CHAPTER 6

LEADING FUNCTION
6.1. MEANING OF LEADING

Leadership can be defined in different ways according to different writers. Some are:

 Leadership is the process of influencing others toward the achievement of organizational

objectives. This definition recognizes that leadership is typically an on going activity, is
oriented toward having an impact on the behaviors of others, and is ultimately focused on
realizing the specific aims of the organization.

 Leadership is the process of influencing a group or individual to set a goal or achieve a goal.
It is a process involving the leader, the led (group or individual), and a practical goal or a
situation. It is behavioral in nature and involves personal interaction.

 Leadership is the art of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and
enthusiastically toward the achievement of organizational or group goals.

 Leadership is the ability to secure desirable actions from a group of followers voluntarily
without the use of coercion or force.

As we can see from the above definitions, leadership has three ingredients: leader, led (follower) and
goal (situation) – organizational Environment.

 Leader: - the one with the ability to understand others’ motivation and to inspire them with
the ability to create a climate for motivation.
 Follower (led) - the individuals being led or influenced
 Environment- the working environment in which the leader interacts with the followers.

Leading is the management function aimed at setting the members of an organization move in the
direction that will achieve its objectives. Directing builds a climate, provides leadership and arranges
the opportunity for motivation. Leading is not deriving or pushing from behind; it is placing oneself
before the group and facilitating progress and inspires followers to accomplish organizational (group)
objectives.

Leadership versus Management

Management is a broad subject that encompasses activities such as planning, organizing, staffing,
directing, and controlling.
Leadership, on the other hand, focuses almost exclusively on the ‘people’ aspects of getting a job
done-inspiring, motivating, directing, and gaining commitment to organizational activities and goals.
Leadership accompanies and complements the management functions. In short, management
influences brain, while leadership encourages the heart and the spirit.

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 1

6.2. THE NEED FOR LEADERSHIP
The need for leadership can be explained by the fact that organizations will never be successful
unless they have effective and efficient leaders. The effectiveness and efficiency of leaders is nothing
but to create conducive environment in the organization. Whatever amount of capital invested and
technology an organization has, without effective leadership the organization will not be successful.

The importance of the directing function in the organization can be presented as follows:

 Directing initiates actions by giving directives and guidance to employees.

 Directing integrates employees’ effort by coordinating actions of the members and leading
toward the objectives.
 Directing attempts to get the maximum output of individuals by providing ways to fully
utilize the potentials and capabilities of employees.
 Directing facilitates changes by incorporating (adopting) environmental and internal changes
into the organization
 Directing provides stability by balancing the different parts of the organization so that it exists
for a long period and its parts work in a harmonious ways.

The directing function enables subordinates to contribute their best to attain the goal of the
organization. Thus, managers should try to integrate both organizational and individual objectives in
order to get the work done by subordinates. Managers must be good leaders (by providing effective
leadership) to guide, counsel, and influence subordinates so as to win their confidence and
acceptance.

How leaders influence others?

Why do people accept the influence of a leader? One major reason is that leaders have power. Power
is the capacity to affect the behavior of others, in other words, power is the ability of individuals or
groups to induce or influence the beliefs or actions of other persons or groups. It is a resource or
patronage an individual has at his/her disposal to stage-manage others towards a wanted behavior.
Having power can increase the effectiveness of a manager by enabling the manager to influence
people to what is wanted.
Leaders in organizations typically rely on some or all of five major types of power: legitimate,
reward, coercive, expert and referent.

1. Legitimate power/position power refers to the power a leader possesses as a result of

occupying a particular position or role in the organization, i.e. it is a power that stems from a
position’s placement in the managerial hierarchy. It corresponds to authority. Legitimate power
exists when a subordinate or the influenced acknowledges that the influencer has a “right” or is
lawfully entitled to influence within certain bounds. It is related to the position, rather than to the
person personality, so it is clearly a function of the leader's position in the organization and is
completely independent of any of the leader's personal characteristics. Thus, the higher a manager
is in the organizational hierarchy, the greater is the “perceived power” thought by subordinates.

