Holy Roman Empire

Christmas Day 800 A.D. Charlemagne crowned

august emperor by Pope Leo III; Papacy
needed military support, Charlemagne, King of
Franks, best candidate. Wedded Church and
State in Europe spiritual/temporal affairs. Not
consistent partnership: rivals…control Europe
until French Revolution/Napoleon in early 19th
Cent.
Break with Byzantium nearly complete
Early Feudalism
• Beginning around 800: Local levels, means of
tying barons, earls, etc. to “king”: King grants
lands to locals, locals supply military for kings.
Knights—trained warrior class, loaned out.
Serfs provided production from barons’ lands.
• Class divisions in Europe: nobles and
commoners
Britain
• By 450, Rome’s power over Britain had collapsed;
Northern Germanic tribes, Saxons and Angles,
migrate (conquer) to eastern England displace
Briton rulers; produced the Anglo/Saxon culture
and kingdoms. Not a part of Holy Roman Empire,
but adopted Christianity.
• Around 800, Norseman (Vikings) raiders, force
“kings” to work together. By 950, Wessex
dominate kingdom. Lasted until 1066.
• Norseman, also settle Normandy in France.
Islam
• Reading assignment
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HistoryofIslam
• Word about wiki articles---
Foundations
• Prophet Muhammad: Arabian Peninsula
businessman; revelations around 610,
recorded early passages (surahs) of Quran:
monotheism, ethical treatment of others,
judgment to come followed by ideal kingdom
(like Judaism and Christianity--Zoroastrianism).
• Mohammad last of great prophets in line with
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.
• By 632, time of death, after struggles, united
Arabia---religious, political, tribal, and military
power. Mecca as capital…
• Religiously tolerant---converts expected serve
in military, non-Muslims, extra taxes.
Century of Conquest
• After Muhammad, 4 generals and families
ruled (Rashidun), within 30 years expanded
Islamic dominion west to Med—including
Syria, Egypt, and east almost to Hindu Cush
Mts.---i.e. all eastern parts of Byzantine
Empire…
• During period—Quran is gathered and begins
to be codified---disputed
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-
peak-close.PNG/800px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG
Ali ibn Abi Talib,
• Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law; last of
four; married to Fatima (Muhammad's
daughter); assassinated and supplanted by
Muawiya (Umayyad Dynasty).
• Split into Shia and Sunni groups; Shiites Ali
only true successor of Muhammad through
Fatima…eastern Iraq, and Iran (Persian).
• Umayyad--Sunni
Umayyad Dynasty
• 661-750… capital in Damascus
• Expanded even more northern India: When
rebellion led to overthrow, dynastic family
members move through North Africa and into
Spain; Moved north into France---finally
stopped by Charles Martel at Tours in 732
(Charlemagne's grandfather.)
• Controlled Iberian Penn. Until 1031.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm
ons/5/5b/Umayyad750ADloc.png
Abbasid Dynasty: 750-810
• Overthrew Umayyad moved capital to Bagdad:
flowering of Islamic culture, wealth, literature
(Arabian Nights), trade. Non-Arabs convert to
Islam
• By 1000: various regional Islamic regional
powers—Persia, Egypt, Spain, Syria—under
different family dynasty; all under Abbasidian
influence.
• https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Abbasids_Dynasty_750_-_1258_(AD).PNG
Islam: around 1000
World Religion
Tolerant of other religions—masters of trade—
esp. between China and Byzantium, India and
Africa
Expanded conquest, conversion,
Preserved cultures, especially Hellenistic…while
Europe in “dark ages”: mathematics, medicine,
philosophy--e.g. introduced Aristotle to West
History of Islam - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam

History of Islam
The history of Islam concerns the political, social, economic and developments of the Islamic civilization. Despite
concerns about the reliability of early sources,[1] most historians[2] believe that Islam originated in Mecca and Medina
at the start of the 7th century, approximately 600 years after the founding of Christianity. Muslims, however, believe
that it did not start with Muhammad, but that it was the original faith of others whom they regard as prophets, such as
Jesus, David, Moses, Abraham, Noah and Adam.[3][4][5]

In 610 CE, Muhammad began receiving what Muslims consider to be divine revelations.[6] Muhammad's message won
over a handful of followers and was met with increasing opposition from Meccan notables.[7] In 618, after he lost
protection with the death of his influential uncle Abu Talib, Muhammad migrated to the city of Yathrib (now known as
Medina). With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the
Muslim community.

By the 8th century, the Islamic empire extended from Iberia in the west to the Indus River in the east. Polities such as
those ruled by the Umayyads (in the Middle East and later in Iberia), Abbasids, Fatimids, and Mamluks were among
the most influential powers in the world. The Islamic Golden Age gave rise to many centers of culture and science and
produced notable astronomers, mathematicians, doctors and philosophers during the Middle Ages.

In the early 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate took over the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. In the 13th and
14th centuries, destructive Mongol invasions and those of Tamerlane from the East, along with the loss of population
in the Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centers of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt.
Islamic Iberia was gradually conquered by Christian forces during the Reconquista. Nonetheless, in the Early Modern
period, the Ottomans, the Safavids, and the Mughals were able to create new world powers again. During the 19th and
early 20th centuries, most parts of the Muslim world fell under the influence or direct control of European "Great
Powers." Their efforts to win independence and build modern nation states over the course of the last two centuries
continue to reverberate to the present day.

Contents
Timeline
Early sources
Islamic origins
Rashidun Caliphate
Umayyad Caliphate
Islamic Golden Age
Islamic world during the Abbasid Caliphate
Fatimid Caliphate
Fatimid caliphs
The Crusades
Ayyubid dynasty

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Mongol period
Mongol invasions
Islamic Mongol empires
Mamluk Sultanate
Al-Andalus
Emirs of Al-Andalus
Islam in Africa
Maghreb
Horn of Africa
Great Lakes
Islam in East and South Asia
Southeast Asia
Indian Subcontinent
China
Early Modern period
Ottoman Empire
Safavid Empire
Mughal Empire
Modern period
Ottoman Empire partition
Arab–Israeli conflict
Other Islamic affairs
See also
Notes
References
Sources
External links

Timeline
The following timeline can serve as a rough visual guide to the most important polities in the Islamic world prior to the
First World War. It covers major historical centers of power and culture, including Arabia, Mesopotamia (modern
Iraq), Persia (modern Iran), Levant (modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel/Palestine), Egypt, Maghreb (north-
west Africa), al-Andalus (Iberia), Transoxania (Central Asia), Hindustan (including modern Pakistan), and Anatolia
(modern Turkey). It is necessarily an approximation, since rule over some regions was sometimes divided among
different centers of power, and authority in larger polities was often distributed among several dynasties. For example,
during the later stages of the Abbasid Caliphate, even the capital city of Baghdad was effectively ruled by other
dynasties such as the Buyyids and the Seljuks, while the Ottomans commonly delegated executive authority over
outlying provinces to local potentates, such as the Deys of Algiers, the Beys of Tunis, and the Mamluks of Iraq.

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Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details.

