Load Restraint Guide

Guidelines and

LOAD RESTRAINT GUIDE - Second Edition - 2004

performance standards
for the safe carriage of loads
on road vehicles
Load
Restraint
Guide

Second Edition
2004
Introduction
NATIONAL TRANSPORT COMMISSION
&
ROADS & TRAFFIC AUTHORITY NSW
LOAD RESTRAINT GUIDE
Guidelines and Performance Standards

for the Safe Carriage of Loads on
Road Vehicles
SECOND EDITION
2004
ISBN 0 7313 0134 X
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without
prior written permission from the National Transport Commission with
the exception that it may be used for the purpose of training provided
an acknowledgment of the source is made.
1
Load Restraint Guide
Introduction
2
Introduction
“Imagine being in my driver’s seat”
That’s me in the driver’s seat. My mother and father were in the back seats. The steel
beam slid off the truck and went through the rear window and windscreen of my car.
I didn’t leave home expecting to have an accident. I doubt that the driver of the truck
had planned to have an accident that day.
My experience shows that without warning, an accident can happen at a time when
you least expect it. My parents and I are lucky to be alive.
I commend this guide to everyone as it explains why loads move and gives advice on
how to restrain loads properly. It provides some technical information and explains
items that make good sense. It’s not smart to drive with an unsecured load.
The security of your load, your life and the life of others relies on proper load restraint
practices.
If you have any doubts about spending the time to read this guide and to restrain loads
properly, imagine being in my driver’s seat.
Brad Shields
3
Introduction
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The National Transport Commission (NTC) wishes to acknowledge the key role of the
Roads & Traffic Authority NSW (RTA) in the preparation of this edition of the Load
Restraint Guide.
Acknowledgment is also made of:
• the valuable assistance of the Load Restraint Guide Steering Committee comprising
representatives from National Road Transport Commission, Roads & Traffic Authority
NSW, Queensland Transport, Australian Trucking Association and the Transport
Workers Union of Australia;
• the contributions of the many organisations and individuals who attended the load
restraint meetings in Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth and those who provided
written information during the public comment period;
• the permission given by the Association of German Engineers for use of material
contained in Directives VDI 2700, VDI 2701 and VDI 2702;
• the permission given by the Ministry of Transport, New Zealand, for use of material
contained in the ‘Truck Loading Code - Code of Practice for the safety of loads on
heavy vehicles’.
• the document is based on the Load Restraint Guide 1994 and was developed by:
Peter Goudie of the Roads & Traffic Authority and Richard Larsen of Loadsafe
Australia Pty Ltd as a consultant for the project.
4
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The safe loading of vehicles is vitally important in preventing injury to people and damage
to property. There are economic benefits to all if the load arrives at its destination intact
and without damage.
This guide provides drivers, owners, operators, freight consignors, vehicle
manufacturers, equipment manufacturers and suppliers with the basic safety principles
that should be followed to ensure the safe carriage of loads.
The information is based on proven principles and the ability of load restraint equipment
to apply the necessary restraint forces. It takes into account the performance of vehicles
and towed trailers.
The guide is in two parts. Part 1 is for Drivers and Operators and Part 2 is intended for
Engineers and Designers although it may be of interest to other readers. It contains
greater technical detail and information on how to test and certify a load restraint system.
The pages of Part 1 have a blue border and Part 2 a red border. An Appendix and a
Glossary of Terms and other information is at the back. The borders on these pages
are coloured yellow.
This guide and other information can be found on the Internet Web Site of the National
Transport Commission, www.ntc.gov.au
Suggested improvements or additions are welcomed and should be sent to:
National Transport Commission

Level 15, 628 Bourke Street
MELBOURNE VIC 3000 AUSTRALIA
The Performance Standards in Section F1 are referred to in the national Road Transport
Reform (Mass and Loading) Regulations 1995. These regulations have been approved
by the Australian Transport Council for adoption by the States and Territories since
1995. Comparable requirements apply in all States and Territories and readers are
advised to check the relevant legislation.
In addition, it must be remembered that the common law imposes liability for negligent
acts that cause injury or damage to others and there are other legal requirements that
impose a duty of care in the workplace.
5
Introduction
SCOPE
1 Loads must be restrained to meet the Performance Standards of Section F1.

The remaining contents of this guide are intended to be treated as recommended
practice only, except where ‘must’ is used indicating that the design meets an
Australian Standard or similar recognised standard, a manufacturer’s standard
or the load restraint system described meets the Performance Standards.
2 The principles described in this guide apply to loads of all sizes and types.
3 Performance Standards apply to all vehicles. However in situations where

extremely large loads have been permitted to move only when the road is closed
to other road users, relaxation of one or more of the Performance Standards
may be accepted provided the operators of the vehicles moving the load and the
escorting personnel are not put at risk.
4 Alternative load restraint methods to those referred to in this guide may be used
provided they have been shown to meet the Performance Standards outlined in
Section F1.
5 Requirements for the safe transport of dangerous goods as packages, unit loads
or bulk loads are covered by this guide, but without reference to their ‘dangerous
goods’ characteristics. References to the specialised requirements of the
‘Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail’ (see
Section J.3) are included where applicable.
The security of your load,

your life and the life of others
relies on proper
load restraint
6
Introduction
EXPLANATION OF TERMS
This guide contains some technical terms and details. A Glossary is contained in
Section J and the following is a brief explanation of a few of the major terms:
Mass: Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object.
(In this guide, mass is referred to in kilograms (kg) or tonnes (t).)
Force: Force is applied to a mass to move it.

(Force is normally measured in Newtons (N) or kilo Newtons (kN). However, in this
guide, force is referred to in kilograms force (kgf) or tonnes force.)
Weight: Weight is the force exerted by gravity on a mass.

(1 kilogram force is the weight of a mass of 1 kilogram.)
‘g’: The acceleration due to gravity is called ‘g’. It is equal to 9.81 metres/sec/sec.
Performance Standards: A way of specifying the minimum amount of load restraint

required, measured in terms of ‘g’ or the weight of the load.
Tie-down: Tie-down is a form of load restraint where the load is restrained by friction.
It is sometimes called indirect restraint.
Direct Restraint: Direct restraint is a form of load restraint where the load is restrained
by containing, blocking or attaching.
Friction: Friction is the resistance of one surface sliding across another.
Coefficient of friction (µ): The coefficient of friction is a measure of the friction

between two surfaces in contact. It is equal to the amount of force required to make
one surface slide relative to the other, divided by the force that presses them together.
Lashing: A lashing is a restraint device such as a rope, chain or strap and can include
other components such as tensioners, hooks, etc.
Pre-tension: Pre-tension is the force in a lashing resulting from initial tightening by

the operator.
Dunnage: Dunnage is packing used to separate loads (typically, a length of timber).
Unitised load: A unitised load is a number of separate items bound together to form
a single item of load.
7
Introduction
• A load that is restrained so it doesn’t shift is required to withstand forces of at least:

• 80% of its weight in the forward direction;
• 50% of its weight sideways and rearwards, and
• an additional 20% of its weight vertically.
• Some industry practices have been tested and the forward restraint found to be
only half that required.
• There is often a greater chance of losing a load when braking at low speed than at
high speed as it is easier for the brakes to grab at low speed.
• Ropes are extremely ineffective for restraining loads.
• Even though a rope might feel tight, the amount of tension in it is very low.
• The tension in a webbing strap is generally about 5 to 10 times more than a rope.
• Short chains are difficult to tighten properly with a ‘dog’, because they won’t stretch
as much as a long chain, to allow the handle to be pulled down. Turnbuckles are
better.
• If a load is properly restrained, on a stationary tipping truck or trailer, it will not
dislodge, even when the deck is fully tilted.
• Just because a load has been carried in a particular way for many years does not
mean it is properly restrained.
• A ‘curtain-side’ cannot restrain a load properly unless it is part of a certified load
restraint system.
• The weight of the load alone cannot provide enough friction to restrain it during
normal driving. Additional restraint must be used.
• A heavy load is just as likely to fall off as a light load. The same ‘g’ forces are acting
on both.
• If a load falls off a vehicle travelling at 100 km/h and is hit by a vehicle travelling in
the opposite direction at 100 km/h, it has the same impact as the load travelling at
200 km/h and hitting the vehicle when it is stationary.
• Most headboards and loading racks are not strong enough to fully restrain heavy
loads.
8
Introduction
• Any load that is properly restrained will not come off a vehicle in normal driving
including the most severe braking, swerving and cornering.
• Most load restraint accidents occur at low speed in city areas and often only after a
short distance. The same amount of restraint must be used for every journey.
• When the load settles, the lashings loosen and cause a huge reduction in tension.
The tension in the lashings should be checked soon after moving off and then
regularly during the journey.
• Checkerplate steel decks are just as slippery as smooth flat steel decks.
• Loading directly onto slippery steel decks, roof racks or A-frames should be avoided.
Use wood or rubber to improve the grip.
• The most cost-effective method to tie down many loads is to put a tough rubber
load mat underneath the load. Rubber load mat can more than halve the number of
lashings needed.
• Conveyor belting may have only half the grip of rubber load mat. Its surface is
designed to resist wear and is therefore more slippery especially when wet. Rubber
load mat or timber dunnage is better.
• Low friction is ‘high risk’.
• In some cases, if the load and deck are both slippery, it could be necessary to use
four 50 mm webbing straps (each 2 tonne lashing capacity) to tie down a half tonne
load.
• If you have enough tie down lashings and the load does not shift when cornering or
braking, the tension in the lashings always stays the same. It does not increase
even under heavy braking because the load has not moved.
• The driver could lose control if a trailer or caravan begins to sway sideways because
it is poorly loaded. Make sure the drawbar always pushes down on the towbar.
• The headlights on some vehicles should be adjusted when they are loaded.
LOAD SAFETY
IS
ROAD SAFETY
If you want to find out more about how to restrain loads safely, read on ...
9
Introduction
These photos show three important points :

1 No load is too small to be restrained;
2 The toy truck is raised off its wheels on timber to provide friction;
3 The angle of the webbing strap is so low that the 50 mm heavy duty ratchet can
just apply enough downward force to prevent movement of the toy truck.
10
Introduction
LOAD RESTRAINT GUIDE
CONTENTS
PART 1
SECTION A GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LOAD RESTRAINT 17
1 LOAD SHIFT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18

2 HOW TO CARRY A LOAD SAFELY -------------------------------------------------- 21
3 LOAD RESTRAINT METHODS -------------------------------------------------------- 22
SECTION B ARRANGING LOADS ON VEHICLES 33
1 SELECTING THE VEHICLE ------------------------------------------------------------ 35

2 POSITIONING THE LOAD -------------------------------------------------------------- 37
3 RECOGNISING UNSTABLE LOADS ------------------------------------------------- 43
4 USING DUNNAGE ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 46
5 LOADING AND UNLOADING ---------------------------------------------------------- 48
6 DOs AND DON’Ts ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 48
SECTION C RESTRAINING LOADS ON VEHICLES 55
1 HOW MUCH LOAD RESTRAINT? ---------------------------------------------------- 58
2 TIE-DOWN METHOD ------------------------------------------------------------------- 60
3 DIRECT RESTRAINT METHOD ------------------------------------------------------- 68
4 VEHICLES AND LOAD RESTRAINT EQUIPMENT ------------------------------- 73
5 TENSIONERS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 81
6 USING LOAD RESTRAINT EQUIPMENT ------------------------------------------- 84
7 WEAR AND DAMAGE ------------------------------------------------------------------- 91
8 DOs AND DON’Ts ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 92
SECTION D DRIVING LADEN VEHICLES 105
1 VEHICLE DYNAMICS ------------------------------------------------------------------- 107
2 CHECKING THE LOAD ---------------------------------------------------------------- 108
3 HIGH AND WIDE LOADS -------------------------------------------------------------- 108
4 DOs AND DON’Ts ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 108
11
Introduction
SECTION E LOADS 117
1 GENERAL FREIGHT -------------------------------------------------------------------- 119

2 PACKS AND PALLETS ----------------------------------------------------------------- 121
3 ROLLS, REELS, COILS AND DRUMS ---------------------------------------------- 125
4 PIPES, TUBES, LOGS, RODS, BARS AND BILLETS --------------------------- 128
5 SHEETS AND FLAT LOADS ---------------------------------------------------------- 137
6 BALES, BAGS AND SACKS ---------------------------------------------------------- 138
7 CONTAINED LOADS -------------------------------------------------------------------- 140
8 LARGE LOADS --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 145
9 VEHICLES AND MOBILE EQUIPMENT -------------------------------------------- 152
12
PART 2
Introduction
SECTION F CALCULATING RESTRAINT REQUIREMENTS 185
1 PERFORMANCE STANDARDS ------------------------------------------------------- 186

2 METHODS OF LOAD RESTRAINT --------------------------------------------------- 187
3 DESIGN FOR TIE-DOWN --------------------------------------------------------------- 187
4 DESIGN FOR CONTAINING OR BLOCKING -------------------------------------- 199
5 DESIGN FOR UNITISING --------------------------------------------------------------- 200
6 DESIGN FOR DIRECT ATTACHMENT ---------------------------------------------- 200
7 DESIGN FOR COMBINED TIE-DOWN AND DIRECT RESTRAINT --------- 206
SECTION G VEHICLE STRUCTURES 209
1 TIE-RAILS AND LOAD ANCHOR POINTS ----------------------------------------- 211

2 WINCH TRACKS -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 211
3 CONTAINER TWIST LOCKS ----------------------------------------------------------- 212
4 HEADBOARDS, LOADING RACKS AND BARRIERS --------------------------- 212
5 SIDE GATES AND DROP SIDES ----------------------------------------------------- 212
6 STAKES, PINS, PEGS, POSTS AND STANCHIONS ---------------------------- 213
7 CRADLES, CHOCKS, A-FRAMES AND TRESTLES ----------------------------- 214
8 CONTAINMENT BODIES ---------------------------------------------------------------- 216
9 TANKS AND TANKERS ----------------------------------------------------------------- 216
10 LATCHES, LOCKS AND HINGES ----------------------------------------------------- 217
11 LOADING EQUIPMENT ----------------------------------------------------------------- 218
12 STORAGE OF EQUIPMENT ----------------------------------------------------------- 218
13 LOAD DISTRIBUTION ------------------------------------------------------------------- 218
SECTION H LOAD RESTRAINT EQUIPMENT 223
1 SYNTHETIC ROPE ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 225

2 WEBBING ASSEMBLIES --------------------------------------------------------------- 226
3 CHAIN ASSEMBLIES -------------------------------------------------------------------- 227
4 WIRE ROPE AND ATTACHMENTS -------------------------------------------------- 227
5 STRAPPING -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 228
6 LASHING TENSIONERS AND CONNECTORS ----------------------------------- 229
7 INTER-LAYER PACKING ---------------------------------------------------------------- 229
8 DUNNAGE, BLOCKING TIMBER, CHOCKS, AIR BAGS AND TYRES ----- 230
13
Introduction
SECTION I HOW TO CERTIFY A LOAD RESTRAINT SYSTEM 235
1 WHO SHOULD DO THE DESIGN AND CHECKING? -------------------------- 236

2 SUGGESTED METHODS OF TESTING A LOAD RESTRAINT
SYSTEM ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 236
3 REPORTING ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 238
4 RECORDS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 239
5 OTHER ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 239
6 LOADING AND LOAD RESTRAINT PROCEDURES ---------------------------- 239
SECTION J APPENDICES 245
1 GLOSSARY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 246

2 LIST OF RELEVANT STANDARDS -------------------------------------------------- 250
3 LIST OF RELEVANT PUBLICATIONS ----------------------------------------------- 251
4 COMMONWEALTH, STATE AND TERRITORY TRANSPORT
REGULATORY AUTHORITIES ------------------------------------------------------- 253
5 COMPETENT AUTHORITIES FOR ROAD TRANSPORT OF
DANGEROUS GOODS ----------------------------------------------------------------- 254
SECTION K TABLES 257
1 C.3 MAXIMUM WEIGHT RESTRAINED BY ONE LASHING ---------------- 258

2 C.4 TYPICAL LASHING CAPACITY ---------------------------------------------- 259
3 F.2 AVERAGE PRE-TENSION ---------------------------------------------------- 260
4 F.3 MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 10 OR 12 MM ROPE CAN RESTRAIN
(USING SINGLE HITCH) ------------------------------------------------------- 261
5 F.4 MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 10 OR 12 MM ROPE CAN RESTRAIN
(USING DOUBLE HITCH) ------------------------------------------------------ 262
6 F.5 MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 50 MM WEBBING STRAP
CAN RESTRAIN ------------------------------------------------------------------ 263
7 F.6 MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 8 MM CHAIN CAN RESTRAIN ----------- 264
8 F.7 MINIMUM LASHING CAPACITY - DIRECT RESTRAINT
FORWARDS (0.8W) USING TWO CHAINS ------------------------------ 265
9 F.8 MINIMUM LASHING CAPACITY - DIRECT RESTRAINT
SIDEWAYS OR REARWARDS (0.5W) USING TWO CHAINS ------- 266
14
S e c t i o n A - General Principles of Load Restraint
PART 1 - Drivers and Operators

PART 1
for
Drivers and Operators
15
16

SECTION A
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LOAD RESTRAINT
CONTENTS
1 LOAD SHIFT 18
2 HOW TO CARRY A LOAD SAFELY 21

2.1 Choose a Suitable Vehicle ------------------------------------- 21
2.2 Position the Load Correctly ------------------------------------- 21
2.3 Use Suitable Restraint Equipment ---------------------------- 21
2.4 Provide Adequate Load Restraint ----------------------------- 21
2.5 Use Appropriate Driving Methods ----------------------------- 22
3 LOAD RESTRAINT METHODS 22

3.1 Tie-down Method ------------------------------------------------- 23
3.2 Direct Restraint Method ----------------------------------------- 23
3.2.1 Contained loads ------------------------------------------- 24
3.2.2 Blocked loads --------------------------------------------- 24
3.2.3 Attached loads -------------------------------------------- 25
3.3 Combined Tie-down and Direct Restraint Method --------- 26
17
This Section describes the general principles and methods of load restraint. They are
based upon the general principle that:
Any load-carrying vehicle must be loaded and driven in such a
way as to prevent danger to any person, or damage to any property.
1 LOAD SHIFT
When moving, a vehicle and its load are subjected to forces caused by changes of
speed, direction or slope. These forces result from braking, accelerating, cornering or
travelling over cambered, undulating or uneven road surfaces and air flow.
The load can shift forward when driving forward and braking, or accelerating in reverse.
(see Figure A.1).
Fig. A.1 BRAKING
The load can shift rearwards when braking in reverse, or accelerating forward (see
Figure A.2).
Fig. A.2 BRAKING IN REVERSE
The braking force on the load is often higher at low speed than at high speed because
the brakes may grab suddenly.
18

The load can shift sideways when cornering. The amount of force needed to prevent
the load shifting will increase as the speed increases and as the corner gets tighter
(see Figure A.3).
Fig. A.3 CORNERING
The force on the load when travelling over undulating or hilly roads will increase as the
slope of the road increases (see Figure A.4)
Fig. A.4 HILLS
The force on the load when travelling over cambered roads increases as the camber of
the road increases (see Figure A.5).
Fig. A.5 CAMBER 19

When a vehicle is travelling at high speed or in windy conditions, the force caused by
air flow can shift a load, especially lightweight objects with large surface areas (see
Figure A.6).
Fig. A.6 AIR FLOW
When a vehicle is travelling over rough surfaces, an unsecured load can shift or fall off
the vehicle (see Figure A.7).
Fig. A.7 ROUGH ROADS
The weight of the load alone cannot provide enough friction to restrain it during normal
driving. Additional restraint must be used.
If the load becomes dislodged from the vehicle and collides with a stationery object,
the amount of damage it causes increases as its mass and the speed of the vehicle
increases.
20

2 HOW TO CARRY A LOAD SAFELY
The following is a summary of the principles outlined in Sections B, C, D, E, F, G, and
H.
2.1 Choose a Suitable Vehicle.
The vehicle must be suitable for the type and size of load (see Section B).
2.2 Position the Load Correctly.
The load must be correctly positioned on the vehicle (see Section B).
2.3 Use Suitable Restraint Equipment.
The load restraint equipment and the vehicle body and attachments must be strong
enough for each type of load carried and must be in good working condition (see
Sections C, G and H).
2.4 Provide Adequate Load Restraint.
Every load must be restrained to prevent unacceptable movement during all expected
conditions of operation.
The load restraint system will meet the Regulation Performance Standards (see Section
F), if the load doesn’t shift when subjected to forces illustrated below in Figure A.8.
(W = Weight of the load)
Fig. A.8 LOAD RESTRAINT FORCES
21
2.5 Use Appropriate Driving Methods

If the load is correctly restrained it will not shift or fall off in all expected driving conditions,
including a full braking stop.
Because a loaded vehicle might drive differently, the driver must take into account any
changes in the vehicle’s stability, steering and braking caused by the size, type and
position of the load.
The driver should check the load and its restraint during the journey (see Section D).
Loads that can settle must be checked regularly.
3 LOAD RESTRAINT METHODS

Loads can be restrained by two basic methods, either indirectly or directly. In this
document, these methods are called ‘Tie-down’ and ‘Direct Restraint’ respectively.
Tie-down is when the load is prevented from moving by friction only.
Direct restraint is when the load is prevented from moving by containing, blocking or
attaching it to the vehicle.
These load restraint methods are summarised below in Figure A.9, which shows restraint
of forward movement of the load. These principles also apply for restraint sideways,
rearwards and vertically.
Fig. A.9 LOAD RESTRAINT METHODS

(TO CONTROL FORWARD MOVEMENT)
22

3.1 Tie-down Method
Tie-down restraint is the most common form of load restraint and involves the use of
lashings.
The load is prevented from moving by friction between the load and the vehicle.
The friction force prevents the load moving forward, rearward and sideways. The
lashings are tensioned to clamp the load to the vehicle and to prevent the load from
moving upwards.
The friction force comes from both the weight of the load and the clamping force of the
lashings. When the surfaces are slippery, the friction forces can be very low.
Lashings that clamp the load onto the vehicle are called ‘tie-down lashings’ (see Figure
A.10).
Fig. A.10 LOAD RESTRAINED USING TIE-DOWN LASHINGS
Friction cannot be taken into account unless the tensioned lashings provide adequate
clamping of the load on the deck. Unrestrained loads, even on high friction surfaces,
can bounce when travelling over uneven road surfaces and then shift during changes
in speed, direction or slope.
3.2 Direct Restraint Method

A load can be directly restrained by containing, blocking or attaching without any
assistance from friction.
Direct restraint by containing (see Figure A.11) or blocking (see Figure A.12) is the
best method for securing loads that are difficult to tie down. Specially constructed
bodies and equipment can reduce the amount of time needed to restrain loads.
23
3.2.1 Contained loads

Contained loads can be directly restrained without any securing devices. These include
liquids in tanks, bulk solids in tanks or rigid sided bodies and mixed loads of various
items in rigid sided bodies or containers (see Figure A.11). See also Section E.7, page
140.
Fig. A.11 LOAD CONTAINED IN TIPPER
3.2.2 Blocked loads

Loads can be directly restrained by blocking against vehicle structures or other items
of load or packing in contact with the structures. These structures include headboards
(see Figure A.12), braced loading rack, drop-sides and bulkheads. The load in Figure
A.12 is blocked from moving forwards by the headboard, but requires additional
sideways, rearward and vertical restraint.
Fig. A.12 LOAD BLOCKED AGAINST HEADBOARD
24

Direct restraint by attaching can use lashings or mechanical locking devices (see Figures
A.13 & A.14).
3.2.3 Attached loads

Attached loads can be directly restrained by lashings that provide all the necessary
restraint (see Figure A.13).
Fig. A.13 LOAD ATTACHED USING DIRECT LASHINGS
Attached loads can be directly restrained by mechanical locking devices that provide
all the necessary restraint. Figure A.14 shows a shipping container restrained by twist
locks. The twist locks do not rely on friction between the load and the deck.
Fig. A.14 LOAD ATTACHED USING TWIST LOCKS
25
3.3 Combined Tie-down and Direct Restraint Method

Combined tie-down and direct restraint uses both friction and direct restraint.
Figure A.15 illustrates load restraint provided by:
• friction force from the weight of the load, plus
• friction force from tie-down lashings, plus
• blocking (the front part of the load is blocked by the headboard and the rear part of
the load is then blocked by the front part).
The load is prevented from moving forwards by a combination of friction force from the
weight of the load and the lashing tension, and also blocking against the headboard.
The load is prevented from moving rearwards and sideways only by friction.
The load is prevented from moving upwards by the lashings.
Fig. A.15 FRICTION + BLOCKING
Figure A.16 illustrates load restraint provided by:

• friction force from the weight of the load, plus
• friction force from the downward force from the lashings, plus
• direct restraint from lashings that are attached to the load.
Fig. A.16 FRICTION + DIRECT RESTRAINT

26

A tarpaulin alone cannot restrain this load of concrete blocks.
There were no lashings on this load and the plastic wrapping did not adequately hold
the load together. (The enforcement officer is holding a leaning pallet of boxes on the
truck while the driver is getting some restraint equipment from the toolbox).
27
How high can you go? Relying on hydraulics to restrain a load is a dangerous practice
particularly if the load in the skips is compressible and can settle.
There aren’t enough ropes to restrain all of this load of fruit and vegetables. Such
loads are best restrained, packed inside gates or enclosed vehicles where they can’t
be damaged by ropes or straps.
28

Airflow could lift and dislodge this large sheet. All
of the load must be properly restrained. (Photo
courtesy John Brentnall).
The strength of the bullbar could provide greater driver safety if placed at the front of
the load (see page 73 and 74).
29
This vehicle lost a poorly restrained lightweight roll of plastic ‘bubble wrap’. An oncoming
concrete agitator rolled (see below), when swerving to avoid the obstacle on the road.
(Photo courtesy Mick Simpson, Wales Truck Repairs).
30

The pipes on both these vehicle were unrestrained and rolled
from side to side during cornering.
31
32
S e c t i o n B - Arranging Loads on Vehicles

SECTION B
ARRANGING LOADS ON VEHICLES
CONTENTS
1 SELECTING THE VEHICLE 35
2 POSITIONING THE LOAD 37
3 RECOGNISING UNSTABLE LOADS 43
4 USING DUNNAGE 46
5 LOADING AND UNLOADING 48
6 DOs AND DON’Ts 48
33
This Section describes five important aspects in ensuring the safe carriage of any
load, which are:
• Selecting The Vehicle;

• Positioning The Load;
• Recognising Unstable Loads;
• Using Dunnage;
• Loading and Unloading;
• Do’s and Don’ts
To demonstrate the principles described in this Section, lashings have been omitted
from the illustrations.
The following are your responsibilities:
• It is the responsibility of the driver, the vehicle owner and the vehicle operator to
ensure the vehicle used is suitable for the type of load.
• It is the responsibility of the consignor including the original consignor of the freight,
to provide the person in charge of the loading and the driver with any available
information on the weight of each load and the centre of mass of the load or each
item in a load.
• It is the responsibility of the person in charge of the loading and the driver to ensure
the load is correctly positioned on the vehicle.
• It is the responsibility of the vehicle operator, the person in charge of the loading
and the driver to ensure any dunnage is correctly chosen, positioned and restrained
on the vehicle.
• It is the responsibility of the person in charge of the unloading to ensure unloading
does not present any danger to any person.
34

1 SELECTING THE VEHICLE
A vehicle must be of a design suitable for the type of load carried. It must have
adequate load-carrying capacity and sufficient space for the load.
When a vehicle is loaded, the manufacturer’s tyre and axle load capacity, the Gross
Vehicle Mass (GVM) or Aggregate Trailer Mass (ATM) and, where applicable, Gross
Combination Mass (GCM) must not be exceeded.
The carrying capacity of a vehicle (or trailer) is its GVM (or ATM) less its Tare mass.
The legal mass limits as required by Federal, State and Local Government jurisdictions
must not be exceeded.
Vehicles carrying long loads should be long enough to avoid excessive overhang and
to ensure good weight distribution for vehicle stability.
Figure B.1 shows a long load on a short vehicle resulting in excessive rear overhang,
poor weight distribution and loss of steering ability.
Fig. B.1 VEHICLE TOO SMALL
Figure B.2 shows the same long load on a longer vehicle with no rear overhang and
good weight distribution.
Fig. B.2 CORRECT CHOICE OF VEHICLE
35
Vehicles carrying liquids and loose bulk material must be designed to completely contain
the load and to minimise the effect of load movement on the vehicle’s stability. Open
vehicles designed for carrying loose bulk material must be fitted with a cover, or the
load must be wetted, skinned or otherwise contained, if there is a possibility of any of
the load being blown off. The use of ‘wetting’ or ‘skinning’ agents can be effective for a
limited time in restraining fine particles without the need for tarpaulins. Large tanks
must be adequately baffled if not almost full or empty when transported.
The higher the position of the centre of mass of the load is above the ground, the lower
the speed will be at which the vehicle will overturn when cornering (the centre of mass
is also called the centre of gravity ‘C of G’).
Special precautions must be taken when carrying a load with a high centre of mass.
The load should be carried on a vehicle with a low platform height (e.g. drop frame
trailer or low loader) or on a vehicle with good roll stability (see Figure B.3).
Fig. B.3 DROP DECK TRAILER FOR MAXIMUM STABILITY
The overall height of a loaded vehicle must not exceed the height of any obstruction
(eg. bridge or overhead wire) likely to be encountered on a journey and the legal limit
(generally 4.3 metres).
36

2 POSITIONING THE LOAD
Incorrect positioning of the load on a vehicle can result in a significant safety risk.
The load must be positioned to maintain adequate stability, steering and braking, and
not overload tyres and axles.
A load should be positioned so that its centre of mass is as low as possible and not
offset to one side of the vehicle. Positioning the load in this way will reduce the vehicle’s
tendency to overturn when cornering. This can be achieved by loading heavy objects
first and placing them close to the centre-line of the vehicle (see Figures B.4 & B.5).
Fig. B.4 INCORRECT POSITION Fig. B.5 CORRECT POSITION
Where mixed loads are ‘contained’ on a vehicle, weak crushable items should be placed
behind (or on top of) strong items to prevent damage during heavy braking.
37
A load placed against a headboard is easier to restrain, but it can place too much
weight on the steer axle and can have a high centre of mass. Heavy loads should not
be carried this way (see Figure B.6).
Fig. B.6 INCORRECT LOAD POSITION (overloads front axle)
If the front axle is overloaded, the load must be placed further back for better weight
distribution and arranged so its centre of mass is as low as possible (see Figure B.7).
Fig. B.7 CORRECT LOAD POSITION
38

A load should be arranged so its centre of mass is in front of the centre of the rear axle
or rear axle group on utilities, trucks and trailers.
This will ensure sufficient weight on steer axles to ensure safe steering and not overload
the rear axle (see Figure B.8).
Fig. B.8 KEEP WEIGHT ON STEER AXLES
When loaded, the centre of mass of a drawbar trailer, including its load, must be in
front of the centre of the axle group, to minimise trailer sway (see Figure B.9). This
means that the trailer coupling should push down on the towbar, not exceeding the
manufacturer’s ratings of the coupling and towbar.
Fig. B.9 PREVENT TRAILER SWAY

