis with the aim of giving information
and updating subscribers (a term we will discuss shortly) about different
topics and products or services that might interest them.
The new generation of newsletters began to spread out in the Internet
world when they were sent to a mailing list through e-mail. This mail-
ing list contained all the contact e-mail addresses of the people who
had expressed interest in the past about a product or service—that is,
the subscribers. Included in the set of subscribers are potential customers
who choose to keep up to date on the activities and new launches of a
company.
Every e-mail marketing campaign that includes newsletter distribu-
tion uses a database of the e-mail addresses of the subscribers who have

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expressed a preference to receive marketing news on a frequent basis.

We all know that e-mail is usually a free service. But there are some cases
in which, in order to use this service for special purposes, companies
need to outsource the e-mail function to a third-party company that
provides the necessary software for communicating with a large number
of subscribers on a frequent basis. Although these engines are not free,
they are not very costly compared to other channels.
There are several such software providers, such as Sendgrid, the one
that Spotify uses. The inputs given to these applications are basically the
address book of subscribers, the design of the e-mail, and the URLs of
the links inside the designed e-mails so that when the recipient clicks on
it, he or she can be redirected to the desired link. The outputs received
from the providers, apart from all the sent e-mails, are put into a report
on number of sent and opened e-mails, number of clicks, and some
detailed statistical data on the recipients’ reactions. So in this case, a
company is not paying just for the automatically generated e-mails but
also for the valuable data obtained. Such data increases the company’s
information about the campaign and its effectiveness, which can help it
improve the techniques, the messages, the design, and even the planning
for the best day and time of sending the newsletters.
Depending on the objective of each newsletter, which might vary as
a result of the marketing campaign’s goals, marketers need to set some
proper key performance indicators (KPIs) in order to stay on track. If they
send newsletters without tracking the results, they are not really taking
advantage of the feedback and cannot measure the performance of the
newsletter as depicted by the behavior of the customers. That means
a possible loss of money and time by distributing to the wrong target
group instead of attracting the right audience that could be interested
and converted to leads. The result can prove really harmful to the brand
reputation of the company. In order to compare performance with some
predefined objective, we can pick some ratios as KPIs.
There are some success factors that can increase the effectiveness of
the newsletter: the subject line, which appears at the top of the e-mail; the
content, which includes all the links, texts, pictures, and videos put in the
mail body; and the date and time that the e-mail is being sent.
In any newsletter there is a possibility for the recipient to click on some
links to get access to further content by redirecting to social media, the
company’s website or blog, and other channels, and also the option to
unsubscribe in order to prevent possible negative effects such as spam.

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Newsletters can be categorized based on their objective. They can

be sent to subscribers with the aim of encouraging sales and creating
leads; promoting the brand; informing existing and potential customers
about some features, tendencies, or characteristics of the product; or a
combination of these strategies. They can also be used to cross-sell and
up-sell to existing customers and increase the effectiveness of after-sales
services. Let us look at three specific types of newsletters: offers, brand
promotions, and information.

1 Offers:
This type of newsletter carries content and a subject line that have the
main objective of “forcing” subscribers to make a purchase by attract-
ing them with the content. So the KPI, which is useful to measure the
performance of these kinds of newsletters, is the conversion rate, or the
proportion of recipients who made a purchase as a result of this e-mail.
This type of newsletter can increase the actual return on investment (ROI)
of the marketing campaign as it brings direct revenue into the company.

2 Brand promotions:
This type of newsletter is sent to better engage subscribers with the
brand and company. The main objective is to increase and maintain the
reputation and brand image. Another objective is to enhance the brand
name of the company and secondly to indirectly increase revenue (by
customer loyalty).

3 Information:
The information newsletters are mainly sent to provide subscribers with
more knowledge and updates about what they are interested in (related
to the company’s activity) under the name of the brand. The purpose of
this newsletter is to increase customers’ satisfaction and keep in touch
with them.
The effectiveness of e-mail campaigns has been criticized more and
more over the last few years, as almost 70 of the e-mails that we receive
everyday are so impersonal that the subscriber can is likely to delete
before or immediately after opening them. This makes the role of the
first impression really important; the e-mail should instantly capture the
interest of the reader. Companies can personalize their e-mails by seg-
menting the audience by metrics that they collect and by understanding
the real needs of the customers.

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2.5 Social media

One of the most powerful online marketing tools is social media, which
offers massive opportunities if used properly. Conversations are key
elements in search processes (Shao et al., 2012).The increased impact of
user-generated content on consumers’ behavior has enhanced research-
ers’ interest in this aspect of marketing strategy (Eccleston & Griseri,
2008). Social media can be used on a corporate as well as an individual
level, with the main goal being the enhancement of the brand image.
More and more companies use social media to transmit communication
messages and create leads. An exhaustive list of social media platforms
exists, including Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Google +,
Instagram, and My Space, where their use depends on the interests of
the users and their objectives. The analysis of user-generated content
(ratings, reviews, and so forth) of various market segments, combined
with other information about the customer coming from the transaction,
allows marketers to differentiate the service offered in order to target
segments of each booking channel with respect to competitors (Varini
& Sirsi, 2012).
The massive use of social media can be easily explained as it offers
plenty of advantages. The fact that social media is free, easy, fast, effective,
and considered a real-time means of communication makes it a smart
choice for promoting the brand image of a company. Free marketing is
the most common benefit that businesses reap when they join and use
social media. Businesses can create free accounts with simple steps that
can bring them closer to their target groups. They can create multiple
offers and promotions that can be diffused very quickly. For example,
companies use their accounts and post special offers for the customers
who like their web page or retweet some tweets. Also, they post special
online competitions, events, interaction with questions and answers,
free consultations, and direct customer care. The brand image of the
company is significantly enhanced this way without investing in other
costly public relation activities.
In fact, social media provides the ability to interact with far more
people than the conventional marketing channels do in every place of
the world. This real-time interaction has eliminated the significance of
distances. Its power comes from the ability to bring business and people
together through formal and informal means of communication that can
be adapted to the needs of the company and their perceived needs.

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LinkedIn has emerged as a very powerful tool for human resources

departments as it gives them the potential to interact with possible
candidates, verify their skills, and filter them depending on the industry,
function, and location in order to shortlist the most suitable ones.
Interoffice communication is another area that social media can
enhance. It can provide a field of productive communication among
employees and employers by facilitating their sharing of ideas on how to
improve many business areas. An internal Facebook page can create an
environment that limits the gaps between employees and top manage-
ment, thereby producing a field of fruitful and even joyful discussions.
Google + and Skype can improve the internal communication and cul-
ture with the options that they offer. Many companies have started using
specialized internal communication tools such as yammer, which is quite
similar to Twitter.
Social media is a strong tool for communication with very low cost
and high effectiveness, especially for small companies that do not have a
budget for marketing investments. The marketing ROI that social media
can bring to the company can be increased much more easily than that
of other marketing tools. This fact is in total contrast to the perception
that SMEs (small and medium enterprises) have about social media.
According to one study (Raacke & Bonds-Raacke, 2008), some people
think that they waste their time by using social media. Almost 61 claim
that they cannot see any ROI from social media, although 50 have
increased their time of using social media. Only 36 use blogs and social
media, linking them together, a statistic that might explain the low trust
in social media as it shows such media are often not used efficiently.
The importance of social media can be noticed by its increasing use by big
companies or organizations that until recently were using more conventional
channels of marketing. European football’s governing body, UEFA, will
spend the majority of its marketing budget for the European Championships
in 2016 on social media (Marketing Week, 2013). UEFA expects to create a
community of fans through Facebook and Twitter and keep them updated,
as well as create exclusive competitions and offers for the fans.
A tip for winning at social media is to have eye-catching and creative
content from people who are on the same line of corporate culture and
therefore can more effectively promote the communication messages of
the marketing department. The frequency, the identification of the target
groups, and the right combination of social media channels improve the
chances of a successful social media communication strategy.

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Differences can be observed between product-oriented and services-

oriented companies, or between B2B (busines-to-business) and B2C
(business-to-customer) companies. Each company normally creates a
mix of the different channels in order to have the maximum effective-
ness. The B2B customer interface permits companies to invest more in
Twitter and LinkedIn than in Facebook; Twitter and LinkedIn are con-
sidered to be more effective for the these companies, with their extensive
use of mass competitions and special offers, than the more customized
communication of Facebook.
The future of mobile advertising is also heavily dependent on social
networking sites like Facebook and Twitter. The number of people using
mobile to access these sites is growing constantly in these recent years
(Gerpott et al., 2013).
Companies have to pay attention to the use of social media as there
can be adverse impacts in case of misuse or bad management. Ryanair
faced one of the worst crises in its history because of the social media. It
reported a 29 decrease in profits despite a 600 increase in investment
in marketing (SimpliFlying, 2012). This decrease started from some
posts on its Facebook page by unsatisfied consumers that reached a fan
base of 500,000 likes and 20,000 posts. Their diffusion was massive and
damaged the image of the company.
An interesting report published by Harvard Business Review Report
(2010) revealed that although almost 79 of the surveyed companies use
or plan to use social media, only 12 think they use it effectively, and
two-thirds do not have any kind of social media strategy. The main focus
of the companies is the brand awareness and promotion of the products
or services, ignoring other capabilities such as customer interaction, new
ideas, and linkage to the website and other social media platforms. As
a consequence, the most challenging step for social media teams is to
measure the effectiveness of social media and their contribution to the
ROI, but this is something that is only gradually resolved.
It is difficult to use social media at its full potential, and most com-
panies haven’t uncovered all the secrets of its successful use and the
opportunities that it offers—which is incredibly unfortunate considering
the benefits that it can offer.

2.5.1 Social media in context (Roberta Minazzi)

The influence of social media on customers’ behavior is growing all
over the world and is influencing the concept of word-of-mouth

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(WOM), leading to the development of what is called electronic

WOM (eWOM). Individuals can make their thoughts, opinions, and
personal feelings easily accessible to other Internet users having, in
this way, more power to drive the conversation than in the past.
Academic studies on the topic have pointed out the impact of online
consumer reviews on the various steps of the consumer decision-
making and purchasing processes (Park et al., 2007; Buhalis &
Law, 2008). In fact, an extant stream of research has studied and
demonstrated the economic impact of online reviews on companies’
financial performances by means of numeric variables representing
the valence (positive or negative) and volume of reviews. The
valence (positive or negative) of the message is generally one of
the most considered variables (Vermeulen & Seegers, 2009), as
well as credibility (Schindler & Bickart, 2005). In the first case,
academic studies seem to recognize the more influential effect of
negative than positive WOM because of the detrimental impact on
businesses. In the second case, the focus of the literature has been
to understand which are the cues of the message credibility that can
subsequently determine reader adoption. The presence of personal
identifying information (PII) of the reviewers can give more validity
to the message as well as the presence of details about the personal
experience of the reviewer. These elements were shown to be a cue
of the message validity (Miao et al., 2011).
The topic of credibility is really important considering the possible
biased nature of online reviews, which can be sometimes
strategically manipulated in an effort to influence consumers’
purchase decisions. Fake positive or negative reviews can be posted
by both the company and the competitors trying, in the first case,
to improve the company’s reputation, and, in the second, to damage
the reputation of a competitor (Hu et al., 2012). Moreover, online
reviews can also contain biased information because (1) people
who post a comment on the Net are generally extremely satisfied or
extremely dissatisfied (Litvin et al., 2008); (2) they are influenced
by subjective product quality standards; and, finally, (3) sometimes
only consumers with a favorable disposition toward a product
purchase it and have the opportunity to write a review (Hu et al.,
2012).
It has to be said that readers, when evaluating alternatives, consider
also other aspects, such as their preexisting disposition toward

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the service provider, the number of reviews posted, the product

popularity and the product ranking and rating (Chevalier &
Mayzlin, 2006; Levy et al., 2013).

2.6 Affiliate marketing

One of the ways to bring money to an online business is using affiliate
online marketing, which is basically sharing revenue by collaborating
with another business (website, property), placing banners and adver-
tisements on each other’s websites. Based on some affiliate agreements,
the website owners receive a commission for each conversion (or
click) when a customer clicks on the affiliate link and does the desired
action.
In spite of many critics and complexities of this marketing channel, it is
one of the biggest tools online companies use to bring traffic and money
to the website. As with any other B2B marketing interaction, this chan-
nels deals with a very high level of risk due to the difficulty in accessing
enough information about the other parties. Also, risk is associated with
the unpredictability of the customer’s online behavior, which depends
on many known and unknown factors. However, there is a high variance
in the way that affiliates work in terms of payments, agreements, and the
form of displaying the advertisement or directing the audience to the
webmaster’s website.
Generally, in an affiliate program, two online organizations (website
owners) collaborate in order to provide benefit for both sides. One
places an advertisement in its website that directs its audience to the
second-party website. The characteristics of the advertisement, from size
design, location, and so forth is the main issue to be agreed on in the
collaboration.