Early sources
The study of the earliest periods in Islamic history is made difficult by a lack of sources.[8] For example, the most
important historiographical source for the origins of Islam is the work of al-Tabari.[9] While al-Tabari was an excellent
historian by the standards of his time and place, use of his work as a source is problematic for two reasons. For one, his
style of historical writing permitted liberal use of mythical, legendary, stereotyped, distorted, and polemical
presentations of its subject matter. Second, al-Tabari's descriptions of the beginning of Islam post-date the events by a
large amount of time, al-Tabari having died in 923.[10][11]

Differing views about how to deal with the available sources has led to the development of four different approaches to
the history of early Islam. All four methods have some level of support today.[12][13] The descriptive method uses the
outlines of Islamic traditions, while being adjusted for the stories of miracles and faith-centred claims within those
sources.[14] Edward Gibbon and Gustav Weil represent some of the first historians following the descriptive method.
On the source critical method, a comparison of all the sources is sought in order to identify which informants to the
sources are weak and thereby distinguish spurious material.[15] The work of William Montgomery Watt and that of
Wilferd Madelung are two source critical examples. On the tradition critical method, the sources are believed to be
based on oral traditions with unclear origins and transmission history, and so are treated very cautiously.[16] Ignaz
Goldziher was the pioneer of the tradition critical method, and Uri Rubin gives a contemporary example. The skeptical
method doubts nearly all of the material in the traditional sources, regarding any possible historical core as too difficult
to decipher from distorted and fabricated material.[17] An early example of the skeptical method was the work of John
Wansbrough.

Nowadays, the popularity of the different methods employed varies on the scope of the works under consideration. For
overview treatments of the history of early Islam, the descriptive approach is more popular. For scholars who look at
the beginnings of Islam in depth, the source critical and tradition critical methods are more often followed.[12]

After the 8th century, the quality of sources improves.[18] Those sources which treated earlier times with a large
temporal and cultural gap now begin to give accounts which are more contemporaneous, the quality of genre of
available historical accounts improves, and new documentary sources—such as official documents, correspondence
and poetry—appear.[18] For the time prior to the beginning of Islam—in the 6th century—sources are superior as well,
if still of mixed quality. In particular, the sources covering the Sasanian realm of influence in the 6th century are poor,
while the sources for Byzantine areas at the time are of a respectable quality, and complemented by Syriac Christian
sources for Syria and Iraq.[19]

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Islamic origins
Islam arose within the context of Late Antiquity.[18] The second half of the
sixth century saw political disorder in Arabia, and communication routes
were no longer secure.[20] Religious divisions played an important role in
the crisis.[21] Judaism became the dominant religion of the Himyarite
Kingdom in Yemen after about 380, while Christianity took root in the
Persian Gulf.[21] While much of Arabia remained polytheistic, in line with
Arabia united under Muhammad
broader trends of the age there was yearning for a more spiritual form of
religion.[21] Many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, but those
faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points, and Jewish and Christian loanwords from Aramaic began to
replace the old pagan vocabulary of Arabic throughout the peninsula.[21] On the eve of the Islamic era, the Quraysh was
the chief tribe of Mecca and a dominant force in western Arabia.[22] To counter the effects of anarchy, they upheld the
institution of "sacred months" when all violence was forbidden and travel was safe.[23] The polytheistic Kaaba shrine in
Mecca and the surrounding area was a popular pilgrimage destination, which had significant economic consequences
for the city.[23][24]

According to tradition, the Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca around the year 570.[25] His family
belonged to the Quraysh. When he was about forty years old he began receiving what Muslims regard as divine
revelations delivered through the angel Gabriel, which would later form the Quran. These inspirations enjoined him to
proclaim a strict monotheistic faith, to warn his compatriots of the impending Judgement Day, and to castigate social
injustices of his city.[6] Muhammad's message won over a handful of followers and was met with increasing opposition
from notables of Mecca.[7] In 618, after he lost protection with the death of his influential uncle Abu Talib, Muhammad
migrated to the city of Yathrib (subsequently called Medina) where he was joined by his followers.[26] Later
generations would count this event, known as the hijra, as the start of the Islamic era.[27]

In Yathrib, where he was accepted as an arbitrator among the different communities of the city under the terms of the
Constitution of Medina, Muhammad began to lay the foundations of the new Islamic society, with the help of new
Quranic verses which provided guidance on matters of law and religious observance.[27] The surahs of this period
emphasized his place among the long line of Biblical prophets, but also differentiated the message of the Quran from
Christianity and Judaism.[27] Armed conflict with Meccans and Jewish tribes of the Yathrib area soon broke out.[28]
After a series of military confrontations and political maneuvers, Muhammad was able to secure control of Mecca and
allegiance of the Quraysh in 629.[27] In the time remaining until his death in 632, tribal chiefs across the peninsula
entered into various agreements with him, some under terms of alliance, others acknowledging his prophethood and
agreeing to follow Islamic practices, including paying the alms levy to his government, which consisted of a number of
deputies, an army of believers, and a public treasury.[27] A few months before his death, Muhammad delivered a
sermon regarding his succession. The final verse of the Quran (Chapter 5, Verse 3) was revealed after Muhammad
finished his sermon. After the sermon, Muhammad ordered the Muslims to pledge allegiance to Ali; the future Sunni
leaders Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman were among those who pledged allegiance to Ali at this event.[29][30][31][32][33]

Rashidun Caliphate
After Muhammad died, a series of four Caliphs governed the Islamic state: Abu Bakr (632–634), Umar ibn al-Khattab
(Umar І, 634–644), Uthman ibn Affan, (644–656), and Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661). These leaders are known as the
"Rashidun" or "rightly guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. They oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim conquests,
advancing through Persia, Levant, Egypt, and North Africa.

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After Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr, one of his closest associates, was
chosen as the first caliph (Arabic: ‫ ﺧَﻠﻴﻔﺔ‬khalīfah, lit. successor). Although the
office of caliph retained an aura of religious authority, it laid no claim to
prophecy.[34] A number of tribal leaders refused to extend agreements The Rashidun caliphate
made with Muhammad to Abu Bakr, ceasing payments of the alms levy and
in some cases claiming to be prophets in their own right.[34] Abu Bakr
asserted his authority in a successful military campaign known as the Ridda wars, whose momentum was carried into
the lands of the Byzantine and Sasanian empires.[35] By the end of the reign of the second caliph, Umar I, Arab armies,
whose battle-hardened ranks were now swelled by the defeated rebels[36] and former imperial auxiliary troops,[37]
conquered the Byzantine provinces of Syria and Egypt, while the Sassanids lost their western territories, with the rest
to follow soon afterwards.[34]

Umar improved administration of the fledgling empire, ordering improvement of irrigation networks and playing a
role in foundation of cities like Basra. To be close to the poor, he lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked
the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar established the Bayt al-mal,[38][39][40] a welfare
institution for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal
ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period
and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly.[41][42]
[43][44] When he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required
administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.[45] The expansion was partially halted between
638–639 during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and Levant, respectively, but by the end of Umar's
reign, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and much of Persia were incorporated into the Islamic State.

Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, who lived as religious

minorities and were taxed (while Muslims paid "Zakat") to finance the
Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands
from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy
conquests.[46][47] As new areas were conquered, they also benefited from
free trade with other areas of the growing Islamic state, where, to
The western parts of the Byzantine
encourage commerce, taxes were applied to wealth rather than trade.[48] empire conquered by Arabs
The Muslims paid Zakat on their wealth for the benefit of the poor. Since
the Constitution of Medina, drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the
Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws and had their own judges.[49][50][51] To assist in the quick
expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection systems were maintained and the people paid a poll
tax lower than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians.

