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It is not advisable to use this if you

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CHAPTER 17 – BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE  Moral agency - when people find

THEORY themselves in morally ambiguous
situations, they typically attempt to
 Albert Bandura and Ginny (Virginia) Varns met in regulate their behavior through this
a sand trap on a golf course. The couple Includes:
eventually married and had two daughters, Mary o Redefining the behavior
and Carol, who like most of us, were the products o disregarding or distorting the
of a chance encounter. consequences of their
behavior
 Chance encounters and fortuitous events have o dehumanizing or blaming the
been largely ignored by most personality theorists, victims of their behavior
even though most of us recognize that we have o displacing or diffusing
had unplanned experiences that have greatly responsibility for their actions
changed our lives.
BIOGARPHY OF BANDURA – refer to the book nalang
Overview of Social Cognitive Theory
Learning
- Social cognitive theory takes chance encounters and  Humans are quite flexible and capable of learning
fortuitous events seriously, even while recognizing that a multitude of attitudes, skills, and behaviors and
these meetings and events do not invariably alter one’s that a good bit of those learnings are a result of
life path. vicarious experiences
Rests on several basic assumptions:  People can and do learn from direct experience,
 Plasticity - humans have the flexibility much of what they learn is acquired through
to learn a variety of behaviors in diverse observing others
situations Observational Learning
o vicarious learning, that is,  Observation - allows people to learn without
learning by observing others performing any behavior
o People can be reinforced by  Social cognitive theory is the assumption that they
observing another person learn through observing the behavior of other
receive a reward. This indirect people
reinforcement accounts for a  Skinner held that enactive behavior is the basic
good bit of human learning datum of psychological science
 Triadic reciprocal causation model -  Observational learning is much more efficient than
includes behavioral, environment, and learning through direct experience
personal factors, people have the Modeling
capacity to regulate their lives.  Core of observational learning
o Humans can transform  Involves adding and subtracting from the observed
transitory events into relatively behavior and generalizing from one observation to
consistent ways of evaluating another
and regulating their social and  Involves cognitive processes and is not simply
cultural environments mimicry or imitation
o Two important environmental  More than matching the actions of another
forces in the triadic model are  Involves symbolically representing information and
chance encounters and storing it for use at a future time
fortuitous events
 Agentic perspective – humans have Several factors determine whether a person will learn from a
the capacity to exercise control over the model in any particular situation:
nature and quality of their lives  Characteristics of the model
o People are the producers as People are more likely to model:
well as the products of social o High-status people rather than those of
systems low status
o Important component of the o Competent individuals rather than
triadic reciprocal causation unskilled or incompetent ones
model is self-efficacy o Powerful people rather than impotent
o High self-efficacy - confidence ones
that they can perform those  Characteristics of the observer affect the
behaviors that will produce likelihood of modeling
desired behaviors in a o People who lack status, skill, or power
particular situation are most likely to model
o proxy agency and collective o Children model more than older people
efficacy can predict o Novices are more likely than experts to
performance model
o Proxy agency - people are  Consequences of the behavior being modeled
able to rely on others for may have an effect on the observer
goods and services o The greater the value an observer
o Collective efficacy - people’s places on a behavior, the more likely the
shared beliefs that they can observer will acquire that behavior
bring about change o Learning may be facilitated when the
 People regulate their conduct observer views a model receiving
through both external and internal severe punishment
factors Ex. seeing another person receive
o External factors - include a severe shock from touching an electric wire
people’s physical and social teaches the observer a valuable lesson
environments
o Internal factors - include self-
observation, judgmental
process, and self-reaction
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Processes Governing Observational Learning o Ex. we anticipate the effects

Four processes that govern observational learning: of cold, wet weather and
 Attention - Before we can model another person, dress accordingly
we must attend to that person o Serve to reinforce behavior -
Factors that regulate attention: reinforcement may at times be
o More opportunities to observe unconscious and automatic, complex
individuals with whom we frequently behavioral patterns are greatly
associate, we are most likely to attend facilitated by cognitive intervention
to these people  Learning occurs much more efficiently when the
o Attractive models are more likely to be learner is cognitively involved in the learning
