Sabah Structure Plan 2020: Environmental and Conservation Workgroup

Environmental and Conservation Workgroup

Sabah Structure Plan 2020

Final
June 2001

Technical Report: 1 5
Issue no.: 01
Date of issue: June 2001
Prepared: ECD
Checked: Environmental and Conservation Workgroup
Approved:
Environmental input to the Sabah Structure Plan 2020 1
Table of Contents
1 Introduction 2
2 State of the environment in Sabah 4

2.1 The inland waters 6
2.2 The marine environment 9
2.3 Biodiversit y 11
2.4 The air 12
3 The impact of society on the environment 13

3.1 Population growth 13
3.2 Socio-economic development 14
3.3 Land use 14
3.4 Urbanisation 15
3.5 Sector impacts 18
4 Environmental policies 24
4.1 International treaties 24
4.2 National level 25
4.3 State level 26
5 Environmental management 32
5.1 Establishment of protected areas 32
5.2 Integration of environmental issues into regional planning 34
5.3 Environmental protection and monitoring 37
6 Recommendations 43
6.1 Establishment of new conservation areas 43
6.2 Environmental issues into regional planning 46
6.3 Environmental protection and monitoring 47
1 Introduction
Improving the quality of life for people in Sabah is a prime consideration in the
work of the State Government. The Structure Plan plays an important part in
this by setting out a long term 'vision' for new development whilst maintaining
the environment as a desirable and pleasant place to live and work in, and to
visit for current and future ge nerations.
The Structure Plan is a statement of strategic policies for the protection of the
environment and the control of development over the next 20 years or so. It
provides a basis for investment decisions by local authorities, businesses and
individuals, and for the plans and programmes of other organisations. The Plan
also plays a key role in delivering environmentally sustainable development
strategies by providing a framework for the systematic appraisal of develop-
ment trends and environmental pressures.
The Plan in turn then provides a strategic context for Local Plans, mostly pre-
pared by District Councils, setting out detailed policies and site-specific pro-
posals on a larger scale map base (e.g. 1:5,000). It is important to recognize that
thereafter, local Plans are required to conform generally to the Structure Plan.
Overall the Plan will set out the strategic framework for the use of land and
show the scale and direction of development required to meet the needs of the
State for jobs, houses and services, in a manner that safeguards and enhances
the environment.
This environmental review comes at a time of increasing national and interna-

tional concern over the impact we all have on the world environment. This has
been most clearly seen through the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro in 1992,
where the concept of sustainability was formally embraced - and more recent
international conferences on global climate change. Increasingly Sabah will
need to address these global concepts while at the same time accommodating
local needs for housing, employment, leisure and the use of natural r esources.
The balance between providing for growth and protecting environmental qual-
ity is not an easy one and as far as possible it should be sought to reconcile po-
tential conflicts and provide a framework for sustainable change.
The policies aim to build on what is distinctive and good about Sabah. The
policies may shape ideas for tourism, r esource and mineral extraction and land
use planning – particularly in relation to the distribution and ownership of land.
Although much of the information presented here will r emain pertinent, new
issues will continue to emerge and will have to be addressed so that the envi-
ronmental priority areas are not degraded. For example, environmental pres-
sures in and around urban areas will have to be addressed including reducing
the need to travel and promoting greater use of public transport.
The Structure plan will reflect the current and future interests of the State
mainly by addressing the following objectives:
• Providing a framework for allowing continued but sustainable develop-

ment of the economy of the State
• Closer integration with international policy
• Maintaining and improving the environment in Sabah
How the environmental input to the structure plan is prepared?

The first step is to identify the key issues that need to be addressed. This r e-
quires a good knowledge and understanding of how and why the environment
in Sabah is changing and what the future might bring. It requires the collection
and analysis of a wide range of information, on population, economic growth,
urbanisation and the environment to name but a few topics. This is presented in
chapters 2 and 3 of the report: ‘State of the Environment in Sabah’ and ‘Soci-
ety’s Impact on the Environment’.
The next step has been to outline the framework and policies for environmental
management in Sabah - chapters 4 and 5.
The final step is to make recommendations, based largely on the preceding

chapters, for further developing and improving the available environmental
management tools in Sabah. This has been done in chapter 6.
2 State of the environment in Sabah

Throughout Southeast Asia, biological resources are currently being exploited
at a rapid rate. Earlier in history similar processes driven by population expan-
sion took place in Europe and North America, altering the environment and
landscape forever. In Southeast Asia, it remains to be seen what the final con-
sequences of a compressed but similar process of biological resource depletion
will be. Will the present protected area system provide sufficient refuge for the
increasingly threatened fauna and flora of the region while maintaining the ba-
sic functioning of the environment?
Throughout the region up until the First World War, environmental change was
largely driven by agriculture, particularly by colonial administered plantations,
rather than commercial forestry. However, during the late 1950s, the demand
for timber was driven by the continued development of the market for tropical
logs, to provide raw materials to reconstruct the recovering post-war economies
of the world. As a consequence, the tropical forests that once cloaked the State
began to fragment and disappear. While physical impacts to the environment
are amongst the most noticeable of degradation processes affecting long-term
resource sustainability, the fauna and flora that comprise the forest habitat, are
equally impacted.
Sabah falls within the Indo-Malayan faunal realm, which contains some of the
world’s richest concentrations of terrestrial and marine biodiversity, with much
of this biodiversity being concentrated in the lowland rain forests and offshore
reefs. For example, it has been estimated that 81 per cent of the mammals of
Malaysia were restricted to below 660 m.
It is now clearly evident that land use change has left little in the way of un-
touched forests outside of the protected area system. Present estimates of forest
cover provide falsely optimistic information on the state of the environment due
to the difficulty in defining ‘deforestation’. Changes in forest cover do not r e-
flect forest cover degradation due to selective logging and such forests may
constitute important and extensive tracts. Today production forests comprise
the most significant remaining areas of forested land and the continued survival
of much of the regional biodiversity is dependent upon them, as indeed is a por-
tion of national economic revenue. The fate of production forests following
timber extraction is important as this will determine the passage and rate of en-
vironmental change locally and eventually at a regional level. Regenerating
forest stands are laid vulnerable and susceptible to a number of pressures in-
cluding fire hazard, which may ultimately lead to the continued degradation of
the stand and environmental change.
As regions of 'megadiversity' the responsibility placed upon countries such as

Malaysia is enormous particularly as a number of the Sabah’s larger mammals,
which are particularly hard to conserve, are threatened with extinction. These
include the two horned Sumatran Rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) and
clouded leopard (Neofolis nebulosa).
Today, protected areas are usually blocks of land gazetted by law from the ex-
isiting national land use resource inventory and are therefore exempted from
the usual array of land alienation pressures. National Park status and other cate-
gories of protected area, although universally accepted as a means of managing
land for conservation, do not necessarily mean that the objectives of conserva-
tion are met as most areas remain under pressure, particularly from the adjacent
land users.
Expansion of human populations requires further land use change and associ-
ated pollution impacts. Given this current rate of expansion it is unrealistic to
expect large areas of pristine habitat to be maintained. Therefore the fate of
these protected areas and the environmental integrity of the State will be uncer-
tain without clear policy and commitment to guide an environmentally sound
develo pment process to ensure our future.
Landmarks Realizing the importance of environmental conservation and protection in the

early 1970s, the State Government established an Environment Unit under the
purview of the then Ministry of Manpower and Environmental Development in
1976. In 1987, the enforcement of the Environmental Quality Act 1974 was
extended to Sabah and administered by the Federal Department of Environ-
ment. In 1991, Sabah commissioned the World Wide Fund for Nature - Malay-
sia to prepare the Sabah Conservation Strategy with funding from the United
Nations Development Programme. The report was completed in April 1992 and
approved by the State Government in 1995 as a guideline for planning. In 1996,
the Sabah Biodiversity Conservation Project was initiated with support from
the Danish Cooperation for Environment and Development (DANCED), with
the objective to improve and sustain biological resources.
Other landmarks include the Tourism Master Plan that provides the State
with a nature-based source of income and the Shoreline Management Plan,
(1998) that was conducted and endorsed in order to avoid ribbon develop-
ments along the West Coast of Sabah. The Integrated Coastal Zone Man-
agement in Sabah project (DANCED) was initiated in September 1996 with
the long-term objective of ensuring the sustainable development of the
State’s coastal areas. The State Environmental Conservation Department
was established in 1998 and the Capacity Building of the Environmental
Conservation Department Project (DANCED) initiated in 1999.
Key environmental The following sections describe in brief the environmental status concerning
areas the key environmental areas of interest: inland and marine waters, biodiversity
(flora and fauna), and the air. The descriptions are based on available data col-
lected by the Environmental Conservation Department.
2.1 The inland waters

Water is a vital resource, the availability of which often determines the rate of
economic development and also sets its limit. Rivers, streams, lakes, man-made
reservoirs, underground aquifers and wetlands constitute the inland water r e-
source, which are essential for agriculture, industry, human settlements and en-
ergy production.
Today in Sabah, inland waters are being polluted by both point and non-point
sources of pollution. Industries, including mining, and human settlements are
major point sources of pollution. Forestry and agricultural run-off containing
fertilizers, pesticides and eroded soil are the major non-point sources of pollu-
tion. Eroded soil primarily originates from deforested hill areas, sloping agr i-
cultural land and poorly designed roads and construction sites.
Surface water
Introduction Surface water is the major source of freshwater supply in the State. Surface
water can be classified as either flowing water such as rivers and streams, or
standing water such as lakes including man-made reservoirs. There are alt o-
gether about 19 river basins in Sabah. Of these, the Kinabatangan river basin on
the East Coast is the largest covering an area of about 15,385 km2 . The Padas
river basin on the West Coast covers an area of about 8,726 km2 . Most of the
other basins cover comparatively smaller areas.
Water quality in both flowing and standing water can be determined by measur-
ing parameters such as the concentration of Dissolved Oxygen (DO), the Bio-
logical Oxygen Demand (BOD), the Total Suspended Solids (TSS), pH and the
Faecal Coliform Bacteria count.
Impacts and Status Surface water quality in Sabah is adversely affected by various types of
pollutants that enter water bodies.
Run-off from Land-use Activities. The greatest pollution problem in most river
basins in Sabah is the high load of suspended solids as a result of sediment pol-
lution from poor soil conservation practices during logging, agricultural devel-
opment, mining and construction activities; and from natural erosion. Recent
findings from the Kinabatangan river estimated soil loss at 7.8 million tons per
year.
Chemical pollutants such as biocide residues originating from pesticides, insec-

ticides, herbicides and fertilizers applied in agricultural activities are potential
threats to water quality in the waterways and river basins of Sabah. The Sabah
Water Resources Master Plan 1994 reported that the water supply in Ranau has
been affected by pesticides and herbicides being washed from vegetable grow-
ing areas near Kundasang.
The Environmental Quality Report 1990 published by the Department of Envi-

ronment reported that 12 of the 17, or 65%, of the rivers monitored in Sabah
were heavily polluted with suspended solids and that 12 rivers were polluted
with NH3-N (ammonical nitrogen) due to livestock farming and domestic
waste in 1997. Six rivers were polluted with suspended solids due mainly to
earthworks and land cle aring activities. On BOD, there was no pollution re-
ported in Sabah. The Environmental Quality Report 1998 reported that seven
rivers in Sabah had been found to be polluted in terms of suspended solids,
BOD and NH3-N.
Domestic Sewage. Municipal wastewater discharges, especially of untreated

sewage, constitute an important source of pollution for inland waters in Sabah.
Sewage poses a threat not only to human health, but also increases the load of
nutrients and consequently biomass in water, which uses up oxygen during de-
composition. The more oxygen is consumed, the more aquatic life is impaired.
In certain instances, conditions may become anaerobic, resulting in the mortal-
ity of aquatic life. Recent studies have found that the level of coliforms found
in selected rivers and estuaries of Sabah clearly indicates a high degree of sew-
age contamin ation along the coast of major towns in Sabah. These include the
Inanam, Moyog, Tawau, Sembulan and Likas rivers.
Mining. Mining activities either directly release pollutants such as heavy metals
into rivers, reservoirs and ponds, or contribute to groundwater pollution
through the leaching of mine tailings. The Environmental Quality Report 1994
reported the presence of heavy metal at the Damit/Tuaran River that exceeded
water quality standards observed for other rivers in the country. There is indica-
tion of heavy metal pollution in the Liwagu river but the source is unclear a l-
though there is speculation that it originates from the Mamut Copper Mine.
Continuous monitoring of water quality is therefore essential to provide data for
the formulation of appropriate rehabilitation measures. Research should also be
conducted into biological indicators such as fish species/communities to further
support the monitoring programme.
River Sand and Gravel Extraction. There is a concern on the adverse impacts of
river sand and gravel extraction such as erosion of riverbanks and increased
turbidity downstream, particularly during low flows as fine material is distrib-
uted by excavation work.
Groundwater
Introduction Groundwater supply in Sabah is utilised largely as a supplementary supply and
is confined to nine water supply systems in the State. Several potential ground-
water storages have been identified (Natural Resource Office, 1994). Ground
water storage sites include beach, alluvial and coral deposits, and sedimentary
and igneous rocks. Storage volumes for each of these different aquifers varies
considerably depending on the thickness of the aquifer and the type of deposit.
Impacts and Status The quality of groundwater is increasingly under threat due to the leaching of
chemicals or the seepage of oil spills into groundwater storage. Pollutants in-
clude biocides and fertilizers residues from agricultural farms; organic wastes
from animal farms; heavy metals from mining wastes, rock tailings, and indus-
trial wastes. A national groundwater quality monitoring programme has re-
cently been initiated.
Wetlands
Introduction Swamps, marshes and other wetlands once regarded as obstacles to agricultural
and industrial development are now recognized for their great values in recy-
cling chemical and biological materials and especially for their rich biological
diversity. Wetlands filter pollutants, act as reservoirs of nutrients in food
chains, produce forage for domestic animals and fuel for humans, provide aes-
thetics, recreational and cultural benefits to society and are habitats for thou-
sands of unique species of plants and animals.
Impacts and Status In Malaysia the number of known sites of significance is estimated to be 37, of
which 86 % are regarded to be moderately to highly threatened (United Nation,
1990), the highest in South-East Asia. The main threat to wetlands are drainage
to create land for crops, conversion to aquaculture, pollution by toxic materials
from agricultural and industrial wastes, eutrophication caused by run-off water
loaded with fertilizers and wastes, flood protection schemes and housing devel-
opments, commercial lo gging, hunting and fishing.
In Sabah, the Kinabatangan floodplain is one of Malaysia's most treasured wet-