39
The centre of mass of the load should be in front of the rear axle of a semi-trailer to
provide enough weight on drive axles of the prime mover for traction and stability (see
Figures B.10 & B.12).
Fig. B.10 INSUFFICIENT WEIGHT ON DRIVE AXLES
Heavy objects should be loaded first and positioned to provide even loading across the
deck and shared loading between axles. To prevent excessive flexing of the middle of
long trailers, heavy items or the dunnage supporting long lengths should be placed
over the axle groups, where possible (see Figures B.11 & B.12).
Fig. B.11 EXCESSIVE TRAILER FLEXING
Fig. B.12 GOOD WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
40

The vehicle’s axle loads resulting from the positioning of the load may be obtained by
weighing or calculation. The axle loads depend on the position of the centre of mass of
the load.
Moving the bottom dunnage forward or rearward without moving the load will not change
the axle loads of load sharing suspensions (see Figure B.13)
Fig. B.13 DUNNAGE POSITION – NO EFFECT ON AXLE LOADS
41
A load which has any potentially dangerous projection should be placed to minimise
the risk to the driver or any other person, in the event of the load shifting during braking
or a collision (see Figures B.14 & B.15).
Fig. B.14 DANGEROUS POSITION
Fig. B.15 CORRECT POSITION
The load should not project from the front, sides or rear of a vehicle because it could
cause danger to other road users or damage to property.
A load that projects beyond the rear of a vehicle by more than 1.2 metres (where
Regulations permit) must be made conspicuous in daytime by fixing a brightly coloured
flag or piece of material with each side at least 300mm long and at night by a red light
which can be seen for 200 metres. Rear overhang limits may also apply.
42

3 RECOGNISING UNSTABLE LOADS
Tall loads can tip over under heavy braking or cornering. This can happen even if they
are restrained properly at the base.
A load will be less stable if it is placed on a base such as timber dunnage that is
narrower than the base of the load.
Tall loads are unstable in the forward direction, if the length (L) measured along the
vehicle, is less than 80% of the height (H) (see Figure B.16). This applies to evenly
shaped loads of the same material throughout such as paper rolls, 205 litre drums, or
gas cylinders.
Fig. B.16 UNSTABLE FORWARDS
Tall loads are unstable sideways if the width (W) measured across the vehicle, is less
than 50% of the height (H) (see Figure B.17).
Fig. B.17 UNSTABLE SIDEWAYS

43
Fully tensioned tie-down lashings will increase the stability of the load. Care should be
taken when using rope or webbing straps to stablise a load, because of the amount
that these lashings can stretch. Ropes may stretch up to 20% and some webbing
straps may stretch up to 13% of their length, before reaching their Lashing Capacity.
This amount of stretch may allow the load to tip over. Chains are much more effective
in preventing unstable loads tipping, because they don’t stretch as much (about 1% of
their length, up to their Lashing Capacity).
Lashings can be attached directly to the load to prevent tipping. These lashings are
most effective if attached to the upper half of the load and angled no more than 60
degrees to the horizontal, in the opposite direction to tipping (see Figure B.18).
Fig. B.18 ATTACHING DIRECT LASHINGS TO UNSTABLE LOADS

Where a tall, unstable load is fragile or of uneven shape such as a transformer, it may
not be possible to stabilise or prevent it tipping by attaching direct lashings. In such
cases the load should be supported by a specially constructed frame and the frame
restrained.
44

Unstable loads can be placed against a rigid structure, such as a headboard, to prevent
them from tipping (see Figure B.19).
Fig. B.19 STABILISED LOAD
Alternatively, several unstable items of load can be strapped together to form a stable
pack (see Figure B.20).
Fig. B.20 STABLE PACK
45
4 USING DUNNAGE
Dunnage is the packing placed under or between parts of the load. It is used to allow
loading and unloading using forklifts or lifting slings.
Most dunnage is made from square or rectangular hardwood or softwood timber. Some
loads require inter-layer packing that prevents contact between the timber and the load
and acts as a moisture barrier. Inter-layer packing includes anti-slip rubber matting
bonded to the top and bottom faces of the dunnage, plastic wrapping and plastic strips.
These packing materials change the amount of friction between the load and the vehicle
deck and other parts of the load. The use of slippery plastic wrapping means that more
tie-down lashings are required than with timber alone, whilst the use of anti-slip rubber
matting usually means that fewer lashings are required.
Rectangular dunnage is sometimes wrongly placed on its narrow face or stacked directly
on top of itself (see Figure B.21), so that the tines of a forklift can fit under the load.
This can be dangerous because the dunnage can roll under heavy braking. If the
dunnage rolls, the lashings can loosen and all restraint can be lost.
To prevent the dunnage from rolling, it can be placed on its wide face. Dunnage that is
placed directly on the deck can be bolted to the deck or fitted with special stablising
brackets. For heavy loads restrained by tie-down chains, it is recommended that square
hardwood dunnage that is at least 63 mm thick, or softwood dunnage that is at least
100 mm thick, is used.
If the height of the dunnage needs to be raised (for uneven loads) it should be stacked
alternatively at right angles to keep it stable.
If the dunnage spans between support points it must be strong enough to support the
weight of the load, the tie-down clamping forces and the shock from bumps. If the
dunnage is not strong enough, additional supports should be added or stronger dunnage
used or, alternatively, the load rearranged.
Fig. B.21 DUNNAGE DO’S & DON’TS

46

Timber which is used for dunnage should be relatively free of knots and splits. For
heavy loads, such as large steel sections that are supported on small areas of contact,
the dunnage should be strong enough to prevent it crushing or splitting.
If the load has multiple layers of lengths of rigid sections, the upper rows of dunnage
should be placed directly above the bottom dunnage (see Figure B.22). If the dunnage
is placed between lashing positions it can work loose when the vehicle and load both
flex during a journey. If the dunnage works loose and falls out it could cause an accident.
Fig. B.22 POSITIONING DUNNAGE
Very rigid loads, such as large diameter steel pipes and concrete beams, should be
supported in only two positions to allow the vehicle to flex. If the lashings are placed
between the dunnage positions they can break or loosen when the vehicle and/or the
load flexes. This could allow the load to move.
Flexible loads, such as plastic pipes, require additional dunnage positions (and lashings)
to be used along with their length. Individual, flexible lengths can be restrained with
lashings between the dunnage positions.
Remember to secure all dunnage when the vehicle is travelling empty. Even a small
piece can be a dangerous missile to other road users.
47
5 LOADING AND UNLOADING

The load should always be packed, located and restrained in a way that allows its safe
loading and unloading.
When throwing lashings over the vehicle, be careful that no-one is standing on the
other side. Before throwing the lashings, check there is no obstruction above the vehicle
and electric cables that could come into contact with the lashings.
When opening doors, gates, sides and side curtains and when removing lashings and
tarpaulins take care that loads that may have shifted during a journey, do not dislodge
and cause injury. When releasing the tension in lashings, be careful of any sudden
uncontrolled movement of handles, cheater bars, sharp steel strapping and hooks on
lashings and elastic straps.
Forklift operations are a major cause of injury to drivers and loaders. When a vehicle is
being loaded or unloaded by forklift, make sure that you are always in full view of the
forklift driver. Do not approach a forklift whilst it is moving.
Do not stand or work on one side of the vehicle if the other side is being loaded or
unloaded. Part of the load may be pushed onto you during the loading or unloading
operations.
6 DOs AND DON’Ts
DO make sure that the vehicle’s load space and loading deck are suitable for the
type and size of the load.
DO check the weight of the load to be carried.
DO check the positioning of the load along the vehicle.
DO consider the positioning of the load after partially loading or partially unloading
the vehicle.
DO position the load evenly across the vehicle.
DO provide extra restraint for tall loads.
DON’T overload your vehicle or its individual axles.

DON’T load your vehicle too high.
DON’T overload the steer axle by placing the load too far forward.
DON’T reduce the weight on the steer axle by placing the load too far back.
DON’T allow the load to project dangerously towards the cabin or outside the vehicle.
DON’T place rectangular dunnage on its narrow face.
48

This load of logs was not properly restrained and fell off on a corner. In this case no
pedestrians or other road users were injured.
It was reported that hay bales shifting on a bumpy corner caused this rollover. It therefore
was probably not restrained to meet the Performance Standards. (Photo courtesy The
Standard, photographer Leanne Gourley).
49
Poor load restraint caused the heavy steel sections to move and cause the rollover.
The base of the load broke from the strapping tie-down force. The strap should have
been positioned above the dunnage supporting the load. (Photo courtesy Queensland
Transport).
50

This truck is carrying a concrete tank with a single chain around its base. Both ends
of the chain are attached to the same point at the middle of the headboard (see
photo insert). There is no tie-down to prevent the tank shifting sideways on a bumpy
corner.
A few ropes and a knotted Too much weight behind the rear axle can give poor
webbing strap will not hold steering and braking on the front axle (see page 219).
this load of steel.
51
Tall loads can be unstable and require special loading and restraint methods
(see pages 43, 44)
The shipping container bent this trailer. It is important to know the weight of the load
and its centre of mass and then to position it correctly on the appropriate vehicle.
52

This trailer was not strong enough. Its frame broke in front of the wheel from the
weight of the load.
Use a suitable vehicle. The overhanging load can reduce the weight on the front axle
and steering capacity. The excessive overhang is a danger to other road users.
53
54
S e c t i o n C - Restraining Loads on Vehicles
SECTION C
RESTRAINING LOADS ON VEHICLES

CONTENTS
1 HOW MUCH LOAD RESTRAINT? 58

2 TIE-DOWN 60
2.1 Friction ----------------------------------------------------------- 60
2.2 Applying Tie-down Lashings --------------------------------- 62
2.3 Tie-down Lashings: Angles ---------------------------------- 63
2.4 Tie-down Lashings: Pre-tension ---------------------------- 64
2.5 Tie-down Lashings: Tensioning by Load Shift ----------- 65
2.6 Tie-down Lashings: How Many and How Strong? ------ 65
3 DIRECT RESTRAINT 68
3.1 Direct Lashing Angles ---------------------------------------- 69
3.2 Lashing Positions ---------------------------------------------- 70
3.3 Rubber Tyre Bouncing ---------------------------------------- 70
3.4 Direct Lashings – What Strength? ------------------------- 71
4 VEHICLES AND LOAD RESTRAINT EQUIPMENT 73
4.1 Pantechnicon Bodies, Tippers, Tankers and
other Specialised Bodies ------------------------------------- 73
4.2 Bins, Skips, Stillages, Removable Tanks,
Closed and Open Containers -------------------------------- 73
4.3 Chocks, Cradles and Trestles ------------------------------- 73
4.4 Headboards and Loading Racks --------------------------- 73
4.5 Barriers ----------------------------------------------------------- 74
4.6 Side Gates ------------------------------------------------------- 75
4.7 Pins, Pegs, Stanchions and Bolsters ---------------------- 76
4.8 Side Curtains --------------------------------------------------- 76
4.9 Tarpaulins -------------------------------------------------------- 78
4.10 Tie Rails ---------------------------------------------------------- 78
4.11 Lashings --------------------------------------------------------- 78
4.12 Ropes ------------------------------------------------------------- 79
4.13 Webbing --------------------------------------------------------- 79
4.14 Chain ------------------------------------------------------------- 80
4.15 Strapping -------------------------------------------------------- 80
4.16 Stretch and Shrink Wrapping ------------------------------- 80
4.17 Wire Rope ------------------------------------------------------- 80
4.18 Elastic Straps --------------------------------------------------- 80
55
5 TENSIONERS 81
6 USING LOAD RESTRAINT EQUIPMENT 84
6.1 Attaching Lashings to Tie Rails ---------------------------- 84
6.2 Protecting Lashings and Loads ---------------------------- 85
6.3 Using Ropes and Knots ------------------------------------- 85
6.4 Using Webbing and Tensioners --------------------------- 87
6.5 Using Chains and Tensioners ------------------------------ 87
6.6 Using Wire Rope and Winches ---------------------------- 89
6.7 Using Tarpaulins ---------------------------------------------- 89
6.8 Using Elastic Straps ----------------------------------------- 91
6.9 Storage of Equipment ---------------------------------------- 91
7 WEAR AND DAMAGE 91
56

This Section describes how to determine the amount of load restraint required using
either tie-down or direct restraint methods. It includes the following:
• How Much Load Restraint?

• Tie-down
• Direct Restraint
• Vehicles and Load Restraint Equipment
• Tensioners
• Using Load Restraint Equipment
• Wear and Damage

• It is the responsibility of the owner, the driver and the person in charge of loading, to
ensure that the vehicle’s load restraint structure, attachments and load restraint
equipment are suitable for the application and are serviceable and functional.
• It is the responsibility of the person in charge of loading and the driver, to ensure
that a load is properly restrained by the vehicle load restraint structure, attachments
and load restraint equipment using safe operating procedures.
• It is the responsibility of the person in charge of unloading and the driver, to ensure
that load restraint equipment is released and removed using safe operating
procedures and that the load is removed safely from the vehicle.
57
1 HOW MUCH LOAD RESTRAINT?

All loads must be restrained to meet the Performance Standards outlined in Section F
‘Performance Standards’.
A performance standard is a way of defining what is required, but not how to do it. For
example, braking performance is defined as a stopping distance, not by the size of the brakes.
Performance standards allow you to choose the way to do it.
Many different types of load restraint systems can be used to meet the load restraint
performance standards. For example, webbing straps with rubber load mat can be used
instead of chains for restraining smooth steel.
During all expected operating conditions, which can include minor collisions, the load restraint
system must ensure that:
(1) The load does not dislodge from the vehicle; and
(2) Unacceptable load movement does not occur.
Limited load movement is acceptable under conditions where the vehicle’s stability and weight
distribution are not adversely affected and the load cannot become dislodged from the vehicle.
The following are examples of acceptable load movement under these conditions:
(1) Limited vertical movement of loads that are restrained from moving horizontally (by
vehicle sides or gates, for example);
(2) Limited movement of very lightweight objects, loose bulk loads and bulk liquids that
are contained within the sides of enclosure of a vehicle body; and
(3) Limited forward (or rearward) movement of loads that are tied down, where the maximum
tension that develops in each tie-down does not exceed its Lashing Capacity.
For loads that do not move on the vehicle, the performance standards outlined in Section F
will be met if the load restraint system is capable of providing each of the following:
(i) Restraining forces equal to 80% of the weight of the load to prevent the load shifting
forwards (e.g. braking in the forward direction);
(ii) Restraining forces equal to 50% of the weight of the load to prevent the load shifting
rearward (e.g. braking in reverse); and
(iii) Restraining forces equal to 50% of the weight of the load to prevent the load shifting
sideways (e.g. during cornering).
combined with restraining forces equal to 20% of the weight of the load (additional to the
load’s own weight) to prevent the load moving vertically relative to the vehicle.
Where limited vertical movement is permissible for loads that are restrained from moving
horizontally, only the above forward, rearward and sideways restraining forces must be provided
by the load restraint system.
Where limited forward or rearward load movement of loads that are tied down is permissible,
the required restraining forces will be greater than the above and must be determined by
testing or calculation.
58

For example, the minimum horizontal restraint required to prevent movement of a 10
tonne load is shown in Figure C.1:
Fig. C.1 MINIMUM HORIZONTAL RESTRAINT REQUIRED
The restraint required in the forward direction will prevent load shift on all heavy vehicles
and most light vehicles during emergency braking and even some light collisions. The
sideways restraint required will prevent load shift even to the point of roll-over on most
heavy vehicles.
In addition to the forces above, the 10 tonne load requires a minimum vertical restraint
as shown in Figure C.2. (Note that this vertical restraint is not required for certain loads
that are effectively contained on the vehicle).
Fig. C.2 MINIMUM VERTICAL RESTRAINT REQUIRED

In some cases, the restraint required in all four directions can be provided by a single
tie-down lashing.
Where tie-down lashings are used, a downward force of at least 20% of the weight of
the load should be applied by the initial tightening of the lashings. This will usually
ensure that there is always friction between the load and the vehicle over bumps and
on rough roads.
59
2 TIE-DOWN METHOD
Tie-down is load restraint using friction. The pre-tension in a tie-down lashing gives the
same effect as holding the load with a ‘giant’ G-clamp. The friction stops the load
moving.
If the load does not shift, it is not the strength of the lashing that determines the holding
ability of a tie-down lashing. It is determined by the amount of tension in the lashing
from initially tightening the knot, or operating the ratchet, winch or dog, in conjunction
with the amount of friction present.
Tie-down should not be used on slippery loads because too many lashings are needed.
Fig. C.3 CLAMPING THE LOAD
2.1 Friction
Friction is the resistance to movement caused by the ‘roughness’ of two surfaces in
contact with each other.
For example, rubber is used to cover a slippery metal brake pedal so as to increase
friction and stop the driver’s foot slipping off.
A simple method of testing friction is by tipping the surfaces until sliding occurs. Slippery
surfaces slide at low angles and rough surfaces slide at higher angles (see Figure
C.4).
Fig. C.4 FRICTION COMPARISON

60

Table C.1 shows a comparison of the amount of friction present with some typical
loads.
TYPICAL FRICTION LEVELS

Load Friction
Wet or greasy steel on steel VERY LOW
Smooth steel on smooth steel LOW
Smooth steel on rusty steel LOW TO MEDIUM
Smooth steel on timber MEDIUM
Smooth steel on conveyor belt MEDIUM
Rusty steel on rusty steel MEDIUM TO HIGH
Rusty steel on timber HIGH
Smooth steel on rubber load mat HIGH
Table C.1
Friction depends only on the type of surfaces and the force between them.
Friction force is independent of the amount of surface area in contact.
For example, there is no difference between the friction from a ‘checker plate’ or a flat
plate that are made from the same metal. Similarly, adding extra timber dunnage
under a load will not increase the friction force. As shown in Figure C.5, a horizontal
force of 4 tonnes will just move the 10 tonne load regardless of whether there are two,
four or more pieces of dunnage underneath.
Fig. C.5 EXTRA CONTACT AREA – NO EFFECT
Friction between smooth surfaces can be increased using timber or anti-slip rubber
matting. Oil or water between metal surfaces act as lubricants and reduce the friction.
Friction can also be greatly reduced if there is dust, sand or other particles between
the surfaces.
61
2.2 Applying Tie-Down Lashings

Tie-down lashings are used to help restrain a load using friction.
Tie-down lashings are ropes, straps or chains which normally pass over the top of a
load and are attached to the vehicle on either side (see Figure C.6). They may also
pass through or be attached to a load. They are pre-tensioned using knots or mechanical
tensioners to increase the clamping force under the load.
Fig. C.6 TIE-DOWN LASHINGS

The lashings must be correctly pre-tensioned. If they loosen below the minimum required
pre-tension during a journey, the friction forces are reduced and the load could shift.
If a load is not tied down, friction cannot be considered as part of the load restraint
system. Unrestrained loads, even on high friction surfaces, can bounce when travelling
over uneven road surfaces and then shift during changes in speed, direction or slope.
If the load is crushable or could be damaged by the lashing during tensioning, tie-down
is not a suitable restraint method.
Tie-down lashings used on offset loads can loosen if the load shifts sideways (see
Figure C.7). Such movement can be sudden and without warning. Offset loads should
be blocked or directly restrained to prevent sideways movement.
Fig. C.7 OFFSET LOAD (slippage loosens lashings)

62

2.3 Tie-Down Lashings: Angles
Tie-down lashings are most effective if they are vertical and tight.
The more a lashing is angled from the vertical, the less is the clamping force. The
clamping force is very small when the lashing is near horizontal.
The lower the lashing angle, the more lashings are required to give the same clamping
force.
For example, a strap tensioned to 500 kg and angled at 15 degrees to the horizontal,
will only provide a clamping force of 125 kg (25%) on one side of the load. A vertical
strap, would therefore provide four times the clamping force (the full 500 kg tension)
on that side of the load.
One strap at 90 degrees is therefore equivalent to four straps at 15 degrees. This is
called the ‘angle effect’. For more information on the angle effect, see Section F, page
189.
Many loads are not high enough for tie-down lashings to be used effectively (see Figure
C.8).
Fig. C.8 LOW TIE-DOWN ANGLE (not recommended)
63
Dunnage can be used to increase the lashing angles, by lifting the load (see Figure
C.9),
Fig. C.9 HIGHER TIE-DOWN ANGLE (more effective)
when placed on top of the load (see Figure C.10),
Fig. C.10 HIGHER TIE-DOWN ANGLE (more effective)
or by separating parts of the load (see Figure C.11).
Fig. C.11 HIGHER TIE-DOWN ANGLE (recommended)
64

2.4 Tie-Down Lashing: Pre-Tension
To maintain the friction force during normal driving, the load must always remain in contact
with the vehicle including during bumps and vibration from rough road surfaces. To achieve
this, the tie-down lashings must be correctly tensioned at all times.
The lashing tension is greater on the side of the load where it is tensioned. The lashings lose
tension where they catch or stick on sharp corners or rough surfaces on the load. The
tension on the other side of the load, can be more than 50% lower. To prevent the lashing
losing tension, smooth rounded corner protectors should be used.
To ensure even load restraint, it is recommended that every second tensioner should be
placed on the opposite side of the vehicle. Alternatively, two tensioners can be used on each
lashing, one on each side of the load and this can increase the clamping force by approximately
20%.
Table C.2 is a guide to the average tension that can be achieved by an ‘average’ operator.
Some operators can achieve two to three times these levels. Different makes or models of
equipment can also produce higher or lower tensions. It is important to know what tension
you can get with your equipment.
AVERAGE PRE-TENSION
Lashing Size Tensioner Pre-tension
Rope 10 mm & Single Hitch 50 kg
12 mm Double Hitch 100 kg
Webbing Strap 25 mm Hand Ratchet 100 kg
35 mm Hand Ratchet 250 kg
50 mm Truck Winch 300 kg
(push up)
(pull down)
Chain 7 mm & Dog 750 kg
above Turnbuckle 1000 kg
Table C.2 (Also appears as Table F.2 in Section F and in Section K – Tables. Refer to notes on page 260.)
2.5 Tie-Down Lashings: Tensioning by Load Shift

Some specialised load restraint systems incorporate limited forward load shift to increase
the pre-tension in the lashings up to their rated lashing capacity. Further information
on this form of restraint is contained in Section F.
2.6 Tie-Down Lashings With No Load Shift: How Many and How Strong?
The required number and strength of tie-down lashings will depend on:
• the weight of the load,
• the friction (grip) between all of the load surfaces, and
• the clamping force from the tie-down lashings. 65
Tie-down lashings are most effective when there is high friction between the vehicle
and load surfaces. Vehicle loading decks and loads should therefore be free of oil,
grease, water, dirt and other contaminants that may reduce friction.
Where a load has low friction between the surfaces in contact, the friction can be
greatly increased by using appropriate inter-layer packing, e.g. rubber matting or timber
dunnage. The load can then be restrained with fewer lashings.
Table C.3 gives the weight of load that one tie-down lashing can restrain, either when
the load is blocked in front or with no blocking, for the average lashing tension nominated.
Load restraint systems with greater average lashing tension (or based on limited forward
load shift) or where the load is blocked sideways can have greater restraint capacity.
MAXIMUM WEIGHT RESTRAINED BY ONE LASHING

(with no load shift)
FRONT OF LOAD BLOCKED? NO YES
HOW MUCH FRICTION? MEDIUM HIGH MEDIUM HIGH

(Smooth Steel on (Rubber Load (Smooth Steel on (Rubber Load
Timber) µ = 0.4 Mat) µ = 0.6 Timber) µ = 0.4 Mat) µ = 0.6
Lashing
angle 60°
or more
to horizontal
ROPE - Single Hitch 85 kg 255 kg 340 kg 425 kg

(50 kg average tension)
ROPE - Double Hitch 170 kg 510 kg 680 kg 850 kg

WEBBING STRAP 510 kg 1530 kg 2040 kg 2550 kg

CHAIN 1275 kg 3825 kg 5100 kg 6375 kg

Table C.3 (Also appears in Section K – Tables)
To find the number of lashings required for any load, divide the total weight of the load
by the weight that each lashing can restrain and then round the answer up to the next
whole number.
The weights in this table are for loads where the lashing is nearly vertical between the
tie rail and where it contacts the load. (Note: If the load is low and the lashing is nearly
horizontal, the number of lashings required could be more than four or five times than
indicated by the table.)
If rubber load mat is used under an unblocked load, one lashing can restrain three
times the weight shown for medium friction (compare the second and third columns of
Table C.3). Rubber load mat is cheaper than most lashings and the most cost effective
method to reduce the number of lashings needed.
66

Tables for other lashing angles are in Section F and all the tables are reproduced in
Section K at the back of this guide. They can be torn out and kept in your vehicle for
later reference.
Example:
“A long steel trailer is loaded with two stacks of flat steel fabrications. The fabrications
are the same width as the trailer. One stack is against a braced front loading rack.
The other stack sits on the deck one metre behind the front stack. Each stack weighs
6 tonnes. The stacks are on timber and the fabrications in the stacks are separated by
timber dunnage (see Figure C.12). How many tie-down webbing straps tensioned
with truck winches are required on each stack?”
Fig. C.12 HOW MANY STRAPS?
Front Stack:
The front of the front stack is blocked against a loading rack braced back with chain on
both sides. Refer to table C.3 ‘FRONT OF LOAD BLOCKED? – YES’.
All parts of the steel rest on timber. Refer to table C.3, the friction of all parts of the load
is ‘MEDIUM’.
From column 4, one webbing strap can restrain 2040 kg.
The stack weighs 6000 kg. The number of straps required is therefore 3.
Rear Stack:
The front of the rear stack is not blocked. Refer to table C.3 ‘FRONT OF LOAD
BLOCKED? – NO’.
All parts of the steel rest on timber. Refer to table C.3, the friction of all parts of the load
is ‘MEDIUM’.
From column 2, one webbing strap can restrain 510 kg.
The stack weighs 6000 kg. The number of straps required is therefore 12.
This shows that there is not enough friction under the load as too many straps are
required and they would be difficult to tension evenly.
Check again using rubber load mat.
If rubber load mat is placed between all steel and timber surfaces, refer to table C.3.
The friction of all parts of the load is ‘HIGH’.
From table C.3, column 3, one webbing strap can restrain 1530 kg. The stack weighs
6000 kg. The number of straps required is therefore 4.
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3 DIRECT RESTRAINT METHOD

Direct restraint is the restraint of a load by containing, blocking or attaching.
Direct lashings are ropes, webbing straps, chains or twist locks which attach a load to
a vehicle. They can be attached to or pass through or around a load to directly restrain
it (see Figure C.13).
Fig. C.13 DIRECT LASHINGS
The lashings can provide all the necessary restraint if there is no friction between the
load and the loading deck.
Direct lashings are suitable for restraining most loads, but especially:
• slippery loads, and
• loads on wheels.
Only one or two lashings are normally used to restrain a load in any direction, because
it is difficult to share the forces between more than two lashings.
The lashings become tighter when the load restraint force is needed during cornering
and braking.
Where loads on wheels are chocked or placed on blocks and the lashings are attached
to the load, the restraint is often a combination of direct restraint and tie-down using
friction.
Where loads on rubber tyred wheels are directly restrained forwards and rearwards
they can often be restrained by tie-down in the sideways direction because of the
friction between the rubber tyres and the deck. Tie-down can be used on solid metal
wheels if rubber load mat is placed between the wheel and the deck.
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3.1 Direct Lashing Angles
Lashings must be angled in directions opposite to any expected load movement. A
lashing required to stop a load moving forward must be angled rearward and not vertically
(see Figure C.14). A small downward angle is necessary to provide the required
vertical restraint.
Fig. C.14 DIRECT LASHING ANGLES (front lashings not shown)
The recommended angle for direct lashing is a slope of 1 in 2 to the horizontal (see
Figure C.15). This angle gives the best combination of horizontal and vertical restraint.
Fig. C.15 RECOMMENDED DIRECT LASHING ANGLE
When restraining loads with stiff rubber tyres, the lashings do not need to be angled
sideways when the friction between the tyres and the deck provides the necessary
restraint.
When restraining loads with steel wheels or tracks, the lashings need to be angled
sideways. If the width of the load is about the same as the vehicle, the lashings should
be attached so that they can be angled underneath or diagonally across the ends of the
load.
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3.2 Lashing Positions

The lashings can be attached at any position along a load. Figure C.16 shows a rubber
tyred load directly restrained forwards and rearwards. When opposing direct lashings
are attached at one end of the load, vertical tie-down lashings are required at the
opposite end to prevent sideways movement.
Fig. C.16 ALTERNATIVE POSITIONS FOR DIRECT LASHINGS
3.3 Rubber Tyre Bouncing

When pneumatic rubber tyred equipment is restrained with angled lashings, the lashings
pull down on the load during braking. This downward force will squash rubber tyres
and cause the load to bounce after braking (see Figure C.17). Bouncing causes wear
in chains and lashing points, and can stretch or break the chains.
Fig. C.17 RUBBER TYRE BOUNCE
To minimise bouncing, direct lashings should be angled at no more than 25 degrees

to the horizontal (1:2).
Further information is contained in Section E.
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3.4 Direct Lashings – What Strength?
The strength required depends upon the weight of the load, the number of lashings
and their direction. The lashing strength is the Lashing Capacity (LC) or manufacturer’s
rating, which should be marked on the lashing. Table C.4 contains the typical lashing
capacity of some common lashings:
TYPICAL LASHING CAPACITY
Lashing Lashing Capacity (LC)
12 mm synthetic (silver) rope 300 kg
25 mm webbing 250 kg
35 mm webbing 1.0 tonne
50 mm webbing 2.0 tonnes
chain* with claw hooks or with grab hooks

‘winged’ grab hooks or edge contact
6 mm transport chain 2.3 tonnes 1.7 tonnes
7.3 mm transport chain 3.0 tonnes 2.3 tonnes
13 mm Grade ‘T’ chain ** 10.0 tonnes 7.5 tonnes
Table C.4 (Also appears in Section K – Tables)
* Note: Different hooks have different lashing capacities and chains that pass over
sharp edges such as coaming rails have reduced lashing capacity (see Section C.6.5).
** Note: Grade ‘T’ lifting chain is also referred to as Grade 80 or ‘Herc-alloy’.
Load tables can be used to select the correct lashing size for direct restraint application
(see Section F).
71
A simple rule is to select lashings whose combined lashing capacity is:

• in the forward direction = twice the weight of load;
• in the sideways direction = the weight of load; and
• in the rearward direction = the weight of load.
This assumes the lashings are angled at less than 60 degrees to the appropriate
direction of movement. However, lashings selected in this way will, in most cases, be
stronger than necessary.
For example, to restrain a weight of 4 tonne (see Figure C.18) the following is required:
• in the forward direction, two chains (C & D) which are angled at 60 degrees or less
to the rearward direction each with a lashing capacity of 4 tonnes;
• in the sideways direction, two chains (B & C or A & D) which are angled at 60
degrees or less to the sideways direction each with a minimum lashing capacity of
2 tonnes;
• in the rearward direction, two chains (A & B) which are angled at 60 degrees or
less to the forward direction each with a lashing capacity of 2 tonnes.
Fig. C.18 TOP VIEW OF DIRECTLY RESTRAINED 4 TONNE LOAD
72