2.7 Mobile marketing

Mobile marketing involves the use of mobile devices for marketing
functions. Over the past decade, mobile devices such as cellular phones
and tablet computers have become increasingly powerful, and it would
be hard to imagine our life functioning without them. According to the
GSMA report (2013), there are 5 billion mobile phones users in the world,

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which means that the number of cellular mobile phone subscribers rep-
resents 86 of the global population. Moreover, out of 5 billion mobile
phone users, 1.08 billion people use smartphones. IDC (2013) analyzed
the 2012 holiday shopping season and found that tablet and smart phone
sales grew 55.8 and predicted that they will continue to grow 39.5 for
the next years while PC sales declined from the same quarter one year
ago. In this environment, many companies are either planning to engage
or are currently applying traditional Internet browsing activity to mobile
devices.
So what is mobile commerce? Mobile commerce, or m-commerce, is a
special area of e-commerce where transactions are conducted through
wireless, Internet-enabled devices such as cellular phones and personal
digital assistants (PDAs) (Ghosh & Swaminatha, 2001). Wireless mobile
devices present some unique features that affect the nature and specifics
of applications as they provide added value and benefits to m-commerce
users. According to Tang et al (2001), the features of mobile devices con-
sist of ubiquity (anytime and anywhere access), personalization (it can be
identified uniquely with a single individual), localization (a connection
can be used to determine physical location of the device), and flexibility
(the functionality to access information at the point of need).
Mobile Media Consumption report (2012) shows that on average the
global mobile web user consumes 7.2 hours of media per day. Online
users are almost shifting away from their fixed connections as mobile
web users are daily spending 117 minutes connected to the web via
mobile and 140 minutes via desktop and laptop connections. According
to the report, 59 of users state that mobile is their primary or exclusive
source of accessing the web while only 9 of respondents are using their
desktop connections. The findings show that the contributing factors to
this shift in usage are the ease and convenience with which mobile web
delivers as users can easily access information (sports, news, and so forth)
and communications (e-mail, Facebook, Twitter). However, respondents
prefer desktop interactions for shopping or banking sessions.
It is essential for companies to formalize mobile marketing strategies
and focus on the best way to grab customers’ attention. As Barwise and
Strong (2002) claim, the success of mobile advertising depends on cus-
tomers opting to receive marketing messages. Allowing customers to opt
in to a mobile campaign results in a better response rate, brand attitude,
and awareness; and better readership of the message in general leads
some customers to even forward the message to their contacts (Barwise

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& Strong, 2002). However, companies should be aware of customers

“private” space and should control how and where customers receive
marketing messages accordingly.
In conclusion, we can see that for marketers, mobile phones can be a
lucrative channel for offers—if targeted in the right way.

2.8 Retargeting
It is a common practice for consumers to enter an online purchase site,
fill the shopping cart with goods, and then suddenly leave the site and
switch to another site before returning to finish the purchase and realiz-
ing that on Youtube it can be seen an advertisement of the goods placed
in our shopping cart. For most of the websites only 2 of web traffic
converts on the first visit, and to increase the value of online advertis-
ing many companies are widely focused on behavioural retargeting as it
helps to increase relevance and consumer response (Soriano, 2011).
Behavioral retargeting (also known as behavioral remarketing) is a form
of online advertising that regains a potential consumer interest to pur-
chase the goods by displaying the advertiser’s ads while the consumer
is visiting other websites. Companies offering retargeting services state
strong increases in advertising effectiveness—for example, Criteo (2010)
reports that personalized retargeting ads are six times more effective
than standard banner ads.
The advertising networks that combine online advertising space across
multiple publishers of web content and then sell this space to the adver-
tisers usually arrange for retargeting. Advertisers do not need to manage
their relations with a large number of publishers to achieve online ad
space market efficiency.

2.9 Targeting implementation

Following are some ways of implementing retargeting (Lambrecht &
Tucker, 2013):
 Product exposure: The consumer visits the company’s (the
advertiser’s) website and views products. For each product page
the consumer views, a pixel tag (1 × 1 image) is downloaded

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automatically that archives information on what the consumer

was looking for. This information is typically tracked by cookies or
pixels and becomes a part of the individual user’s profile controlled
by the ad network on behalf of the advertiser.
 Targeting consumers: The consumer browses the Internet and
visits a website whose ads are provided by an advertising network
that offers retargeting. The advertising network uses the cookies or
pixels to determine whether the consumer has previously visited
the advertiser’s website.
 Ad design: The ad network applies the individual cookie profile
to identify consumers who have visited the advertiser’s website
before so as to show them generic ads of that specific advertiser
rather than showing them ads of another company. Such generic
ads usually present a picture of the exact product the consumer had
looked at before. For example, if a consumer visited Vista print’s
website and placed business cards in the shopping cart and then left
to visit Youtube, the consumer will see the ad for the business cards
on Youtube.
 Purchase: The consumer makes a purchase from the advertiser’s
website. The ad network records this purchase in an individual-
level profile and links to any ad exposures. After a purchase,
consumers will typically not be retargeted unless they visit the
website again (unless it is a post-purchase retargeting).
Companies should use effective behavioral retargeting strategies to
increase the conversions of the existing traffic sources. According to
Davis (2013), the strategies that can influence retargeting performance
are as follows:
 Cookies’ time parameters settings: Companies should set up
multiple cookies with different time parameters so that when one
cookie expires, the company can use another one and change the
ad/offer. Changing the ad over time helps avoid repetitiveness.
 Retargeting optimization: Companies should focus more on
creativity, avoid repetitiveness, and they should test a variety
of sizes and placements to maximize the consumer reach. For
example, they could use powerful words such as “free” and “limited
time,” which help increase conversions and engagement. Similarly,
it is essential to optimize the landing pages aligned with the
retargeting message.

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 Frequency cap: Companies should not “stalk” people by creating

the feeling they are following them around the web. To avoid
this, companies need to set a frequency cap on the ads, meaning
a restriction of the number of times the ad should be shown (for
example, 2/24 –two times per twenty-four hours).
 All consumers’ retargeting: Companies should not focus only on
consumers who filled up the shopping cart and then left the site,
but they should retarget new and reliable consumers to regularly
remind them of all the other great products the company offers.
 Specific intervals: Companies should schedule specific intervals of
retargeting: for example, consumers who filled up the shopping cart
but did not make a purchase at one, fifteen, or thirty days. It can
help to design specific ads (such as “last-minute deal”) to encourage
potential consumers to purchase the product.
 Email retargeting: Companies should not miss a “cookied” e-mail
opportunity and should add those consumers to their retargeting
pool as this allows them to retarget with display ads.

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3
Online Marketing
Metrics and Analytics
Abstract: Chapter 3 describes in technical detail metrics
and analytics used in online marketing. Although the
discussion is kept at a descriptive level, it provides
explanations of advanced methods for keeping records
of the results in investment such as social intelligence
dashboards and real-time bidding analytics. To
complement the discussion, the author presents real cases
of implementation, showing the evolution of these metrics
from their beginning use to the actual resutling measures.
Also offered is a dynamic comparison among the present
methods in terms of risk and profit generation. The final
part of the chapter is devoted to ethics and security in
payment, a topic that is gaining relevance with the increase
of transactions on the Internet.

Viglia, Giampaolo. Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior,

and Analytics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
doi: 10.1057/9781137413260.0008.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0008 
 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

3.1 Introduction
Measuring marketing effectiveness has always been a challenge. Most
marketers struggle to monitor and measure the marketing actions
they launch. Nevertheless, in the world of information, where market
research and analysis give significant competitive advantage, marketing
departments need to invest money and time to understand the results of
their actions, the reactions of their target groups, and the environment
in which they operate.
The challenge becomes greater as the competition becomes more
intensive and some industries start to saturate a market. Marketing
departments cope with increasing pressure to improve performance in
new and innovative ways. The traditional methods become obsolete, and
the launching of new marketing channels boosts marketers to adapt to
the resultant change and seek new tools in order to exploit their data.
The main ways to measure online marketing actions are web metrics
and marketing analytics. Normally web metrics are used for the perform-
ance measurement of the websites such as time spent on page views per
visit, unique visitors, or the cost. Marketing analytics are business metrics
that include data from different channels like social media and offline
marketing. Marketing analytics are more people-centric, mapping the
leads and the prospects, identifying the profiles of the customers and
their needs, while web metrics focus more on the page view and are
more limited (Hubspot, 2012). These tools, although they are not core in
this work, have to be discussed because of their importance in measur-
ing all forms of website activity and other data gathering. This chapter
ends with a discussion of the privacy concerns of database marketing
and the issue of security both in general and in terms of electronic card
payments.

3.2 Web metrics

According to Bhat et al. (2002), the choice of web metrics depends on
the advertiser’s budget, the measurement objective, technology, and time
limits. We start the discussion by highlighting the cost of these techniques.
The detailed definition and application of all the metrics would go beyond
the scope of this work. For readers who want to explore in depth all the
aspects of marketing metrics, Farris et al. (2010) is a useful reference.

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Online advertising is a much more measurable and accountable medium

than traditional media. It is linked with performance-based pricing models
that connect online advertising payments directly to campaign measure-
ment data. There are four standard online media pricing models: (1) cost
per thousand (CPM)—the “M” is the Roman numeral for “thousand”—
also known as CPT; (2) cost per click (CPC), also known as pay per click
(PPC); (3) cost per acquisition/action (CPA); and (4) hybrid campaigns.
CPM is an online advertising model in which advertising can be
purchased on the basis of an ad that is displayed 1,000 times. The lower
the CPM, the more impressions advertisers would get, as more people
would see the banner. The formula for cost per thousand (CPM) is:
CPM = (Cost of 1 Unit of a Media Program) / (Size of Media Program’s
Audience) × 1,000

Any sort of advertising medium can be a Media Program. The media

audience may include households, readers, and different users.
For example, let’s assume Company ABC is considering purchasing a
one-page print advertisement in the next issue of a national magazine for
6,000. The issue is expected to reach 10,000 readers. Using the formula
above, we can calculate that Company ABC’s CPM would be:
CPM = (€6,000) / (10,000) × 1,000 = €600

This means that Company ABC would effectively be paying €600 to

advertise to 1,000 people (CPM = €600).
CPC is a performance-based method whereby the advertiser pays the
publisher for the ad clicks. It is calculated by dividing total spending by
the number of clicks. For example, if the advertiser spent 2.000 € and
got 100 clicks, the cost would be 20 € CPC (2.000 €/100). CPC indicates
how effective and profitable the campaign is.
CPA is a performance-based advertising model in which the advertiser
pays when an ad delivers acquisition. Cost per order (CPO), cost per
lead (CPL), and cost per conversion also fall within this pricing model.
Action or/and acquisition is defined as e-mail sign-ups, downloads, sales
leads, or purchases. CPA is considered one of the most effective online
advertising models as the advertiser pays only when the user completes
the defined transaction. For example, if the advertiser spent 2.000 € and
got 200 orders, the cost would be 10 € CPO (2.000 €/200).
Hybrid campaigns are based on combination of a CPM pricing method
and a performance-based model such us CPC or CPA. For example, the

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advertiser can pay lower CPM, but it has to add a bonus for any sales
resulting from ad clicks on a given website.
There are ongoing debates on which online advertisement model is
the best (Cumbrowski, 2007). In the early days of online marketing,
advertisers and publishers all used the CPM model, but the online
industry has lately switched toward performance-based models. From
the publisher’s perspective, the CPM model is more desirable as with
that model publishers need to focus only on ads’ trafficking. In terms
of advertisers, though, the CPM model has higher risk in click-through
rate (CTR), discussed later in this chapter, and conversion rate (CR),
also discussed later. Among advertisers the CPA model is the preferred
method because if publishers fail to produce sales, advertisers do not
suffer any further financial loss. It also allows advertisers to easily man-
age the return on investment (ROI) of their campaigns. However, in
usingthe CPA model, publishers need to apply some effort to improve
the quality of clicks. Consequently, publishers prefer the CPC model as it
gives more incentives to convert clicks into sales by focusing on driving
a high volume of clicks for advertisers (Wilbur & Zhu, 2009).
On the other hand, the CPC model can cause problems for advertisers
and publishers as there is a risk of potential fraud clicks that can drive up
advertisers’ costs. The CPA model is mostly suitable for advertisers that
are risk averse and products that have a high level of market uncertainty,
so this method is more beneficial for smaller advertisers that cannot
afford to take the risks involved in the CPC model. Advertisers that offer
products with high seasonality and irregular demand should choose the
CPA model. The CPA cost model has generally higher costs compared
to other cost methods. The newest pricing model, the hybrid method,
decreases the risk between the media owner and the advertiser and
allows campaigns to organically reach the desired ROI by price control
maintenance.
Using a practitioner’s lens, the most useful web metrics are as follows:

 Visit is a measurement of single continuous set of activity to a

cookied browser or user resulting in one or more pulled text and
graphics downloads from a site (IAB, 2010). Visits are used to
measure the website popularity.
 Unique visitors represent the number of actual people who accessed
a site or application one or more times and have been served a
unique content or ads such as e-mail, newsletters, interstitials, and

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Online Marketing Metrics and Analytics 

pop-up ads (IAB, 2010). The most common technique that helps
to track unique users is the cookies, which are small files that are
sent to the user’s browser while a user is browsing the website.
The user can receive two types of cookies—persistent cookies that
are temporary and are erased when the user exits the browser or
session cookies that remain on the user’s hard drive until they
expire or until the user removes them.
 Cost per unique visitor is the cost of the placement or application
divided by the number of unique visitors (IAB, 2009).
 Page impressions/views are a measurement of the number of
respondents from a web server to page requests from a user’s
browser (Bhat et al., 2002). It estimates how many pages are served
in a time period and indicates the webpage’s exposure.
 Ad impressions represent the response of a delivery system to an ad
request from a user’s browser and show the extent of the overall
online ad exposure (Bhat et al., 2002).
 Time spent is the amount of time from the start of a visit to the last
user’s activity linked with that visit. For the metric to be accurately
counted as a visit, it should have 30 consecutive minutes of activity
between events for the same user (IAB, 2010).
 Clicks or click-through are when a user initiates action by clicking
on an ad and it lands the user to another online location such us a
website or another browser window (Bhat et al., 2002).
 Click-through rate (CTR) calculates the number of clicks divided
by the number of ads clicked per user, and it is one of the most
accountable measures in online marketing. For example, if you
received 10 clicks out of 1,000 page views, your CTR would be 1
(10/1000×100). A good CTR depends on the industry and the
placement; however, a 2 CTR is considered to be successful. CTR
helps to capture customers’ initial responses to a website, and it is
easy to observe as it demonstrates a behavioral reaction (McLuhan,
2000).
 Conversion rate (CR) is one of the most critical metrics in online
marketing. CR is the percentage of visitors who followed through
on the transactions (Rocher, 2005). For example, if there are 100
visitors to a particular website and one of those 100 visitors clicks
on the ad and buys the product on the website, then the conversion
rate for that particular ad is 1 (1/100×100). The overall average
of the CR varies by industry and product; however, the average CR

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 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

across the Internet is 2, and if it decreases to 1.5, it indicates the

website/ad needs improvement.
 Bounce rate is the percentage of users who entered the website,
scanned it, and left it rather than continuing to view other pages on
the same site (Dainow, 2005). This might indicate that the website
did not offer what the user actually wanted.
 Return visits measure the average number of times a visitor returns
to the website or application over a specific time period (Bhat et al.,
2002). This indicates the user’s loyalty.
Google analytics is a powerful tool for monitoring and measuring web
metrics.