lands. The wetland ecosystem provides the varied vegetation types that are
home to a diverse concentration of wildlife. The Kinabatangan river is the
source of water supply for villages and Sandakan town and also an important
mode of transportation for the local settlements as well as the agriculture sector.
However, much of the wetland has been destroyed by unsustainable logging
practices and land conversion for agricultural expansion, and contaminated by
pesticides and discharge of industrial effluents. Realising the importance of this
area, the State Government of Sabah in 1999, declared its commitment to fully
gazette and protect this area of 27, 000 hectares as a wildlife sanctuary.
Mangroves A special type of wetland that deserves individual attention in the Sabah
context are mangroves as the ecological importance of these areas can hardly be
overestimated; they form the feeding and nursery grounds for prawns, fish and
other invertebrate species and mangrove vegetation protects coastal areas from
erosion and acts as a buffer zone against tidal currents, floods and storms.
Mangrove forests are also important to many local communities in Sabah with
products ranging from firewood and fishing stakes, to the construction of small
structures.
Impacts and Status The main threat to mangrove areas is alienation for various development
purposes. The depletion of mangrove forests is primarily associated with its
exploitation for its timber products, land reclamation and aquaculture activities.
Examples of such activities are to be found along the west coast region of Sa-
bah where areas of mangroves have already been turned over to coastal resorts
(including golf courses) and brackish water fish and shrimp farming.
Presently, mangrove timber harvest and aquaculture activities do not pose a

significant threat to mangrove areas. Mangrove timber harvesting in Sabah is
localised and is carried out on a small scale. The conversion of mangrove forest
to aquaculture ponds is also a minor activity. The increasing marketing prob-
lems anticipated in cultured shrimps (environmental groups in importing coun-
tries are advocating consumer boycott on shrimps grown in mangrove areas)
coupled with the unsuitability of mangrove areas as shrimp farms (due to poor
soils and pond drainage difficulties), has lead to a limited aquaculture devel-
opment within mangrove areas.
However, the rapidly decreasing yields of wood available from dry land forests
in Sabah and the increasing human population and declines in wild fish catches,
might lead to extended use and conversion of mangrove forests for forest pro-
duce and aquaculture purposes.
About 317,000 hectares of the mangrove areas in Sabah have been constituted
as Mangrove Forest Reserve. Like other reserves, any land use decision requir-
ing excision of land from Mangrove Forest Reserves would require approval
from the State Cabinet. However, land use not requiring excision (e.g., to allow
logging or not) are taken at an administrative level.
2.2 The marine environment

The marine environment comprises coastal waters, estuaries and the high seas.
It includes the water, seabed and a vast range of flora and fauna, which consti-
tute an invaluable source of food. The marine environment constitutes a major
component of the natural environment and has many dynamic interactions with
other components such as air, coastal land and inland water.
Marine water quality

Introduction Data on marine water quality in Sabah are limited, and normally only confined
to those areas where development is ongoing and where environmental impact
assessment studies have been carried out.
Impacts and Status All types of contaminants found in rivers and streams will finally be discharged
into marine waters. These includes the following:
Suspended Sediments. Suspended sediment loading from rivers is one of the

most severe threats to the natural nearshore habitats around the coastline of Sa-
bah, and in particular the West Coast region. Suspended sediment affects the
light and sedimentation conditions over static marine habitats such as corals
and sea grasses affecting factors such as growth rates and respiration. The sedi-
ment loading can also cause problems with fish spawning as deposited silts
provide unfavourable conditions for adhesive eggs, and can cause an out migra-
tion of fish, crustaceans and invertebrates from affected areas due to respiration
problems. Suspended sediment cannot be addressed as a shoreline issue but
must be tackled at source.
Bacterial Pollution. Bacterial pollution is presently not a major problem due to

the relatively low level of loading at the immediate mouths of the main rivers
compared to the rate of dispersion and decay. However, in isolated areas, hygi-
enic water quality problems are encountered and this trend will increase in fu-
ture due to increased domestic and other loading. For instance, the water in
Likas Bay, in the immediate vicinity of the City of Kota Kinabalu, has been
found to have a high level of Escheri coli, exceeding the standards set by the
Department of Environment. Combating this problem requires an integrated
approach, which includes tackling the problem at source and relocating dwell-
ings that directly discharge wastes into coastal areas and riverine areas.
Floatables. The most visible of the water quality issues are the floatables such
as plastics, cans, bottles and a host of other solid wastes, which are commonly
found in the coastal and riverine areas. Not only do floatables have a direct im-
pact on soft bottom communities, coral reefs and other static habitats, they also
have a serious effect upon marine beach aesthetics, which is directly related to
the tourism industry. The issue of floatables can be tackled through the use of
debris collectors along coastal areas and at the mouth of the major rivers. De-
bris collection is, however, an expensive intervention, which has to be borne by
the Government through the Local Authorities. An integrated approach to r e-
duce the loading is therefore preferable which may include for instance impos-
ing environmental tax on plastic bags; building more low cost houses for the
relocation of squatters away from water ways; and conducting environmental
education and awareness programs.
Coral reefs
Introduction Coral reefs are extremely fragile ecosystems. They are breeding and feeding
grounds for a high diversity of specialist coral reef fishes and invertebrates.
They are also important economically for the tourism and recreational sector.
Coral reefs also prevent coastal erosion by acting as wave breakers. Sabah has
established a number of marine parks, reserves and sanctuaries to prevent ex-
ploitation and to provide protection to marine life and resources.
Impacts and Status The major threats to the coral reef ecosystems in Sabah are unplanned and ad
hoc development activities along coastal areas and reclamation activities. Other
threats include coral mining for construction materials; destructive fishing
methods such as fish bombing and cyanide fishing; and marine pollution. Sev-
eral reports have revealed that eutrophication through discharge of sewage has
led to a profusion of algae overgrowing and killing the corals. It has also been
reported that sediment erosion from improper development activities, and
sediment discharge from rivers has caused coral mortality from turbidity and
burial.
There are indications that nearshore aquatic life is now threatened. Sand mining
in the sea, sediments from the rivers and bombing of fish constitute a serious
threat along the 1600-kilometer long coastline of Sabah (Figure 2.1). Surveys
and monitoring of coral reefs conducted by Universiti Malaysia, Sabah, Unimas
and Sabah Parks revealed that most reefs along the coast of Sabah are in good
condition but are seriously threatened by destructive fishing methods, excessive
sedimentation and over fishing. Another study by the same institutions proved
that fish bombing is a fundamental factor in the destruction of coral reefs in Sa-
bah. A total of 762 cases of fish bombing were reported between the years
1990-1999 and 444 persons were detained. In 1999 alone, 32 persons were
caught and detained (Fisheries Department, Sabah, 1999).
The State of Sabah through its agency, Sabah Parks, has identified new marine
areas that merit protection. Apart from Tunku Abdul Rahman Park, Pulau Tiga
State Park and the Turtle Islands Park (a combined area of 20, 622 ha of coral
reef), Semporna Islands has been proposed for protection.
Coastal erosion
Introduction In Malaysia it is estimated that 27 % of the shoreline is subject to erosion,
while the Department of Irrigation and Drainage has identified 53 areas where
coastal erosion is threatening important facilities. Erosion has destroyed
beaches, damaged coastal roads and houses and posed danger to beach resorts
and buildings.
Impact and Status Coastal erosion on a regional scale has been reported not to be a serious issue in
Sabah at the moment. Although the existing situation is not serious, the trend is,
however, clearly towards increased erosion due to the human impact, both di-
rectly due to construction on the c oastal areas and indirectly due to hinterland
activities. Coastal erosion may also occur as a natural process.
The Shoreline Management Plan report (1999) indicates that approximately 63

km of the 1600 km coastline of Sabah is eroding at a significant rate. The coast-
line areas in Papar and Kimanis on the West Coast, and in Sandakan on the
East Coast have been found to suffer moderate to severe coastal erosion.
2.3 Biodiversity
Introduction Biodiversity incorporates the full complement of plants and animals, both
individually as species and collectively as components of ecosystems. The exis-
tence of biodiversity is a symbol of ecological balance, which serves humanity
in a variety of ways. Plant and animal life directly provide a sizable fraction of
the human diet, and moreover, the utility of a diverse range of species is in-
creasing, not only as a source of materials, but also as a new genetic resource
that can contribute towards the improvement of breeds and to the development
of biotechnology.
Impacts and Status Reduced biodiversity or the loss of species is the most graphic indicator of the
plight of wild plants and animals. However, measuring changes in biodiversity
is not easy.
Man is the main agent of extinction, causing it by altering habitats, overexplo i-

tation and by introducing exotic species which either prey on or out-compete
native species. Habitat degradation, loss or modification is the most compre-
hensive indicator of the predicament of wild flora and fauna. This is a key area
of concern in the humid tropics as species diversity and endemism are unusu-
ally high.
Habitat Degradation and Loss. The heavy intensity of logging and conversion
of land to agricultural plantations is the major contributing factor to the rising
loss of both plant and animal species in Sabah. Four large mammals are under
serious threat in Sabah and are potentially endangered with extin ction on a
world basis. These animals are: Asian elephant (>1000), Asian two-horned rhi-
noceros (a few tens), orang-utan (between 10, 000 - 20, 000) and tembadau or
wild cattle (status is incompletely known).
Habitat Fragmentation. As forested lands are cleared to make way for planta-
tions and other development activities, areas of continuous forest are often
fragmented into smaller units. In Sabah, there have been reports of elephants
attacking and destroying substantial areas of oil palm plantations. This is
probably attributed to the fact that animal species, in particular large mammals,
require large territories to sustain their food supply and to survive in the wild. It
is also believed that through forest fragmentation, sexually mature and actively
breeding populations gradually become isolated. Prolonged isolation in the r e-
productive process may ultimately result in sterility, which may also lead to
extin ction of the species.
2.4 The air

Introduction Air pollution sources can be catagorised as: (i) stationary sources, (ii) mobile
sources, and (iii) open burning activities. Among these, emission from motor
vehicles is the most persistent contributor in Sabah. There are only three auto-
mated air quality monitoring stations, two in Kota Kinabalu and another in
Tawau. Another two manual air quality-monitoring stations are located around
the Kota Kinabalu area.
Impacts and Status In general, the air quality standard in Sabah is good except during periodic haze
episodes related to the outbreak of forest fires which contribute towards high
concentrations of particulate matter (PM10). Concentrations of sulphur dioxide
(SO2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ambient lead remain relatively low, (Air Pol-
lution Index readings), throughout the year.
In 1997 Sabah experienced serious haze mainly due to the forest and land
fires in plantations in Kalimantan and Sumatra, Indonesia. In 1998, the total
area burnt in Sabah was estimated as being between 130,000 - 150,000 hec-
tares, resulting in substantial ecological and economic losses, and contributing
to the haze problems in the region.
There were 291,472 motor vehicles registered in 1997 in Sabah and a total of
1,177 stationary sources of air pollution were recorded. Complaints of air pollu-
tion resulting from tailing dust being blown by wind at the site of the Mamut
copper mine at Lohan, Ranau have been reported.
3 The impact of society on the environment

The focus of this chapter is society – and based on a number of themes and
sectors - describes the relationships between the technological and economic
development and the resultant pressures on nature and the environment. The
descriptions are based on available data collected by the Environmental Con-
servation Department.
It is likely that the following four key issues will set the agenda for society’s
impact on nature and the environment in Sabah in the near future:
• The high population growth rates

• The high economic growth rates
• Substantial changes in the land use patterns
• Continued and increased rates of urbanisation
A short overview of the key sectors in Sabah impacting nature and the envi-
ronment in Sabah, namely forestry, agriculture, tourism and fisheries, is
provided in sections 3.5-3.8.
3.1 Population growth

Population growth and increases in population density will substantially influ-
ence the availability, quality and sustainability of the natural resource base in
Sabah. High population growth places continuous pressure on agricultural land
and drives the conversion of forests for agricultural purposes. High population
growth rates results in increased consumption and subsequent generation of
wastes. Population growth and urbanisation increases the demand for domestic
and industrial water, which further supports the need for sustainable water
catchment management.
The population of Sabah is expected to grow from approximately 1 million in

1980 to 3.3 million in 2006 (Table 3.1). The growth rate from 1991-95 was 6.2
% annually, which is among the highest population growth rates in the world.
At this rate of growth the population will double every 12.5 years. The popula-
tion density per sq km in 1991 was 25, while the predicted density in 2006 is
115; an increase of around 460 %.
Table 3.1. Population and growth rates.(7th Malaysian Plan) 2000