In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor died in a plague along with
25,000 other people.[52][53] To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab–Byzantine wars, in 649
Muawiyah I set up a navy, manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and
Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean to
Muslim ships.[54][55][56][57]

Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to

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wealth and luxury, moving away from the worship of God, accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.[45][58]
[59][60] Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the local
populations which could remain autonomous. Some of these encampments later grew into cities like Basra and Kufa in
Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.[61]

When Umar was assassinated in 644, Uthman ibn Affan second cousin and twice son-in-law of Muhammad became
the next caliph. As the Arabic language is written without vowels, speakers of different Arabic dialects and other
languages recited the Quran with phonetic variations that could alter the meaning of the text. When Uthman ibn Affan
became aware of this, he ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the compilation
of the Quran was finished some time between 650 and 656, and copies were sent out to the different centers of the
expanding Islamic empire.[62]

The Quran and Muhammad discussed racial equality and justice (notably in Muhammad's Farewell Sermon),[63][64]
[65][66][67][68][69] discouraging tribal and nationalistic differences. However, after Muhammad's death, the old tribal
differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid
Wars deep-rooted differences between Iraq (formerly under the Persian Sassanid Empire) and Syria (formerly under
the Byzantine Empire) also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their
area.[70]

As Uthman ibn Affan became very old, Marwan I, a relative of Muawiyah I, slipped into the vacuum, becoming his
secretary and slowly assuming more control. When Uthman was assassinated in 656, Ali ibn Abi Talib, a cousin and
son-in-law of Muhammad, assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I, the
governor of Syria, and Marwan I demanded arrest of the culprits. Marwan I manipulated every one and created
conflict, which resulted in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"). Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Six months
later in 661, in the interest of peace, Ali's son Hasan, made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan–Muawiya
treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he would be just to the people and not
establish a dynasty after his death.[71][72] Muawiyah subsequently broke the conditions of the agreement and
established the Umayyad dynasty, with a capital in Damascus.[73] Husayn ibn Ali, by then Muhammad's only living
grandson, refused to swear allegiance to the Umayyads. He was killed in the Battle of Karbala the same year, in an
event still mourned by Shia on the Day of Ashura. Unrest, called the Second Fitna continued, but Muslim rule was
extended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and expanded in North Africa. In 664,
Arab armies conquered Kabul,[74] and in 665 pushed into the Maghreb.[75]

Umayyad Caliphate
The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from Umayya
ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled
from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of
Mecca, Damascus was the capital. After the death of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn
Abu Bakr in 666,[76][77] Muawiyah I consolidated his power. Muawiyah I
moved his capital to Damascus from Medina, which led to profound
changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the
Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family The Umayyad caliphate
to power.

As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the Bayt al-mal and the Welfare State expenses to assist

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the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads
asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also
seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad.[78][79][80] All this increased discontent.[81][82] The
descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some
Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid
dynasty in 750, which moved the capital to Baghdad.[83] A branch of the Ummayad family fled across North Africa to
Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the Fitna of
al-Andalus. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.

At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 km2) making it one
of the largest empires the world had yet seen,[84] and the fifth largest contiguous empire ever.

Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of
the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable
to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-civil war
anarchy. However, Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the
Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies[85] slandering the Prophet's family[86] and even selling his Muslim
critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.[87] One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his
decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty
he made with Hasan ibn Ali.

In 682, Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba
won battles against the Berbers and Byzantines.[88] From there Uqba
marched thousands of miles westward towards Tangier, where he reached
the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the Atlas
Mountains.[89] With about 300 cavalrymen, he proceeded towards Biskra
where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his
men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north
Africa for a period.[90] Weakened by the civil wars, the Umayyad lost
supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete.
The Mosque of Uqba (Great
Under the rule of Yazid I, some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if
Mosque of Kairouan), founded by
Husayn ibn Ali the descendent of Muhammad was their ruler, he would
the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi
have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and in 670, is the oldest and most
killed. Imam Husain's son, Imam Ali ibn Husain, was imprisoned along prestigious mosque in the Muslim
with Husain's sister and other ladies left in Karbala war. Due to opposition West; its present form dates from
by public they were later released and allowed to go to their native place the 9th century, Kairouan, Tunisia.
Medina. One Imam after another continued in the generation of Imam
Husain but they were opposed by the Caliphs of the day as their rivals till
Imam Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah came in power as first Caliph of Fatimid in North Africa when Caliphate and Imamate
came to same person again after Imam Ali. These Imams were recognized by Shia Islam taking Imam Ali as first
Caliph/ Imam and the same is institutionalised by the Safavids and many similar institutions named now as Ismaili,
Twelver etc.

The period under Muawiya II was marked by civil wars (Second Fitna). This would ease in the reign of Abd al-Malik
ibn Marwan, a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all
important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a currency for the Muslim world was minted. This led to

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war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II (Battle of Sebastopolis) in 692 in Asia Minor. The Byzantines were
decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made
the exclusive currency in the Muslim world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated
Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular postal service.

Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early
Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt
from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the
west of North Africa. Muslim armies under Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the
Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer the Iberian Peninsula using North
African Berber armies. The Visigoths of the Iberian Peninsula were
defeated when the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. The Iberian Peninsula was
the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the
Battle of Tours). In the east, Islamic armies under Muhammad bin Qasim
made it as far as the Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire
stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to India. Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf played a
crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-
Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military,
building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era., This tactic was crucial for
the expansion to the Iberian Peninsula. His reign is considered to be the
apex of Islamic power. Umayyad army invades France after
conquering the Iberian Peninsula
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He
appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman
ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other was Qutayba ibn
Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased
al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to
revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to Damascus on becoming Caliph,
remaining in Ramla. Sulayman sent Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (siege of
Constantinople). The intervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy
losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.

Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating,
and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.[91] Yazid
expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother,
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in
allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms
introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite
teachings combined with local restlessness to produce the Berber Revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd ibn
Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were
not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle
of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.[92] Hisham died in
743.

Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which
included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received

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further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human free will).[93] Walid was shortly thereafter
deposed in a coup.[94] Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had
rebelled on behalf of the Book of God and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused
allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his
brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from 744 until he was killed in
750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah
heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially
in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to
trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was
followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the
talented prince Abd al-Rahman who escaped to the Iberian Peninsula and founded a dynasty there.

Islamic Golden Age

Islamic world during the Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the
earlier Caliphates. Initially, they conquered Mediterranean islands
including the Balearics and, after, in 827 the Sicily.[95] The ruling party had
come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated
by the Abbasid revolutionary Abu Muslim.[96][97] Under the Abbasids
Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic
prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden
age".[98] Commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Abbasid caliphate

Revolution) and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific

Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled
754–775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786–809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809–813) and their immediate successors.[99]

The capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad, due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs
in Persia and Transoxania.[99] At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of regional dynasties.
Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I,
escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. In the Maghreb, Harun al-Rashid appointed
the Arab Aghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise central authority. Aghlabid
rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had
conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known
today as Cairo). In Persia the Turkic Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbasids.[100][101] Abbasid influence had
been consumed by the Great Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by
1055.[99]

Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful proselytising.[95] The first stage in the conquest of
India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193–1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had
fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in Kanem
starting from sometime between 1081 and 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009.
The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.[102]

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The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques,
separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves
from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According to Ira Lapidus, "The
Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni
faction and their Mawali".[103] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained
outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic
ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was
a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was codified, and the four Madhabs were established. This
era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections of
Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.[104] Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions,
the Quran identifying Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and "Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the
Mandeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "people of the book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages,
the doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two major denominations of Islam, solidified and the divisions of the world
theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.

Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government.) The regional
Sultanate and Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.[105] In the
early Islamic philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise, providing
a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology; thus, Averroism has been
considered a precursor to modern secularism.[106][107]

Golden Baghdad Abbasids

Early Middle Ages

According to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive
rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire
Umayyad family and achieving victory at the Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and
founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid
Caliphate.[108]

In Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs

converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order
to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam
nearly doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by
the end of Al-Mansur's reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-
guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his
deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the
world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia
and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, An Arabic manuscript written under
Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. the second half of the Abbasid Era.
Like his father, Al-Hadi[109] was open to his people and allowed citizens to

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address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his
Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue.