3.3 Marketing analytics

Marketing analytics allow you to monitor campaigns and marketing
actions as well as their respective outcomes, enabling you to spend money
as effectively as possible (Leventhal & Langdell, 2013). Analytics can solve
one of the biggest problems marketing departments have: measurement
of marketing ROI and monitoring of the implemented marketing initia-
tives. More specifically, they measure whether something costs more that
it returns and thus indicate the viability of a marketing plan and specific
actions in the long term in such detail that permits better decisions.
The most powerful benefit that analytics offer is that they can connect
the analysis with launched and future actions. Marketers can use the
data they provide to build a more reliable marketing strategy based on
previous actions. This gives them the flexibility to adapt their actions to
the specific needs of the customers, increasing customer satisfaction.
With marketing analytics, marketers can integrate different marketing
channels. They offer the possibility to analyze each channel separately, but
their unparalleled benefits are measured by understanding the dynamics
and overall performance of all the channels together. Moreover, the focus
of marketing is the person (people-centric), not just the page view. This
enables marketing departments to monitor how the potential or current
customers interact with the marketing channels and actions over time.
Marketing intelligence includes all the information gathered and
analyzed in a marketing department. Part of marketing intelligence is
a specialized area called social intelligence that is used for the increasing
development of the social media.

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A new trend in analytics is “big data.” With the explosion of big data,
analytics have become more imperative for the businesses because they
have a lot of information without being able to take full advantage of it.
Banner ads, tweets, posts and comments, and videos constitute unstruc-
tured data as they are not organized in a predefined manner. Structured
data such as marketing databases belong to more traditional tools of
marketing that complement the new trends.
Big data sets forge the future of marketing after the advent of new
online marketing channels and become a key basis of competition
“underpinning new waves of productivity growth, innovation and con-
sumer surplus,” according to research conducted by MGI and McKinsey’s
Business Technology Office (2011). In order for companies to be able to
add and capture value from the unexploited information, they need to
take big data seriously and build strategies for how to deal with it.
Many business intelligence companies have flourished during thelast
few years because of the continuous use of analytics. Various types of
analytics software are implemented depending on the size of the com-
pany, the industry and the needs of the company. Given the channels
that they use and the data and the metrics that they want to analyze,
experts are able to create customized dashboards.
The latest software makes it possible to monitor “real-time data” and
analyze it as soon as it is acquired, interacting directly with the customer.
Time is a crucial factor of competitiveness among companies in a fast-
paced environment. Predictive analytics use forecasting methods based
on previous data. They use modeling, data mining, and other advanced
techniques to enable marketers to make better decisions in planning for
the future.
The true value of analytics is not just that they prove marketing ini-
tiatives are worth the time and money but also that they help marketers
improve and optimize marketing performance. Data and information
are useful only if we do something with them. We need to exploit and
analyze them and understand what is really behind all the marketing
actions we have taken.

3.4 Ethics, payments, and security

In any type of online situation, to build customer trust, marketers need
to operate within ethical and legal frameworks. For example, when

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 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

dealing with targeted online advertising, the advertiser uses past brows-
ing or purchase behavior information. However, consumers remain
highly skeptical of this approach. Two-thirds of U.S. adults reject behav-
ioral targeting based on their prior browsing behavior; they think that
online tracking should be illegal and that websites should address these
concerns (Schumann et al., 2014). In what follows we focus only on the
practical aspects of payment and security in transactions.
Where commercial transactions are concerned, goods and services
have to be paid for. Internet buying and selling mostly involve the use
of electronic payments, which are cheaper and quicker than paper
methods. However, where payments for goods and services are done
electronically, security and trust become keywords in these transactions.
Payment methods to be effective have to be secure, fast, easy to use, and
with low transactional costs. The risk is that the financial information
of the purchaser is capable of being intercepted and fraud perpetrated,
meaning that consumers might be paying for goods that they have not
ordered or received.
The perceived threat of online credit card fraud is strong today,
occupying much newspaper space. However, software solutions like
Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and new methods of payment like PayPal
have improved public confidence and payment security. Encryption and
decryption technology provide further security measures that can reduce
the risk of a damaged reputation for a company. Obviously, reputation
is very important, and damage to it would affect customer confidence
and hurt any web-based operation. There are some areas in which
Internet transactions are more risky than those in traditional markets:
spam, phishing (hackers), and network stability (worms). Nonetheless,
it should be mentioned that fraud on the web is not more serious than
offline fraud (Gay et al., 2007).
When consumers make a credit card purchase from an online mer-
chant, they transmit encrypted financial information to the merchant
along with the digital certificate. At that point, the merchant sends the
information to a payment gateway where it is decrypted, processed,
and verified by the certification authority. The merchant receives then
an approval from the financial institution of the buyer, while the card-
holder’s account is debited and the amount is credited to the merchant’s
account. All this process has to be fast, secure, and efficient. Negative
e-commerce experiences erode generalized trust in online purchasing
services and goods and thus have harmful effects on Internet marketing

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Online Marketing Metrics and Analytics 

as a whole (Mutz, 2009). Especially in sensitive services, like the Internet

banking industry, where the consumer feels even more vulnerable, mar-
keters are required to understand what are the pillars customers use to
judge service quality and, in turn, security. According to some authors
in the banking industry (Murkute et al., 2013) the most prominent pillar
in this area seems to be efficient and fast communication with online
companies when errors in payment occur. Overall, there is the need for
constant monitoring and improvement of the service performance.
Finally, an issue underinvestigated in literature is the need for consum-
ers to recall multiple passwords. The adoption of complicated password
to ensure the security of transactions generally increases the frustration
of the typical Internet user. On this topic we are assisting slowly at the
implementation of systems based on new hardware and software solu-
tions. These alternatives are essentially represented by fingerprint, face
recognition and visual patterns.

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4
Online Pricing
Abstract: This chapter is fully devoted to pricing. After
explaining the many price models available for online
marketing, the author discusses the general area of
dynamic pricing. The issue of fairness to consumers is
explored with real cases and applications from different
industries. Next is an explanation of reference price,
the standard against which consumers evaluate a price.
Stemming from a behavioral approach, this section of the
chapter investigates how people form price expectations.
The objective is also to study the evolution of reference
prices from a firm’s perspective. Finally, there is an analysis
on how to elicit reference prices from laboratory and field
experiments, paying attention to internal and external
validity.

Viglia, Giampaolo. Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior,

and Analytics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
doi: 10.1057/9781137413260.0009.

 DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0009
Online Pricing 

4.1 Introduction
In the increasingly complex marketing environment, more and more
companies operate on multiple platforms, dealing with different prices
online and offline (Grewal et al., 2010). Building on previous literature,
here we discuss on one hand the firm’s perspective and on the other
how consumers form price expectations and what prices they perceive
as fair. This topic assumes relevance in the presence of price variability,
within and between channels. Price discovery is a key function, because
it allows the company to determine the prices at which demand and
supply “clear” and trade occurs. In some markets, such as the financial
ones, this is a primary function. In other markets, such as the automo-
tive industry, negotiations take place between buyers and sellers until a
price is reached. For this reason, matching buyers’ and sellers’ aspirations
in terms of price is of paramount importance. Table 4.1, adapted from
Bakos (1998), helps the reader to structure the problem.
We start from an operational point of view; then we discuss how
consumers react when prices rise sharply and how they perceive price
promotions.
With greater price transparency existing than ever before, understand-
ing the needs of consumers in terms of price expectations is crucial. This
and other related issues are developed within this chapter.

4.2 Revenue management and dynamic pricing

The term revenue management is used in many service industries to
describe a variety of techniques and practices for allocating limited

table 4.1 Matching buyers and sellers as a function of the market

Determination of product offerings
Product features offered by sellers
Aggregation of different products

Search (of sellers for buyers and buyers for sellers)

Price and product information
Matching seller offerings with buyer preferences

Price discovery
Process and outcome in determination of prices
The goal has to be more than just driving down costs

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resources such as airplane seats, rental cars, or hotel rooms. Many meth-
ods of revenue management are used in online marketing. This process
works in sectors where the revenue potential of the service or the item
diminishes over time. The general areas where this technique is applied
are the competitive markets where there is fixed capacity or supply, either
of a product or of a service, and where there is anticipated demand.
Integrating dynamic pricing with inventory control and production
offers significant opportunities for profit maximization. In the first part
of this chapter we present a general discussion of revenue management
techniques with their application in different industries. Next, particular
attention is given to the application of the technique of overbooking,
which allows increasing capacity utilization when many cancellations are
present. While trying to keep complex technicality at a minimum, the
last part of this chapter presents in detail how to compute the optimal
level of overbooking and how to derive it mathematically.
As Krugmann (2000) has pointed out, dynamic pricing is simply a new
version of the well-known practice of price discrimination. Dynamic
pricing is a set of techniques based on varying price, with the purpose of
maximizing revenues and profits (Abrate et al., 2012). Products that are
usually sold at certain prices in brick-and-mortar stores (traditional and
physical channels) with infrequent price changes, can be sold today over
the Internet at posted prices that change daily or even hourly depending
on demand and competition from other websites (Kannan & Kopalle,
2001).
Firms have always tried to sell goods at the highest possible price that
consumers will pay, but in the last century they have developed many
techniques and software programs based on scientific methods. Some
examples are personalized pricing, markdowns, coupons, promotions,
and discounts. With these tools, firms try to respond to market fluctua-
tions of demand.
Kung et al. (2002) and Mauri (2012b) highlight the potential problem
with differential, or dynamic, pricing in terms of ethics and unfairness.
In the United States, Amazon’s customers exposed the e-tailored pricing
practice of selling the same products (DVDs) at different prices to differ-
ent customers based on some segmenting variables. The company was
overwhelmed with complaints but stated it was just testing consumer
responses to different price levels. The reaction was so intense, however,
that Amazon removed its differential pricing, giving refunds to those
who had been charged the higher prices.

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Online Pricing 

4.2.1 Typologies of revenue management and

applications
Some industries can vary quantity in response to demand fluctuation;
others can vary price. These abilities depend on the industry’s level of
flexibility in supplying services or products and in the definition of price.
Thus, two techniques of revenue management have been developed:
price-based RM and quantity-based RM. Quantity-based RM is a way
of limiting supply that rations the quantity sold to customers. Price-
based techniques reduce the number of sales without limiting supply but
instead increasing price.

4.2.2 Industry case study: retailers

Retailers don’t know at the beginning of the season which products will
be more appreciated by the customers, so they fix high prices for all items
initially. Products that are more appreciated (for which customers have
a high reservation price) are sold out at the high initial price, while the
remaining items have a low reservation price and therefore markdown
pricing is a form of demand learning.
Customers that purchase early have a higher willingness to pay for
many reasons (for example, they use the good for the entire season or
they want to be the first to own it, in order to be trendy). Markdown
pricing in this case is a segmentation strategy to distinguish price-sen-
sitive customers from price-insensitive ones. It is very effective during
peak shopping seasons (such as Christmas holidays) because at those
times customers are particularly interested in searching for the lowest
prices. Nowadays there are many software solutions oriented to optimize
markdown decisions, and major U.S. retailers who are experimenting
with them are achieving an interesting increase of revenue.
In contrast to markdown pricing, there is another way to promote
purchases, particularly packaged goods: promotions. Promotions
involve goods repeatedly bought by customers (e.g.., detergent, food,
and so forth), and they are essentially a temporary reduction of price.
Two drawbacks arise:

– If the frequency of promotions is excessive, the reference price of

customers for these products goes down.
– People can stockpile products, thereby reducing future demand for
them.

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 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

table 4.2 Types of promotions and different roles

Kind of Role of
promotion manufacturers Role of retailers Role of customers

Trade promotion They agree for a They can pass They receive a discount,
discount to the discount to if there has been the
retailers customers or not retailer decision
Consumer None They agree for They receive a discount
promotions a discount to from retailers
customers
Direct discount of They agree for None They receive a discount
manufacturers a discount to from manufacturers
customers

Source: Adapted from Talluri and Ryzin (2004).