4 VEHICLES AND RESTRAINT EQUIPMENT
The correct vehicle and load restraint equipment will depend on the type of load to be
restrained.
Vehicle restraint structures, attachments, headboards, side gates, loading racks, roof
racks and load restraint equipment must be strong enough for the application and
must be in good working condition.
Loads could shift if there is a failure of any vehicle structure, attachment or load restraint
equipment caused by inadequate strength, excessive wear or damage.
Section G ‘ Vehicle Structures ’ contains detailed technical specifications and
requirements for vehicle structures and attachments.
Section H ‘Load Restraint Equipment’ contains detailed technical specifications and
requirements for load restraint equipment.
4.1 Pantechnicon Bodies, Tippers, Tankers and other Specialised Bodies
Bulkheads, side walls, tanks and other containment systems have a limit to their load
restraint capacity. Their rating should be obtained from the manufacturer if not already
marked somewhere on the body.
4.2 Bins, Skips, Stillages, Removable Tanks, Closed and Open Containers
Equipment that can contain items of load must have adequate strength to restrain the
load and must have provision for keeping the load on or inside it. The equipment
together with its load must be designed so that it can be adequately restrained to the
vehicle.
4.3 Chocks, Cradles and Trestles
Equipment that can block or support items of load must have adequate strength to
support the load. The equipment together with its load must be designed so that it can
be adequately restrained to the vehicle. Chocks, or dunnage used as a chock, must
be separately tied or attached to the vehicle or the load.
4.4 Headboards and Loading Racks
Most headboards and loading racks are not strong enough to fully restrain heavy loads
under heavy braking. If the load is tied down to provide the required restraint for the
sideways, rearwards and vertical directions, the headboard or loading rack can provide
some or all of the extra restraint needed for heavy braking or minor collisions.
The capacity of lightweight tubular loading racks can be increased by chaining them
near the top and then back to the vehicle tie rails on each side (see Figure C.19).
A single 9 metre chain around the front of the headboard or loading rack eliminates the
need for individual attachments on each side and provides maximum shock resistance
to resist breaking more than if two short chains are used, one either side of the rack.
The chain is most effective if it is located at two thirds the height of the load. It does not
need to be tensioned, only all the slack removed. An additional 40 mm square tube
should be welded to the rack as this locates the chain properly and allows the chain to
pass through its bore.
73
To help distribute and contain the load, plywood, metal sheeting or mesh can be used
behind the rack. These sheets must, themselves, be restrained.
Fig. C.19 CHAINING LOADING RACK (for 1200 mm high load)
4.5 Barriers
To maintain axle weight limits, loads are often separated into two parts. To restrain the
rear part, a movable barrier can be used. The barrier should be chained back near the
top and bottom, to the tie rails on both sides (see Figure C.20).
Fig. C.20 CHAINING MOVABLE BARRIER

74

4.6 Side Gates
Most drop-in side gates are not capable of restraining tall or stacked loads unless they
are supported at the top by diagonal cross lashings to the opposite tie rails or are
attached to other structures such as bulkheads or loading racks.
When straps are tensioned over the top of opposite gates, they clamp the load together
and prevent the gates lifting.
If the load is stacked more than one high, the gates cannot prevent the top layers from
tipping sideways (see Figure C.21).
Fig. C.21 STACKED PACKS
If the load is stacked and the gates are braced with diagonal lashings from the top of
each gate to the tie-rail on the opposite side, the gates can restrain the load (see Figure
C.22).
Fig. C.22 GATES CROSS TIED
If the load is a rigid and stable single layer, the gates can restrain the load (see Figure
C.23).
Fig. C.23 STABLE RIGID PACKS
75
If the load is tall and unstable the gates cannot prevent the load from tipping sideways
(see Figure C.24).
Fig. C.24 TALL UNSTABLE PACKS
Side gates can be strengthened by latching onto rigid drop-in stanchions placed between
them.
The gates must be prevented from dislodging by locking pins or by lashing to the tie
rails or by other means.
4.7 Pins, Pegs, Stanchions and Bolsters
Removable uprights such as pins, pegs and stanchions that are used for restraining
loads must be restrained in position on the vehicle.
Loose fitting uprights that can dislodge on bumps and rough roads should be restrained
directly by locking pins, attached chains etc. or indirectly using mounting sockets that
are designed to be tight fitting.
4.8 Side Curtains
Side curtains on vehicles are generally used to protect the load from rain and dust and
are usually quicker, easier and safer than a tarpaulin to put in place and secure.
A curtain is a thin, flexible sheet and even when reinforced with full-height webbing
strapping, it can only resist sideways load movement if it deflects or bulges outwards
(see Figure C.25). However, in some cases, a load shift that occurs can make the
vehicle unstable and cause an accident. The bulging, particularly when the vehicle is
stationary, can also make the vehicle wider than the maximum legal width.
76

Fig. C.25 SIDE CURTAIN DEFLECTED BY LOAD SHIFT
The bulging of a curtain causes the curtain or straps to pull down on the roof and
upwards on the coaming rails. The strength and flexibility of the roof, the top track and
rollers, the curtain and straps and attachments are all critical to the load restraint
capacity of a curtain. They are more effective when deflected at the bottom rather than
halfway up because they adopt a greater angle to more directly resist the load shift
Side curtains are often manufactured with two vertical straps, each having a lashing
capacity of 750 kg, at each pallet position. Note that these straps do not provide a
sideways restraint capacity of 1500 kg. Their capacity depends on their initial tension,
the position of the load and the amount of load shift.
The following Figure C.26 illustrates a vertical strap bulged outwards by 100 mm and
275 mm at a position 300 mm above the deck. The sideways force that the strap can
resist is shown compared to the tension to the strap (T). It can be seen that the sideways
force is only 20% of the strap tension for the small (100 mm) bulge and 50% for the
much larger 275 mm bulge.
In this case, the strap only stretches 0.3% when it bulges 100 mm. It is therefore
unlikely to stretch enough to develop much more than its initial tension, which is usually
much less than its lashing capacity.
Fig. C.26 SIDE FORCE ON CURTAIN STRAP

300mm ABOVE DECK
77
Only curtains that have been certified in accordance with Section I (How to Certify a
Load Restraint System), should be used for load restraint purposes. The certification
(usually by the manufacturer) should specify whether gates must be used and the
particular type of load including size, shape, weight and packaging. Certification of
curtain-sided vehicles would normally require specialised technical resources and
extensive testing.
A curtain-side without side gates may prove to be satisfactory as the only sideways
load restraint system for a lightweight load that is fully packed inside the vehicle.
Curtains can be effective as a secondary restraint system for containing small lightweight
individual items that can become separated from packaging and which would not tear/
damage the curtain.
As a general principle, where the curtains are not certified for load restraint purposes,
the load must be restrained as if the curtain did not exist, such as on an equivalent
open flat top vehicle. Such loads (including part loads) should be tied down, or blocked
or contained by other structures etc.
4.9 Tarpaulins
The main function of a tarpaulin is for weather protection.
Tarpaulins are useful for retaining loose bulk loads that might be affected by air flow.
They can also act as a secondary restraint system where an item might become loose
from a mixed load such as a loose can or bottle, provided the tarpaulin is in sound
condition without tears or holes.
Tarpaulins must not be used as the sole restraint system unless specially designed
and tested for the purpose.
Cap tarpaulins help to prevent some types of gates from lifting out of their mountings if
the load puts pressure on an adjoining gate.
4.10 Tie Rails
Many tie rails are not strong enough for use with chain and webbing without bending.
The forces obtained with this equipment can exceed the strength of the rails particularly
when using direct restraint lashings.
The strongest points of a tie rail are where the cross-members attach to it. To avoid
bending of tie rails, webbing should be attached at or near the support points.
4.11 Lashings
Synthetic ropes, webbing, and high-tensile steel chains are the most commonly used
lashings. Steel strapping and wire rope have some limited applications. Ropes have
low strength and cannot be tensioned sufficiently to restrain heavy loads.
78

Ropes and webbing are more elastic than chains or steel strapping. When a load
deforms slightly or settles during transport, ropes or webbing will retain some of their
initial tension. Relatively stiff chains or strapping may slacken completely.
Long lashings are more elastic than short lashings. They can absorb larger shocks
without breaking.
Long lashings make it easier to obtain high tension consistently. The ‘draw-in’ length
between each click of a webbing ratchet or each chain link with a ‘dog’ does not increase
the tension as much as it does on a short lashing.
Chains or steel strapping should not be used to tie down loads that can crush or settle
unless the lashings can be continuously retensioned during the journey.
A chain with a section of webbing to provide additional elasticity can be used where
load settling occurs, eg. timber logs. The lashing can then be tensioned using a chain
or webbing tensioner.
Ropes and webbing are more susceptible than chains to damage from sharp or abrasive
loads and therefore require more protection. In addition, the sliding of webbing across
an edge can cause heating from friction and subsequent failure.
Chains can cause damage where they contact a load unless a suitable protector is
used between the chain and load.
4.12 Ropes
Rope designed for use in transport (Transport Fibre Rope) is made from synthetic
fibre. Rope made from natural fibre has lower strength than synthetic rope.
All transport fibre rope with a diameter of at least 12 mm is colour-coded for its lashing
capacity. A rope with two black marker yarns has a lashing capacity of 100 kg and a
rope with one yellow and one black marker yarn has a lashing capacity of 300 kg.
(Note these are the strength of the rope, not the tension achieved when tightening.)
Ropes should only be used for restraining relatively lightweight loads.
4.13 Webbing
Webbing assemblies comprise webbing, end fittings and tensioners. Tensioners can
be either attached to the vehicle (truck winch) or ‘in-line’ (hand ratchet).
The standard webbing sizes include 25, 35, 50, 75 & 100 mm widths. The lashing
capacity (LC) is displayed on each assembly that complies with the relevant Australian
Standard. The 50 mm size is the most common one for road transport and has a
minimum lashing capacity of 2000 kg. Webbing assemblies that do not comply with
the Australian Standard can have much lower ratings. If using these assemblies, be
sure to find out their rating.
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4.14 Chain
Chains are usually fitted with hooks on each end and tensioned with ‘over-centre’ lever
tensioners, commonly called ‘dogs and chains’. The chain commonly used is 8 mm
high tensile ‘transport’ chain with a typical lashing capacity of 3800 to 4000 kg. Other
sizes are 6, 7.3, 10, 13 and 16 mm. All transport chain is marked at least every 500
mm with its lashing capacity (LC).
4.15 Strapping
Strapping can be steel or plastic material and is used for unitising loads into packs or
bundles. Strapping can be highly pre-tensioned using manual or powered tensioners,
making it very suitable as a tie-down lashing for heavy objects especially on container
flats and pallets.
4.16 Stretch and Shrink Wrapping
Stretch film wrapping and shrink wrapping can be used to unitise a load consisting of
many small objects such as palletised loads. They are often not suitable for heavier
loads or loads with sharp corners that can penetrate the wrapping. The use of handling
equipment can damage the wrapping and reduce its effectiveness.
4.17 Wire Rope
Wire rope is used to tie down loads that are placed cross-wise on the deck. The rope
is tensioned with a winch or turnbuckle.
4.18 Elastic Straps
Elastic straps (octopus straps) are low strength lashings fitted with end hooks, commonly
used for restraining lightweight equipment.
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5 TENSIONERS
Ropes are normally tensioned using a single or double ‘truckie’s hitch’ (see Figure
C.27). The double hitch gives about twice the tension of a single hitch.
Each hitch has a multiplying effect like a ‘block and tackle’. However, most of the
applied tension is lost, because of the friction of the rope as it passes over itself in the
knot and slowly becomes locked in the knot.
Fig. C.27 TRUCKIE’S HITCH (single & double hitch)
Webbing straps are tensioned using either attached clip-on, sliding winches or in-line
tensioners. Geared winches are also available.
The attached ‘truck winches’ clip onto the tie-rails or slide into special tracks under the
coaming rails (see Figure C.28).
Fig. C.28 TRUCK WINCH
81
The ‘in-line’ tensioners can be either hand ratchet winches (see Figure C.29) or
over-centre buckles that are attached to the tie rails, using a webbing strap and hook.
Push up to operate Pull down to operate
Fig. C.29 HAND RATCHET WINCH
The amount of tension produced by a truck winch or hand ratchet depends on the
length of the handle and how large the diameter of the webbing spool becomes during
tightening. Hand ratchets that operate by pulling the handle downwards will normally
produce much more tension than truck winches.
Higher tensions can be obtained by looping the strap over a standard triangular end
fitting (see Figure C.30). The lashing capacity can be doubled and the pre-tension
increased by an extra two-thirds.
Fig. C.30 HIGH PRE-TENSION TIE-DOWN
This principle can be used for a combined chain and webbing system. (The loose end
of any lashing should be positively secured on the vehicle to prevent contact with
rotating wheels and unexpected wheel lock-up).
82

Chains can also be highly tensioned using turnbuckles or over-centre tensioners (also
called ‘dogs’).
Fixed lever dogs can cause injury to the operator when applying or releasing the chain
tension especially when standing on the load and also when using pipe handle extensions
(‘cheater bars’). The use of these extensions is not approved by any manufacturer
and can be dangerous.
Figure C.31 illustrates a fixed lever dog and a pivoting lever dog. When a fixed lever
dog is released, the handle can rotate out of control releasing all the energy in the
chain. If a cheater bar is used, it can be thrown off at high speed. The pivoting lever
dog is designed to reduce the ‘kickback’ by limiting the lever movement.
Fixed lever dog Pivoting lever dog
Fig. C.31 OVER-CENTRE TENSIONERS OR ‘DOGS’
Dogs are not suitable for tensioning short chains. This is because the chain link
spacing can be greater than the stretch in the chain. The resulting chain tension could
be much too low.
Turnbuckles are screw tensioners operated by either a ratchet or sliding lever (see
Figure C.32)
Ratchet turnbuckle Sliding lever turnbuckle

Fig. C.32 TURNBUCKLES
Turnbuckles have no kickback when released. Unlike dogs, very high tensions can
always be achieved, even on short chains and without using handle extensions. If a
turnbuckle does not rotate freely, it will cause the chain to twist and prevent it fully
tightening.
83
6 USING LOAD-RESTRAINT EQUIPMENT

6.1 Attaching Lashings to Tie Rails
Where tie-down or direct lashings are attached to tie rails, they must be secured at or
near the tie rail support points (see Figures C.33 & C.34). However, tarpaulin ropes
can be attached to tie rails at any point in their length.
Fig. C.33 INCORRECT
Fig. C.34 CORRECT (at support point)
Webbing straps should not be attached to tie rails by knots.

Hand ratchets and end fittings should not press against the coaming rail or the load
because they might distort or bend.
Chain grab hooks are designed to attach to chain only. They must not be attached to
coaming rail flanges or directly to the load unless specifically designed for that application.
84

6.2 Protecting Lashings and Loads
Corner protectors, sleeves or other packing material should be used where lashings
and loads contact each other (see Figure C.35). Webbing straps and ropes can be
easily cut on sharp edges.
Sharp edges and rough surfaces prevent the lashing tension from equalising on both
sides of the load. Smooth rounded corner protectors enable high tension on both sides
of the load thereby increasing load restraint.
Fig. C.35 LASHING AND LOAD PROTECTION
6.3 Using Ropes and Knots

Ropes are attached to the tie rails and tensioned using knots. To be effective, the right
knot must be used and correctly tied.
When tensioning a rope using a ‘truckies’ hitch, avoid injury by ensuring the rope does
not break or cut on a sharp object or a knot does not slip and undo.
After a rope is tightened, the initial tension will usually relax after a very short time and
the rope will need re-tightening.
Knots commonly used to attach and join ropes are illustrated in Figures C.36 and
C.37.
Fig. C.36 ROUND TURN & TWO HALF HITCHES

85
Fig. C.37 CLOVE HITCH & HALF HITCH
Both the above hitches are used to secure the end of a rope. The half hitch is used in
conjunction with the clove hitch to provide added security. The clove hitch is also
useful for attaching to a load in the middle of the rope, with each end attached to
opposite tie-rails.
The sheepshank can be used to shorten a rope or to reduce the strain on a weakened
section (see Figure C.38) by spreading the force among a number of pieces of rope in
the centre of the knot.
Fig. C.38 SHEEPSHANK
The single sheet bend can be used to join two unequal sized ropes (see Figure C.39).
Fig. C.39 SINGLE SHEET BEND

86

6.4 Using Webbing and Tensioners
Webbing straps must always be protected when passing over sharp edges or rough
surfaces.
Webbing straps must not be joined by knots or by any means unless approved by the
webbing manufacturer.
Webbing assemblies must not be used with chemicals or at high temperatures without
referring to the manufacturer’s instructions.
When using truck winches, ensure the strapping is wound evenly across the drum,
because the effectiveness of the winch decreases as the thickness of the layers of
webbing increases. The decrease in effectiveness can be 100%.
When using hand ratchet winches, ensure there are at least 1½ turns of strapping on
the spindle and no more than three, for effective pre-tensioning.
6.5 Using Chains and Tensioners
Any section of a chain under tension must not contain any knots and must not be
attached to an anchor point using knots. The loose end of a chain however, may be
secured to the vehicle using knots. Twisted chains should be straightened out before
tensioning larger chains.
Chains must not be joined with wire or bolts or with joining links that do not match the
lashing capacity of the chain assembly.
Chains must be protected over sharp edges or rough surfaces to maintain their full
lashing capacity. The lashing capacity of the chain is reduced by 25% if the corner
radius (R) is less than the chain size (D) (see Figure C.40).
Fig. C.40 CHAIN OVER SHARP CORNER

87
There are two basic types of shortening hooks used on chains. These are the ‘grab
hook’ (plain or ‘winged’) and the ‘claw hook’ (see Figure C.41).
Fig. C.41 CHAIN HOOKS
Plain grab hooks weaken a chain by bending the links they contact. Winged grab
hooks prevent the chain link from bending and do not weaken the chain. The lashing
capacity of a chain is reduced by 25% when using plain grab hooks.
Grab hooks are not designed for ‘tip’ loading and should only be attached to the matching
size chain.
Claw hooks distribute the force evenly into the chain. Care should be taken when
selecting equipment as some claw hooks will distort and fail before the chain breaks.
Hooks can become uncoupled if the chain slackens when the load settles during a
journey. Some claw hooks have a shallow slot making them more likely to fall off.
When placed vertically, dogs must be positioned with the lever rotating downward to
tension the chain.
The operator must ensure the lever is locked in the correct over-centre position and is
not obstructed after tensioning the chain. If there is a possibility of the chain becoming
loose because of a settling load, the lever must be secured to the chain by a tie wire,
the loose end of the chain or other means.
When releasing a chain tensioned by a fixed lever dog, extreme care should be taken
to prevent injury from the rotating lever that can release suddenly and unexpectedly.
Turnbuckles are suitable for tensioning chains, including short chains and those that
are directly attached to the load. Some turnbuckles have a much higher strength
rating than dogs and are suitable for tensioning larger chains.
88

NOTE:
(i) ‘Transport’ chain is not suitable for lifting purposes and must not be used for any
lifting or unloading.
(ii) If chain is used for towing heavy vehicles, it must be thoroughly inspected after
use and discarded if stretched or otherwise damaged. An 8 mm ‘Transport’
chain is not suitable for towing a prime mover with or without a semi-trailer
attached.
6.6 Using Wire Rope and Winches
Wire ropes must be protected over sharp edges or rough surfaces to prevent damage.
Sharp edges are those where the corner radius is less than the rope diameter.
Wire ropes must not be bent near a clamp or splice. The nearest bending point must
be at least 3 times the rope diameter clear of the clamp end or splice.
Attachments and joiners must have a rated capacity at least equivalent to the lashing
capacity of the wire rope. ‘Commercial’ grade and lower strength shackles are not
suitable for applications using 12 mm or larger wire rope.
6.7 Using Tarpaulins
Tarpaulins should be secured to the vehicle so that any overlapping layers face rearwards
to prevent penetration of wind or rain. Any torn tarpaulins or side curtains should be
replaced or temporarily repaired to prevent further damage during a journey (see Figures
C.44 & C.45).
When attaching tarpaulins, ensure any compulsory lamps, reflectors, number plates,
rear marking plates etc. are not obscured, and any loose ropes or tarpaulin flaps are
secured.
Fig. C.42 ATTACHING CURTAIN TARPAULIN
89
Fig. C.43 ATTACHING CAP TARPAULIN
Fig. C.44 TORN TARPAULIN
Fig. C.45 TEMPORARY REPAIRS
90

6.8 Using Elastic Straps
Be careful and avoid eye injury when using elastic ‘octopus’ straps. They can have
considerable stored energy and are sometimes poorly constructed. The ends can pull
off and hooks open up.
6.9 Storage of Equipment
All load restraint equipment such as, timber dunnage, lashings and tensioners, must
be restrained on the vehicle or stored in lockers when not being used.
7 WEAR AND DAMAGE

Wear and damage on vehicle and restraint equipment can significantly reduce their
strength and function. Equipment weakened beyond manufacturers’ limits by cracked,
broken and worn components must not be used for restraining loads.
All vehicle and restraint equipment must be inspected regularly, and if there is any
doubt about their safety, they must be repaired or replaced.
All locking and latching mechanisms must be fully functional when being used for load
restraint purposes.
Australian Standards state that lashings must be replaced if they are weakened by
10% or more of their original strength.
Further information on wear and damaged is described in Section H.
91
8 DOs AND DON’Ts

DO make sure you have enough lashings and that they are in good condition
and strong enough to secure your load.
DO make sure that tie-down lashings are as near to vertical as possible.
DO make sure that direct lashings attached to loads on wheels are not near
vertical.
DO attach lashings at tie rail support points.
DO check and re-tighten the lashings or other restraining devices as required.
DO use lashing protectors on sharp edges.
DO make sure that loose bulk loads cannot fall or be blown off your vehicle.
DO use a vehicle that is built strong enough for the job.
DO take extreme care when releasing a fixed lever dog and an elastic strap.
DON’T use faulty equipment.

DON’T attach chains between tie rail supporting points.
DON’T tie down loads onto greasy or dirty steel decks.
DON’T stand over and push down on a dog.
92

These ropes don’t provide enough clamping force to adequately tie-down the steel
gates on the steel deck.
A webbing net can be used for difficult loads.
93
The lightweight load (below) bent the front left-hand gate (above) almost to the
ground).
94

The empty pallets, trolley and crate are unrestrained. A single rope is not sufficient
to restrain this 700 kg pallet (see page 66).
It is bad practice to tie off chains using knots.
95
This is a tilt test of the friction between an unrestrained pack of steel tube and rubber
load mat on timber dunnage. (The pack has a loose belly strap to control any sliding
sideways). In this case, the weight of the load and the increased friction from the
rubber provide 75% of the required restraint force. (Photo courtesy Regupol Safety Surfaces).
This aluminium headboard was

not strong enough at the base to
restrain this relatively low load.
The headboard can easily be
strengthened by bracing (see
pages 73 & 74). (Photo courtesy
Mick Simpson, Wales Truck
Repairs).
96

The piece of dunnage chocking the base of these coils is an unrestrained load. All
chocks and wedges should be positively restrained in position on the vehicle.
The sides on many vehicles are not high enough to restrain mixed loads such as
builder’s tools. They should be contained on a vehicle with a high-sided tray or cage.
97
This photo shows a curtainside with A bulge in a curtain can indicate that
a severe hernia. The load shifted on an unrestrained load is inside. The
a corner. (Photo courtesy Mick truck might also exceed the maximum
Simpson, Wales Truck Repairs). width limit of 2.5 metres.
These photos show what happens to an unrestrained load in a curtain-sided trailer

when it rolls over. (Photos courtesy Mick Simpson, Wales Truck Repairs).
98

A curtainside trailer after an accident. (Photo courtesy Mick Simpson, Wales Truck
Repairs).
The driver was unaware that this new 1800 kg press, still in its plastic wrapping, had
broken through a side curtain and fallen on the roadside. The press should have
been tied in the trailer, with lashings arranged to stop it tipping over.
99
These pallets are unrestrained because there is no rear gate to prevent them
dislodging from the rear of the vehicle.
This trolley is unrestrained because it could dislodge through the gap between the
side gates.
100

These rolls of turf are not restrained. Soft compressible loads like these are difficult
to restrain by tie-down, because the load will settle and the lashings will loosen. They
should be contained on the vehicle using sides or gates.
Three ropes are not adequate to restrain this 3800 kg load of timber (see page 66).
101
The ropes on the cardboard boxes can’t provide enough restraint for the steel star
posts underneath. The posts should be lashed separately.
All loose items on the deck must be restrained, including the ‘witch’s’ hats and
toolboxes. These items are best contained on the vehicle using high sides or a
special enclosure.
102

All skips must be restrained, whether empty or full. The hydraulic lifting frame
should not be considered as a part of the restraint system, unless equipped with
positive locking features.
A 330 kg bronze block (see inset photo) fell off one truck and went completely
through the front of the truck shown above, severely injuring the driver. If both
trucks were travelling at 100 km/h in opposite directions, the block’s impact speed
would have been about 200 km/h. 103
This shows some aluminium ingot packs that have tipped forwards under heavy
braking. Note that the webbing tie-down straps have stretched and allowed the load
to tip over. The unbraced front load rack was too weak to support the front pack.
A piece of carpet can be used to protect a

webbing strap over a sharp edge.
104
S e c t i o n D - Driving Laden Vehicles

SECTION D
DRIVING LADEN VEHICLES
CONTENTS
1 VEHICLE DYNAMICS 107
2 CHECKING THE LOAD 108
3 HIGH AND WIDE LOADS 108
105
This Section describes how the driver of a laden vehicle can ensure its safety by safe
driving and correct load restraint. It includes the following:
• Vehicle Dynamics
• Checking The Load

• It is the responsibility of the driver to take into account the effect of the load on the
steering, cornering and braking performance of a laden vehicle.
• It is the responsibility of the driver to periodically check to ensure the load remains
properly restrained during a journey.
Truck drivers should refer to the ‘Australian Truck Drivers Manual’ (see Section J),
for a comprehensive guide to safe driving of load carrying vehicles.
The following requirements relate only to the effects of the load and its restraint on the
safe driving of laden vehicles.
106

1 VEHICLE DYNAMICS
Loads can vary significantly in weight, size, shape and distribution on the vehicle.
Different loading combinations can cause large variations in the way a vehicle drives.
The driver of a laden vehicle must take into account any changes in the vehicle’s
stability and steering and braking caused by the type of loading on the vehicle.
Steering and cornering can be affected by the weight and distribution of the load, and
the vehicle’s speed.
Vehicles carrying high and ‘live’ loads are more likely to overturn on corners, especially
if the corners are cambered the wrong way. ‘Live’ loads include bulk liquids, livestock,
hanging meat, wet concrete, motor vehicles and large rubber-tyred equipment.
High wind speeds, which can occur on high bridges, in valleys and between high
buildings, can reduce vehicle stability or blow the load off.
Braking performance is affected by the weight of the load and its distribution. When
axles are lightly loaded, wheel lock-up and skidding can occur. This reduces braking
efficiency and steering ability.
The braking forces can be greater at low speed than at high speed because of the
grabbing or ‘spike’ effect at low speed.
Drivers should travel slower during cornering and on rough roads, where increasing
speed increases the forces that cause the load to shift.
When a vehicle turns a corner its ‘swept-path’ on the road surface is wider than its
actual width. Generally, the longer the vehicle combination, the wider the swept-path.
107
2 CHECKING THE LOAD

During a journey, some loads can settle and shift. Lashings can loosen and objects
can fall off.
During a journey the driver must periodically check such loads and lashings to ensure
that the load does not fall off. The amount of checking required depends on many
factors, including the type of load, the type of restraint system, the roughness of the
road and how well it is packed.
In practice, some loads require the lashings to be checked and re-tensioned after only
a very short distance. A few kilometres might be too late for some loads, whilst others
require checking only during routine vehicle stops. Drivers must become familiar with
the characteristics of the load and know how often to check the load during a journey.
3 HIGH AND WIDE LOADS

Make allowances for high and wide loads when driving around corners, under bridges,
under electric cables, near power poles, traffic lights and other obstructions.
4 DOs AND DON’Ts

DO remember that the size, type and position of your load will affect the handling of
your vehicle.
DO remember that loads can settle and shift during a journey, causing lashings to
slacken.
DO check your load before moving off.
DO check your load every time an item is added or removed during the journey.
DO check your load periodically and at routine stops.
DO check your load after emergency braking or swerving.
DON’T take risks.
108

Two ropes and the pipe loading rack in front won’t restrain this load of tiles and
battens.
The side curtain could not restrain these pallets of cooking oil.
109
This load required more than plastic wrapping and a tarpaulin to restrain it on the
trailer.
A metal pipe fitting dislodged from a vehicle and hit the bonnet and roof of this car.
(Photo courtesy Beaudesert Times)
110

Lengths of timber slipped sideways after the load had settled on packing strips that
separated the timber. (Photo courtesy Queensland Transport).
The product is well contained in the crates, but the crates aren’t restrained on the
truck. (Photo courtesy John Brentnall).
111
Bulk bags must be restrained. Tie-down is seldom effective because the contents can
settle during a journey and allow the lashings to loosen. Containing the bags on the
vehicle with properly designed sides or gates is a better option. (Photo courtesy John
Brentnall).
This inadequately restrained 12 tonne stainless steel coil rolled forward onto the
chassis, over the top of the unbraced loading rack. The extra weight caused a front
tyre to burst.
112

These slabs of broken concrete could easily fall from the tipper. The base of each
item of load should be well below the top of the sides to ensure that it won’t dislodge
on bumps or rough roads.
This load of broken tiles is higher than the sides and is therefore not properly
restrained. In such cases the load should be covered with a strong tarpaulin or
cargo net designed to prevent any small piece of the load from dislodging from the
113
vehicle. Load Restraint Guide
This crane stabilising leg, which was not locked in position, slid out and collided with
a parked car, pushing it into a suburban front yard (see photo inset). In this case,
the stabilising leg was considered to be an unrestrained load.
Remember to use the stabilising legs when using the crane for loading or unloading.
The weight of the load on the crane arm has overbalanced the truck. (Photo courtesy
Mick Simpson, Wales Truck Repairs).
114

Loads must not cover number plates, lights and reflectors.
These concrete pots had no restraint at all! (Photo

courtesy John Brentnall).
115
The tracked excavator hit a power pole and slid off the trailer. When carrying high or
wide loads always allow for the extra clearance needed to clear obstructions.
Load restraint accidents can happen at any speed. Note the 60 km/h speed sign in the
centre of the photograph and in the photo insert.
116
SECTION S
E e c t i o n E - Loads
LOADS
CONTENTS