observed than unattractive ones situation and understands what behaviors precede
o The nature of the behavior being successful responses
modeled affects our attention—we  New behaviors are acquired through two major
observe behavior that we think is kinds of learning: observational learning and
important or valuable to us enactive learning
 Representation - In order for observation to lead  Core element of observational learning is
to new response patterns, those patterns must be modeling, which is facilitated by observing
symbolically represented in memory appropriate activities, properly coding these
o Symbolic representation doesn’t need to events for representation in memory, actually
be verbal, because some observations performing the behavior, and being sufficiently
are retained in imagery and can be motivated
summoned in the absence of the  Enactive learning allows people to acquire new
physical model patterns of complex behavior through direct
o Process is especially important in experience by thinking about and evaluating the
infancy when verbal skills are not yet consequences of their behaviors
developed Triadic Reciprocal Causation
o Verbal coding greatly speeds the  This system assumes that human action is a result
process of observational learning of an interaction among three variables—
o With language we can verbally evaluate environment, behavior, and person
our behaviors and decide which ones  By “person” Bandura means largely such cognitive
we wish to discard and which ones we factors as memory, anticipation, planning, and
desire to try judging
o Verbal coding helps us to rehearse the  “Reciprocal” - to indicate a triadic interaction of
behavior symbolically (to tell ourselves forces, not a similar or opposite counteraction
over and over again how we will perform  The three reciprocal factors do not need to be of
the behavior once given the chance) equal strength or to make equal contributions
o Rehearsal can also entail the actual  Although behavior and environment can at times
performance of the modeled response, be the most powerful contributors to performance,
and this rehearsal aids the retention cognition (person) is usually the strongest
process contributor to performance
 Behavioral Production - produce the behavior  The relative influence of behavior, environment,
Several questions about the behavior to be and person depends on which of the triadic factors
modeled: is strongest at a particular moment
o “How can I do this?” - we try out our new
behavior Yung example of triadic reciprocal causation refer to the
o “What am I doing?” - we monitor book nalang kasi I can’t summarize without removing
ourselves important details that might alter information
o “Am I doing this right?” - we evaluate
our performance Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events
 Motivation - Observational learning is most  Bandura is the only personality theorist to
effective when learners are motivated to perform seriously consider the possible importance of
the modeled behavior these chance encounters and fortuitous events
o Performance is facilitated by motivation  Chance encounter - an unintended meeting of
to enact that particular behavior persons unfamiliar to each other
o Even though observation of others may  Fortuitous event - an environmental experience
teach us how to do something, we may that is unexpected and unintended
have no desire to perform the necessary  Fortuity adds a separate dimension in any scheme
action used to predict human behavior, and it makes
Ex. One person can watch another accurate predictions practically impossible
use a power saw or run a vacuum cleaner  Chance encounters influence people only by
and not be motivated to try either activity entering the triadic reciprocal causation paradigm
 Chance encounters influence people in the same
Enactive Learning manner as do planned events
 Every response a person makes is followed by  Once a chance encounter occurs, people behave
some consequence toward their new acquaintance according to their
 Complex human behavior can be learned when attitudes, belief systems, and interests as well as
people think about and evaluate the to the other person’s reaction to them
consequences of their behaviors  Chance encounters and fortuitous events are not
Consequences of a response serve at least three functions: uncontrollable. Indeed, people can make chance
o Inform us of the effects of our actions happen
- use it as a guide for future actions Ex. Divorced man looking for an opportunity
o Motivate our anticipatory behavior - to remarry will increase his chance of meeting a
capable of symbolically representing potential wife by perusing a proactive course of action
future outcomes and acting accordingly; by joining a singles club, going to places where he is
not only possess insight but also are likely to find single women, or asking a friend to
capable of foresight introduce him to an eligible potential mate
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 The prepared person is able to escape unpleasant  Self-efficacy combines with environment, prior
chance encounters and fortuitous events by behavior, and other personal variables, especially
anticipating their possibility and taking steps to outcome expectations, to produce behavior
minimize any negative impact they may have on  Self-efficacy refers to the P (person) factor in the
future development TRCM

Human Agency
 Social cognitive theory takes an agentic view of What Is Self-Efficacy?