The military conflicts subsided as Harun al-Rashid ruled.[110] His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious
prosperity. He established the library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during
his reign. The Barmakid family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during
Rashid's rule.[111]

Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid, but failed to respect the arrangements made for his
brothers, leading to the Fourth Fitna. Al-Ma'mun's general Tahir ibn Husayn took Baghdad, executing Al-Amin.[112]
The war led to a loss of prestige for the dynasty.

Rise of regional powers

The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among Coptic
Arabs, Indo-Persians, and immigrant Turks.[113] In addition, the cost of
running a large empire became too great.[114] The Turks, Egyptians, and
Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the
Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political
unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid
Regional powers born out of the
caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the
fragmentation of the Abbasid
caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the caliphate
Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph Al-
Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the Saffarids, Samanids,
Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy,
science, and mathematics.[115]

High Baghdad Abbasids

Early Middle Ages

Upon Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his
reign and dealt with rebellions.[116] Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his
ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and
his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize
and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies
alienated them and other opponents.

Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the
protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-
Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the Mihna, the Abbasid inquisition which he introduced in 833 four months
before he died.[117] The Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the
inquisitions. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel,

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Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more
pronounced.

During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died
while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated
well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there,
and had them translated into Arabic.[118] His scientists originated alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to
Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge and treasure.
Workers tunneled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under
questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-
Ma'mun.

As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite
revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-
Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack
against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the Battle of
Anzen. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely
upon Turkish commanders and ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were
never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-
Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.

During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many
tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-
Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect,
applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and
tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and
algebra under the caliph's patronage.[119]

Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a
famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly
large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the
two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq
was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one
hundred songs.[120]

When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many
reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into
decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the Great Mosque of Samarra[121] as part of an
extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian Constantine the
Philosopher, who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by Emperor
Michael III. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The
Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī, an action that was ostensibly
carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down
rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was
assassinated by a Turkish soldier.

Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was

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implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his
brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their
father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-
Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and
Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of
unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor,
electing Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were
displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer
depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the
failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks
for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the
Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to Al-Mu'tazz but
was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks,
becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.

Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a

High Abbasids pupil of his Turkish masters,
Jurisprudence
but was surrounded by parties Minaret at the Great Mosque of
Four constructions of Islamite law jealous of each other. At Samarra.
Abu Hanifa (Iraq teacher) Samarra, the Turks were
Malik bin Anas (Medina Imam) having problems with the
Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i "Westerns" (Berbers and Moors), while the Arabs and Persians at
(Egyptian Iman)
Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal
Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Baghdad
teacher) hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to
death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and
Early Abbasids
Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter.
Literature and Science
Al-Muhtadi became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared
Hunayn ibn Ishaq, physician, to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed
Greek translator; him soon after his ascension. Al-Mu'tamid followed, holding on for 23
Ibn Fadlan, explorer; years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the Zanj
Al Battani, astronomer; Rebellion, Al-Mu'tamid summoned al-Muwaffak to help him. Thereafter,
Tabari, historian and theologian;
Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The Hamdanid dynasty was founded
Al-Razi, philosopher, medic,
chemist; by Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of Mardin in
Al-Farabi, chemist and philosopher; Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to
Abu Nasr Mansur, mathematician; his son, al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The Tulunids became the
Alhazen, mathematician; first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during
Al-Biruni, mathematician, this time.
astronomer, physicist;
Omar Khayyám, poet, Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance
mathematician, and astronomer;
and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i,
Mansur Al-Hallaj, Sufism mystic,
writer and teacher but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was
cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his
predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded
about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-
Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.

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Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of
Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the
vazir next chose Al-Muqtadir. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or
assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul
threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally
recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence.

At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-
Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner[122] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by
Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in
power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother
al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.

His son Ar-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the
de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik (amir al-umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his
name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the Hanbalis, supported by popular
sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the
last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the
questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute alms, or to temper the severity of cruel
officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.

In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on
behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph.
They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".

Also in the 930s, ‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad founded the Būyid confederation.
Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziyārīds of Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish
general from Baghdad named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the
remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large
territorial gains. Fars and Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took Kermān (967),
Oman (967), the Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and Gorgan (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with
pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto
independent.[123]

Middle Baghdad Abbasids

Early High Middle Ages

At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The amir al-umara
Bajkam contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor.
The choice fell on Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in
Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They
assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid Nasir al-Dawla advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks

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repelled them. Turkish general Tuzun became amir al-umara. The Turks
were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger.
Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin.
Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at Raqqa,
moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded
Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of Al-Mustakfi. With the new
Dirham of Al-Muttaqi
Caliph, Tuzun attacked the Buwayhid dynasty and the Hamdanids. Soon
after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The
Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula
assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and
deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.[124]

Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became caliph. The

Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established.
The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the
Ibn Rushd (Averroes), philosopher;
Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized
al-Farabi, Persian (Soghdian)
philosopher; religiously, except in Iberia. Buwayhid Sultan Mu'izz al-Dawla was
Al-Mutanebbi, Arabic poet; prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own
Abu Ali Husain ibn Abdallah ibn safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.[125]
Sina (Avicenna), physician,
philosopher, and scientist The next Caliph, Al-Ta'i, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the
Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasyty also fractured.
The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. Baha' al-Dawla, the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed
al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed al-Qadir the new caliph.[126]

During al-Qadir's Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was
friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of
Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies
such as the Baghdad Manifesto and the doctrine that the Quran was created. He outlawed the Muʿtazila, bringing an
end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period, Islamic literature, especially
Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.[127] By 1000, the global Muslim population had
climbed to about 4 percent of the world, compared to the Christian population of 10 percent.

During Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. Toghrül
overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and
people. In Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again
acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honored by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I,
during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was
critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad
Abbasids.[128]

Late Baghdad Abbasids

Late High Middle Ages

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The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from Al-Aqsa Mosque

the beginning of the Crusades to the
Seventh Crusade. The first Caliph was Al-
Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant,
despite civil strife at home and the First
Crusade in Syria. Raymond IV of Toulouse
attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the
Battle of Manzikert. The global Muslim
population climbed to about 5 per cent as Plan of Al-Aqsa Mosque, year 985 Dome of Al Aqsa Mousque
against the Christian population of 11 per
cent by 1100. Jerusalem was captured by
crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and
rousing men to recover the Al-Aqsa Mosque from the Franks (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war
against the infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.[129]

Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in the
East. The Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa[130] (emir of Al-Hilla), plundered Bosra and
attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq
army under Zengi, founder of the Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud,
his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays,
where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and
Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.[131]

After the siege of Damascus (1134),[132] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of
western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.[133] His son, Al-Rashid failed to gain
independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked;
the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph
was deposed, and his uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed
by Hashshashins.[134]

Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to
extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. While the
Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the Siege of Baghdad
(1157). The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph,
nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders.

The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw Saladin extinguish the Fatimid dynasty after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids
again prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.

An-Nasir, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He
consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked by
ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended
his dynasty. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, Al-Mustansir,

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was made caliph.

Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 Ögedei Khan commanded to raise up Khorassan and
populated Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. The rulers of
Mosul and Cilician Armenia surrendered. Chormaqan divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on
military hierarchy.[135] In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight tumens.[136] By 1237 the Mongol
Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds, and all of Afghanistan and
Kashmir.[137]

Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the
Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan swept through the
Transoxiana and Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and
Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.