1 GENERAL FREIGHT 119
1.1 Dangerous Goods ------------------------------------------------ 119
1.2 International Cargo Symbols and Signs and Dangerous
Goods Class Labels -------------------------------------------- 120
2 PACKS AND PALLETS 121
2.1 Unitising ------------------------------------------------------------ 121
2.2 Packs ---------------------------------------------------------------- 121
2.3 Loads on Pallets -------------------------------------------------- 122
2.3.1 Unitised load resting on pallet ------------------------- 122
2.3.2 Unitised load secured to pallet ------------------------ 122
2.3.3 Load loosely secured to pallet ------------------------- 122
2.4 Restraining Packs and Pallets -------------------------------- 122
2.5 Unitising Tall Items ----------------------------------------------- 124
3 ROLLS, REELS, COILS AND DRUMS 125
3.1 Positioning --------------------------------------------------------- 125
3.2 Restraining Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums ---------------- 126
3.2.1 Vertical rolls, reels, coils and drums ----------------- 126
3.2.2 Horizontal rolls, reels, coils and drums ------------- 127
3.2.3 Coiled rod -------------------------------------------------- 127
4 PIPES, TUBES, LOGS, RODS, BARS AND BILLETS 128
4.1 Pipe and Round Lengths on Scalloped Dunnage --------- 129
4.2 Cradled Pipes ----------------------------------------------------- 129
4.3 Loose Lengths Between Stanchions ------------------------- 130
4.4 Pipes and Round Lengths on Flat Dunnage --------------- 131
4.5 Unitised Large Diameter Pipes, Bars and Billets --------- 132
4.6 Long Lengths ------------------------------------------------------ 134
4.6.1 Flexible long lengths ------------------------------------- 134
4.6.2 Rigid long lengths ---------------------------------------- 134
4.7 Short Pipes and Logs ------------------------------------------- 135
5 SHEETS AND FLAT LOADS 137
5.1 Sheet and Flat Plate --------------------------------------------- 137
5.2 Empty Pallets ----------------------------------------------------- 137
6 BALES, BAGS AND SACKS 138
6.1 Bales ---------------------------------------------------------------- 138
6.2 Bags and Sacks -------------------------------------------------- 139
7 CONTAINED LOADS 140
7.1 Loose Bulk Loads ------------------------------------------------ 141
7.2 Loose Individual Loads ------------------------------------------ 144
7.3 ‘Live’ Loads -------------------------------------------------------- 144
117
S e c t i o n E - Loads
8 LARGE LOADS 145

8.1 Containers ---------------------------------------------------------- 145
8.1.1 Shipping containers -------------------------------------- 145
8.1.2 Tanks, bins and skips ----------------------------------- 148
8.1.3 Bladders and flexible tanks ---------------------------- 149
8.2 Portable Buildings ------------------------------------------------ 151
8.3 Large Castings and Fabrications ----------------------------- 151
9 VEHICLES AND MOBILE EQUIPMENT 152
9.1 Selection of Carrying Vehicle ---------------------------------- 152
9.2 Load Requirements ---------------------------------------------- 152
9.2.1 Lashing points -------------------------------------------- 152
9.2.2 Articulated vehicles -------------------------------------- 153
9.2.3 Moveable parts and attachments --------------------- 153
9.2.4 Controls ----------------------------------------------------- 153
9.2.5 Height ------------------------------------------------------- 153
9.2.6 Tyres -------------------------------------------------------- 153
9.2.7 Wide loads ------------------------------------------------- 153
9.3 Tie-down and Direct Restraint --------------------------------- 154
9.3.1 Tie-down ---------------------------------------------------- 154
9.3.2 Direct restraint -------------------------------------------- 154
9.3.3 Combined tie-down and direct restraint ------------ 154
9.4 Lashings ------------------------------------------------------------ 155
9.5 Attaching Lashings ----------------------------------------------- 156
9.6 Restraining Tracked Equipment ------------------------------ 157
9.7 Restraining Rubber Tyred Vehicles and Equipment ----- 162
9.7.1 Rubber tyre bouncing ----------------------------------- 162
9.7.2 Small equipment ------------------------------------------ 164
9.7.3 Motor vehicles -------------------------------------------- 165
9.7.3.1 Wheel restraint -------------------------------- 165
9.7.3.2 Tie-down ----------------------------------------- 165
9.7.3.3 Direct lashing ----------------------------------- 166
9.7.4 Large equipment ----------------------------------------- 166
9.8 Suggested Methods of Restraining Mobile Equipment,
Trailers and Other Vehicles ------------------------------------ 167
9.8.1 Tracked excavator --------------------------------------- 167
9.8.2 Dozer or track loader ------------------------------------ 167
9.8.3 Restraining a wheel loader ----------------------------- 168
9.8.4 Restraining a grader ------------------------------------- 168
9.8.5 Restraining a roller --------------------------------------- 169
9.8.6 Restraining a forklift ------------------------------------- 169
9.8.7 Restraining caravans and small trailers ------------ 170
118

This Section contains additional information on the restraint of particular commodities
and items of load.
Specific approved guidelines may be available for the restraint of many products from
industry associations and/or product manufacturers. These guidelines will most likely
contain greater detail than can be included in this guide. When using these guidelines
always ensure they have been certified by an engineer or have been tested to meet the
“Performance Standards”.
1 GENERAL FREIGHT
General freight normally comprises a combination of different types of load which can
vary considerably in mass, size and shape. General freight can comprise a large
number of small items including boxes, cartons, crates, bags, drums, and plastic
containers, but often includes large items such as, pallets, steel coils, and machinery.
Where there is a wide variation of load types, it is often easier to contain the load than
tie-down every item. It is preferable to ensure that movement of loads is prevented. In
cases where movement has been allowed for, the movement must not cause vehicles
to become unstable or the load to dislodge. Bodies suitable to contain general freight
include vans, pantechnicons, and bodies fitted with sides or gates.
Separate lashings should be used for large individual loads, which cannot be effectively
contained.
Rope is not strong enough to adequately restrain heavy loads.
Care should be taken when restraining soft loads such as cartons, because the lashings
will loosen if they cut through or distort the load.
Where parts of the load are added or removed during a journey, the load must be
rearranged and restrained where necessary, at each stop, to maintain correct load
distribution and restraint.
1.1 Dangerous Goods

The requirements of this Load Restraint Guide apply to loads of dangerous goods as
they do to all other loads. However, there may be additional load restraint requirements
for certain dangerous goods, such as gas cylinders, imposed by ‘The Australian Code
for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail’.
Consignors, loading staff, drivers and operators involved in the transport of bulk and
packaged dangerous goods must be familiar with the special requirement of this Code
(listed as a referenced document in Section J of this Guide).
119
1.2 International Cargo Symbols and Signs and Dangerous Goods Class Labels
Many loads, especially international cargo and dangerous goods, are marked with
symbols indicating special handling information and instructions (see Figure E.1). The
class labels shown in Figure E.1 are some examples of class labels however they do
not constitute all class labels.
Fig. E.1 SAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL CARGO SYMBOLS

AND DANGEROUS GOODS CLASS LABELS
If a dangerous goods class label is present there may be additional load restraint
requirements specified in the Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods
(Road and Rail).
International cargo symbols are normally black and between 100 mm and 200 mm
high. Several different symbols may appear on each load to indicate a number of
instructions.
The symbols are normally placed in the upper left and right-hand corners of the main
vertical face of the load and, if possible, are repeated on the other vertical faces.
‘SLING HERE’ and ‘KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT’ symbols are, however, usually placed
on the lower vertical face of the load.
120

2 PACKS AND PALLETS
The following contains information on restraining loads that are bound into packs or
stacked on pallets.
2.1 Unitising
Items of load can be bound together to form a single unitised load to make them easier
to handle and restrain.
Unitising methods include banding, strapping, gluing, stretch wrapping and shrink
wrapping.
Consignors of unitised loads should ensure that the size of the packs and the unitising
method is appropriate to restrain individual items in the pack during transport. If the
unitising fails during transport, the load can dislodge from the vehicle.
Because pack strapping is tensioned from the top, the base of the pack may not be
effectively consolidated. It is therefore important that the assembly and strapping
system used ensures that the bottom layers are tightly packed.
2.2 Packs
Packs can comprise multiple layers or stacks of material, or bundles of individual
lengths.
Packs may be restrained by tie-down or containment.
Unitising on its own may not be sufficient to restrain all items in a pack during transport.
Layers can slide within a pack because of slippery surfaces or particles between the
layers.
Individual lengths can spear out from the centre of a pack because the external strapping
does not clamp all of the internal tubes. In rectangular packs, the strapping forces
often only clamp the outer lengths of the pack. In such cases spearing can be prevented
by end wrapping or blocking.
When bundling lengths, especially circular items, the strapping will cause the pack to
form a circular shape. Generally if the lengths are initially strapped in any other shape,
external forces could cause the bundle to change shape and the strapping to loosen.
The exceptions are triangular packs of three circular sections and hexagon packs of
seven circular sections.
Individual items can become dislodged from a stack on a pallet because the strapping
forces are not evenly spread throughout the pack. Items often become dislodged from
the upper outer edges of an inadequately unitised pack.
Where there is a possibility that items can dislodge from a pack, additional restraint
(by blocking or containment) must be used.
121
Some packs are an unstable shape for restraint in the forward direction (for example,
ingots, bricks). These packs must be prevented from tipping forward by placing them
against barriers or other packs or by other methods .
2.3 Loads on Pallets
2.3.1 Unitised load resting on pallet

Where unitising is not sufficient to restrain the product on the pallet during transport,
the product requires restraint as well as the pallet.
If the pallet is restrained by tie-down, the combination of the unitising and tie-down
must prevent all items on the pallet from becoming dislodged. If an item could dislodge,
additional restraint must be used.
2.3.2 Unitised load secured to pallet

Where the items of load are adequately unitised and secured to the pallet, the load can
either be tied down or contained.
2.3.3 Load loosely stacked on pallet

Items of loads loosely stacked on a pallet can be restrained completely by containment
by the vehicle structure (for example gates, headboards, racks) or other parts of the
load.
Alternatively, external tie-down lashings can be used provided all parts of the load are
restrained by the lashings. If the lashings cannot restrain every item, the load must be
restrained by the vehicle structure or other parts of the load.
2.4 Restraining Packs and Pallets

Packs and pallets can be restrained by combinations of tie-down and blocking, or in
some cases, by direct restraint (headboards and gates) only.
Tarpaulins and curtain sides alone should never be considered as a total pallet restraint
system, unless they have been specifically designed and certified for the particular
type of load.
Tie-down lashings over the top of packs and pallets can readily provide the necessary
rearward and sideways restraint, in most cases. However, to reduce the number of tie-
down lashings to a practical number for forward restraint, the front of the load can be
blocked.
122

The use of rubber load mat can greatly reduce the number of tie-down lashings required
especially for loads with slippery surfaces (see Figure E.2). Packs of hollow sections
can be restrained using timber dunnage with rubber load mat bonded to the top and
bottom surfaces provided spearing of the hollow section from within the pack is
prevented.
Fig. E.2 RESTRAINING BUNDLES OF HOLLOW SECTIONS
Additional restraint can be provided by blocking the full pallets with an empty pallet
against a headboard or loading rack (see Figure E.3) provided items placed on each
pallet are tied down to the pallet in a way that means the performance standards are
met, or restraining the headboard or rack with direct lashings (see Figure E.4).
Fig. E.3 PALLET BLOCKED AGAINST HEADBOARD
123
Fig. E.4 PALLETS BLOCKED AGAINST HEADBOARD
Where the product on the laden pallet has sufficient strength and rigidity, the pallets
can be stacked two high and restrained by blocking against the headboard or loading
rack, and using tie-down.
Where laden pallets are restrained by tie-down, every separate pallet or every row of
pallets across the load must be restrained by at least one lashing (see Figure E.4).
Where a laden pallet is partially restrained by tie-down lashings and cannot be blocked
in the forward direction, the use of direct lashings applied through or around the base
of the pallet can provide additional restraint. Direct lashings through the base of a pallet
must not be used as the only form of restraint if the load is not adequately secured to
the pallet.
Information in Section C.2 and Section F.3 shows that ropes are not suitable for
restraining pallets weighing more than 0.5 tonne. Where the pallet is not blocked, a
single rope cannot even restrain a single empty pallet. Webbing (or chain assemblies)
with a lashing capacity of at least 2 tonnes should be used for restraining pallets weighing
more than 0.5 tonne.
2.5 Unitising Tall Items

Tall items can tip over under heavy braking or cornering. When cornering, this can
happen if the height of the load is twice, or more, than the length of its base (measured
in the sideways direction). When braking, this can happen if the height of the load is
only one and a quarter times or more, than the length of the base (measured in the
forward direction). See Section B.3 for more information on recognising unstable loads.
Tall items can usually be unitised into a stable shape by strapping three or more items
together.
124

3 ROLLS, REELS, COILS AND DRUMS
The following contains information on restraining cylindrical loads, such as rolls, reels,
coils and drums.
Because of their shape, rolls of paper, newsprint, cardboard, plastic, etc. and reels of
cable, rope, etc. should be transported wherever possible on specially equipped vehicles
or in containers.
Large rolls or reels are generally restrained individually on a vehicle, whereas small
rolls and reels can be effectively secured on pallets or restrained by containment in
suitable bodies or containers.
When sheet coils are carried with the bore horizontal they should be wrapped or strapped
to prevent 'telescoping' during transport. Telescoping can cause vehicle instability and
loss of load.
3.1 Positioning
Rolls, reels and drums can be transported horizontally (on their side), or vertically (on
their end). Horizontal rolls, reels and drums can be laid either along or across the
vehicle.
Where the length of a cylinder is less than its diameter, it should be placed on end for
transport (if allowed by the manufacturer).
Where the length of a cylinder is greater than its diameter, its positioning should take
into account whether the cylinder is supported by a vehicle structure or by another part
of the load to prevent it from tipping.
Tall cylinders may be carried vertically, for example by lashing to a headboard or by
nesting in the centre of a tightly packed mixed load.
Where several rolls, reels or drums are transported together, they should be packed
together to prevent movement and where weight distribution permits, they should be
placed against a headboard or bulkhead (see Figures B.19, B.20).
When transported on their side, individual rolls and reels should be placed on fixed or
movable cradles to prevent them from rolling. Chocks or wedges must be individually
restrained to prevent movement during transport.
Cradles also protect the load and help to distribute the weight over the vehicle's deck.
The minimum recommended wedge angle for cradles and chocks is 39 degrees (see
Section G.7).
125
3.2 Restraining Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums

Rolls, reels, coils and drums can be restrained by combinations of tie-down, blocking
against headboards, gates and coaming rails and in some cases, direct restraint.
Rolls, reels, coils and drums that are not blocked or contained by vehicle body structures
(or by other items of load) require separate lashings to prevent movement in all horizontal
directions.
Tarpaulins and curtain sides alone should never be considered as a total restraint
system.
Tie-down lashings over the top of rolls, reels, coils and drums can readily provide the
necessary rearward and sideways restraint, in most cases. However to reduce the
amount of tie down lashings required to a practical number, additional restraint may be
required to prevent forward movement.
Additional restraint can be provided by blocking the roll, reel or drum against a headboard
or loading rack (see Figure B.19) or by restraining it with direct lashings.
The use of rubber load mat can greatly reduce the number of tie-down lashings required.
Angled edge corner protectors (see Figure E.5) or specially fabricated core inserts
(see Figure E.6) should be used to prevent damage to the load and to prevent the
lashings slipping sideways.
3.2.1 Vertical rolls, reels, coils and drums

When transported on their end, rolls, reels, coils and drums should be lashed to the
deck to increase frictional restraint and if necessary, blocked to help prevent forward
movement or completely contained.
Unless unitised on a pallet or contained in a suitable body or container, every roll, reel,
coil or drum should be restrained on the vehicle by at least one lashing (see Figure
E.5).
Fig. E.5 RESTRAINING VERTICAL ROLLS
Some webbing straps may not be suitable for restraining tall, unstable rolls, because of
excessive stretch in the webbing. The stretch can be up to 13% of their length at the
lashing capacity.
126

3.2.2 Horizontal rolls, reels, coils and drums
Where movable cradles are used, they should be restrained by a combination of blocking
against headboards or coaming rails and by tie-down.
Rolls, reels, coils and drums should be restrained by wedges or chocks to prevent
rolling during loading and unloading.
Where horizontal rolls, reels and drums are stacked, inter-layer packing material should
be used to increase the friction where surfaces are slippery.
Lashings should be applied so there is a downward clamping force on all items of load
to provide adequate sideways restraint, and to prevent rolling movement.
Fig. E.6 RESTRAINING LARGE DIAMETER ROLLS
3.2.3 Coiled rod (sometimes called rod-in-coil)

Large numbers of coils of metal rod should only be transported on vehicles with purpose-
built structures or with tie-down systems specifically designed to restrain this type of
coils.
The horizontal loading (these coils must never be stacked on top of each other) of
large numbers of vertical coils of metal rod, in-line along the length of the vehicle deck,
without the use of special cradles, is not recommended.
Coils of metal rod can be transported by restraining each one separately by lashing
passed through the bore or containment.
Individual coils, lying on their side on timber dunnage, may be restrained by tie-down
lashings and blocking.
Individual coils may also be restrained by containment.
127
4 PIPES, TUBES, LOGS, RODS, BARS AND BILLETS

The following contains information on restraining cylindrical loads, such as pipes, tubes,
logs, rods and round bars and billets.
Round pipes are manufactured in various forms, including metal and plastic in long
lengths and reinforced concrete in short lengths. Logs can be either long or short
lengths.
Where large quantities are regularly transported, specialised methods and equipment,
such as scalloped dunnage, unitised bundles or containers should be used. This can
significantly reduce transport costs, product damage and loading/unloading time. It
can also ensure the level of restraint will comply on every journey.
Lengths with smooth surfaces are difficult to restrain using tie-down. The friction between
individual sections can be substantially increased by using inter-layer packing material,
such as timber or rubber matting.
Because of large manufacturing tolerances, pipes in a load may have diameters so
different, that individual pipes may not be effectively clamped by the external lashings.
In such cases the loose pipes must be individually retained.
Many pipes have spigoted, socketed, threaded, bevelled or flanged ends for joining
and sealing. To ensure these ends are not damaged during transport, suitable packing
material should be used.
Damage to soft or crushable loads can be prevented by the use of webbing lashings or
appropriate protectors for ropes, chains and lashing hardware.
Consignors should ensure the size of bundles and the strapping is appropriate to
restrain all lengths and prevent any length from sliding out of the pack.
128

4.1 Pipe and Round Lengths on Scalloped Dunnage
Dunnage which is scalloped top and bottom (see Figure E.7) or on the top only, can be
designed to prevent pipes rolling during transport and during loading and unloading.
Scalloped dunnage is only effective if the scallop is deep enough to stop the pipe rolling
sideways.
Where a load on scalloped dunnage is tied down, side stanchions are not required
either for load restraint or for loading and unloading. Note that the load is ‘crowned’ so
that all pipes have a downward force provided by the lashings. If crowning is not used,
the middle, upper two pipes are not restrained and could fall off.
Fig. E.7 SCALLOPED DUNNAGE
4.2 Cradled Pipes

Large diameter pipes should be tied down on specially fabricated cradles that prevent
rolling and distribute the weight evenly over the vehicle (see Figure E.8). Care should
be taken when driving with loads that have a high centre of mass.
Fig. E.8 CRADLED PIPES
To prevent pipes rolling sideways, the dimensions of scallops and cradles should be
determined in accordance with Section G.7.
129
4.3 Loose Lengths Between Stanchions

Stanchions are used to restrain a load sideways. Forward and rearward restraint is by
tie-down.
The stanchions can either be fixed, pivoting or removable. Pivoting (drop) stanchions
are designed to allow self-unloading. The stanchions must be strong enough to provide
the required sideways restraint for the whole load.
At least two stanchions should be used on each side of the vehicle, to prevent the
tendency of the load to spread sideways. In addition, every length in a load must be
restrained by a minimum of two stanchions.
Where only two pairs of stanchions are used, the outer ends of the outside lengths
should extend at least 300 mm beyond the stanchions. Longer lengths should be
placed on the outside of the stack and shorter lengths in the centre.
The top of each outside length should be no higher than the stanchion. The top middle
lengths should be higher than the side lengths so as to 'crown' the load and allow
proper clamping of each section of the load by the tie-down lashings (see Figure E.9).
(Insufficient restraint) (Load 'crowned')
Fig. E.9 LOOSE LENGTHS BETWEEN STANCHIONS
130

4.4 Pipes and Round Lengths on Flat Dunnage
Where pipes are tied down on flat dunnage, side stanchions (see Figure E.10) are
required to prevent the pipes rolling during loading and unloading.
Where tie-down lashings pass over each layer of pipes, they can prevent all the pipes
in that layer from rolling. If there is sufficient tie-down, side stanchions do not need to
be designed to provide sideways restraint when the vehicle is moving.
In such cases, the strength of the stanchions should be based on the loading and
unloading forces (which should take into account impacts from loading and unloading
equipment).
Fig. E.10 STANCHIONS FOR LOADING & UNLOADING
Where tie-down lashings do not prevent the pipes in each layer from rolling, the side
stanchions (see Figure E.11) must be strong enough to provide the required sideways
restraint for each layer of pipes.
Fig. E.11 STANCHIONS PROVIDING SIDEWAYS RESTRAINT
131
4.5 Unitised Large Diameter Pipes, Bars and Billets

To prevent large diameter pipes rolling and make them easier to restrain they can be
unitised using steel or webbing 'belly strapping' (see Figure E.12) or 'belly wrapping'
(see Figure E.13) the lashings. Bars and billets can also be restrained using these
methods. Note that these systems rely on friction between the products and are not
suitable for slippery and crushable lengths.
Fig. E.12 BELLY STRAPPING
Fig. E.13 BELLY WRAPPING
When belly wrapping, the lashings must be looped over the top of the load to provide
tie down. If the lashings are looped underneath a rounded load, they will not prevent it
from rolling (see Figure E.14).
Fig E.14 BELLY WRAPPING ROUNDED LOADS

132

Small quantities of loose lengths can be unitised and restrained by at least two lashings
looped around the bundle and secured on both sides of the vehicle.
Steel or plastic strapping can be used to attach pipes to dunnage for ease of handling.
Where the strapping passes under the dunnage, the dunnage should be slotted to
prevent the slippery strapping contacting the deck. This could allow the load to slide on
the slippery face of the straping.
When restraining unitised loads they should be kept as low as possible, with smaller
sections placed on top. No layer should be larger than the one below it.
Where the load comprises a number of odd sized bundles it should be 'crowned' to
provide even downward pressure. Alternatively, each layer should be lashed together
to form a single unit using 'belly lashings' and tie-down lashings then applied over the
top of the load.
In some cases it may be necessary to divide the load into two or more stacks to crown
it effectively (see Figure E.15). This can be achieved by attaching the lashings along
the middle of the deck.
Fig. E.15 DIVIDED CROWNED LOAD
133
4.6 Long Lengths

Long lengths should be carried on vehicles with suitable length bodies, that ensure
that the load is adequately supported and meets allowable length and overhang
Regulations.
4.6.1 Flexible long lengths

Flexible long lengths include small diameter metal pipe, plastic pipe, timber, rod and
rolled steel sections either loose or packaged. They should be supported regularly
over their full length to minimise any whip effects. Any loose ends protruding from the
load should be secured.
Where long lengths are transported on roof or ladder racks they should not overhang
by more than 20% of their length and must be restrained with at least two lashings
(see Table E.1).
LOAD SUPPORT POINTS

Length Distance between maximum
supports overhang
2500 mm 1500 mm 500 mm
3000 mm 1800 mm 600 mm
4000 mm 2400 mm 800 mm
5000 mm 3000 mm 1000 mm
6000 mm 3600 mm 1200 mm
7000 mm 4200 mm 1400 mm
8000 mm 4800 mm 1600 mm
Table E.1
4.6.2 Rigid long lengths

Rigid long lengths include large diameter metal pipe, heavy rolled steel sections, steel
fabrications, large logs and concrete beams. They should be supported at only two
points to allow the vehicle chassis to retain its flexibility.
Rigid long lengths should be supported at two positions each approximately 20% of the
length from each end.
134

4.7 Short Pipes and Logs
Where loads are placed across the vehicle, they can be restrained by containment or
tie-down.
Lashing(s) anchored at the front, passing over the top of a large number of sideways
facing pipes or logs, and tensioned by a winch at the rear of the vehicle, cannot provide
enough clamping force on all of the intermediate pipes or logs. The intermediate pipes
or logs can then move out sideways and the entire stack could fall off. Additional
lashings are needed so that the entire load is positively clamped.
If the load of sideways facing pipes or logs is divided into several sections, each section
can be crowned. Tie-down lashings may then positively clamp all of the load (see
Figure E.16).
Fig. E.16 DIVIDED CROWNED LOAD
Where small pipes or logs are carried, suitable side gates or other containment methods,
for example the use of chains, should be used to prevent sideways movement (see
Figure E.17).
(Insufficient sideways restraint) (Load restrained by gates)
Fig. E.17 SIDEWAYS RESTRAINT OF SHORT PIPES OR LOGS
135
Where large pipes are carried, all upper layer pipes should be individually tied down so
that all pipes in the lower layers of the load are positively clamped by the upper pipes to
prevent sideways movement (see Figure E.18).
Fig. E.18 LARGE DIAMETER PIPES
136

5 SHEETS AND FLAT LOADS
The following contains information on restraining sheet, plate, stacked empty pallets
and similar flat items.
5.1 Sheet and Flat Plate

Large loose sheets and flat plate should be restrained in all directions by blocking
against suitable headboards, bulkheads, coaming rails, stanchions, pegs, stakes etc.
Tie-down lashings should generally not be relied on to provide the total restraint in the
forward direction, but can be used to provide additional restraint.
Metal sheet and flat plate laid flat on a vehicle is usually a load with a relatively low
height. Lashings passing over coaming rails and over the load will often not be angled
enough to effectively clamp the load to the vehicle. Tie-down is not an efficient form of
restraint in this case because the lashing angle effect is low. The load should be lifted
or additional items placed on top, so that the lashings are angled at least 30 degrees to
the horizontal. The lashing angle for sheets that are wider than the vehicle can be
increased by lifting the load.
Stacked sheets of plywood or building boards can easily slip on each other because of
loose particles (for example sawdust, powder) which act like ‘ball bearings’ between
the layers. They should be prevented from sliding by unitising into packs or fully
containing them within sides or gates of a body. Alternatively, if tie-down is used, they
should be blocked against sides, gates or stakes.
Loose sheets must be secured in open vehicles if they can be dislodged by air flow.
5.2 Empty Pallets

Empty pallets should be stacked no more than 15 pallets high to maintain sideways
stability. The front of the load should be stacked against a headboard or a braced
loading rack (see Section C).
Each row of pallets should be restrained by a fully tensioned webbing strap (at least
300 kg pre-tension). Ropes are not suitable for full loads.
A rope with a single hitch is not capable of restraining a single timber pallet located in
the centre of the deck unless it is against a headboard. The angle of the rope is so low
that the clamping force is almost nothing.
When the pallets are blocked against the headboard, a rope with a single hitch will only
restrain eight pallets in one row, four high on a steel deck.
137
6 BALES, BAGS AND SACKS

The following contains information on restraining loads that are compressed into bales
or contained in bags or sacks.
Baled loads include wool, cotton, wood pulp and hay.
These loads are usually low or medium density and stacked high. High loads reduce
vehicle stability, which can cause loss of vehicle control and overturning in corners.
Bales, bags and sacks are manufactured from natural and synthetic materials, some
of which have slippery surfaces. This can make them difficult to restrain by tie-down.
Bales, bags and sacks can settle quickly during transport. Lashings should be checked
and re-tensioned regularly during the journey. It can be necessary to recheck the lashing
tension within the first few kilometres of the journey for some products such as sacks
of grain and bales.
The load must be placed so that its overall width and height does not exceed maximum
allowable dimensions during the journey taking into account any settling of the load.
6.1 Bales
Bales can be carried on open vehicles by a combination of tie-down and containment
by front and rear loading racks. Tie-down lashings are used to restrain the load sideways
and the racks supply the rearward and additional forward restraint required. Specially
designed cap tarpaulins can assist in restraining the top layers of bales only and should
be rated by their manufacturer for this purpose.
Bales stacked three or four high tend to bulge outwards at the base or to lean outwards
at the top. This occurs because of their lack of rigidity, stacking on end and the low
friction of the bale material.
It is often, therefore, necessary to tie-down the bottom half of the load separately from
the top. For additional sideways support, the load can be split in places along its length
and diagonal lashings applied through the gap to the opposite side.
Where possible, bales should be stacked in interlocking patterns (similar to a brick
bond) to provide better stability and spread the clamping forces from the tie-down
lashings through to the lower bales.
Where cap tarpaulins are used, tie-down lashings must be placed over:
• at least every second bale on the top row.
Where cap tarpaulins are not used, tie-down lashings must be placed over:
• every exposed bale on the top row, or
• at least every second bale on the top row, after a horizontal belly lashing has been
applied around that row.
138

Additional forward and rearward restraint should be provided by front and rear loading
racks. The racks should be braced near the top on each side by a chain. A single 9
metre long chain wrapped around each of the rack side uprights and strung across the
face of the rack is recommended (see Figure E.19).
Fig. E.19 CHAINED LOADING RACK
Bales can also be contained by side gates and front and rear loading racks. Diagonal
or cross lashings or braces should be used to prevent the side gates spreading outwards
at the top.
6.2 Bags and Sacks

Bags or sacks should be laid on their sides when possible, and packed with alternate
layers at right angles. No more than two successive layers should be packed in the
same direction and the load should be of uniform shape.
If side gates or drop sides are not fitted, tie-down lashings must be used to restrain the
load sideways. Tarpaulins can be used to assist in restraining the top layers of bags/
sacks only.
Where tarpaulins are used over the load, tie-down lashings must be placed over at
least every second bag on the top row.
Where tarpaulins are not used, tie-down lashings must be placed over every exposed
bag/sack on the top row.
139
7 CONTAINED LOADS
Contained loads should be packed tightly together within the vehicle’s body or sides to
prevent any horizontal movement. Where loads cannot be packed tightly together,
they must be restrained if their movement could cause the vehicle to become unstable
or the load to dislodge.
Load separators, such as empty pallets, tyres, shoring bars or dunnage should be
used where necessary to restrain individual items within the load and to protect fragile
items from damage. Smaller items may be restrained by surrounding them with larger
items.
Where a load is carried in an open body without any vertical tie-down, the base of each
item of load should be well below the top of the sides or gates. This should prevent the
load from becoming dislodged over bumps and vibration caused by rough road surfaces,
especially on corners. Standard coaming rails are not high enough to ensure loads do
not dislodge under these conditions. Higher sides or gates are required for vehicles
with stiff suspensions that give a rough ride.
Loads which might ‘bounce’ as a result of road bumps should always be tied down.
These items include vehicles and equipment on pneumatic tyres and/or springs and
objects that bounce when dropped on a rigid surface.
Tarpaulins and nets can be used to provide vertical restraint for light loads contained in
open sided bodies to counteract the effect of air flow and rough roads.
Side curtains can be used to contain loads provided that the vehicle and curtain system
are certified for the particular application.
Incorrect loading in a freight container can adversely affect the carrying vehicle’s weight
distribution or stability, especially if the load shifts during transport. The load should be
arranged where possible so that its weight is evenly distributed over the floor and
packed tightly against the walls of the container. Drivers should ask the consignor for
information on the packing of the container.
Any general freight container with uneven weight distribution (more than 60% of the
load in less than half its length) should be clearly marked by the consignor with a
centre of mass cargo symbol, to enable any necessary special precautions to be made
for its transport.
Lightweight objects should be placed on top of heavier objects to keep the centre of
mass of the vehicle as low as possible. The load should not exceed the manufacturer’
s rated capacity of the container or carrying vehicle, or cause the vehicle to exceed the
legal axle loads unless operating under a special permit.
140

