Water Treatment Plant Design

Coagulation and Flocculation

CO1: To identify the sources of water and its
impurities and to perform complex design of water
treatment plant to meet the standard limits.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Amirhossein Malakahmad

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
Unit objectives
At the end of this session you will be able to:

• Evaluate the necessity of coagulation-flocculation

process in treatment of surface water.

• Consider significant parameters to determine the

optimal chemical dosages for coagulation.

• Use design parameters to calculate the coagulation-

flocculation tank dimensions.

• Practice sustainability in design and operation of

water treatment plant.
Introduction
• The most common method used to remove
particles and a portion of dissolved organic
matter is a combination of coagulation and
flocculation followed by sedimentation and/or
filtration.
• Coagulation is a charge neutralization step that
involves the conditioning of the suspended,
colloidal, and dissolved matter by adding
coagulants.
• Flocculation involves the aggregation of
destabilized particles and formation of larger
particles known as floc.
Why coagulation and flocculation is needed?

• From the various size particles in the water, it is

obvious that plain sedimentation will not be very
efficient for the smaller suspended particles.
• Typically in a settling basins, efficient removal of
particles less than 50 µm in diameter cannot be
expected.
• Agglomeration of particles into groups,
increasing the effective size and therefore the
settling velocity, is possible in some instances.
Chemical Coagulants
• A coagulant is the chemical that is added to
destabilize particles and accomplish
coagulation. Selection of the proper coagulant
depends upon:
▫ The characteristics of the coagulant,
▫ Concentration and type of particulates,
▫ Concentration and characteristics of NOM,
▫ Water temperature,
▫ Water quality (for example, pH),
▫ Cost and availability, and
▫ Dewatering characteristics of the solids that are
produced.
Types of Coagulants Commonly Used in the Field

Source: Mihelcic, James R., Julie Zimmerman. Environmental Engineering: Fundamentals,

Sustainability, Design, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 2014
Coagulant and flocculant aids
• Coagulant and flocculant aids are substances that
enhance the coagulation and flocculation
processes.
• Coagulant aids are typically insoluble particulate
materials, such as clay, diatomite, powdered
activated carbon (PAC), or fine sand, that form
nucleating sites for the formation of larger flocs.
They are used in conjunction with the primary
coagulants.
• Flocculant aids such as anionic and nonionic
polymers are used to strengthen flocs. They are
added after the addition of coagulants and the
destabilization of the particles.
Coagulation theory
• In water treatment plants, chemical coagulation
is usually accomplished by the addition of
trivalent metallic such as Al2(SO4)3 or FeCl3.

Al3+ + H2O → AlOH2+ + H+

Al3+ + 2H2O → Al(OH2)+ + 2H+
7Al3+ + 17H2O → Al(OH)174+
.
.
.
Al3+ + 3H2O → Al(OH)3 + 3H+
Coagulation theory
• The Al(OH)3 forms in shapeless, gelatinous flocs
that are heavier than water and settle by gravity.

• Large molecules such as Al(OH)174+ will be

formed when aluminum or ferric salts
dissociated in water.

• Synthetic polymers also may be used instead of,

or in addition to, metallic salts.
Coagulation practice
• The most commonly used coagulant is aluminum
sulphate, commonly referred to as alum (molecular
weight of 594 g/mole).
• Addition of Al3+ in the form of alum (or Fe3+ in the
form of the iron salts such as ferrous sulphate
(Fe2(SO4)3 or ferric chloride, FeCl3) at
concentrations greater than their solubility limits
results in the formation of the hydroxide precipitate.
Al2(SO4)3 . 14H2O + 6(HCO3-)  2Al(OH)3 + 3SO42- + 12H2O + 6CO2

If the natural alkalinity of the water is not sufficient, it may be necessary to add
lime or soda ash (Na2CO3) to react with the alum to maintain the pH in the
appropriate range. The pH range for operating region of alum is 5.5–7.7, and
for iron salts is 5–8.5.
Important factors
• pH
▫ Aluminum sulfate is most effective in pH range of 5.5
to 7.7. Ferric chloride, effective down to pH 4.5, and
ferrous sulfate, effective only above pH 9.5.
• Alkalinity
▫ The coagulation of metallic salt releases hydrogen
ions. The hydrogen ions neutralize alkalinity. Low
alkalinity will causes pH drop.
• Mixing and its duration
▫ The coagulant is needed to violently agitated in the
water for very short duration. Then the water gently
stirred for a longer period to keep all the solids in
suspension and to promote collisions between
destabilized particles and between particles and flocs
(flocculation).
Jar test
• The jar test simulate the coagulation/flocculation
process in a batch mode. A series of batch tests are
run in which pH, coagulant type and dosage and
coagulant aid are varied to get the optimal dosage
(lowest residual turbidity). An statistical analysis is
performed to select these parameters.

