Commodities and Colonialism

Commodities and Colonialism

Verhandelingen van het

Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-,
Land en Volkenkunde
Edited by
Rosemarijn Hoefte
KITLV, Leiden
Henk Schulte Nordholt

KITLV, Leiden
Editorial Board
Michael Laffan
Princeton University
Adrian Vickers
Sydney University
Anna Tsing
University of California Santa Cruz
VOLUME 286
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/vki

Commodities and
Colonialism
The Story of Big Sugar in Indonesia, 1880-1942
By
G. Roger Knight
LEIDEN • BOSTON
2013
Cover: samgobin.nl
The realization of this publication was made possible by the support of KITLV (Royal
Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies).
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013931781
ISSN 1572-1892
ISBN 978-90-04-25051-2 (hardback)
ISBN 978-90-04-25109-0 (e-book)
Copyright 2013 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing,
IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher.
Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke

Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance
Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA.
Fees are subject to change.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Contents
abbreviations vii
preface ix
introduction
java sugar and the age of mass production 1
1 a new epoch
the asian connection 17
2 a precocious appetite
fertilizer, horticulture and agro-industry in the field 53
3 bureaucracy versus plantocracy

the colonial state and ‘big sugar’ 97
4 no business like sugar business

from profit to investment 123
5 enmeshed in lilliput
constraints on growth 153
6 no escape
the hva and the djatiroto project 165
7 making the best of it

the twenties and the apogee of big sugar 189
8 commercial nemesis
java, japan and the raj 211
| Contents
conclusion and postscript

the story of ‘big sugar’ in indonesia 235
appendix 1. various data, circa 1880-1940 241
appendix 2. main export destinations

java sugar, circa 1880-1940 243
appendix 3. productions costs at the modjo agoeng

sugar factory, surabaya residency, east java, 1905-1940 247
bibliography 251
index 285
vi
Abbreviations
BB Binnenlands Bestuur
BENISO Bond van Eigenaren van Nederlandsch-Indische
Suikerondernemingen
BOT Bank of Taiwan (Taiwan Ginko)
BPM Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij
CSR China Sugar Refinery
DJB De Javasche Bank
HVA Handelsvereeniging Amsterdam
IISG Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis
JSS Papers of John Swire and Sons
KB Koloniale Bank
KHT Kwik Hoo Tong Trading Society
KIT Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen
KITLV Koninklijk Instituut voor de Taal-, Land- en
Volkenkunde
KNIL Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger
KNSM Koninklijke Nederlandsche Stoomboot Maatschappij
KPM Koninklijke Paketvaartmaatschappij
MT metric ton
NA Nationaal Archief
NEHA Nederlandsch Economisch-Historisch Archief
NHM Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij
NILM Nederlandsch-Indische Landbouw-Maatschappij
NIVAS Nederlandsch-Indische Vereeniging voor de Afzet van
Suiker
OTHC Oei Tiong Ham Concern
PFB Personeel Fabriek Bond
POJ Proefstation Oost-Java
VJSP Vereniging Verenigde Java-Suiker
ZA zwavelzure ammoniak
Preface
Sugar yesterday was what oil is today: a commodity of immense global

importance whose tentacles reached deep into politics, society and
economy. Indonesia’s colonial-era sugar industry – operating almost
exclusively on the island of Java – is largely forgotten, except by a small
number of regional specialists writing for a specialist audience. During
the period 1880-1940 covered by this book, however, the island was one
of the world’s very greatest producer-exporters of the commodity. How
it contrived to do so is the story of this book.
There are quite a number of histories of the industry, though most
of them deal with it in a fragmented and somewhat insular fashion. Most
recent studies (including the author’s own) have been regional ones, and
have largely ignored how the industry’s developments were shaped by the
‘big picture’ of sugar as a major world commodity. Indeed, their focus
has been less on the industry per se than on its impact on the social and
economic evolution of rural Java. Essentially, they belong to the field of
‘peasant studies’ rather than to the history of commodities. It is precisely
this latter perspective, however, which is espoused by the present volume.
Some parts of the title of a book called Commodities and colonialism:
The story of Big Sugar in Indonesia, 1880-1942 need more explanation
than others. ‘Commodities’ is hardly problematic. The large-scale com-
modity production of agricultural goods for international markets was
inseparable from the economic history of much of Southeast Asia from
early in the nineteenth century up to the Second World War. In the case
of colonial Indonesia, from around 1880 until the 1920s, sugar was the
foremost of these in terms of value, and constituted a key node along a
global commodity chain that linked Indonesian producers to (primarily,
from circa 1905 onward) consumers elsewhere in Asia. Consumers as
well as producers play an important role in this book.
‘Colonialism’ is likewise hardly exceptionable, though it might per-
haps have been so a few decades ago, among those who still conceived of
it as a monolithic enterprise. The vacuity of that view, and of the simple
| Preface
binaries to which it gave rise, is hardly a matter for elaboration today.

Colonialism is clearly central to the story; but then, as Fred Cooper has
famously remarked in a euphoniously entitled book, ‘Colonialism’ is it-
self ‘in question’. If colonialism helps ‘explain’ sugar, then sugar in turn
serves to highlight the varieties of colonialism itself. Quite deliberately,
while focusing on the big picture of the industry’s development, the book
also draws attention to things that help give colonialism its texture and
complexity. One result of this is that there are a lot of people – ‘colonial’
people – in the following pages (while much of the statistical ‘apparatus’
will be found only in the appendices).
The phrase ‘Big Sugar’ may cause more difficulty for the reader. It is,
of course, an anachronistic usage when talking about the industry late in
the nineteenth and early in the twentieth century. Yet, it conveys some-
thing of the sheer heft – the weight and the influence – of sugar capital’s
positioning in this particular colonial enterprise. At the same time, it also
makes possible an important distinction about the commodity’s produc-
tion in late colonial Java. Juxtaposed with Big Sugar, in the sense of the
heavily capitalized, industrial-style manufacture of the commodity for
export, was a local, small-scale artisan ‘industry’ of considerable antiq-
uity that provided the people of Java (and elsewhere in Indonesia) with
a totally different form of the product. Since the focus of the present
volume is firmly on the story of an industry controlled almost exclusively
by Dutch and Indies-Chinese interests, the use of the term ‘Big Sugar’ to
delineate its operations avoids a conflation that is potentially damaging
to an altogether broader understanding of the commodity’s history in
this part of Southeast Asia.
That Southeast Asian context is underscored by the use of the term
‘Indonesia’, rather than ‘Java’ or ‘the Netherlands Indies’. To be sure, the
present-day Indonesian state only emerged from the Netherlands Indies
during the second half of the 1940s, and (as is emphatically not the case
today) sugar production was confined historically to the island of Java,
with its famously fertile soils and densely settled population. Nonetheless,
‘Indonesia’ conveys a level of meaning to twenty-first-century readers
that is otherwise in danger of being lost. The point is hardly controver-
sial, any more than that of the time frame of ‘1880-1942’ chosen for the
present study. Chronologically, it begins, approximately and appropri-
ately, with the opening of new markets for new types of sugar – white,
‘pure’ and factory-made – in Asia itself (something of which Big Sugar
x
Preface |
in Indonesia took massive advantage), and ends some fifty or more years
later with the sudden collapse of the hegemony that the Indonesian sugar
industry had established in those markets over the intervening decades.
This book is one of the many outcomes over the years of my research
on this particular commodity and its place in the history of colonial-
ism in Asia and in the international sugar economy. Correspondingly,
it draws hugely on the work, assistance, advice and support of others.
Not being an American academic, I will not spend the next five pages
identifying them. They know who they are and they know my profound
gratitude. One person I will name, however, because he did not live to
see the completion of a work whose genesis he did so much to encourage.
This is Professor Frans Hüsken, late of the Universities of Amsterdam
and Nijmegen. Like all those scholars who had the extreme good fortune
to know Frans, I am for ever in his debt.
xi
Introduction
Java sugar and the age of mass production
During the middle decades of the nineteenth century (circa 1830-1880),

colonial Indonesia’s sugar industry emerged from relative global obscu-
rity to a position in the front rank of the world’s manufacturers of the
commodity. Sugar production in the Indonesian archipelago was almost
totally confined to Java until the mid-twentieth century: for more than
two hundred years, the island had been one of many such centres of
production of the commodity that were scattered around the eastern
hemisphere, across an arc that ran from the Indian subcontinent through
to the Ryukyu Islands immediately to the south of Japan. By the early
1880s, however, this situation had changed radically. As a producer-
exporter, Java stood at the apex of the international sugar economy,
in company with the larger cane sugar industry of Cuba and a trio of
(likewise larger) northern European beet sugar producers – Imperial
Germany, Austria-Hungary and France. As such, it far outclassed any
of its erstwhile Asian counterparts. Around 1830, Java’s production of
the commodity amounted to only a little over 6,000 tonnes, whereas by
1881 it had risen to 288,000 tonnes. This was in excess of 8 per cent of
the world’s recorded production of industrially manufactured, ‘centrifu-
gal’ sugar (Cuba’s was over 14 per cent) – and twice that percentage in
respect to cane sugar production alone.1
Even so, colonial Indonesia’s position in world markets was far from
secure. Toward the close of the nineteenth century, the international
sugar economy was drawn into what has been aptly termed a dawning
age of industrial mass production. Its central features were major inno-
vations in metallurgy (cheap steel), transportation (mass, low-cost freight)
and motive power (electricity and the internal combustion engine).
1 Data on Java sugar production (for 1830 and 1881) from Creutzberg 1975: Table 7, and for re-
corded world production (1880-1881) from World sugar economy 1960:21, Table 1.
| Commodities and colonialism
Together with the science-based technologies likewise associated with the

‘second’ industrial revolution that reached its apogee around 1914, these
developments transformed the observable characteristics of the world
production and trade in sugar: continuous throughput, ongoing advance
in the science and technology of production and a constant preoccupa-
tion with economies of scale became the order of the day.2
Under these radically changed conditions, sugar became very big
business indeed. It did so, moreover, in conjunction with an increasing
demand for the commodity – not only in the West, but also in much of
Asia. In particular, a mass global market emerged for sugar that was both
white and industrially manufactured: the kind of sweetener, in short, that
had hitherto been largely confined to Europe and North America and to
wealthier consumers. In close association with these changes in taste, the
age of mass production came to be defined not only by massive, high-
tech sugar factories, but also by equally massive refineries, the prototypes
of which appeared almost contemporaneously in New York and Hong
Kong during the course of the 1880s. Sugar had become a commodity
manufactured and subsequently refined to a common standard, and
traded at a ‘world’ price telegraphed around the globe by a handful of
brokers in London and New York.3
On the face of it, however, colonial Indonesia’s chances of success-
ful adaptation to the new requirements and opportunities of the age of
mass production were poor. The spectacular rise of sugar in Java over the
preceding half a century had a quite singular character that might well
have foreclosed on the possibility of further advance. In the first place,
the industrial project had been fostered in a unique, agrarian context that
appeared to set limits to its further expansion. Secondly, the capitaliza-
tion of production had taken place in a fashion which appeared to have
a finite capacity to sustain the financial requirements of the age of mass
production. Thirdly, the overall location of Java sugar within the colonial
state and, in turn, that state’s location within systems of international
commerce, seemed anything but promising for the future of ‘Big Sugar’.
2 See, in particular, Dye 1998:1-4, 10-4.

3 Albert and Graves 1984:1-8.
2
Introduction |
steam and steel in the garden of the east
Above all else, the story of sugar in colonial Indonesia between 1830 and
1880 had been one of an industrial ‘project’ grounded in steam and steel
– contingent and, to an extent, unplanned, but a ‘project’ nonetheless.
The essential dynamic here was related to the nineteenth-century rein-
vention of the sugar industry, a reinvention resulting from the industry’s
position on the cutting edge of the ‘first’ steam-powered and metallurgy-
based industrial revolution. The connection had begun in the 1780s, with
the harnessing of steam engines to the mills that ground sugar cane for
its juice. Over time, steam power both sped up the process exponentially
and rendered it a great deal more efficient in terms of rates of extrac-
tion.4 Nonetheless, the crucial developments in the nineteenth-century
revolution in sugar manufacture related less to the crushing process per
se than to what happened to raw juice after it had been expressed from
the cane. It was here that advances in metallurgy, machine technology
and chemical science really came into their own. Together, they were
manifested in a series of inventions that enabled cane juice to be clari-
fied and condensed to near-solid state, using steam heat under reduced
air pressure in closed pans of an increasingly complex and sophisticated
kind. The two key devices were the vacuum pan and, subsequently, the
so-called multiple-effect apparatus. These did away with the old, ‘rule-
of-thumb’ uncertainty of the open-pan manufacture (in which sugar was
boiled into near-solid state over direct heat) that had previously reigned
supreme, in one form or another, in sugar manufacture worldwide. From
the 1820s onward, these new steam-and-vacuum methods were taken up
in metropolitan refineries (for which they were initially developed) and by
raw-sugar makers in the colonial periphery. They were also adopted by
an emergent European beet-sugar industry that was soon engaged with
its cane counterpart in a competition for markets.
Among the great global commodities, sugar is unique in that it came
to be produced in entirely disparate regions of the world from totally
different raw materials. In the form manufactured from cane, sugar has
a long history. Its origins were in south China and the Indian subconti-
nent, and its manufacture began in the West in, perhaps, the thirteenth
4 For the discussion in this and the following paragraphs, see Deerr 1949-50, II:534-95; Galloway
1989:120-42; Leidelmeijer 1997:39-68; Curry-Machado 2011:23-47; Bakker 1989:15-26, 135-63;
Munting and Perkins 2000.
3
century (where it was taken up from the Arab civilizations of the Fertile
Crescent) and subsequently spread from the Mediterranean via the
Atlantic islands into the New World. Beet sugar is of very much more
recent origin. Promoted in France during the Napoleonic wars as a sub-
stitute for the sugar whose entry into Europe was impeded by the British
blockade, beet sugar really took off as a commercially viable product
several decades later. Beet was not simply a rival of cane, however. The
particular exigencies of its production – and the new industry’s location
relatively close to the hubs of Europe’s metallurgical revolution – had the
effect of forcing the pace of the industrial project worldwide.
These developments in the international sugar economy lay at the
heart of the nineteenth-century transformation of sugar manufacture
in colonial Indonesia. To be sure, the island of Java was not the only
place in Asia where the industrial project in sugar was essayed during
the course of the nineteenth century. It was, however, the only location
in which it was both launched and successfully carried through over a
period of more than half a century. Promising starts elsewhere ground to
a halt in the Indian subcontinent (only to be spectacularly revived in the
twentieth century);5 slowly sank into obsolescence in Mauritius, which
had once been an industry leader in the region;6 and failed to reach their
undoubted industrial potential, as in the Philippines, where an important
‘pioneer’ industry had (temporarily, as it turned out) literally and figura-
tively run out of steam by the century’s closing decades.7 Elsewhere in
5 For sugar production in the Indian subcontinent during the early and mid-nineteenth century, see,
for example, Amin 1984:32-80; Marshall 1987:5-22, 34-9; Ratledge 2009.
6 According to North Coombes (1937:124), in 1862 some 56 of the island’s 300 factories had installed
vacuum pans and most of these operated with centrifuges. Deerr (1949-50, II:561-2) says that the first
vacuum pan was installed there in 1844. Leon (1848), writing in the late 1840s, remarked that Mauritius
was the only British colonial plantation known to him ‘where the modern process of making sugar has
tolerably succeeded’. For Mauritius in general, see, for example, Allen 1981. By the 1870s, the Mauritius
industry had entered a long period of stagnation and had ceased to be a major producer in world terms
(though it continued to supply substantial quantities of the commodity to Indian markets). Indeed, by the
century’s end its factories were authoritatively described as antiquated museum pieces. See Noel Deerr,
as quoted in Prinsen Geerligs 1904:1328.
7 On developments in sugar production in general in the Philippines during the course of the nine-
teenth century, see, for example, Aguilar 1998; Larkin 1972; McCoy 1982. According to Deerr (1949-50,
II:562) a couple of vacuum pans were first installed in the Philippines in 1879. Other sources, while
indicating steam mills, have nothing to say about vacuum pans or multiple effect before the early twen-
tieth century. In 1890s the Negros industry’s foremost apologist lamented that a system of industrialized
centrals (that is, a system of production in which cane grown in a variety of locations is manufactured into
sugar in large central factories) had yet to appear, arguing that it was ‘because of his lack of capital’ that
the planter-manufacturer of Negros was forced to adopt ‘quick and simple methods’ which produced
only a low grade of muscovado sugar from the excellent raw material available to the mills (Echaúz
4
Introduction |
the immediate region, attempts to produce sugar on an industrial scale

on the Malay Peninsula petered out around 1900, in response to the bet-
ter prospects of rubber and competition from cheap imports.8
These varying degrees of failure elsewhere in Asia left the colonial
Indonesian producers largely on their own. The vacuum pan had made
a precocious appearance in Java in around 1830,9 but it was almost
another twenty years before it began to establish a substantial presence
on the island. Despite this late start, however, by the late 1850s Java was
not so very far behind world leader Cuba in respect to the number of
steam-operated installations in its factories’ boiling houses.10 Also very
much like its Caribbean counterpart, moreover, mid-nineteenth-century
Java’s sugar industry mixed up-to-date equipment with the old and the
‘obsolete’. In common with other leading sectors of the international
sugar economy, however, during the 1870s the industrial project in co-
lonial Indonesia began to take on a new coherence, associated with the
installation of the fully fledged version of the multiple effect apparatus
(its origins went back to the 1840s), and, with it, a decisive shift to fully in-
dustrialized, continuous operation.11 By the mid-1880s, the Java industry
had already gone far enough down this road of technological progress to
substantially bolster its ability to survive the global commercial crisis that
struck the international sugar economy at that time.
1978:61). ‘It is an astonishing fact’, remarked an early twentieth-century American investigator, ‘that so
little attention is paid in Negros to the importance of skill and care in the manufacture of sugar, even by
the present crude methods.’ He estimated that not more than one plantation-owner in twenty was fully
conversant with the sugar-manufacturing process (Walker 1910:111-2).
8 Hollen Lees 2007.
9 John Pitcairn (administrator of the P&T estate in West Java) to Van den Bosch, 14-8-1830, in:
Nationaal Archief (NA), The Hague, Collectie 115 J. van den Bosch, 1627-1914, toegangsnummer
2.21.028, inventarisnummer 426. ‘[…] I am anxious to inform your Excellency that a machine lately
invented in England for boiling sugar by steam has been sent out to me, which will likely arrive in the
course of this year. It possesses many advantages over the present mode of boiling sugar […].’
10 According to data collected by Leidelmeijer (1997:138), nearly 60% of the colony’s 96 contract
sugar factories (56 in all) were equipped with vacuum pans circa 1857. There were around 56 such fac-
tories equipped with vacuum pans of one kind or another, whereas in Cuba at around the same time 77
factories were similarly equipped. See Curry-Machado 2011:29, note 21, 208. He states that 32 of these
factories were equipped with De Rosne apparatus (from the great French-Belgian manufacturer) and
that 20 were equipped with ‘Rillieux [proto-type] Multiple Effet’. He also points out that the majority of
Cuba’s sugar factories were not equipped with vacuum pans at this date.
11 Initially designed, like the vacuum pan before it, for operation in refineries, the multiple-effect appa-
ratus was originally considered far too bulky and expensive for use in raw-sugar production. Nonetheless,
that is precisely where it began to appear, in rapidly increasing numbers, from circa 1870 onward. On
this point, see Deerr 1949-50, II:562-72; Soames 1872:58; Lock, Wigner and Harland 1882:269-73.
5
Indeed, it was in respect to the adoption of the multiple-effect ap-

paratus that colonial Indonesia’s lead in matters of technology over any
other Asian sugar industry became decisive. With a few exceptions in the
Indian subcontinent, there is little evidence that apparatus of this kind
made their appearance in raw-sugar factories elsewhere in Asia prior
to the twentieth century. Given the existing strength of their industrial
manufacturing base, by the closing decades of the nineteenth century
colonial Indonesia’s producers were uniquely positioned among Asian
producers to exploit the possibilities of the mass market for the industri-
ally manufactured (‘centrifugal’) form of the commodity that was open-
ing up throughout the East. Indeed, their sole competitors in this market
were not from Asia at all, but from the great beet-sugar-producing areas
of northern Europe.
sugar without plantations: the java sugar complex

and the cultuurstelsel
Similar advantages, however, did not accrue so unequivocally in respect

to the agrarian foundations of production as they did in respect to
manufacturing. These foundations were a legacy of the Cultuurstelsel, the
‘system of [state] cultivations’ that had so dominated the formative phase
of the industry’s modern history.12 Under the Cultuurstelsel, an industry
had developed based on nearly one hundred (mostly) new-built factories
scattered across the densely populated lowlands of East and Central
Java (a significant number of factories existed outside the Cultuurstelsel,
particularly in the principalities of South-Central Java, but the bulk of
production came from enterprises working within it). The group of con-
cessionaires that was contracted to run these factories under the auspices
of the Cultuurstelsel was comprised of local or expatriate Europeans (most
of them Dutch) together with a minority of Indonesian-Chinese (there
were no Javanese among their ranks).
The sugar complex in which the contractors’ operations were embed-
ded, courtesy of the Cultuurstelsel, was an entirely singular one. The ‘sugar
plantation’ as conceived in the heavily Caribbean-centric literature on
the international manufacture of cane sugar did not exist in Java; nei-
12 The most notable recent scholarship includes Elson 1984, 1994; Soetrisno 1980; Fernando 1982;
Suryo 1982; Knight 1993; Van Niel 1992; Van Baardewijk 1993.
6
Introduction |
ther did slavery, nor the indentured forms of labour that later (in part)
supplanted it in the New World and elsewhere. Instead, there existed in
Java under the Cultuurstelsel a different kind of servitude, imposed on a
settled peasantry whose land and labour was commandeered by the state.
Rather than ‘expropriating’ Java’s petty rural producers in pursuit of the
development of large-scale commodity production (in other crops as well
as sugar) the Cultuurstelsel sought to keep the peasantry ‘intact’ through a
system of crop rotation (Dutch: wisselbouw) that saw cane alternated on
existing village farmland with rice and other ‘peasant’ crops.13
In fact, it did not really work out that way. Although building on a
legacy of labour service and crop-levies inherited from the pre-colonial
state, mid-century developments saw the moulding of a specifically ‘colo-
nial’ peasantry out of an earlier, altogether more amorphous, rural social
and economic order. One of its features, very relevant to the expansion
of large-scale sugar production, was the increasing presence within
peasant society of a group with little or no land that was – notionally at
least – ‘available’ for the kind of seasonal workforce that the industry re-
quired, without the need to resort to outright coercion. In this important
sense, the ‘servitude’ imposed by the Cultuurstelsel was gradually being
transformed well before the system itself was phased out as far as cane
growing was concerned during the course of the 1880s. Nonetheless, the
essential feature of the sugar complex exploited by Indonesia’s colonial
sugar producers was – and remained – the fact that cane, far from being
a monoculture carried on (largely) in the absence of other significant
cultivations, was solidly located within the cycle of ‘peasant’ agriculture
that constituted the core of the much larger ‘peasant’ economy in which
sugar was located.
From some perspectives, of course, this was no bad thing. Above
all, it brought the industry into close proximity with labour, while hav-
ing the added bonus of making existing, irrigated farmland available to
Indonesia’s colonial sugar producers without the need for the time-con-
suming and expensive clearance of virgin soil. Undoubtedly, in tandem,
these were the key agrarian factors that had underpinned the industry’s
spectacular mid-nineteenth- century growth. Yet, the ostensibly favour-
13 This system of land usage, one that distinguished Java from virtually all other major sectors of the
international sugar economy, means that the term ‘sugar plantation’ as used throughout this book refers
not to enclave-style cultivation but, instead, to an entity created through the temporary amalgamation of
scores of peasant rice fields into a complex more suitable to the raising of cane.
7
able situation had a serious downside. Above all, it threatened to put tight
limits on expansion. On an island that was becoming as closely packed as
Java, land was not an inexhaustible resource (as it appeared to be, for ex-
ample, in relatively lightly populated Cuba), so that in this sense at least
the sugar ‘frontier’ in much of Java appeared inexorably to be closing.
Moreover, even labour, notionally so abundant and becoming ever more
so, was far from being exclusively at the sugar industry’s disposal. Other,
competing demands existed for it, both within and without the ‘village
world’. The agrarian problem, however, was not the only one confront-
ing the industry’s bid to transform itself to meet the requirements of the
age of mass production; where the money would come from was another.
the financing of production: the colonial state and

the ‘indies’ bourgeoisie14
The availability of capital was always an issue for an industry dependent

on the resources of a minor and, for much of the nineteenth century,
relatively impoverished colonial power. Not surprisingly, therefore, the
mid-century industrial project had been financed largely from within
the colony itself. Indeed, the Cultuurstelsel itself had been a device to
substitute (forced) labour for capital in a bid to develop the colony as a
paying concern for its Dutch masters, with the sugar industry as a major
beneficiary. Where direct funding was required (to buy machinery and
the like) it had initially been supplied by the state through low-cost capital
loans to the contractors from the Indies treasury. Thereafter (from circa
1850 onward) a nascent ‘Indies’ bourgeoisie, spawned by the contract
system that lay at the heart of Cultuurstelsel, took over the financing of the
project, its (literal) fortunes bolstered by the low-cost access to comman-
deered rural resources that were written into the concessions granted by
the Indies government.
Composed of contractors and their associates in the colony’s leading
mercantile houses, and predominantly Dutch, Indies-Dutch, British and
Indonesian-Chinese in terms of ethnic composition, this Indies bour-
geoisie enjoyed close social ties – and, in all probability, illicit financial
dealings – with a ‘porous’ state bureaucracy. Far from being divorced or
14 For a detailed argument on this score in this and the following paragraph, see Knight 2007.
8
Introduction |
isolated from the ‘mother country’, moreover, the Indies bourgeoisie’s

Dutch and Indies-Dutch constituents maintained close links with their
metropolitan counterpart that afforded them a vital source of power
and influence.15 More than coincidentally, moreover, for two decades
or more the industrial project in sugar took place in close partnership
with the local branch office, or Factorij, of the state-linked Nederlandsche
Handel-Maatschappij (NHM). A commercial and financial enterprise es-
tablished in the Netherlands in 1824 under royal patronage, and notion-
ally very much a ‘metropolitan’ affair, it had been thoroughly infiltrated
at the Java end of the business by the local bourgeoisie. Along with the
NHM, other participants in the venture were a small number of Dutch
companies, who provided a modest amount of finance, generally though
the agency of Indonesian-based partners. For the most part however,
the industrial project was self-financed by the people who ran it or who
benefited from it commercially.
This was all very well, and served the industry reasonably enough,
as long as the capital requirements of the industrial revolution in sugar
remained relatively modest, and the profits to be had from the sale of the
commodity remained relatively high. When world sugar prices tumbled
in the mid-1880s, however, and as the cost of the constant technological
updating required by the exigencies of mass production continued rising,
the outlook was rather bleak for industries that for decades had remained
largely financially autonomous. It was no accident, for example, that
around this time the Java producers’ counterparts in Mauritius began
their slide into obsolescence, or that, only a little later, the Cuba produc-
ers began to rely heavily on American capital. For a variety of reasons,
the Java industry was not similarly attractive to international finance.
Nor, indeed, did it seek to attract it, despite the fact that it enjoyed only
limited access to the capital of a metropolitan country whose investors
were famously inclined to look beyond the confines of their own empire
for profitable fields of investment. Moreover, further darkening the situ-
ation, the industry’s commercial outlook was not exactly inspiring – or
so it might have seemed.
15 In this context, as in others, once-current notions of the ‘isolation’ of the mid-nineteenth-century

Indies need to be discarded. See the seminal work here of Bosma (2007a, 2010), particularly. For a gen-
eral, somewhat earlier discussion, see Knight 2001.
9
java and the world market for sugar
The mid-nineteenth-century Java industry had grown up in a highly

protected commercial environment, in which, until the 1860s, much of
its output found a contractually assured buyer in the Indies state. Indeed,
two decades earlier, the fact that the government bought up the bulk of
its output at a previously agreed fixed price saved the industrial project
from almost certain extinction during a prolonged slump in the mar-
ket.16 Though this form of state support had ended during the 1860s, it
remained the case that Java’s industry had grown up in its modern form
insulated from the direct effects of the world market to an extraordinary
degree.
The longer-term problem with Java sugar’s commercial outlook,
however, was that it faced mounting competition internationally from its
great Caribbean rival – and from the burgeoning beet sugar industry of
northern Europe – while having no metropolitan market worth mention-
ing. The allegiance of Dutch consumers was to their own beet sugar in-
dustry and, being Dutch, they were anyway far more parsimonious with
sweetener than their contemporaries across the North Sea in Britain,
where the proletarian masses (their womenfolk in particular) gained
a grossly disproportionate amount of their calorific intake from foods
heavily laden with cheap sugar.17 No such temptations faced the largely
artisan and peasant working-population of the mid-century Netherlands.
Along with its unpromising commercial prospects, moreover, colonial
Indonesia’s sugar producers had also to contend with their industry’s
complex – and potentially confronting – location in Java’s historically
very specific form of ‘colonial state.’
the state they were in
A successful transition into the age of mass production was also contin-
gent, it might be posited, on the existence of a state substantially in thrall
to Big Sugar, and on marketing arrangements underwritten by (quasi-)
colonial-imperial ties. Cuba’s place in an American sugar ‘empire’, in
which a client regime was dominated, however uneasily, by a sugar in-
16 Fasseur 1992:86-91.
17 Mintz 1985:127, 133-45.
10
Introduction |
terest whose operations were contingent on the existence of secure mass

markets in the United States, again exemplified the new age to perfec-
tion. In Java, a very different situation prevailed. Holland’s colonial em-
pire not only lacked an internal market for Java’s output of sugar, but was
also devoid of the imperial clout that might have secured one elsewhere.
In Indonesia itself, moreover, a considerable taste for sweetness was ca-
tered for largely by indigenous production of brown sugars of one kind
or another. White, factory-made sugar had only a tiny outlet there. In
combination, these factors left Java sugar dangerously exposed in world
markets where tariff barriers, preferential duties and ‘hidden’ subsidies
were the order of the day.
To be sure, it might be argued that although, in the Indonesian case,
the colonial state was in no position to provide Big Sugar with the de-
gree of commercial security that was expected of it in most other major
sectors of the international sugar economy, it could compensate for this
in other ways. In particular, it might ensure that production costs were
kept to a minimum, above all by enforcing ‘privileged’ access to land and
through underwriting the recruitment and disciplining of labour. In an
important sense, this was indeed the function it had fulfilled in the hey-
day of Cultuurstelsel – and this was a legacy that undoubtedly persisted.
Even so, the colonial regime that controlled the island became over the
years decidedly equivocal in its attitude to sugar capital. By the late
nineteenth century, a powerful bureaucracy with heterogeneous agendas
and interests existed in a conflicted relationship with Big Sugar that was
part supportive but also part restrictive. What would nowadays, however
fatuously, be termed ‘sovereign risk’ (that is, the degree of political un-
certainty surrounding capital investment) hence seemed perhaps rather
high – despite the Pax Neerlandica that the Dutch (largely) succeeded in
imposing on Java from the 1830s onward.
sugar’s late colonial trajectory: surprising

outcomes and key explanations
Over the course of less than fifty years, the Southeast Asian outpost of
a small and economically backward European power had emerged, in
terms of technological advance and sheer output, onto the front rank of
the international sugar economy. Nonetheless, it did so within a context
11
that left the future very uncertain. Any one of the factors just listed might
have sidelined Java as a major global producer. Combined, they ought to
have been fatal. Yet, they were not: instead, with the advent of the age of
mass production, late colonial Indonesia’s sugar producers consolidated
rather than surrendered their position as one of the world’s leading
sugar industries. Indeed, the period from circa 1880 up to the late 1920s
proved to be the time of considerable expansion. From a total production
just shy of 300,000 tonnes in the early 1880s, Java’s output increased ten-
fold to a peak of 3 million MT in 1931.18 Astonishingly, this represented
around one-fifth of the world’s recorded production of cane sugar and
(potentially, had they been able to sell it all) around one quarter of the
sugar (cane and beet combined) entering international trade.19
This book sets out to explain how this remarkable feat – the trans-
formation of an industry that developments threatened to consign to the
margins of the international sugar economy into one of its star perform-
ers – was brought about. Its analysis moves through several key stages.
First, it argues that Indonesia’s late colonial sugar industry ‘survived’
the onset of the age of mass production because new markets opened
elsewhere in Asia late in the nineteenth century. A second explanation
is of equal importance, however, in that the industry was only able to
take advantage of this situation because of radical developments in the
agricultural sphere of production in Java itself. The book goes on to
argue, nonetheless, that this latter development was far from plain sail-
ing. One factor was the industry’s long and ambivalent encounter with
the colonial state, while a second was the changing and (for Big Sugar)
challenging agrarian context to which the industry had to accommodate
itself. The two were interlinked. A third complicating factor was the
singular – even idiosyncratic – fashion in which the industry financed its
late colonial expansion.
18 The broad statistical picture of key aspects of the expansion of sugar production in Java from 1880
until 1940 – relating to quantities produced, area under cane, prices – appears in Appendix 1.
19 Based on data from Creutzberg 1975:Table 7; H. Prinsen Geerligs and R. Prinsen Geerligs 1938:51;
World sugar economy 1960: Table 6.
12
Introduction |
the crisis of 1884 and the ‘asian connection’
The book begins by drawing attention to the vital importance of the

‘Asian connection’ that the Java sugar industry developed from the late
nineteenth century onward. Largely deprived of its ‘traditional’ mar-
kets in the West by competition from beet sugar in Europe and revived
Caribbean cane output in the New World, Java found its commercial
salvation in becoming the largest single supplier of factory-made (that is,
centrifugal) sugar to consumers and refiners in its own Asian ‘hinterland’.
This development is widely acknowledged in the relevant literature.
Rather less attention, however, has been paid to the context in which it
took place. The fact was that changing patterns of sugar consumption
in East Asia and the Indian subcontinent, which underpinned colonial
Indonesia’s ‘Asian connection’, were themselves closely bound up with
the dramatic fall in the world sugar price for ‘centrifugal’ sugar in the
mid-1880s, which made this form of the commodity ‘available’ on Asian
markets as never before. What was striking in this context was the ability
of Indonesia’s colonial sugar producers to reduce their costs – and great-
ly increase their output – to enable them to exploit this novel situation.
the fertilizer revolution and agro-industry in the

field
First and foremost, they were able to do so because of developments in

the agricultural sector of production. Colonial Indonesia’s sugar factories
continued to build on the technological advances achieved in earlier
decades, but it was what happened in the cane field that was crucial.
The industry overcame the inherent disadvantages of its location (on an
island where arable land was becoming increasingly scarce) through the
intensive use of fertilizer as a ‘land-substitute’ and through transmuting
massive labour inputs into an industrial-style, minutely supervised agri-
cultural workforce, in which women played as crucial a role as did men.
Allied to a sophisticated research programme these two developments in
tandem formed the basis for a unique, highly evolved agro-industry of
cane that was without equal in the international sugar economy of the
day. Most obviously, its achievement showed up in uniquely high levels
of field productivity.
13
big sugar and the colonial state
One of the key factors complicating the narrative of the industry’s ex-
pansion in the age of mass production, and the agro-industry in the field
on which it was based, was Big Sugar’s nexus with the colonial state. In
the circumstances of late colonial Indonesia, and of Java in particular,
any idea that the state was little more than the ‘handmaiden’ of sugar
capital is seriously wide of the mark. Primarily, this was because the
‘colonial state’ (and, for that matter, sugar capital), was far from being a
homogenous entity. Big Sugar consequently found itself drawn into the
conflicting agendas of a heavily bureaucratic regime, sections of which
saw themselves committed to ‘the peasantry’ in ways that conflicted with
the industry’s interests. Nonetheless, the situation was very fluid.
no business like sugar business
To some degree, the capitalization of the large-scale commodity pro-

duction of sugar in late colonial Java may have reflected an element
of ‘sovereign risk’ inherent in Big Sugar’s relations with the state.
Predominantly, however, the financial strategies of the colony’s major
sugar companies were driven by a different set of priorities. Indonesia’s
colonial sugar industry was less profitable for its shareholders than has
sometimes been presumed. Not least, this was because the companies
pursued a strategy of financing expansion out of (withheld) profits to a
degree that was remarkable, even in a colonial context such as this one,
in which ‘self-finance’ of this kind was by no means uncommon. From
one perspective, this meant that expansion was hamstrung by very con-
servative investment policies; at the same time, however, those policies
reflected an appreciation of how circumscribed the opportunities for
expansion actually were.
enmeshed in lilliput
By the early 1910s, the outlook for Big Sugar in Java seemed increasingly
gloomy. In terms of field productivity, in particular, the industry had
arrived at a plateau and further attempts at expansion seemed likely to
14
Introduction |
be negated by the constraints imposed by its socio-economic setting in

the heartlands of rural Java. Enmeshed in Lilliput – the miniscule and
myriad world of Javanese peasant agriculture – the industry appeared no
longer capable of a continuing response to the exigencies of mass pro-
duction and to the ever-expanding possibilities of Asian markets. Labour
was restive, conflict with peasant-landholders was endemic and – if that
was not enough – the fertilizer revolution had reached the limits of its
potential. The gravity of the situation was compounded by the impact
on the industry’s workforce of the ‘Spanish’ influenza at the end of the
First World War, and the increasing concern of the colonial government
that the engrossing of land for sugar cane was leading to food-shortages.
no escape: the hva and the djatiroto project
From the viewpoint of some of Big Sugar’s more aggressive executives

there was no reason why the industry should succumb to these ostensible
imperatives. In the ‘remote’ far south-east of Java, the big, Amsterdam-
based HVA company built an entirely new sugar complex, well away
from entanglements with the island’s settled peasantry, its labyrinthine
systems of landholding, and the complex and demanding requirements
of its cycle of agriculture. It was all very grand and self-evidently linked
to early twentieth-century ideas of ‘modernity’, but the venture also
proved very expensive, and in terms of productivity and profits seems
hardly to have been worth it – and possibly worse than that. There was,
it transpired, no escape from Lilliput.
making the best of it: the twenties and the apogee

of big sugar
During the course of the 1920s, the industry found solutions to what had
appeared intractable problems. Changing agrarian conditions, reinforced
by a new degree of commitment to Big Sugar on the part of the state,
combined with dramatic horticultural advance to ensure that during the
decade prior to the onset of the interwar depression of the 1930s the in-
dustry was able to resume an expansionary trajectory. By 1930, Java was
producing (much) more and cheaper sugar than it had ever done, as field
15
costs (which had threatened to spiral out of control only a decade earlier)
were brought down substantially, and a new, exceptionally high-yielding
variety of cane, developed by the industry’s own researchers, took over in
the plantation. The upshot was that, by 1930, productivity had reached a
historic high and the industry was manufacturing almost twice as much
sugar as it had done ten years earlier. The only trouble was that (almost)
nobody wanted to buy it.
commercial nemesis: java, japan and the raj
In tandem with the economic autarchy elsewhere in Asia that accompa-

nied it, the interwar depression nearly did for colonial Indonesia’s sugar
industry. The commercial strategy that had underpinned its growth since
the beginning of the century fell apart. Java’s key markets in East Asia
and the Indian subcontinent evaporated, causing the closure of the ma-
jority of its factories and the permanent loss of around 50 per cent of its
productive capacity. Even so, this was not a total collapse. Partial revival
began in 1936, and at the beginning of the 1940s, on the eve of Japanese
invasion of Indonesia, the Java industry still counted itself – however
problematic its commercial outlook – among a small, select group of
the world’s largest producer-exporters of sugar. The Second World War
made an end to that: Java would never again be a significant exporter of
sugar to the world market. As will be explained in the book’s postscript,
however, that did not mean the end of the industry.
16
Chapter 1
A new epoch
The Asian connection
In 1884, Taikoo sugar refinery opened its doors for business in the
British colony of Hong Kong, operated by the ubiquitous ‘China coast’
firm of Butterfield and Swire.1 They were following in the footsteps of
their longer-established rival, the firm of Jardine Matheson, who had
established a similar operation in Hong Kong almost a decade earlier.2
Taikoo, however, was a more ambitious project. Designed to outflank
Jardine’s China Sugar Refinery (CSR), it was a harbinger of the age of
mass production that was opening up in the international sugar econo-
my. Based, inter alia, on large-scale operation, continuous throughput
in the manufacturing process and a constant drive for technological-
scientific improvement, the new age was characterized not only by huge
new plants for making ‘raw’ sugar, but also by equally huge operations
for refining it. Taikoo, developed primarily to both supply and stimulate
a growing taste for refined white sugar in East Asia, was one of them.
For the Java industry in particular, it symbolized the beginning of that
‘Asian connection’ which was to determine its fortunes for decades to
come; for Taikoo took the bulk of its raw sugar, not from its own Chinese
hinterlands, but from the Dutch colony, some twenty-days’ sea voyage to
the south. It was a portent of much larger developments that led to Java’s
sugar producers being able to replace their rapidly depleting markets in
the West with new ones elsewhere in Asia itself.
The Java sugar industry had long enjoyed a connection with Asian
markets. Indeed, until the early nineteenth century, the bulk of Java’s
output of sugar had historically gone to other Asian (or Middle Eastern)
1 On Taikoo, see Marriner and Hyde 1967:98-112. For recent discussions of Taikoo in the context of
business organization, see Cox, Huang and Metcalfe 2003.
2 China sugar trade 1880; S. Brown 1979:195. On Jardines, see Blake 1999; on the firm’s early history,
see Le Pichon 2006:1-51.
markets rather than to Europe. More than half a century later, and on a
far grander scale than in the past, the revival of this connection opened
up the prospect of salvation; indeed, not only the prospect but the real-
ity. Whereas in 1880 by far the greater part of Java’s exports had been
consumed in the West (at that stage predominantly in Europe), some
forty years later the vastly increased output of the island’s factories – it
had grown more than sixfold since the 1880s – went almost exclusively
to locations in Japan, China and the Indian subcontinent. The tipping
point, however, occurred at the end of 1880s, when, for the first time, the
greater part of Java’s sugar output went to markets outside of Europe.3
On the face of it, the commercial position of the Java producers
at the onset of the age of mass production was indeed a parlous one.
Above all, they lacked any secure market. The Netherlands itself was
a small country, and although the per capita intake of sugar by Dutch
consumers doubled in the first two decades of the twentieth century, it
remained woefully lower than that of their European counterparts across
the North Sea. As late as the 1920s, the British consumed twice as much
sugar per head as the Dutch.4 Worse still: not only did the Dutch not eat
enough sugar, but the sugar that they did eat was of the ‘wrong’ kind.
During the second half of the nineteenth century, Holland’s own beet
sugar producers had taken over the Dutch domestic market for the com-
modity, virtually to the exclusion of cane.5 A similar situation prevailed
in the Netherland’s commercial hinterland in Central Europe, where
beet sugar likewise reigned supreme. Worse still, the beet sugar manu-
facturers of Wilhelmine Germany, in particular, had conquered much of
the huge British sugar market that Java had once lavishly supplied. By
1900 successful cane sugar producers generally had either a substantial
‘home’ market to rely on, or else sufficient imperial clout to secure one
elsewhere. Java sugar had neither. In these ostensibly far from propitious
circumstances, the Java manufacturers somehow had to dispose of what
one contemporary calculated was, by the 1920s, enough sugar to fill a
freight train that extended from Amsterdam as far as Naples.6
3 Mansvelt 1924-26, II:310-2; Prinsen Geerligs 1912:140-1.

4 Prinsen Geerligs 1923:879.
5 Bakker 1989:27-39.
6 Gonggrijp 1921:5.
18
Chapter 1 A new epoch |
the dutch re-discovery of asia and the collapse of

the world sugar price in 1884
The somewhat belated Dutch rediscovery of Asia – they had, after all,
been among the first northern Europeans to go there – was reflected in a
book published in Amsterdam at the very end of the nineteenth century.
Ernst Heldring, already well known in Dutch business circles, had just
become directeur (CEO) of one of the Netherlands’ biggest shipping lines,
the Koninklijke Nederlandsche Stoomvaart Maatschappij (KNSM), and
was to go on to become a major figure in his country’s finance and
commerce. His views no doubt reflected a wider appreciation, in both
metropolis and colony, of a transformation of the commercial nexus
between the Indies and Holland that had begun a decade or so earlier.7
Central to this transformation was a significant revival of Dutch interest
in the commodity trade between the colony and East Asian ports that
had been somewhat in abeyance during the mid-century decades. In par-
ticular, Heldring saw in a renewal of the ‘Asian connection’ (not a phrase
he himself used) a chance for Java’s colonial sugar industry to find new
markets to replace those that it was rapidly losing elsewhere.
The critical development here had to do with the crisis that shook
the international sugar economy in the mid-1880s. During the course
of 1884 the world price for industrially manufactured sugar effectively
collapsed. The going rate on the international market fell by as much
as 50 per cent in the course of a few months. A long period of secular
decline in prices and a worldwide crisis of ‘overproduction’ (exacerbated
by a singularly heavy sugar beet harvest in north-central Europe) created
turmoil in the international sugar economy. Many manufacturers, and a
good number of sugar traders, were faced with ruin. The situation of the
Java industry was no exception. Yet, all was not lost. Although the crisis
appeared set to destroy the island’s colonial sugar industry, it eventually
proved its salvation.
It is here that the orthodox chronology of the late colonial industry’s
history needs some revision. It has often been assumed that the ‘turning
point’ in the Java industry’s fortunes was the Brussels Sugar Convention
of 1903, which notionally brought an end to a situation in which beet
7 Heldring 1899. Part travelogue and part scenario for a revived trading connection in ‘the East’, the
book devoted an entire chapter (pp. 167-81) to the Java sugar industry. Ernst Heldring (1871-1954) was
directeur of the KNSM from 1899 to 1937, and subsequently CEO of the NHM (1939-1948).
19
sugar had been so heavily subsidized (through a system of bonuses) in its

countries of production – primarily Imperial Germany and the Austro-
Hungarian Empire – that cane sugar was slowly but inexorably being
driven from the world market.8 As far as Java was concerned, however,
this emphasis on ‘Brussels’ is misplaced. Instead, the key development
had taken place almost two decades earlier. It was then, in 1884 (rather
than in 1903), that the foundations for the industry’s late colonial trajec-
tory were laid, however improbable this may have seemed at the time.
Formulations that hail the Brussels Convention as securing the future
of cane sugar production in Java – and elsewhere – hence need to be
treated with some caution.9 To be sure, Java experienced a 44 per cent
increase in output in the immediate post-Brussels seasons of 1903-1904
to 1909-1910. As was pointed out at the time, however, this was put into
the shade by the increase in output experienced in the years before the
Brussels Convention came into force: this amounted to some 58 per cent
between 1896-1897 and 1902-1903.10
As we shall see in a subsequent chapter, when the Java industry was
next hit by a dramatic crisis – in 1931 – it was in effect the result of its
exclusion from the Asian markets (above all, in East Asia and the Indian
subcontinent) on which it had come to rely almost exclusively. The crisis
of 1884 was of a totally different order. Instead of closing Asian markets
to Java’s colonial sugar producers, it actually opened them. The steep
drop in price of industrially manufactured sugar – the factory-made
form of the commodity often called centrifugal – made it (potentially)
available to consumers for whom it had previously been, at best, an
expensive and rare luxury. This was particularly the case in Asia, where
newly modern people in newly modern cities were looking for equally
modern commodities – white, factory-made sugar among them. Those
industrial sugar manufacturers who were able to accommodate them-
selves to the much lower price for their product prevailing after 1884
could hope to take advantage of this. If somehow they could push down
their production costs – and hold them down, because the 1884 fall in
8 For a succinct, ‘revisionist’ discussion of the convention and its background, see Chalmin 1984. For
a discussion of the broader context of the Convention, see Crespo 2006.
9 See, for example, Korthals Altes 1991:17; Bakker 1989:58-9; Tio Poo Tjiang 1923:24-31.
10 Dickhoff 1912. The facts are solidly on his side: Java sugar exports stood at 359,036 MT in 1884
(up from 310,218 in 1883) and had risen to 863,802 in 1902. Production over the same period rose from
401,000 to 897,000. Following that, between 1902-1914 exports rose from 863,802 to 1,488,169 and
production rose from 897,000 to 1,405,000 (Creutzberg 1975:74-5).
20
prices turned out to be permanent – they would be able to enter new and
expanding markets. For reasons that will be discussed shortly, this indeed
turned out to be the case in Java. Prior to 1884, the island’s factory-made
sugar was simply too expensive for most Asian consumers – and for in-
dustrial refineries, like Taikoo, that were beginning to appear in Asia. It
could not compete successfully with the huge local output of ‘traditional’
handicraft sugar. Following the crisis, however, the situation was very dif-
ferent. Developments on the Hong Kong sugar market from the 1880s
onward are a prime case in point.
the aftermath of 1884: the case of the hong kong

refineries
The impact in Asia of the drastic drop in the international price of

industrially manufactured sugar in 1884 – and its flow-on effects for
the Java sugar producers – can be gauged from contemporary develop-
ments in Hong Kong and its hinterland in southern China. The British
refineries in Hong Kong – Swire’s Taikoo and Jardine’s CSR – had
initially drawn or planned on drawing their supplies largely from the
pre-industrial, handicraft producers of sugar in their own hinterland
in southern China. Together with neighbouring Guangdong, Shantou
(Swatow) was long established as one of the main centres of production
in southern China.11 Hong Kong also drew its supplies, however, from
Formosa (Taiwan) and the Philippines, where an old established industry
on Luzon was joined in the 1850s by a burgeoning newcomer on Negros.
Though technologically somewhat more advanced than their coun-
terparts in China and Formosa, the output of the Philippines was like-
wise largely pre-industrial, non-centrifugal sugar – and almost certainly
cheaper pre-1884 than its factory-produced Java counterpart. Prior to
the crisis, that is to say, the Hong Kong refineries expected to get their
stocks of raw sugar from a variety of pre-industrial suppliers: the cen-
trifugal sugar output of Java was at the bottom of their list. In 1880, for
example, it was noted that Jardine’s refineries ‘supply themselves with
11 For a summary of sugar production in southern China and Formosa in the nineteenth century, see
Mazumdar 1998:338.
21
raw sugar not only from China but also from the Philippine Islands,
Cochin China, the Straits Settlements and even from Java’.12
The sharp fall in the world price of centrifugal sugar in 1884-1885
changed all this. In Java, the immediate effect, as elsewhere, was to throw
the industry into a degree of financial chaos. Commercially, however, it
proved a real advantage, in so far as it made the product of the colony’s
industrialized factory sugar factories much more competitive on the
Hong Kong market. Exports from Java to Hong Kong, which had been
negligible before 1884, rose steeply. By the end of the 1880s, they ranged
between 62,000 and 87,400 MT, and by the middle of the next decade
they regularly amounted to 127,000 MT or more annually. In 1900 some
190,000 MT, or well over one quarter (27.4%) of Java’s total exports,
went to Hong Kong, then virtually the sole direct market in East Asia
for Java sugar.13
This growing import from Java quickly began to undercut local
handcrafted sugar on the Hong Kong market. Indeed, between 1884
and the end of the century, Shantou sugar was virtually squeezed out
of Hong Kong, and left to find what sales it could in Shanghai and the
Yangzi ports of the interior. The amount of Shantou sugar reaching
Hong Kong, which appears to have peaked in 1884 at some 25,700
MT, had fallen by the middle of the following decade to 600 MT or
less. Contemporaneously, Jardine’s closed down its refinery at Shantou
and concentrated its operations in Hong Kong.14 The difficulties of the
Shantou producers were compounded, moreover, by the very expansion
of sugar production in Java that the opening of the Hong Kong market
made possible.
The problem related to the escalating cost of fertilizer for their cane
fields, something to which the Java industry almost certainly made a
pronounced (albeit unquantifiable) contribution. Cane field fertilizer in
Shantou predominantly took the form of bean-cake (the residue left af-
ter the pressing of soya and other beans for oil) and was imported from
northern China. Bean cake, however, was also in increasing demand
for Java’s expanding cane fields, and growing trade in raw sugar from
the Netherlands Indies to Hong Kong meant that imports of Chinese
12 China sugar trade 1880:492.

13 As Korthals Altes (1991:16) points out, despite the fall in prices in 1884, ‘exports of sugar rose very
considerably during the entire decade, though there were serious setbacks in 1886 and 1889’.
14 Corsten 1900:301-18; Mazumdar 1998:351.
22
bean-cake into Java could benefit from relatively cheap freight on steam-
ers that would otherwise return with cargo space to spare. The price of
bean-cake in Shantou more than doubled in the decade after 1887, and
proportionally less of it was used, leading inevitably to declining yields.15
In short, the collapse in the world price for factory-made, centrifugal
sugar in the mid-1880s was something with ‘global’ reverberations: in the
case of southern China it impacted not only on the market for artisan
sugar, but also on the very conditions in which cane itself was produced.
scale and scope: industrialized sugar refining in late

nineteenth-century asia
Sugar refineries are places where raw sugar is reprocessed into a gener-
ally whiter, purer and more crystalline form of the commodity.16 This
involves it being melted down in hot water, and then subject to further
cleansing and bleaching before being returned to solid form. As such,
refining was central to the entire international sugar economy. In the
West, the emergence of refineries – in Amsterdam, London, and in the
proximity of other major ports in Northern Europe – had been virtually
contemporary with the arrival of raw brown sugars from the Caribbean
and elsewhere in the New World in the sixteenth and seventeen centuries.
Refining also had a long history in Asia, in the Indian subcontinent in
particular, as a way of transforming local supplies of crudely produced,
peasant-made sugar into a more palatable and commercially viable form.
Butterfield and Swire’s Taikoo refinery nonetheless represented a new (or
almost new) departure in the Asian context, not simply because of the
overseas source of its raw material but also – indeed primarily – because
of the scale and scope of its operations and the industrial character of its
methods. It was, quite simply, the largest of a new breed of large-scale,
15 On the importance of the trade in oil cake in China itself, where it was likewise heavily used on
cane fields in the south, see S. Brown 1981, inter alia, for the importance of the trade in oil cake from
soy beans from North China/Manchuria to South China where it is used primarily as a fertilizer on
cane fields. The main firms that imported Java sugar into China during this period, Butterfield & Swire
and Jardine Matheson, were both deeply involved in this trade, and in soybean pressing at factories on
the China Coast. They were presumably the channel through which the Java industry tapped into this
manufacture and trade in oil cake in East Asia, and it must have been the boats that took Java sugar to
Hong Kong that came back with oil-cake.
16 For a detailed description of sugar refining in the second half of the nineteenth century, see, for
example, Chalmin 1990:48.
23
industrially equipped refinery that began to make its appearance in East

Asia from the 1870s onward: Japan was subsequently to follow its lead.
Butterfield & Swires’ Taikoo sugar refinery, one of the

largest in the world, Hong Kong, circa 1930
Refineries of this type had their origins in Western Europe during

the first half of the nineteenth century. As such, they were closely linked
to the rapidly advancing technologies of steam and steel – allied to a
great deal of applied chemistry – that characterized the ‘first’ indus-
trial revolution. Chronologically, their development preceded that of
industrially equipped raw sugar factories, where the expressed juice of
the sugar cane was similarly processed in steam-heated equipment and
under reduced air pressure. Otherwise, the resemblance was striking. In
particular, the vacuum pan – the pièce de resistance of the new way of doing
things – was central to the operations of both refineries and (advanced)
raw sugar factories, as were centrifuges and multiple effect apparatus.
Back in Hong Kong – or, more probably, in their London head office
– Butterfield and Swire had apparently settled on the name of Taikoo
for their new venture because it was said to translate as ‘the great and
ancient’. As may be imagined, however, there was nothing in the least
antiquated about their new venture. In common with the other, rival
establishment in Hong Kong, Jardine Matherson’s CSR, Taikoo was
equipped with machinery from leading UK manufacturers, and both
enterprises were on the cutting edge of sugar-refining technology. For
example, the Weinrich Process for centrifuging sugar – that spinning
process at the end of the production line that separated crystal from mo-
lasses – which Jardine used in 1880 at CSR had only been patented six
24
years earlier.17 Nonetheless, Butterfield & Swire’s venture was specifically

designed to outflank Jardine’s operations, and reflected the often-bitter
enmity between the two firms. From these far from modest beginnings,
by the close of the nineteenth century the Taikoo enterprise had be-
come a massive operation. Indeed, its nearest global counterpart was
the huge refinery developed, virtually contemporaneously, by the firm
of Havemeyer & Elder, on New York’s Brooklyn waterfront, and almost
certainly the largest in the world.18
As such, Taikoo represented a substantial capital investment. Its
development was financed by its British owners, by various UK associ-
ates, and from investment by Chinese business interests in Hong Kong
itself. Precisely how much money was involved is difficult to judge. The
refinery initially cost Swire’s around 200,000 pounds sterling to build
and equip. During the decade and a half following its opening in 1884,
however, a great deal more money was invested in expanding the op-
eration. Said to be in the region of 690,000 pounds sterling, the sum
included the cost of two steamers to bring raw sugar to Hong Kong and
other costs not directly associated with refining.19 Across the other side
of the world, in Brooklyn, Havemeyer & Elder’s investment in refining
reputedly amounted to nearly 7 million dollars – and hence approaching
1.5 million pounds sterling. Direct comparison is vitiated to a degree, of
course, by the presumably much lower construction costs in Hong Kong
compared to New York – though the refinery equipment itself would
have cost more, once freight and insurance to the Far East was taken
into account.20 An altogether more revealing comparison – and one that
gives an insight not only into the extent of Swire’s operations in Hong
Kong but also into the relative scale of metropolitan and colonial enter-
prise – is with outlays on sugar refineries ‘back home’ in the UK. It was
17 China sugar trade 1880; Chalmin 1990:48.

18 New colossal refinery 1883; Hertzfeld and Bartz 1893; Postal 2007. Around the turn of the century,
Henry O. Havemeyer was the greatest of the sugar ‘barons’ on the east coast of the United States and
a key figure in the American ‘sugar empire’. Indeed, the Sugar Trust with which he was associated con-
trolled more than 90% of the sugar refined in the United States. For his business interests in general and
in the Caribbean in particular, see García Muñiz 2010:14-5, 47.
19 On Chinese capital, see Hao 1986:255: ‘The Swire papers indicate that at least six Chinese from
different hongs were shareholders [in Taikoo] in 1882 […] the total Chinese investment was […] more
than $380,000, a sizeable amount.’ On British investors and the total investment, see Marriner and Hyde
1967:100-4.
20 New colossal refinery 1883. I have calculated the cost at the rate of the 1883 rate of exchange of 4.85
US dollar = 1 pound sterling.
25
said that in the 1880s, for instance, the cost of setting up there was ‘at
least 50,000 pounds sterling’.21 Not for the first time in the international
sugar economy, developments on the so-called ‘periphery’ outflanked
those at the ‘core’.
In return for their investment, Butterfield & Swire became the pos-
sessors of a state-of-the-art operation at Quarry Bay, on the then out-
skirts of the British colony. It was operated by a workforce of Chinese
‘coolies’ several thousand strong (the Havemeyer & Elder refinery in
Brooklyn employed around 2,000 people in the 1890s).22 Details as to
how this workforce was raised in the refinery’s early days are lacking. By
the early 1920s, however, Taikoo was provisioned by a Chinese labour-
contractor, one Jack A. Tai, and it may be assumed that some such ar-
rangement was also in force in the late nineteenth century.23 The great
refinery’s successful functioning, however, was also dependent on a staff
of around one hundred skilled Chinese technicians – fitters, mechanics
and the like24 – and on a group of largely expatriate Europeans, num-
bering about thirty at the beginning of the 1920s.25 When Taikoo had
begun operations some forty years earlier, a number of these expatriates
had been Germans – as indeed was the general manager and former
chief chemist, Dr Ferdinand Korn. The refinery’s owners, however,
were ‘inclined not to go in for too many Germans if we can secure really
reliable Britishers’.26 Not that such ‘Britishers’ were without fault: ‘I am
satisfied’, remarked one of the senior partners in 1889, ‘[that] Brown…
owes his inefficiency to self-indulgence in overeating and still more, I fear,
from overdrinking’, while commenting that another British expatriate
21 Chalmin 1990:51.
22 Precise information on the number of workers employed at Taikoo is currently lacking. The Have-
meyer figure for the 1890s is from Hertzfeld and Bartz 1893:364-5. Circa 1919, the New York refinery
was said to have 4,500 workers on the payroll (Postal 2007:9).
23 Butterfield & Swire Hong Kong (hereafter BSHK) to Butterfield & Swire London (hereafter Swire),
23-6-1922, ‘Refinery Letters 1922’, in: Papers of John Swire and Sons (hereafter JSS + relevant identify-
ing numbers from Elizabeth Hook, A guide to the papers of John Swire and Sons Ltd. London: The Library,
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1997) JSSI 1/1.
24 BSHK to Swire, 21-4-1922, ‘Refinery Letters 1922’, in: JSSI 1/1. The Chinese engineers formed
a guild at Taikoo, and early in 1922, had successfully threatened a walk-off in support of a sacked col-
league.
25 See, for example, Swire to BSHK, 9-11-1922 and BSHK to Swire 22-9-1922, ‘Refinery Letters
1922’, in: JSSI 1/1.
26 Scott to Mackintosh, 17-10-1890, in: JSSI 1/9.
26
was ‘a gambler without much principle, and with still less head, but may
be a smart clerk’.27
The enterprise over which these men had charge was powered by
a mighty set of steam boilers, whose consumption of coal – much of
it brought from Japan – amounted to nearly 2,000 MT per week at the
height of its late nineteenth-century operation.28 At its heavily indus-
trialized heart, Taikoo boasted a complex of machinery consisting of
filters and clarifiers, pressurized condensers, no less than five vacuum
pans (Havemeyer and Elder had six – one contemporary account speaks
of them as ‘kolossale’)29 and an extensive array of centrifuges. None of
its machinery was made locally and, as was also the case with Jardine’s
China Sugar Refinery, virtually everything was imported from leading
manufacturers in the United Kingdom.30 The tallest part of the refinery
was the filter house, built in brick, and at least nine stories high,31 making
it by far the highest building in late nineteenth-century Hong Kong. The
boiler house chimney was higher still. Havemeyer and Elder’s Brooklyn
refinery, rebuilt in brick and steel after a disastrous fire in 1882, ran to 13
stories, with a chimney that rose to over a 155 feet.32
Beyond bricks and mortar, of course, what counted in a refinery was
its ‘melt capacity’ (rather than sheer output which, given the nature of
the international sugar economy into which refineries fed, fluctuated
considerably). Taikoo began in the mid-1880s with a weekly capacity said
to be around 700 MT, but by the end of the century this had climbed to a
reported 4,500 MT, or some 640 MT per day.33 There is some evidence
that Havemeyer and Elder’s refinery had a daily melt capacity almost
27 Scott to Mackintosh, 1889, JSSI 1/9.