personality  Self-efficacy as “people’s beliefs in their capability
 Humans have the capacity to exercise control over to exercise some measure of control over their
their own lives own functioning and over environmental events”
 Human agency - the essence of humanness (Bandura, 2001)
 People are self regulating, proactive, self-  Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of human
reflective, and self-organizing and that they have agency
the power to influence their own actions to  People who believe that they can do something
produce desired consequences that has the potential to alter environmental events
 Homunculus—that is, an autonomous agent— are more likely to act and more likely to be
making decisions that are consistent with their successful than those people with low self-efficacy
view of self  Not the expectation of our action’s outcomes
 Efficacy refers to people’s confidence that they
Core Features of Human Agency have the ability to perform certain behaviors
Four core features of human agency:  Outcome expectancy refers to one’s prediction of
the likely consequences of that behavior
 Intentionality - acts a person performs
intentionally Self-efficacy must be distinguished from several other
o Intention includes planning, but it concepts:
also involves actions o Efficacy does not refer to the ability to
o Not simply an expectation or execute basic motor skills such as walking,
prediction of future actions but a reaching, or grasping
proactive commitment to bringing o Efficacy does not imply that we can perform
them about designated behaviors without anxiety, stress,
o Does not mean that all of a or fear
person’s plans will be brought to o judgments of efficacy are not the same as
fruition levels of aspiration
o People continually change their Self-efficacy varies from situation to situation depending on
plans as they become aware of the the:
consequences of their actions o Competencies required for different activities
 Forethought - to set goals, to anticipate likely o the presence or absence of other people
outcomes of their actions, and to select behaviors o perceived competence of these other people,
that will produce desired outcomes and avoid especially if they are competitors;
undesirable ones o the person’s predisposition to attend to failure
o Enables people to break free from of performance rather than to success
the constraints of their environment o the accompanying physiological states,
 Self-reactiveness - process of motivating and particularly the presence of fatigue, anxiety,
regulating their own actions apathy, or despondency
o Not only make choices but they
monitor their progress toward High and low efficacy combines with responsive and
fulfilling those choices unresponsive environments to produce four possible
o Goals must be specific, be within a predictive variables:
person’s ability to achieve, and  High efficacy + responsive environment =
reflect potential accomplishments outcomes are most likely to be successful
that are not too far in the future  Low efficacy + responsive environment = people
 Self-reflectiveness - examiners of their own may become depressed when they observe that
functioning; they can think about and evaluate others are successful at tasks that seem too
their motivations, values, and the meanings of difficult for them
their life goals, and they can think about the  High efficacy + unresponsive environmental
adequacy of their own thinking situations = they usually intensify their efforts to
o Can also evaluate the effect that change the environment
other people’s actions have on (Ex. use protest, social activism, or even force to
them instigate change; but if all efforts fail, either they
o Most crucial self-reflective will give up that course and take on a new one or
mechanism is self-efficacy; beliefs they will seek a more responsive environment)
that they are capable of performing  Low self efficacy + unresponsive environment =
actions that will produce a desired people are likely to feel apathy, resignation, and
effect helplessness
Self-Efficacy
What Contributes to Self-Efficacy?
 Beliefs that they can or cannot execute the Personal efficacy is acquired, enhanced, or decreased
behavior necessary to produce desired outcomes through any one or combination of four sources:
in any particular situation  Mastery Experiences - most influential sources of
 Bandura (1994), “people’s beliefs in their personal self-efficacy are mastery experiences; past
efficacy influence what courses of action they performances. Successful performance raises
choose to pursue, how much effort they will invest efficacy expectancies; failure tends to lower them.