Freight containers should be packed to ensure that loads and dunnage will not fall out
when the doors are opened. Lashings or webbing nets or, alternatively timber or metal
gates, can be used for this purpose.
An internal restraint system (see Figure E.20) is required for partially loaded containers
and heavy individual objects. Any movement of the load inside the container during
transport could adversely affect the carrying vehicle’s stability or weight distribution. A
tightly packed load generally requires no additional restraint. Inflatable air bags
(disposable or reusable) can be effectively used to restrain loads within containers.
Fig. E.20 ADDITIONAL RESTRAINT INSIDE CONTAINER
7.1 Loose Bulk Loads

Loose bulk loads include quarry products, primary produce and demolition and waste
material. These can be carried in tippers, drop-sided vehicles and tankers.
Fine powdered material should be contained or transported in fully enclosed vehicle
bodies such as tankers so that no product can fall or dislodge from the vehicle during
transport.
Tarpaulins, load covers or load nets are required to restrain loose particles and objects
in open topped vehicles to counteract the effect of air flow and rough roads (see Figure
E.21 and Figure E.22).
Fig. E.21 TARPAULIN

141
The use of ‘wetting’ or ‘skinning’ agents can be effective for a limited time in restraining
fine particles without the need for tarpaulins.
Load covers can be made from closed or open-weave material and can be applied
manually or mechanically.
Load nets can also be used effectively for vertical restraint of lightweight bulk loads in
open-topped vehicles.
Fig. E.22 LOAD NET
Where tipper bodies contain loads that have any liquid content (including waste,
foodstuffs, hides, offal, sand and gravel) which could leak onto a road, the liquid must
be removed or drained before transport. Alternatively, the tipper must have a fully
sealed body.
The vehicle body should be suitable for the type of material being transported. Bodies
with poorly fitting and distorted sides and gates should not be used to transport fine
particles such as sand.
142

Loose loads should never be transported on a platform-bodied vehicle without sides or
gates or tipper bodies without tailgates (see Figure E.23 and Figure E.24).
Fig. E.23 INCORRECT: UNRESTRAINED LOAD
Fig. E.24 CORRECT: LOAD CONTAINED
Some loads such as empty aluminium drink cans, are not suitable to be carried in long
open top vehicles. This is because their shape, surface finish, size and/or weight may
allow them to interact and move during braking or cornering. Any load which could
jump out over bumps or be blown off by air flow must be covered and/or partitioned if
it can move within the body.
Scrap metal consists of a variety of shapes and sizes. It is carried in bins, skips
containers and sided vehicle bodies.
Where open bodies or containers have ramped ends for unloading, the ramp should
always face rearwards to reduce the risk of the load ‘launching’ up over the end under
braking.
Care should be taken to ensure that no large heavy objects are left unrestrained in a
partial load of scrap and lightweight objects cannot bounce off over bumps.
143
7.2 Loose Individual Loads

Loose individual loads include cartons, boxes, crates, plastic containers, tools, tyres
equipment, building supplies, individual glass bottles and bricks.
These loads should be arranged to prevent horizontal movement. Where possible,
they should be interlocked and stacked to a uniform height, with the heavier items
placed at the bottom of the load.
Where open containers, skips, crates or pallets are restrained on a vehicle, their contents
must also be effectively contained. For example, bottles and containers in open crates,
and bricks on brick pallets, can easily become dislodged during normal driving. They
should be covered or otherwise contained on the vehicle.
7.3 ‘Live’ Loads

‘Live’ loads are those loads that can be expected to move when transported such as
livestock, hanging meat and all liquids. Liquids include high viscosity sludges, molasses
and tar.
Live loads can reduce vehicle cornering ability and cause roll-over.
If liquids are transported in partially filled tanks they should be baffled or have multiple
compartments which are either essentially full or empty.
Livestock is normally carried in purpose-built bodies or removable crates.
Livestock should be loaded to minimise injury to individual animals and to prevent
vehicle instability by the livestock moving during transport.
Where livestock is carried on light vehicles, crates must be used or the livestock
directly restrained (tethered) to minimise movement.
Where livestock is carried in multiple deck crates, animals should not be transported
in an upper deck until the lower levels are filled.
Where loads such as meat, are hung in a vehicle, they must be closely packed to
minimise movement or otherwise be restrained.
144

8 LARGE LOADS
The following contains information on restraining large individual items of load including
containers, tanks, portable buildings, castings, large fabrications, transformers and
tall loads.
The effect of the height of the centre of mass of the load on vehicle stability should be
taken into account when selecting the carrying vehicle. Drop deck trailers or low-loaders
should be used for high loads.
8.1 Containers
Containers include shipping containers, flat platforms (Transiflats), bins, skips and
tanks.
8.1.1 Shipping containers

All ISO and most other shipping containers and flat platforms are equipped with corner
castings designed to interlock with mating ‘twist locks’ (see Figure E.25), either for
lifting or restraining them for transport.
Fig. E.25 TWIST LOCK
All shipping containers should be restrained by four twist locks although tie-down
methods can be used in some cases.
Tie rails and lashing equipment on general freight vehicles are not strong enough to
directly restrain fully laden freight containers.
Where twist locks are not fitted, empty containers can be restrained by either crossed-
chains (see Figure E.26) or tie-down (see Figure E.27). They must be placed either on
a timber deck, on timber dunnage, on rubber pads, or friction matting, but not directly
onto a metal loading deck or coaming rails.
A load mat or rubber pad capable of withstanding the high pressure under the corner
casting of an empty container without breaking up must be used.
For restraining empty containers up to 2.7 tonnes, transport chains should be at least
8 mm diameter and tensioned with turnbuckles or dogs to at least 1000 kg.
145
Fig. E.26 EMPTY CONTAINER – CROSS CHAINED
Fig. E.27 EMPTY CONTAINER – CHAINED OVER TOP

& ‘DOGGED’ BOTH SIDES
146

Tank containers should be transported on low trailers (see Figure G.3, page 216). The
bottom corner castings on an ISO tank container should be no higher than 1100 mm
above the ground, to ensure maximum stability.
A load restraint system can be developed, tested and certified to restrain laden containers
using chains, by tie-down or a combination of tie-down and direct restraint.
As an example, a certified tie-down system for a 22.5 tonne container would utilise four
8 mm transport chains, tensioned to a minimum of 2000 kg with rated turnbuckles,
using a proven procedure. At least four lengths of timber dunnage would be placed
under each end of the container, but not under the corner castings. Friction matting
would be placed between the dunnage and container and also between the dunnage
and the deck. The friction matting would require a minimum friction coefficient of 0.6
and have sufficient strength to prevent it breaking up or extruding under the heavy
weight. Conveyor belting would not be suitable for this application. The container could
not directly contact any timber, metal deck or coaming rail (see Figure E.28).
Other chain lashing systems could be developed, tested and certified using a
combination of four tie-down lashings and additional direct restraint lashings preventing
forward movement, to enable even heavier containers to be restrained.
Fig. E.28 22.5 TONNE CONTAINER – TURNBUCKLE CHAINED
Flat platforms and low height containers can be stacked and secured with interlocking
double twist lock fittings (see Figure E.29).
Fig. E.29 DOUBLE TWIST LOCK

147
8.1.2 Tanks, bins and skips

Tanks, bins and skips should be restrained on the vehicle by lashings or positive locking
devices. To achieve this they should be fitted with lashing anchor points or mounting
frames.
Skips and bins must be restrained to the vehicle whether they are full or not. Hydraulic
arms are not suitable as a restraint system.
A small tank can be mounted on a frame fitted with four twist lock castings (see Figure
E.30).
Fig. E.30 SMALL TANK RESTRAINED WITH TWIST LOCKS
148

8.1.3 Bladders and flexible tanks
Bladders and flexible tanks are specialised containers, which can be used to transport
some liquid products. They are usually made of fabric-reinforced rubber and when
empty can be rolled up to reduce their size for transport.
The method of restraint should take into account the flexibility and surge effects during
transport.
These tank types can be restrained by lashing onto the vehicle deck or lashing inside
a freight container.
Where it is not possible to adequately restrain a flexible tank inside a freight container,
the container should be transported on a ‘drop-deck’ trailer to minimise the surge
effects on the semi-trailer’s stability.
MINIMUM NUMBER OF LASHINGS
Mass of tank Minimum no. Mass of tank Minimum no.

plus contents of lashings plus contents of lashings
0—1.99 t 3 10.00—11.99 t 8
2.00—3.99 t 4 12.00—13.99 t 9
4.00—5.99 t 5 14.00—15.99 t 10
6.00—7.99 t 6 16.00—17.99 t 11
8.00—9.99 t 7 18.00—19.99 t 12
Table E.2
If chains are used, a protective covering should be placed between the chain and the
tank to minimise abrasion damage.
The lashings on flexible tanks may be arranged as individual straps or as a webbing
net.
149
Individual straps should be run from the anchor point on one side of the vehicle, over
and belly wrapped in a full circle around the tank, down to the vehicle anchor point on
the opposite side (see Figure E.31).
Fig. E.31 ARRANGEMENT OF LASHINGS
Lashings should be spaced closer together at the front portion of the tank to counteract
liquid surge effects during braking (see Figure E.32).
Fig. E.32 LIQUID SURGE DURING BRAKING
Webbing nets should be attached at regular intervals to vehicle anchor points. Where
there are no fixed anchor points across the vehicle, the net should be attached at the
front and rear of the tank, to strong cross beams or chains, secured at each end to the
vehicle (see Figure E.33).
Fig. E.33 WEBBING NET

150

8.2 Portable Buildings
The upper structures of most portable buildings and site sheds are not suitable for
attaching lashings. However, base frames or steel skids can be used.
Tie-down lashings are not suitable if placed over the skids. The lashing angle is too
low to provide sufficient clamping. It is limited by the height of the skids or base frame.
The building should be loaded so that it can be blocked against the headboard.
Where the building cannot be blocked against the headboard, lashings should be
attached at the rear, to prevent forward movement.
To prevent sideways and rearwards movement, lashings should be attached directly at
the front and back.
Separate lashings should be attached to each side and each end of the building (see
Figure E.34). All lashing assemblies should have a minimum lashing capacity of 3
tonnes. Stronger lashings may be required depending on the weight of the building
and contents and the angles of the lashings.
Fig. E.34 RESTRAINING A PORTABLE BUILDING
Recovery winches should not be used for restraining loads, unless they are fitted with
a positive locking mechanism.
8.3 Large Castings and Fabrications

Large castings are normally transported on custom-made cradles. The cradles spread
the weight of the casting over the deck. The casting may be restrained by tie-down
and/or direct lashings.
Where possible they should be blocked at the front to prevent forward movement.
Large fabrications should be placed on rubber load mat or timber dunnage. They can
be restrained by tie-down and/or direct restraint, by attaching lashings and/or blocking
at the front and sides.
151
9 VEHICLES AND MOBILE EQUIPMENT

The following contains information on restraining vehicles and mobile equipment.
Vehicles and mobile equipment include rubber tyred, steel wheeled and tracked vehicles.
They can vary considerably in size and weight.
9.1 Selection of Carrying Vehicle

Small vehicles and mobile equipment may be carried on general freight vehicles.
Large items of mobile equipment should be carried on special-purpose vehicles with
low decks. This will keep the centre of mass as low as possible to ensure maximum
vehicle stability.
9.2 Load Requirements

Vehicle and mobile equipment manufacturers should provide loading and restraint
recommendations and should fit appropriate lashing points.
Note that some manufacturers’ existing load restraint recommendations may include
tie-down information suitable for sea transport or rail transport but not for road transport.
The principles outlined in this guide should be followed for road transport.
9.2.1 Lashing points

Chains can be attached by looping around parts of the load. However, this can damage
fragile components such as brake pipes, or weaken the chains on sharp edges.
Lashing points should be fitted in positions to enable adequate and efficient restraint
(see Figure E.35).
Fig. E.35 LASHING POINTS
152

Lashing points should be clearly identified by colour coding or labelling.
Front and rear towing brackets can be used as lashing points. Where the brackets do
not incorporate round pins, shackles should be used to prevent weakening or damaging
the chain.
Many lifting lugs are incorrectly positioned for load restraint (even if identified as tie-
down points) and should not be used.
9.2.2 Articulated vehicles

When transporting articulated machines, steering locks should be engaged.
Steering controls should be operated at least twice with the engine stopped to relieve
residual hydraulic pressure.
9.2.3 Movable parts and attachments

Any part of the equipment (eg. excavator booms) which can rotate must be restrained
for transport.
Buckets, blades and rippers should be lowered onto the deck. When travelling on
rough roads, these items should be restrained to prevent damage.
9.2.4 Controls
The manufacturers’ recommendations regarding the positioning of transmission controls
and the application of parking brakes should be followed.
Loose objects that could move and contact controls should be removed or restrained
for transport.
9.2.5 Height
High loads must not exceed regulation height limits and must be lower than any
obstruction (eg. bridge, overhead wire) which could be encountered during transport.
9.2.6 Tyres
The tyres on rubber tyred vehicles or equipment should be checked for correct pressures
and the presence of leaks.
9.2.7 Wide loads
Where the mobile equipment is wider than the vehicle deck, a widening low loader,
outriggers or extensions should be used for maximum support. At least 75% of the
normal contact area of equipment tyres or tracks should be supported. Any unsupported
tyre or track should not project more than 150 mm beyond the vehicle deck or extension.
153
9.3 Tie-down and Direct Restraint

The restraint of vehicles and mobile equipment should be by direct lashings and/or
blocking wherever possible.
9.3.1 Tie-down
Rubber tyred and rubber tracked vehicles can be restrained using tie-down in the
sideways direction, but not in the forward or rearward directions.
The friction between wheels and tracks on loading decks can be extremely low, especially
when wet or greasy. In such cases, friction should be neglected and tie-down should
not be used.
9.3.2 Direct restraint
Tracked and wheeled vehicles should be directly restrained in the forward and rearward
directions by lashings. In the case of extremely heavy equipment, the combination of
direct restraint and tie-down can be used. Vehicles and mobile equipment can also be
restrained by containing them within the body structure of the carrying vehicle.
9.3.3 Combined tie-down and direct restraint
Where tracked equipment is restrained forward or rearward on timber decking or rubber
matting, combined tie-down and direct restraint can be used. In such cases, direct
lashings must be attached to the tracks, not to the undercarriage or body. This is to
allow the load to move and take up any free play in the transmission.
The restraint must not rely on transmission and wheel parking brakes, engine braking
or hydraulic winches, except where positive locks (pawls) are fitted.
154

9.4 Lashings
Vehicles and mobile equipment can be restrained using webbing, chain or wire rope
lashings.
Webbing lashings are suitable for light motor vehicles and equipment. Webbing
assemblies can be single or endless lashing assemblies (see Figure E.36) or wheel
restraints (see Figure E.37) which are tensioned with hand ratchets.
Fig. E.36 WEBBING ASSEMBLY
Fig. E.37 WHEEL RESTRAINT ASSEMBLY

Chain is suitable for restraining all vehicles and mobile equipment that are fitted with
suitable attachment points.
Chain can be loose lengths fitted with grab or claw hooks at each end, or take the form
of an assembly with latch hooks, a built-in tensioner and a shortening claw (see Figure
E.38). Chain assemblies are one-piece, eliminating the chance of the tensioner dislodging
from the vehicle.
Fig. E.38 CHAIN ASSEMBLY

When restraining rubber tyred equipment, dogs and turnbuckles should be tied or
wired in position to prevent them becoming detached if the chain slackens. Alternatively,
chain assemblies should be used.
155
Chains restraining mobile equipment are often short, making them difficult to fully tension
using dogs. Turnbuckles are more suitable for tensioning short chains.
Wire rope can be used for restraining vehicles and mobile equipment. The lashing
capacity of wire rope is one third of its minimum breaking strength (see Section H).
Winches used to tension wire rope should have a positive locking feature and not rely
on hydraulic pressure to prevent the winch unwinding.
9.5 Attaching lashings

Two lashings attached to the towing pin (see Figure E.39) will provide positive sideways
restraint.
Fig. E.39 LASHINGS ATTACHED TO TOWING BRACKET
One lashing passing around the towing pin (see Figure E.40) will not prevent sideways
movement. This arrangement should only be used for restraining small rubber tyred
equipment where the rubber tyres can give the required sideways restraint, provided
the tyres always stay in contact with the deck.
Fig. E.40 LASHING PASSING THROUGH TOWING BRACKET
156

Lashings can be easily attached when the equipment is fitted with special lashing
points (see Figure E.41). Fitting such lashing points can save loading time if the
equipment is frequently transported. These fittings are available through chain suppliers.
Fig. E.41 USING LASHING POINTS
When the chains pass over the sharp edges on coaming rails or on the mobile equipment,
they can be weakened significantly. (see Section C 6.5 for derating chain). Suitable
rounded corner protectors should be used. Alternatively, the chains should be positioned
to give a straight line pull.
9.6 Restraining Tracked Equipment

The following refers to the restraint of equipment on metal tracks. The principles also
apply to equipment with metal wheels and rollers. More detailed information is in Section
E 9.8.
Where four angled chains are used to restrain a tracked machine:
• the two chains at the rear preventing forward movement should be angled at
approximately 30 degrees to the forward direction (see Figure E.42) and;
• the two chains at the front preventing rearward movement should be angled at
approximately 45 degrees to the forward direction.
Fig. E.42 RESTRAINED BY FOUR CHAINS

157
When the front of a tracked machine is blocked to prevent forward movement (eg. the
bucket is against a gooseneck or the blade is against a stop bracket on top of the
gooseneck):
• Two chains must be attached at the rear to prevent sideways movement. They can
be angled straight across the deck and crossed for ease of attachment (see Figure
E.43).
• Two chains must be attached at the front to prevent sideways movement.
• Two chains must be attached to prevent rearward movement. These chains can be
the same two front chains if they are angled back correctly (see Figure E.43).
Alternatively, they could be additional chains attached at other suitable positions at
the front or sides.
Fig. E.43 BLOCKED AT FRONT AND CROSS-CHAINED AT REAR
158

Tie-down is the wrong method of restraint for tracked machines because there is not
enough friction to fully restrain the machine.
Tracked machines must not be restrained by tie-down chains over the tracks (see
Figure E.44 and Figure E.45).
Fig. E.44 TWO CHAIN TIE-DOWN - INADEQUATE RESTRAINT
159
Fig. E.45 FOUR CHAIN TIE-DOWN ON TRACKS - INADEQUATE RESTRAINT
160

Fig. E.46 FOUR CHAINS DIRECT RESTRAINT ON TRACKS -
INADEQUATE RESTRAINT
Tracked machines must not be restrained by angled chains attached to the tracks with
grab hooks (see Figure E.46).
This method is not adequate for forward and rearward restraint. Attaching chain grab
hooks to track shoes is not recommended. Grab hooks are not normally designed for
tip loading or rated for this purpose.
Worn track shoes and track chain on used or old equipment may not be attached
strongly enough to withstand the load restraint forces.
161
9.7 Restraining Rubber Tyred Vehicles and Equipment

The friction from rubber tyres can provide some of the load restraint.
However, because brakes cannot be relied on to prevent the wheels rotating, the friction
of the rubber tyres on the deck can only be used to prevent sideways movement.
Where lashings prevent a wheel from rotating, the restraint provided is in all horizontal
directions.
Lashings must be pre-tensioned to keep the tyres in contact with the deck. The resulting
clamping force must be at least 20% of the weight of the load.
Where large balloon tyres are fitted, excessive sway of the load may occur if the sideways
restraint is only the friction of the rubber tyres on the deck. In such cases, the load
should be directly restrained sideways.
9.7.1 Rubber tyre bouncing

High shock forces can develop in chains, when vehicles or mobile equipment that are
being carried ‘bounce’ on their tyres or suspension during transport. This can occur
during braking, accelerating, travelling on hills and rough roads.
During braking, the tension increases in the chains that prevent forward movement.
Because the chains are angled upwards from the deck, they pull down on the load
when the tension increases. This pull down force compresses tyres and suspensions
and the load rocks forward.
When the braking, or accelerating, is finished, the increased chain tension reduces to
its original value. The tyres and suspension then rebound upward to their original
position causing the vehicle or mobile equipment to ‘bounce’ or rock backwards (see
Figure E.47).
Fig. E.47 RUBBER TYRE BOUNCING
162

The bouncing effect is magnified when the chains are angled steeply to the deck. This
is because steeply angled chains pull down on the load more than chains at a lower
angle.
Direct lashings should be angled at no more than 25 degrees to the horizontal (1:2) to
minimise bouncing.
Bouncing can also be reduced by adding vertical lashings at each wheel position.
These lashings should have a lashing capacity of at least half the weight of the equipment
and should be as tight as possible.
Bouncing can also be prevented by supporting the equipment on blocks or removing
wheels for transport.
163
9.7.2 Small equipment

Small rubber tyred equipment can be restrained by two lashings. One lashing should
be attached at the middle of one end of the equipment and the other lashing at the
other end. The lashing can be attached to the deck at one point or it can pass through
a towing bracket and attach to the deck at two points (see Figure E.48). The rubber
tyres provide the sideways restraint and the lashings provide the forward and rearward
restraint.
Fig E.48 SMALL RUBBER TYRED EQUIPMENT

164

9.7.3 Motor vehicles
Motor vehicles can be transported on specialised carrying vehicles or general freight
vehicles.
Before restraining the vehicle, the overall height of the load should be checked,
particularly when transporting light commercial and four-wheel-drive vehicles.
Most modern light vehicles are equipped with special underbody brackets to enable
lashings to be attached. Some brackets are designed for vertical lashings and are
positioned such that they are only suitable for use with purpose-built car carriers.
Where specially designed car carriers are used, purpose-built lashing assemblies and
winches should be used to restrain the load. Vehicles should not be carried unrestrained
on car carriers even though they might be contained by the structure joining the upper
and lower decks on a double-deck carrier.
Where lashings are attached to axles or wheels, care should be taken to ensure the
lashings do not damage brake pipes, hoses, anti-lock brake sensors or other
components.
There are three basic methods of restraining motor vehicles:
1 Wheel restraint
2 Tie-down
3 Direct lashing
9.7.3.1 Wheel restraint method

The vehicle can be restrained directly or by tie-down, by webbing assemblies, which
attach to or over the wheels.
9.7.3.2 Tie-down method

Tie-down lashings are vertical chains or straps attached underneath the vehicle and
tensioned using fixed winches. They are only effective if the wheels are prevented
from rotating by chocks or recesses in the deck.
Tie-down should not be used if vehicle parking brakes or transmission locks are the
only way of preventing the wheels rotating.
Wheel chocks that can become loose and loose equipment, including ramps and lashing
assemblies, must be adequately restrained on the carrying vehicle.
Note: Wheel restraint and tie-down depend on the tyres remaining inflated during
transport. If the tyre loses air, all restraint is lost. Tyre pressures should be checked
before and during the journey.
165
9.7.3.3 Direct lashing method

Direct lashings are attached to axles, suspension or lashing points. They should be
angled at 25 degrees to the horizontal to minimise bouncing and within 30 degrees of
the centreline of the carrying vehicle.
A minimum of two lashings must be used and arranged so that, when tensioned, a
downward force is applied to each wheel.
Recovery winches should not be used for restraining loads, unless they are fitted with
a positive locking mechanism. They cannot be used for tie-down unless they are
tensioned to pull down on one end of the vehicle at a minimum of 25 degrees (1:2) or
to give an equivalent force of 20% of the weight on the axle at that end.
9.7.4 Large equipment

When restraining large rubber tyred equipment it is essential that the lashings are
angled correctly to minimise bouncing. The positioning of tie-down lugs on some large
equipment can be misleading in this regard. They are sometimes intended for lifting
but not load restraint. Their position can sometimes result in high lashing angles,
which lead to excessive bounce.
In many cases, new lashing points will need to be fitted to successfully restrain some
large equipment.
9.7.5 Small Rubber-tyred equipment

Small rubber-tyred equipment such as mowers and skid-steer loaders can be restrained
without vertical tie-down, by containing them in open vehicles such as trailers and
tippers, provided that:
• the vehicle bodies have side and end structures of adequate strength;
• the side and end blocking structures are vertical;
• the tops of the side and end blocking structures are at least 300mm above the deck
and are higher than the top of any equipment tyres; and
• the side and end blocking structures are positioned to restrict movement of the
equipment to a maximum of 100 mm in any horizontal direction. The use of
intermediate packing between the equipment and blocking structures is acceptable,
provided that the packing is at least as high as the structures and is restrained in
position.
166

9.8 Suggested Methods of Restraining Mobile Equipment, Trailers and Other
Vehicles
The following are examples of methods of restraining some vehicles and mobile
equipment. Variations of these methods are acceptable, provided the restraint meets
the Performance Standards.
9.8.1 Tracked excavator

When restraining an excavator:
(i) Forward movement can be prevented by attaching two diagonal lashings (at 30
degrees to the forward direction) between the undercarriage lashing point and
the deck on each side, or by butting the tracks against the trailer gooseneck
(where weight distribution allows).
(ii) Rearward movement should be prevented by the use of two diagonal lashings
(at 45 degrees to the rearward direction) between an undercarriage lashing point
and the deck on each side.
(iii) Sideways movement will be prevented by the diagonal lashings that prevent the
forward and rearward movement.
(iv) Rotation of the operator’s cabin should be prevented by engaging the slew lock
and by lashing the bucket or the end of the dipper.
(v) Movement of the boom, dipper & bucket should be prevented by attaching lashings
directly to the bucket or dipper.
9.8.2 Dozer or tracked loader

When restraining a dozer or tracked loader:
(i) Forward movement should be prevented by butting the bucket or blade against
the trailer gooseneck or stop brackets on top of the goose neck (where weight
distribution allows) or by attaching two diagonal lashings (at 30 degrees to the
forward direction) between the rear lashing point(s) and the deck on each side.
(at 45 degrees to the rearward direction) between the front lashing point and the
deck on each side.
(iv) Vertical movement of blade/bucket/rippers may be prevented by applying lashings
over or directly to the blade, bucket or rippers.
167
9.8.3 Restraining a wheeled loader

When restraining a wheeled loader:
(i) Forward movement can be prevented by butting the bucket against the trailer
gooseneck or by diagonal lashings (at 30 degrees to the forward direction) onto
a towing bracket or lashing point.
(at 45 degrees to the rearward direction) onto a towing bracket or lashing point.
(iii) The lashings should be angled at no more than 25 degrees to the horizontal to
minimise bouncing.
(iv) Sideways movement will be prevented by the friction between the rubber tyres
and the deck and the diagonal lashings that prevent forward and rearward
movement.
(vi) Articulation of the machine should be prevented by engaging the locking
mechanism, and ensuring the controls have been operated with the engine off,
to relieve all hydraulic pressure.
(vii) Vertical movement of the bucket may be prevented by separate lashings.
(see Section C 3.3 for information on rubber tyre bouncing).
9.8.4 Restraining a grader

When restraining a grader:
(i) Forward movement should be prevented by butting the machine against the
trailer gooseneck or by diagonal lashings (at 30 degrees to the forward direction)
onto an axle, towing bracket or lashing points.
(ii) Rearward movement should be prevented by diagonal lashings (at 45 degrees
to the rearward direction) onto an axle, towing bracket or lashing points.
(iii) The lashings should be angled at no more than 25 degrees to the horizontal to
minimise bouncing.
and the deck and the diagonal lashings that prevent forward and rearward
movement.
(v) Articulation of the machine should be prevented by engaging the locking
mechanism, and ensuring the controls have been operated with the engine off,
to relieve all hydraulic pressure.
(vi) Movement of the blade may be prevented by lowering it onto timber dunnage
and applying separate lashings.
(see Section C 3.3 for information on rubber tyre bouncing).
168

9.8.5 Restraining a roller
When restraining a roller or compactor:
(i) Forward movement should be prevented by butting the machine frame against
the trailer gooseneck, the drop-frame or headboard, or by diagonal lashings (at
30 degrees to the forward direction) onto a towing bracket or lashing points.
(ii) Rearward movement should be prevented by the use of diagonal lashings (at 45
degrees to the rearward direction) onto a towing bracket or lashing points.
(iv) Articulation of the machine should be prevented by engaging the locking
mechanism and ensuring the controls have been operated with the engine off, to
relieve all hydraulic pressure.
(v) Where water ballast is used, it can be drained before transport to reduce weight
and make the roller easier to restrain.
9.8.6 Restraining a forklift

When restraining a forklift:
(i) The overall height should be checked so that it is below regulation limits. The
mast should be removed if necessary.
(ii) Forward movement should be prevented by butting the machine frame against
the trailer gooseneck or a headboard, or by diagonal lashings (at 30 degrees to
the forward direction) onto a towing bracket, lashing points or around the mast.
(iii) Rearward movement should be prevented by the use of diagonal lashings (at 45
degrees to the rearward direction) onto a towing bracket, lashing points, or around
the mast.
and the deck.
(v) Movement of steering and lifting gear should be prevented by engaging the locking
mechanisms. The forks should be lowered onto timber dunnage which must
itself be restrained on the deck.
169
9.8.7 Restraining caravans and small trailers

Caravans and small trailers can be transported on general freight vehicles provided
that they are adequately restrained and meet allowable length and overhang Regulations.
Caravans and trailers with rigid drawbars should be restrained at the end of the drawbar
and each side at the wheels or axles (see Figure E.49). They should be loaded, where
possible, facing rearwards, with the end of the drawbar slightly past the rear of the
deck.
The end of the drawbar should have a brightly coloured flag or piece of material attached
to the end to indicate its projection to other road users. Rear overhang limits may also
apply. (Also see page 42).
If the drawbar is not positioned over the rear of the deck, it should be lifted onto dunnage
or a specially fabricated trestle or cross-beam (not a ‘jockey’ wheel), so that the lashings
are angled downwards sufficiently to be effective.
Fig. E.49 RESTRAINING A CARAVAN
The axle(s) or wheel(s) should be restrained by two separate lashings positioned

diagonally in opposite directions on each side.
Trailers (including caravans) when transported over rough roads, can suffer from
excessive bouncing if not fitted with shock absorbers. In such cases the suspension
should be ‘blocked’ to prevent damage.
Where boat trailers carrying boats are transported, the methods outlined above should
be used. The restraint of the boat on the trailer should be checked to see if it is
adequate. The boat should have a strap over the stern, attaching it to the trailer. A
safety chain should be used in addition to the wire rope from the trailer’s boat winch to
the bow of the boat. If the boat is fitted with an outboard motor, its mounting to the stern
might not be designed to withstand the bumps and other road shocks encountered
during road transport. It could be necessary to restrain the motor separately or remove
it for transport.
170

A heavy load can fall off just as easily as a lightweight load. This is because the
same ‘g’ forces apply, no matter what the weight.
This tracked excavator slid forward, the boom entering the drivers cabin. Because
steel tracks slip easily on a steel deck, this machine should be restrained directly,
using correctly sized and angled chains (see pages 156-161).
171
This bulldozer was not restrained and slid sideways off the low-loader. Steel on steel
is low friction and therefore high risk.
These 26 drums are filled with ball bearings and weigh almost one tonne each. None
are restrained. Note that the drums overhang the coaming rails making it even easier
for them to fall off in a corner (see photo insert).
172