28 That is, ‘We will want something like 100,000 tons for ’97’ (BSHK to Swire, 7-10-1896, in: JSSI
2/8). In 1884, at least, coal was expected to come from Japan (Senior to Mackintosh, 4-9-1884, in: JSSI
1/7).
29 Hertzfeld and Bartz 1893:367.
30 For information on the fit-out at Taikoo by 1889 (and the prediction that output at the newly ex-
tended refinery would be in excess of 1,600 MT), see Scott to Mackintosh, 15-11-1889, 3-4-1890 and
22-5-1890, in: JSSI 1/9. For Jardine’s refinery equipment, see China sugar trade 1880: ‘the machinery for
the [CSR] refinery has been principally supplied by Messers Rankin, Blackmore, Greenock and Messers
Manlove, Alliot & Co, Nottingham’. Jardine’s second Hong Kong refinery – the Oriental Sugar Refinery
– and its Shantou refinery also had equipment supplied by Manlove Alliot.
31 See, for example, the reference in Scott to Mackintosh, 30-3-1890, in: JSSI 1/9.
32 New colossal refinery 1883.
33 Marriner and Hyde 1967:102. This seems about right. Some two decades later, at the beginning of
the 1920s, without much expansion in the meantime, Taikoo’s daily melt capacity was said to be around
9,000 picul, or 544 MT, and weekly output around 3,244 MT of refined sugar. See BSHK to Swire, 10-
2-1922, Sugar Refinery Letters JSSI 1/1.
27
double that.34 Again, however, in some ways the more telling compari-
son is with metropolitan Europe: Taikoo’s late nineteenth-century melt
capacity appears to have been well over twice that of a large Parisian re-
finery of the day, and around six times greater than the average capacity
(760 MT per week) of contemporary Scottish refineries on the Clyde.35
escaping oligopoly: the java producers and overseas

refiners
Java’s colonial sugar factories had, of course, long been associated with
overseas refiners. Indeed, the refining of their sugar in Holland and sub-
sequently in the UK had been the mainstay of their business during the
middle decades of the nineteenth century. Until the 1880s, the bulk of
Java’s exports had gone to markets in the West. Initially, they went largely
to Amsterdam, where they fed refineries financed in part by the NHM,
the quasi-governmental corporation that played a big part in Java’s
mid-century sugar trade, and latterly to London.36 The appearance of
major sugar refineries in Hong Kong – and of Taikoo in particular – of-
fered important new possibilities. From soon after its inception, Taikoo
generally took the bulk of its raw sugar from the Java factories. Yet, the
consequence of this nexus between Java and Hong Kong was not what
might be supposed.
Notoriously, by the late nineteenth century colonial, or quasi-colonial,
producers of raw sugar found themselves in thrall to metropolitan or
other overseas refining interests. This was certainly the case in relation to
the great North American sugar refineries (with Havemeyer and Elders
very much to the fore) and the sugar producers of the (informal) United
States’ ‘sugar empire’ in the Caribbean.37 Java, however, was different.
Indeed, the island’s sugar business developed along quite unique lines
as far as the refining of its raw product was concerned. Although the
34 New colossal refinery 1883. Citing the local newspaper account in the Brooklyn Eagle for 30 July 1883,
however, Postal (2007:8) says ‘daily [melt] capacity was estimated to be 1,200 tons’.
35 For comparisons, see Chalmin 1990:49, 727 note 4.
36 In the mid-nineteenth century, Java sugar was sold primarily in Amsterdam to Dutch sugar refiners
(extensively financed by NHM), whose main markets were in the Mediterranean countries and England.
As late as 1873, some 90% of Java sugar was still shipped to Amsterdam for refining or re-export. By
1880 only 10% reached Amsterdam (Mansvelt 1924-26, II:198-9, 310-2).
37 See, for example, Ayala 1999.
28
industry forged connections with a number of major refineries in East

Asia – Taikoo was the first of them – the connection did not result in the
exclusive backward linkages so typical of the relations between refiners
and raw-sugar producers elsewhere in the international sugar economy.
For a variety of reasons the industry escaped the hegemony of
overseas refiners. Not least among these reasons was the pre-occupation
of Dutch metropolitan refiners with European beet sugar, and the de-
termination of British refiners in Hong Kong to avoid formal vertical
integration with their suppliers in the interests of always being able to
obtain their raw material wherever it was cheapest – a vital matter for
refineries that lacked the grip on metropolitan markets enjoyed by their
counterparts in New York and elsewhere in the United States. The Java
industry’s early twentieth-century relations with Japanese refineries (see
below) were somewhat more complex. Again, however, the kind of verti-
cal integration that existed in the Caribbean sector of the American sug-
ar empire was essentially absent from the Japanese-Java nexus. Indeed,
its absence resulted in the Japanese refiners being able to cast Java adrift
when it suited them in the late 1920s.
Moreover, the colony’s sugar producers also remained independent,
to a degree, of the big firms – both European and Asian – who largely
controlled Java’s export trade in the commodity. During the 1880s and
1890s, the export of the island’s sugar was predominantly in the hands
of three European firms, one of them very old and established indeed
and the other two relative newcomers. As far as the sale of raw Java
sugar in East Asia was concerned, the most important of them was the
Batavia-based firm of Maclaine Watson & Co, which acted in tandem
with their closely allied business partners in Semarang and Surabaya,
respectively McNeill & Co and Fraser Eaton & Co. The group of
companies had all been founded in the 1820s, and during the 1880s
became the Java’s industry’s chief conduit to Taikoo and to Butterfield
and Swire, the great Hong Kong refinery’s London-based owners. Two
other Indies-based European firms were more recent arrivals: Erdmann
& Sielcken (founded 1875), and Wellenstein Krause (founded 1882).38
Both appear to have collaborated, rather than competed, with Maclaine
Watson interests.39
38 Wellenstein 1932; Schmiedell 1924; First hundred years 1927.
39 The founder of Wellenstein & Krause, Victor August Wellenstein (died 1887) was the brother-in-
law of the heads of both Maclaine Watson (A. Dowie) and Fraser Eaton (Alexander Fraser) (see Fasseur
29
The Maclaine connection with Taikoo, which began almost as soon

as the refinery opened in 1884, proved an enduring one. To be sure,
Taikoo was not averse to trying its luck with other Java exporters: in
1898, for example, it cheerfully informed Maclaine Watson that the
‘Hupeh [one of the refinery’s dedicated sugar carriers] leaves in a few days
for Java, to load a full cargo from your neighbours’.40 In the long term,
however, Taikoo’s relation with Maclaine Watson remained close, and
extended to dealings between the refinery’s British owners (Butterfield
& Swire) and the Batavia firm’s London office. From sometime in the
1890s onward, for example, Maclaines sent a ‘regular wire of quota-
tions’ to Hong Kong, and for their part Taikoo was prepared to concede
that Maclaines was ‘better placed to coordinate big orders quietly…
[without] disturbing the market unduly’ than were some of the smaller
Java operators.41 It also looks as if Maclaine Watson did considerable
business in the export of Java sugar to the Indian subcontinent, through
their connection there with Ralli Brothers, one of the largest European
commercial enterprises in India – and long-term associates of Maclaine
Watson.42 Nonetheless, neither Maclaine Watson nor their associates had
extensive direct holdings in the Java sugar industry (and nor did Taikoo).
Maclaines were certainly the proprietors of a number of sugar factories
in Java (among them the big Pandji operation in the Oosthoek) and had
major financial ties with others. The bulk of the Java industry, however,
was in other hands.
By the close of the nineteenth-century colonial European firms like
Maclaine Watson were not the only key participants in Java’s sugar
trade. Several Indies-Chinese firms were similarly engaged. The fore-
most among them was Kian Gwan, the trading arm of the big Indies-
1989). According to Schmiedell (1924:9), Erdmann’s London correspondents were from 1876-1904 the
firm of Carl Schutze at 29 Mincing Lane; in 1918 Carl Schutze’s long-term partner A.J. Fuller set up
as A.J. Fuller & Co, and continued as Erdmann’s London Representatives. All these people were closely
connected at one time or another to Maclaine Watson.
40 BHSK to Maclaine Watson, Batavia, 15-7-1898, in: JSSI 2/8. Both Jardine’s Indo-China Steam
Ship Company and Swire’s China Navigation Company had steamers plying the route from Surabaya
to East Asia around the turn of the century, but only as part of a larger network of ad hoc, irregular sail-
ings. By 1910, however, most of the shipping was done by the Amsterdam-based Java-China-Japan line
(founded 1902), operating on contract to the two Hong Kong refineries (Brugmans 1952:40, 58, 80; À
Campo 2002:264-74). Within the course of the following decade, however, it were the newly established
Japanese shipping lines that came to dominate the trade.
41 See, for example, BSHK to Maclaine Watson, Batavia, 15-7-1898 and BSHK to Swire, 2-6-1897,
in: JSSI 2/8.
42 Korthals Altes 2004:201.
30
Chinese (and multinational) conglomerate known as the Oei Tiong Ham

Concern (OTHC), and the Kwik Hoo Tong Trading Society (KHT).43
Originating in Chinese commercial operations in the north-coast city of
Semarang in the 1860s, OTHC also owned a string of sugar factories,
one of which (Redjo Agoeng) became one of the select group of Java’s
largest producers, as well as being the first to go over (1929) to fully
electrified operation. Nonetheless, total Indies-Chinese investment in the
industry’s manufacturing sector (including a number of non-trader own-
ers) accounted for well under 20 per cent of total ownership.44
One of colonial Indonesia’s leading Chinese business men,

circa 1920. Oei Tiong Ham, whom had major
interests in the trade in sugar.
OTHC and its Kian Gwan affiliate were to be a major force in the
sugar business in Southeast and East Asia for decades to come. During
the first decade of the twentieth century, much of Kian Gwan’s sugar
export to East Asia was shipped on its own vessels, but in 1913 it sold
them to a Japanese concern and concentrated its maritime activities
within the Indonesian archipelago. At a slightly later date, moreover, the
Semarang-based KHT also came to play a major part in Java’s sugar
trade to Hong Kong and other East Asian ports. In short, by the second
decade of the twentieth century Java sugar’s position in East Asian com-
mercial circuits was dependent to a marked degree on the involvement
of a number of big Indies-Chinese as well as colonial European firms. As
we shall see, it was the colony’s Chinese firms, pre-eminently OTHC and
KHT, rather than European firms, that played the key role in the crucial
43 On the history of these firms, and their Japanese links discussed in the following paragraphs, see
Post 1995, 2002; Liem Tjwan Ling 1989; Dick 1993; Claver 2006:292-350; Man-Houng Lin 2001.
44 For details of the Indies-Chinese stake in sugar manufacturing, see Chapter 4.
31
nexus between Java’s sugar industry and the big Japanese refineries that
cemented Java’s Asian connection.
the rise of factory white
The sugar factories of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Java

developed in a quite singular fashion for a ‘colonial’ industry: for them,
the stereotypical, bi-lateral ties involved in the processing of colonially
produced raw materials simply did not exist. One consequence of this
was that the Java producers were singularly free to produce a variety of
the commodity that enabled them, in effect, to bypass the entire refining
process. Early in the twentieth century, there was indeed considerable
debate among industry circles in Java about the feasibility of setting up
refineries on the island itself. There were advantages in becoming inde-
pendent of Hong Kong and, subsequently, Japan, and in the cost-savings
involved.45 However, developments were taking place in the industry that
made refining a secondary, though still important issue. These develop-
ments had to do with the production of what was called ‘factory white’.
By the end of the nineteenth century, this form of the commodity
had become a feature of the international sugar economy. Indeed, in
the Asian context it was just as important as the new breed of massive
refineries, such as Taikoo and Havemeyer. Historically, there were a
multiplicity of methods by which raw brown sugar might be whitened
without recourse to refining per se – hence New World designations such
as ‘plantation white’ or ‘blanco’ – and some of them dated back to well
before 1800. In the West, and in its modern form, however, factory white
had originated in the beet sugar industries of northern Europe during
the middle decades of the nineteenth century. It involved patented pro-
cesses for bleaching beet juice with chemicals while it made its way along
the production line that turned the viscous liquid into a (quasi-) crystal-
line form of marketable sugar. The result was a commodity that bore a
passing resemblance to the product of refineries.46 As was subsequently
the case in Asia, it was aimed at consumers who wanted an industrially
manufactured sugar but could not afford the refined version of the com-
modity.
45 See, for example, the discussion in Kraaij 1903:19-28.
46 Deerr 1949-50, II:579-80.
32
Early versions of factory white were apt to look and taste rather nasty,
and hence were most widely used by the manufacturers of jam (conserves)
and confectionary, where their shortcomings could easily be disguised.
New or perfected techniques, notably the so-called carbonation process,
improved both its taste and appearance,47 and by the 1870s, particularly
in Imperial Germany and Austria-Hungary, the beet industry’s ‘“white
sugar mills” were producing granulated and cube forms of the product
which were [in contemporary parlance] well received by consumers’.48
By the close of the nineteenth century, large quantities of factory white
produced by the carbonation method in European beet factories were
finding their way into world trade – and onto Asian markets in particular.
Factory white, however, took many forms, and it was another version
pioneered, it would seem, by Indian Ocean producers on the island of
Mauritius, that played an important part in its development as a com-
modity that found a large market in Asia, particularly in the Indian
subcontinent. Anxious to sustain and expand their sales in the Indian
subcontinent (European markets had by this time been largely lost to
them), around the middle of the century, Mauritian sugar manufactur-
ers had created or perfected a version of factory white designed to allay
the (often well-founded) fears of Hindu Indians that bone charcoal and
other by-products of the killing of cattle were used overseas in whiten-
ing sugar.49 The Mauritian version was based on various permutations
of a long-understood principle of using sulphurous acid to bleach raw
sugar during the course of its production, and became the basis for large
exports to the Indian subcontinent and (initially) Australia.50 By the clos-
ing decades of the century, however, it experienced strong competition
in its main Asian market from factory white imported, initially, from the
beet sugar industries of Central Europe – where circa 1900 many facto-
ries were given over, largely or entirely, to the production of this Weisse
Waare.51 Nonetheless, there can be little doubt that, over the preceding
decades, Mauritian output of factory white had been the crucial factor
47 For a brief description of the technique and its origins, see Martineau 1910:56-62.
48 Perkins and Munting 1999:163.
49 There existed a ‘common notion of a sugar factory “as a place of horror [...] where unspeakable
orgies were celebrated with the blood and bone of the sacred cow”’ (Amin 1984:104).
50 On this process, see Deerr 1949-50, II:579-80; North Coombes 1937:129-33; Warnford Lock,
Wigner and Harland 1882:218-23.
51 Around 1900 some 43 of the Austro-Hungarian factories are already fitted up to produce factory
white (Prinsen Geerligs 1904a:1328).
33
in spearheading the marketing of low-cost white sugar to large numbers

of mostly urban Asian consumers.52 Factory white, however, was only
part of the story.
asian consumers, whiteness and taste
The appearance of sugar refineries such as Taikoo and developments

in the manufacture of factory white were both contingent upon – and
at the same time, of course, acted to stimulate and shape – a growing
demand among various categories of Asian consumers for varieties of
sugar other than the ‘traditional’ handcrafted kinds. It was at various
locations in Asia, it will be remembered, that the history of the conver-
sion of sucrose into ‘sugar’ had begun, so that western-style, industrially
manufactured sugar did not exactly arrive in terra incognita. Major
centres of manufacture had existed in Asia long before supplies of the
commodity from the New World began to trickle and, eventually, flood
into Europe between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. Along with
southern China, the Indian subcontinent was the oldest – and greatest
– sugar-producing country in the world, and its output had been drawn
into Asian and world commodity circuits from a very early date.53 By
early modern times, indeed, Asia boasted a plethora of greater and
lesser manufacturing districts, extending from northern India through to
southern Japan, in a great arc of sugar that embraced Bihar, Bengal and
Madras, Southeast Asia and its archipelagoes, southern China, Taiwan,
the Ryukyu Islands and Kyushu. In consequence, well into the twentieth
century, Asians consumed an infinite variety of ‘handcrafted’ sugars,
ranging in colour from off-white and yellow to reddish-brown and black,
manufactured by largely pre-industrial techniques, and varying hugely in
both taste and texture.
From the late nineteenth century onward, however, the market for
sugar began to demonstrate important new traits. Foremost was a grow-
ing taste for sugar that was manufactured by industrial means rather
than by handicraft techniques – and consequently white, crystalline,
52 Sugar from Mauritius continued to find its way to the Indian market in significant quantities, but its
market share was declining. By 1920 it accounted for less than 16% (Prinsen Geerligs 1924:94).
53 On China in particular, see Mazumdar 1998:13-59; on early Asian sugar production in general, see,
for example, Galloway 1989:11-27.
34
‘hygienic’ and, for some of its consumers at least, identifiably ‘modern’.

Even so, matters were far from straightforward. Contrary to what was
sometimes assumed, the Asian market was highly discriminating: sugar
had to be of the right kind. Chinese consumers, for example, were said
to be unenthusiastic about strongly crystalline sugar, believing that it did
not have the sweetening capacity of the more powdery varieties of the
commodity.54
When the British proprietors of Taikoo observed in 1886 that ‘there
is no doubt that refined sugars are gradually forcing themselves into the
appreciation of native consumers […] once the celestial has learned to
appreciate our […] sugars, he will not return to the uncleansed sweet he
has taken hitherto’,55 they were demonstrating not only a characteristic
hauteur, but also a proper appreciation of a situation from which refiner-
ies like theirs might hope to profit. Links between white crystalline sugar
and ‘modernity’, especially a specifically Western modernity, were clearly
in evidence. Emulation mattered: among the newly urbanized middle
classes, industrially manufactured or refined white sugar had a favour-
able association with Asia’s colonial elites, for whom it was the preferred
form of sweetener. In the Treaty Ports of the China coast toward the
end of the century, for example, it was reported that ‘the Chinese’ – or
at least those of them who adopted Western ways – ‘use sugar for the
same purposes as Europeans’.56 Sugar was consumed, probably above all
else, in the form of sweetmeats of one kind or another. More generally,
however, the preferences of confectioners may again have been para-
mount in establishing the market of industrially manufactured sugar.
In Hong Kong, for example, in the closing decades of the nineteenth
century, a major outlet for raw sugar from Java’s industrial factories was
in the preparation of preserved ginger, and the Chinese firms involved
in its manufacture also played a major part in the sugar trade itself.
Indeed, such preserves, along with cakes, were said to be what sugar was
most used for, along with the direct preparation of food. Sugared water
(suikerwater) was also widely drunk, as indeed it was in many European
countries, among the better-off classes, both as a treat and as aperients.
54 Corsten 1900:315-6, 391.

55 Scott to J.S. Swire, 12-10-1886, in: JSSI 2/4.
56 Corsten 1900:391.
35
There were parallel and broadly contemporaneous developments

in the Indian subcontinent. According to one early twentieth-century
colonial source, ‘the better-off (welgestelde) natives want a white sugar’.57
Subsequently often re-iterated, the point emerged in the 1930s in the
form of the observation that it was the ‘richer classes’ who consumed
industrially manufactured sugar, and that such consumption was essen-
tially an urban phenomenon.58 On a number of other counts, however,
the sugar market in the Indian subcontinent differed significantly from
that prevailing in China and Japan. Distinct from East Asia, there existed
a considerable market for sugar refined into whiteness by well-attested,
local, artisan methods.
This was khand.59 The existence of khand – the subcontinent’s own
form of refined sugar – perhaps helps explain why there was no late
nineteenth-century equivalent in the subcontinent of great industrialized
sugar refineries based on the Taikoo model. It may also help explain why
an earlier ‘industrial project’ in sugar there, dating from the 1840s, failed
to find many local customers when its export drive to the UK ground to
a halt around the middle of the century. This mid-century failure to sus-
tain an industrial project in sugar meant, in turn, that the subcontinent
had a rather meagre supply of factories producing industrially manufac-
tured sugar in the decades that followed (a situation that only began to
change in the 1920s) and hence provided a rich opportunity late in the
century for the oversees purveyors of factory white.60
Nonetheless, it looks as if factory white has little impact on the
production and sale of gur, a crudely made indigenous sugar manufac-
tured in large quantities throughout South Asia. As one late nineteenth-
57 Quoted in Prinsen Geerligs 1904a:1333. For detailed information on Indian sugar production and
consumption from the late nineteenth century through to the 1940s, see, for example, Gandhi 1945.
58 G.M. Schuitemaker (Calcutta) to NIVAS (Surabaya), Appendix 5, 6-2-1934, in: NA, Nederlands-
Indische Vereniging voor de Afzet van Suiker (NIVAS), 1932-1958, toegangsnummer 2.20.09.03, inven-
tarisnummer (inv. nr.) 382.
59 Khand was the work of khandsari entrepreneurs, who re-processed gur and jaggery into an altogether
more refined product (Amin 1984:81-8).
60 See, in particular, Ratledge 2009. There were, nonetheless, a number of survivors. At least one such
factory, on the (then) outskirts of Calcutta, dated back to the 1840s. It appears to have continued in busi-
ness by turning its attention to the refining of the commodity (rather than the production of raw sugar),
and by the 1890s had come to rely for its raw material on imports from Java and elsewhere. It was and
remained a relatively small-scale operation. Most of the other ‘steam-and-steel’ installations that existed
in the subcontinent around this time (in all, they numbered less than thirty) were multipurpose enter-
prises, geared to both the manufacture of raw sugar directly from cane and the refining of gur. Prinsen
Geerligs (1912:58-9), drawing on the Indian Government’s Financial and Commercial Statistics for 1904, lists
28 such establishments, employing a total of 4,600 workers.
36
century source expressed the matter: ‘the poorer classes are exceedingly
fond of it, and with wages rising steadily as they are doing, the Cooly can
afford to treat himself and his family to more and more of the mawkish
decoctions and confections in which gur plays a leading part’.61 Factory
white does, however, appear to have eventually made big inroads into
the market for khand. It looks as if, initially at least, some of the various
forms of factory white encountered cultural taboos on account of the
suspicion, probably justified, that bone charcoal was used in its prepara-
tion (which is why the Mauritius producers, as we have seen, strove to
produce a form of the commodity than did not suffer from this taint).
Possibly because of this, factory white apparently found an important
market among the urban deracinated – people who may have had fewer
qualms about the extent to which the new product potentially came into
conflict with cultural taboos. One report from Bombay in the 1890s,
for example, identified a prime market for factory white among the mill
hands and other industrial workers, who consumed it in tea and coffee
on a daily basis. More generally, however, cultural taboos did not pre-
vent the use by confectioners of ‘suspect’ foreign sugar to adulterate the
‘clean’ indigenous product. All in all, it was no accident that, as imported
factory white began to take a firm hold on the subcontinent, khand pro-
duction went into a pronounced decline. Inter alia, its producers had to
struggle against cheap imports.62
factory white and the competition for indian

consumers
In the wake of the crisis of 1884 and the steep decline in the price of
industrially manufactured sugar that it heralded, the subcontinent’s
markets became a magnet for industrially manufactured sugar from
producers worldwide: according to one authority, in these circumstances,
‘imports of foreign sugar, especially beet sugar, registered a phenomenal
increase’.63 Initially, as we have seen, this sugar came from Mauritius. By
the closing decades of the century, however, a different kind of factory
61 Indian sugar industry 1902; and as quoted in Kraaij 1903:24.

62 By the 1920s, khand was said to be almost one-third more expensive (Prinsen Geerligs 1926; Amin
1984:91-2).
63 Amin 1984:89-90.
37
white, made by the carbonation process, began to infiltrate the markets

of the subcontinent. This came from Imperial Germany and Austria-
Hungary, the world’s largest beet sugar producers. It was the Java indus-
try, however, that not only followed in their wake, but ended by taking
the lion’s share of the entire market. That did not happen immediately,
however, and in the meantime the Java industry was rescued (temporar-
ily) from its commercial difficulties from a most unexpected quarter.
new markets for java sugar: crisis in cuba and an

american interlude
There is no more obscure episode in the complex history of the Java

sugar industry than the period during which, for the better part of a
decade, it became a major supplier to North American refineries. Yet,
in terms of the survival of the industry, it was a very important one.
Toward the close of the nineteenth century, Java was rapidly losing its
hold over the European markets on which it had been heavily depen-
dent during the preceding decades. In Asia, meanwhile, the market for
industrially manufactured sugar was neither as developed as it was later
to become, nor had the Java industry yet assumed the hegemony there
that it was later to enjoy. At this point, rebellion and civil war in Cuba,
and United States’ intervention there, came to its rescue.
Cuba had formerly out-produced Java as the world’s foremost ex-
porter of cane sugar (a position which it had taken over from Brazil in
the mid-nineteenth century) and been the prime supplier of the North
American market. For much of the 1890s, however, Cuba was a war
zone. Revolutionary struggle against Spain culminated in United States’
intervention, the sinking of the Spanish fleet by the US Navy, full-scale
invasion and a lengthy ‘pacification’ that turned the island into a de facto
client state. For a vital period therefore, in the late 1890s and at the very
beginning of the twentieth century, Cuban sugar output shrank dramati-
cally, and Java sugar was much in demand to supply the shortfall. The
upshot was quite dramatic. It was remarked in 1898, for example, that
the American refineries ‘had already indeed secured half the production
38
of Java’,64 and between that date and 1905, on average some 47 per cent
of Java’s sugar exports went to the United States.65
The situation was, of course, too good to last. One close observer had
predicted back in 1899 that Cuba would soon oust Java from its share of
the North American market, and had recommended that Dutch capital-
ists set up a sugar refinery in Shanghai to process Java’s output on site
in what he assumed would be its major market.66 The prediction proved
to be correct. Once re-investment and preferential duties in the United
States got Cuba’s industry re-started after 1900, Java’s temporary ad-
vantage evaporated. By 1908, Cuba was again out-producing the Dutch
colony and a combination of discriminatory tariffs and competition from
beet sugar meant that by the eve of the First World War, Java had been
largely excluded from markets throughout the West – and not just those
in Europe. It was also well on the way to losing its previous, substantial
market share in the Australian colonies to its south. Instead, the industry
had come to rely pre-eminently on the Asian connection, in what sugar
company executives were coming increasingly to refer to as ‘ons natuurlijke
afzetgebied’ (our natural outlet).67
the indian subcontinent: java’s factory white and its

competitors
Sometime toward the very end of the nineteenth century, in relation to

the manufacture of factory white, the Java sugar producers set about
quite consciously emulating their counterparts in the beet sugar indus-
tries of Central Europe. The production of some kind or other of factory
white had begun on the island at a couple of factories during the 1890s,
when it appears to have been geared largely to domestic consumption.68
64 See the anonymous correspondent quoted in The International Sugar Journal 1 (1898), p. 435.
65 See Appendix 2. Main export destinations Java sugar, circa 1880-1940.
66 Heldring 1899:70.
67 For a late instance of this usage, see for example, Jaarverslag NIVAS 1935-1936 (4), p. 23, in: NA,
NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 10.
68 Wellenstein (1932:18) refers to some kind of factory white having been manufactured at the Ka-
dipaten and Djatiwangi sugar factories in Cirebon Residency, West Java, sometime in the 1890s, and
bought by Indies-Chinese dealers who sold it in both Java and the ‘Outer Islands’. Some confirmation
of this comes from the Kadipaten factory’s own surviving archive, where there is a specific reference
(1894) to the making of ‘Witte Suiker’ [White Sugar] there, in the context of the hope that other sugar
factories will not follow suit. See T. van der Ben to J. de Vogel, 20-11-1894 (fragment), in: NA, Cultuur
39
Thereafter, it was taken up with alacrity by producers throughout the

island as a way of taking the export market by storm. By 1905, it was
being produced at some thirty-two of Java’s one hundred and seventy
or more factories, much of it destined for consumers in the Indian sub-
continent. By the mid-1920s, some 60 per cent of the colony’s sugar
factories were designated as white-sugar producers.69 In the meantime,
their techniques – and the quality of their output – improved markedly.70
A variety of factors were at play in facilitating manufacture on the
island. Thanks to an advanced transportation infrastructure, which had
grown apace in Java circa 1890 onward and which was quite without
parallel elsewhere in the region, it was perfectly feasible – as well as
desirable – to make large quantities of the commodity. The carbonation
process central to its manufacture called for large quantities of lime-
stone.71 Where this was not available in the immediate locality, it could
be delivered to the Java factories on the same heavy and light rail system
that took away their finished product.72 The coke that was used in the
lime-burning process – each of the island’s big white-sugar factories had
its own plant for doing this – could likewise be delivered by rail from
Java’s major ports, much of it having been imported from Europe.73
Perhaps the most essential point about factory white was that it was
cheap. Early in the twentieth century, it was authoritatively calculated
that Java sugar could be processed into this form of the commodity for
rather less than one-third of the cost of having it refined.74 Moreover, the
Maatschappij Kadhipaten, 1858-1959, toegangsnummer 2.20.08, inv. nr. 60.

69 Calculated from statistics of Suikerproduct der fabrieken (1927), on the basis of those factories whose
output was almost exclusively comprised of ‘superieure hoofdsuiker’. Earlier in the century, Martineau
(1910:56-62) singled out Java as the country ‘where carbonation has been adopted in many factories and
[where] its use will probably increase with increased demand in Eastern markets for white sugar’. For an
extended contemporary description of the carbonation process as carried out in early twentieth-century
Java, see Prinsen Geerligs 1911:160.
70 Prinsen Geerligs 1904a:1339.
71 Martineau 1910:61. In Java, this limestone was available from a number of sources in the island it-
self. Prinsen Geerligs (1911:185) lists localities from Cirebon eastwards in which limestone was quarried.
72 See, for example, the Jaarverslag van de Chef der Exploitatie 1905, p. 4, in: NA, Semarang-Cheri-
bon Stoomtram Maatschappij, 1893-1946, toegangsnummer 2.20.17, inv. nr. 8. It is remarked that along
the sector of the north coast serviced by this line some six factories (Wonopringgo, Djatiwangi, Kadi-
paten, Tjomal, Sindanglaoet) have gone over to the manufacture of factory white, for which ‘groote hoe-
veelheden kalksteen worden aangevoerd’, in consequence of which the haulage of the same increased
from 16,672 MT in 1904 to 28,357 MT in 1905.
73 Prinsen Geerligs 1911:185-6, 202. Prinsen Geerligs says that the alternative supply of coke was
from Java’s own small number of urban gasworks.
74 Prinsen Geerligs 1904a:1356. His calculation was that carbonation costs added about 30 cents to the
manufacturing cost of each picul of sugar, whereas refinery costs were in the region of one guilder per picul.
40
bulk of the Java industry’s potential new consumers were deemed to be

more interested in price than in quality: ‘de eischen, die in Azië de massa
consument stelt, zijn niet hoog’, as the industry’s leading savant delicately
expressed it. Both literally and figuratively the Java manufacturers were
well positioned to exploit this evolving situation: they benefited from their
proximity to the Asian ‘mainland’ where the (potential) market for factory
white was to be found, while the industry’s independence of metropolitan
or other overseas refineries left it free, as were few of its major competi-
tors, to take up the production of factory white on a grand scale. The
great bulk of it, moreover, was destined for consumers in South Asia.
Prior to the 1890s, Java had virtually no direct sales there. By 1900,
however, things had begun to change quite rapidly. Indeed, by the eve of
the First World War, well over one-third of Java’s exported output went
to South Asian destinations, primarily Calcutta and Bombay, where its
own factory white began first to challenge and ultimately totally to re-
place imports into the subcontinent from Central European producers
(Imperial Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire). They, too, had
sought to benefit from the much lower prices prevailing for industrially
manufactured sugar after 1885 – essentially by dumping their heav-
ily subsidized exports on the South Asian Market.75 Their sales there
peaked in 1906-1907 at something approaching 200,000 MT, when they
amounted to around one-third of the subcontinent’s total imports and,
slightly exceeded in volume those from Java.76
Thereafter, however, factory white of European origin totally failed
to match the growth in imports from Java. By 1913-1914, the latter had
reached a pre-war peak of around 600,000 MT, or well over 70 per cent
of total imports to the rapidly growing Indian market. Even so, a degree
of rivalry continued and, more generally, the market for Java sugar
75 Competition on the Indian market between Java sugar and beet sugar from Imperial Germany and
Austria-Hungary had begun in the 1890s. It was complicated by attempts by the British Raj to stem the
tide of beet sugar into the subcontinent by way of countervailing duties circa 1900 – but the effect of
such duties appears doubtful. See Prinsen Geerligs 1906:57-79, for an account of the convoluted history
of these attempts. It appears that the German and Austrian producers were able to bear the cost of the
new duties, and that imports continued on such a scale as to result in a threat (from London) to raise
the duties to prohibitive levels. It would appear, however, that this threat was rescinded as a result of
the general agreement about sugar subsidies enshrined in the Brussels Convention. According to Dutch
sources, moreover, ‘de Javasuiker ondervond in Britsch-Indië voortdurend scherpe concurrentie van de
Oostenrijksche bietsuiker, die door de lage vrachten van de zwaar gesubsidieerde Oostenrijksche Lloyd
werd gesteund’ (Jaarverslag Factorij 1906, p. 16, in: NA, Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij (NHM),
1824-1964, toegangsnummer 2.20.01, inv. nr. 4555).
41
remained strongly affected by reports about the weather in Europe and

the projected size of the beet harvest down to the beginning of the First
World War.77 Nonetheless, any vestiges of a contest for market share
in the subcontinent were ended quite decisively by the Great War. The
beet sugar industries in war-torn Europe could not produce as before,
and their chances of exporting were nil. Moreover, they took a long time
to recover after the war was over – not least because the old Imperial
German industry was now divided between the new German Republic
and a revived Polish state. Worldwide, but above all in Central Europe,
beet sugar production declined sharply: whereas in 1913-1914 it had
amounted to some 9 million MT, five years later it had fallen to less than
half that amount.78
the japanese market, hong kong and the zaibatsu
Initially, as we have seen, Java’s raw sugar found its prime Asian outlet in
the refineries of Hong Kong. By the end of the century, however, the is-
land’s colonial sugar factories had also begun to supply newly established
refineries in Japan, in a development that was destined to dominate the
industry’s late colonial history. Until the last quarter of the nineteenth
century, Japan figured somewhere near the margins of the intra-Asian
commodity trade in sugar. From the 1880s onward, this situation changed
dramatically. There had been a notable growth in imports of primitively
manufactured, pre-industrial sugar into Japan, circa 1870, initially from
southern China, but subsequently from Formosa. Imported refined
sugar, increasingly derived from industrially manufactured raw material
from Java itself, started to penetrate this market during the 1880s.
Japanese imports of sugar, which had quadrupled in little over ten
years, peaked around the end of the century, and were supplied pri-
marily by the Hong Kong refineries and (largely as factory white) by
the beet sugar industries of Imperial Germany and Austria-Hungary.79
Predominantly, these imports were consumed by Japan’s new urban
77 Jaarverslag Factorij 1911, pp. 22-3 and Jaarverslag Factorij 1912, p. 32, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv.
nr. 4555.
78 Albert and Graves 1984:6.
79 See the trade statistics reproduced in Kraaij 1903:3. Total Japanese imports of sugar rose from
1,207,217 picul in 1889 to 4,928,075 picul in 1901. In the latter year, some 1,473,612 picul was supplied
from Hong Kong, 1,192,828 picul from Germany and 560,850 picul from Austria-Hungary.
42
middle classes, a reflection of the fact that this type of sugar was sig-
nificantly more expensive than the crude, non-refined sugar imported
from either Formosa or the Philippines.80 By 1897, Japanese per capita
consumption of sugar had doubled, within less than a decade, to a little
less than 5 kilo per capita, and continued to rise thereafter.81 It comes
as no surprise, therefore, to find that Japan was viewed as a highly im-
portant, and certainly potentially most lucrative, market in East Asia at
the end of the nineteenth century. In the early 1890s, the Hong Kong
refineries provided around 50 per cent of Japan’s imports, and supplying
the Japanese market had become the main business of both Swire’s and
Jardine’s refineries. Unrefined sugar also came in from Formosa, and
certain varieties of its raw, brown sugar (there was no industrial produc-
tion in Formosa at this time) was much prized on the Japanese market.82
From the 1880s onward, moreover, Japan’s burgeoning sugar con-
sumption had come to attract the attention of the zaibatsu, the big indus-
trial-financial-commercial conglomerates that were indelibly associated
with Japan’s late nineteenth-century advance in economic ‘modernity’.
As early as 1896, it was reported from Hong Kong that a Japanese syndi-
cate ‘has already sent its emissaries to Europe to study the best methods
for plant etc’.83 A couple of refineries were quickly established, one at
Osaka and the other in Tokyo, with more to follow.84 The Osaka refinery
had German-built equipment and was said to be capable of producing
100 MT of refined sugar per day.85 These refineries quickly came to be
designated as ‘a troublesome competitor’ by their British counterparts
in Hong Kong,86 who previously had the East Asian market for refined
sugar very largely to themselves. Indeed, plans were mooted (though
80 Sugiyama 1989. I am grateful to Kazuhisa Shimada for translating this paper.

81 Mazumdar 1998:375.
82 Mazumdar 1998:375; Van Lookeren Campagne 1897.
83 BSHK to Swire, 7-10-1896, in: JSSII 2/8.
84 According to Japan (1900), by 1899 there were two refineries in Japan: one at Osaka (‘Japan Sugar
refining Co.’) and one at Tokyo (‘Nippon Sei Seito Co.’). The same source also reported that ‘a lead-
ing Japanese banker and merchant’ was presently in the United Kingdom, inspecting machinery for
purchase. See also Prinsen Geerligs 1904a:1323-5. According to this latter source (quoting contempo-
rary Dutch consular reports), the refineries were, respectively ‘The Sugar Refining Company’ (Nippon
Seito Kabushiki Kaisha); ‘Tokyo Sugar Refining Company’ (Nippon Seito Kabushiki Kaisha) and ‘Dairi
Sugar Refinery’ (Suzuki Gomei Kaisha). By 1904 there was another refinery at Dairi near Moji – owned
by ‘one of the largest sugar merchants at Kobe’ – which was going to take Java sugar via the new Java-
China-Japan line that has ‘regular 25 day sailings’ (see Consular report 1904).
43
soon abandoned) to flood the Japanese market with cheap sugar in an

effort to deter further investment in domestic refining.87
Mitsui and Mitsubishi capital – the capital, that is to say, of the two
leading zaibatsu – was closely involved in the new ventures. Indeed, sugar
was one of the most important items traded by Mitsui up to the outbreak
of the Second World War.88 During much of the 1910s and the first half
of the 1920s, however, the biggest name in the country’s sugar trade was
not one of the established zaibatsu, but a (relative) newcomer – Suzuki
Shoten. Founded in Kobe in 1874 specifically as a sugar-importing busi-
ness, by 1914 Suzuki had become a widely diversified conglomerate,
with major interests in steel and shipping. It eventually embraced some
seventy-eight corporations and rivaled Mitsui itself in terms of paid-
up capital and value of traded goods.89 Nonetheless, sugar remained
one of the key facets of its business. Indeed, an early twentieth-century
head of the company apparently became known as Japan’s ‘king of
sugar refining’.90 By the beginning of the twentieth century, Japan had
several major refineries – the newest one run by the burgeoning Suzuki
conglomerate – geared quite specifically to the refining of sugar from
Java. The foundations were being laid, in short, for what would rapidly
become a Japanese ‘sugar empire’ – an empire whose existence was to
have major ramifications for the entire Java sugar industry.
java and the japanese sugar empire
To envisage the web of Japanese sugar plantations, manufacture and

commerce that came into existence during the opening decades of the
twentieth century as Japan’s ‘sugar empire’ is to underscore the compari-
son with its larger, virtually contemporaneous, American counterpart,
whose Asian outliers were located in the Philippines and Hawaii, but
whose heartlands were in the Caribbean. Both reflected the fact that,
worldwide, a taste for white sugar and sugar-sweetened drinks – and,
rather importantly in the case of Japan, alcohol manufactured from
88 Sakamoto 1990:64, 87.
89 Suzuki’s paid-up capital was 80% as large as that of Mitsui; at its business peak in 1917, its trade
volume was 50% higher in value than the older company. For Suzuki, see Lynn and Rao 1995; Mori-
kawa 1992:123-81.
90 Hirschmeier and Yui 1975:172.
44
sugar – was one of the consumerist hallmarks of capitalist industrial

modernity.
In one key respect, however, Japan’s sugar empire differed significant-
ly from its American counterpart, which had a vastly greater domestic
market in North America than its Japanese counterpart, and hence had
no absolute need for export sales of its refined product. The Japanese
refineries, on the other hand, were heavily dependent for their viability
on their ability to divert ‘excess’ capacity onto overseas markets. Indeed,
by the 1920s, Japan’s refineries were supplying not only Japan’s domestic
market, but also that of the adjacent Chinese and Manchurian main-
land immediately to the west and south. By the early 1930s, moreover,
Japanese interests were operating three refineries in the new client state
of Manchukuo, and by the end of the decade they were also running one
in Japanese-occupied Shanghai.91 As did their counterparts worldwide,
by the late 1920s, Japanese sugar interests formed a cartel, designed
both to restrain production and maintain the domestic price of the com-
modity.92 Moreover, the fundamentally international character of the
Japanese sugar empire – focused on the markets of its Asian neighbours,
as well as on those of metropolitan Japan – was already firmly estab-
lished in the pre-depression decade.
The empire drew its raw material from a variety of sources. Its even-
tual centerpiece was the island of Formosa (Taiwan), which Japan had
acquired as a colony in 1895. Nonetheless, its suppliers were as far- flung
as beet sugar producers in Korea (brought formally under Japanese con-
trol in 1910) and cane sugar factories in the mandated territory of the
northern Marianas, in Micronesia, far to the south, which Japan gained
in the wake of the German defeat in the First World War. By the mid-
1930s, more than 11,000 hectares of cane and six or more large modern
sugar factories existed there, worked by a mixture of Japanese, Korean
and local labour.93 The empire also established a beachhead on Java.
91 For the refineries in Manchukuo, see NHM Kobe to Amsterdam, 16-6-1932, in: NA, NHM,
2.20.01, inv. nr. 9230; for Shanghai, see Jaarverslag NIVAS 1938-1939, pp. 48-53, in: NA, NIVAS,
2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 13.
92 Sakamoto 1990:88. In 1929, Hong Kong sources claimed that an agreement had been reached
among the Japanese sugar refineries, and that ‘the Formosa, Meiji, Ensuiko, Nitaka, Hokkaido and Japan
refineries are included in it […] it is reported to be very comprehensive, covering production of raws,
selling of refined and finances’ (BSHK to Swire, 18-1-1929, in: JSSIV 1/2).
93 For a succinct introduction to the Japanese sugar industry in the Marianas, see Ono and Lea
2001:5-9; Peattie 1988:123-32. For data on the number of factories, see H. Prinsen Geerligs and R.
Prinsen Geerligs 1938:69: for the area under cane, see Weitzell 1946:201.
45
Around 1920, a handful of the island’s factories (five out of a total of

nearly 180) were owned by Japanese interests, including the Dai Nihon
refinery company, one of Japan’s biggest.94
The prime connection between the Java industry and the Japanese
sugar empire, however, was essentially a commercial and financial one.
Japanese interests had very little direct investment in the manufacture
of Java sugar, but they had huge sums tied up in its purchase and ship-
ment to Japan and elsewhere in East Asia. Developments here dated
from around the turn of the twentieth century. Late in the 1890s, Mitsui
established an office in Surabaya, Java’s sugar capital, and thereafter the
Japanese refineries began to take significant quantities of their raw mate-
rial from the Dutch colony. Indeed, circa 1904, the new Suzuki refinery
at Kobe appears to have drawn most of its supplies of raw sugar directly
from Java via the newly established (and Dutch-run) Java-China-Japan
Line’s steamers.95 In 1912, however, the Dutch company was joined on
the East Asian route by the Japanese Nanyo Yusen KK Java-line,96 and
another Japanese shipping line entered the trade four years later.97
Japanese shipping was to become a very important facet of Java
sugar’s Asian connection. That connection was greatly accelerated,
moreover, by the impact of the First World War and the consequent
shifting of the Netherlands Indies out of the European and toward the
Japanese and United States’ economic orbits.98 Though the end of hos-
tilities in 1918 brought some return to pre-war conditions, the extent to
which Japanese and associated commercial and financial interests had
penetrated – and continued to penetrate – the Indies economy emerges
quite clearly from an analysis of Java sugar sales in the course of the
1920s.99 The successful articulation of this key dimension of the Asian
connection, however, was contingent not only on Dutch colonial sugar
manufacturers and Japanese sugar refining combines, but also on the
central role of Java’s Indies-Chinese business community.
94 See De Graeff 1945:266, as cited in Dick 1989:258; Post 1996:310-1.
95 Consular report 1904:406. For Java-Japan shipping connections from a Dutch perspective, see in par-
ticular Brugmans 1952:55-91.
96 Post 1995:155.
97 Dick 1989:245-8.
98 Tio Poo Tjiang 1923:59.
99 For overviews of the wider commercial context, see, for example, Dick 1989. Any historian venturing
into the field of the Asian commercial networks linking colonial Indonesia to markets and capital in East
Asia is heavily indebted to the ongoing research and extensive publications (and scholarly generosity) of
the Dutch scholar Peter Post. In the context of the present discussion, see Post 1991, 1993, 1995, 2001.
46
By the early twentieth century, indeed, the dominant role in the

export trade in sugar of the colony’s European firms had come under
challenge from Asian interests. The key enterprises were two burgeoning
Indies-Chinese business concerns, OTHC and KHT (see above), based
in Java but with operations extending from the Indian subcontinent to
Japan. This ethnic identification of commercial firms in colonial Java
would have been of questionable utility for much of the nineteenth cen-
tury, in the sense that the Indies-European houses worked in fairly close
concert with the businesses run by their Indies-Chinese counterparts.
Indeed, given the extent of Chinese control of the ‘up-country’ trade
in buying and selling of commodities of all kinds, it would have been
impossible for them to have done anything else. By the late nineteenth
century, however, and in the early twentieth, such juxtaposition makes a
certain kind of sense. In the export of sugar, at least, the big ‘European’
and ‘Chinese’ firms appeared to see themselves as significant rivals.
dutch sellers and japanese buyers: the vjsp and its

customers100
Throughout the 1920s, the great bulk of Java’s sugar sales, representing
about 90 per cent of the colony’s total export production, were carried
out through the Vereenigde Javasuiker Producenten (VJSP, United Java
Sugar Producers Association), a cartel of manufacturers established
in 1918.101 On the basis of the VJSP’s extensive surviving data, it can
be shown that, on average, in the ten-year period prior to the sud-
den termination of large Japanese purchases of Java sugar in 1928,
around one-third of the cartel’s sales were made direct to Japanese buy-
ers, particularly Suzuki and Mitsui.102 During these years, on average
Japanese purchases of Java sugar fell only a little short of those made by
the colony’s long-established European ‘sugar’ firms, principally Fraser
100 For this section of the chapter, I have drawn heavily on the analysis provided by Post 1991, 1993.
101 The VJSP cartel embraced 160 of a total of 186 Java factories operating circa 1919, and purchases
made through its agency under-represent total Java sales by around 10%. On the VJSP, see Taselaar
1998:107; Tio Poo Tjiang 1923:50.
102 Together, the sugar purchased by Suzuki and Mitsui amounted in 1921 to 258,485 MT, worth
61,791,301 guilders, or more than 16% of the total value of sugar sold by VJSP in 1921. The relevant
data are to be found in the Annual Reports (Jaarverslagen) of the VJSP for the years 1918-1932, in: NA,
Vereniging Verenigde Java-Suiker Producenten (VJSP), 1918-1938, toegangsnummer 2.20.09.02, inv.
nrs. 5-18.
47
Eaton (part of the Maclaine Watson group), Erdmann & Sielcken, and
Wellenstein Krause.103 Indeed, in some few years – 1922-1923 and
1926-1927 – Japanese firms bought substantially more sugar than their
colonial-based European counterparts.
Yet, the importance of Japan to the Java sugar industry was not sim-
ply that it bought large quantities of sugar. Japanese interests were also
prominent in the financing of the sugar trade over and above the direct
purchase of the commodity.104 In 1921, for example, just over half of
the sugar sold by the VJSP, to the value of nearly 178,600,000 guilders,
was disposed of against guarantees (that is, under arrangements ‘waar-
voor zekerheid moest worden verlangd’) provided by banks and other financial
institutions. In all, ten such businesses were involved, but six of them led
the field by a wide margin.
Ranked in order of importance – measured in terms of guilder value
of their investment – the foremost of these six key financiers was the
Indies’ own premier financial provider, the Batavia-based De Javasche
Bank (DJB), closely followed by the Bank voor Indië, established in
Rotterdam only a year earlier.105 Next, however, were two Japanese
businesses. One was the Taiwan Ginko (Bank of Taiwan, BOT), the
quasi-official, central bank of the Japanese colony. Founded at the very
end of the nineteenth century to facilitate the penetration of Japanese
capital into mainland China and Southeast Asia, by the early twentieth
century it had several branches in the Netherlands Indies. The other was
the Yokohama Specie Bank, the institution that in the early twentieth
century financed the bulk of Japan’s foreign trade.106 The remaining
European member of the ‘big six’, the Batavia Branch Office (the Factorij)
of the Amsterdam-based NHM, the biggest investment and banking
concern operating in the Indies, ranked at number five, only slightly
103 Something of the history of these firms can be gleaned from their respective ‘commemorative
volumes’: Wellenstein 1932; Schmiedell 1924; First hundred years 1927.
104 The data on which this and the following paragraph are based come from Jaarverslag VJSP 1921,
p. 27, in:
NA, VJSP, 2.20.09.02, inv. nr. 7, and from Jaarverslag VJSP 1925: [nota] ‘Aan de Commissie van Ver-
tegenwoordigers der VJSP’, 27-2-1925, in: NA, VJSP, 2.20.09.02, inv. nr. 11. The notable absentee
from the ranks of guarantors in 1925-1926 (given the earlier collapse of the Bank voor Indië) was DJB.
105 On DJB, see Claver 2006. On the Bank voor Indië, see Taselaar 1998:57. The Bank had been set
up in 1920 by the Rotterdamsche Bankvereeniging (Robaver) and was liquidated with the collapse of the
Robaver in 1924 – victim of a more general banking crisis in the Netherlands in the first half of the 1920s.
106 On the Bank of Taiwan and, more generally, the role of Formosa in the development of Japanese
financial and commercial ties with Southeast Asia, see Schneider 1998:170-2.
48
ahead of Mitsui Bussan Kaisha, the commercial and banking wing

of the eponymous combine. Through the investments of these several
firms, Japanese or Japanese-colonial capital provided in 1921 around
46 per cent of the financial backing for that part of the VJSP’s sugar
trade that was carried out on the basis of bank guarantees; by 1925, the
only other year in the twenties for which this information is available, it
provided some 50 per cent.
the role of the big indies-chinese mercantile houses
In assessing the full extent of Japan’s position in the trade in Java sugar,
the large sugar purchases of Java’s Indies-Chinese firms also have to be
taken into account.107 Along with the Japanese and colonial European
firms engaged in the trade in Java sugar in the 1920s, Indies-Chinese
business concerns also played a significant role, presaging their larger
and later role as Asian ‘multinationals’. From the point of view of the
present analysis, however, the immediate point is the extent to which, in
the 1920s and earlier, they drew on Japanese capital to underpin their
ventures in the Java sugar business. In total, Indonesian-Chinese pur-
chasers of Java sugar accounted for a little less than one-third of all the
sugar sold by the VJSP in 1921, and many small dealers were involved,
most of whom appear to have been engaged in the speculative re-sale of
sugar in Java itself. Though there were a plethora of such firms, only two
stood out as consistent and large-scale participants.
It was KHT and Kian Gwan (see above), however, which bought the
bulk of the sugar sold by the VJSP to Indies-Chinese buyers. Both firms
had long-term links with Japanese capital. Kwik Djoen Eng, who master-
107 Already circa 1900 it was reported that most Java sugar was imported into China (as distinct from
Hong Kong) by two Hong Kong-based Chinese firms with branches in Java at Surabaya and Semarang
respectively, and that the two firms worked closely together. See Corsten (1900:339), who identifies the
firms as Kwong Sing Chang and Kwong Hop. The firms’ offices were, respectively, in Hillier St and Bon-
ham St, Hong Kong. It is not clear from this source who their Java connections were, but Kian and Gwan
and Ho Bin seem the most likely candidates. For confirmation that in Hong Kong, ‘Chineese importeurs
sedert vele jaren in relatie met Chineezen in Semarang en Soerabaia zijn’, see also Jaarverslag NHM
Agentschap Shanghai 1906, pp. 3-4, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 5168. They were said to ship Java
sugar to ‘Chinese ports’ and to Japan, and also to sell to the refineries there. At this date, there was almost
no Java sugar imported directly to Shanghai, the gateway not only to the Yangtze valley but also to the
whole of north China. When direct trade did begin a few years later, it was again quickly dominated by
‘Chinese’ firms with strong Java connections.
49
minded KHT from the 1910s until its collapse in the 1930s, had major
interests on Formosa, where he owned a tea-export company – and had
close links with the Bank of Taiwan that dated back to the period of
its foundation in the early years of the century. Indeed, it was in what
was then Formosa that he died in 1935. Kian Gwan’s commercial pro-
file showed some similar traits. Early in the twentieth century, the firm
had opened a branch in Kobe, in addition to those in Hong Kong and
Shanghai. Oei Tiong Ham, the head of the conglomerate of which Kian
Gwan was a part, had close contacts with Japanese capital. He worked
hard to promote collaboration between Chinese and Japanese traders
and to mitigate the impact in the Netherlands Indies of anti-Japanese
commercial boycotts. Close and early ties to the Bank of Taiwan were
also part of his business profile, and like Kwik Djoen Eng, he had a
Japanese passport (and hence dual citizenship in the Netherlands Indies),
in consideration of his standing in East Asia in general and Formosa in
particular.
The extent to which KHT’s and Kian Gwan’s operations were fi-
nanced by Japanese capital is difficult to say, and other sources were also
involved. It rather looks, for example, as if DJB was the major creditor
of KHT.108 Nonetheless, this hardly detracts from the conclusion that
for the better part of a decade, prior to 1927, Japanese capital, either
directly or indirectly, through Japanese businesses and banks and through
their links with the colony’s Indies-Chinese ‘multinationals’, accounted
for the greater part of Java’s export trade in sugar.
java sugar’s asian bedrock
Between 1907 and 1914 the recorded output of sugar produced world-
wide increased by more than one-third. As far as the international
sugar economy was concerned, the age of mass production had indeed
arrived. Java had advanced into the new era as the prime supplier of
industrially manufactured, ‘centrifugal’ sugar to expanding Asian mar-
kets, and by the eve of the First World War, Java’s sales elsewhere in Asia
had become the bedrock of the industry. The context, however, was one
in which (in 1908) the revived Cuba industry had overtaken the Dutch
108 Post 2002; Claver 2006:291.
50
colony in terms of gross output, and resumed the position of the world’s
largest single producer of cane sugar from which it had been temporar-
ily dislodged by war and revolution during the previous decade. Java,
meanwhile (1907-1914), was ousted from its markets in ‘the West’, so
that – albeit exceptionally – it could be remarked that in 1913 ‘not a sack’
of its output penetrated ‘west of Suez’.109 Despite an interlude during
the War itself, when large quantities of Java sugar went to the United
Kingdom to make up for the deficit in its supplies of the commodity con-
sequent on the severing of commercial ties with Imperial Germany (its
biggest supplier in 1914), this continued to be the case through until the
early 1930s. Around 1890, despite significant increases in recent years,
only 25 per cent of Java’s sugar exports went to Asian destinations. By
1900 some 38 per cent of its output was sold in Asia, and a decade later
this figure had risen to more than 72 per cent, the main customers being
British India (38.5% of total exports), Hong Kong (17.6%) and Japan
(10.5%).110 The trend continued into the 1920s, by which time 85 per
cent or more of Java’s sugar – both in its raw state and as factory white
– to Asian markets. Prior to 1914, Java’s position in Asian markets had
been under challenge from the beet sugar producers of Central Europe.
This challenge collapsed, however, once the war had broken out, and
was not resumed thereafter.
The upshot was that, until late in the 1920s, Java sugar enjoyed an
unprecedented degree of hegemony in both South and East Asia – and
at various points in between. Then, rather suddenly, the bedrock on
which the industry’s Asian connection stood was rent asunder, most im-
mediately and quite literally by an earthquake. The subsequent collapse
of the Asian connection, and its ramifications for the history of sugar
production in late colonial and postcolonial Java, will be discussed later
in the book. What we will now turn to is how the Java sugar factories
of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries succeeded in ramp-
ing up production to meet the requirements of newly opened markets
elsewhere in Asia – and the difficulties that they encountered in doing so.
109 Helfferich 1916-17:170-1.

110 Prinsen Geerligs 1912:140-1.
51
Chapter 2
A precocious appetite
Fertilizer, horticulture and agro-industry in the field
A few years before the outbreak of the First World War, the newly es-
tablished International Institute for Agriculture in Rome (the precursor
of the present-day Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations) began collecting data on the production and use worldwide of
chemical fertilizers. Its findings still have the power to astonish. They
reveal that ‘little’ Java, with an area of no more than 125,500 square
kilometres, considerable tracts of which are volcanic slopes inhospitable
to most forms of agriculture, was nonetheless the seventh in rank among
international consumers of sulphate of ammonia.1 The great bulk of
this nitrogenous fertilizer was consumed in the West, where its main
producers were almost exclusively located. In this context, Java’s con-
sumption of some 68,000 MT, or around one-twentieth of the world’s
total, was phenomenal in global terms. Indeed, outside the West only
Japan (115,000 MT) had a higher recorded consumption than Java.2 In
Java, unlike Japan (where it appears to have been expended on a variety
of agricultural pursuits), such consumption had everything to do with
sugar and the island’s role as one of the world’s greatest producers of
the industrially manufactured form of that commodity. It reflected the
development in Java sugar of an agro-industry in the field of a unique
and remarkable kind. Inter alia, it was characterized by a quite extraor-
dinary degree of attention given to the agriculture of cane, manifested in
1 On the international production of, and trade in, sulphate of ammonia between 1907 and 1916,
see Statistique agricole 1917:790-1, 822-3. For a contemporary discussion of this evidence and its relation
to Java, see Milo 1911; Wereldproductie kunstmeststoffen 1913; Van de Leemkolk 1915.
2 Total recorded world consumption in 1913 amounted to 1,286,757 MT. Germany accounted for
nearly 36% (460,000), the United States for nearly 21% (266,850) and France for 7.5% (97,000). Else-
where in the ‘Third World’, Egypt accounted for a very modest 1,650 MT and the Indian Ocean island
of Mauritius was importing 5,000 MT annually by 1913 (Van de Leemkolk 1915:111; Statistique agricole
1917:829).
hugely labour-consuming industrial work methods and a programme of

Research and Development that was the acknowledged world leader in
the field. First and foremost, however, for more than two decades at the
end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries, Java
sugar forged ahead on the basis of a fertilizer revolution unparalleled
elsewhere in the international sugar economy.
The island industry’s precocious appetite for chemicals both under-
scores and complicates the existing narrative of its late colonial history.
That narrative insists, quite correctly, on the primacy of developments
in the agricultural sector of production. In explaining how Java came
to occupy a key position in the international sugar economy, however, it
has largely neglected what I shall term a ‘fertilizer revolution’. Yet, this
revolution – given its dramatic impact on productivity, the term seems
appropriate – vitally underpinned the industry’s expansion during two
crucial decades at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the
twentieth centuries. In the historically specific circumstance in which the
Java industry had to operate, hemmed in by the hunger for land of an
ever-increasing peasantry, fertilizer became a land substitute. It enabled
the industry to circumvent at least some of the obstacles to the expan-
sion of production by making an ostensibly finite amount of land ultra-
productive. Sugar was far from self-sustaining in the agricultural sense.
Instead, soil planted to cane was enriched by a lavish application, first of
local, organic manures, and later (though never exclusively) of imported
chemical fertilizer. The costs involved – including the labour involved in
its application – were enormous and often amounted to as much as one-
quarter of total expenditure in the industry’s agricultural sector.
the scale of operations and economies of scale
By the early twentieth century, the two island-producers, Java and Cuba,
shared a position at the apex of the international sugar economy as the
world’s two largest exporters of cane sugar. However, the differences
between the two – and between Java and most other major sectors of
the international sugar economy – were considerable. This was reflected
most obviously in the contrast in scale: Java’s units of production (or, at
least, the great majority of them) were and remained small in compari-
son to those of its Caribbean counterpart. They were, on average, less
54
Chapter 2 A precocious appetite |
than half the size – measured in terms of annual output per unit – of
those of Cuba (though roughly on a par with those in the much smaller
industries of the Philippines, Taiwan and Hawaii).3 Comparisons be-
tween Java and other industries in the Asia-Pacific region hardly mat-
tered: they supplied almost exclusively protected metropolitan markets
and in no way rivalled the Dutch colony. Comparisons with Cuba, on the
other hand, mattered a great deal: both islands were heavily reliant on
international sales, Java virtually exclusively so, and although Cuba was
advantaged by a favourable tariff in the United States, its sugar factories
still saw themselves as competing with Java on a ‘world’ market.
Of course, part of the explanation for the differences in the sheer
size of their operations lay in differences in the agricultural-agrarian set-
ting. Unlike Cuba, in Java there was simply not enough land available,
on so densely populated an island, for the creation of massive units of
production. Even so, it is possible to make too much of this point. Along
with the enhancement of soil fertility, and the securing thereby of greatly
increased per hectare yields, went a determination by Java’s sugar com-
panies to engross ever more land.4
Against a variety of odds, and assisted not a little by vast irrigation
and drainage schemes inaugurated by the Indies government late in
the nineteenth century with a view to alleviating Java’s deficit of arable
land, between 1880 and 1930 the sugar industry was able to achieve
something approaching a six-fold increase in the area covered by their
operations. Overall, the total amount of land brought annually under
cane in Java rose from 34,500 hectares in 1880 to 147,500 hectares in
1914.5 By the end of the 1920s, at the height of the industry’s expansion,
it was nearly 200,000 hectares.
moderate-sized factories and the absence of

centrales
During the closing years of the nineteenth century, Java’s long-estab-

lished network of industrialized sugar factories continued to build on
3 See Table 2.1 in Bosma, Giusti-Cordero and Knight 2007:26.

4 For the broad statistical picture relating to the increase in cane yields circa 1880-1930 and the
expansion of the area under cane, see Appendix 1.
5 Creutzberg 1975:74-5.
55
the technological advances achieved in earlier decades. Most immedi-

ately, this involved the completion of that changeover to multiple-effect
apparatus – the key to the process of continuous operation associated
worldwide with the age of mass production – that had already been well
advanced in Java prior to the crisis of 1884.6 Thereafter came major
developments in the multiple milling of cane and the (initially piecemeal)
electrification of the factory’s operations.
Nonetheless, Java’s units of production (with a few spectacular ex-
ceptions) remained modest in comparison to their Cuba counterparts.
Several factors were involved. One was a degree of institutional inertia
consequent on a long history of uninterrupted operation that combined
(as we shall see in a subsequent chapter) with a relative shortage of finance
to limit the size of Java industry’s operational units. Prior to the interwar
depression, attempts in Java to consolidate existing enterprises into larger,
more economically rational units met with very limited success. Some
leading people in the industry did indeed ‘think big’, but many – though
not all – of their ambitions were frustrated. In the sugar belt of the north
coast of Central Java in the 1890s, for example, one particularly ener-
getic factory administrateur – the general manager of the entire enterprise
– devised a scheme for the amalgamation of three adjacent factories. It
remained a pipe dream, nonetheless. His factory belonged to a family
concern and the two others belonged to different small combines. None
of them had the resources – and perhaps the will – to buy out the others.7
Size, moreover, was only one of the key differences between Java
and other leading sectors of the international sugar economy, Cuba in-
cluded. Worldwide, by the early twentieth century, the once typical unit
of production that combined factory and plantation had been largely
6 See, for example, the technological progress (mostly installation of ‘multiple effect’) made in the
major ‘sugar belt’ along the north coast of Central Java prior to 1884, as listed in Koloniaal verslag 1875-
1882; this listing stops in 1882 and in any event is demonstrably incomplete prior to that date. Addition-
ally, see Jaarverslag Nederlandsch-Indische Handelsbank 1882, p. 10, in: NA, Nederlandsch-Indische
Handelsbank/Nationale Handelsbank, nummer toegang 2.20.68, inv. nr. 263; Jaarverslag NHM Factorij
Batavia 1882 [57], p. 49; 1883 [58], pp. 51-2, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 4552; ‘Overzicht van de
installatie van Wonopringgo’, circa 1905, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7999, file 593 Wonopringgo;
Deerr 1949-50, II:571.
7 See [S.C. Musschenbroek], ‘Schema tot een combinatie der ondernemingen Tjomal, Bandjardawa
en Sragie tot een naamlooze vennootschap’, 20-7-1894, in: NA, NV Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van
de Suikeronderneming Tjomal, 1872-1971, toegangsnummer 2.20.39, inv. nr. 60. One of the great
advantages mentioned was that ‘men zal in de geheele streek een veel grotere macht gaan uitoefenen, en
zoo noodig met meer success de loonstandard kunnen verlagen tot het laagste mogelijk peil, waarvoor de
bevolking zou kunnen en willen werken’.
56
or entirely superseded by a network of centrales. These large, centralized

sugar factories drew their raw material from a multiplicity of sources,
rather than simply from their own plantations (if, indeed, they even had
any). As such, they were widely seen as an economically rational response
to the escalating costs of the high-tech manufacturing equipment that
had become de rigueur for any sugar industry with a claim to international
significance.8 There were some exceptions, notably the relatively small
industries of Hawaii and Peru, where direct factory control of fairly
intensive cane agriculture had important parallels with Java. Elsewhere,
however, as has been remarked of Cuba, ‘the new technology promoted
a consolidation of mills into much larger units of production, but, simul-
taneously, a disintegration of the [self-contained] sugar estate’.9
In Java, by way of contrast, the factory-cum-plantation, as estab-
lished in Java during the middle decades of the nineteenth century, con-
tinued to dominate the industry. (The vital difference – and one to which
we shall return shortly – was that from the 1880s onward the factory
now directly managed the cultivation of its raw material.) Something
resembling the centrales was not entirely absent in Java. In some parts of
the colony, indeed, a number of rudimentary satellite-centrales complexes
existed, usually as part of a family network of ownership. Moreover, at
certain periods, and in a limited number of places, peasant out-growers
provided colonial factories with some of their raw material. Both were
exceptions. One consequence was that the cost-savings inherent in the
introduction of the centrales were largely denied to the industry: Java
could only reproduce to a rather limited extent the economies of scale
that were notionally one of the most critical single features of the age
of mass production. In terms of investment in the manufacturing sector,
where the basic factory installation, whether large or small, had to incor-
porate much the same machinery (albeit on a varying scale), this made
Java a relatively high-cost industry.
This might, of course, have been a critically disabling factor in the
industry’s bid for expansion. In fact, however, the Java producers were
able to enter the age of mass production on internationally competitive
terms that compensated for the (relative) absence of economies of scale
in manufacturing. They did so by paying an internationally unparal-
8 For a brief discussion of the emergence of the centrales, see, for example, Bosma, Giusti-Cordero
and Knight 2007:15-7.
9 Dye 1998:41.
57
leled degree of attention to the agricultural sector, something which was

greatly facilitated by the ‘direct farming’ of cane associated with the very
persistence in the industry of factory-and-plantation units of production.
Sugar manufacturing in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century
Java was not without its high-tech dimensions and, broadly speaking,
the industry was no laggard in importing the latest in sugar processing
machinery. Long-established factories were extensively renovated and a
plethora of new, state-of-the art installations joined the existing network
of manufacture. Nonetheless, at the heart of the industry’s success was
its evolution into an enterprise founded at the most fundamental level on
field productivity totally unmatched worldwide. There was an old saying
in the industry that ‘sugar is made in the field rather than the factory’ –
and nowhere was this more true than in late colonial Java.
the direct farming of cane and the foundation of an

agro-industry
The key to developments in the cane field was the direct farming of cane.
In essence, this was a set of arrangements whereby the sugar factories
themselves took charge of even the smallest detail of how their raw
material was cultivated, and did so through close supervision carried
out by their own employees. Direct farming had not been typical of the
foundational stages of the industry’s history in the middle decades of the
nineteenth century. Previously – during the era of the Cultuurstelsel – the
‘plantation’ had consisted of assemblages of fields where peasant cultiva-
tors grew cane under the supervision of village headmen and state of-
ficials. Notionally, at least, the factory had no involvement until the cane
was ripe and ready to be harvested. Famously, the Cultuurstelsel had been
based on an organizational dichotomy that left local-level state officials,
working in tandem with village headmen, in charge of the agricultural
sector. Though some mid-century manufacturers did indeed contrive to
influence what went on in the cane field, well in advance of the cam-
paign itself, the formal arrangement prevailing under the Cultuurstelsel
created what many came to argue was a disabling divide between factory
and plantation.
Late in the nineteenth century, however, all this changed, and direct
farming became the order of the day. Developments associated with the
58
gradual dismantlement of the Cultuurstelsel in the 1870s and 1880s cre-

ated a basis for a system under which factory and field became a tightly
integrated unit of manufacture. The very fact that the late nineteenth-
century Java industry did not – or could not – switch to the centrales
model enabled the island’s sugar companies to exploit possibilities that
were hardly or rarely open to more decentralized systems of providing
manufacturers with their raw material. The importance of this develop-
ment for the Java industry’s trajectory in the age of mass production can
hardly be overstressed. The fact was that the new way of organizing the
production of cane – centralized and under the direct management by
factory personnel – opened up possibilities for the improvement of cane
farming that had not (at least, not formally) been available to the industry
prior to the 1880s.
Under the new, post-Stelsel dispensation, cane continued, as of old, to
be grown (for the most part) on peasant land, and the existing system of
two-, three- or even four-year rotations between sugar cane, rice and oth-
er peasant crops – the system known in Dutch as wisselbouw – remained in
force. From the industry’s standpoint, however, the important point was
that the factories were now allowed to rent fields from village landholders
on a periodic basis. By the same token, they also took over responsibil-
ity for managing cultivation, using casually hired wage labour. This, at
least, was the basis of the arrangements hammered out in the wake of
the Cultuurstelsel in the directly ruled, so-called ‘government lands’ along
Java’s north coast and in the eastern parts of the island. Around 1900,
about four-fifths of the industry’s operations were located there.10
A different system of exploiting both land and labour prevailed in
the indirectly ruled territories – the Vorstenlanden – of Yogyakarta and
Surakarta in Central Java. In those parts of the island the colonial sugar
companies were able to lease ‘rights’ over land and labour from the
aristocratic appanage holders at the princely courts. Prior to reforms in-
augurated in around 1918, and very slowly implemented thereafter, this
gave the industry a degree of control over ‘peasant’ resources notionally
far greater than anything it enjoyed elsewhere in the colony.11 In terms
of the industry’s operations in Java as a whole, the Vorstenlanden system
10 Creutzberg 1975:74.
11 The classic account is in Selosoemardjan 1962:258. For a rather more nuanced (and richly docu-
mented) version of the relations of production prevailing on the European-held ‘estates’ in the Vorsten-
landen, see Margana 2007.
59
was scarcely an insignificant exception: nonetheless, the differences were

perhaps not quite so great as might appear. Wisselbouw prevailed there
much as it did in the government lands, and although the economic rela-
tions between the sugar companies and their surrounding villages were
differently articulated from elsewhere in the colony, the broad nexus
between industry and peasantry – and the sugar complex’s enmeshment
within a much larger ‘peasant’ economy – was substantially the same as
in the government lands. So, too, was the prevalence of the direct farm-
ing of cane by the factories concerned.
direct farming and the peasantry
Direct farming brought the sugar companies and their local manag-
ers into contact with the landholding peasantry as never before. There
evolved in the countryside a web of often nefarious practices for ensuring
that the factories obtained the land they needed. From the end of the
1890s, government regulation determined precisely how much land any
given factory could acquire for cane at any given time, and set a minimal
rental for the land that was acquired in this way. Beyond that, the sugar
companies played fast and loose to get access to land for rental and to the
irrigation water during the dry season on which the success of cane ag-
riculture depended. It was also the industry’s good fortune – a stroke of
luck, so it would seem – that in the late 1880s and 1890s the ‘stubbornly
low price of rice’,12 as one leading historian has referred to it, acted to
12 Elson 1984:140. Creutzberg (1978:44) shows (July) rice prices at Batavia ranged between about 10.6
to 13.5 guilders per quintal in the period 1872-1882 (inclusive), whereas between 1883 and 1910 they
ranged as low as 6.3 guilders, and on only four occasions (marginally) exceeded 10 guilders per quintal.
In terms of what was going on in rural Java in the 1880s and 1890s, however, explanations of this kind
are not quite as straightforward as they might seem. In particular, the price of rice remains a contentious
issue. The most immediate objection is that the ‘price’ of rice as we know it for the closing decades of the
nineteenth century is seriously defective, in so far as it is based on the bulk purchase of rice in quantities
– and qualities – which differed greatly from those in which it was normally traded in Java’s often still iso-
lated localities. Rice was so various a crop, moreover, that, in late nineteenth-century conditions at least,
it should not be given a homogenized price: there were just too many different varieties and markets.
Furthermore, it can be argued that the amount of Java’s vast rice production that was actually traded,
at least for cash, was so miniscule as to invalidate assumptions about economic conditions predicated on
the ‘price’ of rice. This is essentially Creutzberg’s point (1978:19) when he remarks that, ‘Compared with
total home production, imports of rice covered only a small part of total consumption. The influence
of foreign rice on the market in Indonesia can therefore rightly be questioned.’ At the same time, how-
ever, it also can be argued that just because the amount of traded rice was so small relative to Java’s total
production, its price was susceptible to the impact of ‘cheap’ rice from overseas. Given these problems, it
60
hold down, or to drive down, the cost of rentals to levels that matched
the industry’s need to produce a far cheaper product than had been the
case in the halcyon days before the crisis of 1884.
The Wonopringgo sugar factory in the Pekalongan Residency on
the north coast of Central Java is a case in point. Wonopringgo was a
medium to large factory, well equipped, and owned and managed by
the NHM, still the colony’s largest Western enterprise at the end of the
nineteenth century and possessed of considerable holdings in sugar.
Reasonably detailed breakdowns of the costs of production exist for
Wonopringgo from the mid-1880s onward.13 They show that for much
of the 1880s and 1890s, the factory’s gross production costs per hectare
of plantation remained fairly constant, except for a significant dip in
the late 1890s that was subsequently ‘rectified’ early in the new century.
What did not remain at all constant, however, was the output of sugar-
cane per hectare. Leaving aside one or two ‘poor’ years (almost certainly
accounted for by climatic factors), plantation yields appear almost to
have doubled in the twenty-five years between 1880 and 1905. Given
some difficulty with the data for the beginning of that period, this cal-
culation may be on the high side. Nonetheless, the considerable increase
that undoubtedly took place was all the more remarkable because it oc-
curred at a time when the factory was expanding its operation into areas
that would not earlier have been judged as best suited to cane.
Since these greatly improved plantation yields were adequately re-
flected in Wonopringgo’s output of sugar, they provide the key explana-
tion of why, despite the much reduced world price of the commodity,
Wonopringgo remained (except in some very few years) a profitable ven-
ture for the NHM. In attempting to explain this substantially increased
productivity in the field, two explanations stand out. The first – already
well rehearsed earlier in this chapter – relates to the significantly in-
creased use of (chemical) fertiliser. The second relates to the ready avail-
ability of labour at a cost low enough to make its employment feasible.
The two are complimentary and, indeed, closely associated. Low wages
were the sine qua non of a fertiliser programme predicated on massive
amounts of manual labour. The per hectare cost of labour as a percent-
might be wise to eschew any too enthusiastic a connection between the low ‘price’ of rice and the sugar
industry’s capacity for subordinating Java’s rural resources. At the same time, however, some connection
seems inescapable. The argument is about how much explanatory weight it will bear.
13 NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nrs 7945, 7999 dossier 593.
61
age of total costs in the plantation sector of production at Wonopringgo

in the 1880s and 1890s did not in itself fall substantially. What can safely
be assumed, however, is that far more workers were employed at the
prevailing low wages and that this in turn meant that labour-intensive
techniques could be employed – above all in the application of fertiliser
to the growing cane, but also in weeding and the like – and that these
techniques secured far more cane (and sugar) for the same outlay.
The industry also managed to cut its manufacturing costs. As else-
where in the international sugar economy, as it entered the age of mass
production late in the nineteenth and early in the twentieth century, the
Java industry was able to achieve a marked reduction in manufacturing
costs per unit of production. Lower wages were one factor here, but
so, too, were dramatically reduced fuel bills consequent on the instal-
lation of multiple-effect apparatus in the boiling house. Advances of
this kind in the manufacturing sector, already well underway before the
crisis of 1884 began, paid rich dividends thereafter. At Wonopringgo,
for example, between 1889 and 1905 the unit costs (per quintal) in the
Wonopringgo: A key sugar factory on the north coast of Central

Java owned by the NHM, the largest of the Dutch business concerns
operating in late-colonial Indonesia, around 1915 (KITLV 18218)
62
manufacturing sector fell by just under 25 per cent. Nonetheless, cost-

reductions in the agricultural sector were much more significant. At this
same factory, over this same period, unit costs (per hectare) in the cane
field fell by over one-third, in tandem with an increase in cane yields of
nearly 43 per cent.
the birth of an agro-industry
From the 1880s onward Java sugar participated, well ahead of most of
its international counterparts, in a wave of agricultural innovation that
transformed agriculture into a manufacturing industry in its own right.
Commercially manufactured inputs, principally of chemical fertilizer
and feedstuffs, came to play an essential role in securing what became
in consequence a manufactured (rather than simply extractive) output.
Although usually dated in Western Europe and North America from the
mid-nineteenth century, it also had a global reach.14 It was central to
developments in Java sugar.
Industrially manufactured, chemical fertilizers began to be a signifi-
cant force in agriculture in Western Europe and the United States from
around the mid-nineteenth century onward. Initially, many of them were
of dubious quality and of doubtful efficacy. From the 1870s onward,
however, and in tandem with falls in international freight rates, consis-
tent, reputable chemical fertilizers with a predominantly phosphate or
nitrogen base began to be developed by major producers in the West.15
These producers had an eye on both their own and specifically colonial
markets. Characteristically, a pamphlet of the 1890s advertising Cross’s
Celebrated Fertilisers – the firm’s Port Dundas works in Glasgow was
claimed to be ‘among the most extensive in the world’ – made specific
reference to their products for ‘Sugar-cane, Tobacco, Coffee etc’ and
their widespread ‘Agencies in the Colonies’.16
The Java sugar industry’s fertilizer of choice, sulphate of ammonia
– zwavelzure ammoniak, or ZA, to use its standard Dutch acronym – was a
rather special case. Originally a by-product of the gas works and coke-
14 Thompson 1968, 1996, 2000.