2. Reward Power refers to the leader's capacity to give or withhold rewards for
followers. It is based on the capacity to control and provide valued rewards to others. Rewards that

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 2

may be under the control of individual manager include salary increases /pay raises, bonus,
interesting projects, promotion recommendations, a better office, support for training programs,
assignments with high responsibility in the organization, recognition, positive feedback etc.
Purchasing agents, with little position power; might be able to exercise considerable influence by
their ability to expedite or delay a much-needed spare part. Or University professors have
considerable reward power; they can grant or withhold high grades. The greater a managers
control over valued rewards, the greater the manager's reward power and the more power to
influence.

3. Coercive Power is a power based on fear. It is the negative side of reward power. Coercive power
is the ability to coerce or punish the influences/followers when they do not engage in desired
behaviors. Forms of coercion or punishment include criticisms, terminations, reprimands,
suspensions, warning letters that go into an individual’s personnel file, negative performance
appraisals, demotions and withheld pay raises; (punishment may range from loss of a minor
privilege to loss of one's job). Coercive power is usually used to maintain a minimum standard
performance or conformity among subordinates. The greater the freedom to punish others, the
greater a manager’s coercive power. And the more coercive power a manager uses, the more
resentment and opposition s/he faces from subordinates.

4. Expert Power: - refers to power that a leader possesses as a result of his or her knowledge and
expertise regarding the tasks to be performed by subordinates. It is power based on the possession
of expertise, knowledge, skill or information. To the extent that a leader possesses expertise and
information that is needed or desired by others, the leader has expert power. Physicians, lawyers,
and university professors may have considerable influence on others because they are respected
for their special knowledge. A manger who is capable of achieving an important methodological
break through that no other companies dreamed of and a secretary who knows how to unreveal or
reveal bureaucratic red tape all have expert power over any one who needs that information.

5. Referent Power / Charismatic Power is power that results from being admired, personally
identified with or liked by others. When we admire people, want to be like them, or feel friendship
toward them, we more willingly follow their directions and exhibit loyalty toward them. For
example, a Movie Star, a Great Athlete, a Great Football Player, a Musician or a Military Hero
might possess considerable referent power.

 The strength of referent power is directly related to such factors as the amount of prestige and
admiration the influence confers up on the influencer.

 The more that a leader is able to cultivate the liking, identification, and admiration of others, the
greater the referent power.

 The more power a leader has at his/her disposal, the more likely that s/he will be successful in
influencing followers to do the work assigned to them except coercive power.

Although all five types of power are potential means of influencing others, in actual usage they may
engender somewhat different levels of subordinate motivation. Subordinates can react to a leader’s

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 3

direction with commitment, compliance, or resistance. With commitment, employees respond
enthusiastically and exert a high level of effort toward organizational goals. With compliance,
employees exert at least minimal efforts to complete directives but are likely to deliver average,
rather than stellar, performance. With resistance, employees may appear to comply but actually do the
absolute minimum, possibly even attempting to sabotage/damage/ the attainment of organizational
goals.

Types of outcome
Source of Leader Basis for power Commitment Compliance Resistance
influences
Referent power Admiration and Likely* Possible Possible
liking by others. If request is believed If request is perceived If request is
to be important to to be unimportant to something that
leader leader will harm leader
Expert power Possession of Likely* Possible Possible
valued expertise If request isIf request is If leader is
persuasive and persuasive but arrogant and
subordinates share subordinates are insulting or
leader’s task goals apathetic about task subordinates
goal oppose task goals
Legitimate power Hierarchical Possible Likely* Possible
position and If request is polite If request or order is If arrogant
authority and very appropriate seen as legitimate demands are
made or request
does not appear
proper
Reward power Capacity to provide Possible Likely* Possible
valued rewards If used in a subtle, If used in a If used in a
very personal way mechanical, manipulative,
impersonal way arrogant way
Coercive power Ability to punish Very unlikely Possible Likely*
If used in a helpful, If used in a hostile
non punitive way or manipulative
way
* Indicates most common outcome
Major sources of leader power and likely subordinate reactions

Authority versus Power

Authority Power
 It is positional: it will be there when the  It is personal-it exists because of the
incumbent leaves. person.
 Narrower – it is one type of power  Broader
 It changes with changes in position.  Some types of power do not change
 Authority is delegated to an individual (Expert, referent) but some change
legitimate, reward, coercive.
CHAPTER 6: Leading function  Not all power types can be delegated 4
(Expert and referent).
6.3. LEADERSHIP THEORIES

1. Trait theory

A. Trait Theory
Traits are distinctive internal or personal qualities or characteristics of an individual, it can be

 Physical: like height, weight, appearance, health, etc

 Personal: like self-confidence, dominance, adaptable, extroversion/sociability, originality etc
 Mental: like intelligence, creativity, knowledge, technical competence etc.