in activities, how long they will persevere in the This general statement has six corollaries:
face of obstacles and failure experiences, and 1. Successful performance raises self-efficacy
their resiliency following setbacks” in proportion to the difficulty of the task
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2. Tasks successfully accomplished by oneself weaken their sense of personal and collective
are more efficacious than those completed efficacy
with the help of others
3. Failure is most likely to decrease efficacy Collective Efficacy
when we know that we put forth our best  Collective efficacy - people’s shared beliefs in
effort their collective power to produce desired results
4. Failure under conditions of high emotional (Bandura, 2000)
arousal or distress is not as self-debilitating  The confidence people have that their combined
as failure under maximal conditions efforts will bring about group accomplishments
5. Failure prior to establishing a sense of Two techniques for measuring collective efficacy:
mastery is more detrimental to feelings of 1. Combine individual members’ evaluations of their
personal efficacy than later failure personal capabilities to enact behaviors that
6. Occasional failure has little effect on efficacy, benefit the group
especially for people with a generally high 2. Measure the confidence each person has in the
expectancy of success group’s ability to bring about a desired outcome
 Collective efficacy does not spring from a
 Social Modeling - second source of efficacy is collective “mind” but rather from the personal
social modeling: that is, vicarious experiences efficacy of many individuals working together
provided by other people  Depends not only on the knowledge and skills of
o Self-efficacy is raised when we observe the its individual members but also on their beliefs that
accomplishments of another person of equal they can work together in a coordinated and
competence, but is lowered when we see a interactive fashion
peer fail.  Different cultures have different levels of collective
o When the other person is dissimilar to us, efficacy and work more productively under
social modeling will have little effect on our different systems
self-efficacy Several factors that can undermine collective efficacy:
o Effects of social modeling are not as strong  Humans live in a transnational world - what
as those of personal performance in raising happens in one part of the globe can affect people
levels of efficacy, but they can have powerful in other countries, giving them a sense of
effects where inefficacy is concerned helplessness
 Social Persuasion - an also be acquired or  Recent technology that people neither
weakened through social persuasion understand nor believe that they can control
o Effects of this source are limited, but under may lower their sense of collective efficacy
proper conditions, persuasion from others  Complex social machinery - layers of
can raise or lower self-efficacy bureaucracy that prevent social change
o First condition is that a person must believe  Tremendous scope and magnitude of human
the persuader problems can undermine collective efficacy
o Exhortations or criticisms from a credible
source have more efficacious power than do Self-Regulation
those from a noncredible person  When one have high levels of self-efficacy, are
o The activity one is being encouraged to try is confident in their reliance on proxies, and possess
within one’s repertoire of behavior solid collective efficacy, they will have
o Efficacious power of suggestion is directly considerable capacity to regulate their own
related to the perceived status and authority behavior
of the persuader  People use both reactive and proactive strategies
o Social persuasion is most effective when for self-regulation
combined with successful performance  Reactively attempt to reduce the discrepancies
o Accomplishment and the subsequent verbal between their accomplishments and their goal
rewards will increase future efficacy  Proactively set newer and higher goals for
 Physical and Emotional States themselves
o Strong emotion ordinarily lowers What processes contribute to this self-regulation?
performance; when people experience o People possess limited ability to
intense fear, acute anxiety, or high levels of manipulate the external factors that feed
stress, they are likely to have lower efficacy into the reciprocal interactive paradigm
expectancies o People are capable of monitoring their
o Emotional arousal, if not too intense, is own behavior and evaluating it in terms
associated with increased performance of both proximate and distant goals
o Reduction in anxiety or an increase in
physical relaxation can facilitate performance External Factors in Self-Regulation
Arousal information is related to several variables: External factors affect self-regulation in at least two ways:
 Level of arousal—the higher the 1. They provide us with a standard for evaluating our
arousal, the lower the self-efficacy own behavior
 Perceived realism of the arousal 2. External factors influence self-regulation by
 Nature of the task providing the means for reinforcement
o Self-efficacy is “the foundation of human Internal Factors in Self-Regulation
agency” Three internal requirements in the ongoing exercise of self
o People can also exercise control over their influence:
lives through proxy and through collective Self-Observation
efficacy  Self-observation of performance
Proxy Agency  Must be able to monitor our own performance,
 Indirect control over those social conditions that even though the attention we give to it need not be
affect everyday living complete or even accurate
 Through proxy agency, however, they can  We pay attention to the quality, quantity, speed, or