4.2.2 Industry case study: manufacturing and e-business

Other applications of these techniques, based on price or quantity (but
also a mixture of the two) control have interested car manufacturers
and e-commerce. Some car manufacturers, such as Ford, have applied a
scientific method to identify features that customers were most willing
to pay for, together with the introduction of an incentive method for the
sales force based on profit and not on revenue.
In the most recent sectors of e-commerce, a lot of companies, like
eBay and Amazon, have applied innovative pricing mechanisms with
discounts and markdowns based on different factors, such as customer
loyalty and consumer behavior. Also, in the business to business (B2B)
sector, the Internet has introduced trading efficiency with the introduc-
tion of new pricing mechanisms and with more price transparency.

4.2.3 Industry case study: airline industry

This economic field is one of the most important examples of price-based
revenue management. It usually increases prices based on capacity and
demand. From the customer’s point of view,
the value of an early ticket is lower than the value of a later one
because it is proportional to the probability of utilization (in
particular for nonrefundable ones); and
in the travel business, customers often can’t plan flights in advance
and also can’t choose to postpone their trip.

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4.3 Reference price

When purchasing a product or a service online, the reference price is
an important concept. We judge the price of a product according to a
reference price we have in mind, both in a static and dynamic pricing
context. The literature has demonstrated that consumer choice is affected
by reference prices (Briesch et al., 1997).
There are essentially two approaches to reference prices. The first one
takes a behavioral perspective and uses experimental approaches to eval-
uate how to influence the Internal Reference Price (IRP) of a customer. A
relevant area of research regards the inputs of IRP and the different rep-
resentation of IRP in memory. In this setting the variety of buying deci-
sions, the store environment, and the type of product being purchased
are factors that increase the heterogeneity. Finally, prior experience can
vary also across customers who are different in terms of price sensitiv-
ity, demographics, and brand loyalty. The second approach is based on
mathematical research models and their application to consumer panel
data, with statistical fit.

4.3.1 Price expectation and reference price formation

Price expectation is driven by consumers’ prior experience and is influ-
enced by the actual price. People become adapted to a certain price level,
and they judge external stimuli according to the expectation-based ref-
erence. A strong effect is also an aspiration-based reference price: people
judge what they have to pay according to what other people, especially
in the same social group, had to pay for the same or similar product
(Medias et al., 2002). Therefore, consumers acquire information over
time that serves as an input to the formation of IRP.
A common model used for brand (I) and consumer (H) on purchase
occasion (t) is the following:

IRPiHt = αPriceiH(t−1) + (1–α)IRPiH(t−1) + βPromiH(t−1)

IRPiHt = actual Internal Reference Price.

α = coefficient that measures effect of previous price and IRP
(0 ≤α≤ 1).
PriceiH(t–1) = previous price.
(1–α) = coefficient that measures effect of previous IRP.
IRPiH(t–1) = previous IRP.

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β = coefficient that measures effect of previous promotion.

PromiH(t–1) = previous promotion.

This model is recursive and, in particular, the effect of prior prices is

given by the previous price and the reference price present at that time.
Here we find two coefficients: α and β:

The larger that α is, the greater is the recency effect of prior
exposures to price on IRP. A field study conducted by Dickson and
Sawyer (1990) tested that the value of α ranges from 0.60 to 0.85.
This implies that prices beyond two to three purchase occasions
have negligible influence on IRP;
The coefficient β associated with the variable promotion (Prom)
indicates the effect of promotions on reference price. Generally, the
effect is expected to be negative: the greater the deal expectation,
the lower is the IRP for the brand, because if you perceive that a
product is a high-quality one, you do not expect massive
discounts.

There are moderators that change in the purchase context, and this
can explain why parameters sometimes assume different values. These
moderators depend on the occasion (e.g., a purchase made during
a vacation or for gift giving), store environments(for example, the
same price of a bottle of wine could be judged more favorably if it
is sold in a specialty wine store than if it is sold in a discount wine
store), and availability of comparative price information (in this era
of the Internet, consumers may be more price sensitive and thus have
lower IRPs when buying products from online retailers that present
comparison).
There is a difference between brand-loyal consumers and switchers:
customers who are loyal to a few brands integrate prices of only the
favorite brands while switchers tend to integrate all the prices of pro-
moted brands, unwittingly integrating incidental and irrelevant price
information for a particular product. Also, promotions influence IRP
formation. If we agree that promotions have a negative effect on it, mar-
keters will have to find ways to promote products with a lower impact
on the reference price. On this argument, Alba et al. (1999) found that
promotion depth has a lesser effect than promotion frequency on price
perception. The level of technology and the economic conditions may
influence the evaluation of IRP as well.

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Durable and nondurable goods have different impacts. The infor-

mation acquired during prior purchase occasions is less salient in the
formation of a reference price for a durable because durables have a long
inter-purchase time. It is interesting to know if services, like hotel reser-
vations and aircraft seats, are more similar to durables or non-durables.
Services range from those that are purchased at regular intervals (e.g.,
car washes and haircuts) to those that have long temporal separations
between their consumption and repurchase (e.g., consultancy) (Shugan
& Xie, 2000). The first class of services is similar to durable and perish-
able products. Therefore, the model with memory we presented earlier,
based on prior prices and promotions, should be appropriate to depict
the scenario with services.
Consumers sometimes may decide between fixed fee and variable fee
(e.g., euro per minute) of expected consumption. In this case it should
be tested to see if a model of IRP works in both cases. Combining
services and variability, we can argue that when the variable part of
the price is small compared with the fixed component, consumers may
retain an integrated IRP for the service, whereas if the variable part
is prevalent, consumers may retain two separate IRPs for the variable
and fixed parts. In a fixed-fee option, IRP is a function of competi-
tors’ prices for similar services. In a strictly variable option, IRP is a
recency-weighted average amount spent in the past (Mazumdar et al.,
2005).

4.3.2 Autoregressive moving average models

The model we presented depends on a previous output (IRPiH(t−1)). The
autoregressive model is one of a group of linear prediction formulas
that attempt to predict an output y[n] of a system based on the previous
outputs (y[n−1],y[n−2] . . . ) and inputs (x[n], x[n−1], x[n−2] . . . ).
Deriving the linear prediction model involves determining the coef-
ficients a1,a2,.. and b0, b1, b2, . . . in the equation:

ye[n] (estimated) = a 1*y[n−1] + a2*y[n−2] . . . + b0*x[n] + b1*x[n−1] + . . .

In particular, a model that depends only on the previous outputs of the

system is called an autoregressive model (AR), while a model that depends
only on the inputs to the system is called a moving average model (MA),
and, of course, a model based on both inputs and outputs is an autore-
gressive-moving-average model (ARMA). The case we presented contains

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inputs and previous outputs; therefore, it is considered an ARMA

model.

4.3.3 Reference prices in our minds

A crucial element is the way reference prices are stored in the mind of
the customer. People are more accurate in recalling price ranks than in
estimating numerical prices. We have a great amount of information to
store in our memory; therefore, if we are able to simplify we can be more
accurate. Remembering only price ranks means that we don’t remember
the exact price but only the position of one brand in respect to the other
(e.g., De Cecco pasta is usually more expensive than Barilla).
To represent IRP in memory at aggregate levels, economists assume
a model in which consumers first decide how much to budget for an
expenditure category and then decide the item to purchase within that
category. This assumption seems quite reasonable because the spending
limit may serve as a reference for monitoring the actual spending (Heath
& Soll, 1996).
Several studies on the differential use of memory for externally infor-
mation versus prior prices showed that people use both memory and
external information, but they assign weights depending on the product
and on the consumer. The proportion of weights depends on the size of
the consumer’s mental consideration set: the larger the size of the mental
consideration set, the more the consumer relies on external information,
being not able to store everything in her or his mind. Nevertheless, even
if the product category stands out among others, the weight of the price
level placed in memory is more relevant.
In making a store-choice decision, consumers consider store-specific
reference prices as a basis for price comparison. This way of decision
making may be biased because consumers pay more attention to the
prices of different products with which they are relatively familiar. The
result is an erroneous sampling. For instance, one consumer might con-
sider Carrefour (a supermarket chain) to be cheaper than Coop (another
supermarket chain) just because the products that he or she buys most
often are cheaper in Carrefour than in Coop, but this does not mean that
Carrefour is cheaper on average than Coop.
When the task is not so relevant (low-involvement task) consumers
use price memory implicitly, invoking heuristics. There can be some
mistakes also here because people sometimes forget the exact position of
the digits in prices.

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4.3.4 Purchase-timing decisions (speed)

Reference prices have a significant effect on consumers’ purchase-timing
decisions (that is a critical factor for most services and durable product
purchases): they evaluate when it is time to buy according to the differ-
ence between the actual category value and the reference category value.
In particular, they postpone a purchase if they perceive a loss, and they
accelerate a purchase if a gain is perceived. The degree of these two
situations is different according to prospect theory—that is, loss aver-
sion dominates gain perception; therefore, the degree of acceleration is
exceeded by the degree of postponement.
The reference price effects are generally estimated by pooling cross-
sectional data and a time frame. This approach should be tested with
a panel data analysis with random effect to eliminate the chance of
obtaining confounding effects at the individual level. For example, price-
sensitive consumers have a lower reference point because, on average,
they pay a lower price.
Now we analyze strengths and weaknesses of two approaches: panel
data and prospect theory.

4.3.5 Panel data analysis

When we suspect that the outcome variable depends on explanatory
variables that are not observable but correlate with the observed explana-
tory variables, panel data analysis allows us to estimate the effect of the
observed explanatory variables. The model requires that such omitted
variables be constant over time and that there be few time periods (t)
and many individuals (N).
Consider the multiple linear regression model for individual i=1, . . . ,N
who is observed at several time periods t = 1, . . . , t

yit = α + β1 it1 + . . . + βK xitK + ci + uit

where yit is the dependent variable, xit1, . . . , xitK are K explanatory variables,
α and β1 , . . . , βk are K+1 regression parameters, ci is an individual-specific
effect and uit is an idiosyncratic (that changes across time and unit) error
term.
The data generation process is described by these features:
linearity, meaning that the model is linear in the parameters α, βs,
in the individual effect ci and in the error uit;

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independence, because the observations are independent across

individuals but not necessary across time (assuming independence
across time is unrealistic); and
strictly exogeneity, because the idiosyncratic error term is assumed
uncorrelated with the explanatory variables of all past, current, and
future time periods of the same individual and with the individual
specific effect.
The remaining assumptions are divided into two sets of assumptions: the
random effects model and the fixed effects model:
In the random effects model, the individual-specific effect is a
random variable that is uncorrelated with the explanatory variables
of all past, current, and future time periods of the same individual.
Furthermore, it assumes that the regressors including a constant are
not perfectly collinear, that all regressors (but the constant) have
non-zero variance and not too many extreme values;
In the fixed effects model, the great difference is that the individual-
specific effect is a random variable that is allowed to be correlated
with the explanatory variables.
The random effects (RE) estimator is the feasible generalized least squares
(GLS) estimator. GLS transforms the data (dependent and explanatory
variables) such that the error terms in the transformed model are uncor-
related across all N individuals and all time periods (t).
For the fixed effects (FE), subtracting time averages yˉi from the initial
model

yit = α + β1 it1 + . . . + βK xitK + ci + uit

yields a within model. Note that the individual-specific effect ci and the
intercept α cancel out each other. Also note that time-invariant regres-
sors cancel out each other as well. The fixed effects estimator estimates
the within model by OLS. The idiosyncratic errors are often likely serially
correlated when t >2. Therefore, one assumption we made is unrealistic.
Bertrand et al. (2004) show that the usual standard errors of the fixed
effects estimator are drastically understated in the presence of serial cor-
relation. It is therefore advisable to always use cluster-robust standard
errors for the fixed effects estimator.
The random effects model can be consistently estimated by both
the RE estimator or the FE estimator. The former is efficient while the

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latter is inefficient. So we would prefer the RE estimator if we can be

sure that the individual-specific effect really is an unrelated effect. This
can be tested by a (Durbin-Wu-) Hausmann test. The test is performed
by comparing the estimated βRE and βFE for the subset of coefficients of
time-varying variables:

H ~ χ 2j asymptotically

follows a χ2 distribution with J degrees of freedom where J is the number

of time-varying regressors. The null hypothesis is that the individual
specific effect is uncorrelated with the regressors, and the errors are
equicorrelated. Under H0, the estimated βRE is consistent and efficient,
and the estimated βFE is consistent but inefficient; under HA the estimated
βRE is inconsistent, but the estimated βFE remains consistent.
Finally, we often also suspect that there are time-specific effects δt that
affect all individuals in the same way

yit = α + β1 it1 + . . . + βK x itK + δt + ci + uit

We can estimate this extended model by including a dummy variable

for each time period.

4.3.6 Nonparametric tests

When faced with comparing different distributions and data we will use
nonparametric tests. The starting point is a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test,
which tests whether or not the sample of data is consistent with a speci-
fied distribution function (for example, a normal distribution). When
there are two samples of data, it is used to test whether or not these two
samples may reasonably be assumed to come from the same distribution.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test does not require the assumption that the
population is normally distributed.
If the number of observations is not large enough to test the normality
(or a different distribution such as the t-student) it is possible to use tests
which involves ranked data, i.e. data that can be put in order of dimen-
sion. All these tests are nonparametric.
The Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test is designed to test a hypothesis about
the median of a population distribution. It often involves the use of
matched pairs—for example, before and after data—in which case it tests
for a median difference of zero. This test does not require the assumption
that the population is normally distributed.

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Step by step, the test takes the absolute difference |Xa–Xb| for each
pair; it omits from consideration those cases where |Xa–Xb|=0; it ranks
the remaining absolute differences, from smallest to largest, employing
tied ranks where appropriate; it assigns to each such rank the “+” sign
when Xa–Xb>0 and the “–” sign when Xa–Xb<0, and then it calculates
the value of W for the Wilcoxon test, which in the present version of the
procedure is equal to the sum of the signed ranks.