15 Wines 1985:142-6; Miller and Greenhill 2006:228-42.
16 See enclosure in [the Rotterdam firm] A.J. van Breen [Cross’s exclusive agents in Holland] to the
NHM 30-4-1891, ‘Diversen over bemesting’, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7964.
63
ovens of the industrialized world, sulphate of ammonia subsequently

began to be directly manufactured, eventually on a massive scale, by
industrial methods. Based on the Haber-Bosch process developed early
in the twentieth century, such methods were first applied commercially
in Imperial Germany on the eve of the First World War.17 Well before
that, however, sulphate of ammonia had already been widely adopted
by the sugar beet farmers of Imperial Germany.18 There was a direct
link here to the cane fields of Java. The agricultural experts who were
employed in the Java sugar industry from the 1880s onward (see below)
were themselves fully conversant with the German beet industry: indeed,
many of them had received their training there.
To begin with, however, the fertilizer revolution in Java owed rela-
tively little to chemical, industrially manufactured and imported fertil-
izers in any shape or form. Instead, it got underway with organic, locally
available fertilizer in the form of what the Javanese called bungkil, or oil
cake, generally comprised of the residue of kacang (ground nuts) that had
been crushed for their oil.19 Bungkil was manure with which Java’s cane
growers had been familiar since at least the mid-eighteenth century.20
The history of bungkil’s use in the industry is an important one, in so far
as it undermines any residual notion of a simple diffusion from the West
in respect to the nexus between field science and colonialism.21 To an ex-
tent that reflects a gathering critique of diffusion, the antecedents of the
fertilizer revolution were to be found in long-standing practices in Java
itself, as well as in exogenous science: the case of Java sugar underlines
both the value of expatriate European expertise and the importance of
indigenous, local foundations on which it could build, and within whose
parameters it could hope to flourish. To adopt Stuart McCook’s evoca-
tive phrase, it was ‘a Creole science’, whose ambiguous location tran-
scended sharp distinctions between colony and metropolis.22
17 Smil 2001:48-50.
18 Thompson 2000:1035; Perkins 1981.
19 See Boengkil 1917. Boengkil (1917) specifically mentions kacang bungkil, kaliki bungkil and kapokpitten
bungkil, the first of which has the highest nitrogen content.
20 The late nineteenth-century Indies’ agricultural expert K.W. van Gorkom (1879) cited late eigh-
teenth-century sources on the considerable quantities of animal manure and kacang koeken then used on
sugar cane in the Batavia Ommelanden.
21 For a pointed critique of simple diffusionist notions in relation to cane propagation in nineteenth-
and twentieth-century Mauritius, see Storey 1997:1-3.
22 McCook 2002:4-6.
64
From the 1880s onward, the use of fertilizer of all kinds is widely
evidenced in the Java industry.23 Imported guano, perhaps the richest
single source of organic nitrogen, was one possibility, but a sharp and
permanent rise in its price a couple of decades earlier (together with
doubts about its efficacy on cane) limited its use.24 Nonetheless, it would
probably have been among the constituents of proprietary fertilizers
such as ‘Salomonson’s suikermest [Sugar manure]’, exported to Java by the
Netherlands firm of that name.25 Salomonson’s was the fertilizer touted,
for instance, by the aggressively ‘modern’ entrepreneur – he evidently
saw himself in precisely those terms – D.J. Jut, who was the owner of the
new Soeko Dhono sugar factory in East Java.
Hailed within industry circles as a pioneer, Jut neatly bridged the
potential gap between metropolitan big business and Indies-based enter-
prises. As well as being co-owner of Soeko Dhono, he was employed from
1881 as inspecteur van suikerondernemingen (inspector of sugar enterprises) by
the Batavia factorij of the NHM. It was in partnership with the NHM’s
Batavia branch – and hence with the local representatives of a major met-
ropolitan-based firm – that Jut had launched Soeko Dhono in the 1870s.
As model of what the industry should be like when freed from the ‘tram-
mels’ of the state-run Cultuurstelsel, it attracted the attention of economic
liberals, evidently racists, who (inter alia) lauded Soeko Dhono for having
a personnel largely made up of ‘full-blood’ expatriates: such people, it
was implied, were better managers than their Indies-born counterparts.26
Nonsense of this kind may have found an appreciative audience in
Holland, but in the Indies it were locally born Dutchmen, most of them
Eurasian, who continued to form the mainstay of the industry’s staff
throughout the late colonial era. Moreover, at Soeko Dhono, the kind
of ‘free enterprise’ espoused by economic liberals clearly had its limits as
far as individual initiative was concerned. By the end of the 1880s, Jut
23 For example, the Koloniaal verslag (1883:182), remarked on ‘the annually increasing use of fertilizer
on the cane fields’, though without further specification. The fullest colonial-era overview of the increase
in fertilizer use in Java from the 1890s to 1914 is Van Deventer 1915:405. This was the fifth volume in a
series of handbooks prepared by industry experts and used in the training – in both the Netherlands and
Java – of industry personnel.
24 Mathew 1970.
25 In 1904, the same firm was advertising ‘Ohlendorff ’s Soluble Peru Guano [...] Special Fertilizers
for Sugar Cane, Tobacco…and all other Fertilizers for Tropical Crops’, and their availability in Java
through agents in Surabaya, Yogyakarta and Semarang (see the advertisement pages of Handboek 1904).
For Salomonson, see Sluyterman 2005:33.
26 Lisse 1883.
65
had been bought out by the NHM, and his factory became part of one
of the colony’s largest sugar-manufacturing conglomerates.
Meanwhile, Jut himself had also been something of an industry activ-
ist. In the late 1880s he was chairman of the newly formed Vereeniging
van Soerabaiasche Suikerfabrikanten (Association of Surabaya Sugar
Manufacturers), precursor of what were to become increasingly effective
industry pressure groups. On the business side, as well as Soeko Dhono,
he also had a stake in a number of other enterprises in the colony, in-
cluding a share in two more East Java sugar factories (Peterongan and
Sroenie), as well as in a timber concession (Gondang) that was presum-
ably intended to produce firewood for the furnaces of the sugar factories
that lay to its south in the hinterland of Surabaya. In addition, he forged
financial links with the Koloniale Bank, one of the new metropolitan
financiers of the sugar industry that emerged around 1880. It was this
bank that provided capital, to the tune of nearly 700,000 guilders, for
the new Seloredjo sugar factory (likewise in East Java), in which Jut was
a partner. All in all, it was a substantial portfolio of interests and invest-
ments, and hence it is hardly surprising to find him described by a latter-
day industry executive as a man who ‘took a prominent place among the
sugar men of his day’.27
Jut’s pioneering efforts at Soeko Dhono and elsewhere in East Java
belonged, nonetheless, to the relatively early days of the fertilizer revolu-
tion. At that time, imported suikermest was still sufficiently expensive for
it to be confined to ratooned cane (that is, cane grown from the stumps
of the previous season’s crop), where the outlay on fertilizer could be set
against the savings on labour costs contingent on not having to replant
cane annually.28 Indeed, Jut was at one with his contemporaries in the
1880s in using bungkil as his main source of manure. Initially an exclu-
sively local product, during the closing decades of the nineteenth century
it also began to be imported in substantial quantities from the Indian
subcontinent, from China and from Holland (probably as a re-export
from West Africa): between 1880 and 1900 oil cake imports soared from
27 Jaarverslag NHM Factorij Batavia, 54 (1878-79), pp. 48-9, 56 (1881), p. 22, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01,
inv. nr. 4552; Inspectierapport Soeko Dhono, 1887, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7937; ‘Gedenkboek
Koloniale Bank’, p. 27, in: NA, Cultuur-, Handel- en Industriebank; Koloniale Bank; Cultuurbank NV
(Cultuur-, Handel- en Industriebank), 1881-1969, toegangsnummer 2.20.04, inv. nr. 883.
28 D.J. Jut, ‘Nota over de grondbewerking en bemesting van suikerriettuinen, zoo als die worden uitge-
voerd voor de vrije suikerfabriek Soeko Dhono, gelegen te Modjo Agoong, afdeeling Modjo Kerto, Res.
Soerabaia op Java’, 31-12-1881, in: NA, 2.20.01, NHM, inv. nr. 9209.
66
a little over 4 MT annually to 8,000 MT, and probably peaked around

that figure early in the twentieth century (oil cake disappears as a discrete
item in customs data in 1903).29 From then on, however, oil cake was en-
tirely outclassed in value by chemical fertilizers, primarily with sulphate
of ammonia – the soon to be ubiquitous ZA – as their base.
First and foremost, the price was right. Between 1880 and the early
1890s, the British (and hence, international) price of sulphate of am-
monia had fallen by almost 50 per cent, from twenty pounds sterling
per (long) ton to just over eleven. The price bottomed out in the late
1890s at around seven and a half pounds sterling.30 Largely through
the agency of the sugar companies themselves and their associated
businesses, imports of chemical fertilizer, most of it from the United
Kingdom, the Netherlands and Germany, boomed. In this respect, the
most significant operation was that of the so-called Mestfabriek Java
(Java Fertilizer Factory), located in Semarang. Despite its name, its chief
business appears to have been the importation of fertilizer from overseas.
Established in 1886 (as the Mestfabriek Semarang) by individuals associ-
ated with the pioneering Proefstation Midden-Java (Central Java Sugar
Research Institute) there, it was taken over at the turn of the century by
the Batavia-based plantation and business house of Maclaine Watson &
Co. Together with their associates in Semarang and Surabaya, they con-
stituted one of the very biggest of the Indies firms engaged in the sugar
trade. By the 1920s, the Mestfabriek had become a heavily capitalized
enterprise with more than a million guilders invested in its operations,
and offices in Surabaya and Cirebon as well as in Semarang. Its business
was then described as ‘the preparation, purchase, importation and sale,
and acceptance on consignment, of all kinds of fertilizers, chemical and
[other] necessities for the Plantations and industries of the Netherlands
Indies’.31
ZA had become big business, and by 1914 accounted for around
5 per cent of the total value of all non-government imports into the
Netherlands Indies as a whole.32 Within Java, meanwhile, a network of
29 S. Brown 1981.
30 Bradbury & Hirsh’s review of the market for sulphate of ammonia during 1890 (London, [1891]).
There is a copy of this pamphlet in the file ‘Diverse Bemesting’, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7964.
For subsequent prices, see Partington and Parker 1922:125, 129-31.
31 Leidelmeijer 1997:232; Handboek 1903:778, 1925:1469; First hundred years 1927:11-2.
32 Between 1880 and 1900, fertilizer imports increased nearly tenfold in value from less than 500,000
guilders per year to somewhat under 5 million guilders per year. Already by 1901, ZA were worth around
67
railways, light railways and tramways was sufficiently evolved by 1900 for
chemical fertilizer to be distributed conveniently and cheaply to virtually
any part of the island. While sugar remained their single most valu-
able item of bulk haulage, fertilizer (in its organic and chemical forms)
became an important item of freight for such railway companies as the
Semarang-Cheribon Stoomtram Maatschappij, whose lines by 1900
serviced the great majority of the sugar factories located along the north
coast of Central Java. The Stoomtram Maatschappij had been carrying
increasing quantities of oil cake along its lines since its records began
early in the 1890s. During the first decade of the new century ZA largely
took its place, such that by 1908 the company was carrying around 7,000
MT of the fertilizer annually on its lines along the north coast of Central
Java. By 1913 it was carrying around 11,000 MT.33
By this date, ZA had established itself as the quintessential fertilizer
for Java’s cane fields.34 Hailed in industry circles as ‘of indispensable
importance for the agriculture of sugar’, it was lauded as ‘the most
used and the foremost among the nitrogen combinations consumed in
the Indies’.35 Application rates per hectare rose sharply during the first
decade of the century. Indeed, at many factories, they registered a 100
per cent increase over the decade prior to 1914, by which time the Java
average was nearly four quintals (that is, 400 kilo) for every hectare of
cane. ZA use peaked a decade later at over five quintals.36
eight times as much in value as was oil cake (4,230,882 guilders as opposed to 651,000 guilders). For the
period 1880-1908, these figures are taken from Statistiek van den Handel, de Scheepvaart en de In- en Uitvoer-
rechten in Nederlandsch Indië over het jaar … Samengesteld bij het Departement van Financiën. For the period 1909-
1914, the figures are from this publication’s successor, Statistiek van den Handel en de In- en Uitvoerrechten in
Nederlandsch-Indië over het Jaar… Samengesteld bij het Hoofdbureau der In- en Uitvoerrechten. I am grateful to Jasper
van der Kerkhof for locating and processing these data.
33 Jaarverslagen van de Chef der Exploitatie, 1895-1914, in: NA, Semarang-Cheribon Stoomtram
Maatschappij, 1893-1946, toegangsnummer 2.20.17, inv. nrs. 8, 9.
34 Van Houwelingen 1904. England was identified as the biggest single supplier: 19,280 MT in 1903
(or 3,110,000 picul) at a cost of 16 guilders per quintal or 10 guilders per picul.
35 Van de Leemkolk 1915:99.
36 Van Deventer 1915:408; Booberg 1927.
68
labouring in the cane fields: the making of an

industrial workforce
In some sectors of late nineteenth-century commercial agriculture world-

wide, it has been argued, the take-up of fertilizer was a response to a
shortage of labour. In the American south in the post-bellum decades, in
particular, fertilizer was said to make up for the loss of plantation labour
consequent on the abolition of slavery: less land could be brought under
the plough for ‘commercial crops’, but recourse to fertilizer enabled
output to be maintained or increased.37 In late colonial Java, however,
a precocious appetite for fertilizer was a response to an abundance of
labour and a shortage of land.
From the 1880s onward, work in the industry’s agricultural sector, as
was also the case in manufacturing, was performed by the wage labour
of ‘part-time’ peasants or quasi-proletarians. The distinction is largely
semantic. The Java industry was lucky in that the same rural depres-
sion that ‘delivered’ farmland for cane planting at distinctly favourable
rates (helped along by more than a modicum of chicanery, intimidation
and the like) also meant that wages were low, and could be lowered to
near starvation levels. Most of Java’s increasing number of (functionally)
landless workers had nowhere else to go, either literally or metaphori-
cally. In consequence, Java’s colonial sugar producers entered the age of
mass production with a potential labour force whose size and low-cost
character made them the cynosure of rival industries. Java was famed
for having ‘the cheapest labour among the sugar producing countries of
the world’38 and as a place where, in contrast to the norm, it was labour
rather than land, which was ‘so abundant and cheap’.39
Nonetheless, massive labour inputs per se were not the key to devel-
opments. The outstanding productivity of Java’s late colonial cane fields
has sometimes been attributed largely to one particular agricultural
technique that crudely exploited the island’s ostensibly inexhaustible
supply of labour: the so-called ‘Reynoso System’ of cane planting. This
is wrong. In fact, the development of the much-vaunted ‘system’ was
neither as ubiquitous nor as efficacious as might be thought. Alvaro
Reynoso (1829-1888) was a Cuban whose book, advocating a (back-
37 See, for example, Wines 1985:158 and the references therein.
38 Maxwell 1927:7.
69
breaking) system of trench-digging in sugar fields, a system designed

to force the deep-rooting of cane and thereby significantly improve its
growth, had been translated into Dutch shortly after the appearance of
the Spanish original in the 1860s. A modified version of his system was
already implemented in Java a decade later (and hence well before the
‘fertilizer revolution’ and the great increase in cane yields that it brought
in its wake), where the greater availability of the necessary labour
make it a much more practicable proposition than was the case in the
Caribbean.40
Back-breaking work in the sugar field: The Reynoso system of

cane planting in operation in East Java, 1921 (KITLV 30198)
Nonetheless, it was never the industry’s universal mode of cultiva-

tion, and deep ploughing – rather than the (manual) trenching central to
40 See Moreno Fraginals 1976:91-3, for a description of the system and a reproduction of the fron-
tispiece of the Dutch version of the book (Verhandeling van Don Alvaro Reynoso over de cultuur van suikerriet),
translated by Servaas de Bruin ‘en voor het wetenschappelijke en praktische nagezien’ by ‘J.E. de Vrij &
J. Millard’, Rotterdam: Nijgh, 1865. During the 1870s, ‘Reynoso’ was widely taken up in Central Java,
both along the north coast and in the interior, as well as in West Java (Cirebon).
70
‘Reynoso’ – was and remained a very real option where soil and climatic
conditions made it a viable (and cheaper) alternative. Indeed, the popu-
larity of ‘Reynoso’ among manufacturers varied considerably over time:
for instance, there was said to have been a reaction against it (in favour
of ploughing) during the 1880s, followed by a later swing back. As one
authoritative writer remarked in the 1920s, ‘this constant alternation
between one method of working and the other shows quite clearly that
there is no great difference in the results that can be obtained’.41 In short,
while Reynoso certainly played a role in the emergence of agro-industry
in Java sugar, it was only one among several factors that included an ex-
tensive programme of R&D and a recourse to chemical fertilizer to an
Javanese women at work in the sugar fields: Weeding

the cane, around 1910 (KITLV 5178)
41 See Van Deventer 1927:188-9. Van Deventer’s work was issued with the ‘imprimateur’ of the sugar
syndicate and this updated edition of the original book (according to its frontispiece) was ‘herzien en
bijgewerkt door het Proefstation voor de Java Suikerindustrie’. In reaching this conclusion, Van Deventer
drew on the published research of Van der Zijl 1922. The section of Van der Zijl’s report on which Van
Deventer drew his conclusion that ‘[u]it de samenvatting der proeven over dit ontwerp door van der Zijl,
blijkt, dat van een voordeel van ploegen over Reynoso niets blijkt; eerder is een gering voordeel in de
omgekeerde richting te zien’, is Van der Zijl’s discussion of ‘Ploegen tegen Reynoso’, pp. 160-6.
71
extent that was without parallel in comparable tropical and sub-tropical

cane sugar industries. Most important of all, however, techniques of
planting were no more than one dimension of an evolving agro-industry
in the field, characterized by an elaborate division of labour along
industrial lines (including, inter alia, a very high degree of informed
and informing supervision) and by very significant developments in the
gendering of the workforce, which brought women (and children) very
much to the fore.
the division of labour, manual work and machines
The evolution of agro-industry in the field has been commonly equated

with the advance of the machine and the (partial) suppression of manual
labour. Late colonial Java stands as a contrary instance. ‘Industrialization’
was located in work processes rather than in machines, and mechanical
solutions to agricultural problems played only a minor part in the chang-
es that took place. To be sure, the Java factories toyed from time to time
with the implementation of mechanized ploughing and mechanized
digging of the trenches in which cane was planted.42 Altogether more
significantly, they exploited mechanized means to rail cane from the field
into the factory.43 Essentially, however, from the late nineteenth century
onward, growth was based on a labour-intensive, yet simultaneously in-
dustrial, regime. Within the parameters of the intensive exploitation of
manual labour, the essentials of industrial production came to be found
as much in the field as in the factory. Contrary to what has sometimes
been argued, however, low wages and the (relative) abundance of labour
did not have an inhibiting effect on significant advances in agricultural
practice and techniques.44 In fact, as the case of Java convincingly dem-
onstrates, the two were far from being polar opposites. The industry’s
achievements in the cane field stemmed from the extent to which sugar
plantation agriculture in Java became, at one and the same time, both
labour-intensive and industrialized in so far as the labour process was
concerned.
42 See, for example, Rapport machinale grondbewerking 1920.

43 By the 1920s, the industry boasted some 10,000 kilometres of rail track (Van der Mandere 1928:57).
44 The classic statement is Lewis 1978. For a critical engagement with Lewis’s argument in a New
World context, see, for example, Dye 1998:69-70.
72
The defining characteristics of an industrial workforce are not of

an absolute kind, nor are they predicated on a sudden ‘revolutionary’
transformation.45 They relate to the provenance of labour, how labour
is disciplined and subordinated to capital’s requirements, the nature of
those requirements as reflected in the division of labour into discrete
tasks, and – critically – the supervision of those tasks. Last but not least,
the industrial character of a workforce is closely related to the productiv-
ity of labour and the existence of what might be styled a ‘discourse of
productivity’. The key argument here is that although sugar labour in
Java has commonly been designated as ‘cheap’ and ‘plentiful’, in fact this
designation is highly questionable. Least of all did it preclude typically
capitalist calculations about the exploitation of labour.
The process of creating a disciplined, industrial workforce out of
landless and marginalized peasants had begun in Java in the middle
decades of the nineteenth century, under the aegis of the Cultuurstelsel.
Java’s colonial sugar industry benefited greatly from the re-location, in
the 1830s and 1840s, of its major centres of production into, or into
the proximity of, some of the most densely settled rural localities in the
whole of Southeast Asia. A large-scale, and often brutal, commandeer-
ing of labour could be sustained because skewed access to resources in
the Javanese countryside meant that a growing number of (functionally)
landless peasants could be mobilized to meet the needs of the sugar
industry.
Only in the final decades of the nineteenth century, however, did the
Java sugar factories began to convert the colony’s potential for ‘cheap
labour’ into an effective, industrial-style workforce. In so doing, they
were able to take advantage of the fact that their predominantly seasonal
workforce came to be comprised – predominantly – of men, women and
children for whom wages, gleaned whenever and wherever they might
be found, formed an essential element of subsistence.46 For the industry,
this was not an entirely one-way street. Rural labour shifted, sometimes
uneasily, between a variety of employers, some of whom were peasant
landholders and some not. It did so, moreover, in ways that did not
always suit the sugar industry. At various times and places this caused
dismay, even alarm, in industry circles. Nonetheless, for the most part the
industry had the upper hand.
45 I have drawn here, inter alia, on Mathias 1996:40-3.
46 For an elaboration of the discussion in this and the following paragraph, see Knight 1994.
73
the provenance of labour
In the late nineteenth century, much of the industry’s multi-faceted

workforce was recruited within the locality of the factory. Ambulatory,
migrant labourers, nonetheless, began to make up a proportion of the
workforce that increased in importance early in the twentieth century.
Labourers of this kind, particularly those engaged in the heavy work of
‘opening’ the land prior to cane planting, appear to have begun to move
from factory to factory, a migration made technically feasible by the new
railways (with very cheap fares for ‘native’ passengers) and made possible
because the factories in Java’s drier east usually began field operations
earlier than their counterparts further west. Sometimes these migrants
were housed in ‘coolie kampongs’ specifically erected close to the factories.
By the early twentieth century, workers’ quarters of this kind – some of
them no more, perhaps, than rural shanty towns, others more formally
laid out by the sugar company concerned (and proudly photographed
by them) – were an important feature of factory life.47 Late in the nine-
teenth century, however, it looks as if many of the temporary workers
who were drawn from further afield made what arrangements they could
to find lodgings in the villages around the factory which employed them
labour recruitment and bonding
The sugar industry’s control over labour had evolved considerably since
the middle decades of the nineteenth century, when a great deal of work
in the industry had been ‘compulsory’ in the sense of being carried out
on the basis of the peasantry’s (presumed) obligations to perform corvee.
From the 1860s onward, what was designated in colonial terminology as
‘free labour’ became increasingly characteristic of the industry’s opera-
tions. By the late nineteenth century, a key element in the evolution of
‘free labour’ was informal arrangements for bonding of various kinds.
Designed to secure a regular turnout and to circumvent the enticements
of other employers, the usual arrangement was for the factories them-
selves – or their Javanese ‘foremen’ (mandur) – to recruit workers on the
basis of cash advances. During the opening decades of the twentieth
47 For a description of the mid-twentieth-century situation regarding worker housing around the
sugar factories of East Java, see Sulistyo 1997:112.
74
century, factory records began to distinguish between informally bonded

labourers and those who, from the perspective of factory managers at
least, turned out to work of their own accord. Nonetheless, their actual
status was ambiguously located in a network of obligations incurred
within villages and among the work gangs that were characteristic of at
least some sectors of sugar industry production.
Some employers turned to labour contractors to supply part of their
workforce. At the big Wonopringgo sugar factory on the north coast of
Central Java, for example, an Indies-Chinese contractor supplied much
of the labour required during the campaign. He appears to have found
some of his workers in impoverished districts further along the coast,
where, among other things, he owned a number of ice factories (which
may have served as recruitment centres). Already in place in the 1890s,
the arrangement continued in force until the eve of the interwar depres-
sion some four decades later. The original contractor himself grew rich
enough to afford to have his son trained as an engineer, and the same
man was for a time a member of the colonial government’s consultative
assembly, the Volksraad. His father (died 1930) built himself a colonial-
style mansion in the locality – it was still standing at the end of the twen-
tieth century – and appears to have enjoyed a patriarchal relationship
in the surrounding district strong enough to ensure his family’s survival
through the political and social upheavals of the mid-twentieth century.48
women and children in the sugar fields
From the late nineteenth century onward, the labour of women (and
children) became a feature of Java’s cane fields on a historically unprec-
edented and vital scale. Indeed, a radical shift in the gender composition
of the workforce was central to the evolution of that agro-industry that
was so critical to Java sugar’s ability to re-invent itself in the context of
the age of mass production. The immediate background was to be found,
so it would appear, in the deflationary economic conditions in rural Java
48 I have derived the information in this paragraph from a letter from Han Bing Siong (grandson
of the Pekalongan labour contractor Hoo Tjien Siong, aka Bah Sin Song), Rijswijk, the Netherlands,
3 April 1995 (in the possession of the author). Han Bin Siong kindly wrote to me that while attending
his brother’s funeral in Java in 1987, ‘I was surprised to hear Indonesians saying to each other: he is the
grandson of Bah Sin Song. That after 57 years they still knew my grandfather’s name moved me deeply.’
75
which, as we have already seen, impacted on the price of rice in the final
two decades of the nineteenth century. It was this same phenomenon
that also enabled the industry to depress wages to near-subsistence levels.
The industry was now able to recruit women, adolescents and children
into the workforce; they were obliged to seek wages ‘outside’ the village
to an extent, and with a consistency, that was apparently quite novel.49
The success of the agro-industrial project was dependent, in short, not
only on the availability of labour but on what kind of labour was avail-
able. Women and children began to enter the formal workforce as never
before. Largely unknown (so it would seem) in the cane fields prior to the
1880s, fifty years later they constituted a little under half (44%) of the
people employed there.50
Most immediately, the availability of the cheap labour of women
and children enabled elaborate routines of fertilizer application to be
put in place at minimal cost. Women, together with children, were also
heavily involved in the planting of cane (indeed, so much so as to make it
impossible to provide discrete numbers for those involved in the fertilizer
programme alone).51 In total, they came to form a substantial part of
the industry’s workforce: at one reasonably typical factory on the north
coast of Central Java in June 1908 for instance – June was a peak month
of activity – there was a daily average of 1,119 women and 899 children
working in the plantation, together with over 3,000 men.52 The success
of the agro-industrial transformation of the cane field was largely predi-
cated on them. Commensurate with the influx of women and children
into the sugar workforce, as keen-eyed colonials were quick to note, was
49 See the local-level reports on rural conditions collected by Dutch officials around the turn of the
century (see, for instance, Mindere welvaart Banjoemas 1908:46; Mindere welvaart Kediri 1908:57). In dealing
with prostitution, in particular, the compilers of Onderzoek naar de mindere welvaart der inlandsche bevolking op
Java en Madoera picked up information about social and economic trends in the countryside that went far
beyond the immediate issue on hand. ‘Informal’ (the usual term was ‘clandestine’) or casual prostitution
was judged to be much on the increase in some areas, the proffered explanation for which was the novel
situation of men and women working alongside each other in sugar field and factory (see, for example,
Mindere welvaart Pasoeroean 1908:34; Mindere welvaart Soerabaja 1909:24).
50 For an introduction to the issue of women in the workforce in nineteenth-century Java, see
Boomgaard 1981. For general data on of the participation of women and children in the industry’s early
twentieth-century field and factory workforce, see Levert 1934:119-21, 125-7.
51 At many factories, such as Soeko Dhono in the early 1880s, cane planting was quite explicitly
women and children’s work, see D.J. Jut, ‘Nota over de grondbewerking en bemesting van suikerriettui-
nen, zoo als die worden uitgevoerd voor de vrije suikerfabriek Soeko Dhono, gelegen te Modjo Agoong,
afdeeling Modjo Kerto, Res. Soerabaia op Java’, 31-12-1881, in: NA, 2.20.01, NHM, inv. nr. 9209.
52 Jaarverslag Sf. Ketanggoengan-West, 1908, pp. 3-4; 1911, p. 11; 1913, p. 10, in: NA, NHM,
2.20.01, inv. nr. 9372.
76
The planting of cane was largely women’s work: A Javanese sugar

field in the early stages of planting-out, 1921 (KITLV 30189)
an all-round reduction in wages and an increased facility, on the part of

the management, for subordinating the industry’s workforce as a whole.
Around the turn of the century, it was widely reported that wages were
considerably lower than had been common in rural employment only a
few years earlier.53 This may, of course, simply have reflected general,
deflationary conditions in the countryside. Nonetheless, it was still pos-
sible for women and children employed in the industry to be described
as ‘scandalously badly paid’.54
low wages and inducements to labour
Even so, there appear to have been limits to how low payments could
get. In 1886, at a time when the industry was desperately casting around
53 For the north coast of Central Java, see, for instance, Mindere welvaart Pekalongan 1908:46. For a broad
overview and selected data on wages in the Netherlands Indies, see Dros 1992.
54 See the comments, circa 1904, of an elderly Christian missionary teacher (‘zendelingsleeraar’) who had
been based in East Java for some fifty years, printed as Appendix 8 in Mindere welvaart Soerabaja 1909:161.
77
for ways of cutting costs in the wake of the collapse of the world price
for factory sugar two years earlier, the NHM’s superintendent of sugar
factories, Steven Everts, sounded a note of caution. In confidential re-
sponse to suggestions emanating from company directors in Amsterdam
that wages in the Java sugar industry could be drastically reduced – they
were reputed to have been cut by 50 per cent in Cuba – he warned that
if wages were cut on that scale in Java, then the industry might as well
shut down. No workers would turn out for wages as low as that. Everts,
who had been in sugar for a decade or more, and was later to become a
leading industry executive, could hardly be suspected of being a bleeding
heart. What concerned him was that although the industry did indeed
provide employment for a great many people, ‘if we cut wages by 50%,
employment in the industry is not so indispensable to these people that
they will not be able to find a livelihood by other means’. He was cer-
tainly keen to reduce payments over a range of tasks – and indeed had
already done so – but he also recognized the importance of increasing
the productivity of labour. In this context, he was evidently acutely con-
scious of the fact that attempts to cut wages were met with a fall-off in
the amount of work actually done.55
This said, industry wages were low, and one aspect of the sugar fac-
tories’ ability to attract workers undoubtedly had to do with their general
mode of payment. As one north-coast manufacturer observed in the
1890s, the reason why people worked for ‘such low wages’ was that they
got paid in coin at the end of the day, something which he implied could
not be relied upon if they worked instead for fellow villagers.56 Indeed,
from elsewhere in the colony during the same decade, there is testimony
that the establishment of sugar factories was viewed with dismay by the
more substantial (landholding) peasants, not least because of the threat
that the factories posed to their control over labour.57 What the factories
could also offer, moreover, was ready access to consumables. Early in the
twentieth century, for example, the management of a factory that was
located at some distance from the nearest town was very much alive to
55 Everts to NHM Factorij Batavia, 9-11-1886, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7936.
56 See, for example, the comments of the administrateur of Sf Kemantran (Tegal) circa 1894 ‘dat de
bevolking met deze lage verdiensten werken wil, volgt hoofdzakelijk uit contante betaling’, NA, NHM,
2.20.01, inv. nr. 7963.
57 See, for example, Schmalhausen 1909:12.
78
the advantages of having pasar (markets) and toko (shops and stalls) estab-
lished in its vicinity.58
There were, of course, other forms of consumption, and although
drugs, gambling and prostitution are ill-documented in relation to the
sugar industry’s operation, there can be little doubt that they played a
significant role in attracting and retaining workers. It was entirely typi-
cal, for instance, that in seeking to explain the upsurge of opium sales in
the sugar-rich residency of Pasuruan in the late 1910s, the government
officials in charge of the state’s opium monopoly confidently ascribed
it to the fact that the sugar factories were back working at full capacity,
and hence there was a great influx of labourers from other areas: use
of the drug was widespread among the ‘coolies’ who serviced the sugar
industry and other Western estates.59 Indeed, there were outlets for the
sale of opium – in the minute quantities that the workers could hope to
afford – at many sugar factories, particularly the ones not located close
to a town.60 Gambling was also presumably endemic.
So, too, was prostitution, though evidence is somewhat scant. A de-
gree of ‘license’ in the relations between the sexes among factory employ-
ees was certainly in evidence. One affronted company inspector reported
to his superiors – the year was 1885 – on the way in which ‘coolies’ had
not only smoked cigars while answering his questions, but also openly
engaged in what he described as a ‘romp’ (‘al stoeijende’) with a woman of
their number, who was half stripped and plastered with wet clay.61 Sex
as a commodity, of course, was nothing that even the most strait-laced
inspector could do anything about, even had he wanted to. Heterosexual
prostitution per se was little commented upon in industry sources, but
given the substantial presence of young males in the workforce, and
the unusual degree of their concentration in specific localities, it must
inevitably have constituted one of the attractions of industry work. The
tip of this particular iceberg is readily discernable, for instance, in the
local-level reports on rural conditions published during the opening
58 Jaarverslag Sf. Ketanggoengan-West, 1906, (unpaginated); 1907, p. 35, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv.
nr. 9376.
59 Verslag Dienst Opiumregie 1920:12, 1921:14. For an extended discussion of opium consumption in
early twentieth-century Netherlands India, see Chandra 2000.
60 In 1930, for example, there are opium sales outlets at the following ‘isolated’ sugar factories in the
residency of Pekalongan: Wonopringgo, Sragie, Tjomal and Petaroekan; see J.J.M.A. Popelier, ‘Memorie
van Overgave van de residentie Pekalongan’, 1931, pp. 65-6, in: NA, Memories van Overgave, 1852-
1962, toegangsnummer 2.10.39, inv. nr. 46.
61 D.J. Jut to Factorij NHM Batavia, 4-11-1885, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7944.
79
decade of the twentieth century in the great official investigation known

as the Onderzoek naar de mindere welvaart (Inquiry into diminished welfare).
What colonial officials described as ‘clandestine’ or casual (as opposed to
officieele or ‘registered’) prostitution was reported as being widespread in
the neighbourhood of sugar factories. It was often linked (in the official
mind at least) to the novel presence in the industry of women working
alongside men, and to the increasingly itinerant nature of a substantial
part of the industry’s field workforce.62 In some localities, at least, un-
favourable economic conditions in the country in general were said to
be responsible for the growing number of girls and young women who
sought to gain, or augment, an income by selling sex.63
the development of task work
On these several bases of recruiting and retaining labour, a situation

evolved fairly rapidly in which the regimented, closely supervised and
task-differentiated labour of large numbers of workers could be brought
to bear on every aspect of the production of cane. Indeed, by the early
twentieth century, the industry’s field workforce was largely organized –
and paid – in terms of task-work which might be divided into as many as
sixteen categories;64 in addition, the force was categorized in a variety of
forms extending from ‘gully coolies’ (the people who dug out with hand
tools the trenches in which cane was planted) to the ‘weed women’ (who
kept the growing cane free of undergrowth).65
The fertilizer revolution per se was heavily dependent on elaborate
and labour-consuming routines for ensuring that the fertilizer penetrated
the soil around the roots, and that it did so in appropriate rather than
merely random quantities. As early as 1882, for example, Jut was able
to report that at his ‘progressive’ Soeko Dhono factory in East Java the
procedure was for fertilizer to be carried by children in baskets along the
rows of cane, and strewn around each plant in a measured amount, after
62 For example, Mindere welvaart Pasoeroean 1908:34; Mindere welvaart Be ̌soeki 1909:33; Mindere welvaart
Banjoemas 1908:24; Mindere welvaart Madioen 1908:26; Mindere welvaart Kediri
̌ 1908:30.
63 For instance, Mindere welvaart Ke ̌diri 1908:30.
64 For example, Jaarverslag Sf. Wonopringgo (Central Java), 1913, p. 4, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv.
nr. 9402; Jaarverslag Sf. Gending (East Java), 1927, p. 35, in: NA, Cultuur-, Handel- en Industriebank,
2.20.04, inv. nr. 1150.
65 For a detailed discussion, see Knight 1994.
80
which a ‘coolie’ (Jut’s term), following behind, worked the fertilizer into
the ground with a pacul (a kind of spade-cum-hoe indigenous to Java).66
According to an account published in 1901 – and evidently intended
both as description and guide to those who might be new to the use of
ZA – at many factories the fertilizer was first mixed with water in a bam-
boo container or box. Subsequently, women worked their way through
the rows, delivering a fixed measure of the liquid fertilizer to each clump
of cane. The writer thought that it might pay, at least on heavier soils, to
first make a hole near the plant, into which the liquid might be poured.67
Subsequent reportage was of routines that involved two, three or even
four successive doses of fertilizer during the course of the season. At
some factories dosage was standardized in the form of tablets of com-
pressed ZA, for which purpose a Dutch firm invented a small machine
to enable them to be fabricated on the spot.68
informed and informing supervision
The importance of supervision in the evolution of industrial work pro-

cesses has long been recognized.69 Java sugar was no exception. A vital
ingredient in the agro-industrial transformation of the cane field was an
informed and informing system of supervision that enabled ‘cheap’ la-
bour to be transformed into the basis of large-scale, low-cost production.
Inter alia, the importance of field supervision in this context was clearly
reflected in what people were paid – the bottom line that mattered most
when it came to the closely watched and calibrated hierarchy of em-
ployment that counted for so much among industry personnel. At most
factories, it can safely be said that the individual who was designated as
the person in charge of cane plantation was paid as much, or even more,
than the ‘first engineer’ who was in charge of manufacturing. Only the
66 D.J. Jut, ‘Nota over de grondbewerking en bemesting van suikerriettuinen, zoo als die worden uitge-
voerd voor de vrije suikerfabriek Soeko Dhono, gelegen te Modjo Agoong, afdeeling Modjo Kerto, Res.
Soerabaia op Java’, 31-12-1881, in: NA, 2.20.01, NHM, inv. nr. 9209.
67 Bruyn 1901; Jaarverslag Poerwodadi, 1910, p. 4, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9391.
68 Van Deventer 1915:417.
69 For an elaborated discussion of the role of supervision in capitalist industrialization, see Chakrabarty
1989:68-9.
81
administrateur earned more, with a salary perhaps a third higher again

than that of his two chief subordinates.70
Supervision on the requisite scale – and it was a huge scale – was
made feasible by a number of factors. Not least was the fact that Java’s
sugar companies could draw on the island’s old established Eurasian,
‘Indies-Dutch’, communities to fill the upper ranks of their field staff.
Legally and socially assimilated to the totok, expatriate arrivals from met-
ropolitan Europe, these communities provided recruits whose ostensible
familiarity with ‘the natives’ purportedly gave them an edge over Dutch
expatriates. As one contemporary remarked in the 1920s, a deep famil-
iarity with ‘land en volk’ was vital for staff that had a ‘continuous contact
with the native workforce’.71 A survey done in the 1920s confirmed that
the great majority of the industry’s Dutch field employees were Java-
born – and therefore preponderantly Eurasians.72
Well before that, in the late 1880s, industry bodies had already es-
tablished training courses ‘where youths, born on Java, will obtain the
knowledge necessary for the growing of sugar’.73 This proved to be the
precursor of elaborate and ongoing training programmes for indus-
try field staff. In 1926, for instance, the industry’s research institute at
Pasuruan, in heart of the East Java sugar belt (see below), hosted a seven-
day course for cane planters, provided at the industry’s expense.74 In all,
between 1913 and 1940 the industry provided fifteen such courses (they
were suspended between 1932 and 1938) to some 1,250 individuals.75 In
this context, the detailed and precise instructions for cane planting found
in contemporary manuals for the education and use of European field
supervisors tell their own story (albeit a presumably somewhat idealized
one), as do injunctions to let nothing slide when dealing with the field
work of the native workforce: ‘from the outset one needs to keep a sharp
70 The data here are from the middle-sized Wonolangen sugar factory in East Java. I am confident,
however, that relative salaries at this middle-sized and long-established enterprise were roughly com-
parable with those throughout the industry in the 1920s (Jaarverslag Wonolangan, 1926, p. 1, in: NA,
Cultuurmaatschappij Wonolangan te ’s-Gravenhage (Cultuurmij. Wonolangan), 1895-1963, toegang-
snummer, 2.20.02.03, inv. nr. 114. Wonolangan’s hoofdtuinopzichter (chief plantation supervisor) earned
650 guilders per month, the same base salary as the eerste machinist (first engineer). The base salary of the
administrateur was 1,000 guilders per month.
71 Romer 1921:288.
72 In the case, for example, of assistent tuinopzichters, about 80% were born in the Indies. For a detailed
analysis of the European/Eurasian personnel of the industry, see Tichelaar 1924, 1925.
73 Proefstations suikercultuur 1886.
74 Cursus rietplanters 1926.
75 Booberg 1940.
82
eye open’, as one informed and experienced writer remarked, and ‘to
take a firm line to make sure that they don’t get away with anything’.76
A group Dutch supervisory personnel at the Tjomal sugar factory on

the north coast of Central Java, circa 1918 (NA, Tjomal, 2.20.39)
The functions of professionals of this kind were not confined simply

to the supervision of workers; they were key to the assembly of the data
on which scientific production depended. Back in the early 1880s, for ex-
ample, field supervisors at more progressive plantations had already been
expected to submit weekly written reports on a pre-printed, standardized
form, and similar arrangements had become de rigueur throughout the
industry by the century’s end.77 Record keeping, moreover, became in-
creasingly meticulous over the years, and lay at the heart of the ‘inform-
ing’ as well as the ‘informed’ nature of the supervision that was so central
a feature of the agro-industry in sugar that characterized the late colonial
76 Van Deventer 1915:232-3.

77 For Soeko Dhono – and for the preservation in the archive of a little collection of these
‘Tiendaagsche rapporten’ dating from 1882-1885 – see: Dossiers Cultuurzaken, Suikerfabriek Soeko
Dhono, 1880-1906, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7947; Dossiers Cultuurzaken, Suikerfabriek Poerwo-
dadi, 1885-1888, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7944.
83
era in Java. To give but one example: at one particular factory in East
Java in the 1920s, a total of 634 hectares of plantation, divided into three
major subdivisions, embraced a total of some fifty-six ‘cane gardens’ or
tuinen. For each of the latter, records were kept not only of cane yields,
planting (aanplant) costs, cane varieties used and other similarly ‘agricul-
tural’ matters, but also of the amount of sugar each ‘garden’ yielded,
cane-harvesting costs, transport costs and the precise rendement that came
from that particular area of cane (which, itself, was of course accurately
measured).78 All in all, record keeping demonstrated a fine ‘Germanic’
zeal on the part of the Dutch that might have been even more at home
further up the Rhine…
Ultimately, nonetheless, supervision was a Dutch enterprise only
in part. Indeed, in the final analysis it was the presence of ‘native’,
Indonesian field staff – rather than their European superiors per se –
that made possible this kind of near-obsessive, in-depth attention to
the plantation. It was, for example, on the information gathering of
scores of so-called Javanese ‘aanplant schrijvers’ – ‘field record keepers’,
in an approximate translation – that the entire edifice of record keep-
ing depended. The industry itself actively promoted the formation of
suitable personnel: there is evidence, for example, that local-level Dutch
managers saw the point of ensuing that young people whose Indonesian
families were already ‘part’ of the industry obtained the requisite train-
ing, part-academic, part-experiential, to fill a useful future role in the
agro-industrial enterprise. As the archive relating, for instance, to one
medium-sized factory on the north coast of Central Java makes clear,
circa 1910 the administrateur had organized for the running of what he
called a ‘fabrieksschool’, or factory school, for about seventy boys – which
was also attended, in the afternoon, by about forty girls.79
They were the offspring of the factory’s tukang (skilled factory work-
ers) and mandur, and the boys received instruction in the morning from
one of the factory’s many Indonesian (field) record-keepers or clerks
(Dutch: schrijvers), while the girls were instructed in the afternoons by one
of the Indonesian staff – presumably a woman – of the factory’s labora-
tory. During the campaign, when an attitude of ‘all hands on deck’ pre-
78 For the information in this paragraph, see Jaarverslag Sf. Wonolangan 1927, pp. 13-27, in: NA,
Cultuurmij. Wonolangan, 2.20.02.03, inv. nr. 115.
79 For the information in this and the following paragraph, see Jaarverslag Kemantran, 1911, p. 6;
1912, p. 22; 1914, p. 23; 1920, p. 23, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9374.
84
Laboratory staff, Java sugar factory (unknown), circa
1920 (KITLV 30193, KITLV 18274)
vailed, the students worked in the factory – above all in the laboratory, in
the taking of samples and the like – while the more promising ones were
enabled to take advanced courses of a kind that the lower-level labora-
tory staff themselves were not able to provide in the fabrieksschool itself.
Some of the older boys got further experiential training as assistant field
record-keepers (hulp-schrijvers) and student-draftsmen (leerling-tekenaar).
Indonesian field staff and their Dutch boss, Tjomal

sugar factory, circa 1918 (NA, Tjomal, 2.20.39)
By the end of the 1920s, the industry employed some 23,000

Indonesian field supervisors, on an average ratio of roughly one full-
time individual for every nine hectares of standing cane.80 Photographs
of the Dutch tuin-employee and his cohort of a dozen or more Indonesian
assistants became a standard feature of the industry’s photographic ar-
80 In 1930 there were 12,753 tuinmandoers (plantation foremen) and 10,308 hulptuinmandoers (assistant
plantation foremen) employed in the colonial-Java sugar industry, that is, a total of 23,061 Indonesian su-
pervisory field staff. In the same year, the (harvested) area under cane amounted to nearly 200,000 hect-
ares. See http://www.kitlv.nl/documents/library/Metamorfoze/Indisch%20Verslag/MMKITLV01_
PDF_TS2711_1934.pdf, p. 192 (accessed 20-8-2012).
86
chive, as did a landscape dotted with the white-clad figures of ‘native’

mandur and record keepers.
yielding to none: a unique record of field

productivity
The fertilizer revolution, and the associated development of industrial

agriculture, had far-reaching consequences for the Java industry’s loca-
tion in the international sugar economy. Over a twenty-year period end-
ing in 1913, the island’s total output of sugar increased threefold, from
5,000,000 to 15,000,000 MT.81 This meant that on the eve of the First
World War Java more than held its own, along with Imperial Germany
and Cuba, in the topmost rank of the world’s exporters of sugar. The
differences between Java and Cuba as producers of sugar, however, were
very striking. Whereas the Java industry entered the twentieth century
with substantially improved plantation yields, in Cuba the reverse took
place. Between the 1880s and the eve of the First World War, extensifi-
cation of cane production in the Caribbean island went in tandem with
a fall-off in per hectare productivity in the agricultural sector,82 since it
was judged to be economically rational to pay less attention to cultivation
on the (correct) assumption that sheer quantity would make up for the
lack of quality.83
In contrast, it was precisely to improvements in the production of raw
material that the Java producers looked for their salvation, with resultant
levels of field productivity totally unmatched elsewhere.84 Of course,
Java had long had a record in respect to yields that was exceptionally
high by international standards. As of 1894, the average yield of cane
already stood at around 68 MT per hectare – in global terms, this in
81 Creutzberg 1975:74-5.
82 The point is discussed and documented in Ayala 1995.
83 Ayala 1995:104-6.
84 On Java’s unique position with respect to plantation yields, and a discussion of global comparisons,
see Maxwell 1927:50-8. The Hawaiian industry has sometimes been cited (erroneously) as approaching,
or even exceeding, Java in terms of plantation yields. This is based on a misunderstanding. Cane yields
in Hawaii were indeed high, but to achieve this outcome, cane remained in the ground for much longer
than was the case in Java. A detailed account from the late 1920s makes the real position quite clear:
Koningsberger (1929) points out that at the Hawaii factories only 50-60% of the cane planted is har-
vested in any one year, since the cane stays in the ground for around 20-22 months (as opposed to Java’s
12-15 months).
87
itself was a very respectable figure indeed – while a decade and a half
later (1908) the figure stood at a spectacular 105 MT per hectare.85 The
result was perhaps even more remarkable than it looked. As one factory
administrateur in Central Java reported early in the new century, ‘sugar
production has increased substantially in recent years, despite the cir-
cumstance that the plantation has been expanded into what was formerly
considered to be unsuitable soil’.86
r&d: the sugar research institute
A combination of the intensive use of organic and, subsequently, chemi-

cal fertilizer and the formation of a closely supervised industrial work-
force in the field (in which female labour played a major role) contributed
mightily – as we have seen – to a field-first strategy in Java sugar. It was
one that produced world-beating yields of cane, which compensated to a
degree for the industry’s inability to create those economies of scale that
characterized its great Caribbean coeval and rival. A further key dimen-
sion of the entire agro-industrial transformation of the cane field was
that it took place within the context of an evolving managerial culture,
which placed a high value on research and development.
In the most general terms, a programme of R&D served, as a number
of scholars have noted, to legitimize the colonial enterprise in general by
linking it to the pursuit and propagation of knowledge.87 In the specific
case of Java sugar, however, long-term legitimacy was closely bound to
short-term survival. R&D had begun in earnest in the late 1880s, when
the industry found itself faced not only with a serious threat of devastat-
ing and little-understood cane disease (sereh), but also, and increasingly
critically, with the need to reduce costs to levels which made the industry
internationally competitive.88
85 Dickhoff 1914:613-4.
86 Jaarverslag Poerwodadi, 1906, (unpaginated), in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9391. The administra-
teur claimed that this had been achieved even despite the fact that the Indies government had made the
factory surrender some of its best land for permanent rice production by the peasantry (‘de afname van de
beste gronden (Tegallans) door de regeering’).
87 For general discussions, see Goss 2009; Moon 2007; Maat 2001:53-67; Boomgaard 2006.
88 For this and what follows, AS, ‘Jubileumnummer 1 Mei 1918’; Leidelmeijer 1997:231-48; Van der
Schoor 1996; Handojo et al. 1987.
88
The results were impressive. As the Java industry’s own leading

savant, H.C. Prinsen Geerligs, was to urge upon readers of the 1904
edition of The International Sugar Journal, ‘though it is a common saying in
Europe that in the tropics the work is done in a rather careless manner,
we do not deserve such a reproach in Java, as everything which science
and experience can suggest to us as advantageous for our industry is
investigated and tried’.89 The point was subsequently reiterated by Noel
Deerr, on his way to becoming one of the international sugar industry’s
most respected experts, in the observation that ‘it is in Java, however, that
the scientific study of the cane has reached its highest form’.90 But it was
not only horticultural research in which the Java industry rested its claim
to fame. Its leading figure for over a quarter of a century, H.C. Prinsen
Geerligs, was primarily a sugar chemist, and the industry proudly
boasted that, as a result of the efforts of him and his colleagues, Java’s
manufacturers were not a whit behind their counterparts in beet sugar
industries of central Europe in matters relating to the science of sugar
making. Indeed, they claimed that the great E.O. von Lippmann, stu-
dent extraordinaire of European sugar manufacture, had learnt Dutch
specifically to be able to be ‘in a position to keep the beet sugar industry
abreast of the extraordinary progress of their great competitor’.91
Extraordinary progress: The Proefstation Oost-Java or East Java

Sugar Research Institute, Pasuruan, circa 1915 (KITLV 153466)
89 Prinsen Geerligs 1904b.

90 Deerr 1911:vi.
91 Jubileum Prinsen Geerligs 1916:1221.
89
The heart of the industry’s operations that merited such high praise
was the Proefstation Oost-Java (POJ, East Java Sugar Research Institute,
hereafter ‘the research institute’) at Pasuruan, in East Java. Staffed by
Dutch and German experts, and funded by the sugar syndicate, it repre-
sented the culmination – and centralization – of several industry initia-
tives geared to experimental work on the agriculture and horticulture of
cane that had begun at various locations during the course of the 1880s.
The upshot of these pioneering efforts was an industry characterized
by a meticulous attention to R&D in the field, which singled it out from
virtually all of its global counterparts. Indeed, prior to the 1920s only
the much smaller American industry on Hawaii even approached Java
in this respect. In Cuba, by way of contrast, field science was famously
neglected, and elsewhere in the New World (Louisiana was a possible
exception) it was generally only in the 1920s that concerted and consis-
tent attention was paid to the production of cane. In Asia itself, only on
the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius was serious effort devoted to the
field science of sugar, and that effort had largely collapsed by 1914.92 In
Taiwan, a Sugar Experiment Station appears only to have been set up as
late as 1932, under government auspices.93 In the case of the Philippines,
where a research institute most certainly existed in the late 1920s,94 mod-
ernization in the factory was paired with a plantation sector in which
agricultural development similar to the Java model was stymied by the
fragmentation (tenancy and sub-tenancy) of holdings in the agricultural
sector.95 Outside the immediate region, the sugar industry of north-
eastern Australia established a strong record in agricultural science from
the late nineteenth century onward, but in terms of size it was dwarfed
by the Java industry.96
92 For Cuba, see Dye 1998:241-4 (where it is remarked that this neglect was economically quite ratio-
nal); on science and sugar cane in the ‘Spanish’ Caribbean, see McCook 2002, where the overwhelming
impression is given that until the 1920s, effort was largely or exclusively directed to crops other than sugar
– that is, tobacco, bananas and coffee. Louisiana is a more equivocal case; for a discussion of experimenta-
tion with fertilizer in Louisiana in the 1870s, see Heitman 1987:62. On Mauritius, see Storey 1997:69-96.
93 According, at least, to the unsigned article Taiwan’s sugar industry 1968.
94 Perk 1931.
95 As a leading industry figure in the Philippines industry observed in the late 1920s, the prevailing ar-
rangements for growing cane ‘has the disadvantage that the entities involved in the production of sugar
in the large central districts aggregate from 1000 to 2000 individuals’. The need to somehow cajole or
coerce all these people to see the potential of new techniques and new varieties of cane meant that ‘there
is [...] an enormous slippage between the obtaining of research results and their application in practice’
(Fairchild 1928:53).
96 Griggs 2004.
90
The dissemination of knowledge: Title page of the Archief
voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië, 1921
The dissemination of information relating to research and develop-

ment – much of it carried on at the research institute – was further
promoted by the publication of the so-called Archief voor de Suikerindustrie
(AS, Archive for the Sugar Industry; hereafter ‘the Archief’). An annually
produced ‘house’ journal that was issued in parts during the course of
the year, it was an essential part of the project of knowledge for which
the industry became famous. Replete from its beginnings in 1893 with
information, not only relating to the latest findings on the agriculture and
horticulture of cane but also relating to the technology of manufacture,
by the third year of its existence (1895) the Archief counted among its
subscribers 147 sugar factories and associated business houses, 430 fac-
tory managerial and technical personnel (geëmployeerden) and 74 ‘private’
individuals.97 Eventually, the Archief had notched up sufficient articles
and references to field fertilizer alone to fill seven, double-column pages
of its cumulative index. Well before the outbreak of the First World War,
Arranged for the photographer: The Dutch and Indonesian staff

of the Proefstation Oost-Java, circa 1920, KIT 60028809
97 Voorwoord 1895.
92
however, and already comprising ‘no less than forty massive volumes’, it
was being hailed as a testimony to the ‘gigantic work which has been car-
ried out’ and to ‘the energetic way in which the industry is carried on’.98
By the 1920s, when the industry was at its peak, the Pasuruan research
institute boasted an on-site staff of around twenty Dutch professionals,
divided among its agricultural, technical and chemical divisions, and sev-
eral hundred Indonesian support staff. Virtually ignored in the research
institute’s official reports, the latter only rarely emerged from their ano-
nymity, as when, in 1928, one ‘Ngasinoh’, identified as Hoofdlabatorium
Mandoer der Cultuurafdeeling, was given a medal to commemorate thir-
ty-seven years of service. It must he assumed, however, that the availabil-
ity of such people was essential to the successful implementation of the
institute’s programmes – not least because they were so much cheaper to
hire than their European bosses. Outside the immediate confines of its
Pasuruan headquarters, the institute also employed another twenty or so
individuals as consultants (groep adviseurs), attached to one or other of the
regional groupings of factories into which the industry was organized.99
Housed at Pasuruan in a rather grand building behind a pillared portico,
the research institute was funded in the mid-1920s, when industry for-
tunes were at their zenith, to the tune of more than 1.25 million guilders
annually by manufacturers who were keenly aware of its central role in
the development of the agro-industrial programme in the cane field and
in the never-ending technological advance in the factory itself.100 It was a
role, it must be presumed, with which the radical nationalist activists who
fought the Dutch in the mid-1940s were also conversant. In July 1947,
faced with Dutch military assault on their nascent Republic, they burnt
the research institute to the ground.101
98 Wright 1909:359-62.
99 See Verslag van de Vereeniging het Proefstation voor de Java Suikerindustrie over het jaar 1928. Data on the In-
donesian employees (personeel) do not appear in the Proefstation’s Annual Reports (where there is simply
passing mention in the accounts of ‘lagere personeel’). Handojo et al. (1987:26) state that early in the 1940s
there were 236 such employees at Pasuruan. It seems likely that the number would have been signifi-
cantly higher in the 1920s, when the industry was substantially larger.
100 ‘Proefstation Oost-Java: Rekening en verantwoording over het jaar 1925’, p. 12, in: Koninklijk
Instituut voor de Tropen (hereafter KIT), 1773, shows that the research institute’s income that year was
1,269,230 guilders. The funding all came from the sugar factories, and was based on a levy of 5.50 guil-
ders for each bau (.7 of a hectare) of cane. At this time most sugar factories themselves would be worth
something between 3 and 6 million guilders, though some large ones would have been worth very much
more than that.
101 Handojo et al. 1987:16.
93
The Proefstation at war: The destruction of July 1947 (Handojo et al. 1987:28
conclusion: the limits of agro-industry in the field
The broad outcomes of the fertilizer revolution and associated develop-

ments in the sugar industry of late colonial Java have the potential for
radically altering our understanding of the dynamics of this particular
branch of commodity agriculture. At least, they are perhaps surpris-
ing for those who might still be under the spell of the economically
‘retrograde’ nature of colonialism in general and of ‘the plantation’ in
particular. For what the Dutch succeeded in creating in Java – for a time
at least – was a remarkably sophisticated, technically highly advanced
and extremely productive form of agro-industry in the field that totally
belied any such notions.
94
The industry’s own triumphalist narrative on this score is, of course,

open to question, with respect both to its impact on the ‘peasant’ agricul-
ture in which it was embedded and its sustainability. A classic argument
of the former kind has been that sugar effectively ‘gutted’ the economy
of rural Java, despite providing work for thousands of marginal peasants
who might otherwise have found no employment at all.102 Altogether
more significant from the viewpoint of the present argument, however,
is the question of sustainability. As we shall see, the industry’s experience
demonstrated quite unambiguously the pitfalls and limitations perhaps
inherent in agro-industry in general and most certainly exhibited in the
case of the Dutch colony. However, before continuing with a discussion
of the constraints on growth experienced by Java sugar – constraints that
had to do only in part with the immediate agrarian and agricultural fac-
tors impacting on the raising of cane in early twentieth-century Java – it
is first necessary to explain the broader context in which the industry
operated, with respect to both the colonial state in which it found itself
and the particular way in which production was financed. In tandem,
these two factors both facilitated and limited Java sugar’s capacity to
adapt itself to the age of mass production.
102 The locus classicus here is the work done in the 1930s and 1940s by the Dutch agricultural expert
G.H. van der Kolff (1953:193). Van der Kolff ’s ideas were subsequently taken up and popularized by the
American cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1963). For a cool re-assessment of the impact of sugar
cultivation, see Van der Eng 1996:208-30.
95
Chapter 3
Bureaucracy versus plantocracy
The colonial state and ‘Big Sugar’
The contrast could hardly be greater. Early in the twentieth century, the
Dutch aristocrat Jonkheer C.H.A. Van der Wijck could be found – inter
alia – on the board of one of the major combines or ‘agricultural banks’
(cultuurbanken) that dominated the late colonial sugar industry. A recently
retired Governor General, he was evidently a man for whom a revolv-
ing door between big business and colonial administration became, late
in life, one of the charms of high office. Within much the same time
frame, it was likewise possible to find a leading figure in his successor’s
advisory council (the Raad van Indië) being excoriated in colonial busi-
ness circles as a notorious ‘enemy of private enterprise’ (een vijand der
particuliere industrie).1 The fact that these two men, Governor General Van
der Wijck and Raadslid C.J. de Jaager, held office virtually contempora-
neously, speaks eloquently of the complexity as well as the centrality of
the relationship between the sugar industry and the late colonial state in
the Netherlands Indies.
That relationship was one that did much to promote the interests of
sugar capital. The industry could look back on a close association with
the Indies government dating from its foundational period (in its modern
form) during the middle decades of the nineteenth century. As a result,
as has been widely recognized, Java sugar hence enjoyed an intimacy
with the Indies government and its bureaucracy (and their counterparts
in Holland) to a far greater degree that was ever the case with the other
major commodity producers in the late colonial Netherlands Indies.
Nonetheless, that intimacy can easily be misread. Sugar may well
have had its hands on the reins of power, but this did not mean it had a
free rein. The legacy of state support was ambiguous, not least because
1 For the comments (by the NHM’s Factorij) on De Jaager, see ‘Rapport Van Geyt’, 23-10-1905,
(unpaginated), in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7938.
of the tensions inherent in the particular character of the Java sugar

complex. Deeply enmeshed with the peasant agriculture of the island’s
densely settled lowland districts, the industry came within the quotid-
ian purview of the state to an extent unparalleled in the enclave-style
operations of other colonial commodity producers. Quite literally, sugar
companies and government officials shared the same territory – with
conflicted as well as collaborative outcomes.
Moreover, there were constraints that even the most sympathetic co-
lonial regime might alleviate, but could not eliminate. The state-industry
nexus was dependent not only on the attitude and policies of the vari-
ous agencies of the state’s bureaucracy, but also on the extent to which
developments in the political economy of rural Java empowered the state
to act. Consequently, colonial power in the localities was founded not
simply on force majeure, but also on historically evolving accommoda-
tions and compromises. The state was not invariably possessed of the
capacity – let alone the will – to sustain the industry’s hegemony in rural
Java. In so far as the industry succeeded in achieving a degree of hege-
mony in the countryside, it derived from a variety of factors in addition
to its long-standing linkages with the Indies government. Moreover, that
hegemony was rarely unchallenged.
business and empire: van der wijck, van

musschenbroek and the sugar syndicate
Jonkheer Carl Herman Aart van der Wijck (1840-1914) knew the Indies
very well.2 Indeed, he had been born there, on the island of Amboina,
where his father had been the Dutch resident. As was commonplace for
the male (and, quite often, female) offspring of the colonial elites of nine-
teenth-century Java, the young Van der Wijck was educated in Holland,
where he had extensive family connections, before returning to the
Indies at the age of twenty-three. He spent the next twenty-eight years of
his life working in the emergent and increasingly formidable colonial bu-
reaucracy that was the hallmark of the Dutch regime in the Indies from
the mid-nineteenth onward. Beginning in the lowly rank of tweede com-
mies (junior trainee-assistant) in the Office of the Algemeene Secretarie
2 Fasseur 1979; Van Goor 1979; Wijck 1953, 1987.
98
Chapter 3 Bureaucracy versus plantocracy |
(General Secretariat) in Batavia, by 1889 he had risen – rather by good

fortune, it would seem, than through any special ability – to the posi-
tion of vice president of the Raad van Indië (Council of the Indies), the
second most powerful position in the colony after the Governor General
himself. It probably did no harm to his career that one of his several
younger brothers (he came from a family of twelve children) was the long
serving secretaris-generaal at the Ministry of Colonies in The Hague. Van
der Wijck retired from his official positions in 1891, but within two years
he was back again in office, this time as Governor General, in which po-
sition he remained until the end of the century. Inter alia, he was a keen
imperialist, pursuing with vigour the long-running war in Aceh where
the Dutch advance into the northern tip of Sumatra had been stalled
since the heroic days of the 1870s, when attempts to crush the erstwhile
independent sultanate had run into the ground.
A keen imperialist, Van der Wijck was also a firm supporter of Big
Sugar. In this context, family loyalties operated in tandem with a long
association with a key figure in the industry (to whom he was also dis-
tantly related): not for nothing was the Governor General criticized in
the Dutch parliament on the grounds that he ‘was too much in the same
camp as the manufacturers’.3 A prime case in question was the fate of
the plans for curbing the industry’s access to rural resources, drawn up by
the high ranking Indies official J. Mullemeister (he was a member of the
Raad van Indië) after extensive investigations spanning several years at
the beginning of the 1890s. Under the combined pressure of the newly
formed sugar syndicate (see below) and – it may safely be presumed – of
Governor General Van der Wijck, the eventual enactments were a far cry
from what his report had urged.4
Van der Wijck was spawned by the same aristocratic Dutch families
that had bought the run-down Tjomal sugar factory on the north coast
of Central Java from the Indies government in the early 1870s.5 During
the 1870s they had installed as their employee, and subsequently admin-
istrateur, the twenty-one-year-old Samuel Cornelis van Musschenbroek.6
His mother, Maria Teding van Berkhout (1831-1901), belonged to one
3 Fasseur 1979.
4 For a brief account of the affair (which contains no surmise, however, about the role of the Gover-
nor General), see Elson 1984:161-3.
5 Wijck 1953, 1987; C. Schmidt 1986:154-5.
6 S.C. van Musschenbroek, born Olst (the Netherlands) 30-12-1857, died Amsterdam 9-12-1914. He
married Maria von Balluseck (1864-1946) in Pekalongan in 1885. Nederlands Patriciaat 11 (1920), p. 155.
99
A firm supporter of Big Sugar: Governor General Van der Wijck (KITLV 4653)
the families that owned the factory. Although Van Musschenbroek was
of metropolitan birth and upbringing, his own family – a patrician one
from Olst in the eastern part of the Netherlands – was no stranger to
the Indies. The young man’s uncle, C.J.W. van Musschenbroek, had
preceded him there by several decades and pursued a successful, if
hardly spectacular, career in the state bureaucracy, ending up as resident
in Menado, on the island of Sulawesi (1875-1876). Perhaps wisely, after
he and his family had narrowly escaped assassination there, he retired
to the Netherlands and settled in the university town of Leiden, where
interpersonal violence was generally presumed to be of a more intel-
lectual kind.7
His young nephew, meanwhile, cemented his ties in the colonial elites
by marrying the Indies-born Maria Christine von Balluseck, daughter
of a high-ranking German officer in the Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch
Leger (KNIL, Royal Netherlands Indies Army). Indeed, in his choice of
marriage partner, Van Musschenbroek had located himself firmly within
what has aptly been described as ‘the Old Indies world’, in which wealth
and status, rather than ‘race’ or colour, were the key determinants of
‘being Dutch in the Indies’.8 His newly acquired mother-in-law, Maria
von Balluseck (1843-1908), was herself the daughter of (in the parlance
of the day) the ‘native woman Biba’, the offspring of whose cohabitation
with the high-ranking Indies civil servant D.W.J.C. van Lijnden in Java
in the 1840s had been legitimated in accordance with Indies law and
custom.9
Van Musschenbroek’s career was based, nonetheless, not only on
whom he knew but on what he knew. Prior to his marriage, he had trav-
elled back to Europe and undergone training in the beet sugar industry
of Imperial Germany. But technical knowledge was only part of it.
While there, he also grasped the importance of the way in which the
sugar industry had organized itself as a powerful business lobby within
the Wilhelmine state. What he learnt in Germany, he put into practice in
Java. Returning to the Indies early in the 1880s, he rapidly made a name
for himself as the colony’s leading ‘sugar-man’, and was instrumental
7 Musschenbroek 1914.
8 Bosma and Raben 2008.
9 Christiaans 1997. Dirk W.J.C. van Lijnden (1813-1852), scion of a prominent Dutch aristocratic
family, ended his career in the Indies as a member of the Raad van Justitie at Batavia and subsequently
as resident of Timor (Lijnden 1927).
101
Van Musschenbroek en famille after his return to the