Year 1980 1991 1995 2006
Population 1,055 1,867 2,389 3,343

Growth rate 80-91: 5.2 % 91-95: 6.2 %
3.2 Socio-economic development

Even though the rate of socio-economic development in Sabah has remained
slightly below that of the rest of the country, the rate of growth can still be con-
sidered high when compared with other regions and countries in the world. It
can also be expected that such high growth rates will be maintained during the
coming decades.
As with population growth, high rates of socio-economic growth sets the

agenda for the availability, sustainability and quality of almost all natural re-
sources in Sabah. High socio-economic growth rates places continuous pressure
on land use, urbanisation rates, consumption rates, waste generating rates and
demand for domestic and industrial water, and energy.
3.3 Land use

Nature, environment and land use development patterns in Sabah are closely
linked to its geographical attributes (Figure 3.1 insert the 3D tin of Sabah).
In Sabah, the pace of converting land (largely forest) to state and alienated land,
has occurred at a slower pace compared to other Malaysian states and countries
in the region. With only 25.6 % of all land alienated, and large areas of land
still maintained under forest reserve, it can only be expected that substantial
areas of land will be alienated in the coming decades. With continued develop-
ment there will be increased competition for land for primary economic activ i-
ties such as agriculture, mining, industry and an increased demand for housing.
Therefore land use patterns will undoubtedly undergo dramatic changes in the
coming decades, substantially changing the nature of the environment in Sabah.
Habitat loss or modification is regarded as the primary cause of biodiversity
loss in Sabah as els ewhere.
The most important land cover systems in Sabah are the forests and croplands.
Land use change in Sabah is characterised by deforestation and the expansion
of cropland.
Out of the total land area of 7.37 million hectares, about 3.9 million hectares
are classified as reserved land (forest reserves, parks and wildlife sanctuary),
3.2 million hectares have been alienated, and about 0.3 million hectares remain
as State Land.
Forest reserves (protective forest, commercial forest, domestic forest and

other forest areas) constitutes 48.8 % of the total land area, alienated land
25.6 %, other reserves 15.3 %, mining prospecting areas 3.8 % and State
land 6.5 %.
3.4 Urbanisation
The urban environment is characterized by high concentrations of the popula-
tion and a high intensity of human activity. The relative economic, political and
social importance of urban areas can hardly be overemphasized. Urbanization,
however, also creates a number of environmental problems, including en-
croachment into rich agricultural land, deforestation, production of solid
wastes, heavy pollution of urban rivers, air pollution and increased risks associ-
ated with chemical and hazardous wastes.
Urbanisation and land. The conversion of natural and agricultural ecosystems

to provide urban infrastructures, such as houses, roads and factories character-
ises land use change near urban areas. In Sabah, considerable alteration and de-
terioration of the landscape in and around urban areas has taken place through
hill cutting, road construction, quarrying, land clearance and industrial and
housing developments.
Many urban areas in Sabah, particularly Kota Kinabalu and Sandakan, suffer
from the spread of slums and marginal and illegal settlements. These marginal
settlements are characterized by the absence or severe lack of basic infrastruc-
ture and environmental services such as water supply, solid waste collection,
sewerage and drainage, which all contribute towards additional stress on the
environment, particularly in the form of river pollution and disposal of solid
waste.
Case study: Steeplands around Kota Kinabalu and the District of Penampang
Figure 3.2 Slopes over 20 degrees – Kota Kinabalu and the Crocker Range,
Sabah
The remotely sensed image illustrates the restriction posed by terrain in and
around Kota Kinabalu and along the west coast of Sabah. The eastern three-
quarters of the District (465 km2 ) falls on the steep and hilly terrain of the
Crocker Range while the remainder, extending west to the coastline, has a pre-
dominantly low relief and comprises of broad alluvial plains with isolated out-
crops of low hills. This provides two general classes of terrain; either flat
floodplain land or steep hill slopes, thus placing severe restrictions on devel-
opment opportunities in the future. For example, in the Sungai Moyog catch-
ment, which comprises 295 km2 of the District, only two per cent of the lands
have gentle slopes considered ideal for development, the remaining lands are
either too steep or flat lying and flood prone. As a result of these constraints
most of the population is concentrated on the coastal strip and inland along the
river floodplains and lower hill ridges.
These physical characteristics are the dri ving pressure for the large amount of
cutting and filling in the lower catchment areas within the District (DID, 1998).
The physical constraints must also be considered alongside the demographic
trends along the West Coast of Sabah in and around Kota Kinabalu. In 1997,
five per cent (133,190) of the total population of Sabah lived in Penampang
District while the surrounding areas of Tuaran, Kota Kinabalu and Papar ac-
count for a further 19.2 %. The lowest population projection for the year 2015
estimates an increase of 157 per cent in the overall population in the combined
areas - which remains daunting as this almost trebles the population to 1 654
855 (DID, 1998). The implications for water demand water quality and overall
land degradation are huge. More cutting and filling of the slopes and flood-
plains will occur to accommodate the growing population. Agricultural lands
will fall under continued pressure to be converted to urban uses with the fur-
ther loss of rice growing areas. With further industrial development, mixed in-
dustrial areas will continue to spread out and in-land from Kota Kinabalu. Dis-
charge of pollutants to the drainage systems will continue to increase and the
remaining forested areas of the Crocker Range will be further encroached
upon.
Many of the areas faced with the greatest development pressures due to popula-
tion growth and landuse change are steep and require careful planning if the
land is to be developed sustainably (Figure 3.3 insert slope diagram)
Solid Waste Disposal. Solid waste disposal is found to be a major problem in

most districts in Sabah. The City of Kota Kinabalu is the only local authority
that operates a solid waste disposal facility based on the sanitary landfill sys-
tem, situated at Kayu Madang, Telipok. The remaining districts operate open-
space dumping where accumulated wastes are normally buried with soil. Open-
space dumping grounds not only emit a foul smell and cause a nuisance to
nearby residents but they also provide operating centres for scavengers and
breeding grounds for rodents and other pests that could be potential disease car-
riers. There is also a danger of toxic leachate from these dumping sites spilling
into rivers and streams or seeping into the ground water storage system. Indis-
criminate dumping of waste by residents both in towns and villages is rampant.
The problem is further aggravated due to the limited rating areas in some dis-
tricts resulting in indiscriminate waste disposal in places such as roadsides and
in waterways. Another contributing factor to the waste disposal problem is the
lack of awareness on the importance of maintaining a clean environment for
healthy living.
Air pollution. The deterioration in air quality in urban areas is mainly the result
of increases in manufacturing and industrial a ctivities and in the number of mo-
tor vehicles.
Water pollution. Urban rivers typically become heavily polluted with domestic
sewage, industrial effluents and solid wastes, mainly in terms of phosphates,
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), coliform, alkalinity and turbidity.
Industrial, toxic and hazardous waste. In Sabah, the majority of industries are
located in and around urban areas and consequently most environmental prob-
lems related to effluents and emissions are more likely to have a greater impact
on urban populations. Only limited data on toxic and hazardous waste in Sabah
(for example acid wastes, asbestos dust sludge, alkaline wastes, mineral oil,
hydrocarbon wastes, paint sludge, photographic wastes) exists today.
Noise pollution. Urban noise and traffic congestion are emerging problems in
Sabah, however, it can be expected that as the standard of living improves,
people will become more sensitive to the level of noise in the environment.
Asia encompasses some of the world’s most urbanized countries. Compared to

other parts of Malaysia, the urbanisation process in Sabah has lagged behind,
however, it is likely that urbanisation in Sabah will increase considerably in the
coming decades. The majority of Sabah’s population is still rural with a gradual
but steady shift towards urbanisation (Table 3.2).
Table 3.2. Urbanisation rates in Malaysia (% of population)(MOSTE, 1997 and

7th Malaysia Plan)
Peninsula Sabah Sarawak
‘70 ‘80 ‘91 ‘70 ‘80 ‘91 ‘00 ‘70 ‘80 ‘91 ‘00
Urban - 37 86 17 20 33 38 16 18 38 50
3.5 Sector impacts

Forestry
Overview Since independence, Sabah has remained heavily dependent on forest resources
for the generation of revenue. Forest resources provided between 40-50 % of
the State revenue in the 1990’s, compared to 60-70 % in the 1970s and 1980’s.
Logging has been carried out both on Commercial Forest Reserve and State
Land Forests. About 2.744 million hectares of the total land area of Sabah have
been constituted as Commercial Forest Reserve.
Figure 3.4 shows that from 1970 to 1996, vir gin forest areas dwindled by 90 %.
According to current projections, all virgin forest areas outside of the protected
area system will be gone by the year 2010 (Sabah State Government, 1998).
While it is frequently stated that about 60 per cent of Sabah remains under
some form of forest cover, fully protected areas where logging is prohibited by
law constitute only a fraction of this (Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.4. Virgin forest and logged disturbed forest 1970-95 (Sabah State
Government, 1998)
Figure 3.5 Forest cover in Sabah – 2000 (a) Forest Reserves, Industrial Tree
Plantations and Parks, (b) Legally gazetted natural forest, (c) Forests where
logging is prohibited by law (Forestry Department, 2000).
a
Map 3a Map 3b
b
Map
c 3c
The reduction in forest area has lead to a serious reduction in industrial raw ma-
terials, with impacts on the future sectoral composition of the Sabah state econ-
omy. This also implies a reduction in the amount of resources available to local
communities (e.g. rattan, wild game). Both selective logging and conversion to
non-forest uses have increased the rates of soil erosion and therefore affected
water supply, water quality and peak flows. The fragmentation of the exiting
forest into separate blocks has reduced biological diversity and fragmented
wildlife populations. For example, populations of rhinoceros in Tabin Wildlife
Reserve, Danum Valley and Kinabatangan are no longer in contact, reducing
the viability of each such population. Reduction and fragmentation of forest
and selective logging have increased fire risk and increased ease of access so
that poaching and illegal encroachment are made more likely.
Conversely, forestry has had positive impacts in controlling use of forest re-
sources, maintaining areas of forest that might otherwise have been lost, and
protecting biological diversity in Protection Forests, Virgin Jungle Reserves
and Wildlife Reserves. Forestry rules and guidelines are designed to control
and mitigate impacts on soil, water, forest composition and biological diversity.
Conversion of montane forest for agriculture. In the past, the cool and wet con-
ditions of the Tropical Montane Cloud Forests were not readily exploitable by
traditional people in Sabah and many of the montane forest area in Sabah have
remained intact until recently. The traditional environment of the hill peoples in
Sabah were restricted to upper lowland terrains, the highest being at about
1,200 – 1,400 m asl, corresponding to the lower limits of the lower montane
forest where cloud cover descends daily and the daily minimum temperature is
18 oC. Under these conditions, fruits of some important crops abort (e.g. ba-
nanas and coconuts); thus harvesting such crops is not possible. However, more
recently, cultivation has rapidly invaded the upper montane forest zone. This
invasion became possible through the combination of the introduction of tem-
perate crops e.g. cabbage, asparagus and modern cultivation skills i.e. the use of
fertilisers and pesticides and road accessibility. Consequently, temperate vege-
tation cultivation has now reached 2,100 m. In addition, other large-scale, mod-
ern exploitative activities have impacted this forest type including dairy farm-
ing, golf course development, unregulated tourism and the incursion of logging
activities to the very limit of harvestable forest. Most areas in the cloud forest
zone on Mount Kinabalu are protected but are under increasing pressure. How-
ever, cloud forests on other low-lying, unprotected mountains are increasingly
threatened
Agriculture
The major environmental concerns associated with the agriculture sector are
suspended solids from soil erosion as a result of extensive land clearance, and
industrial effluent discharges from oil palm refineries, which can be harmful to
diverse life forms in the aquatic and marine environment. In addition, the appli-
cation of biocide and fertilizers may spill into rivers and other water bodies,
which can be detrimental to aquatic ecosystems and human life.
Continued conversions. The regional soil surveys for the State of Sabah indi-
cate that about 29% or 2.2 million hectares of the total land area is suitable for
agriculture and therefore continued conversion of land to agriculture can be e x-
pected in the coming decades (Table 3.3). Plantations will continue to super-
sede forests, especially along the east coast of Sabah.
The wid espread use of monocropping will substantially influence and

change the environment and species diversity in Sabah.
Agrochemicals. Gains in agricultural productivity are la rgely the result of using

high yielding crop varieties requiring the intensive use of inputs such as irriga-
tion water, chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Monocropping adds to the agr o-
chemical problems, in that planting only one crop, season after season, gradu-
ally drains soil nutrients, which then requires the increased application of
chemical fertilizers and use of pesticides to prevent and control outbreaks of
diseases and pests. In Asia the use of fertilizer doubled from 1977 to 1987
(United Nations, 1990) and the rate of use has increased by 7.5 % per annum.
Adverse impacts associated with the use of fertilizers include the accumulation
of phosphates and heavy metals in soil, leaching of nitrates, phosphate and po-
tassium into groundwater and surface run-off causing pollution of rivers. Pesti-
cides used include insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. In Asia the use of
pesticides increased by 57 % per annum in the 1980s (United Nation, 1990).
Shifting Cultivation. Shifting cultivation has caused some impact on the general
landscape of Sabah. The process involves land clearing by burning the e xisting
vegetation, and replanting with fast growing crops such as hill padi, maize,
tapioca and various other types of fruit and vegetables. The crops produced are
normally just sufficient to meet the annual needs of the farmers and their fami-
lies. It is estimated that around one million hectares of land in Sabah have been
subjected to some kind of shifting cultivation activities. Shifting cultivation is
normally sustainable due to the long fallow period, which allows for the reju-
venation of soil. However, if practiced on steeper hillsides with shorter fallow
periods, the problems of soil erosion and land degradation can be potentially
serious.
Agricultural land use change. In 1992, agricultural land comprised only 12 %

of the total land area (compared to 28 % for Sarawak), with oil palm plantations
comprising 5.7 % of this total. Between 1970 and 1992, the annual growth rate
for plantations has been about 10 % (Table 3.3). Further development between
1992-97 shows that by 1997, 843,952 hectares were planted with oil palm, al-
most double since 1992. Felda Oil Palm Plantations, located in the district of
Lahad Datu, are managing about 638,000 hectares of plantations and is
among the largest oil palm producers in the world. Cocoa on the contrary has
decreased by almost 50 % to 94,331 hectares, while the area of land under rub-
ber was maintained at approximately the same level with 86,109 hectares.
Table 3.3. Agricultural land use Sabah 1970-91 (MOSTE, 1997)