4.3.7 Prospect theory

In expected utility theory, when one makes a choice it is to maximize
the level of wealth, choosing the optimal decision. Prospect theory,
on the contrary, is a descriptive model that tries to model real-life
choices. The theory, developed by Kahneman and Tversky (1979),
describes how individuals evaluate potential losses and gains. The refer-
ence point separates losses from gains and success from failure.
It is a two-step process: in the first phase people decide which out-
come they see as a reference, considering a lower outcome as a loss and a
larger as a gain. In the second phase they choose the alternative with the
highest utility. In Figure 4.1 we see how to judge gains and losses with
a prospect theory approach. We see that the displeasure of a loss is felt
more intensively than the pleasure of an equivalent gain.

VALUE

LOSSES GAINS

Reference point
The function is steeper for losses than
for gains (loss aversion)

figure 4.1 Prospect theory function

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From the graph we also see that, according to prospect theory, people
do not treat probability linearly. For example, it is preferred, on average,
to obtain a certain gain of 300 € than to gamble with an 80 of obtaining
400 € and the remaining 20 of obtaining 0 €. The rational approach
based on expected values would suggest exactly the contrary.
Focusing on the probability of an event, we can represent the dissimi-
larities from a standard approach as shown in Figure 4.2.
In this graph, on the y-axis there are the decision weights and on the
x-axis the different levels of probability. We can see that people tend to
overreact to small probabilities, but underreact to large probabilities.
For example, in the graph, if the probability of a particular event is quite
large, let’s say 80, people tend underreact with respect to a linear func-
tion. In contrast, for a rare event, with a risk of 5, people overreact. In
the graph we can see why people generally prefer to have an insurance
policy even if the risk is limited: individuals tend to overweight small
probabilities.
The basic formula of prospect theory to derive the utility is the
following:
n
U = ∑i = 1 w(pi) v(xi)

where w is the probability weighting function that gives that particular

form of concavity-convexity to the latter function in the graph, while
v is a value function that assigns a value to an outcome in the former
graph.

Decision weights

Underweight

Overweight

0.05 0.80 1.00 Probability

figure 4.2 Decision weights

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To sum up, we can identify four patterns:

POSITIVE EVENT NEGATIVE EVENT

LARGE Risk avoiding Risk seeking

PROBABILITIES
SMALL Risk seeking Risk avoiding
PROBABILITIES

To clarify with some examples:

If one has to choose BETWEEN a gamble with a chance of 80

to gain an amount of 400 (the remaining 20 to obtain 0) AND
obtaining only 300 but without risk, one will prefer, on average, 300
for sure (positive event and large probabilities imply risk avoiding).
If one has to choose BETWEEN a gamble with a chance of 80 to
lose an amount of 400 (the remaining 20 to lose 0) AND losing
only 300 but without risk, one will prefer, on average, the gamble
(negative event and large probabilities imply risk seeking).
If one has to choose BETWEEN a gamble with a chance of 5 to
win 1,000 (the remaining 95 to obtain 0) AND obtaining only 60
but without risk, one will prefer, on average, the gamble (positive
event and small probabilities imply risk seeking).
If one has to choose BETWEEN a gamble with a chance of 5 to
lose 1,000 (the remaining 95 to lose 0) AND losing only 60 but
without risk, one will prefer, on average, losing 60 for sure (negative
event and small probabilities imply risk avoiding like an insurance
coverage).

The preceding shows clear inconsistencies, and it cannot be formalized

using an expected utility approach. If someone is risk seeking, he or
she will be consistent across positive and negative events and low and
high probabilities. This effect is called the pseudocertainty effect, and it
represents the fact that people are riskaverse or riskacceptant depending
on the amounts involved and on whether the gamble relates to becoming
better or worse off. That is why the same person may buy both an insur-
ance policy (demonstrating risk aversion) and a lottery ticket (demon-
strating risk seeking).

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Finally, in 1998 Prelec proposed a specification for the weighting func-

tion w (p):
γ
w(p) = e–(–ln p)

where the parameter γ gives the convexity and concavity of the func-
tion. Specifically, with this formulation the function crosses the 45° line
at p= 1/e ≈ 0,37, and a decrease in γ causes Prelec’s weighting function
to become more concave to the left of 1/e and more convex to the right
of 1/e. Figure 4.3 shows some of the different possible curvatures of the
Prelec’s function according to different values of the parameter γ (indi-
vidual distinction depends on personal reference points).

4.3.8 Reference price: construction

As we discussed before, the reference price is a sort of price expectation
based on a person’s memory or contextual information plus some other
factors that cause heterogeneity. Variables that influence its construction

0.8

0.6
w (p)

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

figure 4.3 Prelec’s curvatures

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include seller’s cost, social comparison effect, adaptation or recursivity,

and loss aversion. Therefore, we analyze them.
Some consumers are aware of the seller’s cost. If we present to these
consumers a series of data showing them different prices, it is possible
that they might consider a price fair even if it is not the lowest price in
the series of data. For example, if we sample some prices of a Ryanair
ticket for a certain route, a passenger may consider it fair to pay 25 euro
one way even if the lowest price for that route is only 4 euro. Obviously,
this argument is true also for very high prices that are perceived to be
unfair.
Another important factor is the social comparison effect: aspirational
reference price may be considered as a function that considers what oth-
ers in a social group (friends or colleagues) paid for the same or similar
products. If a close friend paid only 4 euro for a flight on our route with
Ryanair, then this price can become the fair price to us because we will
adjust downward our reference price. Aspirational benchmarks are espe-
cially likely to be evoked when the way firms use discriminatory pricing
(e.g., hotel and airline pricing) is not clear. In some models reference
points are only a function of past information (adaptation) whereas in
others the new reference point is a function of the previous reference
point and the previous piece of information (recursivity).
Loss-averse consumers consider the reference price equal to the most
recent purchase price because they are interested to compare on a one-
to-one scale whether there was an improvement (prices are lower) or a
loss (prices are higher) from the status quo.
Non-purchase prices such as the previous period’s price or historical
peaks are used if no purchase periods are present, and most authors
employ the highest, the lowest, and the most recent price as reference
price.

4.3.9 Reference price: firms’ strategies

Reference price influences (1) strategies of firms, to increase revenues;
and (2) strategies of consumers, to obtain discounted prices. Firms’
strategies depend on the type of market, loss aversion, role of the bundle,
incentives to encourage or discourage consumption, and consumer
targeting.
Starting our analysis of the aforementioned elements, Greenleaf
(1995) shows that the optimal pricing trend for a monopolist to increase

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revenues is to adopt a cyclical pricing policy. This behavior holds also for
an oligopoly, even with some problems of heterogeneity.
In online settings is easy for a firm to make experiments. For exam-
ple, firms can present a default option to create an anchor and then to
control the subsequent variation of attributes. Loss aversion plays a role
also here. In a world (setting) dominated by loss aversion, the optimal
strategy is a constant price because loss-adverse customers tend to easily
adapt to a downgrade but not to an upgrade of prices.
Reference prices may also be used by customers in evaluating bundle
prices. In this case, the value that can be obtained through bundling
is the following: firms can capture consumers’ interests by framing a
low price for the core component (e.g., a personal computer) that serves
as an anchor to evaluate bundles (e.g., a personal computer plus a
printer).
There are ways to encourage and discourage users to consume.
Services like utilities can inform users that their usage exceeded their
norms to discourage usage; commercial retailers can use advertising to
increase usage and revenues. Moreover, some firms can decide to apply a
combination of fixed and variable fees in which a heavy variable fee may
discourage massive use of the product or service.
Different segments of customers have different reference prices, so
firms should use appropriate strategies to target each segment. We saw
that consumers may retain mental reference prices in non-numeric
forms, and price communication messages need to be consistent with
these qualitative and quantitative representations.

4.3.10 Experimental approach

Two factors in an experimental approach are (1) the design of the experi-
ment and (2) its randomization relevance.

Design of experiment: laboratory, field, or observational data setting

An experimental approach can test the validity of the purposed theories,
revealing market mechanisms. The design of an experiment is a funda-
mental aspect. The first choice is between a laboratory setting and a field
setting. In a laboratory setting, everything but the variable we want to
manipulate is controlled, and the main concern is “external validity.” In
the field, where we simulate a real setting, the main concern is “internal
validity.”

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Internal validity refers both to how well a study is run (design, how
variables were measured, and so forth) and how one can conclude, with
a certain degree of confidence, that the observed effects are produced
only by the independent variable that is manipulated. The question we
have to address is the following: Is it really the treatment that causes the
difference between the subjects in the control and the treatment groups?
External validity represents the extent to which a study’s result can be
generalized, or applied to other settings or people. An example where
the external validity is violated is the following: If subjects are not ran-
domly selected from a population, then their characteristics may bias
their performance; therefore, the results of the study may not work in
other settings.
To clarify the concept, consider this argument: Women who receive
hormone treatment are on average less exposed to cancer; therefore,we
know that taking hormones is a way to reduce the chance of getting
cancer. There is a clear flow in this argument caused by confounding
factors: (1) women on hormone treatment are systematically differ-
ent from other women because they visit a doctor (blood cholesterol
control, better nutrition, and so forth), (2) they are better informed,
and (3) they may have different genes. Practically speaking, we would
observe better outcomes in such women even if there were no effect
from hormone treatment.
With binary treatments, there are two potential outcomes: the outcome
(yi) without treatment and the outcome with treatment. The treatment
effect is the difference between these two potential outcomes.
Another way to run experiments is to conduct them in the field or to
work with observational data. We typically have to rely on observational
data to answer causal questions in social sciences. In fact, observational
data are less expensive than experiments. They are derived from surveys
(telephone interviews, census, and so forth) or administrative records
(health insurance records, social security records, and so forth). We have
to make sure that there is nothing else that could potentially explain the
observed correlation. Major problems can come from omitted third fac-
tors, sample selection, and also reverse causality, which means that the
cause is considered as an effect and vice versa.
Observational data will never be able to give you an answer if you
cannot think of an experiment that would test the same hypothesis. The
aim is to use data to mimic experiments and, in particular, to mimic
randomization and control groups. Thinking about how to set up an

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accurate experiment helps to correctly specify the causal question that

the observational data may (or may not) answer.

Randomization relevance
Fundamental problems of causal inference are generated by the outcome
that is not observed, which is called the counterfactual outcome. We are
never able to observe both potential outcomes. To clarify this concept,
consider a company that just started to apply revenue management and
dynamic pricing when a severe crisis hit, which it survived. We will
never know if this company would have survived the crisis without the
use of revenue management.
The ideal solutions to these problems are randomized controlled
experiments (Hinkelman & Kempthorne, 2008). In randomized con-
trolled experiments we can rule out any other factor that could explain
observed differences. We can achieve this by the use of a control group
and randomization. The population is divided into a treated group and
a control group, followed by randomization assignments. This allows
to measure directly the effect of the manipulating variable, testing the
causal relationship.

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5
A Peculiar Type of Revenue
Management: Overbooking
Abstract: Chapter 5 presents in detail the concept of
overbooking, a revenue management technique used to
maximize profits. The approach of this whole chapter
is analytical, with the use of mathematical formulas.
In addition, there is a discussion of the behavioral
consequences, particularly in terms of unfairness, in line
with what was highlighted in previous chapters.

Viglia, Giampaolo. Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior,

and Analytics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
doi: 10.1057/9781137413260.0010.

 DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0010
A Peculiar Type of Revenue Management 

5.1 Overbooking
Overbooking is a marketing practice concerned with increasing capacity
utilization in a reservation-based system when there are significant can-
cellations (Viglia, 2013). Its purpose is maximizing profit, through the
growth of the total volume of sales, in the presence of cancellation. It is
the oldest type of revenue management practice (for a complete review,
see Mauri, 2012a), with many applications in various fields of econom-
ics. In particular, it has been applied to the airline industry, where about
50 of reservations result in cancellation or no-shows (the difference
between cancellation and no-shows is that the first is a reservation that
is terminated by a customer before the time of service while in the last
case the customer does not cancel the reservation but just fails to show
up at the time of service), and about 15 of all seats would go unsold
without the practice of overbooking.
Recently new techniques of revenue management have received
more attention than overbooking—for example, fare-class allocation
and pricing. Yet overbooking remains crucial because of two points of
view: managing its negative effects of denying service on the customer
relations side, and, on the planning level, controlling parameters of a
probability distribution to balance the potential risk of denied service
against the rewards of increased sales.

5.1.1 Reservation, cancellation, and consequences

A reservation is a forward contract between a firm and customer, and it
gives customers two rights:
“reservation right,” which is the right to use a service in the future
at a fixed price; and
“cancellation right,” namely the option to cancel (in some case with
a penalty) before the time of service.
Customers value both reservation and cancellation rights (see Table 5.1)
for the following two reasons:
They value reservation in particular when the costs of availability at
the desired time are higher than the costs of availability prior to the
time of consumption.
They value the option to cancel reservations for the flexibility it
allows to change their plans if preferences change.