Netherlands, circa 1906 (Private collection)
in the setting up of the industry’s research stations. Most important of

all, Van Musschenbroek spearheaded the formation of the Algemeen
Syndicaat van Suikerfabrikanten in Nederlandsch-Indië (Syndicate of
Java Sugar Manufacturers; hereafter ‘syndicate’ or ‘sugar syndicate’).10
This latter was far from plain sailing. Indeed, as far as sugar capital
was concerned, there were considerable difficulties in the way of taking
collective action of any kind during the closing decades of the nineteenth
century. Sources from the late 1880s, for example, point to fundamental
disagreements, even about matters as important as wage fixing. Rival
manufacturers simply did not trust each other.11 Despite earlier, local as-
sociations, the syndicate itself did not have a formal existence until 1895.
A parallel organization in the Netherlands, the Bond van Eigenaren
van Nederlandsch-Indische Suikerondernemingen (BENISO, Union of
10 For the information on Van Musschenbroek in this and subsequent paragraphs, see Wichers Hoeth
1929:176-85; ‘Samuel Cornelis van Musschenbroek’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie, Jubileumnumer
1893-1918, Mei 1918.
11 S. Everts to Factorij Batavia, 9-11-1886, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7936.
102
the Owners of Sugar Enterprises in the Netherlands Indies), only arrived

on the scene as late as 1917 – and then only when wartime conditions
had caused the industry particular difficulties.
Van Musschenbroek’s achievement, then, may be judged to have
been a substantial one – as might be expected, perhaps, from somebody
who, by all accounts, developed over the years into a dynamic, not
to say lordly, figure. One contemporary, referring to another of Van
Musschenbroek’s multiple roles in the Indies at the turn of the century,
this time as superintendant of the NHM’s West Java sugar factories,
alluded to his habit of inspecting his domains ‘with all the harshness
of a reigning monarch’. Fully in accord with this, Van Musschenbroek
lived in grand ‘Indies’ style in the administrateur’s mansion next to his
own factory at Tjomal. This ‘Indies’ style, however, did not preclude a
series of almost annual return visits to Europe, where (as we shall see)
he evidently took good care to nurture his connections in metropolitan
business circles.
There can be no doubt that Van Musschenbroek left a lasting impres-
sion on the Java industry. Even so, the syndicate, which he did so much
to bring into existence, was initially a loose-knit organization. With Van
der Wijck in the palace at Buitenzorg, it hardly needed to be otherwise.
One important figure – the far from loose-knit lawyer J.W. Ramaer
(1856-1932) – fondly recollected its early informality, when committee
meetings were held on the verandah of his house in Surabaya – and the
organization itself had been founded at a gathering in the same city’s
Simpang Club, the favoured watering-spot of colonial planters and busi-
nessmen alike. Early in the twentieth century, however, with a less than
totally sympathetic regime in charge of the colony, matters became more
serious. Ramaer became the syndicate’s permanent representative in
The Hague – and its chief legal authority and indefatigable apologist.12
From a professional family in Gelderland, he had studied in Leiden at
the Netherlands’ most prestigious Law School before ‘going out’ to the
Indies in the mid-1880s. Work with a law firm in Surabaya, Big Sugar’s
Java stronghold, quickly brought him into contact with the industry.
12 For the information in this and the following paragraph, see Ramaer 1926; Huldebetoon Ramaer 1926;
Obituary Ramaer 1932. His father was Nicholas Ramaer (one of the founders of the Nederlandsche Ver-
eeniging voor Psychiatrie en Neurologie) and his elder brother, J.C. Ramaer, was inspecteur-generaal van
den waterstaat. He studied at the gymnasium at Zutphen and subsequently took law at Leiden, where he
graduated in 1880.
103
Thereafter his rise was rapid. Before long he got on the board of a locally
based sugar company, subsequently took over as its CEO and retained
a financial stake in the industry for the rest of his life. Early in the new
century he took leave in Europe, no doubt to consolidate his connections
in the metropolis as well as to reinforce his own personal status as a totok
– one of the minority among the Dutch in the Indies who were both
born overseas and looked on the colony as merely a temporary place of
work and residence.
Big Sugar most sophisticated advocate: J.W. Ramaer (Ramaer 1926:983)
Returning from Europe in 1903, he became chairman of the Surabaya

branch of the sugar syndicate, and acting chair of the Java-wide organi-
zation during the frequent absences overseas of S.C. van Musschenbroek,
the syndicate’s formidable founder. Ramaer repatriated in 1906 after
twenty-two years in Java, but he continued his long association with
the syndicate as its permanent representative in the Netherlands. As his
family and educational background would suggest, he was no coarse
104
backwoodsman. Quite the contrary: on some issues, at least, he held (or

appeared to hold) rather ‘advanced’ views for an industry executive. It
was notable, for instance, that while still based in Java in 1905, he had
used his opening address to the syndicate’s annual congress in Surabaya
to urge his colleagues to pay greater attention to the wellbeing of their
workforce, and particularly to that of the industry’s growing number
of Indonesian personnel. Subsequently, Ramaer often found himself at
odds with industry hardliners, but the fact was that Big Sugar needed
Ramaer. He was conciliatory in manner, skilled in public relations and a
noted lobbyist in The Hague, where he entertained in a fine house on the
Koninginnegracht. As the inaugural chair (1917-1921) of BENISO – the
key metropolitan body representing the industry’s owner – he evidently
moved easily in the corridors of power, and made influential connections
among a wide cross section of Holland’s political elite. Even the liberal-
minded Minister of Colonies J.C. Koningsberger was present at the
celebrations for his seventieth birthday, held in 1926 in BENISO’s new
premises on the Laan van Meerdervoort in The Hague.13
At about the same time (1907) that Ramaer was installing himself in
the Dutch capital, in Java itself the organization gained its first full-time
chairman (voorzitter) in the person of G.J.P. de la Valette. As the recently
retired resident of Pasuruan, where there were more sugar factories
per square kilometre than anywhere else in Java, the Indies-born De la
Valette fitted the bill nicely. His first-rate connections in the bureaucracy,
honed by a lifetime’s work as an Indies civil servant, were matched by
a wide and long acquaintance with the requirements of his new posi-
tion. Indeed, De la Valette had demonstrated his goodwill toward the
industry some five years earlier. During a spate of cane fires in the resi-
dency, he had ordered that villagers be conscripted as cane-field guards
on the basis of their putative corvee obligations to the state. To be sure,
the initiative was stymied by the authorities in Batavia, imbued as they
were with the importance of cutting down on ‘forced-labour service’ of
this kind, but the incident had served to nail the resident’s colours to the
mast.14 Despite this, he also had some claims to be a cultivated man –
his wife was Trudy Couperus, sister of the great Indies novelist, much of
13 Jacob Christiaan Koningsberger (1867-1951) had pursued a distinguished career, inter alia, as an
agricultural scientist in the Indies. As Minister of Colonies (1926-1929), he was responsible for appoint-
ing the last ‘progressive’ Governor General, A.C.D. de Graeff (Van den Doel 2002).
14 Elson 1984:187-8.
105
Civil servant turned industry lobbyist: G.J.P. de la Valette as
resident of Pasuruan – and freemason – at the beginning
of the twentieth century (KITLV 503063)
The literary wife with a taste for theatricals: Trudy de la Valette-
Couperus, circa 1900 (KITLV 503062)
whose most famous work, De stille kracht, was apparently written in De la

Valette’s house, and the couple were celebrated for the theatrical perfor-
mances they organized in the resident’s mansion in Pasuruan. Unlike the
rednecks among the sugar men whom he represented, he could be relied
upon to be an acceptable public face for the industry in circumstances
where that kind of face – in this case a very elegantly mustachioed one
– was beginning to count. His standing as a Freemason may also have
helped him in his new role.15
The syndicate had evidently begun to think strategically. At around
the same time that De la Valette was appointed, another key figure from
its early days (he had been the syndicate’s inaugural chair), the lawyer
and sugar company executive H. s’Jacob, removed himself (1903) from
the sugar ‘capital’ of Surabaya to the seat of government in Batavia,
where presumably he was better positioned to maintain key contacts
in the Indies bureaucracy. If this was indeed the strategy, it paid off
handsomely. Five years after becoming chairman (1913) of the Batavia
Chamber of Commerce (Kamer van Koophandel), he was nominated
by Governor General Van Limburg Stirum to membership of the
Volksraad, the consultative ‘People’s Council’ established in the midst of
a short-lived panic that the ‘red radicalism’ infecting Europe at the end
of the First World War might spread to the Indies. He continued as a
stalwart lobbyist for the industry. Indeed, he was sufficiently close to the
increasingly conservative regime in Batavia to be appointed (1928) a com-
mandeur in the Order of the Netherlands Lion (Orde van de Nederlandse
Leeuw) – to the second rank, that is, of the most prestigious honour that
the Dutch crown could bestow.16
By the 1920s Van Musschenbroek’s ‘offspring’ had evidently come a
long way from the fractious beginnings of the syndicate three decades
earlier. In the interim period, moreover, neither he nor Van der Wijck
had been exactly idle. Given the family ties between the two, and Van
Musschenbroek’s role in establishing the syndicate, it can safely be as-
sumed that they had become well acquainted with each other during
their long sojourn together in Java. Back in the Netherlands early in the
15 For (De la) Valette (born Semarang 4-7-1853, died The Hague 17-4-1922), see Ramaer 1926:988;
Peterson 2009:15-6; Vierhout de Vries 1995; Nieuwenhuys 1982:126.
16 See Obituary s’Jacob 1932. From 1889 to 1923 he was a partner in the long-established Java firms of
Reijnst & Vinju and Anemaet & Co, both of them deeply involved in one aspect or another of the sugar
business. The fact that he died in Batavia at the age of 77 would suggest that he did not see himself as a
totok or expatriate.
108
new century, both men were to become once again associates. Indeed,
for a time at least, both had houses in the town of Baarn, an agreeable
buitenplaats for Amsterdam’s patricians and aristocrats – and businessmen
and their families – well removed from the summer stench and noise of
the city itself, but only a short train ride away.17
Van der Wijck stepped down as Governor General in 1899. Not
without raising a number of eyebrows among contemporaries, he had
moved quickly from high office into the boardroom. His direct links into
the burgeoning ‘Indies’ business world of the late nineteenth-century
Netherlands dated from the brief hiatus in his official career immediately
prior to becoming Governor General in 1893, when he had worked in
both Holland and Java with the newly established inter-Indies Dutch
shipping line, the Koninklijke Paketvaartmaatschappij (KPM). A the be-
ginning of the new century, however, he made the move from shipping
into oil, and rapidly found a convivial position as chairman of the board
(commissaris-president) of the biggest of the new Dutch oil companies, the
so-called ‘Koninklijke’: it later became (1907) part of the commercial
alliance known as Royal Dutch Shell. Van der Wijck also kept up his
long-standing connection with the sugar industry, notably through his
position on the board of the Cultuurmaatschappij der Vorstenlanden
(CMV, Principalities Agricultural Company), one of the colony’s half a
dozen leading sugar financiers and owners.18
Van Musschenbroek, meanwhile, had also returned to the
Netherlands, a country which, like many of his contemporaries among
the Indies bourgeoisie, he had never actually left, in so far as his years
at Tjomal had been punctuated by more or less annual visits to Europe
during the industry’s off season.19 Settling permanently back in Holland
with his family in 1907, he shed none of the traits for which he had
become famous in Java. Still scarcely fifty and clearly incapable of retir-
ing, Van Musschenbroek in effect took over the running of the old-es-
tablished Amsterdam management and finance house of Van Heekeren
17 The ‘Prospectus…Poerworedjo…November 1908’ (file ‘Poerworedjo’, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv.
nr. 7968) describes Van Musschenbroek as ‘wonende te Baarn’; Van der Wijck had died there on 8 July 1914
(Fasseur 1979).
18 The CMV managed, owned or part-owned some twenty or more factories in Central and East Java.
Van der Wijck was on its board from 1903 until his death in 1914 (Jaarverslag Cultuurmaatschappij der
Vorstenlanden, 1903, p. 1, in: Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis (IISG), Amsterdam,
ZK 58574).
19 See Ramaer (1926:987), where Ramaer is quoted as remarking that Van Musschenbroek ‘tusschen de
maaltijden altijd in Europa vertoefde’.
109
& Co. Very much the tuan besar, who looks as if he brought a great deal
of Indies money into the business, he turned the old firm upside down.
He rebuilt the office, introduced its startled denizens to electric lighting
and the typewriter – and to the idea of tea being served at their desks in
mid-afternoon – and shifted his headquarters to a prestigious mansion
at 670 Keizersgracht, one the city’s three ‘grand canals’. Conveniently,
it backed on the narrow Kerkstraat, where the company’s actual of-
fice remained located at number 257 (the building is still there today).
Needless to say, he also greatly expanded Van Heekeren’s involvement in
the Indies plantation sector.20 In addition to all this, Van Musschenbroek
was on the board of the Rotterdam-based Internatio, one of the biggest
trading and plantation investment firms in the Indies, and kept up his
connection with Tjomal as managing director of its metropolitan Dutch
holding company, located in smart offices on the appropriately named
Javastraat in The Hague (Internatio managed its affairs in the Indies).
For a short while, one of the great man’s cousins was the administrateur at
Tjomal itself.
It was in cahoots with Van Musschenbroek (and in conjunction
with the Van Heekeren concern) that Van der Wijck now became
involved in establishing a new sugar factory in Central Java’s Kedu
Residency. Named, after the nearby town (some forty kilometres west of
Yogyakarta), Poerworedjo. It was no small enterprise: indeed, within a
decade of its establishment it had become the largest such operation in
Central Java and among the half-dozen largest in the entire colony. In to-
tal, the two men and their associates succeeded in raising some 5 million
guilders in equity capital for the new venture, and spent well over 3.5 mil-
lion of this on building and equipping the factory.21 Van Musschenbroek
himself twice sailed back to Java to superintend its construction and the
arrangements with the Indies government that were a necessary part of
20 For Van Musschenbroek’s involvement with Van Heekeren & Co, of which he became co-manager
(his son, Gijsberto Felix Willem Arthur Karel van Musschenbroek, succeeded his father in the manage-
ment of the firm), see Wichers Hoeth 1929:176-85. The firm of Van Heekeren also managed and/or
(part) financed extensive investments in tobacco, rubber and coffee in the Indies.
21 See Jaarverslag Suikeronderneming Poerworedjo (Kadoe), 1913 etc, in: Stadsarchief Amsterdam,
Archief Handels- en Cultuurmaatschappij Van Heekeren & Co, toegangsnummer 584, inv. nr. 1166.
Van Musschenbroek was the managing director (directeur) of the Amsterdam-based company, and Van
der Wijck was chairman of the board. His fellow directors (commissarissen) were F.M. Delfos, Ph. von
Helmert (bankier te Parijs), Abraham Muller, J.W. Ramaer and A.R. Schuurbeque Boeije (directeur, De-
posito- en Administratie Bank). The company was represented in the Indies by the NHM. Muller (mur-
dered at Sobibor in 1943) was inter alia an NHM directeur.
110
any such speculation. Its plantations quickly came to engross some 1,750
hectares of peasant farmland; its Javanese workforce numbered in the
thousands at the height of seasonal activity, and by 1920 its European
personeel (staff) counted some thirty-seven individuals (and, in many cases,
their families). Neither of the company’s founders, however, had long
survived Poerworedjo’s establishment: felled by a stroke in Amsterdam in
December 1914, Van Musschenbroek had outlived his substantially older
business partner by a matter of months.
‘sovereign risk’: pax neerlandica and de stille macht
On the face of it, at least, the sugar industry’s placement in relation to

the colonial state brought many advantages. What modern-day business
executives are apt to refer to as ‘sovereign risk’ – that is, the chance that
their investments might be expropriated or otherwise imperilled – was
very low indeed in late colonial Java. Indeed, in so far as political stability,
public order and efficient administration were threshold requirements
for successful investment, they existed there in the closing decades of the
nineteenth century to an enviable degree. Above all, although myopic
sugar capital did not always see it that way, by the late nineteenth cen-
tury Java boasted an increasingly effective colonial bureaucracy (the stille
macht or hidden force to which the Dutch historian Wim van den Doel so
tellingly refers), which created conditions in which, in general, the sugar
industry might hope to flourish.22
Most immediately, however, it mattered that Java was a country at
peace. The Java industry thereby escaped the violent upheavals – na-
tional revolution, foreign invasion, or both – at the end of the nineteenth
century that seriously disrupted sugar production in Cuba and, much
nearer to home, in the Philippines and Taiwan. The Pax Neerlandica
was complemented and supported, moreover, by a communications
and transport infrastructure that was second to none in the surrounding
region. By the century’s end Java had an extensive, and still expanding,
network of light and heavy rail, and by 1920 the Indies boasted more
than 5,000 kilometres of rail transport of one kind or another, some 90
22 Van den Doel 1994 (non-Dutch readers should know that the title is a play on the stille kracht, the
‘hidden force’ that forms the subject of the most famous book of perhaps the best Dutch writer on colo-
nial Java, Louis Couperus).
111
per cent of it located on Java. 23 It linked virtually every major sugar

factory in the colony to the warehouses and wharves of Surabaya and
Semarang, Java’s major ports for the shipment of sugar, and greatly fa-
cilitated the industry’s operations in both manufacturing and agricultural
spheres. The ease of rail travel was complimented in the early twentieth
century by the finest system of hard-surfaced roads in Southeast Asia.
Nonetheless, the Pax Neerlandica, and the bureaucrats whose proud
boast it was, had aspects that were not always to the taste of Big Sugar.
state-industry antagonism: raadslid de jaager and

the bb
Cornelis Jacobus de Jaager (1849-1927), the ‘enemy of private enter-

prise’ whom we met at the beginning of this chapter, seemingly shared
in Governor General Van der Wijck’s imperial enthusiasms.24 At least,
between 1879 and 1881 he secured a transfer, as a civilian, to the mili-
tary government in Aceh (‘ter beschikking der Govt. van Atjeh’, as the Dutch
phrase went), and seems to have regarded service in the long-running
colonial war there as a useful stepping stone to promotion in the Indies
bureaucracy. Apart from a shared imperial vision of Dutch power in
the Indies, however, De Jaager and the Governor General had little in
common. From the middle classes rather than the aristocracy and, again
unlike Van der Wijck, with no family links to the Indies, De Jaager has
been born in the small provincial town of Uithoorn, some twenty kilo-
metres to the south of Amsterdam, and his father was a medical doctor.
The image of De Jaager as a totok – the expatriate European who was no
more than a temporary sojourner in the Indies – appears confirmed by
the fact that he married while on leave in the Netherlands in 1884 – no
‘Indies bride’ for him – and that he and his wife (she was Davina Alida
Sophie Vreede from the town of Alkmaar) settled in The Hague after
his final return to patria in 1908, where he lived the accepted life of a
retired Indies civil servant, in a house on the Groot Hertoginnelaan in
23 Veenendaal 2004. Extensive data on the network by the 1910s can be found in Spoor- en tramwegen
1921.
24 For the information on De Jaager’s life and career in this and subsequent paragraphs, see the entry
in ‘Stamboek’, in: NA, Ministerie van Koloniën, Stamboeken Burgerlijke Ambtenaren, Serie A, 1836-
1927, toegangsnummer 2.10.36.22, inv. nr. 912, folios 103, 541; personal communication Peter Chris-
tiaans, April 2011. For his place of residence, see Adresboek 1920.
112
a respectable but far from ostentatious quarter of the city. His widow,
around eleven years younger than her husband, outlived him by some
sixteen years, dying there in 1943, during the German occupation.
De Jaager’s Java career, which had begun at the end 1872 when he
sailed to the Indies for the first time, was fairly orthodox. The young
man started on the lowest rank, as a controleur (district officer), and had
progressed by 1886 to a decade-long sequence of positions as assistant
resident in various parts of East Java. His career culminated in 1897 in
his appointment as resident of Kediri, then still something of a frontier
region astride the Brantas river, populated in part by new immigrants
from the densely peopled northern littoral of Central Java. Even then,
however, Kediri was home to an increasing number of sugar factories,
and it was probably no accident that it was with the sugar industry that
De Jaager became embroiled in the closing stages of his career in the
early 1900s.
For the background to what happened, however, we probably need
to look back twenty years or more, to the mid-1880s, when De Jaager
served for a couple of years under the Indies government’s chief inspec-
tor of sugar and rice cultivation, J.H.F. Sollewijn Gelpke (1840-1890).
Among his many publications, Sollewijn Gelpke had made a compara-
tive study of rice cultivation in Java and Italy, and was regarded as an
expert on matters relating to sawah (rice field) irrigation and on the
socio-economy of rural Java in general.25 His ‘pupil’ obviously learnt his
lessons well. During his tenure as resident of Kediri, De Jaager produced
a report on the future prospects for large-scale ‘technical irrigation’ in
sections of the Solo river valley where he had previously been posted. In
it, he showed himself deeply sceptical of claims in industry circles that
peasant farmers drew any direct financial benefit from renting their fields
to the sugar factories. Indeed, he remarked that, ‘sugar cultivation had
a predominantly adverse effect on indigenous agriculture […] the most
prosperous villages therefore are those that do not rent their land [to the
sugar industry]’. He contended that the way in which the sugar indus-
try manipulated the supply of irrigation water seriously disadvantaged
peasant farmers. He denied, however, that such a critique meant that he
25 On Sollewijn Gelpke, see, for example, Hugenholtz 2008:278-80. Commissioned to undertake a

study that would form the basis for a complete overhaul of the land rent that the Indies state imposed on
the peasantry of Java, Sollewijn Gelpke produced, in effect, a massive report on the ‘algemeen economische
toestand der bevolking’.
113
was an ‘opponent of private enterprise’: on the contrary, he claimed to

believe that the sugar industry in particular was a vital factor in the de-
velopment of rural Java (acht ik het behoud daarvan een levenskwestie voor Java).
What he did argue, on the other hand, was that Big Sugar should pay its
way, specifically by bearing some of the costs of the huge irrigation works
currently undertaken by the Indies government.26 This was not an argu-
ment, of course, that would have been well received in the board rooms
of Amsterdam, and might well have been enough in itself to qualify De
Jaager as a bogyman as far as the industry was concerned.
But there was more – and it again related to the impact on peasant
farming by the industry’s demands for irrigation water. Having returned
from Holland in 1904 to take up his appointment in the Raad van Indië,
in the following year he re-stated his earlier position a great deal more
strongly, roundly declaring (at least, so it was reported) that ‘in the first,
second and third place access to irrigation water was the prerogative of
the peasantry’.27 In a context in which the industry’s ‘right’ to first-call on
irrigation water for its newly planted cane had been a bone of contention
between the sugar factories and sectors of the state bureaucracy for some
decades, this was inflammatory stuff. It is important, nonetheless, to ap-
preciate the true character of De Jaager’s politics: he was no red radical
(indeed, he would hardly have been in the Raad van Indië if he was); this
was evidenced, for example, by his firm opposition, along with his fellow
members of the council, to proposals that qualified. Indonesians should
be admitted to the ranks of the Binnenlands Bestuur (BB, that is the elite
corps of the Indies civil service).28 The BB was an institution not to be
tampered with lightly.
By the late nineteenth century, the BB so much prized by De Jaager
comprised a corps of state officials organized along rigidly bureaucratic
lines. Its members were not prone to being over-awed by sugar factory
managers and company executives, much as they might sometimes work
in cahoots with them. Residents as well as senior bureaucrats in Batavia
were possessed of a long tradition of quasi- autonomous power and
prestige, some of it inherited from their pre-colonial predecessors. Even
26 De Jaager 1901; Ravesteijn 1997:157, 219.

27 ‘dat het irrigatiewater in de eerste plaats is voor de Inlandsche bevolking, dat het in de tweede plaats
is voor de Inlandsche bevolking, en dat het in het derde plaats is…voor de Inlandsche bevolking’. Rap-
port Van Geyt, 23-10-1905, (unpaginated), in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7938.
28 Van den Doel 1994:191.
114
in the early twentieth century the more ‘old-fashioned’ of their number

still were accompanied in public by a ceremonial umbrella bearer.29
More generally, the trappings of office extended to splendid outward
appearances upheld by a rigid sumptuary code, likewise reminiscent of
their Javanese forbears.30 In such circumstances, one cause of fraught
relations between industry and bureaucracy was the personal affront
experienced by state officials in the localities at what they saw as a local
abrogation of prestige, power and influence. By the late nineteenth cen-
tury this bureaucracy had developed interests and agendas that – though
far from homogenous – were often far from congruent with those of
sugar capital. In consequence, despite the best efforts of the likes of Van
der Wijck and Van Musschenbroek, Java was no ‘plantocracy’, as mani-
fested for example elsewhere in the region under successive Spanish and
American regimes in the Philippines, in which real power was heavily
vested in elites of (colonial) plantation owners and their associates and
in which family connection was the key to the sinews of state power.31
bureaucratic intervention: the official inquiry
Bureaucratic intervention in the sugar industry began early. The first

major step in this direction came in the mid-1850s, when the Indies gov-
ernment established an exhaustive, three-year long investigation (the so-
called Umbgrove Commission) into the industry which it had nurtured.
‘Two cart loads of documents’, as one caustic contemporary remarked,
were quickly consigned to the archives,32 but it was a clear signal that
the Indies state intended to keep the industry firmly within its sights.33
As time went by, the chief issue at stake was the bureaucracy’s fear
that the impact of large-scale sugar production would destabilize peasant
society by sapping the economic and social vitality of the petty farming
households that were seen as forming the bedrock of the village world
29 Van den Doel 1994:201-3. This was despite the attempts of the central government to outlaw such
‘feudal’ practices.
30 Schulte Nordholt 1997.
31 See, for example, McCoy 1994.
32 For the Umbgrove Commission, see Fasseur 1977; Knight 2005.
33 Elson 1984:259-60, lists more than a dozen official reports relating to aspects of the sugar industry’s
interaction with the peasantry, dating from 1895 to 1917. These represented investigations other than
those of the ‘mindere welvaart’ inquiries discussed below.
115
of rural Java. With this fear in mind, from quite early on in their rela-
tionship with the sugar industry, sectors of Indies officialdom developed
perspectives on the industry’s access to land and water that brought
them potentially into conflict with sugar factories, their managers and
owners. Such perspectives were by no means universally shared within
the bureaucracy. Nonetheless, few officials had much sympathy for the
industry’s apparent view that the conversion of large swathes of Java’s
rural population into something akin to a proletariat was both inevitable
and probably desirable (at least, that is, until they started behaving like
proletarians and took industrial action against their employers). In con-
sequence, well schooled by their mentors in the Netherlands, from the
late nineteenth century onward, government officials sought to preserve
Java’s peasant communities from the inroads of ‘capitalism’.34
Protecting farmers and village communities meant, on this reading,
restricting and regulating the sugar industry’s access to land and to the
irrigation water that gave it value. As we have seen, it was the latter
that lay at the heart of De Jaager’s reservations about the industry’s
operations. But there were many more mundane issues of contention
between state officials and Big Sugar. By no means the least of them
related to the prevalence of cane fires. Cane fires, particularly common
in the Java industry during the 1910s, played havoc with the campaign
schedule and – rather frequently – resulted in significant sugar loss. Van
Musschenbroek and Van der Wijck’s newly established Poerworedjo
factory in Central Java, for instance, was no more immune from such
events than any of its counterparts, so that when a steep decline in fires
was recorded during the 1917 campaign, the manager was at pains to
attempt to explain why. The first two his explanations were standard: one
was improved security in the cane fields (‘verbeterde controle op de bewaking der
riettuinen’) and the other alluded to the increased capacity of his factory’s
grinding machinery, which resulted in a shorter campaign and hence
reduced the likelihood that farmers would fire the cane in an attempt to
speed up the return of the rented fields. His third explanation, however,
alluded to something else: the antagonism that might well exist between
the sugar factories and the local-level officials of the Indies government,
for he contended that cane fires had also decreased dramatically since
34 For an extended discussion of this and related points, see Breman 1983; Knight and Van Schaik
2001.
116
the departure of the Dutch controleur Van Leeuwen, who had a purport-
edly hostile stance to the industry.35
Yet, more was involved than the strictures of one high-ranking bu-
reaucrat in the final stages of a long official career, or the angst of a
young controleur at the beginning of his. The larger framework was that
of the so-called Ethical Policy (Ethische Politiek). Difficult to pin down
with any precision or consistency – the policy was a very broad church
indeed – the resultant ‘ethical trend’ saw the coming into circulation in
government circles in The Hague and among colonial administrators in
the Indies, albeit in a heterogeneous and ambiguous fashion, of ideas
that placed a premium on the state’s role in promoting the betterment of
‘the native’. Inter alia, it proposed that profit taking should be tempered
by a degree of responsibility for the development of the native people’s
of the Indies. Politically, it found some oddly assorted bedfellows in the
Netherlands, on the ‘anti-revolutionary’ right and socialist left, and was
accordingly perhaps an altogether more nebulous concept that has some-
times been imagined.36 Be that as it may, it was widely thought within
the industry that the resultant bureaucratic climate in Batavia (and The
Hague) was such that officials looking for advancement were, per se,
likely to be hostile to sugar capital.
the inquiry into ‘diminished welfare’ and the suiker

enquête, circa 1900-1920
The upshot was that for the better part of two decades the fraught rela-
tions between the colonial state and Big Sugar were articulated through
a series of official investigations that drew on a long tradition – given
a new legitimization by the ‘ethical trend’ – of attempts to bring the
industry firmly within the orbit of the bureaucracy. Within industry
circles (though perhaps mistakenly) the most threatening of these in-
vestigations was considered to be the so-called Onderzoek naar de mindere
welvaart (Inquiry into diminished welfare).37 The investigation did not
35 See Jaarverslag Poerworedjo 1917, p. 4, in: Stadsarchief Amsterdam, Archief Van Heekeren & Co,
no. 1167.
36 For a recent, dispassionate summary, see Van den Doel 1994:165-76.
37 For a succinct introduction, see Hüsken 1994:213-7. The verb minderen has two connected meanings in
Dutch: diminish or decline. Despite the title given to his essay, Hüsken (1994:216) appears to have opted for
‘diminished’ welfare as the rendering that best conveys the situation into which investigators were inquiring.
117
have the sugar industry uniquely in its sights. Indeed, its overall pur-
pose, in line with the proclivities of ethically minded bureaucrats, ‘was
to provide a broad analysis of the stagnating rural economy and the
structural weaknesses that were held responsible for the disastrous effects
of the periodic famines of the preceding decades’.38 Nonetheless, it was
widely viewed by Big Sugar as so potentially damaging to their interests,
especially in relation to their multifarious (not to say, nefarious) arrange-
ments for renting peasant farmland, that several counter-factual investi-
gations were launched by the syndicate.39 In the event, the ‘Diminished
Welfare’ investigation (and extensive subsequent publication of its find-
ings) turned out to be a drawn-out – and finally inconclusive – affair
from which the industry had little to fear. Its report, as one contemporary
noted, ‘was “a stew-pot of surmise” from which everyone could choose
morsels to his taste’.40
Notionally at least, a further investigation, specifically focused on the
industry’s exploitation of rural resources, had a much greater potential
to cause problems for sugar capital.41 This was the investigation done by
the Suiker-Enquête Commissie (Sugar Inquiry Commission) which was
instituted in 1918 and which reported three years later.42 Toward the
end of the First World War, a major problem for the government was
criticism of the sugar industry voiced in the newly created Volksraad. At
the same time, it was placed in a position of having to defend a policy
of allowing the sugar industry to continue with the rental of large areas
of high-quality farmland, thereby diverting resources away from rice
production despite an apparent threat of starvation in the countryside.
An official inquiry, with both state officials and sugar-men on board,
offered a possible way out from what had become an awkward situation
for both industry and bureaucracy. But it threatened to be rather more
than that. Tjokroaminoto, the leading figure in the nationalist movement
– and head of the Sarekat Islam (Islamic Union), which had been highly
critical of the industry in the past – was also appointed to the commissie,
while its initial chair was none other than G.Th. Stibbe, a resident who
38 Hüsken 1994:216.
39 Hüsken 2001.
40 Hüsken 1994:216.
41 A further, much more localized and specific inquiry into industry land-rental practices, the so-called
braakhuur, or fallow-hire, system is discussed extensively in Knight and Van Schaik 2001.
42 For the information and documentation in this and the following paragraph, see Knight and Van
Schaik 2001.
118
had long been viewed in sugar industry circles as hostile to their inter-
ests. It looked as if it might turn into the culmination of a decades-long
project in (some) official circles in the Indies to curb the industry’s hold
over Java’s agrarian resources.
In reality, however, the investigation was to be a turning point of a
very different kind. As we shall see in a subsequent chapter, the period
from 1918 to 1920 showed an unprecedented level of industrial and
agrarian unrest within the sugar industry, which put the sugar companies
more overtly on the offensive than had ever been the case before. Even
while the Suiker-Enquête Commissie was convening, the sugar owners’
organizations, both in the Indies and in the Netherlands, positioned
themselves to take a hard line against what they characterized as the ‘in-
citement’ (opstokerij) affecting their industry. In a meeting at the Ministry
of Colonies in The Hague in March 1920, industry representatives evi-
dently brought pressure to bear on those officials who had attempted to
focus the discussion on the impoverished state of rural Java, low wages
and the need to ameliorate local condition. For lobbyists such as this, the
problem was not one of defusing unrest, but of suppressing it. The threat
of ‘Communism’ was much bandied around; ‘native’ labour organiza-
tions were depicted as either revolutionary in intent or, at best, ‘political’
in purpose.
Resident Stibbe, meanwhile, returned to the Netherlands, his place as
chair of the enquête taken by a less hostile official, while Tjokroaminoto,
from whom much had been hoped, was distracted by a crisis between
Sarekat Islam and the Indies government, and took no real part in its
investigations. Hardly surprisingly, given the rapidly changing circum-
stances in which it had taken place, the outcome of the enquête was a
public and widely circulated report that rebutted most of the charges
levelled against the industry. Industry sources evidently regarded it,
somewhat smugly, as a complete vindication: for the NHM, at that time
owner or financier of more factories than any other of the colony’s
‘sugar’ companies (and with its widespread banking and commercial
interests, very much more than that) it represented ‘a glorious refutation
of many accusations against the sugar industry’.
119
the industry gains ground
At the beginning of the 1920s, the prevailing climate of opinion in Indies

government circles was changing, even radically, in the industry’s favour.
A new generation of state officials – and a new Governor General and
colonial minister – was notably more sympathetic to the industry’s in-
terests than their immediate predecessors. The Ethical Policy went out
of fashion, though the fact that the Indies state was a far from homog-
enous entity meant that there was nothing like unanimity on the score.
Nonetheless, a new direction was palpable. One sign was the extent to
which unrest among the industry’s labour force, manifested in strikes and
other disputes at various time between 1920 and 1924, came increasingly
to be associated with dangerous political radicalism in the official mind –
all the more so after failed ‘communist’ uprisings and would-be uprisings
in 1926-1927.43 Thereafter, the Netherlands Indies began to evolve in a
‘corporate’ direction, characterized, as one scholar has remarked, by the
‘mutual embrace of business and government’, that for all its continuing
problematic character would have been inconceivable in the 1900s and
1910s.44 This was not ‘plantocracy’ but something altogether more com-
plex, involving (as far as the sugar industry was concerned) a gathering
constellation of interests that was to see the industry through both the
1930s as well as the turbulent decades that were to follow.
The newly honed ‘embrace’ of state and industry was nowhere more
palpably in display than at the ceremonial re-opening of the NHM’s
huge Nieuw Tersana sugar factory in West Java in 1936. Since the on-
set of the interwar depression and the consequent near collapse of Big
Sugar earlier in the decade, much had happened. The newly corporate
nature of the nexus between industry and state had its first public out-
ing in 1932, with the establishment of a single seller organization for
the industry, run by a combination of government officials, bankers and
industry executives. Over the following three years, the Nederlandsch-
Indische Vereeniging voor de Afzet van Suiker (NIVAS, Netherlands
43 For developments within the Indies state during the interwar decades, see Van den Doel 1994:373-
442, 1996; Cribb 1994.
44 The very notion of a ‘corporatist’ or ‘corporate’ state remains, of course, problematic, not least
because it tends to occlude the dynamics of the relationship between the parties concerned. See, for
example, McVey 1992:13-4.
120
Indies Association for the Sale of Sugar)45 was able to dispose of most
of the huge stockpile of sugar – around 3 million MT or more – under
the weight of which Java threatened to capsize. Yet, it did far more than
that, since NIVAS was also mandated to set annual production quotas for
the industry as a whole, and formed the crucial agency in the corporate
state’s determination to set Java sugar ‘back on its feet’.
The corporate state at work: Ceremonial re-opening of

the NHM’s Nieuw-Tersana sugar factory, 1936
Nieuw Tersana’s ceremonial re-opening was hence a celebration of

some significance. It was both a triumph for the NHM and, at the same
time, a signal that the industry as a whole was showing marked signs
of revival – and that this revival was predicated, in part at least, on an
unprecedented streamlining of operations. But it was rather more than
that. The guest list for the event was a roll call of representatives of the
emergent corporate state. The guests at the re-opening were assembled
in front of the camera – probably operated by a Japanese photographer
(such people had established a ubiquitous presence in the Indies during
the 1930s) against a background of festively decorated machinery. They
45 Taselaar (1998:151-6) gives a detailed account. See also Boomgaard 1988:162-3; H. Prinsen Geer-
ligs and R. Prinsen Geerligs 1938:80-1. For a resumé of the 1932 regulations (and their reiteration
in perpetuum) in 1936, see http://www.kitlv.nl/documents/library/Metamorfoze/Indisch%20Verslag/
MMKITLV01_PDF_TS2710_1935.pdf, p. 45; http://www.kitlv.nl/documents/library/Metamorfoze/
Indisch%20Verslag/MMKITLV01_PDF_TS2710_1936.pdf, pp. 53-4.
121
included a delegate of the governor of West Java; the latter’s immediate

subordinate, the resident of Cirebon, W.A. van der Capellen and his wife
(the husband was a descendant of an early nineteenth-century Governor
General); the highest-ranking Indonesian official in the area, the regent
or bupati of Cirebon, Raden Adipati Ario Soeriadi and his ‘official’ wife,
the Raden Ajoe (the two ladies are seated next to each other, holding
bouquets). The guests of honour were supported by a cast of lesser
dignitaries and company staff, including (to judge by their headgear) a
further sprinkling of Indonesians. (Indeed, all that was missing from the
line-up were the military officers – and their Indonesian-Chinese busi-
ness partners – under whose control factories like Nieuw Tersana came
when the industry was nationalized in 1957-1959. But that belongs to a
later and different story.)
Even given these significant shifts in the dynamics of the nexus be-
tween the Indies state and sugar capital in the closing decades of Dutch
rule, however, the longer-term picture remains one of an industry locked
in step – often somewhat uneasily – with an ‘autonomous’ bureaucracy.
In global terms, this position was sufficiently anomalous (perhaps only
the Japanese sugar industry in Formosa approached it in this respect) as
to form a key dimension of a history of difference that characterized
Java sugar capital and underscored its unique position in the age of mass
production. Java’s singular location in the international sugar economy
was also manifested, however, in the industry’s mode of finance. In turn,
this singularity both helps explain Java sugar’s longevity – the industry
survived the crash of the world sugar market in the 1930s in circum-
stances where it might have been expected to fold completely instead of
staging a substantial revival – and also points to its limitations as a major
world producer. It is to an analysis of this situation that we can now turn.
122
Chapter 4
No business like sugar business
From profit to investment
Java’s late colonial sugar industry developed primarily (and eventu-

ally almost exclusively) as a supplier of the commodity to other Asian
markets. In turn, this development was predicated on the evolution of
a unique agro-industry in the cane field – but one that, over time, fed
into a complex and sometimes fraught nexus between Big Sugar and the
colonial state. Nonetheless, any suggestion of ‘sovereign risk’ attendant
on investment in Java sugar was marginal as an explanation of the fi-
nancial strategies pursued by the Java sugar companies from the 1880s
onward. Basically, those strategies were driven by other factors, related
primarily to an apparent determination strictly to limit recourse to finan-
cial markets in the Netherlands (or anywhere else), and consequently to
finance expansion as far as possible from reinvested profits. Even in the
particular context of western enterprise in the late colonial Indies, this
was a singular strategy that amply merits the designation of ‘no business
(quite) like sugar business’.
the international sugar economy in crisis: 1884 and

its aftermath in java
The story begins in the 1880s, when Java’s hitherto largely self-reliant
sugar producers suddenly found themselves in deep financial trouble.
During the course of 1884, the sudden development of what would
now be called a ‘bear market’ hit the international sugar economy.
Precipitated by a crisis in overproduction – itself a consequence of the
struggle for hegemony in world markets between cane and beet sugar –
and by stagnating demand, it saw the industrially manufactured form of
the commodity (‘centrifugal’ sugar) loose between one third and one half
of its value in the course of a few months.1
The drastic fall in sugar prices had mixed results for the Java pro-
ducers. The long-term upside (as we saw in a previous chapter) was
that it opened up a potentially vast market elsewhere in Asia for ‘cheap’
industrially manufactured sugar. The immediate downside, however,
was that it meant that producers and their financiers were faced with
bankruptcy. By 1885, several locally based firms with a big stake in the
industry had gone bankrupt, while others teetered on the verge of col-
lapse, leading to a situation in which many of the colony’s sugar factories
came increasingly into the orbit of Netherlands-based financiers. Under
their aegis, metropolitan capital played an important role in resurrecting
and expanding a wide variety of plantation enterprises, sugar included.
Thanks, in part at least, to a substantial reconstruction on the basis
of which the industry was capitalized, Java sugar survived the crisis.
Nonetheless, this reconstruction was more complex than has sometimes
been appreciated. It certainly involved considerable injections of met-
ropolitan capital, together with a major reinforcement of metropolitan
control. On the other hand, it did not guarantee a continued flow of
such capital once the immediate crisis was over.
the ‘indies business community’: metropolitan

capitalists and colonial bourgeoisie
From the late nineteenth century onward, the ownership and manage-
ment of Java sugar came to form an integral part of what its foremost
historian, Arjen Taselaar, has described as an ‘Indies business commu-
nity’ or ‘het Indische bedrijfsleven’, based in the Netherlands itself. Its leading
figures were prominent among a ‘core elite’ of merchants, bankers and
investors, located predominately (though not exclusively) in Amsterdam.
Their interests, in addition to sugar, included a variety of other planta-
tion crops, oil and mining, and shipping and finance. The sugar industry
as a whole participated, that is to say, in an interlocking network of direc-
1 The most richly detailed, modern account of the crisis of 1884 and its aftermath is (on which I
gratefully draw in what follows) is to be found in Claver 2006:109-48. See also Korthals Altes 2004:118-
30; De Bree 1928-30, II:232-58.
124
Chapter 4 No business like sugar business |
torships and board memberships that embraced all these spheres – and
extended into the heart of Dutch metropolitan business.2
‘Meneer S.P.’: The leading Amsterdam business man and

key figure in the ‘Indies business community’, S.P. van
Eeghen (1853-1934) (Rogge 1949: opposite p. 368)
An outstanding case was that of S.P. van Eeghen (1853-1934), scion

of a leading Amsterdam merchant family whose roots went back to
the seventeenth century.3 He was one of the founders of the Cultuur-
maatschappij der Vorstenlanden (CMV, Agricultural Company of the
Principalities), the cultuurbank established in Holland in 1888 to re-finance
the agricultural speculations in Central Java of the collapsed, Java-
based firm of Doorepaal & Co. As well as being the long-serving com-
missaris-president, however, Van Eeghen, universally known in his native
Amsterdam as ‘Meneer S.P.’, had also been at one time or another chair-
man of the board of the NHM and two major shipping firms, as well
as a board member of the Nederlandsche Bank and the Amsterdamsche
Bank. Not surprisingly, given these multiple directorships, from 1904 to
1920 he was also chairman of the Amsterdam chamber of commerce. At
the heart of his extensive business interests, however, was the family firm
of Van Eeghen & Co, long established on Amsterdam’s Heerengracht.
Van Eeghen stood out in terms of his sheer ubiquity: indeed, it
was said that he and his brother-in-law, W.H. van Loon, held the lead
2 Taselaar 1998:31-98. Similar conclusions for an earlier period are outlined in Kuitenbrouwer and
Schijf 1998.
3 For a short biography, see Van Horn 1989.
125
strings of the Amsterdam financial and business world (‘de touwtjes van het
Amsterdamse financiële en zakenleven in handen hielden’). Yet, ‘Meneer S.P.’ and
his associates’ commanding presence in the ‘Indies business community’
was also symptomatic of a wider trend that had begun before the sugar
crisis of 1884 and was to extend long after it. This was the degree of
interconnectedness, even fusion, between a notionally ‘colonial’ bour-
geoisie and its metropolitan counterpart. In turn, this was in part the
outcome of the multi-generational existence of ‘empire families’ with
deep roots in both colony and metropolis. Though Van Eeghen himself
apparently had no family ties with Java, his firm most certainly did: from
the mid-nineteenth century onward, its extensive trade with the colony
included a long-standing relationship with one of Java’s major sugar ex-
porters, the Batavia firm of Maclaine Watson & Co, and their business
associates in Semarang and Surabaya.4
In the wake of the crisis of 1884, connections such as these – both
personal and commercial – were to have two major implications for the
sugar industry with respect to its financing, ownership and management.
The first was that the people in the Netherlands who stepped in to re-
finance the industry after 1884 were far from being strangers to it: on
the contrary, their association with it was a long one. The young S.P. van
Eeghen himself had spent a year or more in the Indies (before returning
to Holland in 1877) and his experience was a common one among his
late nineteenth-century contemporaries in the ‘Indies business commu-
nity’. The second implication was that the industry’s history after 1884
was not one of sweeping away or submerging the ‘colonial’ bourgeoisie
and their affiliates, who had been the driving force behind Java sugar in
the preceding decades. Rather, it was a history of their continuing pres-
ence. New men and new money were only part of a story characterized
by a greater degree of continuity than has sometimes been recognized.
This fact exerted a vital influence in sustaining the industry through the
crisis of the mid-1880s, and on the re-financing of the entire enterprise
that took place in its wake. Conversely, it also more or less guaranteed
that the industry would remain in the hands of a (largely) closed circle
of investors and owners, something which was to have important conse-
quences for the industry’s subsequent financing.
4 Taselaar 1998:77; Rogge 1949:197.
126
re-financing java sugar for the age of mass

production
The age of mass production saw the (re-)emergence of two major cane
sugar exporters in the world market: Cuba and Indonesia. There were
substantial and significant differences between them, however, in the
way in which the expansion of production was financed. Cuba at the
beginning of the twentieth century was just emerging from a decade of
civil war, foreign invasion and ‘pacification’ at the hands of the United
States that had massively disrupted sugar production. Thereafter, United
States’ capital invested in Cuba – an estimated 60 per cent of which went
to the sugar industry in the form of loans – in 1906 already amounted
to 200 million US dollars, and had reached one billion dollars by 1927.5
Java experienced nothing like this. At the end of the 1920s, the
notional capital value of the entire Java sugar industry was reckoned
to amount to around 800 million guilders (approximately 320 million
dollars at 1929 values), less than one-third of that invested in Cuba by
American financiers.6 Moreover, the sheer quantity of capital involved
was only one aspect of the contrast; finance of expanding production in
Java also took place on quite different lines than in Cuba. To be sure,
despite the post-1900 surge of American investment, a certain amount
of Creole Cuban-Spanish capital and entrepreneurship persisted on the
Caribbean island.7 Nonetheless, it was overseas banks and their share-
holders that provided the bulk of the finance available to the Cuba in-
dustry. In Java, however, the industry’s situation vis-à-vis overseas capital
was altogether more complex.
5 Pollitt 1984:7-9. In 1913, United States’ capital owned 39 major sugar factories in Cuba and con-
trolled 37% of total sugar production. By 1924 they accounted for 60% of the total and owned 74
factories (Ayala 1999:95).
6 Figure calculated on the basis of $US 1 = 2.5 guilders. Estimates for Java for 1929 are taken from
Keller 1940:13-4. Keller’s estimates are quoted in Callis 1942:26-8.
7 Speck (2005) has advanced the important argument that in the early stages of the reconstruction of
the Cuba industry after the war of independence, ‘Creole’ Cuban-Spanish capital and entrepreneurship
played a significant role, and that hence 1898 was less of a watershed than has sometimes been supposed.
The parallels with the argument about the Java industry advanced in the following paragraphs are obvi-
ous enough to need no further elaboration.
127
change and continuity after 1884
Developments in the Java industry during the last two decades of

the nineteenth century took place on the basis of the increasingly
concentrated character of sugar capital. ‘Big Sugar’ came into its
own as six major companies came to dominate the industry. They
were: the Handelsvereeniging Amsterdam (HVA, Trading Association
Amsterdam); the Koloniale Bank (KB); the big Rotterdam-based trading
and investment combine known as Internatio; the Nederlandsch-Indische
Landbouw-Maatschappij (NILM, Netherlands Indies Agricultural
Company); the CMV; and the ubiquitous NHM. The first five were
designated as cultuurbanken, or agricultural investment banks, and were
based in Amsterdam or Rotterdam,8 while the sixth, the NHM, was the
colony’s biggest commercial enterprise, founded in the Netherlands as
far back as 1824 and heavily engaged in banking and agricultural enter-
prise, particularly sugar.
Nonetheless, the concentration of capital was by no means complete,
nor did it imply a complete makeover of the industry by new capital,
either financially, in terms of personnel or in respect to the industry’s
business culture. A colonial bourgeoisie of merchants, factory owners
and financiers, embedded in the industry since the middle decades of
the century, continued to play a significant part in its history. This was
also the case, of course, in places as far apart as the Philippines (very no-
tably) and Cuba. But the colonial bourgeoisie of the Netherlands Indies,
primarily located in Java, was a distinctive one, in so far as constantly
renewed links with Holland were a vital element in its composition – and
had been so for generations. This nexus was not disturbed, as was the
case in Cuba and the Philippines, by a change of (quasi-)metropolis –
from Spain to the USA – occasioned by civil war and foreign invasion at
the close of the nineteenth century.
There was no such break in continuity in the case of Java, nor did
the sugar crisis of 1884 herald one. It certainly changed the dynamics
of the relationship between the sugar interest in Java and metropolitan
Holland. On the other hand, late nineteenth- and early twentieth-cen-
tury developments did not eradicate the very specific ‘Indies’ character
8 For a contemporary account of the cultuurbanken, see Helfferich 1914. The authoritative modern
discussion is to be found in Taselaar 1998, especially Chapter 2. Taselaar lists the NHM among the cultuur-
banken, on the convincing grounds of its huge investment in sugar and other ‘plantation’ commodities.
128
of sugar capital in Java. Continuity was fostered, moreover, by the fact

that none of the cultuurbanken were themselves exactly newcomers to
Java or to its sugar industry. All of them (or their antecedent businesses)
had been active in the colony prior to the crisis of 1884. Uniquely, the
NHM had been a direct investor in production since as far back as the
One of colonial Indonesia’s leading cultuurbanken: The Amsterdam

head office of the HVA, circa 1929 (Aangeboden door HVA 1929)
129
1840s,9 and individuals like Hendrik Reineke, co-founder of the HVA,

and Jan Hudig, founder of the Koloniale Bank, had spent their early
business careers and a decade or more of their lives as part of the colo-
nial bourgeoisie.10 It was on their initiative – the initiative, that is to say,
of people already heavily involved in the business world of the Indies –
that investment and management companies were set up in Holland to
exploit the Indies connection. Hence when, in the immediate aftermath
of the sugar crisis, these firms and others like them began to absorb
previously autonomous enterprises, either through amalgamation or,
perhaps more commonly, through the establishment of discrete, limited
liability companies (naamlooze vennootschappen), they did so on the basis
of existing interests in the colony.11 The upshot rendered the post-1884
reconstruction of the industry rather less of a watershed than has some-
times been supposed.
Prior to the crisis of 1884, the Java industry had been able to finance
the expansion of production, and much of the ongoing technological
innovation in manufacture that was central to it, by drawing to a con-
siderable extent on its own resources. After 1884, the massive reduction
in profit margins, consequent on plummeting prices in world sugar
markets, changed all this. It certainly meant that in the short term (the
qualification is a vital one) there could be no question of future invest-
ment – or, indeed, survival – without recourse to metropolitan capital.
In these potentially dire circumstances, the existing close identity be-
tween colonial and metropolitan bourgeoisie became an important con-
duit for channeling metropolitan capital into a cash-strapped industry.
It was enabled, thereby, to both ride the crisis and to take advantage of
the opportunities for further growth offered by the dawning age of mass
markets in Asia itself. As far as the colonial bourgeoisie were concerned,
9 Ranked in order of early twentieth-century size of their operations, the companies concerned were
the NHM (founded 1824); the HVA (from 1879); the NILM (its origins in the investments of the NI
Handelsbank dated from the 1860s); the CMV (origins pre-1884 in the operations over more than two
decades of the Semarang firm of Dorrepaal); the Koloniale Bank (from 1881); and Internatio (again
from the 1860s). Prior to the crisis of 1884 and the subsequent restructuring, moreover, both the KB and
the Handelsbank had been heavily involved in financing Dorrepaal & Co’s extensive sugar investments
in Central Java, thereby further accentuating the continuities pre- and post-1884 and the long-term links
between ‘metropolitan’ firms and ‘colonial’ enterprises that underpinned the post-1884 restructuring.
For Dorrepaal, see Claver 2006:130-44; Bosma and Raben 2008:119-23, 259-63.
10 For Hudig, see Claver 2006:105-9. Hudig arrived in Java in 1864 and left (after several short inter-
missions) in 1880. He returned to the colony in April 1884.
11 For a detailed discussion of these and allied developments, see in particular À Campo 1996; Sluy-
terman 2005:41.
130
many found themselves integrated into the new structures of owner-

ship and management, either as the owners of continuing, family-run
businesses or else as executives within the large companies that had
come to the fore at the end of the nineteenth century.12 Indeed, without
their expertise, experience and connections the late nineteenth-century
makeover of the industry would scarcely have been feasible. They ac-
tively participated, that is to say, in the merger of bourgeois interests in
a common colonial venture.
Within this context, familial proprietorship and the family firm did
not disappear from the industry, any more than did the manager who
was a blood relation of the owners. Instead, family firms tended to take
skilled professionals onto their boards, and consanguinity was increasing-
ly complemented by experiential and theoretical training. A case in point
was the seasoned industry professional, Steven Everts. Born in Deventer
in the eastern part of the Netherlands in 1847, Everts was a man who
was as much ‘of the Indies’ as he was a metropolitan Dutchman: he
spent the greater part of his adult life in the colony. Retiring to Holland
in the mid-1890s, he did so in the company of his Java-born wife and
their Java-born children, and settled in Hilversum, a town (its sandy soil
was said to be good for many ‘colonial’ ailments) in which he could be
sure of the company of others with similar life experiences. Evidently,
he and his wife, Henriette Caroline de Vogel, were cultivated people:
Everts was at one time a shareholder in the newly built concert hall
(Concertgebouw NV) in his adopted city, which staged, inter alia, sym-
phony concerts and even opera.13
Everts had entered the employment of the NHM in Java sometime
in the 1870s. He evidently had some technical training and experience,
since as the hoofd (head) administrateur of their sugar factories in Central
Java throughout the 1880s, he was expected to advise on the installa-
tion of new machinery and the like. He was one of the new breed of
professional managers whose presence marked the arrival of the ‘visible
hand’ in Java sugar in the decade prior to the crisis of 1884,14 and his
12 This was consistent with the extent to which, in metropolitan Holland, the family firm ‘persisted’
well into the twentieth century as a form of industrial capitalism when elsewhere in Europe (notably in
Germany) and in North America it was increasingly supplanted by large companies with ‘impersonal’
managerial hierarchies. Moreover, as was said also to be the case in Holland, even in big corporations,
‘family links played an important role’ (Sluyterman and Winkelman 1993).
13 For Everts in Hilversum, see Engel, Van der Schuyt et al. 2005:167, 227.
14 Knight 1999.
131
activities thereafter signalled an ongoing impetus for innovation that had

deep roots in the industry. In the mid-1880s, for example, he was one of
the leading lights in experiments in Java as to the feasibility of adapt-
ing diffusion techniques common in the world’s beet sugar industry to
the commodity’s manufacture from cane.15 Subsequently (1890-1894),
he was the superintendent of all the NHM’s sugar factories on the island,
eventually on the substantial salary of 15,000 guilders a year. Back in
Holland, he was far from inactive. From 1897 he was the directeur of the
limited companies set up around that time by the patrician Lucassen
family, owners since the 1840s of a pair of sugar factories on the north
coast of Central Java (Everts’ old bailiwick), a position he continued to
hold until sometime late in the first decade of the new century.16 He died
in Hilversum in 1919.
keeping it in the family
Such continuity of family ownership and management in Java sugar

was particularly pronounced in the Vorstenlanden of Central Java.17
Elsewhere in the colony, however, it was likewise the case that numer-
ous smaller companies or combines existed outside – or in some form
of association with – the networks of the great cultuurbanken. They were
predominantly comprised of enterprises, long established in Java which,
for a variety of reasons, had shifted the seat of their business to the
Netherlands. This was certainly true, for example, of the Tjomal factory
with which S.C. van Musschenbroek was so long associated. During
Van Musschenbroek’s tenure as administrateur there, it was indeed the
case that the Internatio cultuurbank came to play a major role in handling
the factory’s affairs. This was far from being an instance, however, of
old-style Indies owners ‘falling prey’ to new metropolitan capital. In
fact, there was even a touch of the reverse, for that deeply Indies figure,
ex-Governor General Van der Wijck, cousin of Tjomal’s owners and
long-time associate of Van Musschenbroek, was himself on the board of
15 Verslag proef diffusie 1885.
16 For Everts’s employment with the NHM, see the correspondence relating to him in ‘Superinten-
dentie suikerondernemingen’, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7964. These documents identify him as
at Djabong, Kraksaan, Probolinggo, in December 1880. For his subsequent career with the Kemanglen
and Doekoewringin sugar companies, see NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7942.
17 Bosma 2007b.
132
Internatio. More important in the long term, however, was the fact that
the great Rotterdam firm owned no shares in Tjomal, which remained
firmly in the hands of the interrelated Van der Wijck and Teding van
Berkhout families. Indeed, in the 1930s the largest single shareholder in
the Tjomal sugar company was the countess (jonkvrouw) Alphreda Louisa
Teding van Berkhout,18 a niece of the man who had bought Tjomal at
auction from the Indies government in 1872. A ripe example of the colo-
nial rentier, Countess Alphreda spent much of the latter part of her long
life – she had been born in Batavia in 1863 and died 1959 – in northern
Italy, surrounded by the elegance and comfort of the Villa Planta in the
celebrated sub-alpine resort town of Merano.19
The Teding van Berkhout clan was by no means exceptional in keep-
ing ownership firmly in the family. A vignette played out in The Hague
in the mid-1880s shows how it might be done: how old-established firms
might hold out against the new wave of big financiers. The recently
widowed Anna Hoevenaar (1823-1905) had been born to Otto Carel
Holmberg de Beckfelt and his wife Henriette Smissaert in Java, where
her father subsequently became a pioneer sugar manufacturer. In 1886,
following the death of her husband Hubertus, a rich, retired Java sugar
manufacturer who had taken over and greatly extended his father-in-
law’s interests in the industry, she might have appeared vulnerable to
metropolitan take-over. Working capital for her Java factories was sup-
plied by the NILM (as we have seen, one of the handful of the newly
established cultuurbanken set up in the wake of the crisis of 1884) which
had inherited a decade-long financial arrangement with the ‘Hoevenaar
Concerns’ from its ailing sister-company, the Nederlandsch-Indische
Handelsbank (Netherlands Indies Trading Bank).
However, if the NILM thought that this was the moment to wrest
control of the enterprise from this evidently formidable old lady (she
clearly inherited qualities from her mother, a woman of spirit, who
had separated from her father some five or so years after she had been
born) they were sorely mistaken. Mevrouw Hoevenaar née Holmberg de
Beckvelt (she evidently liked the touch of aristocracy that this reminder
18 Nederlands Adelsboek 79 (1988): 489; Jonkvrouw Teding van Berkhout-Senfft von Pilsach, living in
Merano, held 136 of the 400 shares in Tjomal (‘alle aandeelhouders zijn niet-jood’ was how the com-
pany was described to the Nazis during the war), see the List of Shareholders as of 31-12-1938, in:
NA, NV Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van de Suikeronderneming Tjomal, 1872-1971, toegangsnummer
2.20.39, inv. nr. 66.
19 C. Schmidt 1986:156.
133
that she was the daughter of a jonkheer conveyed), it may be supposed,

had come up to The Hague from her country house at Geldrop in the
south-east of the Netherlands, and had with her the family lawyer – and
a strong bank balance. According to the company’s somewhat rueful re-
cord of the encounter, ‘the information supplied by Notary Lichtenburg
concerning Mevrouw Hoevenaar’s private fortune was of such a charac-
ter that the management [of the NILM] saw no difficulty in being satis-
fied with the declaration of the said lady’. Not surprisingly, Lichtenburg
appeared on the board of the limited company subsequently formed
to manage the factories. 20 Some half a century later, moreover, the
Hoevenaar Concerns still retained sufficient independence to switch
their allegiance from the NILM to the NHM at the height of the inter-
war depression.21
Moreover, the ‘Java connection’ remained firm, in the shape of
several generations of another Dutch-Indies family who managed the
concerns on behalf of the founder’s heirs. The Van Eibergen Santhagens
were precisely the kind of ‘empire family’ whose history provides a fur-
ther reminder of the long-term interconnectedness between ‘colonial’
and ‘metropolitan’ bourgeoisie that was a continuing hallmark of Java
sugar’s long historical evolution. With deep roots among the commercial
elites of Amsterdam, the family also maintained a significant presence
in the business world of the Indies for over the better part of a century.
Reinier van Eibergen Santhagens (1797-1869), scion of an
Amsterdam patrician family, had spent much of the 1830s and 1840s in
Batavia, latterly as Indies manager of the Oost-Indische Maatschappij
van Administratie en Lijfrente (in which fund-management and annuity
business one of his sons followed him), and three of his four children were
born in the Indies. Arent van Eibergen Santhagens, the eldest of them
(born Batavia 1833, died Hilversum 1913), married in the Netherlands to
an Amsterdam-born woman before subsequently returning to the Indies,
where all of their six children either found their marriage partners or
settled more or less permanently. Reinier’s third son, Daniël Cornelis van
Eibergen Santhagens (1847-1920) was born in Amsterdam and educated
in the Netherlands.
20 ‘Geschiedenis NILM’, circa 1942, p. 56, in: NA, NV Nederlands-Indische Handelsbank; Nationale
Handelsbank NV, 1863-1966, toegangsnummer 2.20.03, inv. nr. 329; Handboek 1899:618.
21 ‘Geschiedenis NILM’, circa 1942, p. 64, in: NA, Ned.-Ind. Handelsbank, 2.20.03, inv. nr. 329.
134
Subsequently opting for a sojourn in his family’s other homeland, this

third son arrived in Java during the 1880s and established a connection
with the Hoevenaar Concerns that was to carry over into the next gen-
eration. His son, Daniël Cornelis van Eibergen Santhagens junior (1874-
1959), was born in Amsterdam, began his education in Batavia (where he
had accompanied his father) and completed it in Holland, where he went
on to become a member of the ‘core elite’ of the Netherlands Indies’
business world. In 1917 he became directeur of the Hoevenaar companies,
and was also on the board of the Javasche Cultuurmaatschappij (owners
of some eight sugar factories in Central and East Java), Nederland Lloyd
and Ruhaak & Co, a major Dutch engineering firm that operated both in
Holland and the Indies. This was certainly keeping things in the family,
since his brother (another) Reinier van Eibergen Santhagens, was one of
the top managers at Ruhaak.22 The family connection with the Indies –
and with sugar in particular – was maintained right down to ‘the end’: on
the eve of the industry’s nationalization in 1957-1959, a direct descen-
dant of the ‘founder’ of this Indies-Netherlands dynasty was on the board
of NV Suikercultuur Maatschappij, one of the holding companies for the
remnants of the Java sugar industry, with its head office in Amsterdam.
short-term rescue and the absence of long-term

capital flows
The salvation of the Java sugar industry in the wake of the collapse of
world sugar prices in 1884 was hence an altogether more complex devel-
opment than has sometimes been assumed. To be sure, the commercial
and financial crisis that hit the Java sugar industry in the mid-1880s cer-
tainly gave rise to a number of major rescue operations mounted in the
capital markets of Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Nonetheless, once the
immediate crisis had been dealt with, and the heroic days in smoke-filled
rooms along the Heerengracht and Keizersgracht, in what was then the
commercial heart of Amsterdam, had passed into the corporate mem-
ory, enthusiasm for pumping money into Java sugar declined markedly.
In financial terms, the ‘rescue’ of 1884-1886 was essentially a short-term
22 See Nederlands Patriciaat, 9 (1918), pp. 346 ff; obituary notices filed in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv.
nr. 8994; NV Suikercultuur Mij filed in NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 8300; entries for ‘Hoevenaar’ Sugar
Factories (Pangka, Karang Soewoeng, Adiwerna and Djatibarang) in Handboek 1888-1939.
135
exercise, and did not result in a long-term inflow of investment capital

from Holland (or anywhere else).
Between the late 1880s and 1930, overall there was a tenfold increase
in the nominal capital value of corporate enterprises operating in the
Indies – from 0.4 billion to over 4 billion guilders.23 What is doubtful,
however, is the extent to which this represented a commensurate increase
in direct metropolitan investment in agricultural enterprises in Java itself
– and in Java sugar in particular. Nor does it demonstrate a burgeoning
Dutch enthusiasm for investing in their Southeast Asian colony. After a
probable peak immediately prior to the First World War, when around
three-quarters of Dutch overseas investment was to be found in the
Indies, the proportion declined significantly thereafter. Indeed, by 1938,
only 60 per cent of total Dutch overseas investment went there.24
Moreover, the bulk of such investment went into oil, mining, trans-
port and ‘Outer Island’ plantations, rather than into sugar. Of the four
billion guilders or more invested in the Indies from any source – local
or overseas – circa 1930, only around 800 million guilders (90 per cent
or more of which can safely be assumed to be Dutch – see below) were
invested in sugar. 25 Moreover, even this degree of investment – in effect
representing the equity value of the industry’s assets – is not indicative
of large inflows of capital into sugar during the preceding decades.
Predominantly, the considerable expansion of production that took place
in Java between the late 1880s and the end of the 1920s was financed
through the ploughing back of profits, rather than through recourse from
metropolitan or other overseas capital markets. A number of factors
combined to create a situation in which the typical financial strategies
of the Dutch family firm – identified by Sluyterman and Winkelman as
habits designed to keep ‘profits in the company and to build up large hid-
den reserves to use in adverse economic circumstances’26 – were adopted
by (relatively) large public corporations.
23 À Campo 1996:74.
24 Sluyterman (2005:105) observes that ‘[b]etween 1914 and 1938, Dutch direct investment in the
Dutch East Indies more than doubled. However, the share of the colony in the total Dutch foreign direct
investment diminished. While in 1914 the estimated stock of accumulated Dutch direct investment in
the Dutch East Indies was 75% of total Dutch FDI, in 1938 it amounted to no more than 60%.’ For a
recent general discussion of overseas investment in late colonial Indonesia, see Lindblad 1998:11-94.
25 Estimates for 1929 from Keller 1940:13-4.
26 Sluyterman and Winkelman 1993:153; Lindblad 1994.
136
a self-financed expansion of production
To be sure, retained earnings were a significant part of the financial

strategy of many companies operating in large-scale commodity produc-
tion in the late colonial Indies economy.27 For example, Royal Dutch,
the great oil company, found it expedient to finance a significant part
of its early expansion from retained earnings.28 In the case of sugar,
however, the extent to which retained earnings formed the basis for
industry finance appears to have been exceptional. Stereotypically, of
course, companies raise money for productive investment either through
equity (that is, by issuing shares and creating shareholder capital) and
debentures – or through direct borrowing (that is, from banks and other
financial institutions). In the case of Java, direct borrowings by the sugar
companies were very limited and notional equity capital, when related to
the extent of actual investment, remained rather modest.
Perhaps the most significant case in point was the HVA, since this was
by far the most expansion-minded of the ‘sugar’ companies (it had other
plantation interests both there and in Sumatra) operating in Java in the
early twentieth century. Over a period of three decades, beginning in the
mid-1890s, this Amsterdam-based company transformed itself from a
general trader with plantation interests into a huge operation with more
productive capacity than any of its competitors in the Java industry. Even
in the case of the HVA, however, retained earnings played a dominant
role in the company’s expansion.
To be sure, when the company first embarked on its major expan-
sion, it indeed found a substantial part of the start-up through share and
debentures issues in the Netherlands. Thereafter, however, even this,
the most ‘aggressive’ sector of the industry, generally adopted (or was
27 Writing more than a quarter of a century ago, Creutzberg (1977:27-8) drew attention to the pro-
pensity among Western enterprises in late colonial Java toward ‘a basic reliance on own (non-borrowed)
financial resources; the financing of expansion out of internal sources, mostly by ploughing back oper-
ating surpluses’. Van der Eng (1993:21, note 16) draws attention to the fact that ‘not much is actually
known about retained profits’, and cites a ‘guess’ by W.L. Korthals Altes in Changing economy in Indonesia,
vol. 7, that, in general, something over one-third (36.5%) of profits were retained for local investment
and a contemporary figure of 32.8% for the period 1925-30 (from Prange 1935:91-2). For a discussion
of the importance of retained earnings in financing the expansion of colonial commodity production
in general in the Netherlands Indies as a whole between circa 1880 and 1940, see Booth 1998:253-60
and the references therein. Around 1913, there were said to be some 198 sugar factories operating in the
colony.
28 Jonker and Luiten van Zanden 2007:33.
137
obliged to adopt) a more conservative strategy for financing its opera-

tions. Almost all their contemporaries and business rivals were even more
‘cautious’ – if that is indeed the right word. Perhaps the essential point
about sugar industry finance in general was made, in typically trenchant
fashion, by Pieter Reineke, the driving force behind the HVA, in remarks
to his colleagues on the company’s board delivered early in the 1920s:
It is difficult to achieve our ends other than through the transfer of profits
into a reserve fund and to invest this in new enterprises. It is difficult to
raise funds on the open market for new business on account of the de-
layed returns and because the risks are too great. The result of this policy
is that cash pay-outs, that is to say dividends, have to be restricted.29
dividends and profits
In explaining how it was possible to finance expansion in this fashion, we

need to separate the question of profits from that of dividends. Doing so
also helps explain why the industry was possibly less attractive to outside
investors than might have been supposed. Prior to the First World War,
dividends paid to the shareholders in the Java sugar industry were hardly
exceptional and often rather modest (in some years they were not paid
at all). Shortly before the war, one contemporary apologist calculated,
based on data from around 60 per cent of factories then in operation
in the ‘government lands’ of Java,30 that between 1893-1912 dividends
were in the range of 5 to 12.5 per cent for around half of the enterprises
surveyed, while of the remainder around 60 per cent performed better
than this and 40 per cent worse.31 These findings appear to be borne
29 Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 1-6-1923/647, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 3.
30 Circa 1913, there were said to be some 198 sugar factories operating in Java as a whole, the bulk of
them – 164 factories – in the directly-ruled ‘government territories’ and the remainder – 35 in all – in the
Vorstenlanden (Paets tot Gansoyen 1913).
31 Paets tot Gansoyen 1913:1461-3. Paets’ exact figures (though subject to many provisos by the au-
thor) were that of 111 factories, 55 paid dividends in the 5-12.5% range, 32 paid over 12.5% and 24
paid less than 5%, averaged over the twenty-year period 1893-1912. According to his calculations, only
eight factories had paid an average dividend higher than 25% over the period concerned, while some
seven had never paid a dividend at all. His overall conclusion (Paets tot Gansoyen 1913:1467) was ‘dat
er […] een zekere groep [is] van 12 à 16 slechte en een zekere groep van 24 à 28 goede onderne-
mingen […]; dat het steeds dezelfde ondernemingen zijn, die in de beste condities verkeeren, en dat
de groote meerderheid van 50 ondernemingen in gewone jaren niet meer dan een normaal dividend
uitkeert’. The author was (from 1902) landsadvocaat at Surabaya, and voorzitter (chairman) of the Kamer
138
out, on the conservative side, by what we know of the dividends paid by

some of the cultuurbanken during the first decade of the twentieth century.
These averaged at less than 6 per cent.32 By way of stark – if somewhat
exceptional – contrast, the Royal Dutch Oil Company was paying divi-
dends of a little under 50 per cent immediately prior to the outbreak
of the Great War (thereafter, the windfall gains of 1914-1918 enabled
the company to amass profits on such as scale as to have to ‘disguise’ its
– politically contentious – super-payouts as bonus share issues).33
The Java sugar industry, too, did well out of the war, in so far as
the British market, previously supplied from Imperial Germany, was re-
opened to it. Any improvement in profits was very short term, however,
since problems with shipping, and, in Java itself, shortages of rice, led to
pressure to reduce the area under cane. The already-cited Hoevenaar
Concerns, a three-factory family-owned combine dating from the middle
years of the nineteenth century, for example, paid a dividend of 65 per
cent in 1916, but very much less than that for the wartime period as a
whole.34 It was only after the war that – from the viewpoint of sugar
capital – there was a substantial improvement. Sometimes, indeed, it
was spectacular. There is evidence of some small companies paying
huge dividends between 1919 and 1929, possibly because they were
particularly well situated with respect to land and labour – and almost
certainly because they settled for maximizing immediate profits and had
little interest in expanding their operations (given what happened at the
industry after 1930, an eminently sensible strategy).35 The Hoevenaar
Concerns produced dividends that averaged at 87 per cent in the ten
van Koophandel en Nijverheid there. At the time of his death, in 1913, he was the chairman of the
Koloniale Bank’s ‘Raad van Toezicht’ in the Indies (Jaarverslag Koloniale Bank, 1913, p. 1, in: IISG,
http://hdl.handle.net/10622/6F6C905E-2B19-4B48-95C5-608CC2D1EE96). His article in the Archief
was designed (Paets tot Gansoyen 1913:1473-4) to provide the industry with propaganda with which to
combat current proposals, emanating from within the Indies government, to compel the sugar factories
to pay more for land rental, labour and water, on the grounds that they could well afford to do so. I am
not convinced, however, that this invalidates the general thrust of his data. Profits (and dividends) hung
very closely on the international price for industrially manufactured sugar. In 1911-1912 – as Paets tot
Gansoyen (1913:1404, 1471) readily conceded – prices were indeed relatively high, with a consequent
flow-on to dividends.
32 Data from Bosch 1948:681-4.
33 Jonker and Luiten van Zanden 2007:217.
34 Handboek 1888-1939. Data for the relevant years for the Mij Exploitatie Karang Soewong, Adiw-
erna en Djatibrang (also known as the Hoevenaar Concerns): the dividend paid for 1914 was 10% and
that for 1915 was 17%. By 1917, the industry was nearly crippled by a shortage of freight room and no
dividend was paid. For 1918 the dividend was 29.75%.
35 For a discussion of the differing policies on this score among Indies companies, see Lindblad 1994.
139
years between 1919 and 1929 – but this included an astronomical 237
per cent in 1920.36 This was the year of the celebrated ‘dance of the
millions’, when the price of sugar on the New York market hit a high of
22.5 cents per pound and a low of 3.63 cents (a year earlier it had stood
at 6.65 cents).37 There were other, similarly ‘fabulous’ dividends: the lo-
cally based company that owned the Tjoekir sugar factory in Surabaya
Residency, for example, paid an average dividend of 65 per cent in the
period 1920-1929.38
Nonetheless, these remained exceptional cases. Some enterprises had
a financial history that bordered on the dismal. The Poerworedjo fac-
tory established with such splendid credentials by Van Musschenbroek
and Van der Wijck shortly before the First World War was a case in
point. Despite being one of the most ambitious enterprises in the colony
(or, possibly, because of this), the profits were slow to materialize – even
though Van Musschenbroek and his immediate associates seem to have
done quite nicely out of setting it up.39 For the general run of its share-
holders, however, Poerworedjo was scarcely a road to riches. Dividends
over the life of the factory (it closed for good in 1933, after having been
in operation for scarcely two decades) averaged at well below 4 per cent
per annum. Even in 1920, the annus mirabilis for the Java industry, when
world prices skyrocketed, the factory only paid a modest 20 per cent.40
If this was the best that an ex-Governor General and a high-powered
businessman could do for investors, a certain lack of enthusiasm on the
latter’s part was fully understandable.
Of course, Poerworedjo may have had its own particular problems.
Nonetheless, what emerges from the records of the big cultuurbanken is
36 For the dividends paid by the Hoevenaar Concerns over the period 1896-1929, see Handboek 1888-
1939, for the years concerned.
37 See, for instance, Pollitt 1984.
38 Bosch 1948:682.
39 One disgruntled shareholder alleged that what he described as the ‘Ramaer Kongsi’ (that is, Ramaer,
Van Musschenbroek, et alia) had made a handsome profit out of selling on to the Poerworedjo company
the four concessions for the planting of cane that they had earlier bought up in Kedu (and which formed
the basis of the factory’s operations). He also alleged that Van Musschenbroek’s nephew, H.H. Patijn,
had done very nicely indeed out of commissions earned on the initial share issue (W. Bosch, ‘Brief
aan Aandeelhouders der Suikerfabriek Poerworedjo’, Djogja, 3-3-1910, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr.
7968).
40 Between 1910 and 1932, Poerworedjo paid a dividend on only nine occasions. The average over
twenty-two years was 3.6%. Even then, dividends (4%) were only paid in 1910 and 1911 because of the
return guaranteed to shareholders by the NHM, an early stakeholder in the project. For the financial
history of the company, see the Jaarverslagen Suikeronderneming Poerworedjo, 1910-1932, in: KIT, L
2867.
140
also a cautionary tale – the more so when the payouts of the ‘roaring
twenties’ are placed in their proper context. Between 1910 and 1929,
the year in which prices started to collapse, the average annual dividend
paid by the four big enterprises just cited – the KB, the NILM, the HVA
and the Cultuurmaatschappij der Vorstenlanden – amounted to slightly
more than 22 per cent, a figure that was significantly inflated by the
short-lived ‘bull market’ of 1920. 41 Nor does it reflect the fact that two
of these big companies did very much better than the other two, and
that the dividends of the best-paying of them – the HVA – were inflated
by non-sugar income.42 The essential point, however, is that the 1920s
formed a unique episode in the industry’s dividend history: unmatched
before then, and never repeated afterwards.
Moreover, even the most generous dividends paid out during the
1920s (they stopped abruptly at the end of the decade) were not all they
seemed. Any impression of a shareholders’ bonanza needs to take into
account the very substantial understating throughout the industry of the
equity capital on which profits were distributed. Dividends looked better
– in some cases considerably better – than they were, because they were
paid on a ‘notional’ equity capital that was quite unrealistic in terms of
the actual sums invested in the enterprise.
For instance, the NILM had eight large sugar factories operational in
the 1920s. A realistic valuation – based on a rough assumption that each
factory was worth some 3 to 4 million guilders – was that the company’s
assets were worth somewhere between 24 and 32 million guilders.43
Nonetheless, the company went through the decade with an equity
capital of 15 million guilders – and it is on this equity, of course, that
its dividends were paid. In the already-cited case of the Tjoekir factory,
for example, not only was the average dividend paid during the 1920s
41 The average dividend for the period 1910-1930 paid by the HVA (which reflected its investments in
other plantation crops in Java and elsewhere in the Indies) was 27.85%; the average paid by the NILM
was 24.63%. In contrast, the average dividend paid by the Cultuurmij der Vorstenlanden was 12.88%,
while the Koloniale Bank paid 11.07%. See for the relevant data: Jaarverslag Koloniale Bank, in: NA,
Cultuur-, Handel- en Industriebank, 2.20.04; Jaarverslag Handelsvereeniging ‘Amsterdam’, in: NA,
Handelsvereniging Amsterdam, 1870-1959, toegangsnummer 2.20.32; Jaarverslag Cultuurmaatschap-
pij der Vorstenlanden, in: KIT, L 1486; Jaarverslag Nederlandsch-Indische Landbouw Maatschappij, in:
KIT, L 2803.
42 By the late 1920s, the HVA’s plantation interests in both Java and Sumatra (where it pushed through
a number of big developments from circa 1918 onward), embraced not only sugar but also the produc-
tion of tea, rubber, tapioca, palm oil and sisal (vezel), and covered nearly 90,000 hectares (Aangeboden door
HVA 1929).
43 Jaarverslag NILM, 1920-1930, in: KIT, L 2803.
141
vastly inflated by the payout to shareholders of 150 per cent in 1920;