A leader trait is a physical or personality characteristic that can be used to differentiate leaders from
followers.

Trait theory attempts to find traits that make a leader. That is, it is a theory, the old approach, which
focused on identifying the personal traits that differentiated leaders from followers. Trait theory
originated from an ancient theory called “Great Man” theory that assumes that “leaders are born not
made”-a belief dating back to the ancient Greeks and Romans.

The idea in trait theory was to see whether certain traits would predict the individuals who would
emerge (be identified by members of the group) as leaders.
In searching for measurable leadership traits, researchers took two approaches:
 They attempted to compare the traits of those who emerged as leaders with the traits of those
who did not.
 They attempted to compare the traits of effective leaders with those of ineffective leaders.

Studies that were conducted on the first category have failed to distinguish/uncover any traits that
clearly and consistently distinguish leaders from followers. Leaders as a group have been found to be
somewhat taller, brighter, more extroverted, persistent and more self-confident than non-leaders.
However, millions of people have these traits, but most of them obviously will never attain a
leadership position. In addition, many established leaders did not and do not have these traits.
(Napoleon, for example, was quite short, and Lincoln was moody and introverted.) Interestingly
enough, studies have also found that people who are too intelligent compared with other group
members do not emerge as leaders-perhaps because they are too different or too far removed from the
group.

Studies that were conducted on the second category have generally failed to isolate traits that are
strongly associated with successful leadership.

Generally, the efforts to identify universal leadership traits ran into difficulties for the following
reasons:

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 5

I. Not all leaders possess all the traits and many non-leaders may possess
most of the traits.
II. It gives no guidance as to the magnitude of each trait for a person to be a
leader.
III. No agreement has been reached as to what their relationships are to the
actual instance of leadership.
IV. Traits tend to be a chicken-and-egg proposition i.e. Successful leaders
may display traits such as good vocabulary, education, and self-
confidence after they have assumed leadership positions.
2. Behavioral theory of leadership.

When it became evident that effective leaders did not seem to have any distinguishing traits or
characteristics, researchers tried to isolate the behaviors that made leaders effective. In other words,
rather than try to figure out what effective leaders were, researchers tried to determine what effective
leaders did, how they delegated tasks, how they communicated with and tried to motivate their
subordinates, how they carried out their tasks, and so no. This tries to answer the questions “What do
effective leaders do? What ineffective leaders don't do? How do subordinate react emotionally and
behaviorally (performance) to what the leader does?"

Two major dimensions of leader behavior emerged from this body of research; one deals with how
leaders get the job done and the other deals with how leaders treat and interact with their
subordinates.
A. university of Michigan study University of Michigan Studies
Through interviewing leaders and followers, researchers at the University of Michigan identified
two distinct styles of leadership, referred to as .job-centered and employee - centered.
The job-centered leader practices close supervision on the subordinates’ performance. This leader
relies on coercion, reward, and legitimate power to influence the behavior and performance of
followers.
The employee-centered leader believes in delegating authority and supporting followers in
satisfying their needs by creating a supportive work environment. The employee-centered leader is
concerned with followers', their personal advancement, growth and achievement.

B. The university of OHIO study. he Ohio State Studies

These studies isolated two leadership factors, referred to as initiating structure and consideration.
Initiating structure involves behavior in which the leader organizes and defines the relationship
in the group, tends to establish well-defined patterns and channels of communication, and spells
out ways of getting the job done.
Consideration involves behavior-indicating sensitiveness to subordinates, respect their ideas and
feelings, and establishes mutual trust and friendship between the leader and the followers.