1970 % 1985 % 1992 % 1992 ha
Oil palm 0.5 2.5 5.7 421,958

Cocoa 0.1 2.3 2.6 188,841
Rubber 1.4 1.2 1.2 88,022
Padi 0.6 0.5 0.9 62,284
Coconut 0.8 0.8 0.8 55,337
Other 0.1 0.1 0.7 47,640
Total agriculture 3.5 7.4 11.7 864,082
Non-agriculture 96.5 92.6 88.3 6,507,018
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 7,371,100
Tourism
The impact of tourism on the environment is diverse. In general most of the
tourism industry supports and encourages the conservation and protection of
natural resources and the establishment of protected areas for tourism purposes.
However, in the case of over-exploitation or unplanned tourism activities, dam-
age to marine parks, corals and associated marine life, clearing of forested land
for transport and access routes and buildings, increased solid waste, adverse
effects on wildlife, removal of mangrove trees for construction of boardwalks
and littering can be experienced. Over-exploitation of some of the most attrac-
tive islands in Sabah has been reported.
Since the 1980s, tourism has become an increasingly important industry both
worldwide and in Sabah. Tourism is the world’s largest and most dynamic in-
dustry with 10.7 % of worlds GDP, and the industry’s gross output is predicted
to double from 1995 to 2005. In 1995, 1996 and 1999 approximately 7.5 mil-
lion tourists visited Malaysia each year, while 1997 and 1998 experienced a
drop in visitors to 6.2 and 5.5 million respectively. According to the Sabah
Tourism Masterplan approximately 100,000 tourists visited Sabah yearly from
1980-94. The increase in tourist arrivals was less in Sabah compared to the rest
of Malaysia, but still remained high. Arrivals to Sabah increased by 29 % from
1980-94, as opposed to Malaysia’s 220% growth in the same period (Ministry
of Tourism and Environmental Development, 1995). The tourist revenue esti-
mated for 1994 was MR 187 million.
Sabah, with a number of world class tourism destinations such as Mt Kinabalu,

and activities such as nature and wildlife viewing, a range of soft and tough ad-
venture activities such as diving, snorkelling, rafting, and jungle trekking, eth-
nic cultural experiences, beaches and golfing, has in the last 5 years experi-
enced a rapid investment growth in the tourism industry and today has 255 ho-
tels with more than 10,000 rooms. Approximately 9,000 people were employed
in the industry by year 2000.
With tourism playing an every important role in the State’s economy, landscape
issues will increasingly need to be considered. For example, major tourist cor-
ridors will need to be maintained and improved so that the level of visual amen-
ity when viewed from major transport routes is acceptable. This normally takes
the form of giving due consideration to the impact of building/structure set
backs, advertising signs and landscaping along major tourist routes so as to
maintain a quality of visual appearance along the such tourist corridors.
Fisheries
Environmental problems faced by the fisheries industry include destruction of
important breeding and feeding areas, destruction of aquatic habitats and the
degradation of the aquatic environment. Wetlands, including mangrove forest,
are increasingly being cleared for agriculture, aquaculture and other purposes
and degraded by pollution or the diversion of drainage water. Coastal areas are
threatened by coastal erosion. Effluents from industrial and domestic dis-
charges, land reclamation, illegal dumping and the accidental spillage of oil
wastes all contribute to the degradation of the aquatic environment. Other prob-
lems include over-exploitation; unsustainable fishing practices e.g. the use of
spear guns, fish poisons and fish bombing.
The total fisheries production of Sabah in 1994 was approximately 170,000

tonnes with marine fisheries contributing 161,000 tonnes or 95 % and aquacul-
ture 9,000 tonnes or 5 % (Fisheries Department, 1996) Fisheries production
experienced an annual growth rate of around 6.6 between 1990-94. Difficulties
in maintaining these growth rates - sustainable yields – have been experienced
in recent years. Approximately 22,000 full-time fishermen are employed in the
fisheries industry.
Fish bombing. Studies by Universiti Malaysia Sabah, e.g. a study in 1998 on

the status of the coral reefs of Darval Bay offshore from Lahad Datu, has
shown that fish bombing activities in Sabah have resulted in serious damage to
coral reefs, resulting in declining fish catches. Work by the Institute of Biodi-
versity and Environmental Conservation of UniMas revealed that on average, 2
½ blasts of fish bombing were recorded per hour from the islands of Mabul,
Ligitan, Silam, Kunak, Mantanani and Sipadan, off the coast of Semporna.
According to the Fisheries Department, from 1996 to 2000 there has been an
overall reduction in fishing by blasting with explosives. In 1999, 91 cases of
fish bombing in the 16 districts of Sabah were reported, and 15 of these cases
were brought to court.
4 Environmental policies
A number of environmental policies already exists that can provide support for
the Sabah Structure Plan 2020. The policies are categorized below into interna-
tional, national and state level. Since a detailed description of each of the man-
agement frameworks is beyond the scope of this report, only a few of the
strategies and policies have been described here while others are listed as a ref-
erence.
4.1 International treaties

Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 (Rio de Janeiro) Rio Declara-
tion on Environment and Development (27 Principles)
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development was held in
Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Heads of State, their representatives and other national
delegates agreed on a non-binding Declaration on Environment and Develop-
ment, known as the Rio Declaration. The relevant principles outlined are:
• Principle 4. In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental

protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and
cannot be considered in isolation from it
• Principle 10. Environmental issues are best handled with the participation
of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each
individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the en-
vironment that is held by public authorities, including information on haz-
ardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to
participate in decision-making process. States shall facilitate and encour-
age public awareness and participation by making information widely
available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, in-
cluding redress and remedy, shall be provided
• Principle 11. States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Envi-

ronmental standards, management objectives and priorities should reflect
the environmental and development context to which they apply. Standards
applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted eco-
nomic and social cost to other countries, particularly developing countries
• Principle 15. In order to protect the environment, the precautionary ap-

proach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.
Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full sci-
entific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
measures to prevent environmental degr adation
• Principle 16. National authorities should endeavour to promote the inter-

nalisation of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, tak-
ing into account the a pproach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the
cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distort-
ing international trade and investment
• Principle 17. Environment impact assessment, as a national instrument,

shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a signifi-
cant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a
competent national authority.
Global Convention on Wetlands (RAMSAR) (1975) - The Convention on

Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which
provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
Agenda 21
Following the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
mentioned above, a much fuller document was produced, setting out an agen-
dum for actions during the 21s t Century. Known as Agenda 21, it contains much
material relevant to environmental management.
Langkawi Declaration of Environment 1992

Commitment by Heads of Government of the Commonwealth to implement 16
programmes of action.
Convention on Climate Change 1993

Combating deforestation and protection of oceans and freshwater resources.
International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) 1983

Sustainable Forest Management - objective year 2000.
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Culture and Natural

Heritage (1975)
4.2 National level

At the national level, environmental frameworks include for example:
Malaysian National Conservation Strategy 1992

This conservation strategies was intended to set out plans and suggestions to be
used to (i) integrate fully the many existing efforts toward natural resource
management for conservation and development, (ii) build on the strengths of
existing institutions and mechanism, and (iii) incorporate additional future e f-
forts into the process of conservation as a key to successful developments.
National Policy on Biological Biodiversity 1998

This policy is formulated with the aim to conserve Malaysia’s biological diver-
sity and to ensure that its components are utilised in a sustainable manner for
the continued progress and socio-economic development of the nation. This
policy has outlined six objectives to be achieved through the eleven outlined
policy principles.
National Environmental Policies (Draft) 1998

The National Environmental Policy is still under draft.
National Wetlands Policy (Draft) – compiled by Wetlands International Asia

Pacific).
4.3 State level

At the State Level, there are several reference works of environmental policy
recommendations of relevance, including:
Sabah Conservation Strategy 1992

The Sabah Conservation Strategy was prepared under the auspices of the then
Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Development (now the Ministry of
Tourism, Environment, Science and Technology). The three volumes provide a
thorough guide to environmental policies and actions relevant to the environ-
ment. The document outlined several recommended strategies with regards to
the environment, which are given in much greater detail in the original docu-
ment. The guiding principles outlined are:
• Planning and implementation of all work concerned with natural resources

must be holistic and multi-sectoral, emphasizing a proactive approach at
macro and regional levels rather than a reactive approach at micro and spe-
cific levels. The cause of the environmental problems rather than the
symptoms must be tackle
• The system for allocation of land use and tenure should shift during the
next five years from being a piece-meal arrangement where private inter-
ests compete for land in the absence of a regional plan, to an integrated
system where public interests and natural resource conservation take
precedence in the context of regional plans
• The target level of the annual expenditure of the State Government should
be reduced from MR 1,500 million typical of recent years, ideally to not
more than MR 1,000 million, a level which is still much higher than that of
State Governments in Peninsular Malaysia, and which will reduce the pres-
sure for continued high levels of logging of natural forest.
The recommended policies are grouped here under Land Policy, Water and
Coastal Policy, and Forest Policy.
Land Policy. These recommendations are based on intensive consultation be-

tween all levels of government.
Action Strategy 1: Institutional Strengthening. There must be an upgrading of

the capacity of the State Government to manage allocation of natural resources
and the natural environment generally, and to protect environmental quality.
Action Strategy 2: Land Allocation and Management.

a) Guidelines for land allocation:
• Government agencies involved in the processes of land allocation must
recognize the problems associated with the now-typical patterns of rural
land use in Sabah, and guidelines provided in the Sabah Conservation
Strategy should be followed.
b) Land reservation
• Land, which is unsuitable or of limited suitability for permanent agricul-
ture, and which is likely to become degraded or idle if deforested, will be
reserved by Government
• Government will reserve land, which is subject to competing, and difficult-
to-resolve claims
• Priority must be given to halting unnecessary deforestation on ridge tops
and hill tops which occur on State land and alienated land
• Adequate land under natural forest will be reserved in rural areas for ex-
clusive use by local communities for purposes of obtaining traditional for-
est products
• Rural communities whose members wish to continue to cultivate hill rice
(i.e. to practice stable shifting agriculture) will be allocated specific, com-
munally managed land areas, which will be reserved for this purpose.
c) Land alienation
• Government will make efforts to reduce the confusion and abuse which has
arisen from the liberal system of land distribution
• State land will be alienated for agriculture only if the land is truly suitable
for permanent agriculture and likely to be developed and well managed.
State land should not be alienated for agriculture on the basis of native cus-
tomary rights alone
• Where land which is unsuitable or of limited suitability for permanent ag-
riculture has been alienated or has been approved for alienation, every e f-
fort will be made to prevent degradation of the land
• Government will entertain applications for land to be retained under natu-
ral forest cover, either entirely or partially, up to a maximum of 50 acres
per holding, for purposes of sustainable wood or rattan production, eco-
tourism, or other purposes which can be justified by the applicant.
d) Erosion
• Prevailing levels and extent of soil erosion must be greatly reduced.
e) Slope limits
• Future alienation for agriculture of land mainly or entirely above 25 0 slope
will be prohibited
• Government will adopt and announce a policy that land above 250 slope is
not recommended for agriculture. Furthermore that all existing conditions
of land title whereby alienated land, which is still not developed will be
waived for land above 250 slope.
f) Sloping agricultural land technology (SALT)

• SALT will be promoted by all Government agencies involved in use of
land of greater than about 150 slope for agricultural, agro-forestry or animal
husbandry purposes.
g) Idle land
• Alienated land, which is clearly idle (i.e. predominantly under scrub or
grass which is not used as grazing land, but not land under regenerating
natural forest) will continue to be subject to fines for non-fulfillment of
land title conditions.
h) Plantation forests
• The development of plantation forests will be carried out with the follow-
ing concurrent objectives to support the goal of reducing levels of timber
cut in natural forests: (i) to support the goal of developing Sabahs domestic
forest-based industry; (ii) to make use of idle land, especially that unsuit-
able for agriculture or farming; (iii) to promote a form of land use which is
environmentally and socially appropriate for many of the rural areas of Sa-
bah, and (iv) to assist in reducing the risk of fire in natural forests
• Existing plans to convert Forest Reserves to plantation forests will be
abandoned and, instead, means and incentives will be provided to utilise
alienated land and any deforested land, which is of limited suitability for
agriculture, for wood production through plantation forests
• New proposals for plantation forests within Forests Reserves may be gen-
erated for sites which were severely degraded through logging and fire
prior to 1992, subject to a process of justification and objection.
i) Database
• Government will assist the Lands and Surveys Department to develop a
central database on land applications, land ownership and land use.
Action Strategy 11: Environmental Planning and Management Procedures.