‘profitability’ was also skewed by the fact that dividends were paid on
a capital valuation that was set at a figure of at least two-thirds lower
than the factory’s actual worth.44 This sort of thing seems to have been
standard practice.45
None of this meant, of course, that sugar was not a paying proposi-
tion. Rather, it reflected the idiosyncratic character of sugar industry
finance. The extent of actual investment was far greater than might
be assumed from data relating to equity capital alone, and the real
financial position of the sugar companies was further obfuscated by a
propensity to accumulate reserves well in excess of statutory require-
ments. The NILM, for example, had reserves amounting to one-quarter
of its equity capital at the onset of the interwar depression in 1931.46
Contemporaneously, the HVA’s total reserves (statutory and ‘extraordi-
nary’) stood at 50 per cent of the firm’s equity capital.47 The fundamen-
tal point, however, was that profits were retained and used to support by
far the greater part of the industry’s growth. As reported in the 1920s
by a well-informed industry insider, for example, the new factories estab-
lished in Java over the preceding two decades had been built ‘without
inordinate enlargement’ of the capital of the firms involved. At the same
time, the cost of renovating existing factories had been met largely out
of current profits.48
ploughing back the profits
The key trends in the way the industry was predominantly financed were
already strongly in evidence during the closing decades of the nineteenth
century and early in the twentieth; for example, the compiler of an elab-
44 Tjoekir, somewhat unusually, was owned by a limited company registered in Surabaya rather than
in the Netherlands; circa 1920 it was farming cane on around 806 hectares of peasant ricefields, produc-
ing 70.4 quintals of top quality sugar (SHS) per hectare (Jaarverslag NV Suiker Fabriek Tjoekir, 1907-
1923, in: KIT, L 2958).
45 For contemporary confirmation of the gross undervaluation of industry assets, and observations
that (notional) equity capital bore little relation to actual capital invested, see, for example, Paets tot
Gansoyen 1913:1458-9.
47 HVA equity capital in 1930 amounted to 40 million guilders. In addition, the company held 20
million guilders in statutory and extraordinary reserves (Jaarverslag HVA, 1930, in: KIT, LD 106).
48 Prinsen Geerligs 1927.
142
orate analysis of industry profits made shortly before the outbreak of the
First World War (cited above) remarked on how, since the 1880s, many
sugar companies had salted away much of their profits into reserves,
which had then been used to buy the requisite new machinery and, more
generally, to finance the expansion of their enterprises.49 In this respect,
the record of the Tjomal company – with which Van Musschenbroek
was for so long associated – is worth citing. Between 1915 and 1928 (the
last ‘good’ year before the interwar depression), the company recorded
profits of more than 20 million guilders, of which over one-third was
spent on machinery and buildings for an entirely new factory at Tjomal
itself.50
Moreover, Tjomal was by no means an isolated example of the extent
to which retained profits were used to finance expansion. In the case
of the four big sugar companies already named – with between them
around forty factories by the 1920s – the pay-out ratio (that is, the ratio of
dividends to net earnings) was just over 74 per cent over the period from
1910 to 1930.51 That is to say, something a little over 25 per cent of profits
was held back to build up reserves or to fund expansion. In fact, this was
almost certainly a conservative estimate of actual retained earnings, since
it is not always apparent precisely what capital charges were deducted
before net profit was declared. Indeed, as we shall see, in the case of one
major company it is obvious that very substantial capital expenditures
were placed on the debit side of the ledger before net profit was declared.
This may have been a somewhat exceptional situation, but the strategy
49 Paets tot Gansoyen 1913:1454-5.

50 A summary version of the Tjomal company’s accounts, 1899-1939, is to be found in NA, NV
Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van de Suikeronderneming Tjomal, 1872-1971, toegangsnummer 2.20.39,
inv. nr. 28. The costs of the new factory appear under 1923 as 4,837,551 guilders for ‘machines’ and
1,472,345 guilders for gebouwen (buildings) and a further 1,421,335 guilders for woningen (houses). All three
charges appear under the rubric of Staat van Uitgaven voor Uitbreiding. Reserves in 1923 up to 1928
are booked at around 8 million guilders. It seems inconceivable that with reserves like this, the company
would have borrowed money to build the new factory. Indeed, the very modest rise in reserves between
1919 and 1922 – from 1,841,225 to 2,426,956 guilders – when sugar prices went through the roof, would
again suggest that the new factory was indeed built from retained earnings (which were not hived away
in reserves). Through the entire period 1899-1939, the equity (gestort kapitaal) of the Tjomal company
remained at 1,000,000 guilders.
51 A payout ratio of 100 means that all the declared profits are being distributed in dividends. Any-
thing lower than 100 is indicative of profits being retained. For the relevant data relating to equity
(maatschappelijk kapitaal), net profits (winstsaldo) and paid-out dividends (uitgekeerd dividend), see the annual
reports 1910-1930 of the HVA (NA, Handelsvereniging Amsterdam, 2.20.32, inv. nrs 11, 12), NILM
(KIT, L 2803), Koloniale Bank (NA, Cultuur-, Handel- en Industriebank, 2.20.04, inv. nr. 6) and CMV
(KIT, L 1486).
143
of retaining profits as the basis for expanding their operations showed up

very clearly in the histories of all the big sugar companies.
In this context, the HVA was unusual (at least, among the cultuurban-
ken) in that it went to the Amsterdam financial market for capital to pay
for its ambitious, large-scale sugar-making venture in the far south-east
of Java in the early years of the twentieth century, as discussed in the fol-
lowing chapter. Later, and equally massive, developments by the HVA,
however, were predominantly financed from profits, despite the com-
pany’s issue of debentures to cover part of the outlays involved. During
the course of the 1920s, HVA’s equity capital doubled from 20 to 40
million guilders, around half of which was in the form of debentures.52
Although this was the largest ‘declared’ capital of any of Java’s Big Sugar
companies, its financial strategy was altogether more conservative than
this might superficially suggest. It may indeed have been the big spender
among Java’s late colonial sugar companies, but the bulk of its invest-
ment in expansion came from retained profits rather than from recourse
to capital markets. Notably, in 1921, at the beginning of a decade of
major growth, the HVA board decided against a 7-million-guilder share
issue (which would have increased their equity capital by more than one-
third), because they had enough capital on hand, presumably from the
windfall gains of the ‘dance of the millions’.53
The point was that the company was worth very much more than its
declared value of 40 million guilders, and that this ‘excess’ worth rep-
resented investment paid for out of retained profits. Early in the 1920s,
when its equity capital still stood at 20 million guilders, ex-CEO Peter
Reineke estimated (for the information of his fellow board members) that
the ‘real’ value of the company’s investments was more than four times
that amount, and placed the figure in excess of 90 million.54 By the end
52 HVA equity capital in 1930 amounted to 40 million guilders. In addition, the company held 20 mil-
lion guilders in statutory and extraordinary reserves (Jaarverslag HVA, 1930, in: KIT, LD 106). ‘Voor de
financiering der exploitatie werd door uitgifte van obligatieleeningen [that is, debentures] eenige malen
een beroep op de geldmarkt gedaan: per 31 December 1928 is het uitstaand bedrag aan obligatiën rond
f. 20,700,000’ (Aangeboden door HVA 1929:11-2). The HVA’s recourse to debentures was not typical, how-
ever, of the industry as a whole, where debenture capital only played a minor role. Debenture capital was
indeed significant in the colony, but was mostly tied up, for instance in infrastructural developments and
in perennial plantation crops (Manschot 1939).
54 Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 24-6-1923/649, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 3. Reineke also
cited the Dutch government’s hoofddirecteur van financiën’s (chief director of financial affairs) 1919
valuation of the HVA at 97,399,542 guilders.
144
of the decade, it must certainly have been in the region of 150 million
(and possibly substantially more). The sums just kept on mounting up.
Prior to 1920, the HVA had invested well in excess of 10 million guilders
in its vast sugar-making operation in the south-east of Java – by far the
largest factory in the colony – and it subsequently invested at least anoth-
er 40 million guilders there during the course of the following decade.55
In addition, at the very end of the 1920s, there was the state-of-the-art
Koenir factory in East Java’s Brantas valley. This was the last of its kind
to be built in colonial Java, which cost the HVA more than 7 million
guilders.56 None of these calculations takes any account, moreover, of
the sums spent in the 1920s on HVA plantations in Sumatra (and on Java
itself),57 or on expanding and renovating the other sugar factories that
the HVA already owned in and around the Brantas valley. There were
around a dozen of the latter, and an educated guess would be that, over
the course of the twenties, they would have absorbed perhaps a further
10 million guilders of investment. In total – and it is a fairly conserva-
tive total – the HVA’s investments between 1910 and 1930 can hardly
have amounted to less than 150 million guilders, set against no more
than 40 million guilders raised (in one form or another) from financial
markets. That is to say, the HVA disbursed in two decades of expansion
something in excess of 100 million guilders over and above the capital
it borrowed. At most, its retained earnings – in the form of the differ-
ence between net profit and what was paid out in dividends – between
1910 and 1930 amounted to only 37.5 million guilders.58 It has to be
assumed (if these calculations are indeed correct) that the ‘missing’ 60
million or so guilders was accounted for by capital outlays deducted from
55 In 1927, the well-informed and highly sympathetic Indies journalist H.C. Zentgraaff quoted a
figure of 60 million guilders as the total sum invested in the HVA’s sugar-manufacturing complex in
and adjacent to Djatiroto in the far south-east of Java (Z. 1927:11; see also, ‘Enkele notities inzake
der suikerondernemingen Djatiroto, Semboro, Goenoengsari en Bedadoeng’, [1939], in: Internationaal
Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis (IISG), Amsterdam, Nederlandsch Economisch-Historisch Archief
(NEHA), Bijzondere Collecties 640/A 3 (a); Prinsen Geerligs 1927. Zentgraaff ’s 60 million is largely
substantiated in the company’s annual reports. Goenoengsari and Semboro had cost together some 20
million by 1926 (Jaarverslag HVA, 1926, p. 11, in: KIT, LD 106) and the projected cost of Bedadoeng
was already 11 million by 1926 (Jaarverslag HVA, 1926, p. 11, in: KIT, LD 106) – which would leave
the two Djatiroto factories costing together around 29 million, which may be a bit high. For an extended
discussion of Djatiroto and the HVA’s operations in south-eastern Java, see the following chapter.
56 Jaarverslag HVA, 1927, p. 11-2, in: KIT, LD 106.
57 By 1919, 10 million guilders had already been invested in plantations in Sumatra; see Notulen
bestuursvergaderingen, 4-4-1919/595, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 2.
58 Between 1910 and 1930, the HVA’s net profits amounted in total to 171,312,177 guilders; the
company disbursed 133,750,000 in dividends (Jaarverslag HVA, 1910-1930, in: KIT, LD 106).
145
gross profits before the net profit was declared. In whichever way the
accounting is done, the conclusion has to be that even the HVA, despite
being the most highly geared of Java’s Big Sugar companies, nonetheless
funded the bulk of expansion by ploughing back profits.
Even so, the amount of the HVA’s borrowings was unusual (and
reflected its uniquely expansionist character) in the industry as a whole.
Instead, retained earnings were the rule. To be sure, the Koloniale Bank
– which shortly before the First World War either owned or part-owned
thirteen sugar factories and financed the operation of nine more – had
increased its equity capital by 50 per cent (from 10 to 15 million guilders)
in 1911, probably in connection with the outlays on its big, state-of-the-
art factory at Bandjaratma, on the north coast of Central Java. This
was, however, an exceptional move for the company. At the beginning
of the 1920s, in a further expansion of its operations, it bought a string
of four factories in the Yogyakarta area, built a new factory to partially
replace them and incorporated the remainder in a greatly expanded and
renovated existing operation – all without any increase in equity capital
or borrowings.59 Subsequently, the company’s directors were authorized
to make a significant expansion in equity capital – but largely neglected
to do so.60 Instead, reinvested profits continued to play the key role in
sustaining the process of almost continuous technological renovation
common to all the leading sectors of the Java industry throughout the
twenties. Only when faced with crisis conditions in 1930 (the selling price
of the company’s sugar had fallen below its cost price) did the Koloniale
Bank resort to a debenture issue – which, oddly enough, given the cir-
cumstances, was rapidly fully subscribed.61
In the case of the CMV, enlargement of equity capital, when it came,
was occasioned by matters other than the expansion of productive ca-
pacity. In 1918, the company doubled its equity (which had remained
constant since its establishment thirty years earlier) from 10 million to
20 million guilders in response to the exigencies of the commercial dif-
ficulties facing Java sugar toward the end of the First World War. Above
all, a serious shortage of shipping potentially left the industry with huge
quantities of sugar on its hands. For this particular company, the upshot
59 Jaarverslag Koloniale Bank, 1920, p. 4; 1921, p. 5, in: IISG, ZK 60149.

60 The proposal was for a share issue to the amount of 10 million guilders. In fact, 8.5 million guilders
of this remained ‘ongeplaatst’ (Jaarverslag Koloniale Bank, 1923, p. 6; 1924, p. 7, in: IISG, ZK 60149).
61 Jaarverslag Koloniale Bank, 1930, p. 6., in: IISG, ZK 60149.
146
was a situation in which, by early 1918, ‘our financial resources were

completely exhausted’, thereby necessitating a share issue equivalent to
the amount of their existing equity.62 The complete success of the issue
no doubt was due in part to the standing within the ‘core elite’ (see above)
of the company’s board of management – but also to the fact that exist-
ing equity was far below the actual value of the company’s Java assets.
By 1930, on the eve of the interwar depression, equity in the company
had increased to some 30 million guilders. Again, however, this did
not represent the raising of funds to finance the company’s expansion:
rather, it was the ‘bookkeeping’ result of a technical reconstruction of
the company some two years earlier, and was explicitly not the result of
a new issue of share capital.63
The record of the NILM was basically similar. This cultuurbank, close-
ly affiliated to the Nederlandsch-Indische Handelsbank, by the 1920s
was the owner of eight sugar factories and the financier of some twenty
more.64 Equity capital, little changed since the company’s foundation in
1885, was enlarged via a share issue by around one-third to 15 million
guilders in 1916 to cope with the commercial exigencies of the wartime
situation.65 (The sum involved pales into insignificance in comparison
with the 30 million guilders raised during the early years of the twentieth
century alone by the NILM’s ‘parent’ company, a firm whose interests
were in trade and banking rather than in plantations of any kind.66)
The converse of this degree of independence from metropolitan capital
markets was the extent to which the NILM financed its operations by
ploughing back profits. This began early. Between 1899 and 1903, for
example, the NILM spent more than 2 million guilders of its profits on
new machinery and the like for factories, and left only a little over a third
of a that amount for payment of dividends.67 Between 1919 and 1930,
in excess of 10 million guilders was paid from the profits into expansion
and renovation of the company’s assets, mostly sugar factories (at the
same time, a reserve of 3.5 million guilders was built up).68
62 Jaarverslag Cultuurmij der Vorstenlanden, 1917, p. 5; 1918, pp. 5-6, in: IISG, ZK 58574.
63 Jaarverslag Cultuurmij der Vorstenlanden, 1928, p. 3, in: IISG, ZK 58574 (‘tot uitgifte van nieuw
kapitaal werd echter niet overgegaan’).
64 Jaarverslag NILM, 1928, p. 5; 1929, p. 3, in: KIT, L 2803.
65 Jaarverslag NILM 1916, p. 6. Equity capital, which amounted to 9 million guilders in 1885, had
increased to 10 million by 1913; see Jaarverslag NILM, 1913, p. 9, in: KIT, L 2803.
67 Jaarverslag NILM, 1903, p. 8, in: KIT, L 2803.
68 Based on data in the Jaarverslag NILM for the years 1919-1930, in: KIT, L 2803. It is worth noting
147
a closed shop
Bound up with – and, in a perverse way, complimenting – the investment

strategies that evolved in Java sugar from the late nineteenth century on-
ward, was the extent to which the industry was, in effect, a closed shop.
Around 1910, as we saw earlier in this chapter, Van Musschenbroek and
Van der Wijck were leading figures in setting up the Poerworedjo factory
in Central Java’s Kedu Residency. Poerworedjo was one of the very few
‘freestanding’ new sugar factories built in Java after the end of the nine-
teenth century. But despite the fact that it did not belong to one of the
existing big combines who dominated the industry, it was still very much
the creation of ‘old’ money rather than a sign of the influx of new capi-
tal. Its board members included a number of the usual suspects: Ramaer
from the sugar syndicate; F.M. Delfos, one-time factory manager and
now a director of Kooy & Co, one of the Java firms long specialized in
the management of sugar factories; and Abram Muller, NHM director
and financial broker.69 In short, they all represented interests that had
already been involved in the industry for decades. It was a neat dem-
onstration of the way in which Java sugar contrived to operate without
recourse to ‘new’ capital.
As well as being rooted in a real difficulty in attracting ‘outside’
capital, this preference reflected a determination to keep the industry in
the hands of the Dutch and Dutch-colonial or Indies bourgeoisie, who
had seen Java sugar through the crisis of the 1880s and presided over
its subsequent growth. They had no intention of being robbed of their
that these sums for ‘uitbreiding en vernieuwing’ were booked against the recorded profits (meaning that the
‘winstsaldo’ in the balance sheet of this company does not represent profits per se, but profits minus what
had been ploughed back). Developments within the Cultuurmij der Vostenlanden ran on a parallel track.
While significantly increasing their ownership stake in the twenty or so factories to which they provided
finance, between 1904 and 1908, the company built two new factories (Demakidjo and Wonotjatoer) for
around 3 million guilders, totally financed out of the profits. Indeed, the company went out of its way
to emphasize the point: ‘zonder genoodzaakt te zijn, daartoe van creditmiddelen gebruik te maken’ (Demakidjo) and
‘geheel uit eigen middelen’ (Wonotjatoer) (Jaarverslag Cultuurmij der Vorstenlanden, 1905, p. 3; 1907, p. 8;
1910, p. 9, in: IISG, ZK 58574). By 1915, the company directly owned four sugar factories and financed
the operations of some twenty more, though by the mid-1920s it had scaled down its operations some-
what, having closed one of its factories (but greatly expanded another) and reduced to eleven the number
that it financed (Jaarverslag Cultuurmij der Vorstenlanden, 1915, p. 10; 1924, pp. 8-11, in: IISG, ZK
58574). The company’s Soedhono factory in Madiun Residency was extensively rebuilt in the mid-1920s
and its plantation area was increased by around 70%. The whole operation was revalued from 900,000
to 3,200,000 guilders, with the whole project paid for out of the profits (Jaarverslag Cultuurmij der
Vorstenlanden, 1924, p. 8; 1925, p. 6, in: IISG, ZK 58574).
69 Prospectus Poerworedjo, November 1908, file ‘Poerworedjo’, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7968.
148
hard-won gains. As we have seen, all the cultuurbanken – or their immedi-

ate precursors – had been active in the Indies before the crisis of 1884,
and used the occasion both to shore up and consolidate their hold on
the industry. None of the subsequent newcomers were sizable operations
(Poerworedjo excepted), and after 1914 no new Dutch firms whatsoever
– and a negligible number of foreign ones – entered the industry.70
The corollary of this exclusivity was the extent to which the industry
succeeded in keeping out ‘new’ capital, even to the point of the major
sugar companies being very reluctant (as we have seen) to increase their
own share capital. The self-contained character of the industry was also
reflected in the extent to which the major ‘sugar’ companies remained in
the hands of a fairly small group of big shareholders, closely connected to
company management. In the case of the HVA, for example, it was said
in 1911, when the company’s equity capital stood at 10 million guilders,
that ‘the Directors and Commissioners represented about half the issued
share capital’.71 Six years later, by which time equity capital had increased
to 15 million guilders, the board’s hold appeared to have been somewhat
weakened, but the board and management still held nearly 27 per cent of
the stock, the remainder of which was said to be spread widely.72
These points gain in significance when it is realized that the agri-
cultural commodity sector of the Netherlands Indies as a whole was
extensively permeated during the early twentieth century by new capital,
a significant proportion of which was non-Dutch (primarily British and
North American).73 At the end of the 1920s (estate) rubber – the new
growth industry of the early twentieth-century Indies – was more than
50 per cent owned by British and other ‘foreign’ companies; palm oil, 40
per cent; and tea and coffee, around 30 per cent, whereas over 90 per
cent of Java sugar was in Dutch hands.74 To a quite singular extent, that
70 Prinsen Geerligs 1927.

71 Claver 2006:263.
72 Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 7-12-1917/477, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 2. This board min-
ute relates to pressure from the British ambassador to the Netherlands re suspected German sharehold-
ing in HVA. The HVA board was told that an investigation by the directie showed that 8,000 of the 30,000
HVA shares (that is, nearly 27%) were held by het bestuur (that is, commissarissen and directie).
73 Whereas at the beginning of the 1920s (1922) the British, American and ‘other foreign’ presence in
the sugar industry was of negligible proportions, it amounted to over 40% of the total value of invest-
ments in other parts of the plantation sector (rubber, tea, et cetera) and to around 5% in the case of oil
and mining (Creutzberg 1977:25, Table I; for the wider picture, see Lindblad 1998).
74 For a breakdown of the figures and a discussion of the problems of estimating the extent of invest-
ment, see Taselaar 1998:44-6.
149
is to say, the industry was and remained the preserve of Dutch capital.
British capital had almost no presence,75 even less that of the United
States, while the Japanese, despite their massive commercial importance
to the industry by the early 1920s, never established more than a tiny
bridgehead (scarcely a handful of factories) in Java sugar’s production
sector. Whatever the ambitions of Japanese capital in this respect – and
there is some indication that during the First World War they were in-
deed keen to buy substantially into an industry that was currently the
major supplier of Japanese refineries – they encountered considerable
resistance from the Dutch side. The HVA, who were presumably not
alone in this, were firmly against the sale of factories to Japanese inter-
ests, and believed that their stand had the backing of the government in
The Hague, for whom Japanese penetration of the industry was said to
be ‘onaangenaam’ (unpleasant).76
Nor was Indies-Chinese capital overly in evidence in the industry.
There has been a tendency to exaggerate its presence, consequent, per-
haps, on the dominance of ‘Chinese’ entrepreneurs in the late twentieth-
century Indonesian economy as a whole.77 By the opening decades of the
twentieth century only a small minority of Java’s big industrialized sugar
factories (the ones that catered to the export trade in the commodity)
were in the hands of Indies-Chinese owners. The largest Chinese sugar
concern, the Oei Tiong Ham Concern (OTHC), had only five factories,
despite its very substantial presence in the commercial life of the colo-
75 The Maclaine Watson combine’s ownership of several major factories and its financial ties to a
number of others may technically have represented ‘British’ capital investment. In reality, the firms con-
cerned were old-established enterprises whose roots were essentially (Dutch) colonial rather than (British)
metropolitan.
77 Lindblad (1998:75) cites the work of Howard Dick (1993) to suggest that circa 1924, ‘the sugar con-
cern’ left behind when Oei Tiong Ham died ‘had an equity of f. 40,000,000’, a figure apparently equal-
ling the nominal equity of the HVA. This figure is repeated in Post 2011:183-4. The figures which Post
supplies for the stated equity of the OTHC’s sugar factories does not, however support this ‘40 million’
figure. Indeed, the stated equity (from the Handboek 1888-1939, apparently) for the OTHC’s five sugar
factories (Redjo Agoeng, Tangoelangin, Pakkis, Poenen and Krebet) amounts in total to only 3,400,000.
Of course, throughout the sugar industry, the actual value of factories was habitually grossly understat-
ed. OTHC’s Redjo Agoeng, for example, is assigned an equity value of 600,000 guilders. In fact, it was
one of Java’s largest sugar factories, with a plantation area (1930) of well over 2000. At a guess, it must
have been ‘worth’ at least 6 million guilders on 1930 valuations (the other OTHC enterprises were not
in that league). Be that as it may, the stated equity (book value) of the OTHC’s sugar factories remains at
less than 3.5 million guilders and that figure (rather than the fanciful ‘40 million’) is the value that has to
be compared with other (Dutch) sugar companies, whose ‘real’ assets were likewise grossly undervalued
in the equity capital data listed in Handboek 1888-1939.
150
ny.78 Indeed, the entire Indies-Chinese stake in the industry probably

amounted to some twenty factories, or approximately 12 per cent of the
total number of such operations.79 To be sure, one of these factories –
OTHC’s Redjo Agoeng in East Java’s Madiun Residency – was among
the dozen or so largest operations in the colony. Most notably, it was
also the first in Java to have fully electrified operation (1928), thereby
usefully dispelling any colonial myth that Chinese-owned factories were
by definition technologically retrograde.80 Nonetheless, Indies-Chinese
capital remained a relatively minor presence on the production side of
the industry, despite the ongoing importance of Chinese interests in the
trade in sugar.
past, present and future
In summary, Java sugar entered the age of mass production in a quite

singular fashion. As we have seen, this singularity was not only confined
to developments in the agricultural sphere of production, which were
reviewed in the previous chapter; it also related to the unique nexus in
Java between sugar capital and the colonial state – a nexus that was at
once both deeply beneficial and profoundly constraining. Capital, of
course, also mattered a great deal, and the present chapter has argued
that Java sugar’s singularity also extended into important aspects of the
ways in which production was financed and the industry owned. On
this count, sugar was, by some margin, the least internationalized of
Indonesian export commodities in the opening decades of the twentieth
century. Moreover, even within the ‘Indies business community’ in the
Netherlands, Java sugar remained, if not exactly isolated, then at least
78 For a report from the company’s Surabaya office that it was in negotiations with OTHC over the
purchase of four of its five factories (Redjo Agoeng, Tangoelangin, Poenen and Krebet) for around 10
million guilders, see Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 4-10-1918/488, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 2.
‘Majoor Oeij Tiang Ham’ was proposing to retain only his Pakkis sugar factory (nothing came of the
proposal). At the end of the 1930s, only Redjo Agoeng and Krebet were operating.
79 Based on the information in Paets tot Gansoyen (1913:1450, 1453), it would appear that circa 1913,
no more than 20 (at the most) of the 198 industrialized sugar factories listed in Java at that date belonged
to Chinese interests.
80 The normally reliable Howard Dick (1993:276) subscribes too readily to the claim that OTHC’s
Redjo Agoeng sugar factory was ‘the largest in NEI’. In fact, at that time it was one of a select group of
eight factories that planted in excess of 2,000 hectares of cane annually, and was dwarfed by the Dutch-
owned Djatiroto operation, which had an annual planting in excess of 6,000 hectares (see, for example,
Korte mededeelingen 1931:90-4.
151
separated from other, more recently developed commodities such as rub-

ber and oil, by virtue of its long history and distinctive mode of finance.
In the short term, this latter aspect of the industry’s evolution over
several decades meant that Java’s sugar companies were well placed to
ride out the interwar depression, in so far as they had few debts and gen-
erally large reserves. Partly in consequence of this, the industry was able
to stage a considerable revival in the late 1930s (a point often neglected
in the literature). To be sure, the commercial prospects for the industry,
as we shall see, remained doubtful at best. Nonetheless, large parts of
the industry had weathered (just) the worst of the depression though the
strength of their reserves. At the same time, the existence of a massive
and largely intact infrastructure, coupled to the historically extremely
low cost of land and labour inputs, proved irresistible to people – in the
industry and in government – who found it hard to think of Java without
Big Sugar. All this, however, is to anticipate the discussion of subsequent
chapters.
152
Chapter 5
Enmeshed in Lilliput
Constraints on growth
During the middle months of 1911, a small delegation from the Java
sugar syndicate paid a visit to their counterparts in Hawaii, where
an American-run industry, although relatively small by international
standards, was one of the most advanced in the world. To be sure, its
manufacturers lacked the immense field-labour force of their colonial
Indonesian contemporaries, and likewise lacked the resources to fully
replicate the kind of R&D in which Java had become world leader.
With evident satisfaction the visitors found not only that their Hawaiian
counterparts employed a woman well-versed in the Dutch language in
their own research station, but also that copies of the publications of
H.C. Prinsen Geerligs, the Java industry’s leading savant, were located
in the laboratories of many Hawaiian factories.1 Nonetheless, the three
men who formed the delegation – a top executive of the syndicate
(J.W. Ramaer),2 an agricultural expert (J.E. van der Stok)3 and an
1 Ramaer 1913:1-27.
2 For Ramaer, see Chapter 3.
3 Johan E. van der Stok (1880-1958), like the majority of his Dutch counterparts in the Indies, had
been born in the colony. His father was director of the Indies’ Meteorologisch Instituut, and like similarly
well-off colonial contemporaries, the young Van der Stok was largely educated in Holland. Returning
thereafter to the Indies, his trajectory was an idiosyncratic one. At the time of the visit to Hawaii, he
was the director of the industry’s research institute (Proefstation) at Pasuruan in East Java. Subsequently,
however, after working as an agricultural advisor to the Indies government, he moved in 1925 to a profes-
sorship at the Landbouw Hoogeschool (later Universiteit) at Wageningen in the east of the Netherlands.
But there was another side to Van der Stok. He was much influenced throughout his life by theosophical
ideas. What one recent historian has referred to as ‘the genteel idiosyncrasy of Theosophy, combining
supposed ancient wisdom of the East with the modernity of the West’, was attractive to many among the
Javanese elites of the Indies, as well as to colonial Europeans (Ricklefs 2007:162). In Van der Stok’s case,
it led him toward schismatic, mystical Christianity, and during the final decades of his life he became a
leading figure in a breakaway, ‘charismatic’ sect (the Vrij-Katholieke Kerk, which he had joined in 1919
while still in Java), in which he was revered as a noted clairvoyant (helderziende) (see www.kingsgarden.org/
nederlands/organisaties/lcc.nl/VKIS/Geschriften/Liberaal/vdS, accessed 28-4-2009).
An excursion to Hawaii, 1911: A delegation from the Java sugar

industry visits an American counterpart (Ramaer 1913: Volume 3)
industry engineer (F.W. Bolk)4 – found their visit instructive.

By the time that the deputation sailed for Hawaii, Java boasted a re-
markable agro-industry in the cane field unmatched elsewhere in the in-
ternational sugar economy. Even so, industry executives were beginning
to see their enterprise as fenced in by obstacles that appeared to preclude
the possibilities of further advance. Though its immediate purpose was
ostensibly more limited, the delegation’s visit to Hawaii highlighted con-
4 After attending the HBS in his home city of Utrecht, F.W. Bolk (1875-1926) subsequently gradu-
ated in 1887 as an engineer (werktuigkundig ingenieur) from the Delft Polytechnische School – the foremost
institution for technical training in the Netherlands. Like many young Dutchmen similarly qualified,
he sought employment overseas – but in South Africa rather than the Indies. However, the subsequent
outbreak of the Boer War – the bitter and brutal affirmation of the British Raj in southern Africa that
ended the autonomy of the Dutch settler states there – nipped in the bud a prospective career in the
Transvaal railways. It forced Bolk to return to Holland, where he found work with Stork, the country’s
leading engineering firm and great fabricators of sugar-manufacturing machinery. It was this latter con-
nection that took him to the Indies, where he arrived in 1903 as Stork’s agent at Salatiga, in Central Java.
Two years later he took up employment in the sugar syndicate’s research institute at Kagok (Pekalongan)
on the north coast of Central Java, where he initially worked under Prinsen Geerligs. At the time of the
visit to Hawaii, Bolk was directeur of Kagok’s technical division. Subsequently, he left the employ of the
syndicate, and at the time of his death in Surabaya in 1926 – following an unsuccessful operation on
his kidneys – he was the technical advisor to a group of East Java sugar factories (Langgruth Steurwald
1926).
154
Chapter 5 Enmeshed in Lilliput |
straints that called into question the whole agro-industrial project in the
field on which the industry had staked its future.
enmeshed in lilliput
For all three men, no doubt, the visit to Hawaii had its pleasurable side.
They sailed there via Yokohama on the Tenyo Maru, a Japanese ship of
the Toyo Kisen Kaisha line. A company of ‘cheerful and companionable’
Americans introduced them to the joys of baseball and, once arrived at
their destination, they were fêted by their Hawaiian counterparts. They
had introductions from the American consul in Surabaya, ‘but our best
introduction was the fact that we came as representatives of the Java
sugar industry’. Nonetheless, there was much to ponder on.
Indeed, undoubtedly the most poignant lessons drawn from the visit
concerned the contrasts to be drawn between the agrarian and agricul-
tural context of sugar production in Hawaii and that of contemporary
Java. Famously, the Java sugar complex was embedded in the Lilliputian
world of Javanese peasant agriculture. Lilliput in this case meant an
absence of big landholdings; a countryside dotted with tiny, fragmented
farms (whose minute scale was reflected in an immensely intricate web of
relations of production); the organization of those farms into village and
sub-village units; and a complex network of irrigation, scaled equally
minutely at the village level to the requirements of peasant agriculture.
In the past, arrangements for implanting the cultivation of cane within
the existing and reconstructed parameters of peasant agriculture had
served the industry well enough. It secured the sugar factories’ access to
existing farmland, and hence precluded any time-consuming and expen-
sive need to open up virgin soils. Even more importantly – perhaps even
crucially – it brought in its wake a ready-made workforce comprised of
those sectors of the locally settled peasantry who would otherwise have
tilled the fields (as farmers or as labourers) that wisselbouw brought under
cane. By the early twentieth century, however, the drawbacks were start-
ing to become apparent.
Most obviously, the notionally finite amount of land available for
cane production in a relatively small, and already densely populated,
island placed physical obstacles in the way of the industry’s further ex-
pansion. By 1900 some twenty-five million or more people were already
155
crammed into Java’s often mountainous 126,000 sq km – and this num-

ber was to double by 1930. Big Sugar – however reluctantly – had to ac-
commodate its operations to the simultaneous requirements of the petty
farming communities. In turn, this placed potentially serious obstacles in
the way of the further development of that agro-industry in the field on
which Java sugar had come to rely. For a variety of reasons, therefore,
the little party from the syndicate that had journeyed to Hawaii in 1911,
found themselves gazing wistfully at the great expanses of cane that met
their eyes, and pointedly recording the absence of intervening villages
that were the ubiquitous features of the fragmented sugar plantation
in Java: ‘for the Java planter it is a striking sight, all the thousands of
integrated hectares of sugar cane. Without kampongs, without variation
in growth…’5
As it was, enmeshed in Lilliput, the problems facing the industry were
obvious enough. Field productivity had reached a plateau or was actu-
ally declining and, as the industry executives were keenly aware, costs
were rising. According to contemporary industry analysts, however, the
most fundamental problem was less the quantity of cane that was being
produced, but rather its quality.6 The telltale data related to the rendement
– the industry’s (global) term for manufacturing yield based on the ratio
between the weight of cane milled and the amount of sugar produced.
In the Java industry on the eve of the First World War, the rendement
was stationary (or even declining) and had been so for the previous two
decades. This might have reflected a degree of obsolescence in the in-
dustry’s manufacturing sector: a failure of the factory to keep up with the
field; however, this was emphatically not the case. Manufacturing in Java
had kept abreast of developments in the international sugar economy
and, in some respects, was ahead of them. Instead, the real problem was
that impressive increases in the amounts of cane harvested per hectare
had not been matched by any improvement in sugar content. On the
contrary, all the signs were that this had declined.7
5 Ramaer 1913:2.
6 For the data in this paragraph – together with the author’s mordant commentary – see Dickhoff
1914. Dickhoff was the long-time editor of the Archief and a well-respected figure in the industry.
7 Cane yields arrived at a plateau of a little over 1,000 quintals per hectare (1,200 picul per bau) in
1908, with no significant increase discernable thereafter. Rendement stood at 10.36% in 1894 and at
10% in 1908. Between times it had fluctuated between a low of 9.57% (1900) and a high of 10.77%
(1902); between 1909 and 1913, it had averaged just under 10% (Dickhoff 1914:613-4).
156
the agrarian question: big sugar and peasant

‘unrest’
By no means all of the industry’s problems, however, were agricultural

in origin. The decade of the 1910s (as has been widely recognized) saw
considerable agitation in rural Java, associated with the emergence of
‘peasant nationalism’ articulated, above all, by the religiously inspired
Sarekat Islam (SI, Islamic Union) movement. With branches throughout
the localities in which the sugar factories operated, and with a modern-
style central leadership, the movement rapidly gained adherents in rural
as well as urban Java and became a conduit for peasant grievances in a
totally unprecedented fashion. The Sarekat Islam had, of course, a sub-
stantial ideological and cultural dimension. Famously, it reflected a form
of proto-nationalism operating in tandem with an Islamic resurgence of
the kind associated with the soi-disant ‘purer’, santri (‘orthodox’ Muslim)
forms of the religion as then practised in Java. Yet, the peasant agitation
associated with the movement was also rooted in particular economic
circumstances for which the sugar industry was itself at least in part
responsible.8
Land and the terms and conditions on which the sugar industry
rented it from the peasantry were the main issues, with the emergence of
worker militancy at times not far behind. Subsequent to the dismantle-
ment of the Cultuurstelsel in the 1870s and 1880s, Java’s colonial sugar
companies had staked a great deal on a variety of devices to obtain
access to land for cane growing on terms that made possible the agro-
industrial transformation of the cane field. As has been argued earlier, it
was this transformation on which Java sugar relied to keep it competitive
internationally. At the same time, the companies had come to rely on the
availability of large, even limitless, numbers of peasant-workers whose
‘docility’ – inter alia their amenability to the discipline of industrial-style
organization in the field – was a key, albeit largely unspoken, assumption
on the part of their employers.
As far as the rental of land was concerned, the position in which the
industry found itself in the opening two decades of the twentieth century
was complex. On the one hand, there can be little doubt that the old
8 For an overview of the social and economic conditions in the 1910s and their ‘political’ ramifica-
tions, see Van Dijk 2007:515-78. For a richly detailed account of developments relating to the sugar
industry in a key location in East Java, see Elson 1984:195.
157
ways associated with the era of the Cultuurstelsel – meaning a combination

of coercion, accommodation and habituation – inculcated over several
generations were not swept away in its wake. Yet, there was rather more
to it than that, since there were a number of crucial new developments.
The sugar factories worked in cahoots with village headmen, as the in-
dustry had always done. At the same time, however, if and when they
could manage it, they also collaborated with other, better-off peasants
– the term sometimes used was village ‘capitalists’ – who either owned
or had control over substantial amounts of land – to manipulate to their
mutual advantage the chronic indebtedness of the mass of poorer village
farmers. In so doing, they enjoyed a varying degree of support from lo-
cal-level state officials, both Dutch and Javanese, who sometimes turned
a blind eye to what went on, sometimes facilitated it and sometimes took
exception to it.9 This latter could be a problem. So, too, was the fact that
relations between the sugar industry and ‘big peasants’ – grootgrondbezit-
ters in colonial parlance – were not necessarily harmonious. Not least,
this was because the latter had interests that might well be damaged by
the sugar industry’s drive to rent ever more land. Nor was it self-evident
that petty landholders and the functionally landless among the peasantry
invariably acceded to the authority of the socially and economically
dominant elements among the peasantry. In short, the circumstances
surrounding the rise of rural unrest in Java in the opening decades of the
twentieth century were complex indeed.
In these conditions, it was by no means plain sailing for the sugar
companies. Cane’s location in the political economy of rural Java was one
in which, to adopt a useful modern jargon, the conflict between notion-
ally hegemonic and subaltern forces – as well as among the latter – was
both ongoing and multi-faceted.10 This was very much the case during the
1910s, when a number of factors came together to create a particularly
difficult, even ominous, situation for Big Sugar. What undoubtedly con-
tributed mightily to the gathering crisis was the fact that, during the years
9 For a selection of contemporary and recent discussions on the political economy of ‘peasant’ Java in
the context of the sugar industry’s rental of land, see, for example, Muhlenfeld 1907:775-7; Grondverhuur
suikerfabrieken 1908; Schmalhausen 1909:89; Breman 1983:34; Elson 1984:127; Fernando 1995.
10 The point is elegantly made, though in an entirely different context, by Nederveen Pieterse
(1995:184): ‘The tendency [is] to think of power in terms of simple schemas, reducing the field of hege-
mony to a polarised contest between dominant and subaltern forces. Hegemony, however, may be better
thought of as an ongoing jostle, ever in motion and requiring continuous effort [...]. Even in polarised
situations [...] it is important to monitor the actual transactions taking place and to probe into the nodal
points of interaction.’
158
around 1910, the engrossing of land by the sugar companies reached new
heights. In part, this development was fuelled by an internecine struggle
for comparative advantage among the industry’s main players. An equally
important (and associated) factor, however, was a common need to in-
crease the throughput of manufacturing plants whose financial results
were far from encouraging: the industry as a whole sought an answer to
its problems by expanding the volume of its output in an effort to reduce
the unit costs of production. Its efforts in this direction were further stimu-
lated, moreover, by the contemporaneous introduction – worldwide – of
new techniques and machinery for achieving a multiple milling of cane
that promised significantly improved manufacturing yields – but which
also implied the possibility of increased throughput.11
The upshot was very apparent in the years immediately before the
outbreak of the First World War, when the industry’s usually healthy
appetite for land temporarily reached gargantuan proportions. In Java
as a whole, between 1905 and 1916 there had taken place a 50 per
cent increase in the area under cane (105,000 to 157,000 ha), with the
biggest increase (11,000 ha) taking place between 1911 and 1914. In a
specific number of key production areas on the north coast of Central
Java, moreover, the increase in the amount of land taken by cane was
much greater.12 Even so, this is to greatly oversimplify the dynamics of
the situation. Cane was not the only ‘commercial’ use to which land was
being put. Quite the contrary: apart from ‘subsistence’ rice production,
peasants also grew many ‘market’ crops on this part of the north coast.
Hence, Big Sugar’s appetite for yet more land represented a very signifi-
cant degree of foreclosure on ‘peasant’ economic activity, especially that
of the ‘big peasants’ – and their financiers among Indies-Chinese busi-
ness interests in nearby towns.13
All in all, there were many signs that by opting for all-out expansion,
the industry had overreached itself. The forward movement initiated
by the sugar companies at the beginning of the 1910s would appear
to have threatened the whole system of coercion-accommodation on
which they had hitherto relied for their successful operation. The rapid
engrossing of far more farmland than had ever previously been the case
11 On the development – and significance – of multiple milling, see, for example, Dye 1998:110-3.
12 Data from Creutzberg 1975:75, line 38.
13 For a detailed account of the situation in this part of Java during the early years of the twentieth
century, see Knight 1993.
159
risked alarming those state civil servants who already thought that sugar
capital was pressing too hard on the peasantry. It also risked alienating
those elements within the peasantry itself on whose ‘understanding’ the
industry relied to ensure the effectiveness of the system of land rental.
Other factors acted to exacerbate an already difficult situation for Big
Sugar. A fairly steep rise in rice prices in the years immediately before
and, especially, after the First World War caused farmers to demand
more for their land and further upset the always somewhat tenuous rela-
tions between the sugar factories and peasant landholders. The upshot
was that the industry found itself in largely unprecedented difficulties
over the rental of their fields for cane. Extensive firing of cane fields –
ostensibly by disgruntled farmers – was a possible index to the degree of
discontent with which the factories had to contend.14
Nor was land rental the only problem besetting the industry. At vari-
ous times during the 1910s, labour was also at a premium. Java’s fabled
‘cheap’ labour was not quite the limitless bonanza that it sometimes ap-
peared to be. Indeed, in at least some of the most densely populated (and
hence potentially labour-rich) parts of the island, the insufficient supply
of workers, especially for the preparation of ground for the planting of
cane, was a constantly reiterated complaint in the industry’s own inter-
nal reportage. Alternative forms of employment were readily available
for those peasants who relied on wages for their subsistence, or needed
to supplement the income from their meagre holdings. Inter alia, work
was to be had in railway construction, in large-scale irrigation projects
and in the increasingly commercialized agricultural activities of other,
better-off peasants.15
Against this general background, the demand for labour caused by
the industry’s own rapid expansion between 1905 and 1914 was prob-
ably the prime factor in transforming a ‘difficult’ situation into one of
outright crisis. Workers were often in short supply and hence better
placed to dispute the terms and conditions of labour than had been the
case for a generation or more. In turn, this situation was exacerbated at
various times during the 1910s, when industry wages were significantly
14 For example, Elson 1984:187-9. As Elson (1979) points out, however, the firing of cane, though
sometimes directed against the factory (inter alia, its effect of forcing the immediate harvesting of cane
might result in its early return to peasant cropping) might also reflect quarrels among the peasantry
themselves.
15 For an extended discussion, see Knight 1994.
160
out of kilter with rising food prices in the countryside. It was no accident,
therefore, that the decade was one of ongoing disputes between the in-
dustry and its various workforces in both field and factory. These culmi-
nated in 1919-1920 in an almost unprecedented wave of strikes, which
affected around 40 per cent of the Java factories and involved thousands
of workers. Inter alia, a worker’s trade union – the Personeel Fabriek
Bond (PFB, Union of Factory Personnel) – was called into existence, and
Sarekat Islam activity in the countryside rose to a new peak.16
Nonetheless, there is a danger of overstating the role played by
peasant and labour activism – and the closely associated role of the
Sarekat Islam in particular – in the agrarian problems that confronted
the sugar industry during the decade of crisis. At various times, and
particularly in the years immediately before the First World War, there
were indeed signs of panic in industry circles. A famously cited case
dating from 1913 has one sugar company, ‘with an eye to the rising un-
rest among the native populace’ advertising for ‘a capable Netherlands
Indies military officer, willing to advise the management of several
large enterprises concerning the preparation of the enterprises against
attack’.17 Others, however, saw matters rather differently. In this same
year, for example, one factory manager reported to his employers in
Holland that the Sarekat Islam had caused few problems in his part of
Central Java. Inter alia, the fact that its local leader had just absconded
with the organization’s funds (around ninety guilders) had damped
down enthusiasm somewhat.18 Of course, too much should not be read
into sardonic comments of this kind, but they do serve as a corrective
to more inflated accounts of the role of activism in the crisis facing the
industry. Indeed, in the crisis years at the end of the First World War, a
greater immediate threat was posed to the sugar industry by the terrible
depredations of the influenza epidemic of those years than by national-
ist agitation.
The ‘Spanish’ influenza (it most probably originated in North
America) first appeared in the Indies in the middle months of 1918. It
was a second wave of the disease, however, beginning in October of that
16 The authoritative treatment of the subject remains Ingleson 1986:169; for the Oosthoek in particular,
see Elson 1984:195-204.
17 Quoted in McVey 1965:13.
18 J.H. Westenenk to S.C. van Musschenbroek, 24-5-1913, in: Stadsarchief Amsterdam, Archief
Handels- en Cultuurmaatschappij Van Heekeren & Co, toegangsnummer 584, inv. nr. 1166.
161
same year, that resulted in by far the greater mortality and morbidity.
In total, at least one and a half million people died in the Indies as a
whole. In Java itself, the worst-affected areas were in the eastern parts
of the island, particularly the Kediri and Madiun residencies south and
west of Surabaya, and in the Oosthoek districts to the east of the city.19
These were among the most heavily ‘sugared’ parts of Java, and the
ramifications of the disease were quite clear to factory managers there,
who noted that mortality and sickness was so bad in the surrounding
villages in late 1918 that preparations for the main rice crop were seri-
ously retarded. At one big East Java factory, for example, it was reported
that the harvesting of rice, when it finally took place in the following
year, occurred very much later than usual. In conjunction with the need
to get to work on planting second crops, this late harvest played havoc
with the industry’s own recruitment from an already denuded pool of
labour. In so doing, as will be discussed shortly, it forced up costs sub-
stantially.
fertilizer, irrigation and drainage
But the agro-industrial project in the field was beset during the 1910s by
other than purely agrarian difficulties. Fertilizer was perhaps the most
obvious case in point. As we have already seen, sulphate of ammonia
(or ZA in its Dutch abbreviation) was the nitrogenous fertilizer of choice
in Java sugar from the late nineteenth century onward. As such, it was
the object of great enthusiasm in an industry in which the female labour
used to apply it was singularly cheap – and its advantages apparently so
manifest. Indeed, that very enthusiasm for ZA as a ‘magic’ ingredient
was part of the problem. Studies done elsewhere (and at a later date)
have demonstrated unequivocally what some contemporaries already
suspected: namely, that there was a point beyond which the application
of ZA ceased to produce commensurate returns in higher yields of cane;
indeed, it might even become counter-productive. Over the long term,
the use of sulphate of ammonia in large quantities leads to a quite sig-
19 C. Brown 1987. For a succinct global survey, see Killingray 2003. Killingray (2003:31) remarks that
globally ‘the group most universally at risk were the young and the fit, whereas C. Brown (1987:242-3) is
cautiously inclined to accept the (very limited) findings for Indonesia that mortality was highest among
the very young and among the old.
162
nificant acidification of the soil, and highly acid soil is not conducive to
the production of good quality cane.20 Achieving optimum dosage was
hence of the utmost importance, not simply because exceeding it wasted
money, but because excess dosage of nitrogen resulted in a situation in
which the full potential of fertilizer application – which was to achieve
both higher yields of cane and cane with a high sucrose content – was
not being reached.
There was a wider context, moreover, in which the system of wis-
selbouw that dominated the industry came to be seen as standing in the
way of those developments in agricultural technology that needed to be
implemented in Java if the potential of the field sector was to be fully
exploited. Again, it was the industry’s early contact with Hawaii – es-
tablished a decade or so prior to the visit by Ramaer and his colleagues
in 1911 – that pointed to Java’s deficiencies. In particular, the excellence
of the arrangements for irrigating (in some cases) the permanent cane
plantations of the Hawaii islands provoked invidious comparison with
Java, where the shifting nature of cane cultivation, determined by an-
nual exchange of fields with peasants, precluded such possibilities. At
the very beginning of the new century, for example, the HVA had sent
one of their factory managers to Hawaii, where he had observed the
effectiveness of the irrigation systems installed on the island group’s
permanent plantations. He noted that ‘irrigation water is to be had at
all times’, and compared the situation very favourably with that of Java:
‘how many cane fields either fail or do not produce what they ought
to produce, because the necessary irrigation water is not available’.21
Taking as an example, the important north-coast sugar belt (Cirebon
eastwards up to and including Semarang), there were at least four years
in the second decade of the twentieth century when ‘drought’ – mean-
ing either an exceptionally rainless dry monsoon or a particularly short
wet one – was recorded as having adverse effects on the cane crop.22
The limitations on irrigation imposed by the exigencies of wisselbouw
were one factor in checking the industrial-agricultural transformation
of the cane field; drainage was another. Sugar cane, much as it likes
20 Humbert 1968:157, 178-90, 213.
21 Castens 1902:83. Castens was administrateur of the HVA-owned Tegowangi sugar factory in Kediri.
22 See, for instance, the report from the NHM’s recently established Soemberhardjo factory on the
north coast of Central Java that (1913) ‘de aanplant heeft door een korten Westmoesson, gevolgd door
een lange droogte, sterk geleden’ (Jaarverslag Soemberhardjo, 1914, p. 3, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr.
9395). Similar reports were rife throughout the 1910s.
163
moisture, does not like wet feet. As one authority has remarked, ‘the
removal of excess water from soils growing sugar cane in the tropics is as
important a negative factor in the rainy season as the lack of moisture is
in the dry season’.23 Deficient aeration of the soil, consequent on excess
moisture, adversely affects both root growth and the functioning of the
roots. The problem was that while the Dutch had particular claims to
know rather a lot about drainage (and about associated issues of salinity,
et cetera), they were not in a good position to put that knowledge into
practice in the cane fields of early twentieth-century Java. As early as the
1890s, industry experts had visited Hawaii and come back full of admi-
ration for the deep drainage practised there – and equally full of regret
that wisselbouw made it practically impossible in Java.24 It was, however,
but one of the factors that contributed to an apparently gathering crisis.
That crisis, as we have just seen, had multiple dimensions. Some
of them were primarily agrarian in character, while others had a pre-
dominantly agricultural complexion. In tandem, during the course
of the 1910s they had the potential to force Big Sugar to its knees by
undermining the very basis of the agro-industry in the field on which
it had come to rely for its international comparative advantage. In the
event, however, things in turned out differently. During the course of
the decade that followed, Java sugar was able either to circumvent or
overcome most of the key difficulties that it faced in the agricultural
sector of production. It did so, moreover, largely within the confines of
Lilliput. This was just as well, because attempts to ‘escape’ from Lilliput
by moving production into areas of the island where ‘village Java’ had
only a vestigial existence proved both very expensive and doubtfully ef-
ficacious. It is to these attempts that we can now turn, before resuming
the narrative of developments within the industry as a whole during
the ‘roaring twenties’ and the period of Big Sugar’s greatest prosperity.
23 Humbert 1968:399.
24 See, for example, Kramers 1896.
164
Chapter 6
No escape
The HVA and the Djatiroto project
In July 1908, a staunch ally of the Java sugar syndicate took the train to
Lumajang, in the ‘remote’ south-east of Java. The individual concerned
was Mozes van Geuns, the editor-in-chief of the Soerabaiasch Handelsblad,
one of Java’s leading colonial newspapers. Van Geuns was enthusiastic
about the expansion of the imperial frontier. Two years earlier he had
reported from Bali, in the immediate wake of the bloody Dutch conquest
of the petty kingdoms on the southern tip of the island.1 Now he was
reporting on empire building of a different, but equally crucial, kind.
He was on his way down to swampland some 150 kilometres from his
base to view a unique development in the island’s sugar industry: the
construction of a factory complex far bigger than anything seen in Java
hitherto, and built well away from the densely settled countryside that
formed the industry’s classic location. Van Geuns’ purpose in going there
accurately reflected the close ties between the Handelsblad and Big Sugar,
and, in particular, his own reputation in the Indies as ‘quite unreservedly
a pillar of support […] for European entrepreneurship’. Indeed, defence
of the ‘sturdy Indies planter [cultuurman]’ was something of an obsession
for him, as was his conviction that ‘the wellbeing of the Indies was solely
dependent on the success of Western enterprise’.2 Big Sugar found in
him an ‘ideal spokesman’.3 It was no coincidence, therefore, that the
reportage of this trip to Lumajang was centred on an enthusiastic advo-
cacy for changes to the colony’s labour laws that would (inter alia) assist
1 Mozes van Geuns (1870-1918) born in the Netherlands, where he attended the Kweekschool (Teacher
Training College), arrived in the Indies in 1897. After a short spell as a school teacher, he moved into
journalism. He became hoofdredacteur (editor-in-chief) of the Handelsblad in 1900, and remained in that
position (apart from a leave spent in Holland, September 1908-January 1910) until his retirement in
1915. For an account of his career as a journalist, see Termorshuizen 2001:267-77.
2 Bosma 1997:64; Termorshuizen 2001:270.
3 Termorshuizen 2001:270-1.
the colonial entrepreneurs there to retain a workforce which, given the

paucity of the local population, they had been forced to recruit from far
and wide.4
In consequence, Van Geuns would not have been alone on his train
to Lumajang. Down in the third- class wagons would have been scores
of Javanese workers – designated as ‘coolies’ in colonial parlance. Like
Van Geuns, they too were headed for the vast new sugar factory called
Djatiroto. The factory took its name from the river that runs alongside
it, but otherwise its inspiration was anything but local. It belonged to
the Handelsvereeniging ‘Amsterdam’. The firm had been an established
presence in the Indies for more than a quarter of century, where it had
been involved in both the import-export business and in plantation in-
vestment, including the ownership of sugar factories. Early in the 1900s,
however, the HVA slewed off its commercial arm and became exclu-
sively engaged in agricultural speculations.
At the height of its operations, at the end of the 1920s, the Amsterdam
company had extensive investments in both Java sugar and in other plan-
tation crops, both in Java itself and elsewhere in the Indies. Its notional
equity capital topped 40 million guilders, while the actual sum invested
(as we shall see) was three or four times that amount. The premier
colonial banking and business corporation, the NHM – it was also big
in the ownership and finance of sugar factories – could draw on twice
that amount of paid-up equity, and the oil firm Bataafsche Petroleum
Maatschappij (BPM), for example, could call on a massive 300 million
guilders.5 Nonetheless, the HVA was incontrovertibly up there in the
major league of Dutch businesses operating in the Indies, and was the
owner, inter alia, of some fifteen sugar factories, among them the biggest
and newest in the entire colony.
4 Van Geuns 1908. A copy of this pamphlet is in the library of the KITLV, Leiden.
5 Lindblad 1998:77.
166
Propagandist for the sugar industry: Mozes van Geuns, editor-in-chief of
the Soerabaiasch Handelsblad, 1909 (De Hollandsche Revue 14, 1909, p. 350)
emulating cuba: peter reineke and the djatiroto

project6
Djatiroto was nothing less than Java sugar’s attempt to emulate Cuba.
Early in the twentieth century, reconstructed with substantial inputs
of capital from the United States as well as from domestic sources, the
Caribbean island became a paradigm of the industrialized manufacture
and corporate management of sugar production. Indeed, by the 1920s,
the industry there boasted the largest and technologically most advanced
manufacturing units in the world.7 These Cuban super-factories were
vast manufacturing plants working with cane drawn from landholdings
covering more than 40,000 or even, in a few cases, 80,000 hectares.8
The prospect of the HVA ‘doing a Cuba’ in southeast Java was clear
from the series of articles that Van Geuns wrote for the Handelsblad.
Indeed, the parallel was quite explicit: ‘everything you encounter at
Djatiroto is conceived on an American scale. There is no trace to be
found here of Dutch small-mindedness’.9 A later admirer, rather more
flattering to his fellow countrymen, viewed the whole enterprise as ‘a
monument to some of the best qualities of Dutch big business: spirit of
enterprise, energy, and a determination to see things through bordering
on stubbornness’.10 Moreover, the New World parallel drawn in Geuns’
account was no mere journalistic flourish. Immediately prior to the estab-
lishment of Djatiroto, the HVA had sent two of their key people to Cuba
to inspect developments there at first hand, while contemporaneously one
6 The information in this and the following paragraphs on the HVA comes from the company’s
published annual reports (that is, ‘Jaarverslagen HVA’ – hereafter JV HVA) and from the minutes of the
company’s board meetings (NHVA). Together, they constitute the bulk of the remaining HVA archief
(after what appears to have been the willful destruction of much of it at the hands of the then directors
sometime in the 1970s) in the Nationaal Archief (NA), Collectie Handelsvereeninging ‘Amsterdam’,
2.20.32, inv. nrs. 6-15. For published accounts of the HVA and its sugar operations in particular (in
addition to Van Geuns 1908), see Z. 1927:8-41; Claver 2006:262-6; Goedkoop 1990. The ‘company
histories’ are: Aangeboden door HVA 1929; Brand, Van den Broek and Goedhart 1979 (a depressingly
self-serving and somewhat unreliable volume); and, and by far the most interesting of them, Goedhart
1999:32-49. Goedhart may well have been the director responsible for salvaging some fragments of
HVA documentation, now located in Internationaal Insituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis, Amsterdam,
Nederlandsch Economisch-Historisch Archief, Bijzondere Collecties 640.
7 On the Cuba industry, in addition to Dye 1998:24-66, see, for example, Moreno Fraginals 1986,
and the many contributions to books and learned journals of Brian H. Pollitt; notably in this context, see
Pollitt 1984, 1988.
8 Dye 1998:19.
9 Van Geuns 1908:16.
10 Z. 1927:9.
168
Chapter 6 No escape |
of the company’s Java factory managers had visited the American sugar
producers in Hawaii.11 The crucial factor, however, was that the compa-
ny’s CEO, Pieter Reineke, had himself visited Cuba (and Louisiana) and
published a short account of his experiences there. Even though in Cuba
the twentieth-century regeneration of the industry had scarcely begun
at the time of his visit, Reineke had evidently seen enough, both there
and in the United States, to set him thinking about how the Java industry
might best adapt itself to meet the challenges of the new age of mass pro-
duction.12 The solution he came up with was both radical and ambitious.
Something of Reineke’s personality can probably be gauged from
photographs of him. In both relative youth and advanced old age he
sported a close-cropped hairstyle that signified a self-conscious adherence
to aggressive notions of ‘modernity’ that perhaps looked to Germany for
their inspiration. In Reineke’s case, it may have been a style adopted dur-
ing his student days at the Handelsschule in Osnabruck. Not for nothing
was his motto ‘to stand still is to regress’ (stilstaan is achteruitgaan).13 He was
the son of one of the HVA’s founders, and was well acquainted with Java.
Born in Surabaya, where his expatriate father was in business, the young
Reineke was subsequently educated in Europe. Scarcely out of his teens,
he returned to the colony in 1891 in the employ of his father’s company.
After that, his rise was rapid. Parental influence presumably helped ac-
count for his promotion to the post of the HVA’s Surabaya-based chief
representative in the Indies, but it must have been his personal dynamism
and abilities that explained the board’s decision to appoint him, while
still in his mid-twenties, to the position of managing director of the com-
pany following the sudden death of his father in August 1895.14
12 Goedhart 1999:33, 37. Reineke outlined his experiences in Reineke 1901.
13 According to the voorzitter of the HVA board (on the occasion of the firm’s 75th anniversary); see
Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 8-1-1954/986, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 8.
14 Pieter Reineke was born in Java (17-7-1869) and died in Holland (17-2-1948). For an informative
biographical sketch, see Goedhart 1999:336-8. His father, Hendrik Reineke (1843-1895), was involved
in business in both Surabaya and Amsterdam, inter alia in the firm of Van Beek, Reineke & Co, which
was one of the businesses dissolved into the HVA at its foundation in 1879. For Reineke père and the
establishment of the HVA in 1879, see Claver 2006:82-9. Ill health forced him off the board at the end
of 1933, but he had returned by 1938, and finally stepped down in 1947. See Jaarverslag HVA 1933,
1938; Goedhart 1999:337. Goedhart’s is the only book – one that has enjoyed a rather small circulation
– to give Reineke any close attention. He was one of the company’s lesser ‘large’ shareholders: in 1916
he held 100 of the 2,054 shares in the company held by the HVA’s management and board – this meant
that (at 500 guilders per share) his stake in the HVA’s equity capital of 15 million guilders amounted to
a relatively modest 50,000 guilders (‘Afschrift proces-verbaal der buitengewone algemeene vergadering
van aandeelhouders’, 28-6-1916, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 13).
169
The driving force behind the HVA: Pieter Reineke

(1869-1948) (Goedhart 1999:115)
The appointment took him permanently back to the Netherlands,

but he kept up very close ties with his birthplace. Indeed, it was not long
before he was visiting the colony on an almost annual basis, in order to
supervise developments at Djatiroto – very much his brainchild – and ne-
gotiate at first hand with Indies officials to make the necessary arrange-
ments for acquiring land and getting access to water. Back in Holland,
Reineke was said to have run the HVA ‘with a firm, indeed iron hand’
(met vaste, ja ijzeren hand),15 and the impact of his uncompromising
personality reached deep into the Indies. During the early years of the
Djatiroto venture itself, the HVA got through five factory administrateurs
in as many years.16 Though it rather looks as if he was forced out of the
chief executive’s position in 1913, he remained on the board and con-
15 See the remarks of the chairman of the board, C.H. van Tienhoven, on the occasion of Reineke’s
retirement from the position of directeur in November 1913 (‘Afschrift proces-verbaal der buitengewone
algemeene vergadering van aandeelhouders’, 1-11-1913, [unpaginated], in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv.
nr. 13).
16 See ‘Djatiroto’ in ‘Klapper op de Notulen HVA’, Lett D., in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 10.
170
tinued to be a power behind the company for another decade or more.