Some of these drums were unrestrained and others that were tied down with rope,
did not meet the minimum restraint requirements (see page 66).
The loading rack and its support rope will not restrain these rail wheels and axles.
173
12 steel billets weighing 24 tonnes in all, pierced the cab of this truck. Note that the
pipe loading rack (far right) was ineffective.
View from passenger's side.
174

Slippery bags caused this load to move. Such loads should be stabilised using rigid
sides or braced side gates.
The tarpaulin did not restrain this load. Unless specifically designed and tested for
the purpose, tarpaulins should not be used as the main load restraint system.
175
This load slipped, causing the truck to roll over. Slippery plastic wrapping makes it
difficult to adequately tie down the load without the use of high friction packing.
A load of sawn timber fell from a truck and hit this car
176

The two chains over the top of this load do not provide any tie-down on the top three
middle pipes. All pipes in the load should be restrained. (See Section E.4.7, page
135).
These 3 tonne pipes dislodged when the trailer mounted a gutter at a roundabout. The
chains over the top did not provide enough restraint for all pipes in the load. (Photo
courtesy Prime News Tamworth).
177
Take care when carrying loads with a high centre of mass, because they can greatly
reduce the vehicle’s stability. This can lead to roll-over at relatively low cornering speeds.
(Photos courtesy Mick Simpson, Wales Truck Repairs).
178

The load of large paper reels on this truck was restrained only by a tarpaulin. This
does not provide adequate tie-down. The truck deck didn’t have a raised coaming,
which could provide sideways restraint (see inset photo).
This load of pallets was restrained only by a tarpaulin, when the truck was stopped
at an inspection station. The driver attempted to restrain the load properly using rope
(see photo insert) but this also was inadequate. (See page 66). Load Restraint Guide 179
(
Every bag on these pallets cannot be restrained by a single strap. If tie-down is

used, the pallet should be unitised using wrapping or strapping, otherwise an
individual bag could dislodge (see inset photo).
Every bag and every pallet must be restrained. If the vehicle does not have sufficient
or suitable restraint equipment, the load should not be carried.
180
These smooth coated pipes were not adequately restrained and

penetrated the driver’s cabin. The front loading rack did not stop the
pipes. (Photo courtesy Mick Simpson, Wales Truck Repairs).
181
Remember to lock rotating or movable parts on equipment and relieve any hydraulic
pressure before transport. In this case the driver’s operating cab on this rubber tyred
crane was not locked. On a slight bend the cabin turned around and the driver of the
truck could not control the imbalance. The crane hit a power pole and the driver was
trapped inside the cabin of the truck because of the fallen power lines. The possibility
of being electrocuted is an unusual outcome for poor load restraint. (Photos courtesy
South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service).
182
Section F- Calculating Restraint Requirements
PART 2 - Engineers and Designers

PART 2
for
Engineers and Designers
183
184

SECTION F
Calculating Restraint Requirements
CONTENTS
1 PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 186

2 METHODS OF LOAD RESTRAINT 187
3 DESIGN FOR TIE-DOWN 187
3.1 Friction Force ---------------------------------------------------- 187
3.2 Friction Coefficient ---------------------------------------------- 188
3.3 Lashing Angles -------------------------------------------------- 189
3.4 Lashing Pre-tension -------------------------------------------- 190
3.5 How Many Lashings? ------------------------------------------ 191
- Using Tie-down Load Tables
- By Calculation
- Tensioning by Load Shift
4 DESIGN FOR CONTAINING OR BLOCKING 199
5 DESIGN FOR UNITISING 200
6 DESIGN FOR DIRECT ATTACHMENT 200
6.1 Lashing Angles ------------------------------------------------ 201
6.2 Pre-tensioned Direct Lashings ----------------------------- 203
6.3 What Strength Chains? -------------------------------------- 203
- Using Load Tables
6.4 What Strength Chains? -------------------------------------- 206
- By Calculation
7 DESIGN FOR COMBINED TIE-DOWN AND DIRECT
RESTRAINT 206
185
The following contains specialised information useful to engineers and designers for
the design and selection of load restraint systems.
1 PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
Loads must be restrained to prevent unacceptable movement during all expected
conditions of operation. The load restraint system must, therefore, satisfy the following
requirements:
(i) The load should not become dislodged from the vehicle.
(ii) Any load movement should be limited, such that in all cases where movement
occurs, the vehicle’s stability and weight distribution cannot be adversely affected
and the load cannot become dislodged from the vehicle.
Loads that are permitted to move relative to the vehicle include loads that are
effectively contained within the sides or enclosure of the vehicle body such as:
(a) Loads which are restrained from moving horizontally (limited vertical
movement is permissible);
(b) Very lightweight objects or loose bulk loads (limited horizontal and vertical
movement is permissible);
(c) Bulk liquids (limited liquid movement is permissible);
To achieve this, the load restraint system must be capable of withstanding the forces
that would result if the laden vehicle were subjected to each of the following separately:
0.8 ‘g’ deceleration in a forward direction,
0.5 ‘g’ deceleration in a rearward direction,
0.5 ‘g’ acceleration in a lateral direction,
and to 0.2 ‘g’ acceleration relative to the load in a vertical direction.
Note: ‘g’ (the acceleration due to gravity), is equal to 9.81 metres/sec/sec for
the purpose of these standards.
186

2 METHODS OF LOAD RESTRAINT
When selecting and calculating the strength of various restraint systems for loads that
are contained or secured on the vehicle, consideration should be given to each of the
following load restraint methods:
(i) tie-down to clamp the load against the body structure;
(ii) containing the load within the body structure;
(iii) blocking the load against a body structure or attachment; and
(iv) attaching the load directly to the body structure.
3 DESIGN FOR TIE-DOWN METHOD

Tie-down loads are restrained by friction between the load and the vehicle. Friction
can also restrain items of load in contact with other items of load.
The friction is a result of the weight of the load and the extra clamping force applied by
the lashings.
3.1 Friction Force

The friction force (F) can be calculated by multiplying the friction coefficient (µ) by the
normal force (N) between the load and deck or any other surface the load sits on (see
Figure F.1):
Fig. F.1 FRICTION FORMULA
The normal force N is the weight (NW) of the load plus the tie-down force (NL) from the
combined vertical components of the lashing tensions.
N = NW + NL
NL is dependent on the lashing angle(s) and the lashing tension(s) and is equal to the
sum of all of the lashing tensions on each side of the load, multiplied by the angle effect
E (see Figure F.3).
187
3.2 Friction Coefficient

The friction coefficient (friction factor) is used to compare the load restraint friction
force between two surfaces. The static friction coefficient applies before movement
begins and the dynamic friction coefficient applies once movement occurs. Note that
the dynamic friction coefficient is often 20% to 30% less than the static friction coefficient
although it can sometimes be more than 30%. The static friction coefficient can be
measured by two methods. These are a tilt test and a horizontal push/pull test, which
should give the same result.
The tilt method involves tilting the deck with the load on it and measuring the angle of
tilt when the load just begins to move. The friction coefficient is the tangent of the
angle of tilt ( ) to the horizontal.
µ = tan
The push/pull test involves pushing or pulling the load on a horizontal deck and
measuring the friction force (F) required to start the load moving. The friction coefficient
is the ratio of the friction force to the weight of the load (NW).
µ = F ÷ NW
Where the design of a restraint system relies on the weight of the load plus lashing
pre-tension, the static friction coefficient should be used. Where the design relies on
the weight of the load plus tensioning by load shift (see Section F 3.7) the dynamic
friction coefficient must be used. Some typical static friction coefficients are listed in
Table F.1.
TYPICAL STATIC FRICTION COEFFICIENTS
Load surfaces Friction coefficient

Wet or greasy steel on steel 0.01 – 0.1
Smooth steel on smooth steel 0.1 – 0.2
Smooth steel on rusty steel 0.2 – 0.4
Smooth steel on timber 0.3 – 0.4
Smooth steel on conveyor belt 0.3 – 0.4
Smooth steel on rubber load mat 0.6 – 0.7
Rusty steel on rusty steel 0.4 – 0.7
Rusty steel on timber 0.6 – 0.7
Table F.1
These figures are a guide and should not be used for the design of a load restraint
system. Where accurate information is not available, testing of the load should be
performed or a conservative value chosen. The tests should take into account all
possible combinations of surface conditions that might be encountered such as, wet,
dry or greasy.
188

3.3 Lashing Angles
If a tie-down lashing is not vertical between the load and the tie point, its effectiveness
is reduced below 100% (see Figure F.2). This is called the tie-down ‘angle effect’ (E).
Fig. F.2 TIE-DOWN ANGLE EFFECT
The angle effect can be calculated by dividing the height of the load by the length of the
lashing between the load and the tie point on the vehicle (see Figure F.3). The angle
effect is the sine of the lashing angle ( ) relative to the horizontal (E = sin ).
Fig. F.3 CALCULATING THE TIE-DOWN ANGLE EFFECT (E)
The tie-down force from each lashing is the sum of the lashing tension on each side of
the load, multiplied by the angle effect.
189
3.4 Lashing Pre-tension

The pre-tension is the force in the lashing provided by a mechanical tensioner or a
knot.
To maintain the friction force during normal driving, the load must always remain in
contact with the deck during road vibration and over bumps. To achieve this, the tie-
down lashings must be pre-tensioned to provide a minimum clamping force of 20% of
the weight of the load.
Average lashing pre-tensions are shown in Table F.2. Note that the figures shown in
the table are operator and equipment dependent. The pre-tension on one side of a load
is normally greater than the pre-tension on the other side unless the tensioner is
positioned on top of the load. The differences of pretension caused by friction between
the lashing and the load can be in the ratio of 4:1. In some circumstances, it is advisable
to establish the pre-tension that can be achieved by the equipment, and by each operator,
using in-line load indicators.
AVERAGE PRE-TENSION
(push up)
(pull down)
Chain 7mm & Dog 750 kg
Table F.2 (Also appears in Section K – Tables)
Where 75 and 100 mm webbing straps are used, their tensioners may not achieve as
much pre-tension as the 50 mm tensioners, even though their lashing capacity is
greater. The larger tensioners are sometimes designed for different purposes. Check
their rating with the manufacturer.
The pre-tension achieved with chain tensioners is approximately the same for 7 mm,
8 mm, 10 mm and 13 mm chains.
190

3.5 How Many Lashings? - Using Tie-down Load Tables
The following load tables can be used to determine the maximum weight that can be
restrained by each lashing. The tables include loads with or without blocking in front,
on medium friction (µ = 0.4) and high friction (µ = 0.6) surfaces. They take into
account the required minimum clamping force of 20% of the weight of the load.
If the tie-down provides the required 0.5 ‘g’ sideways and rearward restraint it will also
provide a 0.5 ‘g’ forward restraint. The tables have also been compiled on the assumption
that the blocking has the capacity to provide the additional 0.3 ‘g’ forward restraint to
meet the 0.8 ‘g’ forward restraint requirement.
To find the number of lashings required, divide the total weight of the load by the weight
that each lashing can restrain.
MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 10 OR 12 mm ROPE CAN RESTRAIN

(USING SINGLE HITCH)
FRONT OF LOAD NO YES

BLOCKED?
HOW MUCH MEDIUM HIGH MEDIUM HIGH

FRICTION? µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6 µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6
(Smooth Steel on (Rubber Load Mat) (Smooth Steel on (Rubber Load Mat)
Timber) Timber)
Minimum average rope

tension 50 kg.
ROPE ANGLE
ANGLE EFFECT (E)
90° 1.0 100 kg 300 kg 400 kg 500 kg

approx.
60° to 90° 0.85 to 1.0 85 kg 255 kg 340 kg 425 kg
approx.
45° to 60° 0.70 to 0.84 70 kg 210 kg 280 kg 350 kg
approx.
30° to 45° 0.50 to 0.69 50 kg 150 kg 200 kg 250 kg
approx.
15° to 30° 0.25 to 0.49 25 kg 75 kg 100 kg 125 kg
191

(USING DOUBLE HITCH)

BLOCKED?

FRICTION? µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6 µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6
Timber) Timber)

tension 100 kg.
ROPE ANGLE
ANGLE EFFECT (E)
90° 1.0 200 kg 600 kg 800 kg 1000 kg

approx.
60° to 90° 0.85 to 1.0 170 kg 510 kg 680 kg 850 kg
approx.
45° to 60° 0.70 to 0.84 140 kg 420 kg 560 kg 700 kg
approx.
30° to 45° 0.50 to 0.69 100 kg 300 kg 400 kg 500 kg
approx.
15° to 30° 0.25 to 0.49 50 kg 150 kg 200 kg 250 kg
192

MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 50 mm WEBBING STRAP CAN RESTRAIN

BLOCKED?

FRICTION? µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6 µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6
Timber) Timber)
Minimum average strap

tension 300 kg.
STRAP ANGLE
ANGLE EFFECT (E)
90° 1.0 600 kg 1800 kg 2400 kg 3000 kg

approx.
60° to 90° 0.85 to 1.0 510 kg 1530 kg 2040 kg 2550 kg
approx.
45° to 60° 0.70 to 0.84 420 kg 1260 kg 1680 kg 2100 kg
approx.
30° to 45° 0.50 to 0.69 300 kg 900 kg 1200 kg 1500 kg
approx.
15° to 30° 0.25 to 0.49 150 kg 450 kg 600 kg 750 kg
Table F.5( (Also appears in Section K – Tables)
193
MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 8 mm CHAIN CAN RESTRAIN

BLOCKED?

FRICTION? µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6 µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6
Timber) Timber)
Minimum average chain

tension 750 kg.
CHAIN ANGLE
ANGLE EFFECT (E)
90° 1.0 1500 kg 4500kg 6000 kg 7500 kg

approx.
60° to 90° 0.85 to 1.0 1275 kg 3825 kg 5100 kg 6375 kg
approx.
45° to 60° 0.70 to 0.84 1050 kg 3150 kg 4200 kg 5250 kg
approx.
30° to 45° 0.50 to 0.69 750 kg 2250 kg 3000 kg 3750 kg
approx.
15° to 30° 0.25 to 0.49 375 kg 1125 kg 1500 kg 1875 kg
194

Example:
The following example shows how to find the number of lashings using the load tables
F.3, F.4, F.5, F.6:
"A vehicle is carrying an 8 tonne load. The load is blocked against a strong headboard
(minimum capacity 30% of the weight of the load). The load is supported on timber
dunnage that provides medium friction. The height of the load is 1.2 metres and the
length of the lashing between the top of the load and the tie point is 1.6 metres on each
side. How many ropes, webbing straps or chains are required?"
The angle effect (E), is 1.2 metres (H) divided by 1.6 (L) metres;
ie. the angle effect, E = 1.2 ÷ 1.6 = 0.75
Refer to the tables:

• The angle effect is 0.75, therefore the third row (0.70 to 0.84) applies.
• The friction is classed as medium and the load is blocked, therefore the third column
of weight applies.
• The maximum weight that can be restrained by each lashing can then be selected
(third row, third column).
To find the number of lashings required, divide the weight of the load by the weight
selected:
• A rope with a single hitch will restrain 280 kg. (Table F.3)
The number of ropes required is 8000 ÷ 280 = 29
• A rope with a double hitch will restrain 560 kg. (Table F.4)
The number of ropes required is 8000 ÷ 560 = 15
• A webbing strap will restrain 1680 kg. (Table F.5)
The number of straps required is 8000 ÷ 1680 = 5
• A chain will restrain 4200 kg. (Table F.6)
The number of chains required is 8000 ÷ 4200 = 2
195
3.6 How Many Lashings? - By Calculation.

The number of lashings in the above example (with a weight of 8000 kg and a friction
coefficient of 0.4) can be calculated using the actual lashing angle. This may result in
fewer lashings being required.
The load must be restrained to 0.8 'g' in the forward direction. As the front of the load
is blocked, the tie-down needs only to provide 0.5 'g' forward, sideways and rearward
restraint, if the blocking is capable of providing the additional 0.3 'g' forward restraint.
Therefore, the amount of tie-down restraint required is,
F = 0.5 'g' x NW = 0.5 x 8000 = 4000 kg.
The friction force FW from the weight of the load is,
FW = µ x NW = 0.4 x 8000 = 3200 kg.
The friction force FL required from the tie-down lashings is the difference between the
total restraint force required and the friction force from the weight of the load,
FL = F - FW = 4000 - 3200 = 800 kg.
The required tie-down force NL is calculated by dividing the friction force FL by the
friction factor µ,
NL = FL ÷ µ = 800 ÷ 0.4 = 2000 kg.
As the lashings are not vertical, the angle effect (E) must calculated,
E = H ÷ L = 1.2 ÷ 1.6 = 0.75.
The tie-down force from one lashing is calculated by multiplying twice the lashing pre-
tension (T), by the angle effect (E).
(Note: A factor of two is used because the lashing clamps on boths sides of the
load.)
In this example, tie-down force from one lashing,
2T x E = 2T x 0.75 = 1.5T.
To obtain the number of lashings (n) required, divide the required tie-down force N L by
the tie-down force from one lashing,
n = 2000 ÷ 1.5T = 1333 ÷ T.
196

Taking into account differences in tension on each side of the load, typical average tie-
down pre-tensions are:
• rope with a single hitch, 50 kg
• rope with a double hitch, 100 kg
• webbing strap, 300 kg
• chain. 750 kg
Therefore, the number of lashings are:

• rope with a single hitch, 1333 ÷ 50 = 27
• rope with a double hitch, 1333 ÷ 100 = 14
• webbing strap, 1333 ÷ 300 = 5
• chain. 1333 ÷ 750 = 2
It is now necessary to check that the tie-down lashing pre-tension provides a minimum
clamping force of 20% of the weight of the load.
The total tie-down force (NL) must be at least equal to 20% of the weight of the load
(NW),
NL ÷ NW = 2000 ÷ 8000 = 0.25 (or 25%),

which is greater than the 20% NW required.
197
3.7 How Many Lashings? - Tensioning By Load Shift

Specialised load restraint systems can be designed to incorporate load shift to increase
lashing tension. As the load shifts forward under heavy braking, the lashings stretch
and clamp the load harder against the deck thus increasing the friction force.
These systems must allow for very small forward load shifts only and must be capable
of absorbing the energy required to stop the moving load.
Sideways movement must be prevented to avoid degrading stability. Where the system
is restrained by tie-down in the sideways and rearwards directions, the required restraint
must be achieved using the clamping forces resulting only from the weight of the load
and the initial lashing pre-tension.
To allow the lashing to stretch under forward load shift, the lashing must be prevented
from slipping on the load by:
• attaching it to the load;
• passing it through the load;
• passing it in front of an obstruction or protrusion on the load; or
• providing sufficient friction between the load and lashing.
The forward load shift must be limited by controlling the amount of stretch in the lashings.
The lashings must therefore have a high stiffness or low stretch characteristic. Steel
chain and steel strapping can be suitable, whereas rope and webbing are much more
elastic, allowing too much load shift and should not be used unless part of a properly
designed load restraint system.
When multiple lashings are used, there is a possibility that one lashing might reach its
lashing capacity well before the rest and break during load shift. This could occur
because of many factors including, uneven slippage of the lashing on the load; uneven
pre-tension of the lashings; mixed sizes of lashings; a large number of lashings; and
uneven flexibility of both the vehicle and load. The system design must account for
these factors. As these systems are unpredictable by design, they must be validated
by physical testing to 0.8 'g' in the forward direction.
The friction force (F) can be calculated by multiplying the dynamic friction coefficient
(µD) by the force (N) between the load and deck. The force N is the weight of the load
plus the tie-down force.
The tie-down force from each lashing is the sum of the lashing tension on each side of
the load, multiplied by the angle effect. The tension in any lashing must not exceed the
manufacturers’ lashing capacity.
198

4 DESIGN FOR CONTAINING OR BLOCKING
When designing for containing (see Section J, page 247 for definition of Contained
Load and Section E, page 140 for more information) or blocking, if there is no tie-down
(ie indirect restraint) to resist the vertical 0.2 “g” nominated in the Performance
Standards, the effect of friction between the deck and the load and between layers of
load must be neglected in assessing restraint capacity. This is because when the
vehicle hits a bump, the resulting jolt can break the friction contact between the items
of load. Even a load resting on very high friction rubber load mat can “walk” to the low
side of the trailer during a journey, if it is not tied down.
The effect of a raised side coaming rail must be neglected when assessing restraint
capacity, if the load is not tied down as the load could jump over the coaming rail in a
bump.
When designing vehicle structures such as headboards, loading racks, barriers, curtain
sides, side gates and drop sides the following ‘loading cases’ should be taken into
account:
Stable single load restraint forces act at the lower edge of a free-standing structure
or are distributed over the height of the load with a fully
supported structure.
Unstable single load restraint forces are distributed unevenly over the height of the
load.
Stacked load restraint forces are distributed over the height of each item of
load
Point load restraint force acts at point of contact
Loose bulk load restraint forces are evenly distributed over the height of the
load
Impact load restraint forces could be very high (simulation or testing
required).
The stability of each item of load can be determined by reference to Section B.3, page
43.
A single load is a single item or a unitised number of items that are placed in a single
layer on the deck. Such unitised loads are, for example, pallets with the load wrapped
and strapped to the pallet or strapped packs such as bricks. Items stacked loosely on
a pallet cannot be considered a single load, no matter how much friction is between
them. They must be considered as separate loose single items.
A stacked load is a number of loose single items or unitised packs of items, stacked on
top of each other and includes pallets stacked two-high, loose cartons and many stretch
wrapped pallet loads.
Loose loads that cannot be stacked are considered as a loose bulk load.
199
To satisfy the Performance Standards the side restraint system must not only prevent
the load dislodging from the vehicle, it must not allow the load to shift in such a way that
makes the vehicle unstable.
Remember, the higher the centre of mass of the load, the greater is the effect of any
load shift on the stability of the vehicle. For example, if a relatively lightweight loose
bulk volume load with a centre of mass 1500 mm above the trailer deck shifts sideways
during a sudden swerve, bulging a side curtain outwards, the effect on the vehicle
stability could be much more severe than a single level of heavy pallets moving 50 mm
to 100 mm sideways.
The testing requirements for loads that are not tied down, are contained in Section I
(How to Certify a Load Restraint System).
5 DESIGN FOR UNITISING

Pallets and packs can be loaded against a headboard or supported by other load. The
integrity of a pallet or pack can be tested, as follows:
• restrain the pallet or pack in the same way that it would be transported;
• where the pallet or pack will be supported by a headboard or by other load to a
headboard, tilt the pallet or pack to 30 degrees (equivalent to a minimum horizontal
acceleration of 0.5 'g');
• where the pallet or pack will not be supported by a headboard or supported by other
load to a headboard, tilt the pallet or pack to 53 degrees (equivalent to a minimum
horizontal acceleration of 0.8 'g');
• if the packing arrangement or layers in the pallet or pack are not symmetrical when
viewed from above, rotate the pallet or pack 90 degrees and repeat the above tests.
The pallet or pack should not show any slippage or significant distortion during these
tests.
6 DESIGN FOR DIRECT ATTACHMENT

Where a load is directly attached to a vehicle, the following two cases should be
considered:
• The restraint system provides no additional clamping force to the vehicle.
The friction forces between the load and the deck should not be considered in this
case eg. shipping container twistlocks.
• The restraint system is pre-tensioned or angled to provide additional clamping
force to the vehicle.
200

When load movement produces increased tension in lashings which are angled
downward, additional clamping forces result. The friction forces between the load and
the deck can be added to the direct restraint forces eg. sideways restraint of steel
tracked equipment.
6.1 Lashing Angles

The angle of the lashing determines the tension that develops in the lashing to restrain
a load. The effectiveness of direct lashings (the angle effect E) can be calculated by
measuring the horizontal distance in the direction of restraint, from the tie point on the
load to the tie point on the vehicle and dividing it by the length of the lashing (see Figure
F.4).
Fig F.4 CALCULATING THE DIRECT LASHING 'ANGLE EFFECT'
201
As direct lashings become more vertical, they become less effective in providing
horizontal restraint (see Figure F.5).
Fig F.5 ANGLED DIRECT LASHINGS - HOW EFFECTIVE?
A recommended angle for direct lashings is a slope of 1 in 2 or approximately 25

degrees to the horizontal (see Figure F.6). The lashings will then have an effectiveness
of 90% (an angle effect of 0.9).
Fig F.6 RECOMMENDED ANGLE FOR DIRECT LASHINGS
202

6.2 Pre-tensioned Direct Lashings
Where a load is restrained by pre-tensioned direct lashings that act in opposite directions,
the amount of pre-tension in the lashings can reduce their capacity to restrain the load.
When the load is subjected to a force in one direction, the tension in the lashings
opposing the force is increased, whilst the tension in the opposite lashings is reduced.
This effect varies depending on the type, length, size or angle of the lashings.
If those lashings where tension has increased are stiffer than the opposite lashings,
the force in them will be greater than needed to restrain the load. This is because the
more elastic opposite lashings remain partly tensioned.
This effect is more likely to be experienced when different types of lashings such as
webbing and chain are used together. Lashings of equal elasticity should be used and
should be symmetrically placed to overcome this effect.
6.3 What Strength Chains? - Using Load Tables

The following load tables (see Tables F.7 and F.8) allow selection of the minimum size
of chain required when two chains are used to prevent movement in a particular direction.
The lashing capacity is listed for loads from 100 kg to 30 tonnes.
The required lashing capacity is greater when:
• restraining heavier loads
• restraining loads in the forward direction
• lashings are angled ineffectively (not opposite to direction of motion).
203
This table shows the minimum strength (lashing capacity) required for each of two
chains directly restraining forward movement.
MINIMUM LASHING CAPACITY - DIRECT RESTRAINT

FORWARDS (0.8W) USING TWO CHAINS
Mass of Load Minimum Lashing Capacity
(kilograms) E = 0.85 to 1.0 E = 0.70 to 0.84 E = 0.50 to 0.69
100 48 58 80
200 95 115 160
300 142 172 240
400 189 229 320
500 236 286 400
750 353 429 600
1000 471 572 800
1500 706 958 1200
2000 942 1143 1600
(tonnes)
3 1.5 1.8 2.4
4 1.9 2.3 3.2
5 2.4 2.9 4.0
6 2.9 3.5 4.8
7 3.3 4.0 5.6
8 3.8 4.6 6.4
9 4.3 5.2 7.2
10 4.8 5.8 8.0
11 5.2 6.3 8.8
12 5.7 6.9 9.6
13 6.2 7.5 10.4
14 6.6 8.0 11.2
15 7.1 8.6 12.0
16 7.6 9.2 12.8
17 8.0 9.8 13.6
18 8.5 10.3 14.4
19 9.0 10.9 15.2
20 9.5 11.5 16.0
21 9.9 12.0 16.8
22 10.4 12.6 17.6
23 10.9 13.2 18.4
24 11.3 13.8 19.2
25 11.8 14.3 20.0
26 12.3 14.9 20.8
27 12.8 15.5 21.6
28 13.2 16.0 22.4
29 13.7 16.6 23.2
30 14.2 17.2 24.0
204

This table shows the minimum strength (lashing capacity) required for each of two
chains directly restraining sideways or rearwards movement:

SIDEWAYS OR REARWARDS (0.5W) USING TWO CHAINS
100 30 36 50
200 59 72 100
300 89 108 150
400 118 143 200
500 148 179 250
750 221 268 375
1000 295 358 500
1500 442 536 750
2000 589 715 1000
(tonnes)
3 0.9 1.1 1.5
4 1.2 1.5 2.0
5 1.5 1.8 2.5
6 1.8 2.2 3.0
7 2.1 2.5 3.5
8 2.4 2.9 4.0
9 2.7 3.3 4.5
10 3.0 3.6 5.0
11 3.3 4.0 5.5
12 3.6 4.3 6.0
13 3.9 4.7 6.5
14 4.2 5.0 7.0
15 4.5 5.4 7.5
16 4.8 5.8 8.0
17 5.0 6.1 8.5
18 5.3 6.5 9.0
19 5.6 6.8 9.5
20 5.9 7.2 10.0
21 6.2 7.5 10.5
22 6.5 7.9 11.0
23 6.8 8.3 11.5
24 7.1 8.6 12.0
25 7.4 9.0 12.5
26 7.7 9.3 13.0
27 8.0 9.7 13.5
28 8.3 10.0 14.0
29 8.6 10.4 14.5
30 8.9 10.8 15.0
Table F.8 (Also appears in Section K - Tables)

205
Example:
The following example shows how to find the number of chains using the load tables:
“Find the minimum Transport Chain size that can be used to restrain an 8 tonne steel
wheeled roller on a steel deck (no friction) using two chains to prevent forward movement.
The length of chain (L1) between tie points is 2.0 metres. The distance between the tie
points (F1) measured along the vehicle is 1.5 metres (refer to Figure F.4)”.
The angle effect is 1.5 metres (F1) divided by 2.0 (L1) metres, i.e. E1 = 0.75
Refer to Table F.7 and note that as the angle effect is between 0.7 and 0.84, the
third column applies.
Read the lashing capacity in the centre column in the 'Mass of Load' 8 tonne row.
The minimum lashing capacity is 4.6 tonnes.
From Table C.4, or chain manufacturers’ specifications, select chains each with a
lashing capacity of at least 4.6 tonnes.
Therefore, the two chains must be at least either 10 mm Transport Chain using claw
hooks, or winged grab hooks or 13 mm Transport Chain using plain grab hooks.
6.4 What Strength Chains? - By Calculation

The strength of the chains in the above example (with a weight of 8 tonne) can be
calculated using the actual lashing angle. This may result in smaller size chains being
required.
The angle effect in the forward direction, E = 0.75.
The required forward restraint (0.8 'g') is, 0.8 x 8000 kg = 6400 kg
Each chain must provide, 6400 kg ÷ 2 = 3200 kg of restraint (on the assumption
that any tension in the opposite chains has slackened to zero).
Because of the angle effect the chain tension is;
3200 kg ÷ E = 3200 kg ÷ 0.75 = 4267 kg.
From Table C.4, or chain manufacturers’ specifications, select chains each with a
lashing capacity of at least 4.267 tonnes.
Therefore two 10 mm Transport Chains using either claw hooks, winged grab hooks or
grab hooks are the minimum required.
7 DESIGN FOR COMBINED TIE-DOWN AND DIRECT RESTRAINT

There are many load restraint systems where both tie-down and direct restraint can
combine to meet the performance standards.
The methods of calculation outlined above can be used for combined systems.
206

Cotton module tilt test in side direction.
Cotton module tilt test for rearward and forward direction.
207
Load testing large hay bales (2.4 m x 1.2 m x 1.2 m). In this case only one webbing
strap per row was used and the bales collapsed.
The solution was to use two straps

and steel edge protectors. This
allowed the bales to stay on the
fully tilted truck. Without the edge
protectors the webbing straps cut
through the bales. With the
protectors in place the straps could
be fully tensioned.
208
S e c t i o n G - Vehicle Structures