Cairo Abbasid Caliphs

Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo
Late Middle Ages

The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans and nominal rulers used to
legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-
Musta'in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to
even briefly hold political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I
defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.[138][139]

Fatimid Caliphate
The Fatimids originated in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern
Algeria). The dynasty was founded in 909 by ʻAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah,
who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his
daughter Fātima as-Zahra and her husband ʻAlī ibn-Abī-Tālib, the first
Shīʻa Imām, hence the name al-Fātimiyyūn "Fatimid".[140] The Fatamids
and the Zaydis at the time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most
Sunnis.[141][142][143]
Fatimid Caliphate
Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an
area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and
Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.[144]

The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a capital at al-
Qāhira(Cairo) in 969.[145] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the
sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his
army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After

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Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed
the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.

Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine,
Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz.[146] Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed
an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended
all the way to China and its Song dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle
Ages.

Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity.
Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as
Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on
ability.[147] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.[148]

Fatimid caliphs
Early and High Middle Ages

Also see: Cairo Abbasid Caliphs (above)

During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in
Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids
faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid
inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards the
Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al
Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon
after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took
place in North Africa.[149]

Al Mahdi Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah established the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins
dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and
moved towards north-western Africa, under Aghlabid rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the
Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established
himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. In 920, Al Mahdi took up
residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his
son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.[150] At the time of his death he had
extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself.The Fatimid Caliphate grew to include Sicily and to
stretch across North Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to Libya.[151] Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of
central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, which he ruled
from Mahdia, in Tunisia. Newly built capital Al-Mansuriya,[a] or Mansuriyya (Arabic: ‫)ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﻮﺭﻳﻪ‬, near Kairouan,
Tunisia, was the capital of the Fatimid Caliphate during the rules of the Imams Al-Mansur Billah (r. 946–953) and Al-

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Mu'izz li-Din Allah (r. 953–975).

The Fatimid general Jawhar conquered Egypt in 969, and he built a new
palace city there, near Fusṭāt, which he also called al-Manṣūriyya. Under
Al-Muizz Lideenillah, the Fatimids conquered the Ikhshidid Wilayah (see
Fatimid Egypt), founding a new capital at al-Qāhira (Cairo) in 969.[145] The
name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer",[153] which was
prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo
was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, The Al-Hakim Mosque
though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in Cairo, Egypt; south of Bab Al-Futuh

cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to "Islamic Cairo" building was named
conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria, as after Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, built by
well as Sicily.
Fatimid vizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli, and
Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at extended by Badr al-Jamali.
its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea
coast of Africa, Tihamah, Hejaz, and Yemen. Egypt flourished, and the
Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and
diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which eventually determined the economic course
of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.

After the eighteenth Imam, al-Mustansir Billah, the Nizari sect believed that his son Nizar was his successor, while
another Ismāʿīlī branch known as the Mustaali (from whom the Dawoodi Bohra would eventually descend), supported
his other son, al-Musta'li. The Fatimid dynasty continued with al-Musta'li as both Imam and Caliph, and that joint
position held until the 20th Imam, al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah (1132). At the death of Imam Amir, one branch of the
Mustaali faith claimed that he had transferred the imamate to his son at-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, who was then two years
old. After the decay of the Fatimid political system in the 1160s, the Zengid ruler Nūr ad-Dīn had his general, Shirkuh,
seized Egypt from the vizier Shawar in 1169. Shirkuh died two months after taking power, and the rule went to his
nephew, Saladin.[154] This began the Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt and Syria.

The Crusades
Beginning in the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the Reconquista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus
from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II, inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the
eastern Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the First Crusade from Western Europe
which captured Edessa, Antioch, County of Tripoli and Jerusalem.[155]

In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem.
The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller Crusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the
complicated politics of the Levant, but did not threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After
Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his
nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.[156]

In the Third Crusade armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered for several
decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually
completed with the fall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the Fourth Crusade was diverted
from the Levant and instead took Constantinople, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire)

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further weakened in their long struggle against the Turkish peoples to the
east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates;
according to William of Malmesbury, preventing them from further
expansion into Christendom[157] and being targets of the Mamluks and the
Mongols.

Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In
1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East Saladin and Guy of Lusignan after
the Battle of Hattin
region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and
13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, List of Crusades
Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Early period
Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but · First Crusade 1095–1099
Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in 1200. In the
· Second Crusade 1147–1149
1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt · Third Crusade 1187–1192
and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Low Period
Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. In · Fourth Crusade 1202–1204
1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave · Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf · Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Late period
of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what
· Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.[158]
· Eighth Crusade 1270
· Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
Sultans of Egypt

Sultans and Amirs of Damascus

Ayyubid empire

Emirs of Aleppo

Mongol period

Mongol invasions

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After the Crusades the Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the
Islamic Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully
recovered. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, The Mongols put an end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol invasion of
Central Asia began in 1219 at a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread throughout
Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.[159]

With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, The Mongols targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother,
Hulegu, was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. The fall of Bagdhad in 1258
destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and
Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt
were delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol
army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the pivotal Battle of
Ain Jalut.[160]

Islamic Mongol empires

Ultimately, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde, and the Chagatai Khanate - three
of the four principal Mongol khanates - embraced Islam.[161][162][163] In
power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the
13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were
replaced by the new Mongol power founded by Timur (himself a Muslim),
who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the Delhi Sultanate
in India and the Ottoman Turks in Anatolia. Timur's ceaseless conquests
were accompanied by displays of brutality matched only by Chinggis Khan,
whose example Timur consciously imitated.[164] Samarqand, the
cosmopolitan capital of Timur's empire, flourished under his rule as never
before, while Iran and Iraq suffered large-scale devastation.[164] The
Middle East was still recovering from the Black Death, which may have
killed one third of the population in the region. The plague began in China, Goharshad Mosque built by the
Timurid Empire.
and reached Alexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following
years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars
left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found many
branches of Islam, including the Mughals of India.[165][166]

Mamluk Sultanate
In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments,
and the Mamluk Sultanate was born. Military prestige was at the center of
Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the
Mongol forces. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic
Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, forced out the
Mongols (see Battle of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid
dynasty. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Mamluk empire and Mongol
Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.[101] With Ilkhanate
this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the

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last of the crusader territories in the Levant. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the
Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).[167] The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict,
military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (Dar al-Islam) and "non-
Muslim territory" (Dar al-Harb).[168]

As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings,
including mosques, madrasas and khanqahs. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of
these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old
Cairo.[169]

Bahri Sultans

Burji Sultans

See also: Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era

Al-Andalus
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first
began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party
led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in
Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won
a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic
was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's
commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed with substantial reinforcements, and
by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic
and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain Ṭārif in 710 and
also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to
an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (672–80). The
two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive
battle was fought.[170]

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad
Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus. After the Abbasids came to power, some
The interiors of the Alhambra in
Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of
Granada, Spain decorated with
the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Caliph arabesque designs.
of Córdoba(912-961).[171] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a
strengthened state with its capital as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to

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the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of
northern Iberia,[172] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation
works.[173] Economic development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets.
The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[174]

The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who
was ousted because of his indolence.[175] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called taifa kingdoms
(Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms
weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such
as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.[176]

Emirs of Al-Andalus

Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the
Abbasid Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of
several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached
modern day Morocco near Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have
been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the Berber Revolt (740s), the province was in a state of confusion,
with the Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr
lined up three Syrian commanders – Obeid Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus,
and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl
refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I
was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-
Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga.