It said a great deal that the HVA’s telegraphic address in Holland was
‘Reineke Amsterdam’.
But the phrase ‘doing a Cuba’ did not only refer to the sheer size and
ambition of Reineke’s schemes; it was also a matter of location. The
massive expansion of the Cuba industry that took place in the first three
decades of the twentieth century was concentrated in relatively sparsely
populated and sparsely cultivated provinces in the east of the island,
where the industry could operate in a fashion largely untrammelled by
the need to accommodate a highly evolved, deep-rooted rural social and
economic order.17 There were important parallels here with Djatiroto.
Taking advantage of the commencement of major state-financed drain-
age and irrigation schemes in the area,18 Reineke set about creating a
huge factory and plantation complex in what was officially designated
as ‘waste-land’. Indeed, it was one of his company’s proud boasts that
The heart of a magnificent obsession: The HVA’s Djatiroto

factory complex, circa 1925 (KITLV 18232)
17 See, for example, Pollitt 1984:5-6.

18 Koloniaal verslag 1909: Bijlage S/III, 5-6. For late colonial irrigation schemes in Java in general, see
Ravesteijn 1997.
171
they had transformed desolate swamp and jungle – and the habitat of
tigers – into one of the most up-to-date and extensive agro-industrial
installations anywhere in Asia.19
An interwar map of the enterprise makes the point quite unam-
biguously. It shows an industrial complex of factory and plantation that
existed in almost complete isolation from the pattern of dense rural
settlement that constituted the normal milieu of the Java sugar factory.
Freed from the trammels of village Java: Djatiroto surrounded by

(nearly) open country side (Atlas tropisch Nederland 1938: 17d)
Within this context, Reineke and his associates even mooted plans to
exploit the unique agrarian environment around their new factory to
secure a radical departure from existing cane-growing practices in Java.
They projected (though did not achieve) a near-continuous, all-year-
round planting of cane, and a consequent expansion of the manufactur-
ing campaign to ten months each year – rather than the usual six. They
19 Van Geuns 1908:3. On tigers, see Boomgaard 2001.
172
hoped thereby to ensure that very expensive machinery – and highly

paid expatriate staff – was not left lying idle for half the year.20 Here,
the inspiration may not have been Cuba so much as Hawaii, where at
least some of the American-owned factories, with which HVA execu-
tives would have been familiar, ran a campaign that lasted ten months
or more.21
a narrative of modernity
Djatiroto was a major landmark in the history of Java sugar. Equally,

however, Reineke’s venture belonged to a meta-narrative of moder-
nity and modernism that had a relatively global reach. In the setting
of Empire, it was a narrative designed to validate and legitimate the
imperial project – a characteristic to which Suzanne Moon has drawn
our attention in the context of the history of applied technology in the
early twentieth-century Netherlands Indies in general. There were even
echoes in Reineke’s personal style of what Moon refers to as ‘high mod-
ernist bullying run amok’.22
In part, but only in part, modernity at Djatiroto had to do with the
sheer size of the operation. Everything at the site, Van Geuns impressed
upon readers of the Handelsblad, was on the grandest scale: a factory
building 160 metres long and 57 metres wide, with a sister factory pro-
jected immediately adjacent; a manufacturing compound covering some
56 hectares; and a servicing rail network extending nearly 270 kilometres,
worked by no less than 40 locomotives pulling around 2,000 cane trucks.
So the list went on. The area of land engrossed by the entire opera-
tion was huge: in contrast to the 650 hectares or so of cane planted an-
nually by the average Java sugar factory, by 1913 Djatiroto’s plantations
encompassed some 5,000 hectares – and a decade later (by which time
the original factory had indeed been joined by its twin) amounted to over
7,000 hectares.
Projected output was to match. Until the building of Djatiroto, the
biggest sugar factory in Java was the NHM’s Nieuw Tersana, located
in the coastal region of Cirebon Residency in West Java and formed
20 Jaarverslag HVA 1909: 8-9.
21 See, for example, Koningsberger 1929:134.
22 Moon 2007:4-5.
173
Getting the cane from plantation to factory: The railway

marshalling yard at Djatiroto, circa 1915 (KITLV 18324)
from the piecemeal amalgamation of a number of adjacent and long-

established enterprises. However, while Nieuw Tersana’s annual produc-
tion early in the twentieth century amounted to around 20,000 MT,
circa 1910 the HVA were reckoning on producing almost 50,000 MT at
Djatiroto – and that was early days!23
Yet there was more to modernity than size alone: issues of clean-
liness, health and hygiene were also high on the modernist agenda.
During the opening decades of the twentieth century, a discourse of
this kind – focused on ‘the medical production of colonial bodies and
colonial space’ – developed in the Netherlands Indies just as it did in
other parts of the colonized ‘Third World’. Hygiene came to be a per-
sonal and political mission.24 The Java industry was far from immune
to this trend. As early as 1914, for instance, delegates to a conference
organized by the syndicate in Surabaya had been regaled by a speech
23 Van Geuns 1908:1-6; Notulen bestuursvergadering, 1-8-1913/418, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr.
2; ‘Enkele notities inzake der suikerondernemingen Djatiroto, Semboro, Goenoengsari en Bedadoeng’,
[1939], in: IISG, NEHA, Bijzondere Collecties 640/A 3 (a).
24 Bashford 2004:2-4.
174
Inspecting the plantation by railcar, Djatiroto, 1931 (KITLV 25197)
from a Dr. H. Koppeschaar on the theme of ‘Fabrieks-Hygiene’.25 In ad-

dressing the assembled sugar-men (it seems improbable that there were
any women present), Koppeschaar was careful to ascribe a central role to
‘matters of hygiene’ (and in particular the form taken by their housing) in
ensuring the bodily well-being ‘of the European’.26 It was not only ‘the
European’, however, who was the object of concern. More generally, and
in very much the same context, it was contemporaneously asserted that
‘we are now in the position in the tropics to take in hand and control the
health of an entire community’.27
In the case of Djatiroto, discourse of this kind was integral to that
imposition of West over East that was critical to how modernity was
conceived there. It was ‘clean’ electricity (rather than oil or gas) that
was used to light both the residential quarters and the entire factory
compound. Housing for the factory’s European personnel was explicitly
25 In 1902, Koppeschaar was the civil physican in Pekalongan (Hesselink 2011:289).

26 Quoted in Van Moll and Lugten 1916:9-10.
27 Speech of W.A. Keunen at the Indisch Genootschap circa 1915, as quoted in Van Moll and Lugten
1916:12.
175
‘airy and hygienic’, built on brick pillars ‘from a sanitary point of view’.
Mindful, no doubt, of the danger of disease in this former swamp land,
the HVA were also at pains to bring clean drinking water – indeed, not
just clean but ‘pure’ (zuiver) – to the entire complex.28 Imperial water was
presumably matched by imperial plumbing, and although reference to
the latter is surprisingly absent in descriptions of Djatiroto, there can be
little doubt that, more generally, notions of bodily and personal hygiene
extended from concern about life-threatening contagions to the most de-
tailed enquiries into toilet habits. It has been reported, for example, that
roughly contemporaneously one keen American missionary of hygiene
in neighbouring Luzon was so concerned on this score that he firmly
instructed ‘the local Rockefeller emissary […] to modify the [toilet] bowl
design to make it impossible to sit on except in the desired position’.29
The HVA likewise made a point of emphasizing that expert medi-
cal attention was on hand. In the industry at large, the pioneering
initiative had been taken a decade earlier by the indefatigable Van
Musschenbroek, administrateur extraordinaire of the Tjomal sugar factory,
who had created a medical centre for a group of factories in ‘his’ part
of the sugar belt that ran along Java’s north coast. At remote Djatiroto,
the HVA trumpeted the existence of a hospital on site with a European
doctor to care for the ‘natives’ as well as for the forty to fifty European
personnel.30 Rather less publicity was given to the fact that around 40
per cent of its running costs were met by the Indies government, and
that when the company doctor re-located he was not replaced; instead,
the local European medical man from the nearby town of Lumajang was
placed on a retainer. Nonetheless, albeit somewhat compromised, the as-
sociation of modernity with health and hygiene remained a potent one.
It was not only in terms of hygiene, however, that the Djatiroto
compound existed in isolation from its eastern surroundings. Indeed, in
his series of articles in the Handelsblad, Geuns professed himself struck
by the Dutch-ness of it all. The European residential quarter reminded
28 Van Geuns 1908:5-12; [Anon], ‘De suikeronderneming Djatiroto’, Bijvoegsel behoorende bij De
Indische Mercuur, 20-6-1909, no. 26 [unpaginated]. A copy of this short article is to be found in the library
of the KITLV in Leiden.
29 Anderson 1995:641, 2002:687; Dutton, Seth and Gandhi 2002.
30 The hospital was reckoned to cost around 20,000 guilders a year to run, and the Indies Government
provided a subsidy of around 8,000 guilders (Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 5-9-1913/419, in: NA,
HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 2). For Van Musschenbroek’s pioneering work on the north coast of Central Java
circa 1900, see Van Moll and Lugten 1916:12.
176
him of a ‘friendly Dutch village street’, and even the humbler quarters
for several thousand ‘native’ workers (initially they were no more than
sheds, or loodsen) were not immune from such comparisons. They were
complete with their own ‘warong straat’, and of an evening, the writer sug-
gested, it might be thought of (in homage to the main shopping street of
Amsterdam) as the ‘Kalverstraat of Djatiroto’. Unlike its metropolitan
counterpart, however, its shopkeepers included ‘John Chinaman’ and his
‘energetic counterpart from Bombay’.31
At the heart of Djatiroto’s claim to modernity, nonetheless, was
the technological superiority of the factory itself. No expense had
been spared. According to Reineke, by 1910 some 10 million guilders
had been spent on the entire operation, a sum that amounted to ap-
proximately one-third of the HVA’s total investment in the Indies at that
date.32 By way of comparison, at around the same time a new ‘state-of-
the-art’ factory, built by rival NHM on the north coast of Central Java,
had cost less than 3 million guilders.33 Djatiroto’s inventory of machin-
ery was imported from some of the best addresses in Europe: Germany
(Hallsche Machine Fabriek), Holland (Stork) and Scotland (the Glasgow
firms Mirrlees Watson and Pott, Cassels & Williamson).34
In line with this, the factory was the first in the colony to employ elec-
tricity throughout (except in the grinding mills and centrifuges). Indeed,
Java had seen nothing quite like it: it was, to adopt a later description of
the HVA’s entire production complex in and around Djatiroto, ‘the most
modern and most rationally set-up sugar enterprise’ in the entire colony.35
This in itself was potent language; but ‘rationality’ was only part of
it. Viewing the whole enterprise in its fully expanded form almost two de-
cades later, the neo-fascist Indies journalist H.C. Zentgraaff lauded it less
for its economic rationality than for its heroic ‘pioneering’ character of
what it represented. Djatiroto, he exulted, was a ‘fantastic and captivat-
31 Van Geuns 1908:5-12.

32 Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 22-10-1910/381, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 1; and see JV
HVA 1906:5-7 and 1919:5 (which lists ‘gestort kapitaal’ 1879-1919).
33 Soemberhardjo, completed in 1913, was budgeted to cost 2,000,000 guilders and ended up cost-
ing 2,700,000 guilders. See ‘Rapport…bezoek aan Soemberhardjo van 29-31 Juni 1913’, NA, NHM,
2.20.01, inv. nr. 3120 (dossier 559).
34 The suppliers are listed in [Anon], ‘De suikeronderneming Djatiroto’. In Indonesia, the Surabaya
industrial workshop (machinefabriek) Dapoean had also been involved in providing equipment, though its
role was a minor one in comparison with that of overseas suppliers.
35 ‘Enkele notities inzake der suikerondernemingen Djatiroto, Semboro, Goenoengsari en Beda-
doeng’, [1939], in: IISG, NEHA, Bijzondere Collecties 640/A 3 (a).
177
A cane crusher from one of the best addresses in Europe (KITLV 18321)
ing display of iron and steel that seems to have taken on the qualities of
a living, pulsing organism’ (wonderlijk en boeiend spel van ijzer en staal
dat leven schijnt te hebben gekregen als de onderdeelen van een zwoeg-
end organisme).36 Such modernity, loudly trumpeted, had a curious and
more than merely incidental consequence. The photographs of the new
installation – and there were many such – were almost totally devoid
of people. Even the photographs of European-staff housing are devoid
of any sign of actual habitation, and the thousands of ‘native’ workers
make scarcely any appearance at all.37 As the Dutch sociologist Frans
Hüsken remarked in the kindred context of celebrations of technology
in the realm of late colonial irrigation schemes: ‘the human component
is virtually absent […]. It seems as if the modern colony consisted only
of concrete and machinery […].’38
36 Z. 1927:38; Drooglever 1999.
37 See the contemporary photographs illustrating [Anon], ‘De Suikeronderneming Djatiroto’. The
many illustrations in Aangeboden door HVA (1929) have similar characteristics.
38 Ravesteijn and Kop 2007:456. The absence of people was not invariable, of course. In a stimulat-
ing essay on the inner life of the Java sugar factory, for instance, John Pemberton (2009) bases his argu-
ment on many photographs that do indeed show human beings (in this case Javanese workers) alongside
the machines that they operated. It is noteworthy, however, that these images are from a (rare) factory
owned by a Javanese aristocrat, were preserved as part of an album in his family’s private archives and
were clearly not intended for the kind of ‘colonial’ circulation enjoyed by the great bulk of the photo-
graphs alluded to in the present text.
178
modernity put to the test: djatiroto in trouble
There would be a neat symmetry in recording that the HVA’s subsequent

difficulties at Djatiroto stemmed from precisely that human component
that ‘modernity’ appeared to have lost from its sights. In fact, the situa-
tion was more complex than that. To be sure, the fallible human compo-
nent was indeed there: workers were rarely available in the numbers re-
quired and proved ‘restive’ and ‘troublesome’, while government officials
were apt to prove disobliging. On both counts, difficulties surfaced soon
enough. Questions were raised in the Dutch parliament about the ap-
parently high death rate among the ‘coolies’ working on the construction
of Djatiroto. The HVA, of course, attempted to refute the ‘rumours’,
but their persistence may well have been one of the reasons why the
company had such difficulty in getting labourers to work there – and
why they found it so difficult to keep them there once they had arrived.39
Having literally distanced itself from the limitations imposed on
the Java sugar complex by its enmeshment with peasant agriculture,
the HVA experienced similar difficulties in Lumajang to those of their
counterparts in the Netherlands Indies’ rubber and tobacco plantation
districts of Sumatra and other parts of the Indies that lay beyond densely
populated Java. Land was available, but labour was not. In seeking to es-
cape the confines of close peasant settlement, the company had also ‘es-
caped’ the concomitant ready supply of local labour. Instead, it had to be
recruited elsewhere in East and Central Java, and concession rates were
granted on the state railways for ‘coolies’ headed for Djatiroto. However,
the Indies government evidently refused to contemplate Geuns’ proposal
in the Handelsblad for some kind of legal sanction against workers who
refused to stay.40 This was awkward. So, too, was the ‘recalcitrance’ of
government officials in matters relating to drainage and irrigation of the
land that the HVA needed for cane: in 1910, for example, the company
complained of ‘opposition in place of cooperation’ on this score on the
part of local officials.41 Even a visit to the factory by Governor General
A.W.F. Idenburg in 1912 failed to produce results, despite the appar-
39 The company claimed that the reports from its own medical doctor at Djatiroto demonstrated that
the allegation was ‘unjust’ (Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 5-11-1909/157, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv.
nr. 1).
40 Van Geuns 1908:26-7.
179
ent assurances given to the HVA’s on-site representative.42 Idenburg,

moreover, was a supporter of the ‘ethical trend’ in colonial policy, and
probably less than totally sympathetic to the pretensions of Big Sugar.
A sceptical governor general?: Idenburg visits Djatiroto in June

1912 (Brand, Van den Broek and Goedhart 1979:68)
These setbacks at Djatiroto may help account for the angry tone of
the HVA’s annual reports. For a decade or more, the HVA foamed at its
corporate mouth about ‘weak government’ and about ‘taxes that had
overstepped the bounds of the economically viable’. By 1918, indeed,
the company had taken to denouncing ‘revolutionary’ elements in the
government’s newly established – and, in reality, fairly tame – consulta-
tive assembly, the Volksraad. Inter alia, it was said to be forcing a ‘totally
unnecessary’ official investigation of industry practices in relation to
land rental and labour relations.43 Even before this, there had been
suggestions that laxity on the part of local officials had resulted in the
repeated burning of cane by ‘disaffected’ elements among the peasantry
– it sounds as if the company’s contention that this was ‘wasteland’ was
being actively contested by the local population – and consequent dis-
42 Idenburg’s visit took place on the 28 June 1912 (Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 9-8-1912/405, in:
NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 2).
43 JV HVA 1918:11-2; Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 7-2-1919/493, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32,
inv. nr. 2.
180
ruption to the campaign schedule.44 This was fairly standard stuff. More
surprising were dark hints about ‘bad faith’ on the part of key govern-
ment officials in the Indies. Antipathy was reciprocated. Indeed, matters
had reached such a pass by 1919 that the Governor General J.P. van
Limburg Stirum (Idenburg’s successor) refused even to grant an audience
to Reineke when the latter made his first post-war appearance in the
Indies.45 In consequence, Van Limburg Stirum was viewed by the HVA
board as ‘an example of the danger that a weak government generates
under the present circumstances’. Nonetheless, even he was judged to
show signs of promise by apparently dispensing with an adviser whom
the HVA considered particularly obnoxious.46
Nothing daunted, in the following year (1920) the company took
advantage of the arrival on the scene of a new and conservative-minded
Minister of Colonies, Simon de Graaff, to shift their lobbying to The
Hague. Board members also ‘spoke’ with De Graaff ’s nominee, the
newly appointed Governor General Dirk Fock, before the latter sailed for
Java near the end of that same year.47 Even so, from the HVA’a stand-
point, there was no immediate happy outcome. Two years later, directors
were still complaining that ‘the government listens too much to the few
radical members in the Volksraad, and fails to seek sufficient support
among the other parties’.48
It meant something, in this context, that one of the hard men of the
Dutch political right, Hendrik Colijn, was on the board of the HVA for
44 JV HVA 1911:8. In that year, there were 134 cane fires at Djatiroto, effecting over 500 hectares
of cane, of which some 66 hectares. were a total write-off. The company claimed that ‘kan de oorzaak
der branden alleen worden toegeschreven aan baldadigheid, moedwil, welke het Bestuur [...] niet heeft
kunnen bedwingen’. The BB appointed 120 oppassers paid for by the HVA, but the HVA reckoned that
the burnings would only stop ‘indien het Bestuur de bevolking weet te doen begrijpen, dat het zijn vaste
wil is, dat aan de rietbranden […] een eind komt’.
45 For example, Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 5-11-1920/615, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 3.
46 Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 5-1-1920/605, in: NA, Handelsvereniging Amsterdam, 2.20.32,
inv. nr. 3. The official concerned was G.A.J. Hazeu, the Indies government’s advisor for native affairs.
Hazeu resigned his position and returned to Holland as a result of the impact of a torrent of criticism
and abuse from both European civil servants and the Indies press regarding the ‘revelations’ about ‘ter-
rorist’ cells within the Sarekat Islam movement, of which he had been an enthusiastic supporter (Van
den Doel 1994:379-82; De Graaff and Locher-Scholten 2007:243-6). Van Limburg Stirum had incurred
the enmity of the sugar industry in March 1918, with a proposal for a compulsory reduction in the area
planted to sugar throughout Java, so as to increase the production of rice, which was in short supply (De
Graaff and Locher-Scholten 2007:238-9). Significantly, however, the authors observe that ‘Van Limburg
Stirum was veel minder “rood” dan zijn Europese tegenstanders onder ondernemers en BB-ambtenaren
meenden of vreesden’ (De Graaff and Locher-Scholten 2007:226).
47 JV HVA 1919:12 and 1920:12.
181
much of the 1920s. Colijn was the man whose cropped hair underlined
a mental outlook – as well as physical appearance – that had distinct
affinities with that of Pieter Reineke. A former officer in the Dutch
army fighting in Aceh, a one-time Minister of War, directeur of the major
Dutch oil company Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and later associ-
ated with Royal Dutch Shell, Colijn subsequently enjoyed a prominent
political career. During the interwar decades, he was several times Prime
Minister (for the first time in 1925-1926) and a notoriously reactionary
Minister of Colonies. As a (potential) Dutch ‘strongman’, he became
hopelessly compromised with the Nazis after the fall of Holland in May
1940, and was perhaps fortunate to have died – in Germany – before
the war ended.49
It was entirely characteristic of Colijn’s presence at HVA board meet-
ings that he was to be found fulminating about ‘the real problem’ facing
the company in the Indies: it was the silly ideas with which the heads
of young aspirants to posts in the colonial bureaucracy were filled by
(unnamed) professors at the University of Leiden. He clearly regretted
that the individuals concerned could not be dismissed, and suggested
that the solution was to be found in the establishment of an alternative
institution for training Indies civil servants. With a little help from oil
company interests in particular (unlike their sugar counterparts, they had
money to burn), this is exactly what happened – at the rival University
of Utrecht.50
Yet, despite this finger pointing, the company’s board minutes – if
not their published annual reports – tell a somewhat different story.
Difficulties in getting and keeping workers were certainly a problem for
the company, as was the reluctance of officials in Java to dance to their
every tune. Even so, ‘modernity’ as represented at Djatiroto had its own,
inherent problems. For one thing, the project was a gamble in purely ag-
ricultural and horticultural terms. It apparently took a visit in 1911 from
the director of the industry’s Pasuruan Research Institute – the leading
such institute in the world – to alert the company to the purely agricul-
tural constraints on growing cane in a former swamp. The HVA was
49 For a brief (and sympathetic) outline of his career, see Puchinger 1985. For Colijn’s early career
in oil (and a candid assessment of his deeply unpleasant character), see Jonker and Luiten van Zanden
2007:154.
50 Notulen bestuursvergaderingen,13-9-1923/650, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 3. In the 1930s,
Colijn was also close to the management of the NHM (Taselaar 1998:379), which might help account for
the extreme anti-nationalist polemic that characterized the company’s annual reports from that period.
182
warned against having too high expectations, at least in the early years
of the enterprise, and advised to restrict the area under cane to around
50 per cent of their projected estate if they wanted to ensure reason-
able plantation yields. The company’s experience with cane agriculture
in Kediri, where the bulk of their factories were located, was not to be
equated (the HVA was reminded) with the very different agricultural
conditions prevailing in Lumajang.
It was typical perhaps of Reineke’s style that he countered with the
blunt assertion that nobody had ever told them this before.51 Whoever
or whatever was to blame, it took some time for cane yields per hectare
to reach acceptable levels. Nor was it simply that cane yields were low:
the cane that Djatiroto’s plantations did manage to yield also proved to
have a low sugar content. Crucially, it was not until 1917-1918, almost a
decade after the factory has opened, that the rendement at Djatiroto began
to stand comparison with the Java average.52 All this was, of course, bad
for both productivity and profits.
Men (and soil) had indeed failed the machine – but the machine itself
had also failed. Reluctant as they were to admit it, by 1913 the HVA
board had finally to concede that the high-tech apparatus, installed with
such fanfare at the end of the previous decade, was simply not up to the
job. In particular, Djatiroto was badly underpowered: the boiler house
turbines did not generate enough energy to run the mills – and there
was a catalogue of other deficiencies that likewise needed to be recti-
fied. It looks very much as if the basic problem was with the American-
Cuban model of which Reineke had been such a staunch advocate.
The ‘American’ system of manufacture focused on efficiencies in the
grinding of cane, through the use of heavy and super-large mills. The
Java producers, on the other hand, were greatly influenced by practice in
the German beet sugar industry, where the very different requirements
of the raw material had led to a concentration on the chemistry and
technology by which juice was converted into sugar.53 In attempting to
fuse the American and German systems of manufacture, it appears that
Reineke and his German technical advisor, Georg Fr. Hausbrand, had
51 For this and the report of the visit to Djatiroto of Ph. van Harreveld, in the company of the Indies
government’s Directeur van Landbouw (Director of Agriculture), H.J. Lovink (Notulen bestuursverga-
deringen, 4-4-1913/413, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 2).
52 The relevant data are in Z. 1927:12.
53 See Goedhart (1999:45-6), who also notes that the HVA never again attempted to build a factory as
massive as Djatiroto (1).
183
badly miscalculated the motive power requirements of the American-

style cane-grinding apparatus which they had installed. In short, things
had gone badly wrong at the mechanical heart of the entire operation.
It was ‘this disappointment, of all the disappointments’, as Reineke re-
marked to the board, ‘that was the most grievous’.54
Nonetheless, the most immediate disappointments were financial.
During its first three years of operation, the Djatiroto venture consistent-
ly ran at a loss of more than a million guilders annually, and matters only
began to improve very slowly thereafter.55 This was a blow for Reineke
in particular, who evidently found himself staring down his colleagues on
the board with a degree of chutzpah only available to the founder’s son.
Presumably, it helped his case that he was able to cite a general impres-
sion (largely correct, if the example of the Poerworedjo factory discussed
earlier in the book was anything to go by) that few of the new factories
built in the colony around this time appear to have answered to expecta-
tions. None of them, it was said, were paying concerns, and all of them
were running at a loss.56
a modernist project digs itself into a hole
Nonetheless, in regard to its vision of a sugar industry free of the tram-

mels of peasant agriculture, the HVA stuck to its guns. To be sure, it
was in Kediri, where it was as enmeshed with the peasantry as surely as
were any of its competitors, that the HVA made its last, gambler’s throw
on the very eve of the interwar depression. This was Koenir, opened in
1930 in a no-expense-spared mode, including a massive, triple-span steel
girder bridge linking it to plantations on the opposite bank, in the south-
ern sector of the Brantas river valley. It was the most technologically
sophisticated sugar factory ever built in colonial Java, and it turned out to
be the last. Destined to operate for just two years, before the collapse of
the Java industry’s overseas markets forced its closure, it was an aberrant
54 Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 2-2-1912/398 and 3-1-1913/410, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 2.
55 Claver 2006:265. Losses amounted to an estimated 1,100,000 guilders in 1910 (NHVA 30-12-
1910/384), 1,038,000 guilders in 1911 (Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 1-12-1911/396, in: NA, HVA,
2.20.32, inv. nr. 1) and 1,100,000 guilders in 1912 (Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 7-2-1913/411, in:
NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 2). Only in 1913 did they drop to around 500,000 guilders (Notulen bestuurs-
vergaderingen, 3-1-1914/426, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv. nr. 2).
184
venture in a number of senses. Not least, it was a solitary departure from

the HVA’s dominant strategy, which the company continued to pursue
in the ‘remote’ far south-east of the island in the area where they had
already built Djatiroto. It was there, rather than in Kediri, that the HVA
lavished the bulk of its investment, estimated in the late 1920s at around
60 million guilders.57
First off, the HVA built a smaller, sister factory there, immediately ad-
jacent to what now became Djatiroto ‘number one’ – and then went on
to construct three more massive, state-of-the-art operations in the equally
sparsely populated districts immediately to its south and east. The entire
complex – the two Djatiroto factories, Semboro, Goenoengsari and
Bedadoeng – had been completed by the end of 1928, and potentially
put the HVA in a position to out-produce all its competitors. Indeed, by
the end of the 1920s, the HVA had come to own more factories than
any other ‘sugar’ company, and engrossed around 14 per cent of the to-
tal area planted to ‘factory’ cane anywhere on the island. The Djatiroto
complex itself had been designed to crush the cane from a total of nearly
17,000 hectares of plantation, with a projected output in the region of
165,000 MT of sugar per year. Something of the ambitiousness of the
plan can be gauged from the fact that in 1926, when work on building
the expanded complex began in earnest, this amounted to around 10
per cent of Java’s total annual sugar export. By 1930, Djatiroto and the
adjoining, interlinked factories had nearly 12,5000 hectares under cane
and produced around 150,000 MT of sugar. By way of comparison,
the operation that most nearly approached it in size – the Poerworedjo
factory in the Central Java residency of Kedu – engrossed no more than
2,556 hectares.58 Elsewhere, on the north coast of West Java, the NHM’s
Nieuw Tersana – destined by the mid-twentieth century, in the wake of
the interwar depression, to become the single largest sugar manufactur-
ing operation in Java – in 1929-1930 planted ‘only’ 2,500 hectares with
cane. Contemporaneously, most Java factories made do with less than
1,000 hectares. The HVA’s operations in and around Djatiroto consti-
tuted, in short, not only a singular modernist project, but also an unprec-
57 Data in this paragraph from Z. 1927:11; ‘Enkele notities inzake der suikerondernemingen Djatiro-
to, Semboro, Goenoengsari en Bedadoeng’, [1939], in: IISG, NEHA, Bijzondere Collecties 640/A 3 (a);
Prinsen Geerligs 1927:1189-91. Output from the whole complex in 1931, the last year in which all five
factories operated, was 150,000 MT.
58 Data from Table 3, ‘Overzicht der suikerfabrieken… Oogstjaar 1930’, AS 38 (1930) 1, pp. 191-2.
185
edented concentration of agro-industry that had no equal elsewhere in

the colony. Large rubber, tobacco, tea and palm oil enterprises elsewhere
in the Netherlands Indies perhaps engrossed more land, but none did so
in conjunction with an investment in manufacturing infrastructure on
the scale of the HVA’s investment in the far south-east of Java. Indeed,
given the ambitiousness of the entire Djatiroto complex, it might be sus-
pected that the company’s directors planned either to bankrupt the rest
of the industry, or be themselves bankrupted in the process. As it was,
they came near to doing both.
In terms of productivity and profits at Djatiroto, it would appear that
the entire complex left much to be desired well before the catastrophe of
1931. At the end of the 1920s, productivity was consistently far below
the Java average as measured in terms of cane-per-hectare, sugar-per-
hectare and rendement. In 1930, for example, when the Java sugar yields
averaged nearly 148 quintals per hectare of cane, the figure for Djatiroto
and adjacent factories was only 126 quintals. Colijn, back on the board
at the beginning of the 1930s, pointedly asked for an explanation of
what was happening, and was told that (inter alia) the very wet former
marshland grew cane with a low sugar content; also, at one of the fac-
tories there was a suspicion of poor management. In circumstances that
were eerily reminiscent of a similar situation a decade and a half earlier,
he was assured that the industry’s research institute had been called upon
to investigate. Another board member suggested that the worst perform-
ing of the factories – Semboro, which had only been opened three years
earlier – should be shut down. Presumably more than coincidentally, the
factory’s manager resigned.59
Of course, productivity is not the same thing as profitability, and it
may be that costs per unit of sugar produced were significantly lower at
Djatiroto than in other major sectors of the industry, thus compensating
(in part, at least) for low productivity. The exact figures are elusive, since
the relevant data appear not to have survived the wanton destruction of
much of the HVA archive that took place in Amsterdam sometime in the
1970s. Even if the operating costs of the Djatiroto complex were indeed
significantly lower than those of Java’s more conventional sugar factories,
however, any ‘profit’ thus generated has to be set against the huge sum
of money that had been sunk in the modernist enterprise. Indeed, it is
59 Notulen bestuursvergaderingen, 5-9-1930/736 and 31-7-1931/747, in: NA, HVA, 2.20.32, inv.
nr. 5.
186
reasonably clear that the HVA was kept afloat, and Reineke, Colijn and
their associates saved from bankruptcy, by its score of conventional sugar
factories in Kediri’s Brantas valley further to the west – ‘conventional’ in
so far as cane cultivation there remained enmeshed with peasant agri-
culture – and its extensive, non-sugar plantation investments elsewhere,
both on Java and on Sumatra.60 The significance of this dismal outcome
for the HVA’s ambitious – not to say magnificent – schemes was far-
reaching for Java sugar as a whole. Only late in the twentieth century,
when large sectors of the industry ‘migrated’ to Sumatra and elsewhere
in the Outer Islands of the Indonesian Republic, did the ideas so eagerly
embraced by Reineke and his colleagues come into their own: sugar pro-
duction divorced from the context of peasant agriculture.
‘We assume that big business enterprises are rational and that ratio-
nality entails awareness’, wrote the American historian David S. Landes,
before going on to debunk that notion and to argue that ‘much decision-
making is guesswork and improvisation. Otherwise, how do these enter-
prises manage to dig themselves so deep a hole?’61 As it transpired, the
HVA’s massive investment took place at the wrong time and in the wrong
place. For in 1931, the bottom fell out of the world sugar market, and
nearly took the HVA – and the rest of the Java industry – with it. The
HVA’s massive expansion of its sugar interests in Java had been predi-
cated on highly optimistic assumptions about the further, and potentially
limitless, development of markets in East and South Asia – above all in
China and India – which had become the mainstay of the entire Java
industry in the aftermath of the First World War. By the beginning of
the 1930s, however, these assumptions were in tatters. Java sugar’s main
markets were progressively lost to it, primarily because the economic au-
tarchy associated with government responses to the onset of the interwar
depression. It is to this that we can now turn.
60 Claver 2006:266. For a brief account of the HVA in Kediri, see Goedhart 1999:32-5.
61 Landes 1998:148.
187
Chapter 7
Making the best of it
The twenties and the apogee of big sugar
As we have seen, for much of the 1910s colonial Indonesia’s sugar in-
dustry experienced major obstacles to sustained growth on a number
of fronts, both agrarian and agricultural. Taken together, these had the
potential to derail the industry through undermining the agro-industry
in the field on which it derived its comparative edge in world markets. In
fact, developments in the decade that followed took a quite different tra-
jectory: the 1920s saw the industry flourish as never before. After a global
hiatus during the First World War, world sugar consumption was again
on the rise during the decade that followed and – somewhat surprisingly
perhaps – the Indonesian industry was well positioned to take advantage
of it. In particular, this was the decade when Java’s Big Sugar came to
dominate the markets of both East Asia and the Indian subcontinent to
an extent that had eluded it earlier in the century.
crisis contained: the booming twenties
There were several reasons for this. In the short term, developments on
the commercial front were critical. A spectacular but brief bull market
in sugar at the very beginning of the decade (as detailed in an earlier
chapter) gave the industry a much-needed breathing space. The massive
injection of cash consequent on this undoubtedly saved the industry
from imminent disaster. It also made possible an ambitious building pro-
gramme that included, as well as the HVA’s Djatiroto complex described
earlier in this book, the Tjomal Baroe (New Comal) factory on Central
Java’s north coast.
Nonetheless, the underlying factors in the situation had nothing to
do with the commercial bonanza of 1920. Indeed, the international
The new wave of expansion: The Tjomal Baroe
sugar factory from the air, 1920s
Relaxing after work at late-colonial Tjomal: The staff swimming pool

Chapter 7 Making the best of it |
price of sugar was thereafter in steady decline. Instead, the crucial de-
velopments took place in the sphere of production, where the secular
trend was for costs in the industry’s agricultural (and manufacturing)
sector to fall significantly. Virtually simultaneously plantation yields
improved exponentially, after a hiatus of a decade or more, as a result
of a veritable revolution in the horticulture of cane. In tandem, these
two developments enabled Java sugar to contain or circumvent many
of the agricultural and agrarian problems that had beset it during the
previous decade. Both took place, however, in a context in which the
‘agricultural’ obstacles to agro-industry in the field encountered during
the previous decade were largely overcome. We can best deal with these
first.
fertilizer, pumps and reservoirs
On the ‘purely’ agricultural front (one which, of course, could never be

totally divorced from its agrarian context), a number of factors, already
embryonic, came fully into play during the 1920s. Inter alia, the indus-
try fairly quickly adapted to the scientific requirements of heavy use of
fertilizer, and hence obviated the waste and deleterious consequences of
random and overenthusiastic application. From around 1918 onward,
for example, the pages of factory managers’ annual reports are replete
with a rapidly multiplying number of ‘field tests for fertilizer use’. What
looks superficially like a kind of obsessive ‘scientism’ was in fact an in-
dicator of a very practical and urgent response to the need to monitor
dosage closely and constantly.1
Then there was the question of cost. The industry had survived the
immediate wartime disruption to the international trade in chemical
fertilizer rather well, in part by importing sulphate of ammonia from
Japan, the United Kingdom and Australia.2 By 1919, however, world
1 The factories were assisted in this by the industry’s research institute, which carried out extensive,
systematic field tests to gauge the optimal application rates of sulphate of ammonia, in the context of the
key variables of soil and climate, that were fundamental to the whole project. In 1914 alone, there were
223 such tests recorded, and by the 1920s this figure had doubled or even trebled (Booberg 1927:434-5).
2 The Great War brought some disruption of supplies, but imports had resumed toward the end of
the war. In 1917 around half of the quantity imported (41,430 MT) came from Japan (15,000 MT) and
Australia (5,000 MT) with the balance coming primarily from the United Kingdom (16,000 MT) (Invoer
zwavelzuur ammonia 1920).
191
supplies had dwindled and costs, inflated by renewed peace-time de-

mand, sky-rocketed, meaning that the industry was faced with a huge
bill for the most vital of its plantation inputs. Since Java was by far the
most fertilizer-dependent sector of the international sugar economy,
the effects were potentially ruinous. Once again, however, it was the
near-contemporaneous, short-lived but massive rise in the world price
of sugar during the course of 1920 that saved the industry. By the time
that it was over, a big increase in production in the United States and
elsewhere initiated a long secular decline in the price of chemical fertil-
izer itself. The significance of this for the costing of production in Java
was considerable. For example, at the NHM’s big Modjo-Agoeng factory
in East Java (to which we shall return shortly), ZA had accounted for
some 20 per cent or more of the total cost of inputs into the agricultural
sector in 1921; by 1925, however, the cost was down to around 14 per
cent and falling.3
At the same time, obstacles to both irrigation and drainage proved to
be at least partially surmountable. As early as 1910, the sugar syndicate
had paid for a government expert to embark on a year-long, worldwide
tour in search of practical solutions to the shortage of irrigation water
which the industry experienced during the ‘dry’, or ‘east’, monsoon.4
His subsequent recommendations did not fall on deaf ears. In the two
decades that followed, highly elaborate ‘technical’ irrigation became the
norm throughout the Java industry. The proudly photographed installa-
tions of the period – aerial photography had emerged during the war,
and throughout the prosperous twenties the industry made good use of
it, as well as of more conventional camera work – demonstrated how
important this all was. Works of high engineering, complete with dams
and pumping stations, and often set up in collaboration with the Indies
government’s own irrigation schemes, helped address the problems
inherent in the system of field rotation.5 These included a network of
large reservoirs (waduk) that were specifically designed to hold water for
cane irrigation during the dry season.6 One of the most impressive was
3 On the basis of data in Jaarverslagen Modjo-Agoeng, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nrs 9383 and
9384, and from the files on Modjo-Agoeng, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9212.
4 Meijers 1911.
5 For an extended discussion of irrigation in late colonial Java, see Metzelaar 1946; Ravesteijn 1997.
For the linkages between the sugar industry and irrigation, see also J. Alexander and P. Alexander 1978.
6 On waduk in general, see Metzelaar 1946:218-27; for a brief discussion of the sugar industry’s own
waduk, see Metzelaar 1946:225-6.
192
Solving the problems of getting water to the growing cane:
Elaborate irrigation works in the sugar belt along the north coast
of Central Java, 1920s (KITLV 18384, 18376, 18385)
constructed in Central Java’s Pekalongan Residency to service a group

of factories. Designated as the Blembeng waduk, it cost some 2.8 million
guilders (around two-thirds of the cost of a decent-sized sugar factory)
and was designed to hold 42.5 million cubic metres of water. It prom-
ised to greatly improve existing cane field irrigation, and was projected
to make it possible to plant another 2,583 hectares of plantation, as
well as to make feasible a big increase in peasant’s secondary crops.7
the agrarian dimension of the industry’s recovery:

the case of the modjo-agoeng factory
Developments relating to fertilizer and irrigation played a not insubstan-

tial part in Java sugar’s recovery during the course of the 1920s. So, too,
did the continuing, constant improvement in the technology of manu-
facture. Yet, this latter was an essentially incremental process without
any dramatic impact on the cost of production. Some key advances – in
the form of multiple milling of cane and turbine-driven operation – had
actually arrived in the Java industry somewhat earlier in the century and
were often in place well before the 1920s. Others – notably the full elec-
trification of factory operations – had only just begun at the very end of
the decade. In short, there was no technological or scientific ‘revolution’
within the factory walls that might be called upon to explain the indus-
try’s success in overcoming the multiple crises with which it had been
beset during the second decade of the twentieth century.8 Rather, as was
usually the case with the Java industry, it were developments in the sugar
fields themselves that held the key to its survival.
We can take as a prime example the developments at NHM’s
Modjo-Agoeng sugar factory, located in the Brantas delta, to the west
of Surabaya.9 The factory had a moderately long history. Originally
known as Soeko Dhono, it was one of the new enterprises set up in
Java in the 1880s in the wake of the dismantlement of the Cultuurstelsel,
under the direction of the Dutch entrepreneur D.J. Jut (see above). By
7 Jaarverslag Factorij Batavia, 1925, pp. 192-3, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 4561.
8 In this respect, Van der Eng’s emphasis (1996:216-7) on the role of ‘advances in production tech-
nology’ and on ‘growing technical efficiency’ during the 1920s in minimizing production costs per unit
of product appears to be somewhat misplaced. As is argued here, other factors were substantially more
important.
9 For the statistical data of production costs at Modjo Agoeng 1905-1931, see Appendix 3.
194
the 1920s, now owned by one of Java’s biggest combines, the NHM, it
had evolved into a middle-sized undertaking with around 770 hectares
of peasant farmland rented for cane each year, centred on a factory
that had been substantially and recently re-equipped. As such, Modjo-
Agoeng was a reasonably typical enterprise, and its history in the 1920s
likewise reasonably typical of developments in the industry as a whole.
cheap labour (finally) comes into its own
To begin with, the 1920 sugar price-hike was indeed providential for
Modjo-Agoeng. Profits in 1920 amounted to a massive 1,771,000 guil-
ders, up from a ten-year low of a trifling 292 guilders two years earlier
in 1918. Nonetheless, its longer-term salvation was dependent on factors
of a quite different order. Above all, these related to the increasing avail-
ability and consequent cheapness of labour. Throughout the late colonial
era (indeed, the situation was only reversed after Independence, in the
1950s) it was labour rather than land that constituted the single-most
costly input in Java sugar’s agricultural sector. This did not mean that
labour was ‘expensive’ – famously, indeed, this was not the case. Rather,
it reflected the huge number of workers employed in the highly elaborate
preparation of land and the planting and fertilizing of cane. Any varia-
tions in the cost of field labour were therefore of the greatest importance
to the viability and profitability of the entire enterprise. It is possible to
reconstruct the relevant data from circa 1906 to the onset of the interwar
depression using surviving industry reportage.
The overall picture that emerges for the industry as a whole is that
of an arc of rising and falling plantation labour costs, anchored at one
end around 1910, and at the other at the beginning of the 1930s. To
be sure, within that arc, there were substantial local variations, due to
there not being one Java but many. At some factories, at least, the years
1913-1914 witnessed a significant but short-term rise in field costs, prob-
ably associated with the period of agrarian ‘unrest’ detailed earlier in
this book. Likewise, at some factories the cost of fieldwork remained
relatively high until the mid-1920s – or had a temporary spike around
that time – whereas at others it began to decline fairly consistently from
1922 onward. Virtually universally, however, the industry experienced
an unprecedented – and, in some cases, massive increase – in fieldwork
195
costs around 1920. Equally universally, toward the close of the twenties
these costs had returned to something approaching the levels recorded
around 1910.
In the specific case of Modjo-Agoeng, the story begins on the eve
of the First World War.10 At this point, the factory’s management found
itself paying significantly more for piecework in its cane fields than had
been the case for a decade or more (at other NHM factories, the trend
appears to have begun somewhat earlier).11 Indeed, by 1914 per hectare
‘bewerkingskosten’ (that is, the expenses incurred in field work) stood at
nearly 200 guilders, up from 160 guilders four years earlier. The increase
was sufficient to prompt the administrateur into offering some explanation;
he alluded in particular to the need to increase piecework rates to match
those of nearby factories who were competing for ‘scarce’ labour (in cir-
cumstances, though he did not say so, in which the industry throughout
the Surabaya region was pushing hard to increase the area under cane).
By 1916 and 1917, however, what appeared to have been only a tem-
porary ‘difficulty’ had apparently subsided, and the rates paid for land
preparation (the single-largest labour expense in the agricultural sector)
could be lowered because of an increased ‘werklust’ (zest for work) in the
countryside around Modjo-Agoeng.
As this suggests, the dynamics of the industry’s labour supply, both at
Modjo-Agoeng and elsewhere, were fairly complex. During the opening
decades of the twentieth century, there had prevailed in the industry as
a whole a system of informally bonded field labour, recruited, in part
at least, by mandur employed by the sugar factories. This could prove
expensive. One middle- ranking NHM executive, for instance, opined
that ‘excessive’ payments to mandur for the fieldwork performed by their
recruits was one of the prime reasons why labour costs in the industry
had escalated in the years immediately prior to the First World War. It
was the mandur – people whom he described as in charge of overseeing
fieldwork (and presumably bringing the men onto the field) and negotiat-
ing eenheidsprijzen (piecework rates) with the factory – who benefited from
escalating costs, he asserted, rather than the workers. The workers them-
10 The information that follows in this paragraph (unless otherwise stated) is drawn from the Jaarver-
slag Modjo-Agoeng, 1906-1932, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9383.
11 A calculation made by the NHM’s head office circa 1913 showed that for the eleven sugar factories
then owned or closely associated with the firm, ‘bewerking’ costs in the agricultural sector had risen from
127 guilders per bau to more than 149 guilders per bau between 1907 and 1912, with by far the biggest
rise taking place in 1912. See ‘Bijlage IV …Bewerking 1907-1912’, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9213.
196
selves did not gain from the high prices paid for fieldwork, and (he ar-
gued) would therefore not be aggrieved (and hence work less effectively)
if these were cut back. In the circumstances, he was quite confident that
a subsequent reduction in piecework rates in the cane fields had been
achieved without any fall in labour productivity.12 This was 1917, and
the congratulatory note turned out to be somewhat premature.
Not least, this resulted from the depredations of the ‘Spanish’ in-
fluenza, which both decimated the workforce available to the industry
and distorted the cycle of peasant cropping in ways that further reduced
the turnout of sugar labour. By 1918, plantation-sector costs at Modjo-
Agoeng were ‘considerably higher’; in particular, ‘very much more had
to be paid’ for the heavy work involved in breaking up the ground and
digging the trenches in which the cane would later be planted. In the fol-
lowing year, wages had to be raised yet further. Inter alia this was because
of competition from neighbouring sugar factories, one of which was
said to be paying ‘huge prices’ (enorme prijzen) for fieldwork, and another
of which was reported to pay the same rates as Modjo-Agoeng but to
require less work in return. In the circumstances, Modjo-Agoeng had re-
course to expensive labour brought in from outside its immediate locality
(importvolk). This was a Java-wide phenomenon; indeed, by the end of the
decade, sugar factories throughout Java appear to have been faced with
widespread shortages of field labour. Labour scarcity was sufficiently
pronounced for mandur to be sent hither and thither in search of workers,
at the factories’ behest and with the factories’ cash.13 The system proved
distinctly efficacious, if not trouble-free: it was said by industry sources
that ‘providing loans gave rise to all sorts of underhand business between
the mandurs and the [work] people’, and that the factories sometimes did
not get their money back.14 Nonetheless, managers congratulated them-
selves on obtaining the services of ‘very good coolie-mandurs’, who proved
adept at bonding large numbers of workers from even some considerable
distance away.15
12 [Superintendant] O.T. Muller von Czernicky, ‘Eenige aanteekeningen op het Jaarverslag 1917 van
de suikeronderneming Poerworedjo’, in: NHM, NA, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 8099.
13 On the need to employ hulpmandoers (assistant foremen) without whose efforts it would have been
impossible to assemble an adequate workforce for field preparation, see, for example, Jaarverslag
Kemantran, 1921, p. 23, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9209.
14 Jaarverslag Soemberhardjo, 1922, p. 34, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9228.
15 Jaarverslag Ketanggoengan-West, 1921, p. 17, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9210.
197
Even so, by 1920 there were clearly other factors impacting on the
dynamics of labour recruitment. Some of this had to do with the evolv-
ing political economy of the peasant Java in which the industry was
enmeshed. According to one of the major sugar companies, for instance,
in some parts of the island ‘big peasants’ (groot sawah bezitters, in the termi-
nology of the time), in view of the very high price of rice, had adopted
the practice of paying their labourers in cash (klinkende of papieren munt)
instead of making payments in kind, which had been customary. Since
these cash payments failed to keep up with the escalating cost of subsis-
tence foodstuffs, however, the effect was to propel the landless population
in the villages in the direction of the factories.16
At Modjo-Agoeng itself, by 1922 things were beginning to return to
‘normal’ and wages started to go down. The secular trend was for field
costs to fall because the factory was able to pay less for the performance
of the elaborately differentiated sequence of tasks that characterized the
industrial work routines of its plantation regime. Not least, as Modjo-
Agoeng’s management noted with a degree of satisfaction, this was
because all the factories in the area had stuck to an agreement to fix a
common price for the trench digging that lay at the heart of fieldwork
in this part of Java. In the following year, it was a similar story, in so far
as ‘greater keenness to find employment’ (grootere werkwilligheid) among
the potential workforce enabled further cuts to be made in piecework
rates. To be sure, two years later, in 1925, there was an interruption to
this happy story when a good rice harvest combined with the debilitat-
ing prevalence of malaria in the locality of Modjo-Agoeng to reduce
the turnout of labour. Nonetheless, the interruption proved short-lived,
so that, by 1931, at this particular factory, the unit costs of field labour
(calculated in terms of each hectare of land brought under cane) had
returned to levels last seen almost a quarter of a century earlier.17
By the close of the 1920s, in short, Java was finally living up to its rep-
utation for cheap and abundant labour. At Modjo-Agoeng as elsewhere
throughout the sugar industry, managers had been able to cut labour
costs to the bone across all sectors of production.18 The brute repression
16 Factorij NHM to Amsterdam, 5-5-1920/230, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 8101.
17 NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nrs 4945, 7999 file 593.
18 This fall in the unit costs of labour was also in evidence in the manufacturing sector, where it is,
of course, important to be able to establish that they were already underway before the big increase in
throughput contingent on the arrival of ultra-high-yielding cane took place late in the 1920s. For ex-
ample, at Modjo-Agoeng, a steady decline in labour costs per quintal of cane in the manufacturing sector
198
of labour was an undoubted factor. It was something in which the sugar

companies received – as had not been the case earlier – the unambigu-
ous support of an increasingly reactionary colonial regime. Through the
agency, in particular, of the aptly named field police (veldpolitie), equipped
with small arms and motor cycles, the state enjoyed an enhanced flex-
ibility of control in the countryside that severely discouraged protest.
Operating in units of between twenty and sixty men, by 1930 the new
force comprised a total of around 23,350 personnel.19
The emphasis on ‘law and order’ in the countryside may well be one
of those standard tropes of ‘colonial rule’ that merits further investiga-
tion. Nonetheless, following the abortive so-called ‘communist uprisings’
on the island in 1926 it became a pervasive reality, and the field police
came into their own. In 1927, for example, in the locality of one particu-
lar factory on the north coast of Central Java, a force of sixty of them
turned out to suppress a ‘disturbance’ (opstootje) among the peasantry of
the surrounding district.20 Even before that, however, the intimidation
and repression of Java’s ‘native’ workforce – the sugar industry included
– had become the hallmark of a regime that had abandoned any pre-
tence of maintaining a ‘neutral’ stance in respect to the disputes between
capital and labour that had characterized its policy and practice at the
very beginning of the decade.21
Yet, repression in the countryside was only part of the story. Underlying
the history of labour in the 1920s was a combination of factors that went
beyond (and, at the same time, facilitated) crude coercion. With respect to
wages and the supply of labour, toward the close of the 1920s, two things
were happening that might superficially seem contradictory. The factories
– as we have already seen – were able to make significant savings in the
(which included both factory labour per se and the labour involved in cane cutting and cane haulage) set
in early in the 1920s and continued through to the end of the decade, during which period per quintal
labour costs fell from 1.61 guilders (1922) to 1.03 guilders (1931). The same company’s Poerwodadi
factory in Madiun Residency exhibited largely similar traits: labour costs in the manufacturing sector
likewise began to fall fairly steadily from 1923 onward (1.32 guilders per quintal) to 1930 (0.94 guilders per
quintal). At neither factory was there a sudden drop in the per quintal costs of labour contemporaneous
with – and hence potentially ascribable to – the rapid uptake of POJ 2878 and consequent substantial
increase in factory throughput in 1928-1929. See the relevant data in Jaarverslag Modjo-Agoeng, 1920-
1931, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9383; Jaarverslag Poerwodadi, 1920-1931, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01,
inv. nr. 9392. These data and similar data for other NHM factories during the 1930s are also to be found
(often in draft form) in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9212.
19 Politie 1927, 1932.
20 Jaarverslag Doekoewringin, 1927, p. 36, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 7212.
21 Ingleson 1986:266.
199
cost of field labour, largely by cutting piecework rates. Far from deterring
the flow of labour into the agricultural sector, however, the reduction in
wages was paralleled by a greater flow than before of workers who came
(from the industry’s perspective, at least) of their own accord, rather than
as a result of bonding arrangements initiated by industry-paid mandur.
Many factories were able to cease earlier practices of informally bonding
large numbers of their workers, in tandem with the dispatch of recruiting
agents into neighbouring districts, or even further afield. Instead, they
were increasingly able to rely on a purely ‘voluntary’ turnout of workers,
who – as far as the factory comprehended the dynamics involved – made
their own way to the sugar fields and factories. Those whom factory man-
agement described as ‘free workers’ (vrijwilligers) now made up the bulk of
the field workforce. In 1928, for example, according to the administrateur of
one large factory on the north coast of Central Java, the workers required
for the heavy work of field preparation had turned up ‘entirely of their
own accord and in droves’ (geheel uit eigen beweging en in massa).22
Several explanations for what was happening – plenty of ‘free work-
ers’ combined with cuts to piecework rates – might seem at variance
with each other. In fact, however, far from being mutually exclusive, they
were the consequence of depression conditions in rural Java that set in
late in the 1920s. The bare bones of the situation emerge fairly clearly,
for example, from the records of the colony’s light-railway companies.
Dependent for their income not only on freight (much of it, sugar) but
also on large numbers of third-class ‘native’ passengers, they were espe-
cially sensitive to fluctuations in the welfare of the Indonesian communi-
ties that they serviced. In the heavily ‘sugared’ region extending west-
wards along the north coast of Java between Semarang and Cirebon,
the company whose lines ran through the area reported on seriously
deteriorating rural conditions in the second half of 1929, caused in part
by severe drought in the dry season and exacerbated, as far as labour
was concerned, by the scaling down of employment on public works.23
The following year (1930) was significantly worse – and railway business
correspondingly terrible. The decline in ‘native welfare’ had become
very pronounced indeed by the year’s end. A population that, accord-
ing to one railway executive, never did more than just keep its head
22 Jaarverslag Ketanggoengan-West, 1928, p. 34, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9212.
23 Jaarverslag Semarang-Cheribon Stroomtram Mij, 1929, pp. 10-1, in: NA, Semarang-Cheribon
Stroomtram Maatschappij, 1893-1946, toegangsnummer 2.20.17, inv. nr. 12.
200
above water, was rapidly going under.24 The situation was subsequently
made worse (as sugar industry sources make quite clear) by the evident
determination of the Indies government to collect its ‘rightful’ revenues,
regardless of the extent of rural distress. In 1932, for example, a factory
manager reported to his company, from his vantage point on the north
coast of Central Java, that taxes were becoming very oppressive, and
that a notional reduction of the government’s land tax by 10 to 20 per
cent had been totally vitiated by a revaluation of land that had left many
peasants having to pay more than they had done in the previous year.25
Embedded in this gathering economic crisis in the countryside – one
that began well in advance of the hard times more commonly associated
with the impact of the worldwide interwar depression of the 1930s –
were issues related to the price of rice. In so far as locally prevailing rice
prices can indeed be gauged from national-level figures, the price of this
key subsistence commodity fell fairly steeply toward the very end of the
1920s, something which presumably hurt peasant landholders (who had
a surplus to sell), but which ought to have benefited wage labourers (who
needed to purchase it). Indeed, some calculations show that because
of the falling price of rice, ‘real’ wages in the countryside were either
constant during the decade or were actually rather higher at the end of
the decade than they were at its beginning.26 Be that as it may, it seems
24 Standard factory wages were said to have fallen from 35 to 25 duit per day (Jaarverslag Semarang-
Cheribon Stroomtram Mij, 1930, pp. 11-2, in: NA, Semarang-Cheribon Stroomtram Mij, 2.20.17, inv.
nr. 12). The implication that falling prices for foodstuffs reflected a crisis that involved farmers as well as
labourers is my own.
25 Jaarverslag Bandjaratma, 1932, p. 34, in: NA, Cultuur-, Handel- en Industriebank; Koloniale Bank;
Cultuurbank NV, 1881-1969, toegangsnummer 2.20.04, inv. nr. 943.
26 One authority (Van der Eng 1996:216) suggests that in rice equivalents, the average wages at sugar
factories remained fairly constant throughout the 1920s. This does not necessarily conflict, of course,
with the demonstrable fact that the factories were able to reduce significantly the cost of labour inputs
into the plantation sector (guilders per hectare) during the second half of the 1920s, and that this trend
was even more pronounced in 1930-1931. For some basic data on ‘real wages’ in the 1920s, see Dros
1992:30. Dros’ calculation (1992:30, Table P) was that the ‘index real wage’ (taking 1913=100) fluctu-
ated between a low of 87.9 in 1921 and 1926, and a (short-lived) high of 122.9 in 1931 – that is, those
sugar workers still in employment in 1931 notionally enjoyed a better ‘real’ wage than they had done
for some years. As Dros’ data make clear, however, this applied to factory workers only (and by 1931 the
industry had cut back drastically on cane planting for the following year’s campaign, so that if the same
high ‘real wage’ prevailed in the agricultural sector, only a much reduced workforce would have been
there to ‘enjoy’ it.) The most authoritative of the problematic calculations of ‘global’ rice prices in the
Indies is to be found in Creutzberg 1978:39, Table 1. Taking 1913=100, the index figure stood at 228.2
in 1921, 145.2 in 1930 and 92.7 in 1931. Creutzberg’s data do not reveal, however, a steady drop in rice
prices between 1922 and the end of the decade; rather, they suggest that prices dropped rather swiftly
early in the decade and remained roughly at that level (with some fluctuations) until the big drop of 1931.
201
that economic conditions in rural Java were operating in the industry’s

favour well before the factory closures of 1932. The severe reductions in
the area of cane planted in 1931 for the following year’s campaign acted
to drive down wages even further.
Against this background, it rather looks (the point remains somewhat
speculative) as if the industry had succeeded, by the late 1920s, in ‘break-
ing through’ to what were in any event the most immiserated elements
in the rural working population. The situation, in short, had changed
markedly since the early years of the century, when in some parts of
Java at least – generalization easily breaks down in the face of the locally
particular – work in the sugar fields had been largely the preserve of the
‘middling’ rather than the poorest elements among the peasantry. This
had reportedly been the situation, for instance, at the Tjomal factory
in the residency of Tegal, on the north coast of Central Java, where
a unique, detailed survey of the locality revealed what would later be
termed ‘exclusionary’ labour arrangements. As a modern authority has
observed, ‘a substantial share of these jobs [in the sugar fields] was not
open to landless villagers, who were probably in greatest need of employ-
ment’. Instead, a substantial amount (50 per cent or so) of the work in
the sugar fields was ‘reserved’ for landholders who rented their fields to
the factory, while much of the rest of the work was performed by villag-
ers who, though they did not hold arable land, at least had house plots
of their own.27 There is some indication, however, that this situation had
changed by the late 1920s, and was to change yet further in the years of
industry closure that followed. One writer, for example, emphasizes the
sheer destitution of those labourers who turned up to work what fields
remained under cane cultivation after the massive factory closures that
took place Java-wide after 1931.28
opportunity costs and the ‘squeeze on cane’
Other trends in the countryside, however, were working against the

industry – and these were trends for which the rural depression only
brought short-term relief. The industry’s labour ‘problem’ may well
have eased. The same could not be said, however, for land. In German-
27 Hüsken 2001:108.
28 Elson 1984:243-4.
202
occupied Holland during the Second World War, one of the top manag-
ers of the NILM, the once-resplendent Indies plantation company, had
time enough on his hands to begin to construct a history of the firm for
which he had worked for more than three decades. What he had to say
about the issue of access to peasant land for cane growing, both before
and after the interwar depression, is highly instructive. His story con-
cerned events at one particular medium-sized sugar factory – Pagongan,
near the city of Tegal – on the north coast of Central Java, but there
is no reason to suppose that it was in any way exceptional. Sugar pro-
duction at Pagongan had a long history. Indeed, it dated from sugar-
manufacturing ventures established there by Indies-Chinese interests
in the 1840s (or earlier), though it had subsequently passed into Dutch
hands. The people who ran it, therefore, were hardly newcomers in the
area, and were presumably fully conversant with the often unwritten
intricacies of industry land-rental in this part of the colony’s northern
littoral. Yet, if the compiler of the wartime history is to be relied upon,
the NILM’s local managers found the going anything but easy.
Like many other such factories, Pagongan in the opening two decades
of the twentieth century had been successful in lobbying the Indies gov-
ernment to be allowed to extend considerably the area that it rented from
the local peasantry for the planting of cane. It did so largely thanks to
the way in which, as elsewhere in the region, the government’s ‘technical’
irrigation in the adjacent countryside had brought into existence great
swathes of new sawah, which Pagongan could also hope to exploit for
its own purposes. But that exploitation was far from assured. Although
there was notionally enough sawah in the area to enable the factory to
rent its ‘allowance’ of 700 hectares, reality was somewhat different: ‘the
circumstances in which land rental took place cannot be described as
favourable […] the enterprise was compelled repeatedly to rent less
suitable land […]. The rental of some really good blocks of sawah was
always very difficult.’29
As was the case with the Java industry as a whole, Pagongan was
caught up in what can most conveniently be called the ‘squeeze on cane’.
Notionally, the squeeze and, closely bound up with it, the opportunity-
cost issue (meaning the relative comparative economic advantage ac-
cruing from the various uses to which farmland might be put), was a
29 ‘Pagongan’ in ‘Geschiedenis NILM’, circa 1942, in: NA, NV Nederlands-Indische Handelsbank;
Nationale Handelsbank NV, 1863-1966, toegangsnummer 2.20.03, inv. nr. 331.
203
Aerial view of the Pagongan sugar factory north coast Central Java, circa 1925
relatively straightforward matter: it related to the fact that by the early

twentieth century, the lowlands of Java were filling up with people (even
in those areas that only a decade or so earlier had been relatively sparsely
populated) and that this filling-up imposed an inexorable pressure on the
amount of useful farmland.30 As far as the sugar industry was concerned,
this pressure was reflected in an escalating competition for fields between
the industry’s apparently insatiable demand of land and the require-
ments of peasant farmers, who found the production of rice and other
food crops more profitable than the renting of their fields to the sugar
factories. The bottom line was that sugar cultivation was carried out on
land that (however much expanded by the wonders of technical irriga-
tion) was ultimately in finite supply.
The upshot, both figuratively and literally, had the potential to fence
in the agro-industrial plantation. It was here, above all else, that its con-
tinuing enmeshment in Lilliput entailed an ostensibly critical obstacle
to the perpetuation of the highly advanced, industrial agriculture that
formed the backbone of the colonial factories’ operations. The ‘squeeze
30 For quantification, see Van der Eng 1996:143-6.
204
on cane’ was, of course, a phenomenon that affected other sugar indus-

tries elsewhere in the sugar-and-rice regions of twentieth-century Asia.
Formosa (Taiwan) was a notable example.31 For the Java sugar com-
panies, nonetheless, the exceptionally highly developed state of agro-
industry made the question of alternative uses of the island’s resources
of good land particularly threatening.
To be sure, the situation in which the industry found itself was not
quite so straightforwardly adverse as it might seem. The rural political
economy in which the squeeze on cane operated reflected (as was out-
lined in an earlier chapter) not simply the pressure of the population
on subsistence resources, but also the many disparities of wealth, power
and influence that characterized Java’s far from homogenous peasantry.
Many small farmers were so deeply in debt that the economic rationale
pre-supposed by the notion of ‘opportunity cost’ was, in reality, scarcely
existent. The rentals paid by the sugar factories were an ostensible life
belt, which overrode any calculation of long-term economic advantage:
they provided immediate cash even as they foreclosed on any hope of
future solvency. For ‘big peasants’ the purported opportunity cost was
likewise not necessarily quite as straightforward as it seemed. Inter alia,
rental monies from the factories might be used to cement their hold over
their clients and dependents. Equally, of course, the sugar companies
might hope to mobilize the power of the state in ensuring that the cost
of rental did not get ‘out of control’. The government-decreed minimum
rental price might well become the ‘acceptable’ level for rentals in the
particular area to which it applied.
In short, there were a number of factors at work to mitigate the ef-
fects of the squeeze on cane. Nonetheless, as the case of the Pagongan
sugar factory suggests, this was a far from straightforward or uncontested
process. Particularly in areas where notionally subsistence cultivation was
in fact becoming increasingly commercialized in response to market op-
portunities, the sugar companies might well come up against substantial
resistance from elements among the peasantry (and their backers) who
sought to exploit these opportunities. Evidence from parts of the heavily
‘sugared’ north-coast region of Central Java, for instance, points un-
equivocally to the plethora of crops grown for the market by a peasantry
that was by no means exclusively engaged in the production of rice for
31 Chen 1963:325; Gallin 1966:53-4; Williams 1980:239-41.
205
its own consumption.32 The upshot was that while the price of labour
declined during the course of the 1920s, the price of land climbed.
At the Modjo-Agoeng factory discussed earlier in this chapter – as
was the case throughout the industry – the secular trend between 1900
and 1930 was for rental costs to increase by around 100 per cent.33 The
actual history of rentals at this particular factory during the course of the
1920s was subject to some fluctuation, nonetheless, in that they started
rather high at the beginning of the decade at sixty-nine guilders per
hectare, peaked at ninety-four guilders in 1924 and finished the decade
somewhat lower at just over ninety guilders. Presumably, this modest fall
had to do with the onset of the same rural recession that (as we have
already seen) enabled the factories to cut their labour costs at around
the same time. The cost of land rental was to fall very much further
during the early-to-mid 1930s. Nonetheless, the long-term trend toward
increased land-rentals remained a determining factor in the industry’s
mid-twentieth-century history.
horticulture to the rescue: java’s wondercane
Against this general background of the squeeze on cane, it was develop-

ments in horticulture that proved decisive. They enabled the industry to
resume, in the course of the 1920s, the growth in field productivity that
had stalled around the end of the first decade of the twentieth century
– and to achieve in consequence a substantial increase in manufacturing
throughput. The discarding of old cane varieties, and the breeding and
rapid uptake of new ones, was an essential part of the story. As was the
case globally, the choice of cane varieties was a vital part of the Java in-
dustry’s success. From the 1870s until the close of the century, for exam-
ple, a widespread switch from the indigenous ‘Japara’ variety of cane to
the altogether more productive (but equally indigenous) ‘Black Cirebon’
32 See, for example, J.J.M.A. Popelier, ‘Memorie van Overgave van de residentie Pekalongan’, 1931,
pp. 32-8, in: NA, Memories van Overgave, 1852-1962, toegangsnummer 2.10.39, inv. nr. 46, which lists,
inter alia, maize, cassava, tobacco and kapok as crops regularly grown for the market on a significant
scale in parts of this densely populated part of north Central Java.
33 Jaarverslag NHM Factorij Batavia, 1930, p. 273, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 4564. For a de-
tailed analysis of sugar industry rentals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, see Van der
Eng 1996:217-24.
206
was claimed to have resulted in a doubling of plantation yields.34 The