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table 5.1 Reservation rights and cancellation rights

Reservation rights Cancellation rights

Definition Option to use a future service at a fixed Option to cancel before

price the time of service.
Frequency Always contemplate in contracts Often contemplate in
contracts
Customer Avoid high costs of unavailability at the Flexibility
advantages desired time
Firm Preserve reservation (or, if impossible, Hold up opportunity cost
obligations pay appropriate compensation)

In this way the firm has a two-sided risk: to honor the reservation when
customers show up (or provide high compensation if it cannot honor the
reservation), and in cases when customers cancel or do not show up, to
bear the opportunity cost of wasted capacity. Firms try to manage this
risk through a combination of cancellation penalties and overbooking.
Penalties have the power to limit potential abuse of customers’ multiple
reservations. They range from minimal charges to full price, but if penal-
ties are too large, the cancellation option has little value for customers.
To further reduce the costs of cancellation, a firm may adopt overbook-
ing strategy, which is accepting more reservations than its capacity to
serve and thus taking the risk that the number of surviving reservations
will be within capacity. This strategy may involve important problems
(see Figure 5.1):
legal and regulatory implications of failing to honor the reservation
contract;
managing situations in which service must be denied; and
developing methodologies to control the level of overbooking on an
operational basis.

5.1.2 Managing oversales

Overbooking may involve negative effects on customer satisfaction and
denied service costs (Smith et al., 1999). Managing compensation and
selection of customers in the event of oversales can reduce this impact.
The main issues involved in managing oversales are
compensation for denied service;
selection of customers involved in oversale; and
oversales auction.

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Legal How to deny the

implications service

Overbooking problems

Controlling
overbooking
level

figure 5.1 Overbooking problems

Compensation for denied service

Although legally compensation often specifies payment of monetary
damage, this is often viewed by customers as inadequate. For example,
a car rental customer who is planning to take a holiday tour would
most likely find the prospect of getting a full refund plus 50 of the
contracted rental rate as a poor compensation for a ruined vacation. It is
often more effective to offer customers a substitute service (for example
an upgrade) plus ancillary services: this is frequently less expensive for
a firm and more effective for customer satisfaction than just monetary
compensation.

Selection of customers involved in oversales

This criterion for selection of customers regarding oversales can have
a significant impact on the firm’s direct costs and customer goodwill.
From a legal point of view, such selection must not be discriminatory.
For example, U.S. Department of Transportation regulations state that
every carrier shall establish priority rules for determining which pas-
sengers holding confirmed reserved space shall be denied boarding on
an oversold flight in the event that an insufficient number of volunteers
come forward; such rules shall not cause any advantage or disadvantage
to any particular person.
The default selection is usually on a first come, first serve (FCFS) basis,
so customers are encouraged to arrive on time, but there are many busi-
ness situations where this allocation is undesirable. For example, hotel
overbooking, in which the application of the FCFS basis would create

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important difficulties to customers who arrive very late in the evening

could create severe problems for the hotel. It is difficult to relocate a cus-
tomer who arrives late at night, often tired and irritable—and customers
who arrive late are typically business travelers who pay the highest rates,
travel often, and represent the most profitable segment for most hotels.
Therefore, hotels use an alternative criterion: they monitor arrival
rates during the day to anticipate oversold condition, and if at some
point they expect an oversale, they look for alternative arrangements for
early-arriving customers.
In some service situations, it is possible to select among a pool of “vol-
unteers” during the allocation of services. For example, in airline board-
ing, gate agents can select specific passengers (such as young, student
travelers, and so forth) for denied-boarding offers. The goal is to select
targets that are eager to receive a nice hotel room and a good meal in
exchange for taking a flight the following day.

Oversales auction
Another method is to conduct an auction to attract volunteers to give
up their reservation in exchange for compensation. This practice is now
widespread in airlines, but the idea was not well received initially because
it didn’t appear decorous.
The most important lessons about overbooking come from the airline
industry and are as follows:
Customers need time (decades) to accept overbooking practices, and
providers have to learn how to develop painless strategies for them.
Some seemingly fanciful techniques, such oversales auctions, are
critically received; therefore, innovation must be introduced with
caution.
Overbooking, now awell developed practice for airlines and hotels,
nevertheless remains a primary source of dissatisfaction for customers.

5.1.3 Static overbooking models

The simplest and most used methodology for making overbooking
decisions is based onstatic overbooking models. They determine the
maximum number of reservations (called overbooking limit) to hold at the
current time, given estimates of cancellation rates from the current time
until the day of service, and they are periodically recomputed to control
cancellation probabilities over time. With these models the distinction

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between cancellations (that would give the opportunity to the firm to

replace the cancelled reservation) and no-shows (that doesn’t give this
opportunity) is unnecessary, because they assume a static overbooking
limit without necessity to adjust it.
These models recalculate cancellation and no-show probabilities over
time, resulting in overbooking limits that vary (usually decline) over
time. Overbooking limits are set initially high because the probability of
a reservation being cancelled prior to the time of service or no-showing
is usually higher. As the time of selling (t) approaches, the overbooking
limits fall. At the same time, reservations are being accumulated in the
system over time.
With overbooking in place, the reservations can exceed the capac-
ity and yet it is not necessary to stop accepting reservations until the
overbooking limit is reached. At that point reservations are rejected. The
resulting “show” demand is ideally close to the capacity.

The binomial model

The binomial model is the simplest static model, in which a no-show is
treated as a cancellation.
Its main assumptions are that
customers cancel independently of each other;
each customer has the same probability of cancellation; and
cancellation probability depends only on the time remaining till
service.
The symbols used are the following:
t = time remaining to service
C = physical capacity
y = number of reservations on hand
q = probability that a reservation currently on hand shows up at the
time of service
1−q = probability that customers cancel prior to the time of service.
Under the assumption stated here, the number of customers who show
up at the time of service, given there are y reservations on hand, is
denoted Z(y) (the show demand), and is binomially distributed:

Py(z) = P(Z(y) = z) = Cy,zqz (1 – q)y-z, z = 0,1,2, . . . .,y [1]

z
Fy(z) = P(Z(y) ≤ z) = ∑k=0 Cy,zqk (1 – q)y-k [2]

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5.1.4 Overbooking-limit policies

Two different kinds of overbooking-limit policies are adopted by firms.
One is based on economic criteria. The other is based on service-level
criteriaaccording to the following:
Type 1 service level, which measures the probability of oversale at the
time of the service; and
Type 2 service level, which measures the long-run fraction of customers
who are denied service.
In the Type 1 service level, firms accept a limited number of reservations,
called x, and they continue to accept them up to the achievement of this
target. The equation of this type is
s1 (x) = P (Z(x)>C)

where s1(x) is the probability to exceed the overbooking limit and to be

inadequate in providing the service to the customer. In particular, with a
limit of x, the probability to deny service doesn’t surpass s1(x).
In the Type 2 service level, the long-run fraction of customers dissatis-
fied, denoted by s2 (x), is represented by the following formula:
s2 (x) = Fx-1(C – 1) – (C/qx)Fx(C)

Fixing an overbooking limit x, the maximum value of the fraction of

customers dissatisfied is represented by s2 (x).
The aforementioned formula is convenient for computation with the
utilization of specific tables that report Type 1 and 2 service levels for spe-
cific values of C and q, in relation to a desired service level. For example, if
we want no more than 1 of customers to be denied service, and we want
a capacity of C = 150 and q = 0,85, we should search the largest value of s2
(x) less than 0,01 that corresponds at an overbooking limit of 175.
If we receive a number of reservations that is fewer than x*, the service
level will be greater than s1 (x) and s2 (x) resulting from the computa-
tion; therefore, with these formulas we obtain the worst-case (not the
average-case) service level. The average-case service level [S2 (x)] is given
by the following equation:
S2 (x) = {E[min(D,x)s2 (min(D,x))]}/{E[min(D,x)]}

With specific tables, it is possible to search the largest value of x that

provides an average level, S2 (x), that is within the desired limit.

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The average-case service level is not very useful because on congested

days customers will experience a service level closer to s2 (x) than S2 (x);
this is called “inspection paradox” and justifies the prudent utilization of
s2 (x).
Overbooking based on economic criteria calculates the estimate
revenue loss from not accepting additional reservations and the cost of
denied service. Hence, hereafter we analyze these costs and the potential
revenue loss. A common assumption is that each denied-service costs
the firm a constant marginal amount h, that is,
c(z) = h(z – C)+

where
z = customers show up on the day of service; and
c(z) = denied service cost, which we assume is an increasing
function of z.
The total expected profit is given by the following equation:
V(y) = py – E[c (Z(y))]

where
y = reservations on hand;
p = marginal revenue generated by accepting an additional
reservation; and
Z(y) = number of customers who show up the day of service,
out of y reservations.
It is optimal (because V function is concave) to accept the yth reserva-
tion until the marginal profit [expressed by ΔV(y) = V(y) – V(y – 1)] is
positive.
Therefore, the optimal overbooking limit x* is the largest value of x
that admits
ΔV(x) = E[c(Z(x))] – E[c (Z(x – 1))] ≤ p

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6
Case Study: Applications
for the Hotel Industry
Abstract: In the concluding chapter, as a review of the
concepts of the previous chapters, the author presents a
case study applied to the hospitality industry. In particular,
the power of online travel agencies, as opposed to that of
the hotels themselves, in recent years in regard to booking
rooms is explored. These findings apply widely to other
services, such as airlines and car rental businesses. To
respond to very recent new information, the chapter also
presents tentative possible future scenarios, starting from
the specific case of online travel agencies.

Viglia, Giampaolo. Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior,

and Analytics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
doi: 10.1057/9781137413260.0011.

 DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0011
Applications for the Hotel Industry 

6.1 Introduction
The hotel industry is an appropriate example to use for applying the
online marketing practices discussed in this book and for understand-
ing the dimensions of this massive marketing tool—the Internet. Simply
put, with the emergence of Internet, hotels had to adopt new methods to
market their services.
It all started in the late 1990s when hotels made static websites con-
sisting of scanned brochures. Guests started sending e-mails, but, due
to lack of IT resources, it was time-consuming and costly to reply to
each guest and confirm bookings. Archer et al. (2003) suggested why
small and medium hotels have been slow to adopt Internet solutions in
supply chain and procurement transactions: cost of innovation, lower
transaction volumes, and problems associated with integrating informa-
tion. For these reasons, online travel sites came into existence with their
own booking engines that allowed guests to instantly receive booking
confirmations after filling a form. The use of the Internet as an informa-
tion medium has greatly increased price and rate transparency as well
(O’Connor, 2003). Meta-search websites have allowed travelers to more
easily make comparisons among many different hotel offers. This led
to the creation of online travel agencies (OTAs) becoming a key business
driver (Kim et al., 2007).
Expedia, Priceline, Travelocity, and Orbitz are some examples of OTAs
that offer hotel rooms, air tickets, rental cars, and other hospitality-related
services. OTAs enable guests to compare other hotels in the same area
with same star level and facilities by reading guest reviews. The increase
in business from OTAs prompted large hotel chains like Marriott and
Starwoods to create more dynamic websites and offer unique services
like instant booking confirmations, discounts, and promotions via the
Internet. Currently, OTAs, large hotel chains , and travel sites are all striv-
ing for dominance in the virtual marketplace. Small and independent
hotels are trying to figure out their best way to compete in the Internet
marketplace.
The majority of customers these days do not search for hotels in
the yellow pages or call to book rooms, but instead they book via the
Internet themselves or through global distribution systems (GDS) of travel
agents. Traditional methods of cold calling and making appointments to
increase hotel bookings still work to an extent, but hotels need to have
a virtual presence to really succeed. OTAs are able to reap benefits from

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Internet marketing, but what are hotels doing to keep up with the chang-
ing marketing trends birthed by widespread use of Internet worldwide?
According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization
(UNWTO) data, international tourism started to decline in mid-2008,
leaving the hotel industry to face low occupancies (Andreas et al., 2010).
The hotel industry has exhausted traditional methods of marketing and
is now trying to distinguish itself from OTAs and competitors in order
to maintain or increase revenue from web sources.
The traditional ways to market a hotel still have a use since customers
tend to use travel agents and tour operators mostly when buying sophis-
ticated travel products. Especially for booking multiple destinations,
customers like to rely on a personal travel agent in case something does
not go as planned. However, with changing customer patterns, hotels
need to have an online presence to gain more bookings. According to an
Irish Tourism Report,
The Internet has already transformed the way in which visitors research,
plan and purchase their trip. The Internet’s power as a marketing tool
cannot be ignored and should not be underestimated, and tourism product
providers must respond actively to the opportunities that it offers—or suf-
fer the consequences. (CHL Consulting Company, p.viii)

OTAs have built up a level of visibility and a network that hotels cannot
match (Lee et al., 2012). When a search is made via any search engine
for hotel bookings, OTA results show up before large chain hotels. OTA
and hotel websites are targeting the same Internetusers that make them
direct competitors in the online world. In this chapter we will investigate
how this happens and how hotels can improve their online presence.