Land use plans generated on a regional or District basis will form the basis for
land allocation in all rural areas throughout Sabah. Guidelines must be devel-
oped rapidly and used to aid decision-making on land allocation. Land, which
has been reserved by law for protection or management of natural resources
(e.g. Forest Reserve, Park, Nature Reserve, and water supply area), must be
surveyed and demarcated on the ground in a way that will be recognized in a
court of law. The potential for use of remote sensing and Environmental Impact
Assessments in planning should be more fully explored and utilized.
Water and Coastal Policy. The following recommendations would strengthen

Environmental Management through a combination of safeguarding catchment
areas, improving water quality and supply in the coastal zone, and reducing im-
pacts of polluted flows into marine areas.
Action Strategy 3: Conservation of Freshwater Resources.

a) State-wide
• The needs associated with the protection of freshwater supplies will be
given priority over all other sectors when allocating land a nd making deci-
sions on activities that affect land.
b) Water catchment areas

• Important water catchment areas will be identified on a state-wide basis
and given adequate statutory protection
• Responsibility for each important water catchment area, including imple-
mentation of protective measures, lies with the relevant agency.
c) Edges of watercourses
• The banks of watercourses must be protected to minimize erosion and to
limit entry of human-generated pollutants
• Retention of river reserves, following the guidelines already used by Gov-
ernment, will be strictly observed during land alienation and develo pment
processes. River reserves should always be marked both on the title or
lease and on the ground during the survey
• Reserves of at least 100 m must be retained along sections of large rivers,
which are clearly, and naturally changing course, except where either ex-
isting land titles or well-established, long-standing native customary rights
are held.
d) Freshwater fish
• Natural freshwater fisheries will be conserved by protecting the freshwater
and estuarine environment, and by taking steps to identify and r educe main
sources of pollutants. Natural waterways will be ‘restocked’ only with na-
tive fish species unless there are special reasons to do otherwise in particu-
lar circumstances.
e) Hydro-electric power (HEP)

• The development of HEP in Sabah should proceed, but with priority given
projects which result in inundation of small land areas which can be shown
to be unimportant for biodiversity conservation, and which cause minimal
disruption of human communities
• All HEP proposals will be subjected to Environmental Impact Assessment.
Action Strategy 6: Management of Coastal and Marine Resources. Mangrove

and nipah forests will be managed integrally and sustainable for both fisheries
and forest products, with priority given to fisheries. There will be a reduction in
trawling as a method of fishing in inshore waters. Continued efforts will be
made to reduce the amount of illegal bombing and all forms of damage to coral
reefs.
Forest Policy. The following shall maintain the integrity of forested areas, r e-
duce erosion, safeguard water quality, and improve economic sustainability:
Action Strategy 4: Conservation of Natural Forests. The management of natu-

ral forests must be based primarily on their protective functions (especially r e-
lating to water, biodiversity and prevention of adverse off-site effects likely to
result from severe disturbance) and secondarily on their productive functions
(including products other than timber). The rationale for the wood production
component of natural forest management must rapidly become the annual har-
vesting of volumes of wood, which are sustainable in the long-term, and not the
supply of revenue to the State Government.
Natural forest conservation will be tackled primarily through: (a) prevention of

unnecessary deforestation, (b) improved management of all natural forests, and
(c) increased allocation and use of land outside existing reserved forests for for-
est-based purposes. Natural forest cover should be maintained on all land ex-
cept where specific areas are likely to be used more productively, and wit hout
significant adverse environmental effects, under alternative uses. Special atten-
tion must be given to maintaining the integrity of reserved forests. Precedents
must not be allowed to be set which will permit uncontrollable long-term en-
croachment and degradation. Government should facilitate public support for
the Sabah Forestry Department’s ongoing efforts to stop illegal logging. Levels
of logging damage must be reduced by implementing (short-term) financial
penalties on license-holders, based on actual amounts of damage done during
logging and (long-term) a new system of awarding logging licenses, which im-
proves the incentive for license-holders to minimize damage.
Action Strategy 5: Conservation of Biodiversity. The fullest possible array of

Sabahs natural biodiversity must be conserved in situ. As a long-term goal, at
least 10% of Sabah’s land area must be retained as totally protected forest habi-
tat and the total extent of natural forest should never be reduced to less than
50% of the land area. Support will also be given, especially to the Department
of Agriculture, Sabah Forestry Department and Wildlife Department, for ex situ
protection of biodiversity.
Action Strategy 10: Support for Development of Forest-based Industry. Efforts

to develop a sustainable, integrated forest-based industry in Sabah must be
broadened and accelerated, but the wood requirements of the industry must be
very much less than is presently the case. Activities carried out to support for-
est-based industry must always support sustainable management of natural for-
ests. Natural forests (including secondary and degraded forests) will be man-
aged for wood and rattan production wherever possible in preference to clear-
ance and replacement with plantation forests.
Action Strategy 12: Prevention of Forest Fires. Concerted efforts must be made
to prevent forest fires, whether localized or widespread.
Sabah Tourism Master Pla n 1996

Tourism in Sabah is very much influenced by the management issues of natural
resources. Therefore, the Natural Resource Policy outlined in the 6th Malaysia
Plan (1991-95) was an important consideration in the preparation of the Sabah
Tourism Master Plan (1996). This policy is aimed to:
• Promote nature conservation by establishing additional protected areas like

national parks, marine parks, wildlife sanctuaries and nature reserves
• Promote nature and conservation education
• Promote forest recreation
• Promote tourism through national parks and protected areas
• Carry out scientific research.
5 Environmental management
Institutions that deal with environmental issues at present are of two levels, the
Federal and the State level.
At the Federal level, the institutions that deal with environmental issues include
DOE under the Ministry of Science Technology and the Environment
(MOSTE), DID, the Malaysian Institute of Maritime Affairs, the Malaysian
Meteorological Service and the Marine Department.
At the State level, the Federal Department of Environment (DOE) is responsi-

ble for enforcing the Environmental Quality Act 1974 (EQA). The Environ-
mental Conservation Department (ECD) under the Ministry of Tourism, Envi-
ronment and Science and Technology has recently been formed and provides
advice on development of land and natural resources. The Natural Resources
Office and the Lands and Surveys Department under the Chief Minister’s De-
partment, the Department of Drainage and Irrigation (for, rivers, coastal erosion
and engineering), Water Department, Department of Industrial Development
and Research (industrial development planning) the Ministry of Local Govern-
ment and Housing, Local Authorities (the Municipal councils), and Town and
Regional Planning Department (planning at town and district level) are also
involved directly in environmental issues. Other departments involved are: For-
estry Department, Fisheries Department, Wildlife Department, and Sabah
Parks, Ports and Harbour Department and Agriculture Department. With such a
range of departments involved, each individual approach is based on an indi-
vidual sector basis and departmental jurisdiction often overlaps.
Three key environmental management tools exists, namely:
• Establishment of protected areas

• Integrating environmental issues into regional land use planning
• Environmental protection and monitoring.
Each of these management tools is described below in brief.
5.1 Establishment of protected areas

In recognising the importance of forests and other natural resources in Sabah,
conservation efforts have been placed under the direct responsibility of the
Government and implemented by departments such as the State Forestry De-
partment, Sabah Parks, Wildlife Department, Fisheries Department, Yayasan

Sabah and the Environmental Conservation Department.
The key towards conservation of biodiversity of both flora and fauna is to cre-
ate totally protected areas in key habitat where exploitation and destruction and
disturbance is prohibited. In general it is considered that approximately 10 % of
a nation’s land area has to be conserved in order to provide sufficient protection
of habitats and biodiversity. In Sabah, land gazetted as Parks, Protection Forest
Reserves and Virgin Jungle Reserves amount to approximately 5.8% of the
land area (Table 5.1 & Figure 5.1insert figure of existing protected areas).
Table 5.1. Protected Areas 1991. Million ha. (MOSTE, 1997)

National Parks Wildlife/bird Total
sanctuary
Sabah 0.25 0.14 0.39

Sarawak 0.08 0.18 0.26
Peninsular Malaysia 0.43 0.31 0.74
Total 0.76 0.63 1.39
Direct benefits of protected areas

Direct benefits of protected areas are those with tangible, immediate and meas-
urable. They can include:
• Protecting renewable harvestable resources

• Supporting nature related recreation and tourism
• Protecting wild species
Indirect benefits of protected areas
Protected areas provide a number of indirect benefits in the form of services
which depend on intact ecosystems. These can include:
• Stabilising hydrological regimes

• Contributing to climatic stability
• Protecting soils
• Contribution to the natural balance of the surrounding environment
• Providing facilities for scientific research and education
The following conservation areas are crucial components of Sabahs protected

areas system. For most of them, critical issues are the proper demarcation of
boundaries; the question of adjacent land use so as to form effective buffer
zones; and the avoidance of impacts from other land uses.
Under the jurisdiction of Sabah Parks:

• Pulau Tiga
• Tunku Abdul Rahman Park
• Turtle Islands Park
• Kinabalu Park
• Crocker Range Park
• Tawau Hills Park.
Under the jurisdiction of the Sabah Wildlife Department:

• Mantanani BS (1933)
• Sipadan BS (1933)
• Lankayan Conservation Area (2000)
• Likas BS (1997).
Under the jurisdiction of Forest Department, managed by Sabah Wildlife De-

partment:
• Tabin Wildlife Reserve
• Kulamba Wildlife Reserve
• Gomantong Forest Reserve.
Under the jurisdiction of Sabah Foundation:

• Danum Valley Conservation Area
• Maliau Basin Conservation Area.
5.2 Integration of environmental issues into regional

planning
The EIA system and environmental comments on land applications and devel-
opment plans are commonly used methods for the integration of environmental
concerns into the development process. However, the environmental assess-
ment of development projects in isolation, or on a case-by-case basis alone does
not always amount to sufficient environmental planning. Such environmental
assessments are for example, limited by the fact that they primarily apply to the
assessment of large r, more formal development projects. Smaller and informal
develo pments, however, often have a cumulative effect, which may amount to
an overall significant impact. The present assessment procedures may bypass
such developments.
Most environmental land use planning methodologies and technologies now

available are based on the experience of industrialised countries. There is there-
fore a need to modify these approaches to make the process compatible with the
realities presently confronting newly industrialising countries i.e. high popula-
tion growth rates, rapid resource depletion and environmental pollution.
Regional planning usually takes place at both the national and regional levels.
The physical plans produced as part of the planning process at this level nor-
mally range in map scale from 1:50,000 to 1:25,000.
From the national perspective, Regional planning is concerned with optimising

the use of national space in the development process. A country is seen as a
system of regions each of, which constitutes a distinct geographic, socio-
economic, functional or administrative component of national space and each
of which comprises a system of settlements and hinterland areas. The regional
planner at the national level often concentrates on the interregional implications

of patterns of development in the different regions.
In Malaysia medium term national development plans are formulated for five-
year periods. The five-year plans cover all sectors of the economy and include
independent chapters on the environment a nd this explicit incorporation of en-
vironmental considerations into development activities reflects environmental
commitment and concern at the highest government level. The five-year plans
provide guidelines for the achievement of sustainable development and the en-
hancement of the environmental quality and should pave the way for the incor-
poration of environmental matters into development strategies.
From the regional perspective Regional planning is concerned with using re-
gional resources in a way that maximises the benefits to the economy and popu-
lation of the region. Regional planning is not a neatly defined discipline; it
draws on perspectives from the broad fields of economics, geography, town-
planning and organisational development. Integrated regional economic -cum-
environmental development plans are not simply a compilation of separate eco-
nomic and environmental plans. They should show the linkages between eco-
nomic development, resource use and the production of residuals and impacts
on environmental quality and communities. Any regional environmental devel-
opment plan, even if it is not economic-cum-environmental in scope, should
give attention to regional economic considerations so that all proposed envi-
ronmental projects will be economically sound.
Regional planning potentially allows linkages between sectoral national pla n-

ning and project planning and between physical and socio-economic and spatial
linkages through which project impacts are expressed. Regional planning also
allows the identification of the institutional arrangements necessary to ensure
beneficial integration of projects into the economy of a sub-national area. An
understanding of regional planning is essential for defining the role that envi-
ronmental land use planning can play in regional development.
Environmental land use planning

Environmental land use planning is defined as a planning process through
which environmental considerations are incorporated into socio-economic de-
velopment. It is only through this type of planning that the integration of envi-
ronmental matters into the development process can be achieved, thereby mov-
ing part way to securing sustainable development.
In terms of physical planning environmental concerns at the regional level are

normally addressed by the following:
• Nature protection/conservation
• Landscape protection
• Water protection
• Location of EIA required activities
• Specific safety zones for high risk installations
• Restricted zoning for environmental parameters i.e. light, noise etc.
Although such an environmental land use plan will prioritise the environmental
legislation of the Department, it may also incorporate other relevant environ-
mental requirements e.g. water catchments and riparian reserves. Ideally the
environmental land use plan should also incorporate other relevant environ-
mental legislation e.g. the Sabah Water Resources Enactment (1998). By means
of spatial analysis of environmental data, the environmental land use plan will
further identify areas that are environmentally sensitive. It is therefore envis-
aged that the environmental land use plan will provide information that will
support and assist decision-making concerning Land Applications and Devel-
opment Plan approval. In the medium to long term, this would allow greater
control over development activities and environmental planning and manage-
ment at the local and district level.
At the environmental land use plan scale of planning (1:50,000), environmental

decision-making is normally concerned with the following issues:
• Identifying sites for nature protection/conservation