SECTION G
Vehicle Structures
CONTENTS
1 TIE-RAILS AND LOAD ANCHOR POINTS 211

2 WINCH TRACKS 211
3 CONTAINER TWIST LOCKS 212
4 HEADBOARDS, LOADING RACKS AND BARRIERS 212
5 CURTAIN SIDES, SIDE GATES AND DROP SIDES 212
6 STAKES, PINS, PEGS, POSTS AND STANCHIONS 213
7 CRADLES, CHOCKS, A-FRAMES AND TRESTLES 214
8 CONTAINMENT BODIES 216
9 TANKS AND TANKERS 216
10 LATCHES, LOCKS AND HINGES 217
11 LOADING EQUIPMENT 218
12 STORAGE OF EQUIPMENT 218
13 LOAD DISTRIBUTION 218
209
This Section contains general vehicle body design requirements to enable the appropriate
selection by manufacturers, suppliers and vehicle owners.
Vehicle structures considered in this Section include fixed and movable restraint
structures, and fixed anchor points for securing devices. Restraint structures include
tanks, tipping bodies, van bodies, sided bodies, headboards, bulkheads, coaming rails,
loading racks, gates, doors and side curtains. Anchor points include tie rails, tie-down
attachment points and twist locks.
The design requirements for special structures to prevent a load penetrating the vehicle
cabin in the event of an accident or the failure of any load restraint device, can exceed
the Performance Standards and are beyond the scope of this guide.
Section B ‘Arranging Loads on Vehicles’, and Section C ‘Restraining Loads on
Vehicles’ contain the requirements which should be taken into account when considering
vehicle suitability and the use of vehicle structures.
Section F ‘Calculating Restraint Requirements’, contains the methods of determining
the forces exerted on vehicle structures.
The National Code of Practice Heavy Vehicle Modifications (see Section J) contains
other requirements which should be taken into account when considering body and
anchor point attachments. (Vehicle Standards Bulletin No. 6).
All vehicle structures and their attachment to the vehicle chassis must be strong enough
to provide the load restraining forces.
The design of any supporting structure must take into account the torsional and bending
strength and stiffness of the vehicle structure. Any recommendations of the vehicle
manufacturer must be taken into account.
The mounting of anchor points should not weaken the vehicle chassis or body structure.
Drilling or welding of chassis flanges is not permitted without approval of the vehicle
manufacturer.
210

1 TIE-RAILS AND LOAD ANCHOR POINTS
Lashings can be attached to a vehicle at any point along a tie-rail or at fixed anchor
points such as lashing rings (see Page 233), hooks, tie-rail support points.
These attachment points should have a suitable rating for the intended operational use
of the vehicle and methods of load restraint to be used.
To withstand the restraint forces applied by lashings in normal circumstances, tie rails
and anchor points should be capable of providing adequate restraint in the direction of
any attached lashing.
The maximum restraint force for tie-down applications where load shift cannot occur is
the maximum pre-tension force exerted by the operator when tensioning the lashings.
Typical forces are listed in Table C.2 on page 65 of this guide.
The maximum restraint force for direct restraint applications (mobile equipment) and
tie-down applications where load shift can occur (tested and certified applications) is
the effective Lashing Capacity of the lashing (usually chain). For example: 8 mm
Transport chain has Lashing Capacity of 3.8 tonnes (some 4 tonnes) and its strength
is de-rated to 2.85 tonnes when passed around edges, coaming rails etc.
Lashing points on vehicles carried on Roll On-Roll Off vessels and on rail rollingstock
require specific ratings for the application.
See Section J for details of various standards that cover tie-rails and load anchor
points.
2 WINCH TRACKS
The design of winch tracks must take into account the magnitude and direction of the
lashing force, and spacing of the track supports.
The rated track capacity should be clearly and permanently marked on the vehicle.
3 CONTAINER TWIST LOCKS

Container twist locks must be compatible with the dimensional requirements of
AS/NZS 3711 series of standards for freight containers (see Section J).
Where the twist lock support structure is only designed for restraining empty containers
or other light loads, the maximum weight should be clearly marked on the vehicle.
Failure to mark the weight could have serious consequences if an accident occurred.
211
4 HEADBOARDS, LOADING RACKS AND BARRIERS

The use of headboards, loading racks and barriers can reduce the number of tie-down
lashings required for forward restraint.
If the load is tied down to 0.5’g’ in the forward, sideways and rearward direction, the
front structure can provide the additional 0.3’g’ required for forward restraint. In such
cases, the strength of the front structure does not need to be as great as that required
for an otherwise unrestrained load.
When designing headboards, loading racks and barriers, the ‘loading cases’ described
in Section F.4, page 199 ‘Design for containing or blocking’ should be taken into account.
The cantilevered structure of a headboard or movable barrier can be easily modified to
a supported structure by chaining each side of the headboard or barrier to the tie rail
support points. The use of a single long chain from tie-rail to tie-rail around the front of
the structure will absorb shock more effectively than two shorter chains. Details are
shown in Section C 4.4, page 73.
The chain should be kept below 30 degrees to the horizontal to maintain its effectiveness
and to minimise the vertical force at the chain support points. An 8 mm transport chain
can provide a total additional restraint of at least 6.5 tonnes angled at 30 degrees on
both sides.
5 CURTAIN SIDES, SIDE GATES AND DROP SIDES

When designing curtain sides, side gates and drop sides the ‘loading cases’ described
in Section F.4 page199 ‘Design for containing or blocking’ should be taken into account.
The amount of sideways deflection of any part of a curtain, gate or drop-side should be
limited to 100 mm for determining its load restraint capacity at 0.5 ‘g’ sideways.
Where vehicles with curtain sides are designed for load restraint purposes (with or
without gates), the system should be tested and certified in accordance with
requirements set out in Section F - Calculating Restraint Requirements and Section I
- How to Certify a Load Restraint System.
Side gates and loading racks that depend on interlinking with adjacent gates for their
strength and stability, should be positively locked or tied into position without relying on
tie-down lashings or tarpaulins to prevent them from lifting or bowing.
Side gates supported sideways at the top by curtains should be positively locked in
position to prevent them dislodging from the bottom coaming rail supports over bumps
or rough roads.
212

Where side gates and drop-sides are designed to restrain a load without any tie-down,
the top of each side should be well above the base of any item of load to be carried.
This is to ensure that loads do not become dislodged on bumps or rough roads, especially
when cornering.
When evaluating the suitability of sides for a particular application, the manufacturer,
supplier and vehicle owner should take into account the following factors:
• The height of the load (whether the load is on the deck or stacked).
• The type of load (whether the load is on wheels, ‘bouncy’, or likely to be affected by
air flow).
• The type of suspension (vehicles with stiff suspensions will require higher gates or
sides, especially when travelling near empty).
• The rear overhang of the body (long rear overhangs can magnify the effect of bumps
and rough roads).
6 STAKES, PINS, PEGS, POSTS AND STANCHIONS

Vehicles regularly carrying loose plate, sheets, boards, rods, pipes and other similar
items should be fitted with pockets along the sides and across the deck in various
positions so that stakes, pins, pegs, posts or stanchions can be fitted where required
to provide direct restraint.
Any removable stake, pin, peg, post and stanchion must be designed to prevent it
from becoming dislodged during a journey by adequate engagement length in its socket
or by the use of a positive locking method.
Separate detachable frames which are adjustable in position with provision for stakes,
pins, pegs, posts or stanchions can be used as an alternative to fixed pockets on the
vehicle.
213
7 CRADLES, CHOCKS, A-FRAMES AND TRESTLES

Cradles should be designed to prevent cylindrical objects from rolling.
If the cradle prevents the cylinder from rolling, fewer lashings may be required or lower
strength lashings may be used.
Cylindrical items will not roll if the ratio of the distance between the cradle/cylinder
contact lines (W) to the diameter of the cylinder (D) is equal to, or greater than 5:8
which is equivalent to a wedge angle of 39 degrees (see Figure G.1).
Thus, to prevent rolling:
Fig G.1 CRADLE DIMENSIONS
Where cradles, chocks, A-frames and trestles are fabricated from metal, designers
should take into account the low friction between them and metal decks (and also, the
low friction between the load and the metal frame). Provision should be made for
capping or facing with timber or rubber to increase the friction.
Cradles can be designed to allow them to be adjusted for different sized coils, to prevent
any tendency to roll and therefore to reduce the forces in the lashings. The cradles
should be adjusted so the coil rests on the edges and not the bottom of the cradle.
Where tie-down lashings are used to restrain loaded cradles, A-frames or trestles, the
direction of the lashings should be as vertical as possible between the cradle or trestle
contact point and vehicle tie point (see Figure G.2).
Where direct lashings are used to restrain loaded cradles, A-frames or trestles, the
direction of the lashings should be opposite to the expected direction of movement
which would result if the load were unrestrained. For example, sideways facing chains
attached to a trestle have no load restraint capacity in the forward direction.
214
Fig G.2 A-FRAME RESTRAINT
215
Chocks should have high friction contact surfaces and provision for attaching lashings
to secure the chocks onto the vehicle. Sandbags and sawdust bags are only suitable
for use as chocks during loading and unloading, but not during transport, because
they can deform and move under road-induced vibration. When carried, these bags
must be restrained on the vehicle as they are also an item of load.
8 CONTAINMENT BODIES
Bodies designed to contain loose bulk loads or general freight without the need for
securing devices must not allow the load to become dislodged. Any movement of the
load must not reduce the stability of the vehicle.
Heavy individual loads are generally not suitable for restraint by containment unless
the restraining structure prevents all horizontal load movement.
Open bodies designed for loose bulk loads should be fitted with covers to prevent load
loss from the effects of air flow and rough roads. If the covers are fitted with fixed
tracks, winches or handles, they must not make the vehicle be overwidth or overlength.
9 TANKS AND TANKERS

Tanks and tankers can be designed for bulk liquids and finely divided solids including
powders.
Where tanks or tankers are required to travel partially full, baffles and compartments
should be fitted to prevent any movement of the contents that could cause the vehicle
to become unstable especially during cornering.
The load restraint design forces should take into account the dynamic nature of the
load eg. the effect of liquid surge in all directions.
All tanks should be designed so that the centre of mass of the laden vehicle is as low
as possible.
Loaded ISO tank containers should be transported on low trailers (see Figure G.3).
Fig. G.3 ISO TANK CONTAINER ON A ‘DROP - DECK’ TRAILER
216

The height of the centroid of the tank container cross-section at the tank half length
should fall within an isosceles triangle having a base length at ground level equal to the
overall width between the outside tyres of the main load-bearing axle groups and base
angles not exceeding 64 degrees. (See Section J AS/NZS 2809.1 Road Tank Vehicles
for Dangerous Goods - General Requirements).
This requirement will be met if the height (H) from the ground to the bottom of the
container corner casting, measured when fully laden, is no greater than 1100 mm.
Table G.1 contains measurements that give a stability angle of 64 degrees.
TANK HEIGHT FOR STABILITY
Width between the 2300 2400 2425 2450 2475 2500

outside of the outside
tyres (mm)
Maximum height of 2360 2460 2490 2510 2535 2560

tank centroid (mm)
Table G.1
Demountable tanks should be secured by twist locks or other positive locking devices.
Alternatively, lashings can be used, provided that both the tank and vehicle are equipped
with suitable anchor points. If direct lashings are used, each anchor point should be
positioned on the support structure so that the lashing angle is low (direct lashing
angle effect is high). If tie-down is used, the tank should be placed on timber or rubber
load mat and each anchor point should be positioned on the support structure so that
the tie-down lashing angle is high (tie-down lashing angle effect is high).
The Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail (see
Section J) contains construction requirements for tanks and tank vehicles carrying
dangerous goods.
10 LATCHES, LOCKS AND HINGES

Latches, locks, hinges and other attachments should be designed to prevent them
separating by road induced vibration and impact loads. These items can suffer fatigue
cracking if not properly designed. If failure occurs, the load can dislodge from the
vehicle. An unsecured swinging door or gate can cause severe injury and damage.
If doors, gates and drop sides are designed for travel in the open position, the vehicle
must meet the legal length and width limits when they are both open and closed. They
must be capable of being positively restrained when travelling so as to stop them
swinging out into the path of other road users.
217
11 LOADING EQUIPMENT
Where loading equipment such as side loaders and crane stabilising legs protrude
outside the vehicle for loading, it should be designed so that the vehicle cannot be
moved or an audible and visual indicator operates inside the cabin, if the equipment is
not retracted into its travel position.
12 STORAGE OF EQUIPMENT
Where loose restraint equipment, such as lashings, dunnage, chocks, sandbags,
stakes, blocks, beams and bars are not in use, special provision should be made for
securing or containing this loose material. Purpose-built bins or boxes should be fully
enclosed, or if open, should be deep enough to allow adequate height above the base
of any loose object to prevent it dislodging on bumps or rough roads.
13 LOAD DISTRIBUTION
To maintain safe steering performance, the weight on a single steer axle of a rigid
vehicle or prime mover should be at least 20% of the total vehicle weight over all axles.
For a twin-steer truck or prime mover, the total weight on the steer axles should be at
least 30% of the total vehicle weight over all axles.
To maintain vehicle stability, the weight on the rear axle(s) of a rigid vehicle or prime
mover should be at least 40% of the total vehicle weight over all axles.
To determine axle weight resulting from the position of a load, either weigh the vehicle
or refer to a load distribution graph.
A load distribution graph shows the maximum load that can be carried at each position
of the centre of mass of the load along the vehicle, without exceeding legal axle load
limits and without reducing the weight on the steer axle(s) below the safe limit. Graphs
should be obtained from the vehicle or body manufacturer or a vehicle engineer.
218

Figure G.4 is a load distribution graph for a typical three-axle rigid truck with an 8-
metre tray and having a tare weight of 9 tonnes. The front and rear legal axle load
limits are taken to be 6 tonnes and 16.5 tonnes respectively.
Fig G.4 TYPICAL LOAD DISTRIBUTION GRAPH
For example, to correctly position a load of 6 tonnes on the vehicle:

(i) find where the horizontal line through ‘6t’ on the graph crosses the unbroken
curved lines (the two points ‘Y’ and ‘Z’ on the graph);
(ii) using the top scale (0 8 m) determine the distance of each of these two
▲
points from the headboard, ie. 3 m and 6 m; and position the 6-tonne load with
its centre of mass anywhere between these two points.
Note: In this example the centre of mass of the maximum allowable load, 13.5 tonnes,
can be placed at only one position, ‘X’, about 4.1 metres along the tray.
Note also that loads above half the maximum load (6.75 tonnes) are limited to a narrow
range of positions along the tray.
Figure G.4 also shows the vehicle’s minimum front axle loading required for safe steering
(weight on steer axle at least 20% of the total of all axles), by showing a much reduced
weight which can be carried behind the rear axle group. The unbroken line between
the 5 metre and 8 metre positions shows the range of weights which can be carried
whilst maintaining safe steering. Those allowable weights (limited by safe steering
requirements) are much less than the weights that could be carried without overloading
the axles (which are shown by the broken line).
Using a load distribution graph, the vehicle can be marked with maximum weights at
different positions along the deck. This will assist drivers to avoid overloading when
positioning loads.
219
Plastic wrapping did not contain this load. The wrapping should not be relied upon
as a restraint system unless certified by the consignor as suitable for the purpose.
Tilting the load inwards on the truck will not provide the required amount of sideways
restraint. Additional restraint such as sides or gates is required. (Photo courtesy John
Brentnall).
220

A few ropes will not restrain these wool bales.
Chains can be used to secure freight Loads in skips or tippers must be

containers although in this case restrained if there is any possibility
where two chains are used, check the of the contents coming out.
anchor point strength first. 221
222
S e c t i o n H - Load Restraint Equipment

SECTION H
Load-Restraint Equipment
CONTENTS
1 SYNTHETIC ROPE 225

2 WEBBING ASSEMBLIES 226
3 CHAIN ASSEMBLIES 227
4 WIRE ROPE AND ATTACHMENTS 227
5 STRAPPING 228
6 LASHING TENSIONERS AND CONNECTORS 229
7 INTER-LAYER PACKING 229
8 DUNNAGE, BLOCKING TIMBER, CHOCKS,
AIR BAGS AND TYRES 230
8.1 Timber ------------------------------------------------------------ 230
8.2 Dunnage ---------------------------------------------------------- 230
8.3 Inflatable Dunnage (Air Bags) -------------------------------- 230
8.4 Tyres ------------------------------------------------------------- 230
223
This Section contains general design and selection information for load restraint
equipment. It is intended for equipment manufacturers and suppliers, and vehicle
owners and operators.
Load restraint equipment includes ropes, webbing, strapping, nets, chains and
associated fittings, and attachments such as hooks, clamps, turnbuckles, tensioners
and winches.
To avoid confusion with strength ratings assigned for lifting purposes, the term ‘Lashing
Capacity (LC)’ is used to define load restraint capacity in preference to any of the
following terms, viz. Maximum Working Load (MWL), Working Load Limit (WLL),
and Rated Assembly Strength (RAS).
The lashing capacity of load restraint equipment is defined in the relevant Australian
Standards.
Section B ‘Arranging Loads on Vehicles’ and Section C, ‘Restraining Loads on Vehicles’
contain the requirements which should be taken into account when considering the
suitability, serviceability and use of load restraint equipment.
Section F ‘Calculating Restraint Requirements’ contains the methods of selecting the
load restraint equipment based on strength requirements.
224

1 SYNTHETIC ROPE
The selection of the appropriate rope for restraining loads is very important because
there are a number of unsuitable ropes on the market, of unknown strength and quality
that are not intended to be used as transport lashings.
Only fibre ropes that comply with Australian Standard AS/NZS 4345 ‘Motor vehicles -
Cargo Restraint Systems - Transport Fibre Rope’ (see Section J) should be used.
Sisal and manila ropes do not comply with the above requirements and should not be
used for restraining loads on vehicles.
When assessing the serviceability of ropes in relation to the Australian Standard, they
must be examined at about every metre of their length, both externally and between the
strands.
If any of the following conditions exist, the rope must be replaced:
(i) Ropes weakened by 10% or more of their original minimum breaking strength
by wear or mechanical damage caused by excessive loading, knotting and
bending.
(ii) Ropes weakened by 10% or more of their original minimum breaking strength
by exposure to chemicals, including acid and alkaline solutions and organic
solvents. The chemicals weaken or soften the rope fibres, which can then be
easily rubbed or plucked off.
(iii) Ropes weakened by 10% or more of their original minimum breaking strength
by exposure to high temperatures.
(iv) Ropes weakened by 10% or more of their original minimum breaking strength
by prolonged exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet light.
This damage can be recognised by the hairy appearance of the fibres.
225
2 WEBBING ASSEMBLIES
Webbing assemblies with either attached or in-line ratchet winches should be
manufactured to comply with Australian Standard AS/NZS 4380, ‘Motor vehicles -
Cargo Restraint Systems - Transport Webbing & Components’ (see Section J).
When selecting webbing equipment it is important to ensure that the assembly
components have an adequate lashing capacity for the application.
Webbing assemblies include load rated webbing material with specified stitching and
sewing patterns, together with end fittings and tensioning devices.
When assessing the serviceability of webbing and attachments in relation to the
Australian Standard, if any of the following conditions exist, the webbing or attachment
must be replaced:
(i) Webbing weakened by 10% or more of its original minimum breaking strength,
by wear, damage, or stitching failure caused by excessive loading, knotting and
bending.
(ii) Webbing weakened by 10% or more of its original minimum breaking strength
by exposure to chemicals, including acid and alkaline solutions and organic
solvents.
(iii) Webbing weakened by 10% or more of its original minimum breaking strength
by exposure to high temperatures.
(iv) Webbing weakened by 10% or more of its original minimum breaking strength
by prolonged exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet light. This damage can be
recognised by the hairy appearance of the fibres.
(v) Webbing repaired in a manner not approved by the manufacturer.
(vi) Any attachments (tensioner, hook and keeper, etc.) weakened by 10% or more,
or, prevented from functioning by wear, damage or corrosion.
Note: Wear caused by chafing over rough surfaces causes a furry appearance on the
webbing, and may lead to broken load-bearing fibres.
Damage caused by cuts and abrasions, resulting in broken load-bearing fibres is often
localised to areas where the webbing contacts the load and coaming rails.
226

3 CHAIN ASSEMBLIES
The suitability of chain is determined by its size, strength, hardness and elongation.
Chains manufactured from low strength materials are heavier, bulkier and more prone
to damage and wear than higher tensile chain.
Chain assemblies should be manufactured to comply with Australian Standard AS/
NZS 4344, ‘Motor vehicles - Cargo Restraint Systems – Transport Webbing &
Components’ or AS 2321 ‘Short-link Chain for Lifting Purposes’, (see Section J).
Some chain tensioning systems, which can ‘kickback’ are dangerous and can cause
injury to the operator. Alternative tensioners are available.
When assessing the serviceability of chains and attachments in relation to the Australian
Standard, if any of the following conditions exist, the chain or attachment must be
replaced:
(i) Any link weakened by wear, damage or corrosion which reduces its diameter by
more than 10%.
(ii) Any bent, twisted, stretched or collapsed link.
(iii) Any link repaired by welding (except when approved by the original manufacturer)
or any unsuitable repair link or joined by a bolt or wire.
(iv) A knot in any portion of the chain.
(v) Any attachment (turnbuckle, load binder, grab hook, etc.) weakened or
prevented from functioning by wear, damage or corrosion.
Chains should be joined using a joining link rated with a rating at least equal to the
lashing capacity of the chain.
4 WIRE ROPE AND ATTACHMENTS

Steel wire rope with appropriate end fittings and tensioning winches can be used to
effectively secure certain loads. Its greater elasticity makes it more suitable than
chain for loads which settle during transport.
Australian Standard AS 3569 ‘Steel Wire Ropes’ (also see Section J) specifies
requirements for steel wire ropes for all purposes and also specifies materials,
manufacture, marking, packing and test requirements.
227
The manufacturers’ rating of wire rope manufactured in accordance with Australian

Standard AS 3569 ‘Steel Wire Ropes’, or other equivalent International Standard,
should be no greater than one-third of its specified minimum breaking strength.
When assessing the serviceability of wire ropes and attachments in relation to the
relevant Standards (see Section J), if any of the following conditions exist, the rope or
attachment must be replaced:
(i) Any rope length equivalent to 3 rope diameters containing more than 4 broken
wires.
(ii) Any rope length equivalent to 6 rope diameters containing more than 6 broken
wires.
(iii) Any rope length equivalent to 30 rope diameters containing more than 16 broken
wires.
(iv) Any rope where the diameter is reduced by more than 10% by abrasion.
(v) Any rope which has been crushed or flattened by more than 15% of its nominal
diameter.
(vi) Any rope which is significantly notched or kinked.
(vii) Any rope weakened by corrosion.
(viii) Any attachment (shackle, thimble, turnbuckle, hook, etc.) weakened or prevented
from functioning by wear, damage or corrosion.
5 STRAPPING
Strapping can be effectively used to restrain some loads. Steel strapping has a high-
tensile strength and can be highly pre-tensioned using manual or power operated
tensioners.
For example, 32 mm wide strapping with 0.8 mm minimum thickness has a minimum
breaking strength of 2.32 tonnes and can be readily tensioned to 650 kg force. The
typical joint strength of 1.6 tonnes is lower than the strapping strength and determines
the breaking strength of the lashing assembly.
Loads with low frictional surfaces require high clamping forces for effective restraint.
Steel strapping is therefore very suitable for unitising and lashing ‘heavy and slippery’
loads on container flats or bases.
The manufacturers’ rating of a steel strapping assembly for lashing purposes should
be no greater than half of its specified minimum breaking strength.
Further requirements for strapping are contained in Australian Standard AS 2400.13
‘Packaging - Tensional Strapping’ (see Section J).
228

6 LASHING TENSIONERS AND CONNECTORS
Webbing, chain and wire rope lashing assemblies all require mechanical tensioners
and connectors, which should be manufactured and marked to recognised standards
(see Section J). The marking will ensure traceability in case of product failure.
The lashing capacity of tensioners and connectors manufactured from steel should be
no greater than half of their specified minimum breaking strength.
Tensioners and connectors should exhibit no permanent deformation and should be
fully functional after being subjected to a force equal to 1.25 times their lashing capacity.
Tensioners should be designed so that the tension in the lashing cannot be inadvertently
released and so that any ‘kickback’ which could cause injury to the operator is minimised.
Powered winches can be utilised for many applications. They can offer continuous
automatic self-tensioning of the load during transport.
7 INTER-LAYER PACKING
Parts of a load can be separated by inter-layer packing. The inter-layer packing can
take various forms including protective wrapping, cardboard, carpet, ‘anti-slip’ mats
rubber matting, plywood and timber dunnage.
High friction inter-layer packing can increase friction between most surfaces and
significantly reduce the number of tie-down lashings required to restrain a load.
Some inter-layer packing such as plastic wrapping, can be very slippery. This can
significantly increase the number of tie-down lashings required.
Rubber matting can be natural or synthetic rubber plain sheet, or ‘honey-combed’ mat
made from recycled tyres (anti-slip load mat). Anti-slip mat is very effective in increasing
friction between loads and vehicles, especially when dry and hot. Conveyor belt material
is generally not suitable for use as an anti-slip mat because it is made for wear resistance
and can be too slippery.
The friction coefficient obtained with most loads on anti-slip rubber matting is usually
more than 0.6, but can be lower than 0.45 with slippery loads such as some coated
pipe.
229
8 DUNNAGE, BLOCKING TIMBER, CHOCKS, AIR BAGS AND TYRES
8.1 Timber
Timber used as dunnage, chocks, cradles or for blocking loads, should be carefully
specified for each application. It should be strong enough to withstand being split or
crushed by the load.
The timber selected should be relatively free of knots and splits.
Where steel strapping passes over sharp corners on the end of timber dunnage, these
corners should be rounded or bevelled to prevent the timber being crushed. If the
timber crushes the strapping will loosen.
8.2 Dunnage
The size selected should be based on the load and the maximum span between support
points.
Square dunnage may be adequate for some purposes however rectangular dunnage
is preferred, as long as the dunnage rests on a wide face (See Section B.4, page 46).
Where timber is used for dunnage, it is important to select the appropriate dunnage
timber (the variety of hardwood/softwood, dressed/rough sawn) to maximise the friction
between it, the load and the vehicle.
8.3 Inflatable Dunnage (Air Bags)

Inflatable air bags (disposable or reusable) are available in a wide variety of sizes and
can be used to effectively restrain and separate loads contained in van bodies and
shipping containers.
Air bags, also referred to as ‘pneumatic load control systems’ should be used strictly in
accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions.
8.4 Tyres
Rubber tyres can be used to separate contained loads. They can be used as wheel
chocks on vehicles and mobile equipment restrained with tie-down lashings. Rubber
tyres or parts of tyres can be used under heavy loads to increase friction for tie-down.
230

Typial damaged webbing straps (see Section H.2 for allowable wear).
The steel straps on this 15 tonne steel coil broke allowing the centre of the coil to spear
outwards, causing the trailer to roll over.
231
This photo is a close-up of a tyre wedged between a large steel tipping body (see below) and
the steel gooseneck of a trailer. The rubber tyre will act in a similar way to a rubber load mat
and considerably reduces the amount of tie-down and/or additional direct restraint needed.
232

The plastic wrapping on the palletised cartons failed and allowed the cartons to dislodge.
The ropes and cap tarpaulin are not suitable for restraining this load.
1 The red items are lugs and fittings for direct restraint. They are bolted or welded to the
load and the carrying vehicle. Some are designed to weld on a flat surface and others on
a 90 degree edge or corner.
2 The pink items are chain gauges. They are used to determine if a chain is stretched or
worn. They measure the link length, diameter and internal width. They are normally brand
specific. Check with the manufacturer of the chain you use.
3 The black items are rubber snubbing blocks. They act as shock absorbers for chains
to stop them breaking under impact loads. They usually consist of a circle of six chain 233
Loadrest
links set in rubber. Half a link protrudes from each end to connect the Restraint Guide
of the chain.
234
Section I- How to Certify a Load Restraint System
HOW TO CERTIFY A LOAD RESTRAINT SYSTEM

SECTION I
How to Certify a Load Restraint System
CONTENTS
1 WHO SHOULD DO THE DESIGN AND CHECKING? 236

2 SUGGESTED METHODS OF TESTING A 236
LOAD RESTRAINT SYSTEM
3 REPORTING 238
4 RECORDS 239
5 OTHER 239
6 LOADING AND LOAD RESTRAINT PROCEDURES 239
235
This section contains general information on the selection of a competent person to

design and/or certify a load restraint system, on the methods of testing and on the
production of appropriate documentation. The purpose of certifying a load restraint
system is to ensure that it meets the load restraint Performance Standards.
Documentation of loading and load restraint procedures will enable the consignor of
goods, the person in charge of loading, the vehicle owner, the driver and enforcement
personnel to verify whether a load complies with loading Regulations.
1 WHO SHOULD DO THE DESIGN AND CHECKING?