6.2 Impact of online travel agencies on hotels

OTAs dominate the hotel industry and they witness continuous growth,
allowing for flexible pricing policies (Garcia & Angel, 2013). More than
95 of hotels confirm that the OTAs’ share increased or held steady
during the past three years. For the majority of participating hotels, the
OTAs’ revenue and occupancy exceeded their direct Internet revenue
and occupancy. Some reasons why OTAs dominate follow:
more trustworthy
brand image

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Applications for the Hotel Industry 

24-hourcall center facility

security
reward points
incremental revenue
rate comparison possible with peer reviews
last-minute bookings
brand management
able to offer large discounts without hurting brand
“we are on your side” in customers’ eyes
The Internet has changed the way hotel rooms are distributed. Independent
hotels are not able to achieve the same economies of scale as large hotel
groups, franchises, and consortia in terms of media advertising, but
now all hotels have a similar playing field in online marketing. With the
Internet being widely used for reservations, good online reviews provide
a key advantage because 24 of travelers who book rooms research
reviewed sites on the Internet. Every hotelier needs to understand the full
importance of the Internet: a website is not just an electronic brochure.
Hotelier Daryl Jaeger has summed up the OTAs’ benefits and shortcom-
ing as follows: “OTA’s bad side is distribution cost and rate parity rules
that work to their advantage. They have a lot of power. OTA’s good side is
their level of visibility and their network. It’s a trade-off.” (http://blogs.sas.
com/content/hospitality/2012/01/12/are-hoteliers-losing-control-of-their-
inventory/) OTA’s commission may never go down, so the only course
of action is for hotels to launch their own campaign to be visible on the
Internet. This is not easy and not cheap. Such a campaign encompasses
website overhaul and search engine optimization (SEO) strategy, operat-
ing a blog, and actively managing social media and hotel-review websites.
Done correctly, these efforts will drive more traffic to the hotel website,
and if the site is attractive enough, visits will convert into bookings.
Currently the conversion rate from lookers to bookers on hotel websites
is less than 5. If that ratio increases, hotels can sell less through OTAs,
bringing their distribution cost (commission payments) down.
Hotels require online marketing strategy to gain their share of online
business. They have to set targets to increase their direct bookings to
an extent that they are always above online booking sites’ percentages.
The result will be less commission for the online booking sites and less
expense for the hotel—and more savings for the customer.
OTAs have been trying to offer lower rates, which is not what every
customer demands. Customers have different needs and therefore

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product differentiation is required. Products should be designed for the

customers, but that is not happening at the moment in travel industry.
In regard to airlines, OTAs have access to personal data that includes
preferred airline seats, meal choice, and frequently used destinations.
They can notify customers if their preferred seat is available and show
the flights with preferred layover stop sen route to destinations. Similarly,
hotel websites have access to their customers’ preferences and can offer
the same room and location where the customer stayed before. They can
show nearby places to eat and activities to do instead of only promoting
hotel restaurants and services. And there are some more ways to offer
customers differentiated products from third-party vendors and thus
make commissions. For example, the customer can be offered a rental car
service from the hotel’s website, day tours can be sold as well, and tour
guides can be secured. Hotels can learn from Amazon.com, which is sell-
ing products of different retailers according to customers’ preferences.
KLM Royal Dutch Airlines is planning to offer an option for customers
to choose their seatmates from Facebook or Linkedin profiles. Malaysia
Airlines will offer a service for passengers to find out if their friends
from social media sites are on the same flight. Hotels can use similar
technology to their advantage, allowing guests to find out if their friends
are staying at the same hotel or at a different hotel in the same city dur-
ing the same dates. Such benefits for customers require an integration of
their accounts with social media sites.
Selling a product isn’t the beginning of a company’s relationship
with customers; that starts when they first become aware of its brand.
Likewise, the relationship doesn’t end at the point of sale, because every
interaction with customers is an opportunity to foster their loyalty or
lose their future business (Carey et al., 2012).

example 1 Amari Hotels

Amari hotels are using every possible means to obtain business

directly from end users. Sunish Sadasivan, director of revenue,
states that they are targeting 50–55 of the online business to come
from their website by 2013. At the moment, OTA occupancy (12)
is higher than direct Internet occupancy (9), so this is a very
ambitious goal, but it is also very possible to achieve by means of
certain efforts to increase online business. For example, in mid 2011,
the company invested in a platform to help avoid missing mobile

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customers that have other options in the form of OTAs to book

from. They have installed software solutions that compute forecast-
ing rates for up to six months. This enables them to see the extent
of downward and upward trends by putting in data about natural
disasters like floods and attractions like new exhibitions/events in
the city. Their booking engine is revamped every couple of months
to cope with the newest trends in technology.
For Amari, it all started a decade ago when the Department of
Revenue Management and E- commerce was created especially to
handle the growing trend of online commerce. Since 2011, their OTA
business has increased at the rate of 30–35. However, their revpar
(revenue per available room) has decreased by $30 to $40 due to
increase in competition within OTAs. Setting the best rate to reach
maximum occupancy is the goal of any hotel, but hotels sometimes
do not understand the seriousness of lowering rates through the
direct channel and maintaining higher rates at OTAs. This leads
to penalties by the OTAs or to the hotels being given warning and
finally getting blacklisted. Rate parity and setting the best rate to
increase occupancy are two main priorities of Amari. Rates at the
reception desk change frequently to fill the rooms, but OTAs are
not forgotten, and the same rates are updated as frequently in their
systems as well to avoid rate discrepancies. This enables the hotel
to keep points of parity in the industry. Amari offers other services
like complimentary breakfast or complimentary airport transporta-
tion to customers from their web portal that keeps them in parity
in terms of rates but offers a point of difference. This enables them
to lure customers to book directly in order to gain the advantage of
many more offers and numerous package deals that are offered only
through the direct channel.

Not having rate parity is one of the reasons OTAs keep dominating the
online distribution channel. Offering a best-rate guarantee to custom-
ers directly will assure them that they cannot find better rates anywhere
else, and since ultimately it is the hotel that will be offering the accom-
modation and confirming the booking, customers might as well book
directly—if the best rate is guaranteed. OTAs can offer lower rates by
reducing their commission. It can become a tedious job to check each
OTA to figure if it is deviating from its contract by offering lower rates.

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Instead of monitoring all OTAs, the major OTAs can be examined for
rate parity issues.
When dealing with OTAs, hotels’ revenue managers need to control
the distribution through wholesalers as well. For example, a hotel spokes-
person pointed out, “We sell rooms to wholesalers for a discounted rate,
but they sell those rooms on small OTAs with very little margins. The
small OTAs charge less commission, and their rates are lower than major
OTAs.” The participating hotel here had two different ways of dealing
with this. One was to add a clause mentioning that the wholesaler cannot
sell it to any OTAs, and in case they do, their agreement can be cancelled.
The other way was to offer everyone, including the OTAs and wholesal-
ers, the BAR (best available rate). If a hotel is offering the BAR, an OTA
that is charging the lowest commission will be able to sell the room for
the lowest price and the rate parity issue will be raised. However, if the
hotel is offering the BAR and any other OTA offers a lower commission,
it is not hotel’s fault, so the hotel should not incur penalties.
As more and more users are using social media, it is becoming neces-
sary to have a presence on this medium. It is like an advertisement where
the audience participates. That is the main benefit because the participants
make the advertisement more interesting by adding their knowledge
and experience to it. The audience does not have to sit through the ad,
but they do it voluntarily and willingly. They bring in a bigger audience
with the help of their networks. These people have an attachment to the
product or service. Most importantly, social media is free or less costly if
a resource is assigned to keep up with audience comments.
Many big hotel chains mention that they had “a hundred thousand
tweets per day” for a special promotion, “tens of thousands” of Facebook
likes, and “thousands” of Linkedin group members, and so on. These
numbers look very impressive but they do not have a direct relationship
with ROI. One should not expect sales from social media in the first few
weeks as it is a brand-awareness channel. Sales will begin once customers
start to get attracted to the social media. But the media must be regular
and on social channels or it will lose audience.
Social media management is a possible key to driving direct bookings,
but so far there is no formula to quantify the costs versus increased rev-
enue. With social media, the marketing is continuous—you know how
much time you put into it—but how do you determine if it is working?
Some work with the GPS devices to offer real-time suggestions for hotels
based on users’ location, price, and rating preferences.

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Social media cannot be considered a distribution channel in the hotel

industry. Distribution channels have hotels that sell their inventories
through travel agents, global distribution system, OTAs, and their web-
sites. On the other hand, social media can be considered as a customer
relationship and loyalty channel. It is part of the overall marketing
mix because it complements the online marketing strategy. The public
relations department should manage, monitor, and reply to customer’s
feedback on social media platforms. Large hotel chains should have a
property-based social marketing presence, and hotel employees should
be managing it instead of outside social media companies.
By understanding and implementing all these marketing channels (see
Figure 6.1), hotels can control the distribution channel instead of letting
OTAs dominate. This is possible by using multi-channel marketing and

Hotel

Own OTAs Web 3.0 Mobile Future

website

– Keep – Take care – Monitor – Key for – Always be

updated in the social present and proactive
selection platforms future, in looking
– Respond (e.g. considering for new
to e-mail – Negotiate Facebook present platforms
queries rates and Twitter) number of and
smartphones solutions
–Manage – Maintain – Monitor
content and keep user- – Mobile site – Work in
and updated generated with simplified close
reservations internal reviews. (but yet contact
reservation Respond complete) with
system only when functionality developers
necessary

figure 6.1 Main online marketing channels used by hotels

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 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

distribution techniques. Customer engagement should be strived for by

creating a relationship with the customers. Simply bringing customers to
the website may not ensure a booking, but conversions can be achieved
by exposing the customers to these channels. If a promotion is planned,
it should be announced using the multi-channel approach, and then it
will have a greater effect and better results.
The marketing should be handled by all possible methods because
customers will not remember where they saw or heard the message. It is
not easy to keep track of marketing messages in the form of SEM, SEO,
e-mail, social media engagements, banners, editorials, customer reviews,
and so forth.

example 2 Holiday Travel Sale for a Multi-Property

Resort Company

A multi-property resort company launched a multi-channel mar-

keting campaign in conjunction with a scavenger hunt that counted
down the days until the travel sale launched. The scavenger hunt
required each entrant to become a fan on Facebook, follow the
brand on Twitter, sign up for the e-mail and mobile opt-in lists,
subscribe to the brand’s YouTube channel, and more.
Results: As a result of buzz-generating campaigns, the sale was
a success from launch to completion, as demonstrated by the
following:
Dramatic increase in Facebook fans
Increase in Twitter followers
Doubled the mobile text list opt-ins
Thousands of YouTube channel views and new e-mail list opt-ins
Revenue: $200K

U.S. mobile leisure gross bookings for travel reached nearly $2.6 billion
during 2011, representing 2.4 of the U.S. online travel market. Among
U.S. mobile web users, 36 of business travelers and 26 of leisure
travelers have booked a travel product on a mobile website or app during
the past year according to a PhoCusWrightreport. The trend is catching
up with hotels as well, but it is mainly the large chain hotels or luxurious
hotels like Roger Smith Hotel in New York, whose VP says, “There has

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been an effort to make sure we are using the right [Google] AdWords,
and people are learning that we have a [mobile-booking] app.” Mandarin
Oriental’s marketing manager, Nicholas Cohen, says, “Although mobile
conversions make up a small percentage of overall transactions, we do
see that mobile bookings have a shorter booking window and actually
have a higher daily rate.” Mandarin Oriental has an application for
mobile bookings that allows the users to book the rooms and also shows
destination content, such as restaurant recommendations and night life
and cultural events.
The next state of mobile marketing is to be able to send alerts to
customers’ mobiles via SMS (short message service) while they are
passing by the hotel. This will allow hotels to communicate relevant and
timely information. Hotels can also sell products other than the rooms.
For example, people passing by or sitting in the lobby of Roger Smith
Hotel will get alerts for Roger Smith arts center, restaurants, and shops.
Interested customers will receive a QR code that can be scanned at hot
spots around the hotel, and the information of the art product will appear
on the smartphone. Roger Smith is bringing people from the street to
inside the hotel and then from hot spots to the art center, restaurants,
or shops. This is part of brand awareness because it might not lead to an
immediate room booking or art sale, but it is a stepping-stone to start an
engagement with potential customers. Once the customers are locked in
and looking up your products on their smartphones, there is a greater
chance that they might click on the small link that is available on every
mobile website for booking a room.

6.3 Future
The future of online travel agencies is in evolution (Del Chiappa, 2013).
Large chain hotels make their online marketing strategies at corporate
headquarters with the help of web consultants. However, there are no set
marketing strategies for independent hotels that are using a trial-and-
error approach to market their products.
OTAs have become important obligatory points of passage when look-
ing for reviews online. An example of the culmination of such online
commentaries is the creation of ranking lists, such as the Trip Advisor
Popularity Index, a clear numbering system that instantly signals a hotel’s
level of quality and service to satisfy consumers (Jeacle & Carter, 2011).