• Landscape protection
• Water protection
• Location of EIA required activities
Locations that require restricted zoning for environmental parameters or risk

e.g. high-risk installations, light, and noise.
The environmental land use plan should best represent the above environmental
concerns by means of spatial zoning, thus providing guidance at an early level
of the decision making process, as to the suitability of project location.
For the environmental land use plan to succeed the procedure needs to be re-
sponsive to the social context of any particular setting therefore the specific
goals, administration and regular practices of the society must be well under-
stood. This allows for the purpose, approaches and strategies for the environ-
mental land use plan to be defined in ways that strengthen existing procedures.
The environmental land use plan should make as much use as possible of the
existing administrative resources and institutional arrangements.
Environmental land use planning should support regional planning as a fully

integral component.
The most difficult aspect of the environmental land use plan is achieving and
maintaining the multilevel co-ordination that is required to facilitate implemen-
tation. Resources, sectors, programmes, projects, administrative levels, partici-
pants in the planning and management process, sources of funding and so on
are found in a unique variety and quantity at the regional level, where adminis-
trative ability to co-ordinate is often weakest.
In developing an approach to incorporate environmental considerations into

planning procedures, it should be borne in mind that the traditionally environ-
mental land use plan should include four primary elements:
• Assessment of the situation and preliminary identification of goals

• Information collection and analysis
• Co-ordinated policy formation (including integration into regional pla n-
ning)
• Co-ordinated policy implementation.
Traditionally the basic activities for using environmental analysis to co-ordinate

regional environmental programmes include:
• Inventorying regional environmental resources and hazards in terms of

their quantities, qualities, sources and spatial distribution, and documented
in maps and text so as to be useful for regional pla nning purposes
• Analysing regional environmental systems. A region is a complex area of
interlocking environmental systems. A common pattern is first for individ-
ual components of environmental systems to be analysed and inventoried,
then for the systems to be analysed and documented and finally for the re-
lationships among systems to be studied, e.g. deforestation in zone A will
increase flood hazards in Zone B. The maps and accompanying text should
be designed to be useful for an evaluation of interactions between regional
environmental systems and other regional systems. Risk or sensitivity
analysis performed should also be mapped (the results) and should be de-
signed to be useful for formulation of regional environmental resource and
hazard management strategies and for co-ordinating regional development
programmes
• Identifying regional environmental/development interactions
• Formulating resource/hazard management strategies
• Co-ordinating regional programmes.
5.3 Environmental protection and monitoring

Environmental Impact Assessme nt (EIA)
Until 1998, the only legal tool used in addressing environmental issues was the
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) which is a legal requirement under
the Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974, as amended in 1985. The EQA is a
legal framework to manage the environment and the most significant mecha-
nism is the implementation of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). In Sa-
bah, EIA is a mandatory requirement under Section 34A of the Environmental
Quality Act, 1974 for activities prescribed in the Environmental Quality (Pre-
scribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 1987.
Under the then Ministry of Tourism Development Environment and Culture,

the Environmental Conservation Department (ECD) was formed in August
1998 and the Department is now responsible for enforcing the newly enacted
Conservation of Environment Enactment 1996. In 1999 the Conservation of
Environment (Prescribed Activities) Order 1999 was gazetted, making Envi-
ronmental Impact Assessment (EIA) a mandatory State requirement for Pre-
scribed Activities. Any person intending to carry out any prescribed activity
needs to submit an EIA report to the Director of the Environmental Conserva-
tion Department for examination. The overall objective of the Prescribed Ac-
tivities Order is to regulate and mitigate activities associated with Section 5 of
the Conservation of Environment Enactment 1996.
The Existing Process and Procedure of EIA in Sabah. A primary objective of

ECD is to ensure responsible, effective and environmentally sound environ-
mental management by implementing an EIA system. The EIA procedure con-
tributes towards this objective by means of providing and examining develop-
ment alternatives and the assessment of any associated adverse environmental
impacts. The procedure culminates in an agreement upon and implementation
of recommended mitigation measures and subsequent compliance and residual
impact monitoring.
The objectives of the EIA procedure can be summarised as:
• To examine development options available and select the most appropriate

• To identify and predict the significance of any adverse environmental im-
pact
• To identify and incorporate into the project appropriate mitigation meas-
ures
• To determine effective monitoring programmes of compliance and envi-
ronmental impact.
A project that has been designed to suit the local environment is more likely to
be completed on time and within budget and is more likely to avoid difficulties
along the way.
ECD has chosen to implement an EIA procedure, which focuses on:
• Prioritisation and prediction of the most significant environmental impacts

• Identification of appropriate and cost-effective mitigating measures
• Recommendations on sufficient and realistic monitoring programmes for
compliance and environmental impact.
• Focussed, appropriate a nd realistic Terms of Reference for the assessment.
This will allow for a more flexible EIA procedure, that should vary in
breadth, depth and type of analysis depending on the project
• Transparency and openness in all steps of the EIA procedure, from initia-
tion to review and approval.
It is important to stress that the EIA procedure is primarily a tool to predict the
environmental impacts of a development project and to suggest adequate miti-
gation measures and monitoring programmes. EIA should therefore be seen
primarily as an assessment and mitigation tool.
EIA reports are regarded by ECD as environmental information supplied to the

Department and/or the Review Panel in order to review the predicted environ-
mental impacts of the proposed project and to prepare an Agreement of Envi-
ronmental Conditions that will be co-signed by the project proponent and sub-
sequently monitored by the Department. The Agreement of Environmental
Conditions specifies the mitigation measures and monitoring programmes to be
implemented by the project proponent. This final stage is a key component of

the EIA procedure in Sabah.
Role of ECD and DOE. The State ECD and Federal Department of Environ-
ment (DOE) jointly share the responsibility for administering the EIA system in
Sabah. ECD is responsible for EIAs covered by the Conservation of Environ-
ment (Prescribed Activities) Order 1999. While the Department of Environ-
ment is responsible for EIAs covered by the Environmental Quality (Prescribed
Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order, 1987, however, in Sa-
bah, the order only applies to Prescribed Activities not listed in the Conserva-
tion of Environment (Prescribed Activities) Order 1999. Project proponents and
EIA consultants are requested to contact the Departments for further clarifica-
tion of responsibilities and specific procedures.
Involvement of other Departments. Many government departments are involved

in the EIA process. The level of involvement varies depending on the nature of
the development project. At the conclusion of the study, the E1A report is dis-
tributed to the relevant departments and agencies that are invited to sit on the
review panel to review and assess the study.
The following departments are invited to sit as a review panel and give com-
ments to all EIA reports submitted to the Department of Environment, Envi-
ronmental Conservation Department, Department of Drainage and Irrigation,
Public Works Department, Land and Survey Department and Natural Re-
sources Office and Town and Regional Planning Department
The following departments are invited to give comments on EIA reports on

projects relevant to the jurisdiction and function of the department. For exa m-
ple, the Minerals and Geosciences may be invited to sit in a review panel if the
EIA report is for Quarry operation and may not be invited to sit in a panel for
EIA on golf course development: Marine Department, Ports and Harbour De-
partment, Port Authority, Minerals and Geosciences Department, Department
of Agriculture, Local Authority, WWF and Forestry Department.
Limitation and gaps in the present EIA process as an environmental planning

tool. There are several limitations in the present implementation of EIA in the
state of Sabah. One of the most important limitations is the lack of awareness of
the strength of EIA as a planning tool. This has led to a lack of co-operation
from developers. Many perceive the EIA as a hindrance to development. This
hindrance may be in the form of delay in project approval and implementation
or the length of time taken in the EIA study and the delay in r eview process.
Also, EIA studies are often carried out late in the planning process, after the
final plan design is completed and approved, which leads to difficulty in chang-
ing the design.
An EIA study is only required if the project f alls within the prescribed activities
list and there is no legal requirement for those activities that are not subjected
to EIA Order. However, Section 5A can be used under the Conservation of En-
vironment Enactment 1996 for activities not listed under the Order. The pre-
scribed activities lists are project and site specific that have not taken into a c-
count the cumulative effect of the activities that are outside of the prescribed
activities. Often EIA studies are omitted when the size of the project does not
fall in the prescribed activities although the project might be detrimental to the
environment. A solution to this problem is the implementation of regional envi-
ronmental planning in order to plan for possible cumulative impacts and incor-
porate environmental concerns within District or Regional plans.
Therefore in order to cope with the projected increase in land use pressure and
maintain a good quality of life, environmental considerations should be incor-
porated into all matters related to land use development. Ideally good environ-
mental management should not only respond to the problems now but will con-
sider the effects of the increasing numbers and affluence of people on the natu-
ral resource base of the future.
Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring are defined as a process for repeated observations
and measurements of physical, chemical and or biological parameters of single
or plural elements of the environment at specific places and intervals with par-
ticular objectives, supplemented with monitoring of socio -economic parame-
ters. It is necessary to have access to consistent and accurate environmental
data and information before any sensible actions can be formulated for envi-
ronmental management. Constraints hampering monitoring generally include
legislative and institutional arrangements, limitations of budgetary allocation,
insufficient coverage of indicators to be measured, low frequency of monitor-
ing, insufficient laboratory and equipment facilities and the lack of trained
manpower.
Environmental monitoring activities may target ambient parameters e.g. water

and air. Monitoring activities for other natural resources are not so well organ-
ised. The continued improved access to remote sensing, however, has consid-
erably improved the situation in this respect, particularly for the monitoring of
land use and land resources.
Presently several departments/agencies are involved in environmental data col-

lection such as DID, DOE, ECD, JKR, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Minerals
and Geosciences Department, Department and Health Department. The parame-
ters that are currently monitored by these departments are:
• Air quality especially in industrial areas

• Noise Level especially in industrial areas
• Water quality (fresh and marine water quality)
• Pesticides content in vegetables and food
• Available water resources
• Wastes.
Limitation identified in the current process of monitoring:

• The main environmental parameters or the criteria for their determination

that should be used need to be identified and defined alongside sampling
frequency, location and methods and agency
• Present monitoring is only carried out to meet a particular agency’s re-
quirements and does not provide sufficient data to establish an overview of
the environment for the whole state of Sabah
• The data management and reporting system needs to be established
• At present there is no single agency with overall responsibility for envi-
ronmental monitoring and reporting in Sabah
• No methods have been developed for monitoring biodiversity. Baseline
data on ecological other natural resource parameters are still lacking
• The present monitoring for pesticides is only for pesticides in vegetables
and no monitoring is done on pesticides that get into the water bodies. This
lack of adequate monitoring applies also to other ecological toxins.
Environmental standards, rules and regulations

All environmental protection must be related to objectives that are stated in en-
vironmental standards, rules or regulations. These standards, rules or regula-
tions are usually minimum quality of life values acceptable for human well-
being.
Setting appropriate environmental standards, rules or regulations is complex

requiring considerable expertise. It is recognised that standards, rules or regula-
tions should be something that can actually be achieved within the existing sys-
tem.
Sabah currently uses the standards for the monitoring of noise, water quality
and air quality recommended by the Federal Department of Environment as a
guideline. Only a few regulations have been developed.
Environmental databases
A systematic environmental information database is a valuable aid to decision-
makers and planners in formulating and evaluating comprehensive and effec-
tive environmental policies, standards, rules or regulations. The system covers
the natural as well as the man made environment including a wide rang of hu-
man activities, natural events and environmental impacts. Significant progress
has been made in database development in recent years with the increasing
availability of GIS.
Environmental Auditing
Environmental audit provides the means by which existing environmental con-
ditions can be defined and compared to provide a snapshot of environmental
change set against a defined time frame. Environmental audit can be considered
in two forms. In certain industries or resource exploitation processes, it is pos-
sible and increasingly more common; to demand an annual audit of the con-
sumption of energy and raw materials, waste production, and waste treatment
by the industry concerned. Such audits may form part of the licensing and
monitoring of these processes and serve also to maintain high standards of en-
vironmentally sound development. A more difficult audit is to establish the
situation of the natural environment by an audit of natural resources and land
use. Such an audit cannot accurately be done until substantial quantitative data-
bases of natural resources are available. However, it is possible in all cases to
develop qualitative analysis systems that can show the trend of change in natu-
ral systems while at the same time adding to the existing database. The current
mechanisms for environmental auditing are:
• DOE generally carries periodical reporting on the state of environment

• Instant reporting are from project studies carried by DOE or other agencies
• Indirect environment assessment may be done based on other indicators.
6 Recommendations
The recommendations outlined below refer to the key environmental manage-
ment tools described in chapter 5.
6.1 Establishment of new conservation areas