During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the
peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However,
before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able
to control Zaragoza. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the Guadalquivir river, just outside Córdoba on
the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of
their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a counterattack, but negotiations ended the
confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not
claim the Muslim caliph, though.[177] The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail.
Al-Andalus was a safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.[178]

In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the
Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt,
with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid
caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of
the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to
transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature
in his states. He died on 29 September 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.[179]

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Rahman I's successor was his son Hisham I. Born in Córdoba, he built
many mosques and completed the Mezquita. He called for a jihad that
resulted in a campaign against the Kingdom of Asturias and the County of Toulouse; in this second campaign he was
defeated at Orange by William of Gellone, first cousin to Charlemagne. His successor Al-Hakam I came to power and
was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in Aix-la-
Chapelle to negotiate for aid. In the mean time Córdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his
reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida.[180]

Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose
southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered
Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at
Seville to repel future raids. He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against
Charles the Bald's nominations.[181]

Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the Muladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and Mozarabs (Muslim-
Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son Mundhir I. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I
commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his
father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. He died
in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.

Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous
wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had
been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter
was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.
[182][183][184]

Caliphs of Al-Andalus

Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia

Ifriqiyah, Iberian

Almohad caliphs

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Islam in Africa
The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Muslim military expansion following the death
of Muhammad in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlled Mesopotamia, had invaded Armenia, and were concluding their
conquest of Byzantine Syria. Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad caliphate. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in
Arab hands. A subsequent attempt to conquer the Nubian kingdom of Makuria was however repelled.

Maghreb
Kairouan in Tunisia was the first city founded by Muslims in the Maghreb.
Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time,
the Great Mosque of Kairouan[185] considered as the oldest and most
prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.[186]

This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during

most of Islamic history. The Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western
Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its
The Great Mosque of Kairouan also
first sultan Idris I.[187]
known as the Mosque of Uqba was
The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara flourished established in 670 by the Arab
general and conqueror Uqba ibn
over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during
Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the
the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over
Maghreb, situated in the city of
present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Kairouan, Tunisia.
Algeria) and a part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain
and Portugal in the north.[188]

The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth Moorish
dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.[189]

Horn of Africa
The history of Islam in the Horn of Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. Through
extensive trade and social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners
on the other side of the Red Sea, in the Arabian peninsula, merchants and sailors in
the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.[190]

Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of Zeila in modern-day northern Somalia
to seek protection from the Quraysh at the court of the Aksumite Emperor in present-
Ruins of Zeila (Saylac),
day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then
Somalia.
settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the
Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local
merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes
in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula
saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts,
forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.[190]

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Great Lakes
Islam came to the Great Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade
routes.[191] They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their
conversion by the Muslim Arabs.

Local Islamic governments centered in Tanzania (then Zanzibar). The people of Zayd
were Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial period,
the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the Ulema (wanawyuonis, The Great Mosque of
in Swahili language). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Kilwa
Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief
Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious authority.[192]

Islam in East and South Asia

Southeast Asia
Islam first reached Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the
7th century,[101] particularly via the western part of what is now Indonesia.
Arab traders from Yemen already had a presence in Asia through trading and
traveling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and
Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also goods from Africa, India,
and so on which included ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.[193]
Grand Mosque of Demak, the
According to T.W. Arnold in The Preaching of Islam, by the 2nd century of the first Muslim state in Java
Islamic Calendar, Arab traders had been trading with the inhabitants of
Ceylon, modern-day Sri Lanka. The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H.
Burger and Dr. Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia)[194]
According to an atlas created by the geographer Al-Biruni (973–1048), the Indian or Indonesian Ocean used to be
called the Persian Ocean. After Western Imperialist rule, this name was changed to reflect the name used today; the
Indian Ocean.[195]

Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay; a tangible
product of this is the Jawi script. Coupled with the composing of original Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to
the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.[196] By 1292, when Marco Polo visited Sumatra, most of the
inhabitants had converted to Islam. The Sultanate of Malacca was founded on the Malay Peninsula by Parameswara, a
Srivijayan Prince.

Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to Borneo and Java. By the late 15th century, Islam had been
introduced to the Philippines via the southern island of Mindanao.[197] The foremost socio-cultural Muslim entities
that resulted form this are the present-day Sultanate of Sulu and Sultanate of Maguindanao; Islamised kingdoms in the
northern Luzon island, such as the Kingdom of Maynila and the Kingdom of Tondo, were later conquered and
Christianised with the majority of the archipelago by Spanish colonisers beginning in the 16th century.

As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a
dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The Aceh Sultanate

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was the most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern
Sumatra. The Sultanate also attracted Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay
Peninsula. The Sultanate of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local
Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[198] Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat,
its rule remained brief.[101]

Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, the
Aceh Sultanate and Bruneian Empire established themselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's
territory, although vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state of Brunei Darussalam.[101]

Indian Subcontinent
On the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of
the peninsula, in today's Kerala state. Arabs traded with Malabar even
before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of Sahaba,
under Malik Ibn Deenar, arrived on the Malabar Coast and preached Islam.
According to that legend, the first mosque of India was built by Second
Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name
Tajudheen. He traveled to Arabia to meet Muhammad and died on the trip
back, somewhere in today's Oman. Historical records suggest that the
Cheraman Perumal Mosque was built in around 629.[199]

Islamic rule came to the Indian subcontinent in the 8th century, when
Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh. Muslim conquests expanded
under Mahmud and the Ghaznavids until the late 12th century, when the
Ghurids overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in Northern
India. Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of
the Delhi Sultanates.[200]

Qutub Minar is the world's tallest

In the 14th century, Alauddin Khalji extended Muslim rule south to
brick minaret, commenced by Qutb-
Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also
ud-din Aybak of the Slave dynasty;
1st dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century such as the
Qutb Shahi and the Bahmani, but none rivalled the power and extensive
reach of the Mughal Empire at its peak.[201]

China
In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, Jafar ibn Abu Talib and Jahsh ibn Riyab) preached
in 616/17 and onwards after following the Chittagong–Kamrup–Manipur route after sailing from Abyssinia in 615/16.
After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with Sa'id ibn Zaid, Qais ibn Sa'd and Hassan ibn Thabit to
China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed for China for the third time in 650–51 after
Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.[202]

Early Modern period

In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, the

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Balkans and Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire in Greater Iran; and the
Mughal Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were made possible
by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder and more efficient
administration.[203]

Ottoman Empire
The Seljuq Turks declined in the
second half of the 13th century,
The Huaisheng Mosque of China,
after the Mongol invasion.[204]
built by Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas.
This resulted in the
establishment of multiple
Turkish principalities, known as beyliks. Osman I, the founder of the
Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (Söğüt)
at the end of the thirteenth century, succeeding his father Ertuğrul. Osman
Ottoman Empire I afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.[205] By
1331, the Ottomans had captured Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital,
under the leadership of Osman's son and successor, Orhan I.[206] Victory at
the Battle of Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were
established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a
growing empire.[207]

Growth halted when Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in the Battle of Ankara in
1402, beginning the Ottoman Interregnum. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory
amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained
independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I,
Mehmed I, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself
sultan in 1413.[101]

Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they were
able to challenge Venice, a naval power. They also attempted to reconquer
the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled
1444–1446; 1451–1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to Constantinople,
the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and
large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress
succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Without its capital the Byzantine
Empire disintegrated.[101] The future successes of the Ottomans and later
The Suleiman Mosque
empires would depend upon the exploitation of gunpowder.[203]
(Süleymaniye Camii) in Istanbul was
In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in built on the order of sultan Suleiman
the Magnificent by the Ottoman
Persia under the leadership of Shah Ismail I, defeating the ruling Turcoman
architect Mimar Sinan in 1557.
federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501.
The Ottoman sultan Selim I sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging
and defeating them at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing
their territories in 1517. Suleiman I (also known as Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of
the diversion of Safavid focus to the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under