• Jar tests generally are performed using 6 one-liter

samples of the water to be treated. To these
samples a range of coagulant (and possibly
coagulant aid) dose is added (one sample is usually
a blank).
Jar test
• Immediately after the coagulant is added the
samples are "flash mixed" for approximately one
minute. The stirrer speed is then reduced to
simulate a flocculation basin. Flocculation mode is
generally maintained for about 20 minutes.

• At the end of the flocculation period the stirrers are

turned off and the floc is allowed to settle for one-
half hour. After this settling period supernatant
samples are drawn off from each sample and
analyzed for turbidity and sometimes alkalinity and
pH.
A Jar test apparatus
Example 1 - Use of Jar Testing to Determine the
Optimal Coagulant Dosage

A jar test was conducted on untreated water with an

initial turbidity of 10 NTU and a HCO3-
concentration of 50 mg/L as CaCO3. Using the
following data obtained from a jar test, estimate the
optimum alum dosage for turbidity removal and the
theoretical amount of alkalinity that will be
consumed at the optimal dosage. Alum is added as
dry alum (molecular weight of 594 g/mole).
Industrial application
Rapid Mixing
Coagulants are dispersed
into the water stream via
rapid-mixing systems:
a) pumped mixing (for
example, pumped flash
mixing, which can be simple
and reliable);
b) hydraulic methods (for
example, in-line static mixer,
which is simple, reliable,
and non-mechanical); and
c) mechanical mixing
(conventional stirred tanks
being the most common).
Slow Mixing
The gentle mixing of the
water is the key for proper
flocculation. To assist
particle aggregation,
mechanical mixing is
typically employed to
maintain the particles in
suspension. Flocculation
systems can be divided into
two groups:
a, b) mechanical
flocculators (vertical-shaft
turbine, horizontal-shaft
paddle) and
c) hydraulic flocculators.
Mixing design
• Rapid-mixing systems and most flocculation units
operate under turbulent mixing conditions.

𝑃
𝐺=
𝜇𝑉

where G is the global root mean square (RMS)

velocity gradient (energy input rate, in s-1); P is the
power of mixing input to the vessel (J/s), µ is the
dynamic viscosity of water (N·s/m2), and V is the
volume of the mixing vessel (m3).
Mixing design
• The mixing performance depends not only on
the velocity gradient G but also the hydraulic
detention time (t) and the product of G and t, a
measure of degree of mixing. In practice, the
values of G and Gt are used as design criteria.
Example 2- Design of a Mechanical Rapid-
Mix Tank

A conventional stirred tank is used for rapid mixing

in a water treatment plant with a flow of 100 × 106
L/day. The water temperature is 10°C. Determine the
tank volume and power requirement.
Water treatment plant and sustainability
• Electricity is needed for mixers, chemical pumps, chemical mixers and
drainage pumps used in the coagulation and flocculation process. The
range of energy use varies widely, though, by treatment plant capacity.
• With the increase in system capacity, the electricity consumption per m3
water produced decreases. This indicates that the larger centralized
treatment system may have lower direct energy requirement for
coagulation and flocculation process during the operation phase;
however, the energy needed for coagulant manufacturing and delivery is
not considered here.
Example 3: A water treatment plant is being designed to
process 50,000 m3/d of water. Jar testing and pilot plant
analysis indicate that an alum dosage of 40 mg/L with
flocculation at Gt value of 4.0 × 104 produce optimal results
at the expected water temperature of 15 °C. Determine:

1. The monthly alum requirement.

2. The flocculation basin dimensions if three cross flow
horizontal paddles are to be used. The flocculator
should be a maximum of 12 m wide and 5 m deep in
order to connect appropriately with the settling basin.
3. The power requirement in each compartment
Example 4: A water treatment plant is to process 30,000 m3/d.
the rapid mixing tank will blend 35 mg/L of alum with the flow
and is to have a detention time of 2 min. The tank is to have a
square cross section with vertical baffles and a flat blade
impeller. If the water temperature is 22°C, determine the
following:
a) Quantity of alum added
b) Dimension of the tank
c) Power input necessary for a G value of 900 s-1

The flow then needs to be flocculated in a basin having four

horizontal shaft paddle flocculators. The basin may be a
maximum of 10 m wide and 4m deep to connect to settling
basin. Determine:
d) Basin dimensions
e) The power requirement in each compartment