accomplish their goal by relying on other people originality of our work
 Proxy has a downside. By relying too much on the Judgmental Process
competence and power of others, people may  Helps us regulate our behavior through the
process of cognitive mediation
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 Capable not only of reflective self-awareness but and the even greater atrocities committed by
also of judging the worth of our actions on the others
basis of goals we have set for ourselves 3. Euphemistic labels - Politicians who have
Judgmental process depends on personal standards, pledged not to raise taxes speak of “revenue
referential performances, valuation of activity, and enhancement” rather than taxes
performance attribution:
o Personal standards - allow us to evaluate our Disregard or Distort the Consequences of Behavior
performances without comparing them to the
conduct of others Second method of avoiding responsibility involves distorting
*Standard of reference – since or obscuring the relationship between the behavior and its
personal standards are a limited source detrimental consequences
of evaluation most of our activities are Three techniques of distorting or obscuring the detrimental
evaluated by comparing them to a consequences of one’s actions:
standard of reference 1. Minimize the consequences of their behavior
o Value - judgmental process is also dependent on 2. Disregard or ignore the consequences of their
the overall value we place on an activity actions
Ex. If we place minor value on our ability 3. Distort or misconstrue the consequences of their
to wash dishes or dust furniture, then we actions
will spend little time or effort in trying to Dehumanize or Blame the Victims
improve these abilities  In time of war, people often see the enemy as
o Performance attribution - how we judge the subhuman, so they need not feel guilty for killing
causes of our behavior enemy soldiers
- If we believe that our success is  When victims are not dehumanized, they are
due to our own efforts, we will take sometimes blamed for the perpetrator’s culpable
pride in our accomplishments and conduct. A rapist may blame his victim for his
tend to work harder to attain our crime, citing her provocative dress or behavior.
goals Displace or Diffuse Responsibility
 Displacement - people minimize the
Self-Reaction consequences of their actions by placing
 People respond positively or negatively to their responsibility on an outside source
behaviors depending on how these behaviors  Diffuse responsibility—to spread it so thin that
measure up to their personal standards no one person is responsible
 Self-reinforcement does not rest on the fact that it
immediately follows a response: Rather, it relies in Dysfunctional Behavior
large part on the use of our cognitive ability to Concept of triadic reciprocal causation assumes that
mediate the consequences of behavior behavior is learned as a result of a mutual interaction of:
 People work to attain rewards and to avoid 1. The person, including cognition and
punishments according to self-erected standards neurophysiological processes
2. The environment, including interpersonal relations
Self-Regulation Through Moral Agency and socioeconomic conditions
3. Behavioral factors, including previous experiences
Moral agency as having two aspects: with reinforcement
1. Doing no harm to people Bandura’s concept of dysfunctional behavior lends itself
2. Proactively helping people most readily to depressive reactions, phobias, and
 Self-regulative mechanisms, however, do not aggressive behaviors.
affect other people until we act on them
 Selective activation – a concept of self regulatory Depression
influences is not automatic but operates only if  When people set their goals too high, they are
they are activated likely to fail
 Disengagement of internal control – a concept  Depressed people often undervalue their own
of justifying the morality of actions that can accomplishments
separate or disengage themselves from the  Result is chronic misery, feelings of
consequences of their behavior worthlessness, lack of purposefulness, and
 Disengagement techniques allow people, pervasive depression
individually or working in concert with others, to Dysfunctional depression can occur in any of the three self-
engage in inhumane behaviors while retaining regulatory subfunctions:
their moral standards  Self-observation - people can misjudge their own
Various mechanisms through which self-control is performance or distort their memory of past
disengaged or selectively activated: accomplishments.
o redefine or reconstruct the nature of the o Depressed people tend to exaggerate their
behavior itself past mistakes and minimize their prior
o minimize, ignore, or distort the detrimental accomplishments, a tendency that
consequences of their behavior perpetuates their depression
o blame or dehumanize the victim  Judgmental processes - depressed people are
o displace or diffuse responsibility likely to make faulty judgments
o They set their standards unrealistically high
Redefine the Behavior so that any personal accomplishment will be
- People justify otherwise reprehensible actions by a judged as a failure
cognitive restructuring that allows them to o Depression is especially likely when people
minimize or escape responsibility set goals and personal standards much
higher than their perceived efficacy to attain
Three techniques to relieve themselves of responsibility for them
their behavior:  Self-reactions - self-reactions of depressed
1. Moral justification - culpable behavior is made to individuals are quite different from those of
seem defensible or even noble nondepressed persons.