Only a person with appropriate skills and experience should assess and certify a load
restraint system. Normally a mechanical engineer with full membership of the Institute
of Engineers Australia should be chosen. The person should have an understanding of
vehicle design and detailed knowledge of load restraint issues. A person with these
qualifications and background should be accepted as an 'expert witness' to represent
a client in Court.
2 SUGGESTED METHODS OF TESTING A LOAD RESTRAINT

SYSTEM
Consider whether the type of vehicle(s) is appropriate to carry the load by consulting
with the manufacturer if necessary.
Consider whether the lashing(s) used is appropriate for the load and the type of operating
environment. For instance, will the elasticity of a lashing be an advantage or
disadvantage?
Care should be taken in testing of load restraint systems because of the possibility of
the sudden release of stored energy in the load, lashings or testing apparatus, if an
unexpected failure occurs.
2.1 Tie-down System

Where tie-down is used and the system is meant for a range of vehicles or for use in a
vehicle fleet, ensure that all vehicles will perform the same when loaded having regard
to the friction coefficient over the load space and the restraint attachment points. For
instance, steel, aluminum and timber decks might be fitted to different vehicles in a
fleet.
Where there could be differences of friction coefficient or weight due to packaging
variances or component specifications, ensure that the test load chosen is the worst
case. Any report or procedure should accurately describe the product or the load type.
If the load type is in layers or stacked, the performance of the stacking method in the
pack must be assessed as well as the performance of the load as a whole.
236

Friction testing should be performed on the unsecured load by either:
Tilting it until the load slips, or;
Pushing or pulling the load until the load slips.
All tie-down systems where lashings are tensioned by load shift (Section F.3.7 page
198), should be physically tested to evaluate the load restraint forces and the behaviour
of the load.
The initial physical tests should be vehicle braking tests.
Where braking tests cannot replicate 0.8 ‘g’ deceleration of the vehicle, the actual
forces must be calculated using the results of the actual tests as a basis for the
certification.
2.2 Direct Restraint System (Attachment, Blocking, Containment)

Direct load restraint systems can be assessed by calculation provided the calculations
take into account the true operating conditions and methods of attachment.
The integrity of a pack which is strapped or wrapped, or uses tie-down to unitise the
individual items, should be checked by restraining the base and tilting it to the equivalent
angles of the Performance Standards (also see Section F.5 page 200).
All direct restraint systems, where movement is permitted (see Section F.1, page 186)
Performance Standards, should be physically tested.
Where containment systems are used without any tie-down, the load(s) should be
placed on rollers or similar for testing, to negate the effect of friction under and between
parts of the load. In a containment system where there is no tie-down, it must be
assumed friction is zero as the load can leave the deck over bumps.
As coaming rails are not high enough to guarantee horizontal restraint of a load that is
not tied down, care must be taken to ensure they are not in contact with the load during
testing.
The following are several basic methods of testing direct restraint systems:
Horizontal Force - Forces could be applied to the restraint system to test its capacity,
by pushing against it with objects simulating the loads to be carried. The force can be
applied through mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic (cylinder or air-bag) methods.
Vertical Force - The vehicle or body could be tipped on its side and half (0.5 ‘g’) the
load placed on top of the side restraint system or tipped on end and 80% (0.8 ‘g’) of the
load placed on top of the front restraint system.
Tilting - The vehicle could be tilted sideways at 30° or endways at 53° and the load
placed on rollers or vibrated to simulate road shocks and vibration.
237
The following are ways of testing each type of load for sideways restraint:
(i) Stable and Unstable Single Loads

Vehicle horizontal, load on rollers pushed against side restraint structure.
Vehicle tilted at 30°, load on rollers.
(ii) Stacked Loads

Vehicle horizontal, load stacked using slippery separators, load pushed evenly against
side restraint structure, using appropriate force distribution system (hydraulics,
pneumatics, air bladder etc).
Vehicle on side, half load stacked on side restraint structure, load vibrated.
Vehicle tilted at 30°, load stacked using slippery separators, load vibrated.
(iii)Loose Bulk Loads

Vehicle horizontal, load pushed evenly against side restraint structure, using appropriate
force distribution system (rigid longitudinal panel, air bladder etc against load or side
restraint structure).
Vehicle on side, half load stacked on side restraint structure, load vibrated.
Vehicle tilted at 30°, load vibrated.
Similar test methods can be used for forward and rearward restraint with appropriate
0.8 ‘g’ and 0.5 ‘g’ force simulation and 53° and 30° tilt angles.
The deflection of the restraint system will limit the capacity for restraining many loads.
In the absence of any test data or guidelines on allowable load shift for the different
types of load, the maximum sideways deflection of the restraint system including side
curtains should be limited to 100 mm.
3 REPORTING
A report on a load restraint system should include:
(i) A description of the load type and any unitising system used.
(ii) A description of the restraint method used including the type of lashing, the size
(e.g. 50 mm wide, 8 mm diameter etc.) and any identifying features.
(iii) Where the system uses tie-down, the type of friction surfaces or friction material
the system has been designed to use and the design tension in the lashing(s).
(iv) The existence and specification of any interlayer packing.
(v) The method of stacking the load.
238

(vi) If the system is a direct method, the location of the attachment points should be
accurately described and where appropriate, accurate dimensions given.
(vii) A drawing showing the load type and the restraint system should be prepared.
This should be used by the vehicle driver to ensure that the load is restrained in
the same manner as tested.
(viii) A statement describing any maintenance schedule, safety precautions, tensioning
or retensioning procedures and other special requirements.
(ix) Relevant particulars of the person certifying the load restraint system.
4 RECORDS
Copies of all calculations, test results and equipment data should be retained for future
reference by all relevant parties.
5 OTHER
The registration authorities in each State and Territory usually have a list of qualified
persons who can carry out engineering work. Ensure that any person chosen is qualified
and has the experience to do the work.
Persons designing a load restraint system should also contact the authorities in each
State or Territory (Section J.4 page 253) to check if any special requirements apply
which are not in this guide including dangerous goods and occupational health and
safety.
6 LOADING AND LOAD RESTRAINT PROCEDURES

A loading and load restraint procedure document should be prepared for use by
consignors, loading staff, vehicle owners, operators, drivers, enforcement personnel
and unloading staff as appropriate.
The document should contain all information necessary to enable a vehicle to be loaded
and the load restrained to meet the Regulation performance standards.
239
Tilt testing a cotton bale packing arrangement.
Testing the friction by tilting the load and measuring the angle at the point it just slides.
The test is for both the friction between the bales and the bales and the deck.
240

Another method for testing friction by first weighing the load and then measuring the
force needed to just slide it on the deck of the truck. The forklift tractor provides the
pulling force and a load cell fitted to a chain between the tractor and hay bale reads the
pulling force.
Test of a restraint system for a tracked loader. (Photo courtesy Loadsafe Australia).
241
A good attempt, but these chains will not hold this 26 tonne roll of steel cable. A better
system, which is also easier, would be to use a properly designed cradle (see Section
G.7, page 214).
This photo is a view of the back of the driver’s cabin of a prime mover. It was damaged
by a tractor that was being carried on a low loader. When the prime mover braked, the
tractor rolled forward, up and over the ‘goose neck’ onto the cabin.
242

If a load is not restrained in the vertical direction to 20% of its weight, it must be
assumed that it can move. Friction cannot be taken into account. This photo shows a
test of a gate as part of a containment system. The bricks are on rollers so their full
force is applied to the gate. (Photo courtesy Loadsafe Australia).
This car hit a hay bale that

fell off a truck. Note that
the roof has been bent by
the impact. (Photo
courtesy Border Mail).
243
244
S e c t i o n J - Appendices
APPENDICES
SECTION J
Appendices
CONTENTS
1 GLOSSARY 246
2 LIST OF RELEVANT STANDARDS 250
3 LIST OF RELEVANT PUBLICATIONS 251
4 COMMONWEALTH, STATE AND TERRITORY
TRANSPORT REGULATORY AUTHORITIES 253
5 COMPETENT AUTHORITIES FOR ROAD
TRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS 254
245
APPENDICES
1 GLOSSARY
air bag An inflatable barrier placed between a section of the
load and the vehicle to stop any movement of the load.
It can be disposable or reusable.
aggregate trailer mass The total mass of a trailer carrying the maximum load
as specified by the trailer manufacturer (also called
ATM). It includes the mass on the drawbar as well as
the mass on the axles.
anchor point Fitting or attachment on a vehicle or load to secure
lashings.
baffles Barriers fitted crosswise and lengthwise inside tanks
to limit surging of fluids (or loads which behave like
fluids) during acceleration, braking and cornering.
baulking see blocking
billet A solid length of raw material normally steel, bronze or
aluminium.
bolster Rigid support base commonly used to support logs on
jinkers.
blocking Material, usually timber, placed between the load and
the vehicle structure, to prevent movement of the load
(also see dunnage.)
cap tarp A smaller tarpaulin fitted over the top of a load and
only part of the sides.
centre of mass The centre of balance of a load (also called ‘centre of
gravity’).
centroid The centre point of the cross-section of the tank.
cheater bar Usually a length of pipe placed over the operating lever
of a dog so as to extend its length. (The use of these
extensions is not approved by any manufacturer and
can be dangerous).
chocks Usually wedge shaped blocks used to prevent
movement of the load (also see wedges).
claw hook A chain hook in the shape of a claw.
coaming A frame border around the outside of a vehicle’s loading
deck.
246
APPENDICES
contained load A load prevented from dislodging from the vehicle by
the vehicle structure, gates, sides, racks, headboards,
stanchions etc.) or other parts of the load.
corner protectors Material used to protect lashings and the exposed edges
of loads and vehicles, and to allow lashings to slide
freely when being tensioned.
cradle A frame shaped to support a rounded object.
cribbing A method of supporting a load on a stable column of
packing of uniform thickness, stacked in pairs, with
alternate layers at 90 degrees to one another.
cross-member A support placed crosswise below the loading deck.
deck The load carrying surface of a vehicle.
dog A chain tensioner incorporating an over-centre locking
action with a fixed or pivoting lever.
dunnage Packing placed either between items of a load or
between the base of a load and the surface of the
vehicle’s loading deck (also see blocking). (The word
‘dunnage’ is derived from the era of sailing ships where
wood packing was used to raise the cargo above the
bilge water in the hold.)
flush deck A flat loading deck without a raised coaming.
gates Permanent or removable vertical frames used at the
front, sides and rear of a vehicle’s loading deck to
contain its load. The front gate is usually called a
loading rack or load rack.
gluts see dunnage.
Gross Combination Mass The value specified by the manufacturer of a vehicle
as being the sum of its gross vehicle mass plus the
maximum loaded mass of any trailer (or motor vehicle)
that it can tow in combination (also called GCM).
Gross Trailer Mass The mass on the axle(s) of a trailer when fully loaded
(also called GTM).
Gross Vehicle Mass The maximum mass of a motor vehicle when loaded,
as specified by its manufacturer (also called GVM).
headboard Usually a permanent vertical frame used at the front of
a vehicle’s loading deck to contain its load (also known
as a bulkhead).
247
APPENDICES
hungry board A rail or framework (permanent or removable) added

to the sides of a truck body to increase load capacity.
lashings Fastening devices, chains, cables, ropes or webbing
used to restrain loads.
lashing capacity (LC) The maximum force (in kilograms) that a lashing system
is designed to sustain in use.
load binder A device used for tensioning a lashing. (see truck
winch or dog).
load capacity The difference between the GVM or GTM of a vehicle
and its tare mass.
load mat A sheet of material used to increase friction and protect
the load (also called anti-slip mat or friction mat).
loading rack see gates.
pallet A portable platform or tray onto which loads are placed
for mechanical handling.
pantechnicon A vehicle with a body enclosed by solid rigid sides and
roof.
pawl A lever or lock which prevents reverse rotation on a
winch.
pockets Housings or slots fixed to the vehicle to locate gates,
stakes or loading pegs.
pre-tension The initial tension in a lashing after tensioning.
rope single hitch Refer Figure C.27
rope double hitch Refer Figure C.27
rope hooks Attachments fixed to the surrounds of the loading deck
for securing of tarpaulin and tie-down ropes.
rope rail see tie rail
shackle A metal coupling link closed by a bolt which can be
used for attaching chain fittings.
shoring bar Adjustable metal beam used to restrain or segregate
sections of load (also known as a shoring pole).
sling A length of hemp-core rope, webbing or steel-wire rope
with eyes formed at each end.
248
APPENDICES
spreader A transverse spar or frame used to support tarpaulins
and side gates.
stake An upright metal rod or section (also called a peg or
pin).
stanchion A large upright fixed to the side of a vehicle for sideways
restraint.
stillage A metal structure for containing individual items of load.
strut A rigid member which can support loads in the direction
of its length.
tare mass The unladen mass of a motor vehicle or trailer.
tarpaulin (tarp) A waterproof sheet used to cover and protect goods
from the weather.
tensioner A device used to tighten a lashing (winch, dog, hand
ratchet etc).
tie down Tie down is when the load is prevented from moving
by friction only.
tie rail A round rail which skirts the perimeter of the loading
deck below the coaming rail.
truck winch A device used for tensioning a lashing which is normally
placed under the coaming rail and may be fixed in
position using the tie-rail or slide on a track (also see
winch).
turnbuckle A tensioner consisting of a threaded sleeve and two
mating threaded ends.
twist lock A locking device with a rotating head which normally
engages a corner casting on the load.
wedge A piece of rigid material, thick at one end and tapering
to a thinner edge at the other (also see chocks).
winch A device for tensioning lashings via a rotating spool.
249
APPENDICES
2 LIST OF RELEVANT STANDARDS

A list of all standards applicable to the transport of dangerous goods can be found
in the Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods (Road and Rail).
Information on how to obtain the current versions of the following standards may be
available from:
National Sales Centre
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA www.standards.com.au
GPO Box 5420
Sydney NSW 2001
Phone (from anywhere in Australia): 1300 654 646
Fax (from anywhere in Australia): 1300 654 949
or from the nearest office of Standards Australia
Cargo Restraint Systems - Motor vehicles - Cargo Restraint AS/NZS 4344
Systems - Transport Chain and
Components
- Motor vehicles - Cargo Restraint AS/NZS 4380
Systems - Transport Webbing and
Components
- Motor vehicles - Cargo Restraint AS/NZS 4345
Systems - Transport Fibre Rope
Motor Vehicles - Motor vehicles - Anchorages and AS/NZS 4384
anchor points for securing internal
cargo
Fibre Ropes AS 4142 (Parts 1 & 2)
Short-link Chain for Lifting Purposes AS 2321
Steel Wire Ropes AS 3569
Shackles AS 2741
Shank Hooks and Large-eye Hooks - Maximum 25t AS 3777
Thimbles for Wire Rope AS 1138
Packaging - Tensional Strapping AS 2400.13
Load Anchorage Points for Heavy Vehicles NZS 5444
Pressure Vessels AS 1210
Storage & Handling of LP Gas AS/NZS 1596
Anhydrous Ammonia - Storage and Handling AS 2022
Road Tank Vehicles for Dangerous Goods - General AS 2809 (Parts 1-6)
Requirements
Freight Containers AS/NZS 3711
(Parts 1-9)
250
APPENDICES
Motor Vehicles - Cargo Barriers for Occupant AS/NZS 4034
Protection (Parts 1 & 2)
Lashing and Securing Arrangements on Road Vehicles for ISO 9367
Sea Transportation on Ro/Ro Ships (Parts 1 & 2)
Securing of Cargo on Road Vehicles, Lashing Points DIN EN 12640-2001
on Commercial Vehicles for Transportation, Minimum
Requirements and Testing
AS is Australian Standard
NZS is New Zealand Standard
ISO is International Organisation for Standardisation
DIN is German Institute for Standardisation
3 LIST OF RELEVANT LEGISLATION AND PUBLICATIONS

Information on the availability and contact details for the following national model
legislation/publications or their updates may be obtained from the NTC website:
www.ntc.gov.au However, please check local State and Territory laws when establishing
legal obligations as jurisdictions may have varied the national laws when implementing
them.
Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail
Australian Code for the Transport of Explosives by Road and Rail
These Codes are available from:
Canprint Information Services
PO Box 7456
CANBERRA MC ACT 2610
Tel: 1300 889 873
Fax: (02) 6293 8333
Road Transport Reform (Vehicles and Traffic) Act 1993

Road Transport Reform (Mass and Loading) Regulations 1995
Road Transport Reform (Oversize and Overmass Vehicles) Regulations 1995
Australian Vehicle Standards Rules 1999
The Australian Truck Drivers Manual
251
APPENDICES
Other publications might be available from State and Territory vehicle registration/
regulatory authorities, trucking, motoring and industry associations such as:
A Guide to Restraining Steel: VicRoads December 1998
A Guide to Restraining Concrete Panels: VicRoads August 1999
A Guide to Restraining Rolls and Reels: VicRoads August 1999
A Guide to Restraining Bales: VicRoads September 1999
A Guide to Restraining Loads on Light Vehicles: VicRoads November 1999
A Guide to Restraining Concrete Pipes: VicRoads January 2000
A Guide to Restraining Logs and Timber: VicRoads November 2003
Cotton Restraint Guide 1999: Cotton Australia
Tel. (02) 9360 8500
Website: www.cottonaustralia.com.au
A Guide to Dogging 1994, Catalogue No 2: WorkCover NSW
Safety in Forest Harvesting Operations Code of Practice 2002,
Catalogue No 1005: WorkCover NSW
Tel: 1300 799 003
National Code of Practice, Heavy Vehicle Modifications, Vehicle Standards
Bulletin No 6: Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services
Tel: (02) 6274 7111
252
APPENDICES
4 COMMONWEALTH, STATE AND TERRITORY TRANSPORT
REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
Commonwealth or National bodies:

Commonwealth Department of National Transport Commission
Transport and Regional Services Level 15, 628 Bourke Street
Transport Regulation Division MELBOURNE VIC 3000 AUSTRALIA
GPO Box 594 Tel: (03) 9236 5000 Fax: (03) 9642 8922
CANBERRA ACT 2601 Email: [email protected]
Tel: (02) 6274 7111 Fax: (02) 6274 7922 Website: www.ntc.gov.au
Website: www.dotars.gov.au
State & Territory bodies:

New South Wales: Australian Capital Territory:
NSW Roads and Traffic Authority
PO Box K198 Department of Urban Services
HAYMARKET NSW 1238 Road User Services
Tel:1300 137 302 Fax: (02) 9843 3821 Vehicle Inspection & Technical Unit
Email: [email protected] PO Box 582, Dickson ACT 2062
Website: www.rta.nsw.gov.au Tel: (02) 6207 7236 Fax: (02) 6207 6561
Website: www.act.gov.au
Queensland: Victoria:
Queensland Transport VicRoads
PO Box 673 60 Denmark St
FORTITUDE VALLEY QLD 4006 KEW VIC 3105
Tel: (07) 3253 4452 Fax: (07) 3253 4607 Tel: (03) 9854 2666 Fax: (03) 9853 0390
Email: [email protected] Website: www.vicroads.vic.gov.au
Website: www.transport.qld.gov.au
South Australia: Northern Territory:

Transport SA Department of Infrastructure, Planning &
PO Box 1 Environment
WALKERVILLE SA 5081 Vehicle Compliance
Tel: 1300 656 243 GPO Box 530
Email: [email protected] DARWI N NT 0801
Website: www.transport.sa.gov.au Tel: (08) 8999 3163 Fax: (08) 8999 3101
Website: www.nt.gov.au/ipe/dtw/
Western Australia: Tasmania:

Department for Planning & Infrastructure Department of Infrastructure, Energy & Resources
Vehicle Safety Inquiry Service
21 Murray Road, South GPO Box 1002K
WELSHPOOL WA 6106 Hobart TAS 7001
Tel: (08) 9216 8000 Fax: (08) 9351 1699 Tel: (03) 6233 5201 Fax: (03) 6233 5210
Website: www.dpi.wa.gov.au Website: www.transport.tas.gov.au
253
APPENDICES
5 COMPETENT AUTHORITIES FOR ROAD

TRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS
Information on the transport of Dangerous Goods and details of the Competent Authorities
can be obtained from the website: http://www.dotrs.gov.au/transreg/str_dgoodsum.htm
State & Territory bodies:

New South Wales: Australian Capital Territory:
(Labelling & Classification) Chief Inspector of Dangerous Goods
State Coordinator Dangerous Goods Unit
Compliance Coordination Team ACT WorkCover
WorkCover NSW PO Box 224
Level 3, 92-100 Donnison Street CIVIC SQUARE ACT 2608
GOSFORD NSW 2250 Tel: (02) 6207 6355 Fax: (02) 6207 7249
Tel: (02) 4321 5191 Fax: (02) 4325 4736
(All other matters) Victoria:

Manager, Dangerous Goods
The Manager, Dangerous Goods Unit
Department of Environment and Conservation
Victorian WorkCover Authority
59-61 Goulburn Street
Level 22, 222 Exhibition Street
Sydney NSW 2000
MELBOURNE VIC 3000
Tel: (02) 9995 5412 Fax: (02) 9995 5918
Tel: (03) 9641 1551 Fax: (03) 9641 1552
Queensland: Northern Territory:

Director-General Chief Inspector of Dangerous Goods
Queensland Transport Department of Management and Business
Dangerous Goods Unit PO Box 4160
PO Box 673 DARWIN NT 0801
FORTITUDE VALLEY QLD 4006 Tel: (08) 8999 5010 Fax: (08) 8999 5141
Tel: (07) 3253 4035 Fax: (07) 3253 4453
South Australia: Tasmania:

Manager, Dangerous Goods Workplace Services The Delegate of the Competent Authority
Department of Administrative and Information Department of Infrastructure, Energy and
Services Resources
GPO Box 465 Workplace Standards Tasmania
ADELAIDE SA 5001 PO Box 56
Tel: (08) 8303 0435 Fax: (08) 8303 0444 ROSNY PARK TASMANIA 7018
Tel: local calls 1300 366 322
Western Australia: Tel: Interstate calls (03) 6233 7657
Fax: (03) 6233 8338
Chief Inspector Dangerous Goods Safety
Department of Industry and Resources
100 Plain Street
EAST PERTH WA 6004
Tel: (08) 9222 3595 Fax: (08) 9325 2280
254
APPENDICES
(See below).
Concrete panels moved forward under braking in city traffic killing the driver.
A $160,000 fine was awarded against the company that owned the truck.
255
APPENDICES
This load of watermelons would have been better restrained by containing it, rather
than trying to tie it down.
Skips and bins must be restrained on the vehicle. Care must be taken when carrying
high centre of mass loads to avoid roll-over.
256
S e c t i o n K - Tables
TABLES
SECTION K
Tables
CONTENTS
1 C.3 MAXIMUM WEIGHT RESTRAINED BY ONE 258

LASHING
2 C.4 TYPICAL LASHING CAPACITY 259
3 F.2 AVERAGE PRE-TENSION 260
4 F.3 MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 10 OR 12 mm ROPE 261
CAN RESTRAIN (USING SINGLE HITCH)
5 F.4 MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 10 OR 12 mm ROPE 262
CAN RESTRAIN (USING DOUBLE HITCH)
6 F.5 MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 50 mm WEBBING 263
STRAP CAN RESTRAIN
7 F.6 MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 8 mm CHAIN 264
CAN RESTRAIN
8 F.7 MINIMUM LASHING CAPACITY – DIRECT 265
RESTRAINT FORWARDS (0.8W) USING
TWO CHAINS
9 F.8 MINIMUM LASHING CAPACITY – DIRECT 266
RESTRAINT SIDEWAYS OR REARWARDS
(0.5W) USING TWO CHAINS
257
TABLES
1 Table C.3
MAXIMUM WEIGHT RESTRAINED BY ONE LASHING

(with no load shift)
FRONT OF LOAD BLOCKED? NO YES
HOW MUCH FRICTION? MEDIUM HIGH MEDIUM HIGH

(Smooth Steel on (Rubber Load (Smooth Steel on (Rubber Load
Timber) µ = 0.4 Mat) µ = 0.6 Timber) µ = 0.4 Mat) µ = 0.6
Lashing
angle 60°
or more
to horizontal
ROPE - Single Hitch 85 kg 255 kg 340 kg 425 kg

ROPE - Double Hitch 170 kg 510 kg 680 kg 850 kg

WEBBING STRAP 510 kg 1530 kg 2040 kg 2550 kg

CHAIN 1275 kg 3825 kg 5100 kg 6375 kg

(See Figure C.27 on page 81 for single and double hitch)
258
TABLES
2 Table C.4
TYPICAL LASHING CAPACITY
Lashing Lashing Capacity (LC)
12 mm synthetic (silver) rope 300 kg
25 mm webbing 250 kg
35 mm webbing 1.0 tonne
50 mm webbing 2.0 tonnes
chain* with claw hooks or with grab hooks

‘winged’ grab hooks or edge contact
7.3 mm transport chain 3.0 tonnes 2.3 tonnes
* Note: Different hooks have different lashing capacities and chains that pass over
sharp edges such as coaming rails have reduced lashing capacity (see Section C 6.5).
** Note: Grade ‘T’ lifting chain is also referred to as Grade 80 or ‘Herc-alloy’.
259
TABLES
3 Table F.2
AVERAGE PRE-TENSION
(push up)
(pull down)
Chain 7 mm & Dog 750 kg
Note 1: some 75 and 100 mm strap tensioners may not achieve 300 kg average pre-
tension even though their lashing capacity is greater. Check their rating with the
manufacturer.
Note 2: the pre-tension achieved with chain tensioners is approximately the same for
7 mm, 8 mm, 10 mm and 13 mm chains.
260
TABLES
4 Table F.3

(USING SINGLE HITCH)

BLOCKED?

FRICTION? µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6 µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6
Timber) Timber)

tension 50 kg.
ROPE ANGLE
ANGLE EFFECT (E)
90° 1.0 100 kg 300 kg 400 kg 500 kg

approx.
60° to 90° 0.85 to 1.0 85 kg 255 kg 340 kg 425 kg
approx.
45° to 60° 0.70 to 0.84 70 kg 210 kg 280 kg 350 kg
approx.
30° to 45° 0.50 to 0.69 50 kg 150 kg 200 kg 250 kg
approx.
15° to 30° 0.25 to 0.49 25 kg 75 kg 100 kg 125 kg
261
TABLES
5 Table F.4

(USING DOUBLE HITCH)

BLOCKED?

FRICTION? µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6 µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6
Timber) Timber)

tension 100 kg.
ROPE ANGLE
ANGLE EFFECT (E)
90° 1.0 200 kg 600 kg 800 kg 1000 kg

approx.
60° to 90° 0.85 to 1.0 170 kg 510 kg 680 kg 850 kg
approx.
45° to 60° 0.70 to 0.84 140 kg 420 kg 560 kg 700 kg
approx.
30° to 45° 0.50 to 0.69 100 kg 300 kg 400 kg 500 kg
approx.
15° to 30° 0.25 to 0.49 50 kg 150 kg 200 kg 250 kg
262
TABLES
6 Table F.5
MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 50 mm WEBBING STRAP CAN RESTRAIN

BLOCKED?

FRICTION? µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6 µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6
Timber) Timber)
Minimum average strap

tension 300 kg.
STRAP ANGLE
ANGLE EFFECT (E)
90° 1.0 600 kg 1800 kg 2400 kg 3000 kg

approx.
60° to 90° 0.85 to 1.0 510 kg 1530 kg 2040 kg 2550 kg
approx.
45° to 60° 0.70 to 0.84 420 kg 1260 kg 1680 kg 2100 kg
approx.
30° to 45° 0.50 to 0.69 300 kg 900 kg 1200 kg 1500 kg
approx.
15° to 30° 0.25 to 0.49 150 kg 450 kg 600 kg 750 kg
263
TABLES
7 Table F.6
MAXIMUM WEIGHT EACH 8 mm CHAIN CAN RESTRAIN

BLOCKED?

FRICTION? µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6 µ = 0.4 µ = 0.6
Timber) Timber)
Minimum average chain

tension 750 kg.
CHAIN ANGLE
ANGLE EFFECT (E)
90° 1.0 1500 kg 4500kg 6000 kg 7500 kg

approx.
60° to 90° 0.85 to 1.0 1275 kg 3825 kg 5100 kg 6375 kg
approx.
45° to 60° 0.70 to 0.84 1050 kg 3150 kg 4200 kg 5250 kg
approx.
30° to 45° 0.50 to 0.69 750 kg 2250 kg 3000 kg 3750 kg
approx.
15° to 30° 0.25 to 0.49 375 kg 1125 kg 1500 kg 1875 kg
264
TABLES
8 Table F.7

FORWARDS (0.8W) USING TWO CHAINS
100 48 58 80
200 95 115 160
300 142 172 240
400 189 229 320
500 236 286 400
750 353 429 600
1000 471 572 800
1500 706 958 1200
2000 942 1143 1600
(tonnes)
3 1.5 1.8 2.4
4 1.9 2.3 3.2
5 2.4 2.9 4.0
6 2.9 3.5 4.8
7 3.3 4.0 5.6
8 3.8 4.6 6.4
9 4.3 5.2 7.2
10 4.8 5.8 8.0
11 5.2 6.3 8.8
12 5.7 6.9 9.6
13 6.2 7.5 10.4
14 6.6 8.0 11.2
15 7.1 8.6 12.0
16 7.6 9.2 12.8
17 8.0 9.8 13.6
18 8.5 10.3 14.4
19 9.0 10.9 15.2
20 9.5 11.5 16.0
21 9.9 12.0 16.8
22 10.4 12.6 17.6
23 10.9 13.2 18.4
24 11.3 13.8 19.2
25 11.8 14.3 20.0
26 12.3 14.9 20.8
27 12.8 15.5 21.6
28 13.2 16.0 22.4
29 13.7 16.6 23.2
30 14.2 17.2 24.0
265
TABLES
9 Table F.8

SIDEWAYS OR REARWARDS (0.5W) USING TWO CHAINS

100 30 36 50
200 59 72 100
300 89 108 150
400 118 143 200
500 148 179 250
750 221 268 375
1000 295 358 500
1500 442 536 750
2000 589 715 1000
(tonnes)
3 0.9 1.1 1.5
4 1.2 1.5 2.0
5 1.5 1.8 2.5
6 1.8 2.2 3.0
7 2.1 2.5 3.5
8 2.4 2.9 4.0
9 2.7 3.3 4.5
10 3.0 3.6 5.0
11 3.3 4.0 5.5
12 3.6 4.3 6.0
13 3.9 4.7 6.5
14 4.2 5.0 7.0
15 4.5 5.4 7.5
16 4.8 5.8 8.0
17 5.0 6.1 8.5
18 5.3 6.5 9.0
19 5.6 6.8 9.5
20 5.9 7.2 10.0
21 6.2 7.5 10.5
22 6.5 7.9 11.0
23 6.8 8.3 11.5
24 7.1 8.6 12.0
25 7.4 9.0 12.5
26 7.7 9.3 13.0
27 8.0 9.7 13.5
28 8.3 10.0 14.0
29 8.6 10.4 14.5
30 8.9 10.8 15.0
266
TABLES
This driver and passenger used a good load restraint method on themselves by wearing
a seat belt. They were able to walk away from the truck after it rolled over at speed on
a country road. The same forces that move the load and the truck are also applied to
you. Seat belts save lives.
The security of your load,

your life and the life of others
relies on proper
load restraint
267
TABLES
268

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Guidelines and

LOAD RESTRAINT GUIDE - Second Edition - 2004

Guidelines and Performance Standards

ISBN 0 7313 0134 X

National Transport Commission

1 Loads must be restrained to meet the Performance Standards of Section F1.

3 Performance Standards apply to all vehicles. However in situations where

The security of your load,

Force: Force is applied to a mass to move it.

Weight: Weight is the force exerted by gravity on a mass.

Performance Standards: A way of specifying the minimum amount of load restraint

Friction: Friction is the resistance of one surface sliding across another.

Coefficient of friction (µ): The coefficient of friction is a measure of the friction

Pre-tension: Pre-tension is the force in a lashing resulting from initial tightening by

Dunnage: Dunnage is packing used to separate loads (typically, a length of timber).

• A load that is restrained so it doesn’t shift is required to withstand forces of at least:

These photos show three important points :

1 LOAD SHIFT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18

SECTION B ARRANGING LOADS ON VEHICLES 33

1 SELECTING THE VEHICLE ------------------------------------------------------------ 35

SECTION E LOADS 117

1 GENERAL FREIGHT -------------------------------------------------------------------- 119

1 PERFORMANCE STANDARDS ------------------------------------------------------- 186

SECTION G VEHICLE STRUCTURES 209

1 TIE-RAILS AND LOAD ANCHOR POINTS ----------------------------------------- 211

SECTION H LOAD RESTRAINT EQUIPMENT 223

1 SYNTHETIC ROPE ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 225

SECTION I HOW TO CERTIFY A LOAD RESTRAINT SYSTEM 235

1 WHO SHOULD DO THE DESIGN AND CHECKING? -------------------------- 236

SECTION J APPENDICES 245

1 GLOSSARY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 246

SECTION K TABLES 257

1 C.3 MAXIMUM WEIGHT RESTRAINED BY ONE LASHING ---------------- 258

PART 1 - Drivers and Operators

PART 1 - Drivers and Operators

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LOAD RESTRAINT

2 HOW TO CARRY A LOAD SAFELY 21

3 LOAD RESTRAINT METHODS 22

Fig. A.1 BRAKING

Fig. A.2 BRAKING IN REVERSE

PART 1 - Drivers and Operators

Fig. A.3 CORNERING

Fig. A.4 HILLS

Fig. A.5 CAMBER 19

Fig. A.6 AIR FLOW

Fig. A.7 ROUGH ROADS

PART 1 - Drivers and Operators

(W = Weight of the load)

Fig. A.8 LOAD RESTRAINT FORCES

2.5 Use Appropriate Driving Methods

3 LOAD RESTRAINT METHODS

Fig. A.9 LOAD RESTRAINT METHODS

PART 1 - Drivers and Operators

Fig. A.10 LOAD RESTRAINED USING TIE-DOWN LASHINGS

3.2 Direct Restraint Method