In short, the behavioral theory attempted to identify effective leader behaviors that would work
in every situation. However, researchers found that leader behaviors that worked best in one
situation were not often as effective in other situations.
3 .The Contingency /Situational Leadership Theory
Situational leadership theory grows out of an attempt to explain the inconsistent findings about traits
and styles /behaviors. Situational theory proposes that the effectiveness of a particular style of leader
behavior depends on the situation. As situations change, different styles become appropriate. This

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 6

directly changes the idea of one best style of leadership. In other words, the contingency/situational
theory holds that appropriate leader traits or behaviors are contingent or dependent on relevant
situational characteristics. More specifically, the contingency leadership theory states that, leadership
is the result of the interaction of:
 Leaders: behavior and competence
 Followers: behavior and competence
 Situations: situational variables such as job characteristics, organizational policies, leaders
member relations (the extent to which a leader has the support of group members), position
power (the amount of power that the organization gives the leader to accomplish necessary
tasks).

Theory X and Theory Y Assumptions about People

A manager’s philosophy about work and the people who perform the work will influence his/her
approach to leadership. Douglas McGregor has hypothesized two sets of assumptions about people
that serve as a philosophical base for leadership action. These are Theory X and Theory Y
Assumptions.

Theory X – pessimistic and negative: A manager basing an operating philosophy on Theory X would
 Impose a directive leadership style on the individual or work group s/he is supervising.
 Coercion, negative motivation, and refusal to allow employee participate in decision-making
would probably be the actions of the manager.

Why? Because the manager assumes:

 The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if s/he can-
workers are lazy.
 Because of this dislike, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened
with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of
organizational objectives.
 The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has
relatively little ambition and wants security above all.

McGregor’s Theory X view of human nature holds that the dislike of work is so great that even the
promise of rewards will not overcome it. “People will accept the rewards and demand continually
higher ones, but these alone will not produce the necessary effort. Only the threat of punishment will
do the trick.

Theory Y- adopts a developmental approach/ modern + positive set of assumptions

A manager with Theory Y assumption will prepare him/herself to work with people as individuals, to
involve people in the process of decision-making, to openly encourage people to seek responsibility
and to work with people achieve their goals.
Why? Because the manager assumes:
 The average human being does not inherently dislike work; the physical and mental effort
involved is as natural as play or rest.
 External control and threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort
toward organizational objectives. A person will exercise self-direction and self control in the
service of objectives to which s/he is committed.

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 7

 People generally become committed to organizational objectives if they are rewarded for
doing so.
 The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept, but also they
seek responsibility.
 Many people have a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the
solution of organizational problems.
 The average person’s intellectual potential is only partially utilized under the conditions of
modern industrial life.

The assumptions in Theory Y have remarkably different implications for managers than do those of
Theory X. Instead of blaming poor performance on basic human nature, Theory Y places squarely on
management the responsibility for tapping the reservoir of creativity, hard work, and imagination.
The worker’s performance is limited only by management’s ability to use human resources
effectively. Theory Y also has implications for decision-making. Because it recognizes worker’s
intellectual potential, this philosophy suggests that organizational goals are best achieved if workers
have voice in decisions. Participatory decisions making is especially important as it relates to a
person’s job. In addition, Theory Y vie of human nature implies that a manager’s role is not to
manipulate workers; rather, it is to create an atmosphere in which workers can use their commitment
and involvement to satisfy their personal needs as well as those of the organization.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
The focus on finding leadership style (behavior patterns of leaders) is on the relationship between
leaders’ action and the reaction of subordinates emotionally and behaviorally. A manager’s leadership
style is composed of three parts:

i. How the manager chooses to motivate subordinates: Motivation approach can be

positive (like Responsibility, Recognition, Praise, Security, Monetary Rewards) or
negative (like Threats, Coercion, Fines, Suspensions, Termination)
ii. His/her decision-making style: the degree of decision-making authority the manager
grants to subordinates.
iii. His/her areas of emphasis (orientation) in the work environment: Task orientation,
employee orientation

Based on the above points there are three types of leadership styles: Autocratic, Democratic, and
Laissez-faire.

I. Authoritarian (Autocratic) Leadership Style: It is closely associated with the classical

approach to management. The manager who follows this style is dogmatic and leads by the ability to
withhold or give rewards and punishment, i.e. motivation is through incentives and fear. In this style,
decision-making is solely by the manager, in other words, the leader retains all authority and
responsibility. In the extreme case, the manager makes the decision and announces it to the work
group. There is no opportunity for input into the decision-making process by the subordinates and
communication is primarily downward. Variations of this approach find the manager making the
decision and then “Selling” it to employees or making the decision and allowing the group the
opportunity to ask questions. The autocratic leader is task-oriented and places little value on showing

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 8

consideration to subordinations as a leadership technique. The Autocratic manager uses Theory X
assumption as his philosophical base for leadership.