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Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep
into Hungary following the Battle of Mohács in 1526 — reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a
Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire 10 years later. While
Suleiman I's rule (1520–1566) is often identified as the apex of Ottoman power, the empire continued to remain
powerful and influential until a relative fall in its military strength in the second half of the eighteenth century.[208]

Safavid Empire
The Safavid dynasty rose to power in Tabriz in 1501 and later conquered the
rest of Iran. The Safavids were originally Sufi and Iran was Sunni.[209] After
their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the Battle of Chaldiran,
to unite the Persians behind him Ismail I made conversion mandatory for
the largely Sunni population to Twelver Shia so that he could get them to
fight the Sunni Ottomans.[210]

This resulted in the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam. Zaydis, the
Safavid empire largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty were also forced
to convert to the Twelver Shia. The Zaydis at that time used the Hanafi
Fiqh, as did most Sunnis and there were good relations between them. Abu
Hanifah and Zayd ibn Ali were also very good friends.[141][142][143]

The Safavids dynasty from Azarbaijan ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which established Twelver Shi'a Islam as the
region's official religion and united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persian identity.
[211][212]

Although claiming to be the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids
were Sunni (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called Safavi).
Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, a local dignitary from the
north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the
State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni
neighbours.

In 1524, Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts.

Carpetmaking became a major industry. The tradition of Persian miniature Shah Suleiman I and his courtiers,
Isfahan, 1670. Painter is Ali Qoli
painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict
Jabbador, and is kept at The St.
religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol
Petersburg Institute of Oriental
and hashish and removing casinos, taverns and brothels. Tahmasp's
Studies in Russia, ever since it was
nephew Ibrahim Mirza continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts acquired by Tsar Nicholas II. Note
until he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the the two Georgian figures with their
Mughal dynasty. names at the top left.

Tahmasp's grandson, Shah Abbas I, restored the shrine of the eighth

Twelver Shi'a Imam, Ali al-Ridha at Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at Ardabil. Both shrines received
jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to Isfahan, revived old ports, and
established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction
of Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acres

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(81,000 m2).[213]

The Safavid Dynasty was toppled in 1722 by the Hotaki dynasty, which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas
to Shiaism.

Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was a product of various Central Asian invasions into
the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by the Timurid prince Babur in
1526 with the destruction of the Delhi sultanate, placing its capital in Agra.
Babur's death some years later and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun,
brought instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah,
who administered a string of defeats to Humayun, weakened the empire. A
year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the
lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13-year-old
Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar,
consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansion and
administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan came to
Mughal Empire at its greatest
power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas including Afghanisthan,
extent, in the late 17th and early
Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[101][214]
18th centuries.

The empire ruled most of

present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for several
centuries. Its decline in the early 18th century allowed India to be divided
into smaller kingdoms and states. The Mughal dynasty was dissolved by the
British Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.[101][214] It left a lasting
legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the
Mughals, include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the
Lahore Fort, the Shalimar Gardens and the Agra Fort. During the empire's
reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, in Gujarat, Bengal
and Hyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Persia were Built by Mughal emperor Shah
active throughout the region. More than a quarter of the population Jahan for his beloved wife, the Taj
converted to Islam.[214] Mahal is a world-renowned
testament to Mughal architecture.

Modern period
The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the
patterns of earlier centuries. The European powers, and especially Britain and France, globalized economically and
colonized much of the region.

Ottoman Empire partition

By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined. The decision to back Germany in World War I
meant they shared the Central Powers' defeat in that war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish
nationalists led by the victorious general of the Battle of Gallipoli: Mustafa Kemal, who became known to his people as
Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the treaty of Sèvres (1920) which ended

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Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern Republic of

Turkey, which was recognized by the Allies in the Treaty of Lausanne
(1923). Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of
modernization that emphasized economic development and secularization.
He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted Arabic
numerals, the Latin script, separated the religious establishment from the
state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to vote in
parallel with women's suffrage in the west.[215]

Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory Ottoman army in World War I
outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers
as protectorates. During the war the Allies had promised the subject
peoples independence in exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay, they found that
this system of "protectorates" was a smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the British and the French. The
struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were
romanticized in the stories of British secret intelligence agent T. E. Lawrence—later known as "Lawrence of
Arabia."[216] Ottoman successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq,
Israel, Lebanon, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore
of the Black Sea.[217]

Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to emerge in the
Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments and sought to develop national
pride among their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to
resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.

Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other
cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical
form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism, which found its way into the Saudi royal family.

Arab–Israeli conflict
The Arab–Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment
of the modern State of Israel as a Jewish nation state, the consequent displacement of the Palestinian people and
Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab states and the
State of Israel (see related Israeli–Palestinian conflict). Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel,
animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly Muslim states.

The Six-Day War of June 5–10, 1967, was fought between Israel and the neighbouring states of Egypt, Jordan, and
Syria. The Arab countries closed the Suez canal and it was followed in May 1970 by the closure of the "tapline" from
Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of petroleum
in Libya, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In 1970, Occidental Petroleum broke with
other oil companies and accepted the Arab demands for price increases.

Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict
for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam, Arab culture, Christianity, Judaism, Jewish culture, or for
ideological, human rights, or strategic reasons. Although some consider the Arab–Israeli conflict a part of (or a

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precursor to) a wider clash of civilizations between the Western World and the Muslim world,[218][219] others oppose
this view.[220] Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived
supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.

Other Islamic affairs

In 1979 the Iranian Revolution transformed Iran from Modern Islamic world
a constitutional monarchy to a populist theocratic
Islamic republic under the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah
Khomeini, a Shi'i Muslim cleric and marja. Following
the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved
and a referendum established the government, electing
Ruhollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader. During the
following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic
groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured
Islam in the modern world
power.
Sunni countries
The development of the two opposite fringes, the
Shia countries
Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam the Twelver
Shia version and its reinforcement by the Iranian Ibadi countries

Revolution and the Salafi in Saudi Arabia, coupled

with the Iran–Saudi Arabia relations resulted in these
governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests.[221][222] Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia and
Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq) encouraged Saddam Hussein to invade Iran,[223] which resulted in the Iran–Iraq
War, as they feared that an Islamic revolution would take place within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also
helped convince Saddam that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse.

In October 1973, a new war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the Yom Kippur War, broke out just as
the oil companies began meeting with OPEC leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Sadat's campaigns
and the war strengthened their unity. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the West that enabled Israel to
put up a resistance against the Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the
United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the
"front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the Arab-Israeli Conflict
and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.