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0011
 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

A large number of reviews can lead consumers to feel more sure of their
purchase decision. When more reviews are present, consumers increase
their behavioral intention because they perceive the set of information
to be more informative (Park et al., 2007), reducing the uncertainty
and the perceived risk. Intuitively, an individual who believes a popular
alternative to be poor might choose that alternative anyway because it is
popular.
We can relate OTAs to a department store, where guests enter to
shop for different products of different brands while comparing prices.
Wealthy individuals may prefer the specific luxury brands; therefore,
luxury brands are less prone to OTAs’ attack. Price-conscious customers
will be attracted to the best deals and will shift between OTAs and hotel
websites.
The loyalty programs try to encourage customers to stick to one
brand. If we consider price and brand choices as the only two reasons for
guests to choose where they book online, then Facebook, Twitter, SEO,
own website, Google Adwords, and so forth are simply communication
channels, not distribution channels.
OTAs offer a ready-made platform for hotels to take their inventory
and rates to every corner of the world. Reachability is a factor addressed
by OTAs. Cyril Ranque, senior VP of Global Lodging of Expedia, men-
tions that the key for hoteliers is to treat OTAs as another piece in the
overall pie, because they bring great complementary business.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0011
Conclusions

Viglia, Giampaolo. Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior,

and Analytics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
doi: 10.1057/9781137413260.0012.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0012 
 Pricing, Online Marketing Behavior, and Analytics

Online marketing has become a necessity in today’s competitive envi-

ronments, especially amid the chaos of the cumulative financial crises
of the past decade. The phrase “Innovate or die’’ comes into play in the
everyday strategies of companies across almost all industries. Even the
more traditional industries are urged to embrace the Internet as a mar-
keting platform.
Marketing practices have dramatically shifted with the mass adoption
of social media, along with a proliferation of mobile devices, platforms,
and applications. This rapidly changing communication channel presents
new opportunities and challenges for marketers. Platforms, consump-
tion trends, or even whole services, can change drastically or die off in
a matter of months or weeks. Marketers need to stay up to date on the
evolution of e-marketing.
We presented a short introduction to online marketing, its history
and evolution, as well as its characteristics. We then covered the dif-
ferent product categories and made a comparison between online and
traditional marketing. To better explain the relationship between the
consumer and the online market, we explored the profile of the online
consumer and established the factors that motivate sales.
Many different communication channels are available to online mar-
keters, ranging from mobile and affiliate marketing to more established
channels, such as e-mail and social media marketing. We analyzed these
categories in detail, offering comparisons across channels.
In the online markets, pricing is key. It is important to consider the
broad revenue management theories and strategies—including reference
price, dynamic pricing, and overbooking—in order to afford a clear view
of the economic aspects of online marketing. For this reason we discuss
these aspect, which are the core of this manuscript, in terms of their
impact both from a consumer and a professional perspective.
The hotel industry is a sector that has experienced a significant para-
digm shift due to the explosion of e-commerce. The majority of custom-
ers no longer search for hotels in the yellow pages or call to book rooms
but instead book via the Internet by themselves or through the global
distribution systems of travel agents. This has had significant impacts
on the tourism sector, which has been forced to modify its approaches
to both competitive marketing and new customer acquisition. To show
this, we presented a complete case involving online travel agencies
(OTAs).

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0012
Conclusions 

Our final goal has been to go beyond a basic understanding of online

marketing and its evolution in order to help the reader grasp these theo-
ries from a scientific standard point so as to better apply these lessons in
practical but rigorous ways.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0012
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DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0013
Index
active shoppers, 21 Bhat, S., 40
adaptation, 64 big data, 45
ad design, 37 binomial model, of
ad impressions, 43 overbooking, 73
advertising books, 11
display, 24–5 bounce rate, 44
mobile, 32 brand image, 30
Adwords, 25 branding, 25–6
affiliate marketing, 34 brand loyalty, 17, 54, 80
airline industry, 52, 69, 80 brand promotions, 29
Alba, J., 54 browsing behavior, 46
Amari Hotels, 80–1 business-to-business (B2B)
Amazon, 5, 50, 52 online shopping, 15
American Marketing business-to-consumer (B2C)
Association, 13, 17 online shopping, 15
analytics, 40, 44–5 buttons, 24–5
animated web ads, 24–5 buying behavior, 14–16
Archer, N., 77
aspirational reference cancellations, 69–70
price, 64 cell phones, 34–5
autoregressive model (AR), 55 channel risk, 18
autoregressive moving average Chu, J., 21
models, 55–6 clicks, 43
click-through rate (CTR),
Bakos, Y., 49 42, 43
balanced buyers, 19–20 click-throughs, 43
banking, 47 Cohen, Nicholas, 85
banners, 24–5 communications channels, 2–3,
Barnes, S. J., 20–1 23–38
Barwise, P., 35 affiliate marketing, 34
behavioral remarketing, 36–8 display advertising, 24–5
behavioral retargeting, 36–8 e-mail, 26–9
behavioral targeting, 46 introduction to, 24
Berners-Lee, Tim, 5 mobile marketing, 34–6

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0014 

 Index

communications channels—Continued demographics, of online shoppers,

newsletters, 27–9 21–2
retargeting, 36–8 Dickson, P., 54
search engine marketing (SEM), differential pricing, see dynamic
25–6 pricing
search engine optimization (SEO), digital certificates, 46
25–6 digital technologies, 6, 8
social media, 30–4, 88 Dion, P., 10
computer games, 12 direct discounts, 52
consumer behavior, 7, 14–16 discounts, 52
consumer information, 18–19, 45–7 display advertising, 24–5
consumer promotions, 52 durable goods, 55
consumer reviews, 33–4, 79 dynamic pricing, 49–52
consumers
see also online shoppers eBay, 5, 52
brand-loyal, 54 e-business, 52
demographics of online, 21–2 e-commerce, 5, 6
loss-averse, 60, 64, 65 see also online shopping
price expectations, 53–5 education, 22
price-sensitive, 51 Egan, J., 14
reference prices in minds of, 56 electronic payments, 46–7
segmentation of, 16–21 electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM), 33
switchers, 54 e-mail, 5, 26–9
targeting, 37 newsletters, 27–9
content, of newsletter, 28 retargeting, 38
convenience, 16–17 e-marketing, see online marketing
convenience goods, 12 encryption, 46
convenience shoppers, 19 ethics, 45–6, 50
conversion rate (CR), 42, 43–4 exogeneity, 58
cookies, 36–7 expanding ads, 25
cost per acquisition/action (CPA), 41–2 experience products, 10
cost per click (CPC), 41–2 experimental approach, to reference
cost per lead (CPL), 41 price, 53, 65–7
cost per order (CPO), 41 external validity, 65, 66
cost per thousand (CPM), 41–2
cost per thousand (CPT), 41–2 Facebook, 30, 31, 32, 82
cost per unique visitor, 43 fake reviews, 33
credence products, 10 fare-class allocation, 69
credibility, 33 Farris, P.W., 40
credit card purchase, 46–7 first come, first serve (FCFS), 71–2
Criteo, 36 fixed effects (FE) estimator, 58–9
customers, see consumers fixed effects model, 58
fixed fees, 55
Davis, A., 37 fraud, 46
decision-making process, 14–16 frequency of purchase, 11, 12–14
consumer reviews and, 33–4 Frost, R., 24

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0014
Index 

gaming consoles, 11–12 Internet marketing, see online

Gay, R., 14 marketing
gender, 21–2 Internet shoppers, see online shoppers
generalized least squares (GLS) interoffice communication, 31
estimator, 58 inventory control, 50
Generation Y, 24
Girard, T., 10 Jayawardhena, C., 20, 21, 22
global distribution systems
(GDS), 77 Kahneman, D., 60
Google, 25 Keller, K., 7, 14
Google +, 30, 31 key performance indicators (KPIs), 28
Greenleaf, E., 64–5 Klein, L.R., 9, 10
Gronroos, C., 7 Kolmogrorv-Smirnov test, 59
Gummesson, F., 7 Korgaonkar, P., 9, 10
Kotler, P., 7, 14
hackers, 46 Krugmann, P., 50
heavy online shoppers, 21
hedonic products, 10–11 Lian, J.W., 13, 14, 50
hotel industry, 3, 76–86, 88 Lin, T. M., 13, 14
introduction to, 77–8 linearity, 57
mobile marketing and, 84–5 LinkedIn, 30, 31, 32
online travel agencies and, 77–86 loss aversion, 57, 60, 64, 65
social media and, 82–3 loyal shoppers, 20
hybrid campaigns, 41–2 loyalty, 17

idiosyncratic error term, 57–8 magazines, 11

immediate possession, 17 Mandarin Oriental, 85
independence, 58 manufacturing, 52
individual-specific effect, 57 markdown pricing, 51
Industrial Revolution, 22 marketing
information and communications measuring effectiveness of, 39–47
technology (ICT), 6 online. see online marketing
information newsletters, 29 relationship, 7
information seeking, 17 traditional vs. online, 7–9
Instagram, 30 marketing analytics, 40, 44–5
intangible products, 13–14 marketing intelligence, 44
interactive web ads, 25 market segmentation, 16–21
internal communication tools, 31 Marshall, Alfred, 18
Internal Reference Price (IRP), 53–5, 56 Mauri, A.G., 50
internal validity, 65, 66 m-commerce, 35
international tourism, 78 men, 21–2
Internet meta-search websites, 77
creation of, 5 metrics, 39–47
hotel industry and, 77–86 introduction to, 40
self-efficacy, 18 web metrics, 40–4
widespread use of, 5–6 Minazzi, Roberta, 32–4

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0014
 Index

mobile advertising, 32 growth of, 5, 15, 16

mobile commerce, 35 product categories and, 9–14
mobile marketing, 34–6, 84–5 online tracking, 45–6
mobile phones, 34–5 online travel agencies (OTAs),
moving average model (MA), 55 77–86, 88
MySpace, 30 overbooking, 3, 50, 68–75
cancellations and, 69–70
negative reviews, 33 definition of, 69
Netscape, 5 limit policies, 74–5
network stability, 46 limits, 72–3
news, 11 managing oversales, 70–2
newsletters, 27–9 reservations, 69–70
nondurable goods, 55 static models for, 72–3
nonparametric tests, 59–60 oversales, 70–2
oversales auctions, 72
offer newsletters, 29
online consumer behavior, 7, 14–16 page impressions/views, 43
online marketing panel data analysis, 57–9
analytics, 40, 44–5 passwords, 47
case study, 76–86 PayPal, 46
changes in, 2 pay per click (PPC), 41
communications channels, payyments, 45–7
23–38, 88 Pendleton, G., 24
consumer behavior and, 7, 14–16 perceived risk, 18
definition of, 4–7 personal digital assistants (PDAs), 35
importance of, 88 personal identifying information
introduction to, 2–3 (PII), 33
metrics, 39–47 personal innovativeness of information
mobile, 34–6, 84–5 technology (PIIT), 18
overbooking and, 68–75 Peterson, R.A., 11
pricing and, 48–67, 88 phishing, 46
product categories in, 9–14 Pinterest, 30
vs. traditional marketing, 7–9 Pizza Hut, 5
types of, 6 pop-up ads, 24–5
online pricing, see pricing post-experience goods, 10
online reviews, 33–4, 79 Prelec, D., 63
online shoppers price, 11, 12–14
see also consumers price-based revenue management, 51
demographics of, 21–2 price comparisons, 56
gender of, 21–2 price discrimination, 50
online shopping, 6 price elasticity of demand, 18
attitudes toward, 16 price expectations, 53–5
B2B, 15 price sensitivity, 18, 51
B2C, 15 pricing, 48–67, 88
consumer segmentation in, 16–21 in airline industry, 52
drivers of, 16–19 dynamic, 49–52

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0014
Index 

pricing—Continued price expectation and, 53–5

introduction to, 49 prospect theory and, 60–3
in manufacturing industry, 52 purchase-timing decision and, 57
markdown, 51 relationship marketing, 7
promotions, 51–2, 54 reputation, 46
reference price, 53–67 reservations, 69–70
by retailers, 51–2 reserved information seekers, 21
revenue management and, 49–52 retailers, 51–2
privacy concerns, 18–19, 45–7 retargeting, 36–8
product categories, 7, 9–14 return on investment (ROI)
by affective or cognitive outcome, measurement of, 44–5
10–11 of social media, 31
by price, frequency of purchase, or return visits, 44
condition, 11–14 revenue management, 49–52, 69
by product features, 9–10 see also overbooking
product exposure, 36–7 Roger Smith Hotel, 84–5
product involvement, 19 Rohm, A., 19, 20, 21
product risk, 18 Ryanair, 32
profit maximization, 69
promotions, 51–2, 54 Sawyer, A., 54
prospect theory, 60–3 search engine marketing (SEM),
pseudocertainty effect, 62 25–6
purchase-timing decision, 57 search engine optimization (SEO),
25–6, 79
quantity-based revenue search engines, 5
management, 51 search products, 9–10
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), 46
random effects (RE) estimator, security, 45–7
58–9 segmentation, consumer, 16–21
random effects model, 58 self-efficacy, 18
randomization, 67 seller’s cost, 64
real-time data, 45 Sendgrid, 28
recreational shoppers, 17 shoppers
recursivity, 64 see also consumers
reference prices, 53–67 demographics of online, 21–2
aspirational, 64 types of, 19–21
autoregressive moving average shopping convenience, 16–17
models, 55–6 shopping enjoyment, 17
construction of, 63–4 shopping goods, 13
experimental approach to, 53, show demand, 73
65–7 Sinha, I., 12, 13
firms’ strategies for, 64–5 Skype, 31
internal, 53–6 smart phones, 35
nonparametric tests, 59–60 social comparison effect, 64
in our minds, 56 social intelligence, 44
panel data analysis, 57–9 social interaction, 17

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0014
 Index

social media, 2, 82–3, 88 Tversky, A., 60

as communications channel, 30–2 Twitter, 30, 32, 82
in context, 32–4
social networks, 5 unique visitors, 42–3
spam, 46 United Nations World Tourism
specialty goods, 13 Organization (UNWTO), 78
static web ads, 24 user-generated content, 30
Strauss, J., 24 utilitarian products, 10–11
Strong, C., 35
subject line, 28 variable fees, 55
subscribers, 27 variety seeking, 17, 20–1
Swaminathan, T.M., 19, 20, 21 Verdict, 21, 22
video ads, 25
tablets, 35 visit, 42
tangible products, 11–13
targeted marketing, 2 web ads, 24–5
targeting consumers, 37 web metrics, 40–4
technology, 6, 8 Wi-Fi, 6
telephone, 5 Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test,
Thirumalai, S., 12, 13 59–60
time spent, 43 women, 21–2
trade promotions, 52 word-of-mouth (WOM), 32–3
traditional marketing, 7–9 World Wide Web, 5
travel agents, online, 77–86 worms, 46
Trip Advisor Popularity Index, 85
trust, 18, 45–7 yammer, 31

DOI: 10.1057/9781137413260.0014