The Identification of Potential Protected Areas (IPPA) component of the Sabah
Biodiversity Project (1998) focused on six areas previously identified as being
potentially significant for biodiversity conservation. Management agencies and
responsibilities have been clearly identified for all of the areas. It should be
noted that since these recommendation were made, some of the areas are under
pressure from neighboring land uses (Figures 6.1 (Indetified Potential Protected
Areas & 6.2 Both IPPAs and existing PAs). All of the identified areas are under
considerable pressure from surrounding land uses and it is therefore imperative
that management options be implemented immediately.
Potential and recommended future conservation areas include:
Ulu Padas. Ulu Padas refers to the upper catchment of the Padas River, a high-
land areas at elevations of 3,000 to over, 6,000 ft above sea level. The area is
mainly Commercial Forest Reserve and a village area comprising both State
and titled land. The area contains forest types not found elsewhere in Sabah in-
cluding exceedingly rare plants not found outside of Ulu Padas and the area is
thought to be comparable to Kinabalu Park in terms of plant diversity and end-
ism.
The high rainfall, dense network of streams and highly erodible soils indicate
the importance of forest cover on the area’s steep slopes to avoid negative im-
pacts of flooding and erosion downstream. The forests in this area contain natu-
ral resources important for communal use by the Lun Dayeh community that
resides in the villages of the Long Pasia and Long Miau.
The area is under immediate threat from ongoing commercial logging activ ities
and although much of the area has been selectively logged or converted to in-
dustrial timber plantation, there is still scope for conservation action. This in-
cludes the re-designation of compartments previously designated for industrial
timber plantation back to natural forest management; the set aside of small a r-
eas of kerangas (heath) forest rich in biological diversity; the protection of his-
torical, cultural and archaeological sites; the maintenance of traditional walking
routes between Sabah, Kalimantan and Sarawak. The international Timber Or-
ganisation and the Sabah Forestry Department have begun looking at the possi-
bility of setting aside 20,000 ha of the Ulu Padas Forest Reserve for biological
diversity conservation.
Lower Segama. The lower Segama study site refers to the riverine strip sand-
wiched between two Wildlife Reserves in the east coast of Sabah: Kulamba
Wildlife Reserve to the north and Tabin Wildlife Reserve to the south. Both
these reserves are outstanding in that virtually all of Sabah’s large animal spe-
cies occur here. The lower Segama is covered in logged freshwater swamp for-
est and there is evidence of intensive large mammal, primate and bird life in the
area, inkling footprints of the Sumataran rhinoceros. This provides evidence of
the importance of the area as a forested corridor to facilitate the movement of
wildlife between the two reserves. Most of this land is currently State land un-
der application for title and is vulnerable to forest conversion, repeated logging
and hunting unless steps are taken to assure its conversion. The forest is also
important for nurturing local fisheries and the local Tidong communities rely
predominantly on subsistence farming and the harvest fish and prawns for their
livelihood.
Lower Sugut. Lower Sugut refers to the lowland floodplain forest along the
Sugut River in northeastern Sabah. The area contains an array of forest types
such as riverine, freshwater swamp forest, kapur forest, lowland dipterocarp
forest and east coast peat swamp forest, many of which are disappearing fast in
other parts of Sabah. Apart from its botanical diversity, this region is also rich
with wildlife. Oxbow lakes and steep sandstone ridges add to the natural beauty
of this region. Orang Sungai fishermen rely on the health of the freshwater
swamps and waterways for fisheries resources. Without concerted efforts to
conserve biodiversity in these areas many of these forest habitats are likely to
be converted to plantations or become degraded by repeated logging.
Klias Peninsular. The Klias Peninsular is the largest remaining wetland area in
the west coast of Sabah, located on the delta of the Padas and Bulau rivers. The
area consis ts of several transitional wetland habitats comprising mangrove for-
est, Gymnostoma forest, nipah swamp, open swamp, riverine forest and mixed
peat swamp forest (PSF). PSF is an especially rare habitat that is becoming en-
dangered in Sabah. Especially as large areas of PSF in the Klias Peninsular
were destroyed in the 1998 fires. These habitats provide a refuge for the endan-
gered proboscis monkey, silvered leaf monkey and estuarine crocodile. The
Klias Peninsula contains areas important for many species of resident wetland
birds as well as a diversity of migratory birds, including large numbers of ducks
and certain globally threatened species such as Storm’s Stork.
The Klias Mangroves nurture the fisheries resources of Brunei Bay and many
of the communities in the two study areas investigated under the IPPA rely on
the fisheries as a main source of income or for personal consumption. The wet-
lands also play a role in flood mitigation and preventing coastal erosion. Al-
though there are several forest reserves, large areas are rapidly being drained
and converted to agriculture and other uses. As wetlands are hydrologically
linked, land use in adjacent areas must be planned in order not to damage these
important wetland forests.
Crocker Range Foothills

Only the upper parts of the Crocker Range are contained within the Crocker
Range Park (CRP). The foothills refers specifically to the hilly land from the
base of the range to the CRP boundary. The Crocker Range is unique in Sabah
in encompassing an undisturbed continuum of forest from true lowland diptero-
carp forest below 500 feet altitude to montane forest above 4,000 feet. Some
tree species are believed to be endemic to lowland and hill dipterocarp forests
of north-western Borneo. It is believed that the area still harbours a breeding
population of Orang-utan.
Many parts of the Crocker Range foothills were identified as significant water
catchment areas. Over the years the land outside the CRP has been repeatedly
logged or converted to oil palm plantation. The process of alientation is still
ongoing and the forests of this area were badly damaged by the 1998 drought
and fire. The upper catchments of the Membakut, Bongawan and Kimanis riv-
ers are in danger of becoming irreversibly degraded due to repeated logging and
fire. It is imperative that the importance of the foothills of the Crocker Range
for biodiversity and water catchment protection be addressed in planning.
Nabawan. The Nabawan site was selected as it represents the only significant
sites for kerangas or heath forest in Sabah and possibly the only significant sites
for kerangas. Kerangas forest is a kind of low stature forest that occurs on nu-
trient-poor sandy podsolic soils. The Nabawan kerangas forest are outstanding
as they support rich and spectacular orchid flora. These forests have exceptional
potential for biodiversity conservation and research, nature education and rec-
reation and nature tourism. At the time of project completion only 1000 ha r e-
mained intact, and less than 20 percent of this occurs within protected areas.
Wild meat is an important source of protein to the local Murut in this interior
area. In addition to adjacent natural areas the kerangas forest serves as an a c-
cessible hunting area for local people, especially as forest areas become
increasingly scarce in Sabah.
Semporna Islands Park. This area has been proposed to be conserved by Sa-
bah Parks. A draft management plan exists with maps and proposed zoning.
The residents of two islands (Pulau Selakan and Pulau Sibankat) have requested
to be included within the proposed park area.
Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary. The area has been proposed by Sabah

Wildlife Department. A draft management plan exists and this has been up-
dated by the department. Out of ten proposed sections, six have been gazetted
as a bird sanctuary under the Land Ordinance (Cap.68). There is an urgent r e-
quirement to complete gazettment of the remaining four sections and to re-
gazette all ten under the Wildlife Conservation Enactment (1997). The area
owned by SAFODA and Borneo Samudra is an important forest connection
between upriver and downriver sections of the sanctuary. Since the area is gen-
erally unsuitable for agriculture it should be maintained under natural forest.
There is a need to maintain a connection of natural forest downriver between

sections 1 and 2 of the sanctuary and the nearby mangroves.
Sungai Imbak Reserve. The area proposed includes the narrow valley between
the two existing ridge-top Virgin Jungle Reserves. Without the intervening val-
ley, the function of the two VJRs would be seriously impaired. Preliminary
surveys have been carried out by various scientists but as yet no overall man-
agement plan exists.
Other identified potential conservation areas include:
• Pulau Banggi/North Borneo/ Marudu Bay

• Pulau Jambongan
• Bukit Silam and Darvel Bay islands
• Binsuluk Forest Reserve. On the Klias Peninsula, this is one of the few r e-
maining areas of peatswamp forest on the west coast.
• Darvel Bay. This area should include the mainland area up to and includ-
ing Bukit Silam. This land area is very important for plant diversity. Being
on ultabasic rocks it is poorly suited to agriculture. Its protection will help
to safeguard water quality in the bay. Sabah Parks has an existing proposal.
• Danum Valley to Maliau Basin. Sabah Wild life Department has proposed a
zone of forest to be protected, 5km wide on each side of the Kuamut River
(i.e., totaling 10 km width).
• Wetlands in Sabah and in particular coastal wetlands are currently under-
represented in the protected area inventory. Wetlands generally should be
protected and that Sabah should aim to include at least one wetland site
under the RAMSAR Convention.
6.2 Environmental issues into regional planning

It is strongly recommended, that
• Regional plans are developed and adhered to for all main development or
environmental sensitive regions in Sabah
• Environmental issues are integrated into these regional plans.
These environmental regional land use plans, covering one to several catchment
areas, should be generated on a regional or District basis and should form the
basis for land allocation in all urban and rural areas in Sabah.
The reasons for the recommended increased focus on the development of r e-

gional or District plans are, amongst others, that while EIA may provide some
solutions for environmental management on a project to project basis, the im-
pact of the EIA tool remains limited in the light of limited regional planning.
It is furthermore recommended that environmental guidelines for regional plan-

ning, land zoning and alienation should be developed or improved.
The following general principles should be incorporated into Land Use Plan-
ning Schemes and/or local plans:
• Wherever possible large blocks of forest should be retained, they should

not be fragmented, for example, by roads and agriculture. This will reduce
fire risks, enhance their value to biological diversity and maintain the eco-
nomic viability of forest blocks.
• Corridors should be maintained between forest patches.
• Agricultural and other development should be avoided on flood-prone and
swampy areas, e.g. the floodplains of rivers such as the Segama, Kinabtan-
gan, Labuk and Sugut rivers.
• Planning boundaries (boundaries between different land uses, water
catchment areas, property boundaries) should where possible follow natu-
ral f eatures such as watersheds and avoid cutting across steep hills, cliffs,
rivers, etc
• Buffer zones should be retained around existing and potential protected
areas
• River reserves should be retained wherever possible. When possible their
width should be tailored to the natural hydrological functions of the river
(e.g. flooding) above and beyond the existing guidelines.
• A minimum river reserve standard is that no construction, clearing or re-
moval of vegetation should take place within 20 metres from a stream or
river with a width of more than 3 metres is allowed
• Urban development and settlements should where possible be downstream
of protected areas so that effluent, sediment and solid waste input to pro-
tected areas is minimized
• The expense of river straightening, canalization and dredging should be
avoided (including by upstream catchment management and siting down-
stream developments outside the influence of floods).
• All existing protected areas (e.g. Class I Protection Forests, Class VI Vir-
gin Jungle Reserves, Class VII Wildlife Reserves, Parks, Wildlife Sanctu-
aries etc.) should be retained
• Alienation and development on hill with slopes having a gradient of 20
degrees or more should requires additional assessment
Intended development plans/developers should also take into consideration the

Conservation of Environment (Prescribed Activities) Order 1999, making Envi-
ronmental Impact Assessment (EIA) a mandatory State requirement for Pre-
scribed Activities.
6.3 Environmental protection and monitoring

Three recommendatio ns are made in order to strengthen environmental protec-
tion and monitoring.
1. Development and implementation of protection and monitoring tools,

as rules, regulations and standards
Establishment and implementation of standards, rules and regulations for envi-
ronmental protection. This could for example be:
• Environmental regulations for pig farming

• Environmental regulations for construction on steep slopes

• Environmental regulations for oil palm plantations
• Regulations for establishment and operation of landfills
• Environmental regulations for sewerage discharge.
Furthermore it is recommended that an environmental audit of natural re-

sources management and protection should be introduced and practiced in Sa-
bah. New legislation and regulation should allow for environmental audits to be
introduced, initially in a limited form to specific hotspot issues or areas. As a
long-term objective, the following steps should be taken towards developing
environmental audit:
• Developing a system of auditing natural resources management and protec-

tion as a condition of license based initially around prescribed activities
and related to certain environmentally sensitive areas. This system may be
broadened in scope over time
• Establishing an audit of change and trends in natural resources manage-
ment and protection, using existing monitoring date and a space time frame
of 3-5 years. This form of audit could also be initiated on an issue on spa-
tial basis to take account of significant environmental factors. The natural
resources to be monitored could be air, landscape, inland waters, marine
waters and flora and fauna.
Finally it is recommended that a inter-departmental Environmental Monitoring

Committee is formed to consider all aspects of monitoring with coordination
between agencies concerned with monitoring is due to a single responsible
agency.
2. Development of the application of the EIA tool

While it was earlier thought important to expand the number of prescribed a c-
tivities covered by the EIA system, given the nature of the development process
in Sabah, it is now considered that improvements in the environmental screen-
ing related to the land alienation and development plan procedures provides
better opportunities for environmental planning. The above recommendation
should be supported by improving regional planning, and environmental pro-
tection and monitoring procedures. This would reduce the number of EIAs re-
quired but improve the effectiveness of the tool overall. Currently EIAs are r e-
quired for projects which are too small size. The EIA tool should only be re-
quired for larger environmental projects and issues that can and should be dealt
with at an early stage - the planning level.
It is recommended to review the Prescribed Activities Order during 2002 and

implement the proposed changes. It is also recommended to continue the de-
velopment of EIA guidelines for key environmental impact areas, for example
forestry, oil palm plantations, aquaculture and mining.
3. Development of specific policies and actions plans for environmental

prote ction
Development of policies and action plans for specific environmental areas of
concern. This could for example be:
• Protection of river reserves