There are situations where managers are compelled/ forced to use this leadership style. Some are:
I. When there is a need to influence subordinates in favor of organizational objectives which
has an effect on individuals.
II. When subordinates are new, they need to be directed.
III. When the situation calls for unilateral or one-sided and independent decision-making –
perhaps there is no enough time for quality input from subordinates or the subordinates may
lack information.

Limitations
Employees’/subordinates’ ideas will not be used to solve organizational problems, which
in some cases subordinates may have better ideas than the superior about a particular
problem.
Subordinates would not be motivated, i.e. It may suppress individual initiative
Poor implementation of decisions

II. Democratic/Participative Leadership Style: In this leadership style, the manager involves
subordinates in making organizational decisions, shares problems with them and shares
authority to reach a decision. Subordinates take part in the decision-making process through
consultation. The leader delegates a great deal of authority while retaining ultimate
responsibility. Active two-way communication (upward and downward) exists. The democrat
leader uses Theory Y assumption as his/her philosophical base for leadership.

Limitations
I. Subordinates may be too involved to influence the manager even when there is no need.
II. The manager may not be able to influence the subordinates to the extent needed.

However, the major advantage of this leadership style is that, it enhances personal commitment
through participation.

The advantages of democratic leadership style are the disadvantages of the autocratic leadership
style after we make them opposite.

III. Laissez-Faire/Free-Rein Leadership Style: In this leadership style, leaders generally give the group
complete freedom, provide the necessary materials, participate only to answer questions, and avoid
decision-making whenever possible. Either the leader sets limits and the followers work out their own
problems, or the individuals set their own goals. In this style, leaders depend largely on subordinates
to set their own goals and the means of achieving them, and they see their role as one of aiding the
operations of followers by furnishing them information and acting primarily as a contact with the
groups external environment, i.e. the leader’s role is to serve as a logistics specialist or representative
of the group to outside groups. The leader denies responsibility and abdicates authority to the group.

The application of Laissez-Faire style can be found with individuals or groups that the manager views
as being knowledgeable, independent, or motivated. Additionally, if the work group is composed of

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 9

high achievers, or is highly research oriented, this style has potential benefits. Primarily horizontal
communication among peers exists.

Limitations
Group may drift aimlessly in the absence of direction from leader.
It may make things out of control.

Advantages
It gives quite freedom for subordinates
It gives much responsibility and self guidance for subordinates
It permits self-starters to do things as they see fit without leader

IV. Situational Leadership style: The situational leadership style states that for a manager to
be democrat, autocratic or laissez-faire, situations force him/her.

6.4. MOTIVATION AND ITS THEORIES

The Concept of Motivation

The term motivation derived from the Latin word movere meaning, “to move.” In the present context,
motivation represents “those psychological processes that cause arousal, direction, and persistence of
voluntary actions that are goal oriented. Managers need to understand these psychological processes
if they are to successfully guide employees toward accomplishing organizational objectives.
 Motivation is an internal force that energizes behavior, gives direction to behavior, and underlies
the tendency to persist. This definition of motivation recognizes that in order to achieve goals,
individuals must be sufficiently stimulated and energetic, must have a clear focus or end in mind,
and must be willing and able to commit their energy for a long enough period of time to realize
their aim. Since the leading function of management involves influencing others to work toward
organizational goals, motivation is an important aspect of that function.

Because motivation is an internal force, we cannot measure the motivation of others directly. Instead,
we typically infer whether or not other individuals are motivated by watching their behavior. As
managers analyze their workforces, they can always see some people who outperform others of equal
skill. A closer look might reveal instances in which a person with outstanding talents is consistently
outperformed by someone having lesser talents. Why? These latter employees appear willing to exert
more effort, to try harder, to accomplish their goals, often these hard workers are described by their
bosses as “motivated employees.” Motivated individuals work hard, persist and are goal oriented.
Motivators
Motivators are things, which induce an individual to perform. While motivation reflects wants,
motivators are the identified rewards, or incentives that sharpen the derive to satisfy these wants.
They are also the means by which conflicting needs may be reconciled or one need heightened so that
it will be given priority over another. A motivator is something that influences an individual’s
behavior. It makes a difference in what a person will do.

The Motivation Cycle

The starting point in this cycle is a need, a deficiency, or a state of felt deprivation an individual
experiences at a particular time. This deficiency causes tension (physiological or psychological in

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 10

balance), which will be modified by one’s culture and personality to cause certain wants leading
/motivating the individual to some kind of goal directed behavior. This leads to satisfaction and one
cycle of motivation will be completed.
The Motivation Process

1
Need deficiency

3 Need satisfaction 2 Goal Directed behavior

From this we can understand that deficiency triggers a drive for need satisfaction, which causes an
individual to take a certain course of action that will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. The need for
food for example will result in hunger and hunger will drive or motivate the individual to take action
(eating food), which will achieve the goal. This goal attainment will restore the physiological or
psychological balance and reduce or cutoff the drive for food.
Motivation Vs Satisfaction
Motivation refers to the drive and effort to satisfy a want or a goal. Satisfaction refers to the
contentment experienced when a want is satisfied. In other words, motivation implies a drive toward
an outcome, and satisfaction is the outcome already experienced.

Motivation Results Satisfaction

Motivation and Performance
All too often, motivation and performance are assumed to be one and the same. This faulty
assumption can lead to poor managerial decisions. The following formula for performance helps put
motivation into proper perspective:
Performance = Ability x Motivation x Environmental conditions
Thus, we see motivation is a necessary but insufficient contributor to job performance. The
multiplication sign is used to emphasize how a weakness in one factor can negate the other. The
above relationship between performance and motivation clearly shows us that managers should hire
individuals who have the ability to do what is required. After that, the management challenge is
providing environmental conditions that nurture and support individual motivation to work toward
organizational goals. Keeping other variables constant, motivation and performance have neither
positive nor negative relationship. As motivation increases, job performance increases, reaches its
maximum and the decreases.
Optimal/maximum
-------
* After the optimal point
Performance

further motivation brings

about anxiety, tenseness,
fretfulness, and the
anxiety eventually
decreases performance.

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 11

Motivation

Theories of Motivation
A. Carrot and Stick Approach
This metaphor relates the use of rewards and penalties in order to induce desired human behavior. It
comes from the old story that to make a donkey move one must put a carrot in front of it and if it does
not move beat it with stick from behind.

Despite all the researches and theories of motivation that have come to the fore in recent years,
reward and punishment are still recognized/considered by strong motivators. For centuries, however,
they were too often thought of as the only forces that could motivate people.

Carrot - money in the form of pay or bonuses.

Stick – fear such as fear of loss of job, loss of income, reduction of bonuses demotion or some other
penalty.

Failures of carrot and stick approach

1. Carrot can be obtained by any member of the organization without differentiation in performance
– through such practices as salary increases and promotion by seniority, automatic “merit”
increases, and executive bonuses not based on individual manager performance. It is as simple as
this: If a person put a donkey in a pen full of carrots and then stood outside with a carrot, would
the donkey be encouraged to come out of the pen?
2. Stick in the form of fear is not the best kind of motivating factor. It often gives rise to defensive or
refectory behavior, such as union organization, poor quality work, executive indifference, failure
of a manager to take any risk in decision-making, or even dishonesty.

B. Money as a Motivator
Even if under the carrot and stick approach money as a sole motivator has been criticized, it is used
as a motivator (motivating factor) but not the only one. Money can be used as a motivator under the
following conditions.
For people who have low-level standards of living and who badly need it for their life.
When the amount is so significant that the organization uses it for competitive purposes.
When the payment is so differentiated that even at equal position discriminatory payment is
made for people with different levels of performance.

C. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory put forth by
psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow proposed that motivation is a function of needs, and he also
proposed that human needs are arranged hierarchically (in a form of hierarchy). The hierarchy of
needs is based on four premises:

1. Only an unsatisfied need can influence behavior; a satisfied need is not a motivator. What
motivates a person is what s/he does not have but not what s/he has.

CHAPTER 6: Leading function 12

2. A person’s needs are arranged in a priority order of importance. Thus, the priorities (hierarchy) go
from the most basic needs to the most complex.
3. As the person’s needs are met on one level, the person advances to the next level of needs. S/he
will focus on the first level need until it is minimally satisfied before moving to the next level.
4. If satisfaction is not maintained for a once-satisfied need, it will become a priority need again.

Based on the above premises, Maslow proposed that human needs form a five-level hierarchy.

1. Physiological Needs
These are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself, such as food, water, air, shelter, sleep, etc.
Maslow took the position that until these needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to maintain life,
other needs will not motivate people. In other words, As Maslow points out, a person lacking food,
love and esteem wants food more than he/she wants acceptance or prestige. These other needs would
be unimportant. In the working environment, management tries to satisfy these needs primarily
through salary and by eliminating threats to physical safety.

2. Safety /Security Needs

When physiological needs are satisfied, safety needs become a priority as a motivator. Safety needs
include freedom from fear and anxiety, job security, desires for retirement and insurance programs
and so on. As with physiological needs, management attempts to satisfy safety needs primarily
through salary.

3. Social/ Love/ Affiliation Needs

Once we feel reasonably safe and secure, we turn our attention to relationships with others in order to
fulfill our belongingness needs, which involve the desire to affiliate with and be accepted by others
i.e. the need for friendship, companionship, and a place in a group. Love needs include both giving
and receiving. These needs are met by frequent interaction with fellow workers and acceptance by
others.

4. Esteem Needs
Esteem needs include the desire for both self-esteem (self respect) and public esteem, and recognition
by others. These needs take two different forms. First, we have a need for competency, confidence
and independence. We also want the prestige, status, recognition and appreciation that others bestow
on us. Satisfying esteem needs produces self-worth-pride, self-confidence, and true sense of
importance; not satisfying those produces feelings of inability and inadequacy- feeling of inferiority,
weakness and helplessness. Peers and superiors of the person’s work needs can meet esteem in an
organization through recognition, by acquiring organizational titles and by the accomplishment of
work projects.

5. Self-Actualization/Realization Needs
Refers to the need for fulfillment, the desire to become what one is capable of becoming-to maximize
one’s potential and to accomplish something. For the athlete, it may be breaking a world’s record; for
the research scientist, it may be finding a cure for HIV/AIDS; and for the physical therapist, it may be
the satisfaction of helping a child walk or laugh for the first time. In other words, these needs differ
greatly from person to person.

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Maslow’s theory suggested that people must satisfy lower level (physiological needs) before working
toward higher-level needs. Only when physiological, security, and social needs have been more or
less satisfied do people seek esteem. This theory also suggests that if a lower-level need is suddenly
reactivated, the individual will try to satisfy that need rather than higher-level needs.

Maslow’s hierarchy, although intuitively appealing and frequently used in management training, has
not found widespread support from management researchers. Beyond the first two basic needs,
people vary in their need emphasis. Some may seek social-need satisfaction, while others may
emphasize esteem needs or self-actualization needs. Thus, each individual may respond differently to
organizational characteristics. Moreover, the steps in Maslow’s hierarchy may not be necessarily
experienced in a sequential manner. People may have more than one need at the same time. Situations
detect which needs are most important at a given point in time.

D. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Herzberg developed a theory known as the two-factor theory of motivation. The initial
framework for the two-factor was derived from interviews with accountants and engineers using
what is known as the critical-incident method. The accountants and engineers were asked to
provide interviewers with examples of time they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad
about their jobs or job related issues that made them feel good or bad.

According to the analysis, although an unpleasant work environment might be a reason given for
job dissatisfaction, a pleasant work environment is rarely cited as a reason for job satisfaction.
This suggested that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not simple opposites.
Traditionally, managers viewed job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction as opposite ends. In
contrast, Herzberg's findings suggested the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but
rather ‘no satisfaction’. Herzberg believed that two entirely separate sets of factors contribute to
an employee’s behavior at work.

Herzberg labeled the factors that produced job satisfaction as motivators. His analysis indicated
these factors are directly related to job content. The absence of motivational factors may not
result in dissatisfaction, but their presence is likely to motivate employees to excel. When
motivators are absent, workers are neutral toward work, but when motivators are present,
workers are highly motivated and satisfied. Herzberg labeled the factors that led to job
dissatisfaction as hygienes and found they are related more to the work setting, or job context,
than to job content. These factors do not necessarily motivate employees to excel, but their
absence may be a potential source of dissatisfaction, low morale, and high turnover. When
hygiene factors are poor, work is dissatisfying. However, good hygiene factors simply remove
the dissatisfaction; they do not by themselves cause people to become highly satisfied and
motivated in their work.
Herzberg's Motivators and Hygiene's
Motivators Leading to Job Hygienes Leading to
satisfaction Dissatisfaction
• Achievement • Policies and administration
• Recognition • Supervision
• Work it self • Relations with peers
• Responsibility • Working Condition

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• Advancement • Pay
• Personal growth • Job Security
Thus, to the degree that motivators are present in a job, satisfaction will occur, when absent,
motivators do not lead to dissatisfaction. And, to the degree that hygienes are absent from a job,
dissatisfaction will occur, when present hygiene's prevent dissatisfaction but do not lead to
satisfaction.
6.5. COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATIONS
Communication is the process of transmitting information among two or more people. It is the glue
that holds organizations together. Communication assists organizational member to accomplish both
individual and organizational goals, implement and respond to organizational change, coordinate
organizational activities, and engage in virtually all organizational relevant behaviors. It would be
extremely difficult to find an aspect of a manager's job that does not involve communication. In other
words communication is unavoidable in an organization's functioning. By its very nature a manager's
job requires communication. The success of every manager and every organization depends on
communication because in any undertaking involving two or more persons, it is essential for the
coordination of individual activities.

Formal and Informal Communications

Formal communication
This is a communication, which is intentionally designed by the organization. Information flows
through the formally established channel and is concerned with work related matters. Formal
communication includes; Downward communications, Upward communication, Horizontal
communication, and Diagonal communication.

Vertical communication is communication that involves a message exchange between two or more
levels of the organization hierarchy. Vertical communication can involve a manager and a subordinate
or can involve several layers of the hierarchy. It includes downward and upward communications.

Downward communication occurs when information is transmitted from higher to lower levels in an
organization. Downward communication starts with top management and flows down through the
management levels to line workers and non-supervisory personnel. The major purposes of downward
communication are to provide organization members with information about organizational goals and
policies. The kinds of media used for downward communication include instructions, speeches,
meetings, the telephone, grapevine, memoranda, letters, handbooks, pamphlets, policy statements,
procedures, etc.

Upward communication – in such situations, the communicator is at a lower level in the organization
than the receiver. In other words, information flows from the subordinates to the superior. The main
function of upward communication is to supply information to the upper levels about what is
happening at lower levels. It includes the flow of opinions, ideas, complaints, progress reports,
suggestions, explanations, and requests for aid or decisions and other kinds of information from
subordinates up to managers. Typical means for upward communication besides the chain of
command are suggestion systems, appeal and grievance procedures, complaint systems, counseling
sessions, group meetings, etc.

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Horizontal communication is lateral message exchange either within work unit boundaries,
involving peers who report to the same supervisor, or across work unit boundaries, involving
individuals who report to different supervisors. It takes place among departments or people on the
same level of hierarchy. It is useful to coordinate activities. Horizontal communication can take
many forms, including meetings, reports, memos, telephone conversations, and face-to-face
discussions between individuals.

Diagonal communication involves the flow of information among departments or individuals on

different levels of the hierarchy. This occurs often in the case of line and staff departments, in which
the staff has functional authority. It is also common to find diagonal communication among line
departments, again in which one of them has functional authority. The use of diagonal channel would
minimize the time and effort expended by the organization (upward and then horizontal).

Vertical communication (downward)

Horizontal communication
Vertical communication (upward)
Diagonal communication

Informal Communication
It is a communication, which is not deliberately designed by the organization. It is rather created by
informal groups in order to satisfy their need to interact and share information among themselves.
In the informal communication, information flows in unstructured and unpredictable ways. In other
words, it is a structure less network. Informal communication channel is commonly termed as
grapevine because of its structure less direction of flow. Normally the information, which flow in
grapevine, is considered secret or confidential.

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