‘new’ variety, nonetheless, was highly susceptible to disease, something
that by the 1880s threatened to decimate the industry. It was at this the
point that nurture came to the rescue of nature. The nation that had per-
fected the tulip several centuries earlier turned its attention to sugar cane.
Needless to say, results were not instantaneous. Nonetheless, the eventual
outcome in its Indies colony was a sugar industry that was bedded down
in horticultural science to a quite unique degree.
As we have already seen, the role of the industry’s research institutes
had been fundamental in ensuring the success of the fertilizer revolution.
Their remit, however, went well beyond this. Research on the horticul-
ture of cane had been part of their work since the research institutes’ in-
ception in the 1880s, and by the second decade of the twentieth century
it became critically important. Just as the fertilizer revolution had been
the key to greatly improved productivity at the end of the nineteenth
century, in the mid-1920s it was the handiwork of the industry’s horticul-
turalists that saved the day. It was the efforts of these experts that lay at
the heart of a dramatic rise in plantation yields, a decade after the fertil-
izer revolution had largely run its course and the whole agro-industrial
project at whose centre it stood appeared to have reached the limits of
its potential.
Initially, however, the prime role of cane horticulture was to produce
disease-resistant varieties, as well as ones suited to the various soil condi-
tions which the industry encountered as the large-scale, late nineteenth-
century expansion of the area under cane got under way. The key variety
here, dominant in the industry by the early twentieth century, was EK
28, whose great virtue was that it was little susceptible to the dreaded
sereh disease that had plagued the industry since the 1880s. At the same
time, however, it proved significantly prone to root-rot, and hence had
only a limited future.35 Nonetheless, it highlights the extent to which
early work on sugar cane in Java was focused primarily on resistance
to disease, rather than on sugar yields. Indeed, broadly speaking, it was
only after 1914 that new varieties began to have a significant impact on
productivity per se. Once they did so, however, the results were spec-
tacular, culminating by the 1920s in the arrival on the scene of Java’s
wondercane. This was the celebrated POJ 2878, its initials representing the
207
Proefstation Oost-Java in which it had been created. The new cane had
the potential to increase yields per hectare by as much as one third, and
in many respects, it was to prove the salvation of the industry.
The speed of its take-up was impressive, reflecting, inter alia, the high
level of organization in the agro-industry into which it was introduced.
Indeed, by 1929 – a mere four years after its first extensive trials – POJ
2878 accounted for around 95 per cent of all ‘factory’ cane planted in
Java.36 Much higher plantation yields were not the only advantage ac-
cruing to the industry from POJ 2878. Moreover, because it was largely
disease-free, the new variety obviated the need for the spatially separate
preparation of cane cuttings, or bibit, that had come to characterize the
Java industry late in the nineteenth century. This resulted in a significant
saving in production costs. Whereas at Modjo-Agoeng the provision of
bibit had generally accounted for 20 per cent or more of total production
costs in the agricultural sector, by 1930 it had fallen to as little as 5 per
cent.37
salvation at a price
Nonetheless, wondercane meant salvation at a price. New and high-

yielding varieties of cane caused a fresh flush of increased productivity
and output at the end of the 1920s. This new spurt of growth, however,
was no longer based, as previous ones had been, on factors that gave
Java a significant comparative advantage, above all the abundance of its
local supply of labour. With POJ 2878, however, the industry had come
up with something that was almost immediately transferable to rival
producers. In terms of the key East Asian market for the Java industry’s
output, by the late 1920s the island’s producers were facing increasingly
stiff competition from the Japanese-run sugar industry in their colony
of Formosa. It was ominous, therefore, that by the end of the decade
36 Demandt 1929:28-9.
37 During the first two decades of the twentieth century, bibit was sourced at various times from as far
away as Bandung in West Java, Salatiga in the mountains of Central Java and, rather nearer to home,
from a grower in Blitar, in the upper reaches of East Java’s Brantas river; see Jaarverslag Modjo-Agoeng
1906; 1911, pp. 5-6; 1913, p. 7, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9383. In 1913, for example, the cost of
cane-cuttings amounted to around 20% of plantation costs and nearly 10% of total production costs
(Jaarverslag Modjo-Agoeng, 1913, p. 16, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9383). Bibit costs per picul of
sugar amounted to 0.48 guilders, total aanplant costs to 2.61 guilders and total production cost to 4.69
guilders.
208
the Formosa factories had already taken up wondercane in a big way.38

Nonetheless, the fact remains that, on the eve of the crisis in the inter-
national sugar economy that almost destroyed it in the early 1930s, the
Java industry as a producer of sugar had never been in a better state. It
was manufacturing more, better and cheaper sugar than at any time in
its history. The only trouble was that it could no longer sell it.
38 Arthur H. Rosenfeld’s report on the Taiwan sugar industry (Rosenfeld was ‘Advisor to the American
Sugar Cane League’), originally in The International Sugar Journal (31 September 1929), appeared in trans-
lation as ‘Een en ander omtrent de suiker-industrie in Formosa’ (Rosenfeld 1929). At the same time POJ
2878 was also being taken up in the Philippines (Perk 1931:245-6), though with consequences a good
deal less dire, since virtually all centrifugal sugar from the Philippines went to the USA, whose sugar
market had been effectively closed to the Java producers for two decades or more.
209
Chapter 8
Commercial nemesis
Java, Japan and the Raj
H.C.Prinsen Geerligs was the doyen of the Java sugar industry’s scien-
tific advisors. Born in the Netherlands, he had spent most of his adult
life in the Indies, much of it – as will be apparent from earlier chapters
of this book – in the employ of the sugar syndicate at one or other of
their research institutes.1 The industry thought so well of his services as
a researcher and publicist that it had given him the considerable sum of
50,000 guilders to mark the occasion of his jubilee in 1916.2
In April 1932, by then in comfortable semi-retirement in Amsterdam’s
well-heeled ‘Old South’, he received a letter from India. The writer
wanted Prinsen Geerligs’ advice. He ‘had been informed that some
good 2nd hand cane crushing and sugar manufacturing plants are now
for sale in your Java’, and he was hoping that his correspondent would
oblige him with specifications and price. The old man evidently wrote
back, promising to send the addresses of companies in Java that special-
ized in dismantling sugar factories – and passed the letter on to the head
office of the mighty NHM in Amsterdam with a request that they would
forward the necessary details.3
By early 1932, there was indeed a plethora of sugar-manufacturing
equipment for sale in Java, and during the following two years there
would be a great deal more. Between 1931 and 1936, the industry
permanently lost around 50 per cent of its productive capacity in the
1 Hendrik Coenraad Prinsen Geerligs, born (Haarlem) 24 November 1864, died (Amsterdam?) 31
July 1953. The son of a school principal, he graduated in 1883 from the Handelsschool in Amsterdam,
and for the next six years studied chemistry at the University of Amsterdam. Following a period working
in the ‘technisch-chemisch’ office of the Amsterdam firm of Wynhoff & Gulpen, he went to Java in 1891
as an assistant chemist at the Kagok Sugar Research Station (subsequently merged into the celebrated
Pasuruan Research Station). He was the author of innumerable books and articles on the Java sugar
industry and world sugar production. For details of his career, see Jubileum Prinsen Geerligs 1916.
3 The correspondence is in NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 5131.
A doyen in retirement: H.C. Prinsen Geerligs and his wife, Mevrouw Prinsen
Geerligs, on the occasion of their fortieth wedding anniversary, Amsterdam,
1931 (Stadsarchief Amsterdam, 010003032768) http://beeldbank.
amsterdam.nl/beeldbank/indeling/detail?q_searchfield=1931%20huwelijk
Chapter 8 Commercial nemesis |
wake of the dramatic decline of the Asian sales for Java sugar that had
sustained it for almost two decades. Nor was it a mere coincidence that
Prinsen Geerligs’ correspondent hailed from Bhagalpur, in the northern
Indian state of Bihar. The Indian subcontinent had, up till then, been
the largest single market for Java sugar – and the prime reason for the
loss of that market was the rapid development there of the industrialized
manufacture of sugar. In 1930 Java had exported more than a million
MT of sugar to Indian ports, primarily Calcutta and Bombay. Six years
later India was taking scarcely a tenth of that amount. The collapse of
the Indian market for Java’s output, however, was only one aspect of
the globalization of the international sugar economy that had brought
Indonesia’s Big Sugar to its knees.
globalization, the interwar depression and economic

autarchy
Predicated on their ability to supply cheap, factory-made sugar, from

the late nineteenth century onward the Java producers had been able
to exploit a growing taste elsewhere in Asia for forms of the commodity
that were white, hygienic and ‘Western’. Some of this sugar was refined
after it had been dispatched from Java, but a substantial proportion of
it arrived in the shape of factory white that was available for immediate
consumption. On these twin pillars, by the 1920s the Java industry had
grown moderately prosperous – and greatly expanded its operations –
by supplying outlets in China, Japan and the Indian subcontinent with
almost all the sugar that it produced. It had been able to compensate
thereby for its almost complete loss of regular sales in Europe or North
America. Its status as the prime purveyor of factory-made sugar to Asian
markets had been reinforced, moreover, by the elimination of competi-
tion from the beet sugar producers in Imperial Germany and Austria-
Hungary after the outbreak of war in Europe in August 1914.
It was virtually inevitable, of course, that Java’s enviable position
would not last forever. Nonetheless, the island’s colonial producers
gambled on an almost limitless expansion of the Asian market, and on
their own superior expertise and efficiency to ensure their hold over it.
This proved to be a miscalculation. During the interwar decades, the
industry’s late colonial trajectory began to unravel, eventually in fairly
213
dramatic fashion. Java’s output peaked in 1930 at a little over 3 million

MT. Five years later, only thirty of its nearly 180 factories remained in
operation, and their production amounted to scarcely half a million
MT. Sales had plummeted, so that Java ran some danger of submerging
under a mountain – as much as 3 million MT – of unsold sugar, part of
which, at least, had to be disposed of at fire-sale prices.4 The depth of
the crisis experienced by the Java industry during the interwar depression
singled it out from virtually all its major competitors in the international
sugar economy. Even Cuba, hard-hit as it was, bottomed out at a far
higher production point than did Java; it also recovered much faster, not
least because of its connection to the United States’ market.5
A fall-off in sugar consumption worldwide consequent on the inter-
war depression was not the heart of the matter, however. To be sure,
recorded world sales of sugar fell after 1930, following a decade of
considerable growth, and they remained in the doldrums for the better
part of the subsequent decade.6 Nonetheless, the exact situation with
respect to Java sugar’s (erstwhile) major customers is far from clear. In
Japan (where the relevant data might be assumed to be fairly reliable),
the secular trend toward rising per capita consumption of sugar faltered
briefly early in the 1930s and then resumed its upward trajectory. 7 In
China, which, together with the Indian subcontinent, had constituted by
far the biggest market for Java sugar, largely impressionistic evidence is
that per capita consumption indeed fell. A Dutch commercial report of
1933, for example, sought to explain the disastrous decline in the sales of
Java sugar in China in terms (in part, at least) of the ‘constantly declining
purchasing power of the population’.8 It is equally clear, however, that
4 H.C. Prinsen Geerligs and R.J. Prinsen Geerligs 1938:81-2. For a general overview of the history of
Java sugar prices, 1880-1940, see Appendix 1.
5 Cuba’s output peaked at an exceptional 5 million MT in 1929, and hit a low of under 2 million MT
some four years later in 1933. After that, however, its production rapidly returned to over 50% or more
of its pre-Depression peak. Not least, this was because it was able to maintain – from 1934 onward – a
level of exports to its main United States’ market that, in most years, amounted to nearly two-thirds of
its average sales during the previous decade (Pollitt 1984:4-7).
6 World consumption, calculated at 13.3 million MT in 1920/21, had risen to a peak of 24.4 million
a decade later, and declined to a low of 22.1 million in 1932/2 (H.C. Prinsen Geerligs and R.J. Prinsen
Geerligs 1938:50-1).
7 H.C. Prinsen Geerligs and R.J. Prinsen Geerligs 1938:70. The secular trend over less than two de-
cades was for an increase in consumption of more than 100%, from 485,427 MT in 1919 to 1,114,000
MT in 1937.
8 Jaarverslag NHM Agentschap Shanghai, 1933, p. 49; 1934, p. 38, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nrs.
5171, 5172.
214
depression conditions affected the various strata of consumers differ-

ently; that industrially manufactured sugar generally found its markets
among middle classes who experienced the depression less harshly than
workers and peasants; and that we need to be wary of an unquestion-
ing application of the ‘depression’ concept to developments during the
course of the 1930s. Ramon Myers, for example, has argued that the
Chinese economy experienced growth rather than regression for much
of the decade.9
In short, although Java sugar’s problems as an export-based industry
ostensibly started with the interwar depression of the 1930s, in reality
their origins were altogether more complex and deep-rooted. They
were to be found, most specifically, in the industry’s failure to become
fully incorporated during the previous decade into Japan’s burgeoning
sugar empire, and in developments in the Indian subcontinent that pre-
dated the Depression but were greatly accelerated by it. More generally,
however, the fate of Java sugar had to do with the globalization of the
world economy. More specifically, it related to that industrial take-off
beyond the confines of the West which was one of globalization’s key
aspects. Global industrialization has sometimes, not entirely correctly,
been seen as an essentially late twentieth-century phenomenon. In fact,
it had important precursors much earlier. In turn, this ‘precocious’ phase
of globalization impacted very significantly on the international sugar
economy, nowhere more so than in Asia – and very much to Java’s detri-
ment. By spreading the industrial manufacture of sugar to key areas of
South and East Asia, globalization first undermined Java’s hegemony
there, and ended by creating a situation in which the island’s producers
were almost totally deprived of what had become their main markets.
java and the japanese sugar empire
Java’s relations with the emergent Japanese sugar empire had been a
critical element in sustaining its position in the age of mass production.
As we saw in an earlier chapter, the Java industry had long-standing and
ongoing connections to the great British-owned refineries in Hong Kong,
which dated back to the 1880s. However, when the latter experienced
9 Myers 1989.
215
increasing difficulties after the Great War, the Dutch colony’s produc-
ers became increasingly dependent on the Japanese refineries – and on
Japanese sugar traders – with which they had first opened relations at
the very beginning of the twentieth century. In effect, by the early 1920s
(though it also maintained a huge stake in the Indian sugar market), Java
had become a crucial part of a Japanese-controlled network of produc-
ers of raw sugar, sugar shippers and traders, refineries and consumers
that extended throughout East Asia and the Pacific. Although Japanese
interests owned only a miniscule part of Java’s productive capacity, in
tandem with several big Indies-Chinese commercial combines they had
come to play a key role in the Dutch colony’s sugar trade with East
Asia, as financiers, buyers and shippers. Then, quite suddenly, and – as
contemporaries saw it – quite unexpectedly, toward the end of the 1920s
the situation changed dramatically. The most ambitious of the Japanese
sugar traders went under, in a development that threatened to take with
it the entire Japan-Java nexus in sugar.
In 1927, the Suzuki zaibatsu, one of the largest (though not the old-
est) of Japan’s commercial, financial and industrial conglomerates, sud-
denly collapsed, undermining a sizeable swathe of key Japanese financial
institutions, both in Japan itself (where the prime minister and cabinet
also fell victim to the crisis), and in Formosa. With close financial ties
to the failed zaibatsu, the Bank of Taiwan (BOT) had to close its doors
temporarily, and to curtail its subsequent operations.10 Suzuki had been
very big in Java’s trade in sugar to Japan over the previous decade, and
in some years had been the largest single Japanese buyer. Its collapse,
in tandem with the economic consequences of the contemporaneous
Tokyo earthquake, precipitated a crisis in Japan’s sugar empire that
signalled the unravelling of Java’s key role. The crisis also took its toll
on those Indies-Chinese multinationals that were heavily dependent on
Japanese or (in so far as it could be distinguished) Japanese-Formosan
capital. In particular, it may be presumed to have curbed the activities
of Kian Gwan, the commercial arm of the great Indies-Chinese OTHC
conglomerate,11 and probably contributed to the gradual collapse, from
10 Lynn and Rao 1995:62-3; Schneider 1998:173.

11 Between 1925 and 1930, with a significant dip in 1928, Kian Gwan traded around 250,000 to
300,000 MT of sugar annually, before falling back to only 12,600 MT in 1932 – by which date, however,
Java sugar found very few purchasers anywhere (Jaarverslag VJSP 1930, p. 14; 1932, p. 12, in: NA, VJSP,
1918-1938, toegangsnummer 2.20.09.02, inv. nrs. 16, 18).
216
the end of the 1920s, of KHT, the most commercially aggressive of the
Indies firms trading with East Asia. 12 All this was bad news for the Java
sugar industry. Moreover, there was worse to come. Driving the evolving
situation – one that saw Java sugar fairly rapidly marginalized in the
Japanese market – were two underlying factors that spelled very serious,
long-term trouble. One was the impact on the market for sugar in East
Asia of the growing political turbulence in China; the second was the
emergence of Formosa as the new heart of the Japanese sugar empire.
the china market: boycotts, ‘smokeless sugar’ and

factory white
The military-political situation in China in the late 1920s was one in

which escalating civil war intermittently brought large-scale trade to a
virtual standstill in the Yangtze Valley hinterland of Shanghai, the key
centre for the sugar trade that provisioned central China. In 1929, for ex-
ample, Dutch commercial reports from the city spoke of ‘turmoil in the
interior’ that had led to the stockpiling of nearly a million sacks of sugar
in the city – twice the usual amount – and in the following year the same
source reported many bankruptcies, including that of ‘one of the biggest
and most solid [betrouwbaar geachte] of the city’s Chinese importers’.13
From the late 1920s onward, moreover, well before they embarked on
a full-scale war in China, Japanese military aggression (notably the Jinan
Incident of May 1928) and answering Chinese boycotts of Japanese
goods and business created considerable problems for the Japanese sugar
trade on the China coast.14 In Shanghai itself, the Japanese-owned re-
finery was forced to close.15 It was in the Shanghai market, in particular,
12 On the collapse, see Claver 2006:342-4; Post 2002. For specific evidence of KHT’s declining posi-
tion in the Java sugar trade at the end of the twenties, see Butterfield & Swire Hong Kong to Swire
London, 15-2-1929, Sugar Refinery Letters 1929, JSSV 1/2: ‘we will keep in mind what you write about
the possibility of selling arrangements with some Chinese, but our latest information is that Kwik Ho
Tong is no longer as reliable as he was, Kwik himself is growing old, and there is said to be nobody of
capacity to carry on the business after him […] Kwik, it appears, has withdrawn himself and his cash
to Hong Kong. Without him there is no strength in the “show”. I gathered that W[oodforde] would not
now sell to us KHT sugars with anything like the confidence he had when the old gentleman was at the
helm.’
13 Jaarverslag NHM Shanghai, 1927, p. 34; 1929, p. 9; 1930, p. 23, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr.
5171.
14 Goto-Shibata 1995:67.
15 Jaarverslag NHM Shanghai, 1927, p. 36; 1928, p. 27, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 5171.
217
that the anti-Japanese boycott had its greatest impact: so much so indeed
that, by the middle of 1929, Japanese sugar dealers were resorting to
repacking their sugar into the gunny sacks typical of Netherlands Indies’
production and attempting to sell it as ‘crushed Java’.16 Roughly con-
temporaneously, moreover, the British refineries in Hong Kong – Taikoo
and the CSR – also experienced difficulties. Beginning in 1925, boycotts,
strikes and political turmoil in their southern China hinterland made
for a disastrous period for business. Taikoo survived after a temporary
shutdown, but the CSR closed down for good.
‘a flood of factory white’: java and the china market

at the end of the 1920s
In the short term, these developments were not necessarily detrimental

to the Java industry. Indeed, they appear to have created an opportunity
for large quantities of factory white from Java – unrefined, but ready for
direct consumption – to plug the gap that was left by the disruption to
the supply of refined sugar. Early in 1929, the Taikoo refinery’s British
owners had prefaced an analysis of future prospects with the observa-
tion that China had become ‘with its deep and practically open market
[…] the world’s dumping ground for sugar: the Japanese are dumping
unmercifully; Java [that is, Java factory white] is flooding the market at
rock bottom prices; Cuba is also turning its attention in this direction;
[and] the Continental beet producers are also looking this way’.17
Even so, ‘China’, as the Taikoo’s owners observed, was not one mar-
ket but three: northern China and Manchuria constituted one sector; a
second was formed by central China and Shanghai; and a third was that
of southern China (and adjacent Hong Kong). At the end of the 1920s,
the first of these sectors, boycotts notwithstanding, was the one ‘in which
the pace is set by Japanese sugars’.18 In the second and third sectors,
however, the circumstances just described combined toward the close of
the decade to provide an unprecedented opening for Java’s factory white,
which more or less dominated the market in south China and vied for
16 BSHK to Swires, 12-7-1929, JSSV 1/2.

18 Swires to BSHK, 18-1-1929, JSSV 1/2.
218
supremacy in central China and Shanghai with Japanese imports. Until

1927, the bulk of the Java industry’s exports to East Asia took the form
of raw sugar. Despite the very significant fall in refinery purchases – and
especially in sales to Japanese refineries in the late 1920s – Java’s exports
to East Asia, in the ‘new’ form of factory white, remained buoyant. In
1925-1926, total exports to all such destinations (Hong Kong, China and
Japan) amounted to 880,877 MT, while five years later (1930-1931) they
stood at 885,023 MT, despite a drop of nearly 50 per cent in the amounts
going to Japan and its refineries.
Nonetheless, developments in the China market need to be placed in
perspective. Although Java maintained the 1925-1926 level of exports
to East Asia, it proved incapable of increasing its overall sales in the
region during a period in which its output of sugar grew significantly.
Production, which had stood at around 2.3 million MT in 1925, had
risen to a little over 3 million MT by 1930. Much of this ‘excess’ produc-
tion was absorbed by the South Asian market; developments there, how-
ever, were about to make Java’s prospects in the subcontinent even less
promising than those in China, where, by 1932, the boom in the import
of factory white was coming to an end.
Most immediately, the Java industry’s prospects in East Asia were
stymied by the imposition by the Chinese Nationalist authorities of a
substantial tariff on imported sugar. This took place in the context of at-
tempts not only to raise revenue but also to protect the development of a
nascent industrial base for indigenous sugar manufacture, a development
in which the state was itself directly involved. The actual production of
industrially manufactured sugar in China during the 1930s was so small
as to have had little direct impact on existing overseas suppliers, though
a parallel upsurge in peasant-made brown sugar may indeed have had
some effect. Notionally, at least, high duties on imported sugar meant
that it was priced out of the range of many consumers, turning it into
what Dutch sources lamented had become a ‘luxury item’.19 Even more
to the point, however, the new tariff regime promoted large-scale smug-
19 Jaarverslag NIVAS, 1933-1934, p. 52, in: NA, NIVAS, 1932-1958, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 8. At the end
of 1930, the Nationalist government in Nanjing used its newly regained tariff autonomy to impose a
duty of 35% on imported sugar. The real blow to importers, however, came in May 1932, when the duty
was raised to around 80% (Kubo 2005:147-8). The actual figure may have been considerably higher. In
the mid-1930s, for example, Dutch commercial agents in Shanghai claimed that the tariff equated, in
the case of Java’s factory white (the most expensive quality of Java sugar), to 200% or more of its value
(Jaarverslag NHM Shanghai, 1934, p. 46; 1935, p. 48, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 5172).
219
gling, the chief beneficiaries of which were rival Japanese sugar interests,
who – by now – drew increasing amounts of their raw material from
sources other than the Netherlands Indies. In combination, these two
developments had serious consequences for the Java industry’s hopes of
retaining its hold over the East Asian market.
domestic sugar production in nationalist china
The production of industrially manufactured sugar began in south

China in the mid-1930s, under the patronage of the Nationalist leader
Chen Jitang, whose regime monopolized the production and sale of
white sugar throughout Guangdong.20 Half a dozen modern sugar fac-
tories, with equipment originating from either Czechoslovakia (Škoda)
or the United States (Honolulu Ironworks), were established there, vari-
ously under military and civilian auspices, and presided over by Dr Feng
Rui, an American-trained agricultural expert and chief architect of
Chen’s sugar production scheme.21 Some of the technicians, including a
number of Indonesian-Chinese sugar makers, were ex-employees of the
Java industry.22 In 1937 (after the ousting of Chen Jitang and the execu-
tion of Feng Rui on a charge of large-scale sugar smuggling), colonial
Indonesia’s Kian Gwan, a multinational avant la lettre (with what was said
to be an ‘outstanding’ business organization in China and ready access
on a personal level to influential people in the Nanjing government) took
over the running of several of the factories.23 In a development likewise
20 Hill 1998; Lin 2002:200-2.

21 Hill 2010. For contemporary Dutch accounts of developments that touched on their prospects in a
major market for Java sugar, see Jaarverslag NHM Hong Kong, 1934, pp. 4, 14-6, 20-1; 1937, p. 10, in:
NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 5172; ‘A brief report on the sugar industry of China’, no year, appendix, J.J.
Wierink to NIVAS, 22-3-1937, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 383.
22 Wierink to NIVAS, 29-2-1936, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 383.
23 Kian Gwan, under the name of Hsing Wah, was appointed (1937) to the general management of
the two ‘military’ mills in Canton. The firm was to get 20% and the military 80% of the profits (BSHK
to Swires, 16-4-1937, JSSV 1/9; see also Wierink to NIVAS, 7-10-1936, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03,
inv. nr. 383). One minister in the Nanjing government was said be a friend and former fellow student of
Oei Kan Tjwan, Kian Gwan’s chief representative in China, and the Oei Tiong Ham family (owners of
Kian Gwan) had family ties with the former Foreign Minister of the regime (‘Extract brief Waarnemend
Inspecteur der NHM NV Shanghai to NHM Batavia, 26-4-1933, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr.
537). According to information collected from members of the family, OTHC/Kian Gwan had close
links in Shanghai with Chen Kung Po, one-time mayor of the city who subsequently became ‘a minister
in the Japanese puppet regime of Wang Ching Wei’, in partnership with whom they ran a large alcohol
distillery near the city (1934) (Post 2011:176-7).
220
foreshadowing overseas Chinese investment later in the century, Straits

Chinese capital was also tentatively involved. However, neither develop-
ment came to fruition. The Straits interests withdrew,24 and Kian Gwan
severed its links within less than a year.25
It cannot be said with any degree of certainty how much industrially
manufactured sugar was actually produced in southern China around
this time. From the vantage point of their Hong Kong enclave, the
British managers of Taikoo viewed the whole development with some
scepticism. They did not doubt south China’s potential for producing
large amounts of industrially manufactured sugar. However, ‘turning to
actualities, corruption, mismanagement, lack of care and official inter-
ference have so far prevented any large-scale production, and with recent
successive changes of officials, the industry is very near to a standstill’.26
formosa: java’s nemesis
Java sugar’s problems in the East Asian market by the 1930s were multi-
ple.27 Fundamentally, however, what sunk Java sugar’s hopes of contin-
ued sales in China and Japan was the emergence of Formosa as a major
producer of industrially manufactured sugar. Developments on the
island from circa 1910 onward (the Japanese had forced its transfer from
China some fifteen years earlier) reflected the determination of Japan’s
leading zaibatsu to create a Japanese sugar empire that would supply not
only the rapidly expanding requirements of the modernizing Japanese
metropolis, but also the East Asian mainland which was coming increas-
ingly under Japanese sway from the mid-1920s onward. As we have seen,
Java had initially been a key supplier of raw material to the Japanese
refineries, but in the late 1920s Formosa had started to replace it.
The sugar industry that the Japanese took over after gaining con-
trol of Formosa was an antiquated one. Subsequently, however, and
with strong government backing, Japanese companies began pouring in
24 In 1937 a Straits Chinese consortium (PAN) was reported to be involved in negotiations to run the
‘civilian’ factories (that is, those not currently run by Kian Gwan) (Wierink to NIVAS, 8-4-1937, in: NA,
NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 383.
25 By the middle of 1938, Kian Gwan’s connection had ceased and its staff had been withdrawn
(Wierink to NIVAS, 12-8-1938; 1-9-1938, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 383).
27 Knight 2010.
221
capital, and importing know-how, to create a network of state-of-the-art

sugar factories that emulated those of Java. Formosa now produced both
raw sugar for Japanese refineries and factory white for direct consump-
tion throughout East Asia.28 By 1930, there were forty-eight fully indus-
trialized sugar factories operating in Formosa, producing some 571,718
MT of sugar from more than 117,000 hectares of cane. This output was,
of course, very much less than Java’s nearly 3 million MT. Quite excep-
tionally among the world’s major sugar industries, however, production
in Formosa continued to grow during the decade of the Depression. By
1940 output amounted to more than one million MT, not much less
than that of the revived but much-shrunk industry on Java, and Formosa
had become the world’s fourth-largest producer-exporter of cane sugar,
much of it factory white well suited to supply the Chinese market with-
out any need for further refining.29
The impact on the Java industry was far-reaching. In the early 1920s,
when Formosa first began to make significant inroads in the metro-
politan Japanese market, Java still supplied about 50 per cent of Japan’s
requirements. By the end of the decade, however, Formosa (and other
Japanese colonial sources) was supplying around 75 per cent and Java
only 25 per cent – and worse was yet to come: indeed, at the very close
of the 1930s, Java accounted for a mere 15 per cent or less of Japan’s
imports, and Formosan sugar totally dominated the market.
java sugar and the trade war between the

netherlands indies and japan
Nonetheless, although the rise of industrial sugar production in Formosa

eventually served to marginalize Java in the Japanese sugar empire, at the
beginning of the 1930s the demise of the Dutch colonial industry’s East
Asian markets was far from a foregone conclusion. For all that Formosa
took over from Java as the main supplier to Japanese refineries during the
course of the 1920s, the colony was not in a position totally to supplant
Java in the Japanese sugar empire. Such calculations as are currently
28 For the Formosa industry, see Mazumdar 1998:368-82; Ka 1995:62-9, 109-25.

29 Data from Rosenfeld 1929; Formosa suikerproductie 1933 (which shows Formosa’s output in 1931-1933
to be composed overwhelming of factory white); Ho 1978:357. Formosa had started to produce factory
white a few years before the First World War (H. Schmidt 1912).
222
available suggest that although Formosa’s output was sufficient to supply

Japan’s domestic market, its factories could not meet the demands of
Japan’s expanding sugar empire on the East Asian mainland.30 Moreover,
there seems no doubt that Java’s sugar was cheaper to produce than that
of its Formosan counterpart – and was hence notionally more attractive
to Japan’s refineries than the output of their own colonial possessions.31
Attempts to reintegrate Java into the Japanese sugar empire after
the debacle of 1927, however, ran up against a number of obstacles.
Chief among them were the conflicted commercial relations between
the Netherlands Indies and Japan that developed during the course of
the 1930s. It may indeed be the case that embedded in this history (as
Sugiyama and Grove have noted in a broader context) are themes of
collaboration as well as of rivalry.32 Nevertheless, it was a trade war be-
tween the Netherlands and Japan that effectively sank any hopes that the
Java sugar producers might find salvation in renewed ties to the Japanese
refiners and to the Japanese sugar empire in general.
It was a complex situation.33 On the one hand, Japanese cotton goods
manufacturers were anxious to sustain and expand their market in the
30 Writing circa 1937, H.C. Prinsen Geerligs and R.J. Prinsen Geerligs (1938:67, 69-71) remarked that
the ‘production of Japan and Formosa is about equal to Japan’s consumption. Yet the country imports
great quantities of raw material for the refineries, which ship the equivalent to the Asiatic mainland
viz China, Manchuko, Korea etc.’ A similar point emerges from a NIVAS reportage from this era. For
instance, in 1936 the organization noted that an increase in exports of raw Java sugar to Japan was
predicated on the growth of Japanese refinery sales in China. They also drew attention to rising per
capita consumption in Japan itself as a promising sign for the Java industry (Jaarverslag NIVAS, 1935-
1936, p. 22, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 10. Even on Japan’s home market, although imports
from Formosa were said to contribute to 75% of domestic consumption (Ho 1978:31), they nonetheless
fell well short of the total amount.
31 Ho (1978:73-4) notes that this stemmed from climate problems and relatively backward cultiva-
tion techniques (consequent on the sugar company’s decision to rely primarily on ‘cheap’ and risk-free
peasant smallholder production). Ka (1995:123-4) argues that ‘Formosa was not an efficient producer
of sugar, the growth of the industry was confined to the Japanese market, where it received preferential
treatment’. As a result, ‘Japan could have obtained sugar more cheaply from Java than from Formosa’.
32 Grove and Sugiyama 2001:11.
33 For a succinct discussion, see Taselaar 1998:410-2. For elaboration and documentation, see Dick
1989:251-5, 2002:158-62; Booth 1994, 2002:79-85; Post 1995. On trade negotiations in general, see
Dick 1989:254-8. On the possibility of a deal over sugar, see NHM Kobe to Amsterdam 3-5-1934;
5-5-1934; 8-5-1934, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9230. For a general overview of these negotiations,
see the files relating to the Netherlands Indies’ trade negotiations, 1934-1936 in: NA, Collectie 190 J.W.
Meyer Ranneft, 1910-1968, toegangsnummer 2.21.121, inv. nrs. 93, 98. The specific information quoted
here comes from inv. nr. 98, Bijlage 16. I am grateful to Jeroen Bouterse, of Leiden University, for kindly
investigating this source on my behalf. For information on Japanese sugar interests in Formosa (and refer-
ences to Japanese sources), see Schneider 1998:163-4. For a contemporary Western account (circa 1930)
of the refinery interests of Mitsui, Mitsubishi (and Dai Nihon), see Suikerindustrie Formosa 1931. This lists
the Mitsui, Mitsubishi and Dai Nihon refineries in metropolitan Japan and their links with Formosa (but
223
Indies. In pursuit of this, they appear to have been prepared, had they
been able to, to sacrifice the interests of the Japanese-Formosa sugar
producers as part of a deal that would have allowed Java sugar into
Japan in return for reduced tariffs on Japanese cotton goods imported
into the Indies. Understandably, any such proposal met with fierce resis-
tance from Japan’s ‘sugar barons’, represented by the country’s leading
zaibatsu (just to complicate matters further, the latter also had a stake in
the cotton goods industry).
On the Dutch side, meanwhile, there were likewise tensions be-
tween the interests of metropolitan cotton-goods manufacturers, who
wanted to keep cheap Japanese cotton goods out of the Indies, and the
metropolitan-colonial sugar interest that was prepared to accept this as
the necessary trade-off for the entry of substantial amounts of Java sugar
into the Japanese arena. The situation was further confused, moreover,
by the determination of the Indies government to promote cotton goods
manufacture in the colony itself, as part of a larger programme of indus-
trialization in the archipelago. The eventual outcome, over a period of
years, went against Java sugar. Japanese cotton goods were (largely) kept
out of the Indies and Java sugar lost a (possible) opportunity of finding
a secure market in Japan. On the Dutch side, Java sugar was thereby
sacrificed to a mixture of competing metropolitan interests. In short,
by the late 1930s Big Sugar lacked the heft to prevent the state cutting
the industry loose when the demands of a larger colonial-metropolitan
economic strategy appeared to require it.34
It was not a total defeat. When a separate sugar agreement was fi-
nally reached between Netherlands Indies’ and Japanese sugar interests,
at the end of 1936, it contained provisions for minimizing competition
in the China market, in return for which the Japanese refineries under-
took to increase, as far as possible, their imports of raw Java sugar into
has virtually no information on Ensuiko, likewise one of the top firms involved, with links to Mitsubishi).
The article shows that circa 1930 some 30% of all Formosa sugar came from what was, in effect, Mitsui’s
Formosa Sugar Co (Formosa Seito Kabushiki Kaisha). Mitsui was by far the largest single shareholder
in the firm, followed by the Japanese royal family. The company had two metropolitan refineries, one
in Kobe and the other on Kyushu at Kurume. Mitsui was followed (in almost equal importance) by the
Mitsubishi-linked Meiji Sugar Co, with three refineries in Japan and one in Shanghai (Meika), opened
in 1924. The Dai Nihon Sugar Manufacturing Co, circa 1930, appears to have had the largest refining
capacity – with three in Japan and one in Korea. For a brief reference to Mitsubishi’s long-standing inter-
est in Ensuiko, already in place in the 1920s, see, for example, BSHK to Swires, 25-10-1929, JSSV 1/2.
34 For an overview of the long-term economic nexus between the Indies and its metropolis, see Lind-
blad 1996.
224
Japan.35 It appears, however, to have left the Japanese sugar refiners

free to develop their interests in sugar production in Formosa. In these
circumstances, a great deal hinged on the potential for expansion in the
China market, beset from 1937 onward by the outbreak of full-scale
war between the Nationalist government and Japanese invaders. The
upshot was perhaps predictable. Though in 1936-1937 Japanese imports
of raw Java sugar amounted to over 250,000 MT, a figure not reached
since 1930-31,36 by the end of the decade Java’s sales to Japan had been
reduced to a mere trickle. In respect to Java sugar’s other great Asian
market, moreover, the outlook was hardly less gloomy.
in the shadow of the raj: java sugar and indian

producers in the interwar decades
The largest single market for the Java industry for much of the 1920s
was not in East Asia, but in the Indian subcontinent. Java sugar, much
of it ready for direct consumption without the need for further refining,
had made big inroads there since the turn of the century. Factory white,
as we have seen, was manufactured on a very large scale in Java, where
by the 1920s around half of the island’s colonial manufacturers turned
out a product that came straight off the production line in a form that
exhibited an acceptable degree of whiteness and granulation. In conse-
quence, and in contrast to the situation in East Asia, the market for Java
sugar in the subcontinent was not serviced by refineries, but by importers
of a directly consumable form of the commodity.
The bulk of this export business, predominantly in factory white,
was handled by Java-based firms, though Mitsui Bussan Kaisha (Mitsui
Trading Company), part of the eponymous Japanese zaibatsu, was also
engaged in the trade. Indeed, they already had an office in Bombay as
early as 1910.37 To be sure, a number of Indian firms also participated.
35 Sugar agreement 1937.
36 H.C. Prinsen Geerligs and R.J. Prinsen Geerligs 1938:83-4.
37 See Suikermarkt Bombay 1911, where the writer remarks that nine-tenths of the Java sugar imported
into Bombay circa 1911 is in the hands of five firms: Bombay Sugar Co, Ralli Bros, David Sassoon &
Co, Mitsui Bushen Kaischa, and Patna and Sons. For confirmation of Ralli Bros’ continuing role in the
late 1920s, see B.M. Talati to BSHK, 23-5-1929 in Sugar Refinery Letters 1929 JSSV 1/2. The writer
remarked that the bulk of India’s supply came from Java, and that the business was ‘mostly in the hands
of wealthy merchants of Bombay province, and almost all of them have branches or at least agencies in
Java. Messers Ralli Bros stand prominent among the foreign firms importing Java sugar’.
225
David Sassoon & Co,38 Patna and Sons, M.V. Patel and Abdul Rahim
Oosman & Co were among those operating in the 1910s and 1920s.39
The quantities of sugar which they handled, however, tended to be
relatively small in relation to Java’s total export to the subcontinent. In
1927, for example, when total shipping of the commodity to Indian
ports amounted to over 800,000 MT, Indian buyers accounted for less
than 6 per cent of it (47,650 MT).40 Rather than Indian firms, the main
participants would appear (apart from Mitsui) to have been the ‘usual
suspects’ among the big trading concerns operating outside of Java.
Kian Gwan was among them – though by the 1930s it was said that
their agent in Calcutta had not so much gone ‘native’ as gone British in
his ways, much to the detriment of his contacts in the bazaar, and that
Kian Gwan’s provisioning of the market there was erratic.41 The others
were (presumably) Wellenstein Krause & Co, Erdmann & Sielcken and
(most certainly) the Maclaine Watson ‘group’, in particular Fraser Eaton
& Co in Surabaya.
In the subcontinent itself, Maclaine Watson (in its various permuta-
tions) worked closely with the India-based Ralli brothers, with whom
(in both London and Java) the firm and its metropolitan associates were
said to have enjoyed a quite exceptionally close and confidential business
relationship.42 Established in the mid-nineteenth century as the Indian
offshoot of a company founded in London by members of the Greek
diaspora in the 1820s, Ralli was a key player in the Indian sugar market
until well into the 1930s (by which time exports from Java had dropped
off dramatically).43 Indeed, from around 1930 until 1937 – when it ap-
pears to have broken up – Maclaine Watson and Ralli formed a partner-
38 For Sassoon (‘the Rothschilds of the East’), see Betta 2005.

39 For the 1920s, see, for example, Jaarverslag VJSP 1930, pp. 13-6, in: NA, VJSP, 2.20.09.02, inv. nr.
16, for a complete list of buyers of the 90% or so of Java sugar that VJSP handled.
40 Jaarverslag VJSP 1930, p. 16, in: NA, VJSP, 2.20.09.02, inv. nr. 16.
41 G.M. Schuitemaker to NIVAS, 8-2-1934, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 382.
42 ‘[…] er tusschen Ralli en hunne relaties op Java [that is Maclaines/MacNeill/Fraser Eaton] een
veel betere en meer vertrouwelijke samenwerking bestaat, dan, Kian Gwan uitgezonderd, bij eenige
andere relatie mogelijk is’. See G.M. Schuitemaker, ‘Reisverslag Britsch-Indië, 16-1-1934 tot 12-4-1934’,
25-5-1934 [hereafter Schuitemaker, ‘Reisverslag’], p. 66, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 382.
43 Founded in London in 1818 by Greeks from Chios, the firm opened a branch in Calcutta in 1851
(at a time when their capital was in excess of 500,000 pounds sterling ‘which compared favourably with
the top British mercantile houses of the period’). For a general history of Ralli Brothers, see Chapman
1998:163-4 and the references therein.
226
ship known as the Maclaine Sugar Company.44 During the 1930s, the
Indian operations of the Swiss-based firm of Volkart45 were said to be
giving Ralli Brothers a run for their money – but in respect to the sugar
trade specifically, the latter appear to have retained their predominance,
until the trade itself dried up toward the close of the decade.46
At the peak of the trade at the end of the 1920s, the Indian subconti-
nent took around 45 per cent of Java’s total exports of sugar, amounting
to well over one million MT (up from around half a million early in the
decade). Thereafter, however, the market contracted sharply, compound-
ing the problems that the Java industry was experiencing in East Asia.
By 1931-1932, Java’s exports to South Asia had fallen by about 50 per
cent from their peak two years earlier, and during the remainder of
the decade (there were violent fluctuations in the trade, consequent on
the state of the cane harvest in northern India) averaged at a little over
250,000 MT annually – less than a quarter of the amount exported in
the boom years.47 Setbacks in this market related to a different set of
circumstances, however, than those prevailing in East Asia. In part, they
stemmed from the competition from other overseas suppliers that Java
sugar had always had to fend off on the Indian market. The problem was
less the sheer volume of such rival imports than the fact they acted to
depress prices. By the 1930s, the inflow into the subcontinent of ‘British
refined’, and of sugar dumped by a number of continental European
producers, kept the price of Java sugar so low in India as to mean that it
was regularly sold below cost.
The Java industry was not holding its own. In 1932 the NHM’s agent
calculated that at Bombay alone, imports of Java sugar and European
beet sugar were roughly on par: 67,000 MT as against 61,000 MT.48
In the subcontinent as a whole in that year, imports from elsewhere
exceeded those of Java by a margin of nearly 30 per cent (Java 366,800
MT as against other imports of 516,000 MT). Suppliers of the South
44 This was an arrangement between Maclaine Watson, MacNeill & Co and Fraser Eaton with Ralli
Brothers, London. See the various letters relating to ‘Maclaine Sugar Company’ et cetera in: NA, NI-
VAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 518.
45 On Volkart, founded in 1851 in Winterthur and Bombay simultaneously, see Rambousek, Vogt and
Volkart 1991; Dejung 2007.
46 In 1934, it was said that the firm ‘nu het leeuwenaandeel in de Javasuiker business in handen heeft
gekregen’ (Schuitemaker, ‘Reisverslag’, 1934, p. 65, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 382).
47 See Appendix 2. Main export destinations Java sugar, circa 1880-1940.
48 For imports of sugar from Russia, see, for example, Jaarverslag NHM Bombay 1931, p. 42; 1932,
pp. 46-7, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 5065.
227
Asian market included Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary,

the USA, Mozambique and Portuguese East Africa.49 In this context,
moreover, the Java industry did itself no favours by underestimating the
discrimination of the Indian consumer. One well-researched report in
1934, for example, drew attention to the fact that the Dutch had been
off-loading old and inferior sugar on the markets of the subcontinent;
that Java was not matching the consistent quality of other imports; and
that consumer discernment about the kind of sugar they preferred was
working to Java’s disadvantage.50
The underlying problem, however, was that British India was de-
veloping a very substantial industrialized sugar industry of its own –
protected by tariff barriers against imported sugar by a Raj anxious to
placate Indian capital and provide an income of sorts for cultivators who
had been badly hit by a sharp fall in raw-cotton prices. At the beginning
of the 1930s, duties on imported sugar were raised exponentially – they
now amounted to around 200 per cent, according to Dutch reports,
which also included information not only about this degree of ‘exor-
bitant protection’, but also about government support for the industry,
including technical advice and freight concessions on the railways.51
Nonetheless, the effect was not immediate. Attempts to introduce in-
dustrial sugar production into the subcontinent had a chequered history
dating back to the 1840s.52 The most immediate precursors of industri-
alized production, however, were to be found in refineries established in
the 1870s. For the most part, they were in the business of taking gur and
processing it into a more sophisticated product. From the late nineteenth
century onward, however, industrial plants, manufacturing centrifugal
sugar and designed to handle cane rather than gur, began to reappear.
A couple of rather breathless articles appeared in The International Sugar
Journal early in the new century, for example, reporting that the newly
established India Development Company Ltd of London and Calcutta
was about to build an elaborate industrial factory in Bihar, with equip-
ment, including grinding mills, from celebrated Glasgow engineering
firms of Mirrlees Watson and McOnie Harvey.53 Nonetheless, as late
49 Jaarverslag NHM Calcutta 1932, pp. 27-8, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 5069.
50 Schuitemaker, ‘Reisverslag’, 1934, pp. 60-2, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 382.
51 Jaarverslag NHM Calcutta, 1932, p. 27, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 5069.
52 Ratledge 2009.
53 India 1901; Sugar Bihar 1902.
228
as 1931, there were only twenty-nine such factories in the whole sub-
continent. Five years later, however, there were more than four times
that number,54 and the NHM’s Bombay agent was reporting dolefully
on the large amount of machinery being imported (to the value of 55
lakhs of rupees), reckoning that most of it, largely from the UK and the
Netherlands, was destined for the sugar industry.55 During the course of
the 1930s, India’s output of sugar produced by industrial methods in-
creased more than tenfold, from less than 100,000 MT at the beginning
of the decade to well over a million MT at its close.56
In consequence of this bourgeoning of India’s own centrifugal sugar
industry, exports of Java sugar to Calcutta and Bombay were gradually
eroded, so that, toward the end of the decade, only a tiny fraction of
Java’s output serviced what had only ten years earlier been its largest
single market. Nonetheless, the pre-war Java industry did not give up
easily on the Indian market. Not least, it might be suspected, because
they did not really believe that anybody – at least in Asia – could make
sugar as well or as cheaply as they did. On this last point they were prob-
ably right. Indeed, it was one of the marketing ironies of the interwar
depression that the world’s cheapest producers of sugar (Java and Cuba)
were left with mountains of it on their hands. As to Indian ‘incapacity’
as manufacturers, on the other hand, the Java sugar interests plainly de-
ceived themselves, in so far as they gave credence to some of the bleaker
prognoses.
One such report, dating from 1933 and penned by a Java technician
who had relocated to India, dwelt on purported Indian mismanagement
and stubborn lack of know-how. Why, he wrote in shocked disbelief,
Indian subordinates even argued with him! He predicted that the current
expansion of industrial sugar production in the subcontinent would be
a short-lived phenomenon. 57 A more considered analysis made scarcely
a year later, however, came to a very different conclusion. Its author
was perfectly ready to concede that, whatever the early difficulties may
have been, the industry in the subcontinent could match Java in quality
54 Amin 1984:95, 111.

55 Jaarverslag NHM Bombay, 1934, p. 38, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 5065.
56 See Appendix 2: Main export destinations Java sugar, circa 1880-1940.
57 B.J. Gratama, ‘De suikerindustrie in Britisch-Indië’, 3-2-1933, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr. 9159.
Gratama had previously been an industrial chemist (chemiker) at the NHM’s Poerwodadi sugar factory in
East Java (Adresboek Nederlandsch-Indië 1929:393).
229
in most ranges of product.58 By 1937, Dutch agents there were indeed

warning Java that India was nearly self-sufficient in sugar. To be sure,
there were some wild fluctuations. In 1939 imports of Java sugar sud-
denly surged, but this was primarily because of accidents of nature –
flooding, crop disease and insect plagues – rather than because of any
structural deficiency in the industry itself, which was said to be becoming
more profitable on account of rising prices.59 In short, the secular trend
was firmly against Java.
java, japan and the raj: globalization and the

international sugar economy in the interwar
decades
The rise of Formosa to prominence in the international sugar economy

of the interwar years perhaps reflected a rather old-fashioned, even
mercantilist approach to the creation of sugar empires on the part
of Japanese capital, in so far as it was based on notions of the self-
sufficiency of the Yen Block. Nonetheless, together with what happened,
more or less contemporaneously, in the Indian subcontinent, it was also
suggestive of developments of a rather different stamp. The element of
‘self-sufficiency’ – and its close association with the economic autarchy
of the depression era – was certainly very much in evidence, and heavily
promoted by those who invested their capital in the industry. Yet, there
was another tendency present in the rapid expansion of industrialized
sugar production in the subcontinent in the course of the 1930s.
Perhaps unconsciously, NIVAS management alluded to it in 1934,
when they lamented ‘this sending back and forth of huge quantities
of sugar’ from one end of the earth to another, something that they
regarded as ‘indicative of the chaos in which the world finds itself ’.60
It was also indicative, however, of something else: something that can
quite appropriately be termed ‘globalization’, albeit in a form in which
the palpably global character of the international sugar economy was
compromised by an ostensibly paradoxical tendency toward autarchy. It
is true, of course, that few internationally traded commodities were quite
58 Schuitemaker, ‘Reisverslag’, 1934, p. 59, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 382.
59 Jaarverslag NIVAS 1938-1939, p. 40, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 13.
60 Jaarverslag NIVAS 1933-1934, p. 57, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 8.
230
as ambiguously located on the cusp of protection and globalization as

sugar. The relationship between the two, however, was more symbiotic
than contradictory.
The trend toward economic autarchy was, as we have already seen,
much in evidence in the interwar decades, and in the 1930s in particular.
Tariff barriers, punitive import duties, and the like were the order of the
day, and did much damage to the Java sugar industry’s chances of re-
maining a viable exporter of the commodity. Nonetheless, in the specific
context of the international sugar economy, the policies of economic
autarchy pursued in the Yen zone, in southern China and in the Indian
subcontinent also reflected the global spread of industrialization. Such
policies formed a shell within which the industrial manufacture of sugar
could become established in parts of Asia where this had previously
been commercially difficult, if not impossible. In this sense, economic
autarchy and globalization were two sides of the same coin. In tandem,
moreover, they created a situation in which, in classic globalization
mode, the international sugar economy would seek to shift its operations
to wherever they promised the greatest profit, regardless of political or
national boundaries.
A prime case in point is the nexus between the declining sugar indus-
try of late colonial Java and the burgeoning manufacture of industrially
produced sugar in South Asia in the 1930s, where the erection of a high
tariff barrier for imported sugar created a situation in British India that
was highly conducive to a shift in manufacturing operations within the
international sugar economy. The query from an Indian businessman to
Prinsen Geerligs quoted at the beginning of this chapter was indicative
of a very real situation. The early 1930s saw not only the decimation
of Java sugar as an export industry, but also, quite literally, a transfer of
productive capacity to the Indian subcontinent, involving the transfer of
both machines and men. Second-hand, now redundant sugar-making
machinery was sold to Indian interests, and (Indies) Dutch technicians
and managers sought refuge from the depression in the new, rapidly
expanding sugar industry of the subcontinent. Many overseas sugar in-
dustry operatives sought their fortunes in India at this time, but ‘above all
it was Java that had supplied a substantial contingent, among them some
very experienced personnel’.61 The caption to a contemporary photo-
61 Schuitemaker, ‘Reisverslag’, 1934, pp. 34-5, 78-9, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 382.
231
graph of the staff quarters at one of the new Indian factories points to
the ‘two Dutch children’ standing out front.62 European personnel from
Java were joined by numerous Indies-Chinese sugar ‘boilers’, the people,
that is, who formed the mainstay of the skilled staff who ran the multiple
effects and vacuum pans that lay at the heart of the industrialized sugar
factory. ‘Totally senang [contented] they were not’, so it was reported, but
the upside was that they found it cheap and easy to travel back and to
between India and Java to meet the seasonal needs of their new employ-
ers and maintain contact with their families.63
In this context of globalizing tendencies, it was of special significance
that Kian Gwan, the Java-based Indies ‘multinational’, was to be found
in the 1930s projecting at least one sugar factory in the subcontinent (as
we have seen, the firm was also involved in the nascent sugar industry
of southern China).64 At around the same time, plans were afoot on the
part of Fraser Eaton & Co, Java’s biggest firm of European sugar traders
(and part of the Maclaine Watson group), to shift one or other of their
Java factories to the subcontinent, in conjunction with Ralli Bros, who
were their long-time associates in the business of exporting Java sugar to
India.65 Another face of globalization was apparent, moreover, in Ralli’s
simultaneous import into the subcontinent of British sugar, which was
currently cheaper than its Java counterpart. ‘Sentiment’ and ‘loyalty’ had
no part in this game.66
Of course, it would be possible to over-emphasize the overall impor-
tance of this shift from Java to India. It took place, as might be imagined,
in the larger context of the growth of a corps of well-trained South
Asian sugar operatives, supervisors and managers (for whom a major
64 For the report of a projected deal by Kian Gwan to build a factory in Rampur State, circa 1935, see
Schuitemaker, ‘Reisverslag’, 1934, p. 2, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 382. According to this source,
the deal fell through when Kian Gwan asked for a substantial deposit of some 300,000 rupees from the
state authorities in Rampur, and relations declined to the point where Kian Gwan’s representative was
told not to show his face in the state again.
65 Schuitemaker, ‘Reisverslag’, 1934, pp. 34-5, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nr. 382. Schuitemaker
reported that although he had been told by Ralli executives that they were exclusively interested in
importing sugar, he subsequently discovered that Fraser Eaton had sent one of their people (a Mr. Law-
rence) to India (in 1933?) to discuss the relocation of manufacture from Java to the subcontinent.
66 For the dispute between NIVAS and Maclaine Watson (Ralli’s associates in the sugar trade) over
the alleged overpricing of Java sugar, see the exchange of letters in early 1933 between N. McNeill of
Maclaine’s London Office and the NHM’s A.A. Pauw, in Amsterdam, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nr.
2919.
232
sugar school and research station had been established) and a plethora
of domestic Indian sugar capital. Likewise, it occurred in a context in
which a great deal of new equipment was supplied by manufacturers
in the UK, Germany, Belgium, France and the Netherlands – with the
leading Dutch firm of Stork-Werkspoor well to the fore!67 Nonetheless,
the shift of personnel and machinery from Java to India – and the reloca-
tion plans of several major operators – was indicative. At the very least, it
was a harbinger of post-colonial developments in the international sugar
economy that began, as did many postcolonial trends, in the interwar
decades rather than, as has often been thought to be the case, in the
post-Second World War era.
globalization and autarchy
The interwar depression’s impact on Java sugar production needs to be

located within a much broader framework of developments that began
around 1920 and only concluded with the outbreak of war in the Pacific
more than two decades later. The endogenous nature of Java’s sugar in-
dustry, bereft of the (relatively) secure ‘home’ markets that characterized
virtually all of its counterparts in the international sugar economy of the
late colonial era, always had the potential to spell trouble. The situation
in which the industry found itself – one in which sugar was as global a
commodity as oil is today – was accentuated rather than caused by in the
interwar depression of the 1930s.
In the case of East Asia, the critical development, played out over the
better part of twenty years, was Java’s relation to the Japanese sugar em-
pire whose origins dated back to the very end of the nineteenth century.
In the Western hemisphere, Cuba – Java’s occidental counterpart, and
the world’s largest exporter of cane sugar during the period concerned
– remained (however uneasily) within the orbit of an American sugar
empire that embraced both the old Spanish Caribbean, Hawaii, the
Philippines and the United States’ own domestic producers. In ‘the East’
Java clearly had the potential to be similarly located within the parallel,
virtually contemporaneous, though smaller, Japanese imperium, whose
233
production zones extended southward from Korea by way of Formosa

into the islands of the South Pacific.
This did not happen, for a number of reasons. The resistance of the
Netherlands Indies’ state to the forces drawing it into the Japanese orbit
combined with the crisis-ridden nature of the ‘empire’ itself, marked by
the collapse of one of its biggest enterprises in 1927 and a subsequent
decade of conflicted sales in its main market on the Chinese mainland.
The net effect was to marginalize the Java producers and promote the
expansion of their competitors in Formosa which, unlike Java, was quite
unambiguously within the Japanese sphere. Although the British-owned
Taikoo refinery in Hong Kong maintained its long-standing ties with
the Java industry more or less throughout the 1930s, its own reduced
markets in China (consequent, in part at least, on the expansion of
Japanese power and influence) meant that it could not provide Java’s
salvation.
Java’s position vis-à-vis its markets in the Indian subcontinent was
ostensibly markedly different. In South Asia – and in sharp contrast to
the situation in China – from the late 1920s onward, the Java produc-
ers found themselves faced with the rapid industrialization of sugar
production on a large and strikingly successful scale. Within a decade,
South Asia became largely self-sufficient in industrially manufactured,
centrifugal sugar. Similarly in contrast to war-torn China, India in the in-
terwar decades benefited from a pax Britannica that enabled its indigenous
entrepreneurial and business middle classes to exploit tariff protection
in a way that eventually proved impossible for their counterparts in the
cities of coastal China. Nonetheless, there remained a striking similarity
between the situation faced by Java’s sugar exporters in both South and
East Asia in the interwar decades: the end of Java’s hegemony in Asia as
the region’s only large-scale producer of industrially manufactured sugar
and the association of this development with depression-era economic
autarchy in Asia as a whole.
234
Conclusion and postscript
The story of ‘Big Sugar’ in Indonesia
During the middle decades of the nineteenth century, colonial Indonesia

emerged as a leading sector in what was rapidly becoming a truly inter-
national sugar economy, and did so on the basis of a ‘precocious’ indus-
trialization of its manufacturing sector. Subsequently, from the 1880s
onward, the radical transformation of its agricultural base in Java itself,
and the opening of new markets for industrially manufactured sugar
elsewhere in Asia, provided the foundation for the industry’s successful
entry into an age of mass production to which it was otherwise ostensibly
little suited. Inter alia, the existence of those markets, combined with the
fact that Indonesia’s colonial-era sugar factories were not tied to overseas
refining interests (as was the case, for example, with Cuba) led to a situ-
ation in which they produced not only raw sugar for refining elsewhere,
but also huge amounts of so-called factory white, a form of the commod-
ity that was available for direct consumption without further processing.
This was an almost unique development for a major cane-sugar industry.
Inter alia, it enabled Indonesia’s colonial producers to compete on the
South Asian market (at a time when modern refineries scarcely existed
there) with the great beet sugar producers of Central Europe, the world’s
largest factory white manufacturers, who had developed a global reach
for their output early on. Elsewhere in Asia, however, Indonesia was
reliant on supplying raw sugar to huge refineries in Hong Kong and,
subsequently, Japan.
The single-most striking aspect of the situation was the industry’s
unique degree of dependence – at least, for so large a producer – on
‘exogenous’ markets. Having no ‘endogenous’ metropolitan market for
its output worth mentioning (the price paid for being the colony of a
minor European power that owed its continued presence in Indonesia
to the needs of international diplomacy), the sugar companies operating
in the colony during the late colonial era were forced to find markets for
the commodity in territories where Holland exerted little or no imperial
clout. For much of the period concerned, moreover, they had to do so in
competition not only (until 1914) with European beet sugar producers,
but also with Caribbean cane sugar manufacturers and newly emerged
Japanese sugar interests. In this situation, price was obviously impor-
tant, and although there is some argument that Cuban sugar was even
cheaper,1 Indonesia’s colonial producers were successful over time in
making their output very cheap indeed. Proximity to their Asian market
also gave them a freight advantage. But in the circumstances in which the
industry found itself in the 1930s, price was hardly the key issue.
By the 1920s, colonial Indonesian suppliers had come to dominate
the market for imported sugar throughout Asia, and virtually all their
output went there. Toward the end of the decade, however, this com-
mercial strategy began to unravel, in circumstances greatly exacerbated
by economic autarchy elsewhere in Asia, encouraged by the onset of the
interwar depression. Colonial Indonesia was pushed to the margins of a
Japanese sugar empire whose main supplier it had previously been, and,
in the Indian subcontinent, locally produced, industrially manufactured
sugar rapidly ousted it from what had been its largest single market.
These two developments ought to have signalled the end of large-scale
commodity production in Java, yet they did not do so. After a brief hiatus
in the mid-1930s, production in Java resumed again on a considerable
scale, albeit one much reduced from the industry’s pre-depression peak
of activity. By 1940, colonial Indonesia was again producing sugar on a
significant scale by world standards. There were several reasons for this.
In part, they related to the industry’s history in the decade prior to the
interwar depression. During the course of the 1920s, the industry had
succeeded in overcoming a variety of major obstacles to the further ex-
pansion, or even the maintenance of existing levels, of production. In so
doing, it had rationalized its fertilizer use (and been blessed with a sharp
fall in its import price after a potentially disastrous peak around 1920),
improved its irrigation systems and – in a rather different arena – had
begun to forge a rather better understanding with the state bureaucracy
than had been the case earlier in the century. In turn, this latter develop-
ment enabled Big Sugar to benefit from the increasingly hard line taken
1 Dye 1998:4. The comparative costing of sugar production nonetheless remains something of a
morass, heavily influenced by different systems of accountancy, and the like.
236
Conclusion and postscript |
by the colonial authorities toward peasant ‘unrest’ during the course

of the decade. This was a big improvement from the sugar companies’
point of view, since, from quite an early date in their mutual history,
sections of the bureaucracy (while others were altogether more compli-
ant) had attempted to curb what was seen as Big Sugar’s propensity to
disintegrate the peasant society which was regarded as the bedrock of
colonial rule. Not only were there clear signs of a rapprochement: there
were also signs that colonial Indonesia was edging toward a ‘corporate’
state that held Big Sugar and the state bureaucrats in a mutual embrace.
Important as the agency of the state was, however, during the sec-
ond half of the 1920s, two other developments were absolutely crucial
to the resumption of growth and the reduction of costs. One was the
industry’s success in reducing the cost of labour inputs (especially in field
production), which appears to have been contingent on a new degree
of impoverishment in the countryside; this drove workers to seek the
industry’s wage, while creating the conditions in which wages could be
lowered. The other factor was a dramatic improvement in plantation
productivity, consequent on the rapid adoption of a newly ‘invented’,
ultra-high-yielding variety of cane. This was a situation that could be
capitalized upon once colonial Indonesia’s huge backlog of unsold sugar
had finally been disposed of circa 1936, and factories began to open
their doors again for business.
The producer’s pre-depression financial standing had a part in this
revival. The singularity, even idiosyncrasy, of Indonesia’s colonial sugar
industry was reflected, inter alia, in the way in which it capitalized its
(expanding) operations. One consequence of this was that the industry
remained a closed shop in which a very significant increase in produc-
tive capacity was largely financed from retained profits. This took place,
moreover, under the aegis of a group of mainly Dutch companies that
had come to dominate the industry late in the nineteenth century and
remained in that dominant position in 1940. There was no internation-
alization of the large-scale commodity production of sugar, such as took
place in the case of other major export staples produced in late colonial
Indonesia. As a result, Indonesia’s colonial sugar producers were (for the
most part) neither indebted to overseas banks, nor in financial thrall to
overseas refining interests. Predominantly, their financial strategies had
been conservative. One of the consequences of this was that when in-
terwar depression threatened to destroy the industry in the early 1930s,
237
most sugar companies were not only ‘cashed-up’, but had huge reserves
at their disposal. In short, the depression had created an unprecedented
opportunity for rationalizing the industry’s operations, while not bank-
rupting most of the major producers.
Above all else, however, depressed conditions in the countryside,
compounded by the extent to which factory closures had themselves
diminished rural employment opportunities, brought down wages and
led to a (temporary) abatement in the secular trend for land rentals to
rise. Production costs in Java during the late 1930s, as the industry ‘got
back on its feet’, were lower than they had been for fifty years or more,
enabling Indonesia’s colonial producers to manufacture sugar cheaply
enough for them to take advantage of ‘spot markets’ – wherever they
arose worldwide. This was just as well, since the newly ‘corporate’
state proved an unreliable ally for Big Sugar on the commercial front.
Indonesia’s colonial sugar companies did not hold sway over other sec-
tors of capital to the extent that had once been the case, and when it
came to the crunch – in relation to a potential trade-off between imports
of Japanese cotton and exports of Indonesian sugar – it was these other
sectors of capital (located, like sugar, as much in the metropolis as in the
colony) that won the day. Attempts to reintegrate Java in the Japanese
sugar empire were thereby stymied. Even so, this was far from the end
of the story.
Most histories of Indonesia’s colonial-era sugar industry have taken
the onset of the interwar depression, the consequently large-scale clo-
sure of Java’s factories and the associated plummeting of production
as signalling the industry’s effective demise. In fact, this was far from
being the case. By the time that the Second World War engulfed the
erstwhile Netherlands Indies in the form of a Japanese invasion in the
early months of 1942, Big Sugar had resumed operations in colonial
Indonesia in no uncertain fashion. Some eighty of the pre-depression
factories had reopened, around 50 per cent of the industry’s productive
capacity had been restored, and output in 1941 stood at around 1,700
MT, or approximately 60 per cent of what it had been in 1930. Records
from a number of major sugar companies suggest that they were operat-
ing at a modest level of profitability (given their huge prior investment
in infrastructure, this was undoubtedly better than letting their ‘capital’
lay idle).
238
Conclusion and postscript |
In these circumstances, the industry indeed had a future: the infra-

structure, personnel and workforce took a battering during the Second
World War and the national revolution against the Dutch that followed
it – as did its commercial strategy. Indeed, it disappeared from the radar
of the international sugar economy in the wake of the Japanese invasion
of the Netherland Indies in the early months of 1942. Yet, enough was
left for a significant degree of rehabilitation to be achieved in the post-
war and post-Independence years. Indeed, by the time of the industry’s
nationalization in the late 1950s, some fifty or more factories were again
operating (including two or three new ones). There were two obvious
explanations for this ‘persistence’. First, Indonesia’s (ex-)colonial factories
had found a new market for their product among Indonesian consum-
ers themselves; second, in resuming production the industry could take
advantage of a desperate need for work in the Javanese countryside.
Somewhere not so very far in the background of these developments,
moreover, was a new state keen to show its credentials by being self-
sufficient in a major, ‘modern’ commodity (that is, white sugar) and a
new, ‘entrepreneurial’ army equally keen to profit from this, and from the
leverage in rural Java which control of the sugar industry would bring.
Leverage was consolidated in the wake of the large-scale massacres
of ‘communists’ in Java in 1965-1966, massacres that the army either
facilitated or itself perpetrated. Even so, leverage had its limitations in
circumscribing the checks to the industry imposed by the ‘opportunity
cost’ of cane, something which became even clearer in the late 1970s,
when a state-inspired switch to small-holder cane production did little
to halt the industry’s declining productivity. The solution proved to lie
in the move of the bulk of Indonesian sugar production away from Java
and into various, far less densely settled areas of the ‘Outer Islands’ of
Indonesia – akin to what the Dutch had tried in a ‘remote’ corner of Java
itself in the opening decades of the twentieth century. These develop-
ments, however, all belong to a different story than that encompassed in
the pages of the present volume.
239
Appendix 1
Various data, circa 1880-1940

10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
18
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
80
1880 1880
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
3000000
18
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
3000000
3500000
80 18
1882 1882 82
18 18 1880
1884 1884 82 84
1886 18 18 1882
1886 84 86
1888 18 1884
1888 86 18
1890 18
88 1886
1890 88 18
1892 90
1892 18 1888
1894 90 18
1894 1896 18 92 1890
92 18
1896 1898 18 94 1892
1900 94 18
1898 18 96 1894
1900 1902 96 18
18 98 1896
1904 98
1902 19 1898
1906 19 00
1904 00
1900
1908 19 19
02
1906 1910 02
19 1902
1908 1912 19 04
04
19 1904
1910 1914 19
06 06
1916 1906
1912 19 19
08
08 1908
1914 1918
19 19
1920 10 10 1910
1916
1922 19 19
12
1918 12 1912
1924 19
Average export sale prices of Java sugar

19
1920 1926
14 14 1914
Sugar Prices on the London Market

19 19
1922 1928 1916
Java sugar exports

16
Java sugar production
16
1930 19
1924 18 19
18 1918
1926 1932 19
20 19
20 1920
1928 1934 19
1936 22 19
22 1922
1930 19
1938 24 19 1924
1932 19 24
1940 26 19 1926
1934 19 26
28 19 1928
1936 28
19 1930
1938 30 19
19 30 1932
1940 32
19
19 32 1934
34
19 19
36 34 1936
19 1938
Java cane yields per hectare (with estimates of areas not recorded based on yield of 1894)
19 36
38
19 19 1940
40 38
Market
19
Sugar HS, Batavia 1912-1940)