• Protection of river water quality
• Protection of coral reefs
• Protection of steep hill slopes.
An example of a specific policy and action plan is provided below:
State Policy on protection of steep hillslopes
1. Vision
To maintain the integrity of the hillscape in Sabah by the application of effective
legislation and enforcement, and regional land use planning schemes for all impor-
tant hill areas.
2. Policy Statement
To ensure that development activities on hillslopes is carefully planned and impl e-
mented, thereby avoiding unnecessary detrimental impacts on the environment,
landscape and surrounding settlement s.
3. Principles
Hillslope Development activities shall be based on the following principles:
• Hills scenery constitute an important part of the cultural and physical land-
scape of Sabah and as such are an integral part of the State heritage, yielding
benefits locally, nationally and internationally, both for the present and future.
• It is the responsibility of all sectors to maintain the hillscape of Sabah and en-
sure that it is prudently managed and developed
• Development on hillslopes must be planned and gui ded by the natural envi-
ronmental setting - let the site influence the plan
4. Objectives
• To strengthen the present framework for control and management of devel-
opment on hillslopes
• To ensure that all Government Agencies and the public are aware of and ad-
here to existing regulations, requirements and procedures
• To identify the key issues, geographical locations and stakeholders involved in
hillsope development
• To prepare land use planning schemes and local plans for all important hill
areas in the state
• To strengthen cooperation and management of hillslope development activi-
ties
5. Rationale
Overview
The terrain of Sabah is generally hilly and mountainous. The western part of Sabah
is dominated by the 50 km wide, 1,200 to 1,800 m high Crocker Range, which
stretches from the Sarawak border in the southwestern corner the Kinabalu massif
at its northern end in Mount Kinabalu (4,093.37 m). Between the Crocker Range
and the sea on the west coast is an extensive, heavily populated coastal plain with
hills reaching down to the sea in many places.
East of the Crocker Range are several less prominent ranges. In the south central
and part of east Sabah, the topography is dominated by a series of circular to sub-
circular basins ranging from 16 to 50 km across and are defined by curved ridges,
up to 1,800 m high, and valleys.
The Lokan Peneplain, 65 km wide and 180 to 300 m high occurs between Telupid
and Sandakan. The southern part of the Sandakan Peninsula is hilly and terminates
in a number of spectacular escarpments facing Sandakan harbour. The Semporna
Peninsula is dominated by steep volcanic hills stretching parallel to the south coast.
Inland from Tawau and Lahad Datu, the terrain is mountai nous, with hills of more
than 900 m high.
Five inter-montane plains are located along the west coast and interior.
Flat, non-swampy land available for development in Sabah is thus limited in extent
compared to the hilly terrain, which constitutes most of Sabah. As pressures from
population growth, economic activities and land u se activities grow; it is inevitable
that the hilly areas will be deve loped.
Construction on hillslopes is becoming increasingly evident in urban centres and

hilly areas with tourism potential such as Kundasang and Gunung Emas in Penam-
pang. The types of structures erected on such slopes range from residential houses
to commercial condominiums/apartments and chalets; other structures include tem-
ples, water storage reservoirs and telecommunication/transmission towers.
It is anticipated that construction on hills will increase in the near future as pres-
sures from population growth, economic activities and land use continue to i n-
crease.
Needs
Hills can have considerable development potential because of the views and attrac-
tive setting they provide. Historically, construction on hills had been conceived on
short-term benefits with the rights of the individual prevailing. However, there are
rising community expectations concerning the maintenance of visual values, nat u-
ral habitat and biodiversity around urban and growth centres. Hillslopes are often
prone to hazards such as soil erosion and landslide as is evident from past inc i-
dences, resulting in loss of lives and property. Development in these areas can
compound such hazards and render them highly visible and costly to deal with.
There is, therefore, a need to better manage and control construction activities on
hills to reduce environmental impacts and to reduce loss of lives and property.
Future management decisions on hillsope development should also be based on the

princ iple of sustainable development because of the unique values associated with
hillslopes, which makes them a natural resource in their own right. In this context,
sustainable deve lopment means that resources should be used in ways that do not
jeopardise future use of the resource. Strategic planning, which recognises visual,
conservation and recreational values, can provide clearer directions for future uses
and management.
The Policy on hillslope development will help to ensure that such management de-
cisions are impl emented on a statewide basis.
Legislation
The need for controlling development on hillslopes has been recognised for many
years. It is reflected in a number of legislative controls administered by various
government age ncies, for example:
• City/Municipal/Local District Council- Written Approval of the Development

Plan under Section 23 of Land Ordinance 1930 and Land Rule 3(2)
• The Central Town and Country Planning Board - for approval to r ezone the
land on which construction will be carried out under Part I, Section 3 of the
Town and Country Planning Ordinance 1950
• Environmental Conservation Department (ECD), Sabah – EIA Approval to

carry out construction activities on hills with slopes having gradient of 20 de-
grees or more from the Director of ECD under the Conservation of Environ-
ment Enactment 1996 and the Conservation of Environment (Prescribed Ac-
tivities) Order 1999 . Construction of buildings for commercial purposes or
buildings exceeding 4 storeys high for residential purposes on hills with slopes
having gradient of 20 degrees or more and construction of parks, resorts or
other recreational facilities or major roads on hills with slopes having gradient
of 20 degrees are Prescribed Activities, which require an EIA a pproval prior
to pr oject commencement.
Most of the approvals for hillslope development are issued on a piecemeal basis
and little attention has been given to the cumulative effects, which a number of e x-
isting or future operations may have on the hill environment as a whole.
Environmental Impacts
The major adverse environmental impacts of hillslope development are:
(a) Slope erosion. Site clearing during earthworks result in the removal of vegeta-
tion and the creation of cleared surfaces, which become vulnerable to the erosive
action of rain and surface runoff. Erosion on exposed slopes starts with rain splash
leading to sheet, rill and gully erosion creating badlands if the site is left exposed
for too long or abandoned altogether. Cuts and fills change the slope angle, often
creating steeper slopes. The steeper the slope, the faster the surface runoff flows
and the more force it will have to remove material downslope.
(b) Slope stability. Landforms are the product of the local balance between weat h-
ering, erosion and deposition and are continuously evolving. Natural slopes that
have been stable for years may suddenly fail because of development activities on
hills.
Changes to the terrain and hydrology through construction or earthworks may

cause erosion, which create conditions conducive to mass movement if exposed
surfaces are not pr otected within a short period. Exposed rocks will be weathered at
a faster rate and the weat hered material is susceptible to movement especially when
sat urated with water.
Over cutting the toe or over steepening of the slope gradient can induce instability.
Slope cutting changes the slope topography and releases residual horizontal
stresses and cause expansion of the slope. Joints or weak zones may be exposed
along which sliding may occur. Placement of fill will also lead to i ncrease in shear
stresses acting on slopes and may lead to slope failure.
Drainage patterns of an existing terrain may be altered as a result of construction.

The change in groundwater flow patterns may cause changes detrime ntal to the
stability of the newly constructed slopes of the existing in-situ slopes that were sta-
ble prior to construction.
(c) Landscape impacts. The impact on landscape is the direct physical change to
existing landscape features such as vegetation, topographical, geomorphological
features and recreational facilities as well as buildings and structures. Visual im-
pact is a change to the appearance of the landscape and the subsequent effect on the
views of groups of people at particularly sensitive viewpoints. Visual impact can
vary from overall improvement to degradation. Construction on hills will bring
about a change in the landscape and will thus have a visual impact on landscape
quality.
Other adverse environmental impacts of hillslope development include:
• Loss of ecological habitat

• Objectable noise levels from construction and transportation activities
• Vibration associated with piling, vehicular movement and blasting
• Dust and atmospheric pollutants from machinery and transport vehicles
• Wastewater and solid waste disposal.
6. Strategies and action plans

The Policy will be guided by the following strategies and action plans:
Strategy 1: Strengthen the present framework for control and management of

construction on hillslopes (Development Plan level)
Action Plans:
• Enforce existing regulations and guidelines related to construction on hill-

slopes
• Strengthen the existing Town and Country Planning Ordinance by making it

mandatory for land developers to follow guidelines for development in hilly
areas when planning and submitting development plan proposals
• Strengthen the implementation of the Conservation of Environment (Pre-

scribed Activities) Order and the accompanying guidelines for construction on
hillslopes
• Promote co -ordination in the implementation of hill resources management

between the different units managing, controlling and enforcing regulations on
construction activities on hillslopes at district and state levels
• Conduct seminars and other relevant information dissemination activities for

all relevant Government agencies personnel on regulations, requirements, pr o-
cedures and criteria when processing and approving development plan pro-
posals.
Strategy 2: Enhance awareness on the present regulations, requirements and

procedures for development on hillslopes
Action Plans:
• Conduct seminars and road shows and use mass media, pamphlets, booklets
etc. to inform land developers and the public on the regulations, requirements
and procedures when planning and submitting development plan proposals for
approval
• Create awareness among land developers that construction on hillslopes might

have adverse downstream effects and that they must do their part in reducing
the negative impacts downstream and on adjacent land users. Land developers
and the public should be made aware of the need that construction on hill-
slopes should be implemented without destroying the unique characteristics of
the hills. The policy of ‘let the site influence the plan’ shall be adopted.
Strategy 3: Improve the knowledge database

Action Plans:
• Conduct studies to (i) document existing construction on hillslopes and their

impacts on the environment, including slope stability, erosion and landscape
impacts, (ii) cut and fill activities, (iii) agricultural activities – both shifting
and permanent (iv) identify catchment areas or hills with high ecological and
landscape values where current or past development are/had taken place and
take immediate action to conserve these areas, and (v) determine the develop-
ment capacities of hills which are currently being developed; if the carrying
capacities have been exceeded, take immediate action to restrict and control
new constructions
• Promote international, national and local collaboration on issues related to

hillslope development.
Strategy 4: Prepare land use planning schemes and local plans for all impor-
tant hill areas (planning – zoning - level)
Action Plans:
• Review existing land use planning schemes and local plans covering critical
hill areas and update accordingly to be in line with the Policy
• Prepare new land use planning schemes and local plans for all hill areas with
priority given to hills, which have potential to be developed. Land use plan-
ning schemes and local plans for hill areas have to be evolved with an area b a-
sis perspective, shall take into consideration the water catchment basis and
must be prepared using an integrated approach taking into account conserva-
tion issues vis-à-vis development needs, thereby ensuring compatibility b e-
tween conservation of hill natural resources and construction activities on hill-
slopes. The planning of hill areas shall be carried out in an integrated and co-
ordinated manner between all agencies involved
• Secure that the land use planning schemes and local plans prepared are fully
implemented and enforced
• Take action to gazette hill areas which have been identified to be conserved
• Amend or enact new regulations to manage and control construction activities

on hills where necessary, for example legislation that specifies type of con-
struction allowed and low-impact facilities, forbids high-rise structures on
hills, limits density, demarcates sensitive hill areas that requires Special EIA,
makes developers put down a good behaviour bond to ensure that they take
adequate care of the environment and make good any damage the develop-
ment causes.
Strategy 5: Strengthen institutional implementation framework (implementa-

tion level)
Action Plans:
• Set up an inter-agency working group for hill development. This working

group will be responsible for integrating all resource planning and setting state
priorities
• Identify the potential for reallocation of resources and seek new and additional
sources for the implementation of the strategies of the Policy on hillslope de-
velopment.

Sabah Structure Plan 2020: Environmental and Conservation Workgroup

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sabah Structure Plan 2020: Environmental and Conservation Workgroup

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sabah Structure Plan 2020: Environmental and Conservation Workgroup

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Environmental and Conservation Workgroup

Sabah Structure Plan 2020

2 State of the environment in Sabah 4

3 The impact of society on the environment 13

This environmental review comes at a time of increasing national and interna-

• Providing a framework for allowing continued but sustainable develop-

How the environmental input to the structure plan is prepared?

The final step is to make recommendations, based largely on the preceding

2 State of the environment in Sabah

As regions of 'megadiversity' the responsibility placed upon countries such as

Landmarks Realizing the importance of environmental conservation and protection in the

2.1 The inland waters

Chemical pollutants such as biocide residues originating from pesticides, insec-

The Environmental Quality Report 1990 published by the Department of Envi-

Domestic Sewage. Municipal wastewater discharges, especially of untreated

In Sabah, the Kinabatangan floodplain is one of Malaysia's most treasured wet-

Presently, mangrove timber harvest and aquaculture activities do not pose a

2.2 The marine environment

Marine water quality

Suspended Sediments. Suspended sediment loading from rivers is one of the

Bacterial Pollution. Bacterial pollution is presently not a major problem due to

The Shoreline Management Plan report (1999) indicates that approximately 63

Man is the main agent of extinction, causing it by altering habitats, overexplo i-

2.4 The air

3 The impact of society on the environment

• The high population growth rates

3.1 Population growth

The population of Sabah is expected to grow from approximately 1 million in

Table 3.1. Population and growth rates.(7th Malaysian Plan) 2000

Population 1,055 1,867 2,389 3,343

3.2 Socio-economic development

As with population growth, high rates of socio-economic growth sets the

3.3 Land use

Forest reserves (protective forest, commercial forest, domestic forest and

Urbanisation and land. The conversion of natural and agricultural ecosystems

Solid Waste Disposal. Solid waste disposal is found to be a major problem in

Asia encompasses some of the world’s most urbanized countries. Compared to

Table 3.2. Urbanisation rates in Malaysia (% of population)(MOSTE, 1997 and

3.5 Sector impacts

The wid espread use of monocropping will substantially influence and

Agrochemicals. Gains in agricultural productivity are la rgely the result of using

Agricultural land use change. In 1992, agricultural land comprised only 12 %

Table 3.3. Agricultural land use Sabah 1970-91 (MOSTE, 1997)

Oil palm 0.5 2.5 5.7 421,958

Sabah, with a number of world class tourism destinations such as Mt Kinabalu,

The total fisheries production of Sabah in 1994 was approximately 170,000

Fish bombing. Studies by Universiti Malaysia Sabah, e.g. a study in 1998 on

4.1 International treaties

• Principle 4. In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental

• Principle 11. States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Envi-

• Principle 15. In order to protect the environment, the precautionary ap-

• Principle 16. National authorities should endeavour to promote the inter-

• Principle 17. Environment impact assessment, as a national instrument,

Global Convention on Wetlands (RAMSAR) (1975) - The Convention on

Langkawi Declaration of Environment 1992

Convention on Climate Change 1993

International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) 1983

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Culture and Natural