2. Palliative comparisons - to make advantageous
or palliative comparisons between that behavior
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o Depressed people not only judge themselves  Overt or vicarious modeling - People who
harshly, but they are also inclined to treat observe live or filmed models performing
themselves badly for their shortcomings threatening activities often feel less fear and
anxiety and are then able to perform those same
Phobias activities
Fears that are strong enough and pervasive enough to have  Covert or cognitive modeling - therapist trains
severe debilitating effects on one’s daily life patients to visualize models performing fearsome
Phobias and fears are learned by direct contact, behaviors
inappropriate generalization, and especially by observational  Enactive mastery - requires patients to perform
experiences those behaviors that previously produced
Difficult to extinguish because the phobic person simply incapacitating fears
avoids the threatening object * Systematic desensitization - involves the
Unless the fearsome object is somehow encountered, the extinction of anxiety or fear through self induced or therapist
phobia will endure indefinitely induced relaxation
Bandura (1986) credits television and other news media for o With systematic desensitization, the therapist
generating many of our fears and patient work together to place fearsome
Phobias are maintained by consequent determinants: that is, situations on a hierarchy from least to most
the negative reinforcement the phobic person receives for threatening
avoiding the fear-producing situation  Cognitive mediation – When people use cognition
Aggression to increase self-efficacy—that is, when they
Aggressive behaviors, when carried to extremes, can also become convinced that they can perform difficult
be dysfunctional tasks—then, in fact, they become able to cope
Aggressive behavior is acquired through observation of with previously intimidating situations
others, direct experiences with positive and negative
reinforcements, training, or instruction, and bizarre beliefs. Related research – please refer to the book again as this
Once established, people continue to aggress for at least part discusses situations that are hard to summarize
five reasons: without taking out the important details. It’ll be much
1. They enjoy inflicting injury on the victim (positive more helpful to read the whole topic that’s in the book ;)
reinforcement)
2. They avoid or counter the aversive consequences Critique of Bandura
of aggression by others (negative reinforcement)
3. They receive injury or harm for not behaving Albert Bandura has evolved his social cognitive theory by a
aggressively (punishment) careful balance of the two principal components of theory
4. They live up to their personal standards of conduct building—innovative speculation and accurate observation
by their aggressive behavior (self reinforcement)
5. They observe others receiving rewards for  Generate research – very high rating
aggressive acts or punishment for nonaggressive  Falsifiability – high rating
behavior  Organize knowledge – high rating
 Practical – provides useful and specific guidelines
*refer to the book nalang about the bobo doll experiment for (walang rating sa book)
more details about aggression  Internally consistent – outstanding; never ventures
far beyond the empirical data available to him
**The study (bobo doll experiment) by Bandura, Ross, and  Parsimony – high standards
Ross (1963) offered some of the earliest experimental
evidence that TV violence does not curb aggression; rather, Concept of Humanity
it produces additional aggressive behaviors
 Goal-directed
Therapy  More optimistic than pessimistic
 Deviant behaviors are initiated on the basis of  Social factors more than biological ones
social cognitive learning principles  High on freedom versus determinism
 They are maintained because, in some ways, they  Moderate on causality or teleology
continue to serve a purpose  Bandura’s emphasis on uniqueness, however, is
 Therapeutic change is difficult because it involves moderated by biological and social influences,
eliminating behaviors that are satisfying to the both of which contribute to some similarities
person among people.
 Ultimate goal of social cognitive therapy is self-
regulation
 To achieve this end, the therapist introduces
strategies designed to
o induce specific behavioral changes
o to generalize those changes to other
situations
o to maintain those changes by preventing
relapse
 first step in successful therapy is to instigate some
change in behavior
 A more important level of therapy is to generalize
specific changes
 Some therapies induce change and facilitate
generalization, but in time, the therapeutic effects
are lost and the person reacquires the
dysfunctional behavior
 Most effective therapy reaches the third level of
accomplishment, which is maintenance of newly
acquired functional behaviors

Several basic treatment approaches suggested by Bandura: