Metal Forming
and
Fabrication
D. Navaja
MSE 101
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FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL
FORMING
1. Overview of Metal Forming
2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
5. Metal Fabrication Methods
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Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in
which plastic deformation is used to
change the shape of metal workpieces
The tool, usually called a die, applies
stresses that exceed the yield strength of
the metal
The metal takes a shape determined by
the geometry of the die
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Stresses in Metal Forming
Stresses to plastically deform the metal
are usually compressive
Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
However, some forming processes
Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
Still others apply shear stresses (shear
spinning)
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Material Properties in Metal
Forming
Desirable material properties:
Low yield strength
High ductility
These properties are affected by temperature:
Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised
Other factors:
Strain rate and friction
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Basic Types of Deformation
Processes
1. Bulk deformation
Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
Bending
Deep drawing
Cutting
Miscellaneous processes
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Bulk Deformation Processes
Characterized by significant deformations
and massive shape changes
"Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low
surface area-to-volume ratios
Starting work shapes include cylindrical
billets and rectangular bars
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Rolling
Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling
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Forging
Basic bulk deformation processes: forging
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Extrusion
Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion
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Wire and Bar Drawing
Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing
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Sheet Metalworking
Forming and related operations performed on
metal sheets, strips, and coils
High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting
metal, which distinguishes these from bulk
deformation
Often called pressworking because presses
perform these operations
Parts are called stampings
Usual tooling: punch and die
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Sheet Metal Bending
Basic sheet metalworking operations: bending
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Deep Drawing
Basic sheet metalworking operations: drawing
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Shearing of Sheet Metal
Basic sheet metalworking operations: shearing
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Temperature in Metal Forming
Any deformation operation can be
accomplished with lower forces and
power at elevated temperature
Three temperature ranges in metal
forming:
Cold working
Warm working
Hot working
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1. Cold Working
Performed at room temperature or slightly
above
Many cold forming processes are
important mass production operations
Minimum or no machining usually required
These operations are near net shape or
net shape processes
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Advantages of Cold Forming
Better accuracy, closer tolerances
Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product
No heating of work required
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Disadvantages of Cold
Forming
Higher forces and power required in the
deformation operation
Ductility and strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done
In some cases, metal must be annealed
to allow further deformation
In other cases, metal is simply not
ductile enough to be cold worked
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2. Warm Working
Performed at temperatures above room
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
Dividing line between cold working and
warm working often expressed in terms of
melting point:
0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point
(absolute temperature) for metal
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Advantages of Warm Working
Lower forces and power than in cold
working
More intricate work geometries possible
Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
Low spring back
Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
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3. Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
Recrystallization temperature = about
one-half of melting point on absolute scale
In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing
advantage of hot working above this level
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Why Hot Working?
Capability for substantial plastic deformation of
the metal - far more than possible with cold
working or warm working
Why?
Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less
than at room temperature
Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
Ductility is significantly increased
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Advantages of Hot Working
Workpart shape can be significantly altered
Lower forces and power required
Metals that usually fracture in cold working
can be hot formed
Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
No work hardening occurs during forming
Advantageous in cases when part is to be
subsequently processed by cold forming
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Disadvantages of Hot Working
Lower dimensional accuracy in case of
bulk forming
Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer
surface finish
Shorter tool life
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Isothermal Forming- A Type of Hot Forming
When highly alloyed metals such as Ti and Nickel
alloys are heated to hot temp and bring in
contact with cold tooling, the heat radiates from
the metal to tooling. This result in high residual
stresses and temp variation over metal and
hence irregular material flow occurs during
forming, causing cracks.
In order to avoid this problem, both metal and
tooling are heated to same temp. However, this
causes reduction in tooling life.
** Mostly, Forging is performed through this
process
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Friction in Metal Forming
Sticking: If the coefficient of friction becomes too
large, a condition known as STICKING occurs.
Definition: Sticking in metal working is the
tendency for the two surfaces in relative motion
to adhere to each other rather than slide.
When Sticking Occurs??
The friction stress between the surfaces becomes
higher than the shear flow stress of the metal thus
causing the material to deform by a shear
process beneath the surface rather than slip at
the surface.
Sticking is a prominent problem in forming
operations, especially rolling.
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Lubrication in Metal Forming
Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work
interface to reduce magnitude of friction co-
efficient in order to reduce harmful effects of
friction
Benefits:
Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
Better surface finish
Removes heat from the tooling
Lubricants: Mineral oils, Fats, Fatty oils, water
based emulsions, Soaps and Coatings
For hot working: Graphite, Molten glass. Graphite
can be used in solid as well as in water suspension
form. Glass is useful in hot extrusion of steel alloys.
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Four Basic Bulk Deformation
Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between
opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped
between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die
opening, thereby taking the shape of the
opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or
bar is reduced by pulling it through a die
opening
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1. Rolling
Deformation process in which work
thickness is reduced by compressive
forces exerted by two opposing rolls
The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).
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The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
Pull the work into the gap between them
by friction between workpart and rolls
Simultaneously squeeze the work to
reduce its cross section
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Types of Rolling
Based on work-piece geometry:
Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross section
Shape rolling - square cross section is formed
into a shape such as an I-beam
Based on work temperature:
Hot Rolling – most common due to the large
amount of deformation required
Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and
plate stock
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Rolled Products Made of Steel
150*150mm
From Ingot
250*40mm
From
Ingot/Bloom
40*40mm
From Bloom
Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.
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Shape Rolling Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
Work is deformed into a
contoured cross section rather
than flat (rectangular)
Accomplished by passing work
through rolls that have the
reverse of desired shape
Products include:
Construction shapes such as
I-beams, L-beams, and
U-channels
Rails for railroad tracks
Round and square bars and
rods
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Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
Rolling Mills
Equipment is massive and expensive
Rolling mill configurations:
Two-high – two opposing rolls
Three-high – work passes through rolls in
both directions
Four-high – backing rolls support smaller
work rolls
Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on
smaller rolls
Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high
mills
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Two-High Rolling Mill
A two-high non-reversing,
which means there are two rolls Roll dia: 0.6-1.4m
that turn only in one direction.
The two-high reversing mill has
rolls that can rotate in both
directions, but the disadvantage
is that the rolls must be stopped,
reversed, and then brought back
up to rolling speed between
each pass
Various configurations of rolling mills: (a) 2-high rolling
mill.
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Three-High Rolling Mill
Roll dia: 0.6-1.4m
The disadvantage to this
system is the work-piece
must be lifted and lowered
using an elevator
Various configurations of rolling mills: (b) 3-high rolling mill.
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Four-High Rolling Mill
A small roll diameter is
advantageous because
less roll is in contact with
the material, which results
in a lower force and energy
requirement.
The stiffness of small roll is
increased by back-up large
roll
Various configurations of rolling mills: (c) four-high rolling mill.
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Cluster Mill
Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll
diameters
These types of mills are
commonly used to hot roll
wide plates, most cold rolling
applications, and to roll foils
Various configurations of rolling mills: (d) cluster mill
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Tandem Rolling Mill
A tandem mill is a special type of modern rolling mill where rolling is done in one
pass.
In a traditional rolling mill rolling is done in several passes, but in tandem mill there are
several stands and reductions take place successively.
The number of stands ranges from 2 to 18. Tandem mill can be either hot or cold
rolling mill type
A series of rolling stands in sequence
60mm 40mm 20mm
Various configurations of rolling mills: (e) tandem
rolling mill.
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Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
Thread Rolling
Bulk deformation process used to form threads
on cylindrical parts by rolling them between
two dies
Important commercial process for mass
producing bolts and screws
Performed by cold working in thread rolling
machines
Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
Higher production rates
Better material utilization
Stronger threads and better fatigue
resistance due to work hardening
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Thread Rolling
Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2) end
of cycle.
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Ring Rolling
Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller
diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter
As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal
elongates, causing diameter of ring to be enlarged
Hot working process for large rings and cold working process
for smaller rings
Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the
diameter of a ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process.
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Ring Rolling Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for
railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and
rotating machinery
Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation,
strengthening through cold working
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METAL FABRICATION METHODS-I
FORMING
• Forging • Rolling
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails)
force
die
Ao blank Ad often at
elev. T
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.7,
• Drawing • Extrusion Callister 6e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
die Ad
Ao tensile
force
die
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METAL FABRICATION METHODS-II
CASTING
• Sand Casting • Die Casting
(large parts, e.g., (high volume, low T alloys)
auto engine blocks)
• Continuous Casting
• Investment Casting (simple slab shapes)
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster
die formed
around wax
prototype
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METAL FABRICATION METHODS-III
FORMING CASTING JOINING
• Powder Processing • Welding
(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat affected zone
unaffected unaffected
Adapted from Fig.
piece 1 piece 2 11.8, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 11.8 from
Iron Castings
• Heat affected zone: Handbook, C.F.
Walton and T.J.
(region in which the Opar (Ed.), 1981.)
microstructure has been
changed).
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QUESTIONS?
D. Navaja, MSE101