See also
Islam by country – a list
List of the Muslim Empires
Political aspects of Islam
Islamism
Islam and secularism
Pre-Islamic Arabia
The Ottomans: Europe's Muslim Emperors
History of the Balkans

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Notes
a. The name Mansuriyya means "the victorious", after its founder Ismāʿīl Abu Tahir Ismail Billah, called al-Mansur,
"the victor."[152]

References
1. Islam Q & A, Doubts about the Sahaabah (may Allah be pleased with them) and a response to those doubts
(https://islamqa.info/en/answers/220074/doubts-about-the-sahaabah-may-allah-be-pleased-with-them-and-
a-response-to-those-doubts), retrieved on 24 December 2018. "...Ibn Khaldoon: How often the historians,
mufassireen, and narrators of reports make mistakes in the stories they narrate, because their method is mere
transmission of reports, whether sound or unsound, without examining these reports and their chains of narration,
and comparing them to other, similar reports, and without examining them in the light of reason and in the light of
human nature. Thus they drifted away from the path of truth and fell into grievous mistakes and errors."
2. Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society (https://books.google.com
/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC). Psychology Press. p. 5 (https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&
pg=PA5). ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6.
3. Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12.
ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
4. Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
5. Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 9.
ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.
6. "Key themes in these early recitations include the idea of the moral responsibility of man who was created by God
and the idea of the judgment to take place on the day of resurrection. [...] Another major theme of Muhammad's
early preaching, [... is that] there is a power greater than man's, and that the wise will acknowledge this power and
cease their greed and suppression of the poor." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed.,
"Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 363.
7. "At first Muhammad met with no serious opposition [...] He was only gradually led to attack on principle the gods of
Mecca. [...] Meccan merchants then discovered that a religious revolution might be dangerous to their fairs and
their trade." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 364.
8. Donner 2010, p. 628.
9. Robinson 2010, p. 6.
10. Robinson 2010, p. 2.
11. Hughes 2013, p. 56.
12. Donner 2010, p. 633.
13. See also Hughes 2013, pp. 6 & 7, who links the practice of source and tradition (or form) criticism as one
approach.
14. Donner 2010, pp. 629, 633.
15. Donner 2010, p. 630.
16. Donner 2010, p. 631.
17. Donner 2010, p. 632.
18. Robinson 2010, p. 9.
19. Robinson 2010, pp. 4, 5.
20. Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity
(https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA297). OUP USA. pp. 297–99.
ISBN 9780195336931.

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21. Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity
(https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA302). OUP USA. p. 302. ISBN 9780195336931.
22. Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity
(https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA287). OUP USA. p. 287. ISBN 9780195336931.
23. Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity
(https://books.google.com/books?id=GKRybwb17WMC&pg=PA301). OUP USA. p. 301. ISBN 9780195336931.
24. Irving M. Zeitlin (19 March 2007). The Historical Muhammad (https://books.google.com
/books?id=sbhJJ7AOLL4C&pg=PA30). Polity. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-7456-3999-4.
25. "The very first question a biographer has to ask, namely when the person was born, cannot be answered precisely
for Muhammad. [...] Muhammad's biographers usually make him 40 or sometimes 43 years old at the time of his
call to be a prophet, which [...] would put the year of his birth at about 570 A.D." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch,
Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 361.
26. Robinson 2010, p. 187.
27. Albert Hourani (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples (https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&
pg=PA15). Harvard University Press. pp. 15–19. ISBN 9780674010178.
28. W. Montgomery Watt (1956). Muhammad At Medina. Oxford At The Clarendon Press. pp. 1–17, 192–221.
29. "A Shi'ite Encyclopedia" (https://www.al-islam.org/shiite-encyclopedia-ahlul-bayt-dilp-team). Al-Islam.org. Ahlul
Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project.
30. Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Volume 4. p. 281.
31. al-Razi, Fakhr. Tafsir al-Kabir, Volume 12. pp. 49–50.
32. al-Tabrizi, al-Khatib. Mishkat al-Masabih. p. 557.
33. Khand, Mir. Habib al-Siyar, Volume 1, Part 3. p. 144.
34. Albert Hourani (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples (https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&
pg=PA15). Harvard University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 9780674010178.
35. "The immediate outcome of the Muslim victories was turmoil. Medina's victories led allied tribes to attack the non-
aligned to compensate for their own losses. The pressure drove tribes [...] across the imperial frontiers. The Bakr
tribe, which had defeated a Persian detachment in 606, joined forces with the Muslims and led them on a raid in
southern Iraq [...] A similar spilling over of tribal raiding occurred on the Syrian frontiers. Abu Bakr encouraged
these movements [...] What began as inter-tribal skirmishing to consolidate a political confederation in Arabia
ended as a full-scale war against the two empires."Lapidus (2002, p. 32)
36. "In dealing with captured leaders Abu Bakr showed great clemency, and many became active supporters of the
cause of Islam." W. Montgomery Watt, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., "Abu Bakr", vol. 1, p. 110. "Umar's
subsequent decision (reversing the exclusionary policy of Abu Bakr) to allow those tribes whichhad rebelled during
the course of the Ridda wars and been subdued to participate in the expanding incursions into and attacks on the
Fertile Crescent [...] incorporated the defeated Arabs into the polity as Muslims." Berkey (2003, p. 71)
37. [N]on-Muslim sources allow us to perceive an additional advantage, namely, that Arabs had been serving in the
armies of Byzantium and Persia long before Islam; they had acquired valuable training in the weaponry and
military tactics of the empires and had become to some degree acculturated to their ways. In fact, these sources
hint that we should view many in Muhammad’s west Arabian coalition, its settled members as well as its nomads,
not so much as outsiders seeking to despoil the empires but as insiders trying to grab a share of the wealth of
their imperial masters.Hoyland (2014, p. 227)
38. Abdul Basit Ahmad (2001). Umar bin Al Khattab - The Second Caliph of Islam (https://books.google.com
/books?id=kWp8aeuqKaYC&pg=PT43). Darussalam. p. 43. ISBN 978-9960-861-08-1.
39. Khalid Muhammad Khalid; Muhammad Khali Khalid (2005). Men Around the Messenger (https://books.google.com
/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA20). The Other Press. pp. 20–. ISBN 978-983-9154-73-3.

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40. Maulana Muhammad Ali (8 August 2011). The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad
(https://books.google.com/books?id=RQxYnAykK6sC&pg=PT132). eBookIt.com. pp. 132–.
ISBN 978-1-934271-22-3.
41. Muhammad Al-Buraey (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective (https://books.google.com
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42. The challenge of Islamic renaissance by Syed Abdul Quddus
43. Muhammad Al-Buraey (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective (https://books.google.com
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44. Ahmed Akgündüz; Said Öztürk (1 January 2011). Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths
(https://books.google.com/books?id=EnT_zhqEe5cC&pg=PA539). IUR Press. pp. 539–. ISBN 978-90-90-26108-9.
45. Sami Ayad Hanna; George H. Gardner (1969). Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakīyah Al-ʻArabīyah]: A Documentary
Survey (https://books.google.com/books?id=zsoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA271). Brill Archive. pp. 271–.
GGKEY:EDBBNXAKPQ2.
46. Esposito (2000, p. 38)
47. Hofmann (2007), p. 86
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External links
Islam, the Quran, and the Five Pillars All Without a Flamewar (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TpcbfxtdoI8):
Crash Course World History #13 - YouTube
Chronological history of Islam and Muslims up to current time (http://www.classicalislam.com/pages/history
/chronological.htm)
Islam: 662AD - Present (http://friesian.com/islam.htm)
Internet Islamic History Sourcebook (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/islam/islamsbook.html)
A history of Islam in America (http://www.sunnah.org/history/islamamr.htm)
Ethiopian Muslims History (http://www.selamta.net/ethiopian%20muslims%20history.htm) The Haven of the First
Hijra (Migration): an African nation is the Muslims’ first refuge
Brief history of Islam (http://www.barkati.net/english/)
Chronological history of Islam (http://www.barkati.net/english/chronology.htm)
A history of Islamic culture (http://www.muslimheritage.com/)
Islamic Civilization (http://www.cyberistan.org/)
Mohammedan History (http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11772/), 1920

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