40
Value (Sugar No. 15, Batavia 1880-1912 &
Sources: Korthals Altes 1991:148-64, 1994:87-115; Creutzberg 1975:63-76.

Exports
Production
Sugar Prices on the London

Yield
Appendix 2
Main export destinations Java sugar, circa 1880-1940

West of North British China Japan inc. Australia Singapore Others Totals
Suez America India Formosa
1890/91 197 918 84 542 4 390 80 816 32 736 20 806 38 421 246
1891/92 219 139 61 834 5 278 100 252 49 241 11 515 12 447 271
1892/93 161 370 99 177 4 095 107 800 50 735 20 083 13 443 273
1893/94 107 520 149 749 5 085 172 845 47 782 21 937 5 504 903
1894/95 133 847 137 990 7 692 151 042 33 245 30 575 11 492 402
1895/96 312 059 118 739 5 595 143 818 15 266 9 613 640
1896/97 298 560 62 232 5 085 102 066 260 18 726 20 068 9 507 006
1897/98 21 183 299 354 5 614 150 452 1 235 32 453 30 039 6 540 336
1898/99 65 442 405 807 8 277 152 202 18 984 2 534 84 130 3 677 379
1899/ 1900 16 261 504 143 12 862 139 024 23 012 13 509 23 748 4 732 563
1900/01 11 059 369 800 17 935 140 018 31 481 71 826 33 800 1 675 920
1901/02 182 395 135 584 22 395 190 196 51 369 83 100 29 156 694 190
1902/03 14 700 409 401 30 290 197 169 68 676 78 563 41 254 846 213
1903/04 120 551 182 062 72 516 239 092 152 829 73 335 46 903 894 286
1904/05 229 226 300 704 96 622 175 035 120 448 14 241 40 624 1 006 693
1905/06 404 325 35 834 67 746 149 543 131 424 18 269 66 416 900 598
1906/07 62 283 178 477 149 929 171 010 193 001 40 402 68 747 863 849
1907/08 212 187 158 906 319 251 156 455 204 022 5 595 8 126 1 094 541
1908/09 126 514 347 351 312 662 170 332 110 407 28 167 12 726 1 107 859
1909/10 233 646 27 519 390 376 231 809 95 503 81 391 14 664 1 603 1 076 600
1910/11 259 631 45 034 445 621 230 796 124 501 21 371 55 252 447 1 182 653
1911/12
1912/13 177 096 448 675 204 691 209 490 101 353 147 755 1 289 060
1913/14 6 093 640 236 287 922 233 128 100 910 25 992 1 294 281
1914/15 620 158 333 513 150 999 100 356 62 407 58 003 1 325 436
1915/16 380 739 455 913 197 539 47 317 52 261 84 367 1 218 136
1916/17 716 481 441 738 141 931 48 728 59 431 42 248 1 450 557
1917/18 429 459 354 676 173 031 92 721 176 253 27 552 1 253 692
1918/19 445 550 376 065 344 851 445 067 168 340 42 378 1 822 251
1919/20 469 195 349 972 190 213 281 509 64 196 111 248 1 466 333
1920/21 772 642 259 259 184 053 94 226 42 451 135 706 1 488 337
1921/22 173 435 628 280 331 695 312 686 66 133 13 243 1 525 472
1922/23 487 835 451 808 294 735 277 353 62 588 71 714 1 646 033
1923/24 575 193 416 402 261 841 278 600 61 073 63 841 1 656 950
1924/25 402 777 536 614 382 541 329 173 80 350 93 784 1 825 239
1925/26 254 297 769 952 389 255 491 636 88 702 124 733 2 118 575
1926/27 10 604 805 250 345 867 404 860 78 055 107 895 1 752 531
1927/28 196 860 846 905 404 601 450 871 84 257 150 427 2 133 921
1928/29 438 864 1 096 972 602 516 254 042 88 762 181 637 2 662 793
1929/30 289 000 1 073 910 629 233 248 154 82 001 110 400 2 432 698
1930/31 7 113 975 877 602 302 282 721 95 328 148 313 2 111 654
1931/32 135 438 515 614 533 990 126 496 63 923 167 693 1 543 154
1932/33 333 643 425 727 295 122 81 952 58 933 136 096 1 331 473
1933/34 138 953 320 639 272 484 183 015 48 864 144 267 1 108 222
1934/35 145 332 402 076 281 473 151 317 58 553 148 829 1 187 580
1935/36 8 686 288 702 178 176 213 546 59 656 128 370 877 136
1936/37 130 045 114 726 248 254 256 443 158 819 82 368 990 655
1937/38 412 115 98 310 123 800 196 557 138 971 63 654 1 033 607
1938/39 619 375 20 807 86 727 141 129 1 701 384 63 961 241 743 1 174 846
1939/40 447 858 48 299 266 136 536 60 439 19 308 324 755 1 228 290
1940/41 306 009 48 27 239 244 703 21 166 21 540 248 237 847 970
Sources: H.C. Prinsen Geerligs 1912:140-1; H.C. Prinsen Geerligs and R.J. Prinsen Geerligs 1938:83-4;
Jaarverslagen 1938-1939 – 1940-1941, in: NA, NIVAS, 2.20.09.03, inv. nrs 13-15.
Appendix 3
Production costs at the Modjo Agoeng sugar factory,

Surabaya Residency, East Java, 1905-1940
| Appendix 3
1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922
staff 0.16 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.28 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.38 1.4 0.91 0.75
wages 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.19 0.22 0.36 0.34 0.38
cane
cutters
trans- 0.57 0.53 0.58 0.61 0.55 0.53 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.65 0.61 0.63 0.36 0.45 1.1 1.08 1.23
port of
cane
wages 0.09 0.08 0.1 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.1 0.12 0.13 0.1 0.09 0.1 0.1 0.12 0.42 0.28 0.24
of
coolies
fuel 0 0 0 0.01 0 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.13 0.14 0.21 0.84 1.59 0.8
Total 2.34 2.15 2.28 2.45 2.2 2.22 2.3 2.43 2.9 3.16 2.96 3.38 3.22 3.98 6.67 6.85 5.36
1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940
0.8 0.66 0.59 0.66 0.69 0.55 0.58 0.44 0.5 0.36 0.33 0.25 0.24
0.38 0.34 0.35 0.37 0.36
1.05 0.81 0.75 0.75 0.73 0.98 0.97 0.98 0.93 0.79
0.18 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.1 0.1 0.08
0.19 0.17 0.06 0.22 0.28 0.27 0.18 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.02
4.48 4 3.9 4.14 4.29 3.87 3.71 3.36 3.35 2.68 1.63 1.5 1.52
This set of data relate to production costs - calculated per quintal (100 kilo)
of sugar - at the factory during the campaign or manufacturing season.
These costs are listed under the main heads of (a) payment to European and
Indonesian staff; (b) wages cane-cutters; (c) wage to cane haulers (from 1928
onward lines (b) and (c) are combined in the factory accounts); (d) wages of
the coolies employed in the factory; (e) fuel costs in the factory; (f) total costs
per quintal of sugar including lesser expenses not listed under (a) to (e)
248
Appendix 3 |
1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916
staff 41.37 40.84 42.51 43.22 42.7 40.04 39.1 38.55 39.39 43.37 41.84
land rent 50.02 52.96 50.86 50.43 52.78 54.84 58 59.35 58.31 59.78 59.61
field work 188.35 159.9 156.22 160.65 160.02 164.37 175.53 185.29 199.71 193.9 181.84
fertilizing 81.45 93.06 84.88 74.47 76.61 79.67 93.51 107.88 99.1 89.51 80.84
Total 474.63 442.88 404.98 407.84 408.98 396.92 459.88 475.53 520.61 493.8 469.88
1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928
48.59 46.98 56.45 55.37 90.32 105.13 86.86 86.75 93.51 96.12 102.41 107.24
67.8 66.84 65.1 69.16 76.32 77.89 90.37 94.3 84.42 77.27 76.33 78.11
152.73 200.98 170.49 233.94 253.56 297.89 259.56 242.88 229.34 203.79 205.91 211.38
80.59 101.65 80.12 159.49 184.18 222.92 141.74 130.06 134.74 113.07 115.03 106.27
473.55 542.14 503.16 678.35 907.33 1018.8 917.59 765.36 912.74 799.47 687.12 639.45
1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940
102.76 99.54 93.23 96.77 43.31 48.77 52.62 52.23
82.77 90.23 86.09 144.17 57.5 41.93 43.13 58.4
189.32 184.99 155.85 145.13 59.67 67.18 75.87 81.74
97.41 92.41 91.05 80.74 34.21 34.91 35.35 44.09
571.73 567.56 491.23 525.08 229.74 217.18 238.47 272.2
This set of data relate to the field costs of production at Modjo Agoeng
up to but not including the cutting of cane, and are calculated per
hectare of cane planted. These costs are listed under the main heads of
(a) payments to European and Indonesian field staff; (b) rent paid to the
peasantry for hire of their fields; (c) wages paid to field workers; (d) the
costs involved in the purchase and application of fertilizer; (e) total cost
per hectare, including lesser expenses not included in line (a) to (d)
Source: Jaarverslagen administrateur suikeronderneming Modjo

Agoeng, in: NA, NHM, 2.20.01, inv. nrs 9383-9385.
249
Bibliography
Unpublished sources
Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis, Amsterdam

Nederlandsch-Economisch-Historisch Archief, Bijzondere Collecties 640
KIT Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam

Jaarverslagen Cultuurmaatschappij der Vorstenlanden
Jaarverslagen Handelsvereeniging Amsterdam
Jaarverslagen Nederlandsch-Indische Landbouw Maatschappij
Jaarverslagen NV Suiker Fabriek Tjoekir, 1907-1923
Jaarverslagen Suikeronderneming Poerworedjo, 1910-1932
Nationaal Archief, The Hague

Collectie 115 J. van den Bosch, 1627-1914, toegangsnummer 2.21.028
Collectie 190 J.W. Meyer Ranneft, 1910-1968, toegangsnummer 2.21.121
Cultuur Maatschappij Kadhipaten, 1858-1959, toegangsnummer 2.20.08
Cultuur-, Handel- en Industriebank; Koloniale Bank; Cultuurbank NV (Cul-
tuur-, Handel- en Industriebank), 1881-1969, toegangsnummer 2.20.04
Cultuurmaatschappij Wonolangan te ’s-Gravenhage (Cultuurmij. Wonolangan),
1895-1963, toegangsnummer, 2.20.02.03
Handelsvereniging Amsterdam, 1870-1959, toegangsnummer 2.20.32
Memories van Overgave, 1852-1962, toegangsnummer 2.10.39
Ministerie van Koloniën, Stamboeken Burgerlijke Ambtenaren, Serie A, 1836-
1927, toegangsnummer 2.10.36.22
Nederlandsch-Indische Handelsbank/Nationale Handelsbank, 1863-1965, num-
mer toegang 2.20.68
Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij (NHM), 1824-1964, toegangsnummer
2.20.01
Nederlands-Indische Vereniging voor de Afzet van Suiker, 1932-1958, toegangs-
nummer 2.20.09.03
NV Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van de Suikeronderneming Tjomal, 1872-1971,
toegangsnummer 2.20.39
| Bibliography
Semarang-Cheribon Stoomtram Maatschappij, 1893-1946, toegangsnummer

2.20.17
Vereniging Verenigde Java-Suiker Producenten, 1918-1938, toegangsnummer
2.20.09.02
School of Oriental and African Studies, London

Papers of John Swire and Sons
Stadsarchief Amsterdam, Amsterdam

Archief Handels- en Cultuurmaatschappij Van Heekeren & Co, toegangsnum-
mer 584
Published sources
Aangeboden door HVA

[1929] Aangeboden door de Handelsvereeniging ‘Amsterdam’, 1 Januari 1929.
Amsterdam: De Bussy.
Adresboek
1920 Adresboek voor ’s-Gravenhage en Scheveningen. ’s-Gravenhage: n.n.
Adresboek Nederlandsch-Indië
1929 Kleian’s adresboek van geheel Nederlandsch-Indië.Weltevreden: Em-
mink.
Aguilar Jr, Filomeno V.
1998 Clash of spirits: The history of power and sugar planter hegemony on a
Visayan island.
Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.
Albert, Bill and Adrian Graves (eds)
1984 Crisis and change in the international sugar economy 1860-1914. Nor-
wich: ISC Press
Alexander, Jennifer and Paul Alexander
1978 ‘Sugar, rice and irrigation in colonial Java’, Ethnohistory
25:207-33.
Allen, Richard
1981 ‘The slender, sweet thread: Sugar, capital and dependency in
Mauritius, 1860-1936’, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth
History 16:177-200.
252
Bibliography |
Amin, Shahid
1984 Sugarcane and sugar in Gorakhpur: An inquiry into peasant production for
capitalist enterprise in colonial India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
[Oxford University South Asian Studies Series.]
Anderson, Warwick
1995 ‘Excremental colonialism: Public health and the poetics of pol-
lution’, Critical Inquiry 21-3:640-69.
2002 ‘Going through the motions: American public health and colo-
nial “mimicry”’, American Literary History 14-4:686-719.
Atlas tropisch Nederland
1938 Atlas van tropisch Nederland. Batavia: Reproductiebedrijf van
den Topografischen Dienst in Ned.-Indië. [Uitgegeven door
het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap in
samenwerking met den Topografischen Dienst in Nederlandsch-
Indië.]
Ayala, César J.
1995 ‘Social and economic aspects of sugar production in Cuba’,
Latin American Research Review 30:95-124.
1999 American sugar kingdom: The plantation economy of the Spanish Carib-
bean, 1898-1934. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press.
Baardewijk, Frans van
1993 Changing economy in Indonesia: A selection of statistical source material
from the early 19th century up to 1940: Vol. 14: The cultivation system,
Java 1834-1880. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute.
Bakker, Martijn
1989 Ondernemerschap en vernieuwing: De Nederlandse bietsuikerindu-
strie,1858-1919. Amsterdam: NEHA. [NEHA-Series III, 6.]
Bashford, Alison
2004 Imperial hygiene: A critical history of colonialism, nationalism and public
health. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Betta, Chiara
2005 ‘Trade diaspora of the Baghdadi Jews: From India to China’s
trading ports’, in: Ina Baghdiantz McCabe, Gelina Harlaftis and
Ioanna Pepelasis Minoglou (eds), Diaspora entrepreneurial networks:
253
| Bibliography
Four centuries of history, pp. 269-86. Oxford: Berg. [Business, Cul-

ture and Change.]
Blake, Robert
1999 Jardine Matheson: Traders of the Far East. London: Weidenfeld and
Nicolson.
Boengkil
1917 ‘Boengkil’, in: Encyclopædie van Nederlandsch-Indië. Vol. 1. Tweede
druk, p. 334. ’s-Gravenhage: Nijhoff, Leiden: Brill
Booberg, G.
1927 ‘Korte mededeelingen van het Proefstation voor de Java-suiker-
industrie. No. 82: Bemestingresultaten bij de suikercultuur’, Ar-
chief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 35, I:431-46.
1940 ‘Cursussen voor rietplanters’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Neder-
land en Nederlandsch-Indië 1:13-5.
Boomgaard, Peter
1981 ‘Female labour and population growth on nineteenth-century
Java’, Review of Indonesian and Malayan Affairs 15-2:1-31.
1988 ‘Treacherous cane: The Java sugar industry between 1914 and
1940’, in: Bill Albert and Adrian Graves (eds), The world sugar
economy in war and depression 1914-40, pp. 157-69. London/New
York: Routledge.
2001 Frontiers of fear: Tigers and people in the Malay world, 1600-1950. New
Haven/London: Yale University Press. [Yale Agrarian Studies
Series.]
2006 ‘The making and unmaking of tropical science’, Bijdragen tot de
Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 162:191-217.
Booth, Anne
1994 ‘Japanese import penetration and Dutch response: Some aspects
of economic policy making in colonial Indonesia’, in: Sugiyama
Shinya and Milagros C. Guerrero (eds), International commercial
rivalry in Southeast Asia in the interwar period, pp. 133-64. New Ha-
ven, CT: Yale Center for International and Area Studies. [Yale
Southeast Asia Studies, Monograph 39.]
1998 The Indonesian economy in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: A his-
tory of missed opportunities. Basingstoke: Macmillan, New York:
St. Martin’s Press. [A Modern Economic History of Southeast
Asia.] [Published in association with the Australian National
University.]
254
Bibliography |
2002 ‘Growth collapses in Indonesia: A comparison of the 1930s and

1990s’, Itinerario 26-3/4:73-99.
Bosch, K.D.
1948 De Nederlandse beleggingen in de Verenigde Staten. Amsterdam: Else-
vier. [PhD dissertation, Nederlandsche Economische Hooge-
school, Rotterdam.]
Bosma, Ulbe
1997 Karel Zaalberg: Journalist en strijder voor de Indo. Leiden: KITLV Uit-
geverij. [Verhandelingen 175.]
2007a ‘Sailing through Suez from the South: The emergence of an
Indies-Dutch migration circuit, 1815-1940’, International Migra-
tion Review 41-2:511-36.
2007b ‘Sugar and dynasty in Yogyakarta’, in: Ulbe Bosma, Juan Giusti-
Cordero and G. Roger Knight (eds), Sugarlandia revisited: Sugar
and colonialism in Asia and the Americas, 1800 to 1940, pp. 73-94.
New York: Berghahn Books. [International Studies in Social
History 9.]
2010 Indiëgangers: Verhalen van Nederlanders die naar Indië trokken. Amster-
dam: Bert Bakker.
Bosma, Ulbe, Juan Giusti-Cordero and G. Roger Knight
2007 Sugarlandia revisited: Sugar and colonialism in Asia and the Americas,
1800 to 1940. New York: Berghahn Books. [International Stu-
dies in Social History 9.]
Bosma, Ulbe and Remco Raben
2008 Being ‘Dutch’ in the Indies: A history of Creolisation and empire, 1500-
1920. Translated by Wendie Shaffer. Singapore: NUS Press,
Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. [Research in International
Studies, Southeast Asia Series 116.]
Brand, W., L.L.A. van den Broek and A. Goedhart
[1979] 1879 HVA 1979: Honderd jaar geschiedenis der Verenigde HVA Maatschap-
pijen NV. Amsterdam: Verenigde HVA-Maatschappijen.
Bree, L. de
1928-30 Gedenkboek van de Javasche Bank: 1828-24 Januari-1928: In opdracht
van president en directeuren. Weltevreden: Kolff. Two vols.
Breman, Jan
1983 Control of land and labour in colonial Java: A case study of agrarian crisis
and reform in the region of Cirebon during the first decades of the 20th
century. Dordrecht: Foris. [KITLV, Verhandelingen 101.]
255
| Bibliography
Brown, Colin
1987 ‘The influenza pandemic of 1918 in Indonesia’, in: Norman G.
Owen (ed.), Death and disease in Southeast Asia: Explorations in so-
cial, medical and demographic history, pp. 235-56. Singapore: Oxford
University Press. [Asian Studies Association of Australia, South-
east Asia Publications Series 14.]
Brown, Shannon R.
1979 ‘The transfer of technology to China in the nineteenth century:
The role of direct foreign investment’, Journal of Economic History
39:181-97.
1981 ‘Cakes and oil: Technology transfer and Chinese soybean pro-
cessing, 1860-1895’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 23-
3:449-63.
Brugmans, I.J.
1952 Van Chinavaart tot oceaanvaart: De Java-China-Japan lijn – Koninklijke
Java-China-Paketvaart lijnen, 1902-1952. [Amsterdam]: Konink-
lijke Java-China-Paketvaart lijnen.
Bruyn, C.
1901 ‘Eene opmerking over het mesten met zwavelzuur ammonia’,
Archief voor de Java-Suikerindustrie 9, I: 460-1.
Callis, Helmut G.
1942 Foreign capital in Southeast Asia. With an introduction by Carl F.
Remer. New York: International Secretariat, Institute of Pacific
Relations. [IPR International Research Series.]
Campo, Joep à
1996 ‘The rise of corporate enterprise’, in: J.Th. Lindblad (ed.), His-
torical foundations of a national economy in Indonesia, 1890s-1990s, pp.
71-94. Amsterdam, North Holland. [Koninklijke Nederlandse
Akademie van Wetenschappen. Afdeling Letterkunde, Verhan-
delingen, Nieuwe reeks 167.]
2002 Engines of empire: Steamshipping and state formation in colonial Indonesia.
Hilversum: Verloren.
Castens, W.A.
1902 Een reis naar de Hawaï-Eilanden in 1900-1901. Soerabaia: Van
Ingen.
Chakrabarty, Dipesh
1989 Rethinking working-class history: Bengal 1890-1940. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
256
Bibliography |
Chalmin, Ph.G.
1984 ‘The important trends in sugar diplomacy before 1914’, in: Bill
Albert and Adrian Graves (eds), Crisis and change in the international
sugar economy 1860-1914, pp. 9-19. Norwich: ISC Press.
1990 The making of a sugar giant: Tate and Lyle, 1859-1989. Translated
from the French by Erica Long-Michalke. Chur/London: Har-
wood Academic Publishers. [Originally published as Tate and
Lyle, géant du sucre. Paris: Economica, 1983.]
Chandra, Siddharth
2000 ‘What the numbers really tell us about the decline of the Opium
Regie’, Indonesia 70:101-23.
Chapman, Stanley
1998 ‘Ethnicity and money making in nineteenth-century Britain’, in:
David J. Jeremy (ed.), Religion, business, and wealth in modern Britain,
pp. 153-69. London/New York: Routledge. [Routledge Interna-
tional Studies in Business History 4.]
Chen, Cheng-Siang
1963 Taiwan: An economic and social geography. Taipei: Fu-Min Geograph-
ical Institute of Economic Development. [Research Report 96.]
China sugar trade
1880 ‘The China and Hong Kong sugar trade’, The Sugar Cane
12:490-2.
Christiaans, Peter
1997 ‘Von Balluseck’, De Indische Navorscher 10:71-2.
Claver, Alexander
2006 Commerce and capital in colonial Java: Trade finance and commercial rela-
tions between Europeans and Chinese, 1820s-1942. PhD dissertation,
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.
Consular report
1904 ‘Consular report Japan’, The International Sugar Journal 6:406.
Corsten, F.
1900 Verslag omtrent den suikerhandel in China. Soerabaia: n.n.
Cox, Howard, Huang Biao and Stuart Metcalfe
2003 ‘Compradors, firm architecture and the “re-invention” of Brit-
ish trading companies: John Swire and Sons operations in early
twentieth century China’, Business History 45-2:15-34.
257
| Bibliography
Crespo, Horacio
2006 ‘Trade regimes and the international sugar market, 1850-1980:
Protectionism, subsidies, and regulation’, in: Steven Topik, Car-
los Marichal and Zephyr Frank (eds), From silver to cocaine: Latin
American commodity chains and the building of the world economy, 1500-
2000, pp. 147-73. Durham, NC/London: Duke University
Press. [American Encounters/Global Interactions.]
Creutzberg, P.
from the early 19th century up to 1940: Vol. 1: Indonesia’s export crops
1816-1940. The Hague: Nijhoff.
from the early 19th century up to 1940: Vol. 3: Expenditure on fixed assets.
The Hague: Nijhoff.
from the early 19th century up to 1940: Vol. 4: Rice prices. Amsterdam:
Royal Tropical Institute (KIT).
Cribb, Robert
1994 ‘Introduction’, in: Robert Cribb (ed.), The late colonial state in Indo-
nesia: Political and economic foundations of the Netherlands Indies, 1880-
1942, pp. 1-11. Leiden: KITLV Press. [Verhandelingen 163.]
Curry-Machado, Jonathan
2011 Cuban sugar industry: Transnational networks and engineering migrants in
mid-nineteenth century Cuba. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cursus rietplanters
1926 ‘Cursus voor rietplanters 1926’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in
Nederlandsch-Indië 34, I:7-9.
Deerr, Noel
1911 Cane sugar: A text-book on the agriculture of the sugar cane, the manufac-
ture of cane sugar, and the analysis of sugar house products: Together with
a chapter on the fermentation of molasses. Altrincham: Rodger.
1949-50 The history of sugar. London: Chapman and Hall. Two vols.
Dejung, Christof
2007 ‘Hierarchie und Netzwerk: Steuerungsformen im Welthandel
am Beispiel der Schweizer Handelsfirma Gebrüder Volkart
(1851-1939)’, in: Hartmut Berghoff and Jörg Sydow (eds), Unter-
nehmerische Netzwerke: Eine historische Organisationsform mit Zukunft,
pp. 71-96. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
258
Bibliography |
Demandt, E.
1929 ‘Beknopt overzicht over de resultaten der variëteiten-proeven
van oogstjaar 1928’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-
Indië 37, I:8-30.
Deventer, W. van
1915 Handboek ten dienste van de suikerriet-cultuur en de rietsuiker-fabricage op
Java. Vol. 5: De cultuur van het suikerriet op Java. Amsterdam: De
Bussy. [Vereenigde Proefstations voor Suikerriet in West- en
Oost-Java.]
1927 Handboek ten dienste van de suikerriet-cultuur en de rietsuiker-fabricage
op Java. Vol. 5: De cultuur van het suikerriet op Java. Tweede druk.
Amsterdam: De Bussy. [First edition 1915.]
Dick, Howard
1989 ‘Japan’s economic expansion in the Netherlands Indies between
the First and the Second World Wars’, Journal of Southeast Asian
Studies 20:244-72.
1993 ‘Oei Tiong Ham’, in: John Butcher and Howard Dick (eds), The
rise and fall of revenue farming: Business elites and the emergence of the
modern state in Southeast Asia, pp. 272-81. New York: St. Martin’s
Press.
2002 ‘Formation of the nation state, 1930s-1966’, in: Howard Dick,
Vincent J.H. Houben, J. Thomas Lindblad and Thee Kian Wie,
The emergence of a national economy: An economic history of Indonesia,
1800-2000, pp. 153-93. St Leonards: Allen and Unwin, Leiden:
KITLV Press. [Asian Studies Association of Australia, South-
east Asia Publications Series.]
Dickhoff, W.C.
1912 ‘De Brusselsche suiker conventie en hare gevolgen voor de sui-
kerindustrie’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië
20:1019, 1097.
1914 ‘De Java suikerindustrie gedurende het tijdvak 1894-1913’, Ar-
chief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 22, I:608-627.
Doel, H.W. van den
1994 De stille macht: Het Europese binnenlands bestuur op Java en Madoera,
1808-1942. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker. [PhD dissertation, Uni-
versity of Leiden.]
1996 Het rijk van Insulinde: Opkomst en ondergang van een Nederlandse kolonie.
Amsterdam: Prometheus.
259
| Bibliography
2002 ‘Koningsberger, Jacob Christiaan (1867-1951)’, Biografisch Woor-

denboek van Nederland. http://www.historici.nl/Onderzoek/Pro-
jecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn5/koningsberger (accessed 11-4-
2012).
Drooglever, P.J.
1999 ‘Zentgraaff, Henri Carel (1874-1940)’, Biografisch Woordenboek
van Nederland. http://www.historici.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/
BWN/lemmata/bwn4/zentgraaff (accessed 11-4-2012).
Dros, Nico
from the early 19th century up to 1940: Vol. 13: Wages 1820-1940.
Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute.
Dutton, Michael, Sanjay Seth and Leela Gandhi
2002 ‘Plumbing the depths: Toilets, transparency and modernity’,
Postcolonial Studies 5-2:137-42.
Dye, Alan
1998 Cuban sugar in the age of mass production: Technology and the economics
of the sugar central, 1899-1929. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press.
Dijk, Kees van
2007 The Netherlands Indies and the Great War, 1914-1918. Leiden:
KITLV Press. [Verhandelingen 254.]
Echaúz, Robustiano
1978 Sketches of the Island of Negros. Translated and annotated by Donn
V. Hart; with an historical introduction by John A. Larkin. Ohio:
Centre for International Studies, Ohio University. [Papers in In-
ternational Studies, Southeast Asia Series 50.] [Originally pub-
lished as Apuntes de la Isla de Negros. New York: Norman Ross
Publishing, 1894.]
Elson, R.E.
1979 ‘Cane-burning in the Pasuruan area: An expression of social
discontent’, in: Francien van Anrooij et al., Between people and
statistics: Essays in modern Indonesian history presented to P. Creutzberg,
pp. 219-34. The Hague: Nijhoff. [Koninklijk Instituut voor de
Tropen, Royal Tropical Institute.]
1984 Javanese peasants and the colonial sugar industry: Impact and change in
an East Java residency, 1830-1940. Singapore: Oxford University
260
Bibliography |
Press. [Asian Studies Association of Australia, Southeast Asia

Publications Series 9.]
1994 Village Java under the cultivation system, 1830-1870. Sydney: Allen
and Unwin. [Asian Studies Association of Australia, Southeast
Asia Publication Series 25.]
Eng, Pierre van der
1993 The ‘colonial drain’ from Indonesia, 1823-1990. Canberra : Research
School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. [Eco-
nomics Division Working Papers, Southeast Asia 93/2.]
1996 Agricultural growth in Indonesia: Productivity change and policy impact
since 1880. Basingstoke: Macmillan, New York: St. Martin’s
Press. [Studies in the Economies of East and South-East Asia.]
Engel, W.I., Bram van der Schuyt et al.
2005 De ’s-Gravelandseweg en zijn bewoners. Hilversum: Verloren.
Fairchild, G.H. (ed.)
1928 Facts and statistics about the Philippine sugar industry. Manila: Sugar
News Press.
Fasseur, Cees
1977 ‘Organisatie en sociaal-economische betekenis van de gouver-
nementssuikerkultuur in enkele residenties op Java omstreeks
1850’, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 133:261-93.
1979 ‘Wijck, jhr. Carel Herman Aart van der (1840-1914)’, Biografisch
Woordenboek van Nederland. http://www.historici.nl/Onderzoek/
Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn1/wijck (accessed 10-4-2012).
1989 ‘Wellenstein, Edmund Peter (1880-1934)’, Biografisch Woordenboek
BWN/lemmata/bwn3/wellenstein (accessed 3-4-2012).
1992 The politics of colonial exploitation: Java, the Dutch, and the cultivation
system. Translated from the Dutch by R.E. Elson and Ary Kraal.
Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University. [Stu-
dies on Southeast Asia 8.] [Originally published as Kultuurstelsel
en koloniale baten: De Nederlandse exploitatie van Java 1840-1860.
Leiden: Universitaire Pers, 1975.]
Fernando, M.R.
1982 Peasants and plantation: The social impact of the European plantation
economy in Cirebon Residency from the Cultivation System to the end of the
first decade of the twentieth century. PhD dissertation, Monash Uni-
versity, Melbourne.
261
| Bibliography
1995 ‘The trumpet shall sound for rich peasants: Kasan Mukmin’s
uprising in Gedangan, East Java, 1904’, Journal of Southeast Asian
Studies 26:242-63.
First hundred years
1927 The first hundred years, 1827-1927, of Maclaine Watson and Co., Mc-
Neill and Co., and Fraser Eaton and Co. N.p.: n.n.
Formosa suikerproductie
1933 ‘Formosa suikerproductie en suikeruitvoer naar China’, Archief
voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 41:26-7.
Gallin, Bernard
1966 Hsin Hsing: A Chinese village in change. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press.
Galloway, J.H.
1989 The sugar cane industry: An historical geography from its origins to 1914.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Cambridge Studies
in Historical Geography 12.]
Gandhi, M.P.
1945 Problems of sugar industry in India. Bombay: Gandhi.
García Muñiz, Humberto
2010 Sugar and power in the Caribbean. The South Porto Rico Sugar Company
in Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, 1900-1921. Kingston/
Miami: Randle.
Geertz, Clifford
1963 Agricultural involution: The process of ecological change in Indonesia.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. [Association of
Asian Studies, Monographs and Papers 11.]
Geuns, M. van
1908 De suikeronderneming Djatiroto en de regeling van het werkcontract op Java.
N.p.: n.n. [Offprint Soerabajasch Handelsblad 6, 8, 11, 13, 15 and
18 August.]
Goedhart, Adriaan
1999 Eerherstel voor de plantage: Uit de geschiedenis van de Handelsvereeniging
‘Amsterdam’ (HVA) 1879-1983. [Amsterdam]: Albini.
Goedkoop, J.A.M.
1990 ‘Handelsvereeniging “Amsterdam” 1945-1958: Herstel en her-
oriëntatie’, Jaarboek voor de Geschiedenis van Bedrijf en Tech-
niek 7:222-6.
262
Bibliography |
Gonggrijp, G.F.E.
1921 Winstdeeling bij de suikerindustrie op Java. Amsterdam: De Bussy.
Goor, Jur van
1979 ‘De plaats van de biografie in de koloniale geschiedenis: Van
der Wijck bij voorbeeld…’, in: Francien van Anrooij et al., Be-
tween people and statistics: Essays in modern Indonesian history presented
to P. Creutzberg, pp. 283-90. The Hague: Nijhoff. [Koninklijk In-
stituut voor de Tropen, Royal Tropical Institute.]
Gorkom, K.W. van
1879 ‘Historische schets van de suikerindustrie op Java’, Tijdschrift voor
Nijverheid en Landbouw in Nederlandsch-Indië 23:267-8.
Goss, Andrew
2009 ‘Decent colonialism? Pure science and colonial ideology in the
Netherlands East Indies, 1910-1929’, Journal of Southeast Asian
Studies 40:187-214.
Goto-Shibata, Harumi
1995 Japan and Britain in Shanghai, 1925-31. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Graaff, Bob de and Elsbeth Locher-Scholten
2007 J.P. Graaf van Limburg Stirum, 1873-1948: Tegendraads landvoogd en
diplomaat. Zwolle: Waanders.
Graeff, A.C.D. de (ed.)
1945 Van vriend tot vijand: De betrekkingen tusschen Nederlandsch-Indië en
Japan. Met een nawoord van P.J. Gerke. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Griggs, Peter
2004 ‘Improving agricultural practices: Science and the Australian
sugarcane grower, 1864-1915’, Agricultural History 78-1:1-33.
Grondverhuur suikerfabrieken
1908 ‘Grondverhuur aan de suikerfabrieken’, Archief voor de Java-
Suikerindustrie 16:568-89.
Grove, Linda and S. Sugiyama
2001 ‘Introduction’, in: S. Sugiyama and Linda Grove, Commercial net-
works in modern Asia, pp. 1-14. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon.
Handboek
1888-1940 Handboek voor Cultuur- en Handelsondernemingen in Nederlandsch-Indië.
Amsterdam: De Bussy.
Handojo, H. et al.
1987 Indonesian Sugar Research Institute: An historical outline July 9, 1887-
1987. Pasuruan: Pusat Penelitian Perkebunan Gula Indone-
263
| Bibliography
sia (P3GI). [Sugar Cane Cultivation and Sugar Technology in

Indonesia 1B.]
Hao, Yen-P’ing
1986 The commercial revolution in nineteenth-century China: The rise of Sino-
Western mercantile capitalism. Berkeley, CA: California University
Press.
Heitman, J.A.
1987 The modernisation of the Louisiana sugar industry. Baton Rouge: Loui-
siana State University Press.
Heldring, E.
1899 Oost-Azië en Indië: Beschouwingen en schetsen. Amsterdam: De Bussy.
Helfferich, Emil
1914 Die Niederländisch-Indischen Kulturbanken. Jena: Fischer. [Probleme
der Wirtschaft, Schriften des Königlichen Instituts für See-
verkehr und Weltwischaft an der Universität Kiel, Kaiser Wil-
helm Stiftung 21.]
1916-17 ‘De cultuurbanken gedurende de laatste jaren’, Koloniale Studiën
1:169-207.
Hertzfeld, A. and W. Bartz
1893 ‘Bezoek aan de suikerraffinaderij te Brooklyn, vroeger Have-
meyer en Elder, 30 Juni 1893’, Archief voor de Java-Suikerindustrie
1:364-7.
Hesselink, Liesbeth
2011 Healers on the colonial market: Native doctors and midwives in the Dutch
East Indies. Leiden: KITLV Press. [Verhandelingen 276.]
Hill, Emily M.
1998 ‘Monopoly and anarchy in South China’s sugar business, 1934-
1936’, Journal of Asian Business 14:57-69.
2010 Smokeless sugar: The death of a provincial bureaucrat and the construction
of China’s national economy. Vancouver: UBC Press. [Contempo-
rary Chinese Studies.]
Hirschmeier, Johannes and Tsunehiko Yui
1975 The development of Japanese business, 1600-1973. London: Allen
and Unwin.
Ho, Samuel P.S.
1978 Economic development of Taiwan, 1860-1970. New Haven, CT/
London: Yale University Press. [A Publication of the Economic
Growth Center, Yale University.]
264
Bibliography |
Hollen Lees, Lynn

2007 ‘International management in a free-standing company: The
Penang Sugar Estates Ltd., and the Malayan sugar industry,
1851-1914’, Business History Review 81:27-57.
Horn, N.A. van
1989 ‘Eeghen, Samuel Pieter van (1853-1934)’, Biografisch Woordenboek
BWN/lemmata/bwn3/eeghen (accessed 11-4-2012).
Houwelingen, P. van
1904 ‘Over de waarde der meststoffen’, Archief voor de Java-Suikerindus-
trie 12, I:572-6.
Hüsken, Frans
1994 ‘Declining welfare in Java: Government and private inquiries,
1903-1914’, in: Robert Cribb (ed.), The late colonial state in Indo-
nesia: Political and economic foundations of the Netherlands Indies, 1880-
1842, pp. 213-27. Leiden: KITLV Press. [Verhandelingen 163.]
2001 ‘Living by the sugar mill: The people of Tjomal in the early
twentieth century’, in: Hiroyoshi Kano, Frans Hüsken and
Djoko Suryo (eds), Beneath the smoke of the sugar-mill: Javanese coastal
communities during the twentieth century. Preface by Sediono M.P.
Tjondronegoro, pp. 73-110. Yogyakarta: AKATIGA/Gadjah
Mada University Press.
Hugenholtz, Wouter R.
2008 Landrentebelasting op Java, 1812-1920. PhD dissertation, Univer-
sity of Leiden.
Huldebetoon Ramaer
1926 ‘Huldebetoon aan Mr. J.W. Ramaer’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie
in Nederlandsch-Indië 34, II:1259-68.
Humbert, Roger P.
1968 The growing of sugar cane. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
India
1901 ‘India’, The International Sugar Journal 3:532.
Indian sugar industry
1902 ‘The Indian sugar industry’, The International Sugar Journal 4:466.
Ingleson, John
1986 In search of justice: Workers and unions in colonial Java, 1908-1926.
Singapore: Oxford University Press. [Asian Studies Association
of Australia, Southeast Asia Publications Series 12.]
265
| Bibliography
Invoer zwavelzuur ammonia

1920 ‘Statistiek, oogst en marktberichten: Invoer van zwavelzuur am-
monia’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 28:220.
Jaager, C.J. de
1901 ‘Beschouwingen over rentabiliteit van waterwerken. Met een
voorwoord van prof. J. Kraus’, Indische Gids 23, I:1-30.
Japan
1900 ‘Japan’, International Sugar Journal 2:322.
Jonker, Joost and Jan Luiten van Zanden
2007 From challenger to joint industry leader, 1890-1939. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [A history of Royal Dutch Shell 1.]
Jubileum Prinsen Geerligs
1916 ‘25-jarig jubileum van Dr. H.C. Prinsen Geerligs’, Archief voor de
Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 24, II:1221-45.
Ka, Chih-ming
1995 Japanese colonialism in Taiwan: Land tenure, development and dependency,
1895-1945. Foreword by Sidney W. Mintz. Boulder, CO: West-
view Press. [Transitions: Asia and Asian America.]
Keller, Arthur S.
1940 ‘Netherlands India as a paying proposition’, Far Eastern Survey 9
(17 January):11-7.
Killingray, David
2003 ‘A new “imperial disease”?: The influenza pandemic of 1918-
9 and its impact on the British Empire’, Caribbean Quarterly 49-
2:30-49.
Knight, G. Roger
1993 Colonial production in provincial Java: The sugar industry in Pekalongan-
Tegal, 1800-1942. Amsterdam: VU University Press. [Compara-
tive Asian Studies 13.]
1994 ‘Gully coolies, weed-women and snijvolk: The sugar industry
workers of North Java in the early twentieth century’, Modern
Asian Studies 28:51-76.
1999 ‘The visible hand in tempo doeloe: The culture of management
and the organisation of business in Java’s colonial sugar indus-
try’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 30:74-98.
2001 ‘A case of mistaken identity? Suikerlords and ladies, tempo doeloe
and the Dutch colonial communities in nineteenth-century
Java’, Social Identities 7-3:379-91.
266
Bibliography |
2005 ‘The blind eye and the strong-arm: The colonial archive and the
imbrication of knowledge and power in mid nineteenth-century
Java’, Asian Journal of Social Science 33:544-68.
2007 ‘Descrying the bourgeoisie: Sugar, capital and state in the
Netherlands Indies, circa 1840-1884’, Bijdragen tot de Taal, Land-
en Volkenkunde 163:34-66.
2010 ‘Exogenous colonialism: Java sugar between Nippon and Tai-
koo before and during the inter-war depression, c. 1920-1940’,
Modern Asian Studies 44-3:477-515.
Knight, G. Roger and Arthur van Schaik
2001 ‘State and capital in late colonial Indonesia: The sugar industry,
braakhuur, and the colonial bureaucracy in North Central Java’,
Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 157:831-59.
Kolff, G.H. van der
1953 ‘An economic case study: Sugar and welfare in Java’, in: Phil-
lips Ruopp (ed.), Approaches to community development: A symposium
introductory to problems and methods of village welfare in underdevel-
oped areas. With a foreword by S. Radhakrishnan, pp. 188-206.
’s-Gravenhage/Bandung: Van Hoeve.
Koloniaal verslag
1868-1924 Koloniaal verslag. ’s-Gravenhage: Algemeene Landsdrukkerij.
Koningsberger, V.J.
1929 ‘Een bezoek aan de Sandwich Eilanden’, Archief voor de Suiker-
industrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 37, I:133-4.
Korte mededeelingen
1931 ‘Korte mededeelingen… Proefstation…1931 no. 2’, Archief voor
de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 39, I:90-4.
Korthals Altes, W.L.
from the early 19th century up to 1940: Vol. 12a: General trade statistics
1822-1940. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute (KIT).
from the early 19th century up to 1940: Vol. 15: Prices (non-rice) 1814-
1940. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute (KIT).
2004 Tussen cultures en kredieten: Een institutionele geschiedenis van de Neder-
landsch-Indische Handelsbank en Nationale Handelsbank, 1863-1964.
Amsterdam: NIBE-SVV. [NIBE-SVV-Bankhistorische Reeks
24.]
267
| Bibliography
Kraaij, C.
1903 ‘Eene eventueele suikerraffinaderij in Ned. Oost-Indië en inter-
nationale suikertoestanden: Met kaart der suikerfabrieken van
Java’, Indische Mercuur 26:1-33. [Azië- tevens suikernummer: 2de
gedeelte (suiker).]
Kramers, J.G.
1896 ‘De suikerindustrie op de Sandwich Eilanden’, Archief voor de
Java-Suikerindustrie 4, I:309-63.
Kubo, Toru
2005 ‘The tariff policy of the Nationalist government, 1929-36: A his-
torical assessment’, in: Kaoru Sugihara (ed.), Japan, China, and
the growth of the Asian international economy, 1850-1949, pp.
145-76. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Japanese Studies in
Economic and Social History 1.]
Kuitenbrouwer, Maarten and Huibert Schijf
1998 ‘The Dutch colonial business elite at the turn of the century’,
Itinerario 22-1:61-87.
Landes, David S.
1998 The wealth and poverty of nations: Why some are so rich and some so poor.
New York: Norton.
Langgruth Steurwald, L.G.
1926 ‘Ir. F.W. Bolk’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 34,
I:515-21.
Larkin, John A.
1972 The Pampangans: Colonial society in a Philippine province. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.
Le Pichon, Alain (ed.)
2006 China trade and empire: Jardine, Matheson & Co. and the origins of
British rule in Hong Kong, 1827-1843. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. [Records of Social and Economic History, New Series
38.] [Published for the British Academy.]
Leemkolk, W.J. van de
1915 ‘Gebrek aan meststoffen’, Tijdschrift voor Nijverheid en Landbouw in
Nederlandsch- Indië 91:99-113.
Leidelmeijer, Margaret
1997 Van suikermolen tot grootbedrijf: Technische vernieuwing in de Java-suiker-
industrie in de negentiende eeuw. Amsterdam: NEHA. [NEHA-Series
III, 25.] [PhD dissertation, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven.]
268
Bibliography |
Leon, J.A.
1848 On sugar cultivation in Louisiana, Cuba, &c. and the British possessions.
London: Ollivier.
Levert, Philip
1934 Inheemsche arbeid in de Java-suikerindustrie. Wageningen: Veenman.
[PhD dissertation, University of Wageningen.]
Lewis, W. Arthur
1978 Growth and fluctuations, 1870-1913. London: Allen and Unwin.
Liem Tjwan Ling
1989 ‘Sugar jing: Oei Tiong Ham’, in: Yoshihara Kunio (ed.), Oei Tiong
Ham Concern: The first business empire of Southeast Asia, pp. 135-47.
Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University.
Lin, Alfred H.Y.
2002 ‘Building and funding a warlord regime: The experience of
Chen Jitang in Guangdong, 1929-1936’, Modern China 28-2:177-
212.
Lindblad, J. Thomas
1994 ‘Trends en bedrijfsvoering in de koloniale landbouw: Voor-
beelden uit Nederlands-Indië, c. 1915-1940’, in: Herman Die-
deriks, J. Thomas Lindblad and Boudien de Vries (eds), Het plat-
teland in een veranderende wereld: Boeren en het proces van modernisering,
pp. 57-78. Hilversum: Verloren.
1996 ‘The economic relationship between the Netherlands and co-
lonial Indonesia’, in: Jan Luiten van Zanden (ed.), The economic
development of the Netherlands since 1870, pp. 109-19. Cheltenham:
Elgar. [The Economic Development of Modern Europe Since
1870 7.]
1998 Foreign investment in Southeast Asia in the twentieth century. Basingstoke:
Macmillan, New York: St. Martin’s. [A Modern Economic His-
tory of Southeast Asia.]
Lisse, H.
1883 ‘Een bezoek aan de Vrije Suikerfabriek Soekoedono’, Tijdschrift
voor Nijverheid en Landbouw in Nederlandsch-Indië 27:123-4.
Lock, Charles G. Warnford, G.W. Wigner and R.H. Harland
1882 Sugar growing and refining: A comprehensive treatise. London: Spon.
Lookeren Campagne, C.J. van
1897 ‘De tegenwoordige staat en vooruitzichten der Java suikerindu-
strie’, Archief voor de Java-Suikerindustrie 5:608.
269
| Bibliography
Lijnden
1927 ‘Lijnden (Mr. Dirk Wolter Jacob Carel baron van)’, in: Nieuw Ned-
erlandsch Biografisch Woordenboek: Vol. 7, p. 790. Leiden: Sijthoff.
Lynn, Leonard H. and Hayagreeva Rao
1995 ‘Failure of intermediate forms: A study of the Suzuki zaibatsu’,
Organization Studies 1995:57-80.
Maat, Harro
2001 Science cultivating practice: A history of agricultural science in the Neth-
erlands and its colonies, 1863-1986. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Mandere, H.Ch.G.J. van der
1928 De Java-suikerindustrie in heden en verleden: Gezien in het bijzonder in hare
sociaal-economische beteekenis. Amsterdam: Bureau Industria. [Het
Koloniale Bedrijfsleven 1.]
Man-Houng Lin
2001 ‘Overseas Chinese merchants and multiple nationality: A means
for reducing commercial risk (1895-1935)’, Modern Asian Studies
35:985-1009.
Manschot, H.J.
1939 ‘De functie van de obligatieleening in de financiering van het
Nederlandsch-Indische bedrijfsleven’, in: M. Behrens (ed.), Be-
drijfseconomische opstellen aangeboden aan Prof. Th. Limperg Jr. door den
Amsterdamsche Kring van Economen ter gelegenheid van zijn 60e verjaardag,
21 december 1939, pp. 149-73. Groningen/Batavia: Noordhoff.
Mansvelt, W.M.F.
1924-26 Geschiedenis van de Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij. [Amsterdam]:
[Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij]. Two vols.
Margana, Sri
2007 ‘Hybridity, colonial capitalism and indigenous resistance: The
case of the Paku Alam in Central Java’, in: Ulbe Bosma, Juan
Giusti-Cordero and G. Roger Knight, Sugarlandia revisited: Sugar
and colonialism in Asia and the Americas, 1800 to 1940, pp. 95-112.
New York: Berghahn Books. [International Studies in Social
History 9.]
Marriner, Sheila and Francis E. Hyde
1967 The Senior John Samuel Swire 1825-1898. Liverpool: Liverpool
University Press.
270
Bibliography |
Marshall, P.J.
1987 Bengal: The British bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. [New Cambridge History of India
II.2.]
Martineau, George
[1910] Sugar, cane and beet: An object lesson. London: n.n. [Pitman’s Com-
mon Commodities and Industries.]
Mathew, J.M.
1970 ‘Peru and the British guano market, 1840-1870’, Economic History
Review (Second series) 23:112-28.
Mathias, Peter
1996 ‘Labour and the process of industrialisation in the first phases
of British industrialisation’, in: Peter Mathias and John A. Davis
(eds), Enterprise and labour: From the eighteenth century to the present, pp.
33-47. Oxford: Blackwell. [The Nature of Industrialization 3.]
Maxwell, Francis
1927 The economic aspects of cane sugar production. London, Norman
Rodger.
Mazumdar, Sucheta
1998 Sugar and society in China: Peasants, technology, and the world market.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Asia Center. [Harvard-
Yenching Institute, Monograph Series 45.]
McCook, Stuart
2002 States of nature: Science, agriculture, and the environment in the Spanish
Caribbean, 1760-1940. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
McCoy, Alfred W. (ed.)
1982 ‘A queen dies slowly: The rise and decline of Iloilo City’, in: Al-
fred W. McCoy and Ed.C. de Jesus, Philippine social history: Global
trade and local transformations, pp. 326-46. Quezon City: Ateneo de
Manila University Press.
1994 An anarchy of families: State and family in the Philippines. Madison,
WI: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Wiscon-
sin. [Monograph Series 10.] [Published in cooperation with At-
eneo de Manila University Press.]
McVey, Ruth
1965 The rise of Indonesian communism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press.
271
| Bibliography
1992 ‘The materialization of the Southeast Asian entrepreneur’, in:

Ruth McVey (ed.), Southeast Asian capitalists, pp. 7-33. Ithaca. NY:
Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University. [Studies on South-
east Asia 9.]
Metzelaar, J.Th.
1946 ‘Irrigatie’, in: C.J.J. van Hall and C. van de Koppel (eds), De
landbouw in den Indischen archipel: Vol. 1: Algemeen gedeelte, pp. 201-39.
’s-Gravenhage: Van Hoeve.
Meijers, A.
1911 ‘Algemeen overzicht van de toepassing elders van eenige op Java
weinig gebruikelijke middelen om irrigatiewater beschikbaar
te krijgen’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 19,
II:1765-821.
Miller, Rory and Robert Greenhill
2006 ‘The fertilizer commodity chains: Guarno and nitrate, 1840-
1930’, in: Steven Topik, Carlos Marichal and Zephyr Frank
(eds), From silver to cocaine: Latin American commodity chains and the
building of the world economy, 1500-2000, pp. 228-70. Durham,
NC/London: Duke University Press. [American Encounters/
Global Interactions.]
Milo, C.J.
1911 ‘De luchtstikstofmeststoffen, hare bereiding en het belang voor de
Java-suikerindustrie’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-
Indië 19, II:1053-75, 1093-134.
Mindere welvaart Banjoemas
1908 Onderzoek naar de mindere welvaart der inlandsche bevolking op Java en
Madoera: Samentrekking van de afdeelingsverslagen over de uitkomsten der
onderzoekingen naar de economie van de desa in de Residentie Banjoemas.
Weltevreden: Smits.
Mindere welvaart Bĕsoeki
Madoera: Samentrekking van de afdeelingsverslagen over de uitkomsten
der onderzoekingen naar de economie van de desa in de Residentie Bĕsoeki.
Weltevreden: Visser.
Mindere welvaart Kĕdiri
Madoera: Samentrekking van de afdeelingsverslagen over de uitkomsten
272
Bibliography |
der onderzoekingen naar de economie van de desa in de Residentie Kĕdiri.

Weltevreden: Smits.
Mindere welvaart Madioen
onderzoekingen naar de economie van de desa in de Residentie Madioen.
Mindere welvaart Pasoeroean
onderzoekingen naar de economie van de desa in de Residentie Pasoeroean.
Mindere welvaart Pekalongan
onderzoekingen naar de economie van de desa in de Residentie Pekalongan.
Weltevreden: Smits.
Mindere welvaart Soerabaja
onderzoekingen naar de economie van de desa in de Residentie Soerabaja.
Mintz, Sidney W.
1985 Sweetness and power: The place of sugar in modern history. New York:
Viking. [Elisabeth Sifton Books.]
Moll, J.F.A.C. van and C.H. Lugten
[1916] Projecten van woningen voor suikerondernemingen. Amsterdam: De
Bussy.
Moon, Suzanne
2007 Technology and ethical idealism: A history of development in the Nether-
lands East Indies. Leiden: CNWS Publications. [Studies in Over-
seas History 9; CNWS Publications 156.]
Moreno Fraginals, Manuel
1976 The sugarmill: The socioeconomic complex of sugar in Cuba, 1760-1860.
Translated by Cedric Belfrage. New York: Monthly Review
Press. [Originally published as El ingenio. La Habana: Comisión
Nacional Cubana de la UNESCO, 1964.]
273
| Bibliography
1986 ‘Plantation economies and societies in the Spanish Caribbean

1860-1930’, in: Leslie Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin
America. Vol. 4, pp.187-232. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Morikawa, Hidemasa
1992 Zaibatsu: The rise and fall of family enterprise groups in Japan. [Tokyo]:
University of Tokyo Press.
Muhlenfeld, A.
1907 ‘De belangen der suikerindustrie tegenover die der bevolking in
bescherming genomen door den gewezen hoofdinspecteur voor
de landelijke inkomsten en verplichte diensten Van Lawick’,
Tijdschrift voor het Binnenlandsch Bestuur 33:775-83.
Munting, Roger and John Perkins
2000 ‘The cane-beet sugar rivalry in the 19th century’, in: Roger
Munting and Tamás Szmrecsányi (eds), Competing for the sugar
bowl, pp. 1-15. St. Katharinen: Scripta Mercaturae.
Musschenbroek
1914 ‘S.C.J.W. van Musschenbroek (1827-1883)’, in: Nieuw Nederlandsch
Biografisch Woordenboek. Vol. 3, pp. 888-90. Leiden: Sijthoff.
Myers, Ramon H.
1989 ‘The world depression and the Chinese economy, 1930-1936’,
in: Ian Brown (ed.), The economies of Africa and Asia in the inter-war
depression, pp. 253-78. London: Routledge.
Nederveen Pieterse, J.
1995 ‘The cultural turn in development: Questions of power’, The
European Journal of Development Research 7-1:176-92.
New colossal refinery
1883 ‘New colossal refinery… nearing completion’, The Sugar Cane
15:478-81.
Niel, Robert van
1992 Java under the cultivation system: Collected writings. Leiden: KITLV
Press. [Verhandelingen 150.]
Nieuwenhuys, Rob
1982 Mirror of the Indies: A history of Dutch colonial literature. Translated by
Frans van Rosevelt; edited by E.M. Beekman. Amherst: Univer-
sity of Massachusetts Press. [Library of the Indies.] [Originally
published as Oost-Indische Spiegel: Wat Nederlandse schrijvers en dichters
274
Bibliography |
over Indonesië hebben geschreven, vanaf de eerste jaren der Compagnie tot op
heden. Amsterdam: Querido, 1972.]
North Coombes, A.
1937 The evolution of sugarcane culture in Mauritius: With a chapter on the
evolution of the Mauritian sugar factory. Port Louis: National Printing
& Stationery Co.
Obituary s’Jacob
1932 ‘Mr. H. s’Jacob. 30 Mei 1855 – 30 October 1932’, Archief voor de
Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 40, II:933-4.
Obituary Ramaer
1932 ‘Mr. J.W. Ramaer’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-
Indië 40, II:913-4.
Ono, Keiko and John Lea
2001 ‘Colonial towns of the Northern Marianas: Rediscovering the
urban morphology of Saipan and Tinian’. Paper, RMAP Series
Seminars, 31 May, Research School of Pacific and Asian Stu-
dies, Australian National University.
Paets tot Gansoyen, A.
1913 ‘Winsten der suikerfabrieken’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in
Nederlandsch-Indië 1913, II:1149-450.
Partington, J.R. and L.H. Parker
1922 The nitrogen industry. London: Constable.
Peattie, Mark R.
1988 Nan’yo: The rise and fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885-1945.
Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i, Hawai‘i University Press.
[Pacific Islands Monograph Series 4.]
Pemberton, John
2009 ‘The ghost in the machine’, in: Rosalind C. Morris (ed.), Photo-
graphies East: The camera and its histories in East and Southeast Asia, pp.
29-56. Durham, NC/London: Duke University Press. [Objects,
Histories.]
Perk, Chs.G.M.
1931 ‘De Philippijnsche suikerfabrieken’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in
Nederlandsch-Indië 39:237-59.
Perkins, John
1981 ‘The agricultural revolution in Germany, 1850-1914’, Journal of
European Economic History 10-1:71-118.
275
| Bibliography
Perkins, John and Roger Munting

1999 ‘Science versus nature: The cane-beet sugar rivalry’, in: Pal
Ahluwalia, Bill Ashcroft and G. Roger Knight (eds), White and
deadly: Sugar and colonialism, pp. 157-70. Commack, NY: Nova
Science. [Horizons in Post-colonial Africa.]
Peterson, Karin
2009 In het voetspoor van Louis Couperus: Pasoeroean door de lens van Salz-
wedel. Met een bijdrage van Steven Wachlin. Amsterdam: KIT
Publishers.
Politie
1927 ‘Politie’, in: Encyclopædie van Nederlandsch-Indië. Vol. 5. Tweede
druk, p. 330. ’s-Gravenhage: Nijhoff, Leiden: Brill.
1932 ‘Politie’, in: Encyclopædie van Nederlandsch-Indië. Vol. 6. Tweede
druk, p. 322. ’s-Gravenhage: Nijhoff.
Pollitt, Brian H.
1984 ‘The Cuban sugar economy and the Great Depression’, Bulletin
of Latin American Research 3-2:3-28.
1988 ‘The Cuban sugar economy in the 1930s’, in: Bill Albert and
Adrian Graves (eds), The world sugar economy in war and depression,
1914-40, pp. 97-108. London/New York: Routledge.
Post, Peter
1991 Japanse bedrijvigheid in Indonesië, 1868-1942: Structurele elementen van
Japan’s vooroorlogse economische expansie in Zuidoost Azië. PhD disser-
tation, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam.
1993 ‘Japan and the integration of the Netherlands Indies into the
world economy, 1868-1942’, Review of Indonesian and Malay Affairs
27:134-65.
1995 ‘Chinese business networks and Japanese capital in South East
Asia, 1880-1940: Some preliminary observations’, in: Rajeswary
Ampalavanar Brown (ed.), Chinese business enterprise in Asia, pp.
154-75. London/New York: Routledge.
1996 ‘Characteristics of Japanese entrepreneurship in the pre-war In-
donesian economy’, in: J.Th. Lindblad (ed.), Historical foundations
of a national economy in Indonesia, 1890s-1990s, pp. 297-314. Am-
sterdam, North Holland. [Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie
van Wetenschappen, Afdeling Letterkunde, Verhandelingen,
Nieuwe Reeks 167.]
276
Bibliography |
2001 ‘Trust and status in a dual regional economy: Dutch trading

companies in Japan’s pre-war trade with Southeast Asia’, in:
Linda Grove and S. Sugiyama (eds), Commercial networks in modern
Asia, pp. 182-97. [Richmond]: Curzon.
2002 ‘The Kwik Hoo Tong Trading Society of Semarang, Java: A
Chinese business network in late colonial Asia’, Journal of South-
east Asian Studies 33:279-96.
2011 ‘The Oei Tiong Ham concern and the change of regimes in
Indonesia, 1930s-1950s’, in: Marleen Dieleman, Juliette Koning
and Peter Post (eds), Chinese Indonesians and regime change, pp. 170-
98. Leiden/Boston: Brill. [Chinese Overseas 4.]
Postal, Matthew A.
2007 ‘Havemeyers & Elder Filter, Pan & Finishing House’, New York
City. http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/reports/
domino.pdf (accessed 29-5-2012).
Prange, A.J.A.
1935 De Nederlandsch Indische betalingsbalans. PhD dissertation, Univer-
sity of Leiden.
Prinsen Geerligs, H.C.
1904a ‘Invoer en fabricatie van geraffineerde suiker in Britsch-Indië,
Oost-Azië and Australië in verband met de fabricatie van ge-
raffineerde suiker op Java’, Archief voor de Java-Suikerindustrie
12:1309-58.
1904b ‘The sugar industry in Java’, International Sugar Journal 6:339.
1906 ‘De herleving der rietsuiker’, Archief voor de Java-Suikerindustrie
14:57-79.
Java: Vol. 3: De fabrikatie van suiker uit suikerriet op Java. Amsterdam:
De Bussy.
1912 The world’s cane sugar industry: Past and present. Altricham: Rodger.
1923 ‘Suikerverbruik in Nederland sedert het begin van deze eeuw’,
Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 31:879-82.
Java: Vol. 4: De rietsuikerindustrie in de verschillende landen van productie:
Historisch, technisch, economisch en statistisch overzicht over de productie en
den uitvoer van de rietsuiker. Amsterdam: De Bussy. [Vereeniging het
Proefstation voor de Java Suikerindustrie.]
277
| Bibliography
1926 ‘Suikerfabricatie in Britsch-Indië’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in

Nederlandsch-Indië 34:470.
1927 ‘De suikerindustrie op Cuba en op Java’, Archief voor de Suiker-
industrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 35, II:1188-90.
Prinsen Geerligs, H.C. and R.J. Prinsen Geerligs
1938 Cane sugar production, 1912-1937: A supplement to The world’s cane
sugar industry, past and present (1912). London: Rodger.
Proefstations suikercultuur
1886 ‘Proefstations voor suikercultuur’, Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-
Indië, Nieuwe Reeks 15-1:218-22.
Puchinger, G.
1985 ‘Colijn, Hendrikus (1869-1944)’, Biografisch Woordenboek van Neder-
land. http://www.historici.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/BWN/
lemmata/bwn2/colijn (accessed 11-4-2012).
Ramaer
1926 ‘Mr. Johannes Wilhelmus Ramaer’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in
Ramaer, J.W.
1913 De arbeidstoestanden op de Hawaii-Eilanden: Voorafgegaan door een reis-
verhaal en enkele aanteekeningen omtrent de suikerindustrie op die eilanden.
Amsterdam: De
Bussy. Three vols.
Rambousek, Walter H., Armin Vogt and Hans R. Volkart
1991 Volkart: The history of a world trading company. Frankfurt am Main:
Volkart.
Rapport machinale grondbewerking
1920 ‘Rapport door de Enquête-Commissie voor de Machina-
le Grondbewerking op Java’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in
Ratledge, Andrew
2009 Competing for the British sugar bowl: East India sugar 1792-1865: Poli-
tics, trade and sugar consumption. Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr.
Müller.
Ravesteijn, Wim
1997 De zegenrijke heeren der wateren: Irrigatie en staat op Java, 1832-1942.
Delft: Delft University Press. [PhD dissertation, Katholieke Uni-
versiteit Nijmegen.]
278
Bibliography |
Ravesteijn, Wim and Jan Kop (eds)

2007 From profit to prosperity: The contribution made by Dutch engineers to
public works in Indonesia, 1800-200. Zaltbommel: Aprilis, Leiden:
KITLV Press. [Originally published as Bouwen in de archipel:
Burgerlijke openbare werken in Nederlands-Indië en Indonesië 1800-2000.
Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2004.]
Reineke, P.
1901 Indrukken eener reis door Louisiana en Cuba in 1901. Amsterdam: De
Bussy.
Ricklefs, M.C.
2007 Polarising Javanese society: Islamic and other visions, c. 1830-1930.
Leiden: KITLV Press.
Rogge, J.
1949 Het handelshuis Van Eeghen: Proeve eener geschiedenis van een Amster-
damsch handelshuis. Amsterdam: Van Ditmar.
Romer, R.
1921 ‘De organisatie der werkkrachten bij de Java suikerindustrie’,
Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 29, II:287-302.
Rosenfeld, Arthur H.
1929 ‘Een en ander omtrent de suiker-industrie in Formosa’, Archief
voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 37, II:1018-29. [Origi-
nally published in The International Sugar Journal 31, pp. 467-,
1929.]
Sakamoto, Masako
1990 ‘Diversification: The case of Mitsui Bussan’, in: Shin’ichi
Yonekawa (ed.), General trading companies: A comparative and historical
study, pp. 46-91. Tokyo: United Nations University Press. [Tech-
nology Transfer, Transformation, and Development: The Japa-
nese Experience.]
Schmalhausen, H.E.B.
1909 Over Java en de Javanen: Nagelaten geschriften van H.E.B. Schmalhausen.
Amsterdam: Van Kampen.
Schmidt, C.
1986 Om de eer van de familie: Het geslacht Teding van Berkhout 1500-1950:
Een sociologische benadering. Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw.
[Werken Uitgegeven door het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Genoot-
schap voor Geslacht- en Wapenkunde 10.]
279
| Bibliography
Schmidt, H.
1912 ‘Over de invoering der witsuikerfabrikatie op Formosa’, Archief
voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 20, II:1124-9.
Schmiedell, J.J.
[1924] Gedenkblätter zum 50-jährigen Bestehen der Firma Erdmann & Sielcken in
Java, 1875-1924. [Amsterdam]: n.n.
Schneider, Adam
1998 ‘The Taiwan government-general and pre-war Japanese eco-
nomic expansion in South China and Southeast Asia, 1900-
1936’, in: Harald Fuess (ed.), The Japanese Empire in East Asia and
its postwar legacy, pp. München: Iudicium. [Monographien aus
dem Deutschen Institut für Japanstudien der Philipp Franz von
Siebold Stiftung 22.]
Schoor, Wim J. van der
1996 ‘Pure science and colonial agriculture: The case of the private
Java sugar experiment stations (1885-1940)’, Journal of the Japan-
Netherlands Institute 6:68-77.
Schulte Nordholt, Henk
1997 ‘Introduction’, in: Henk Schulte Nordholt (ed.), Outward appear-
ances: Dressing state and society in Indonesia, pp. 1-37. Leiden: KITLV
Press. [Proceedings 4.]
Selosoemardjan
1962 Social changes in Jogjakarta. Ithaca, NY: Modern Indonesia Project,
Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University.
Sluyterman, Keetie E.
2005 Dutch enterprise in the twentieth century: Business strategies in a small open
economy. London: Routledge. [Routledge International Studies in
Business History 11.]
Sluyterman, Keetie E. and Hélène J.M. Winkelman
1993 ‘The Dutch family firm confronted with Chandler’s dynamics of
industrial capitalism,1890-1940’, Business History 25-4:151-83.
Smil, Vaclav
2001 Enriching the earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch and the transformation of
world food production. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Soetrisno, Loekman
1980 The sugar industry and rural development: The impact of cane cultiva-
tion for export on rural Java: 1830-1934. PhD dissertation, Cornell
University, Ithaca, NY.
280
Bibliography |
Soames, Peter
1872 Treatise on the manufacture of sugar from sugar cane. London/New
York: Spon.
Speck, Mary
2005 ‘Prosperity, progress, and wealth: Cuban enterprise during the
early Republic, 1902-1927’, Cuban Studies 36-2:50-86.
Spoor- en tramwegen
1921 ‘Spoor- en tramwegen’, in: Encyclopædie van Nederlandsch-Indië. Vol.
4. Tweede druk, pp. 68-85. ’s-Gravenhage: Nijhoff, Leiden: Brill.
Statistique agricole
1917 Annuaire international de statistique agricole, 1915 et 1916. Rome: Im-
primerie de l’Institut International d’Agriculture.
Storey, William Kelleher
1997 Science and power in colonial Mauritius. Rochester, NY: University of
Rochester Press. [Rochester Studies in African History and the
Diaspora.]
Sugar agreement
1937 ‘Sugar agreement foreshadows Japan-N.I. trade pact’, Far East-
ern Survey 6-2:25-6.
Sugar Bihar
1902 ‘Sugar in Bihar’, The International Sugar Journal 4:140.
Sugiyama, Shinya
1989 ‘The structure of the East Asian refined sugar market in the se-
cond half of the nineteenth century’ [in Japanese], in: Hayami
Akira, Saito Osamu and S. Sugiyama (eds), Tokugawa shakai kara
no tenbo, pp. 326-9. Tokyo: Dobunkan.
Suikerindustrie Formosa
1931 ‘De suikerindustrie van Formosa: Een economische beschou-
wing’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 39,
I:549-57, 607- 21. [Extracted from ‘The sugar industry of For-
mosa: Considered from the economic aspect’, in: Diamond, 15-
10-1930.]
Suikermarkt Bombay
1911 ‘De suikermarkt te Bombay’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in
Nederlandsch-Indië 19, I:499-500.
Suikerproduct der fabrieken
1927 ‘Suikerproduct der fabrieken, naar de suikersoort verdeeld’, Ar-
chief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 35, III:4-8.
281
| Bibliography
Sulistyo, Hermawan
1997 The forgotten years: The missing history of Indonesia’s mass slaughter
(Jombang-Kediri 1965-1966). PhD dissertation, Arizona State
University.
Suryo, Djoko
1982 Social and economic life in rural Semarang under colonial rule in the later
19th century. PhD dissertation, Monash University, Clayton.
Taiwan’s sugar industry
1968 ‘Taiwan’s sugar industry’, Sugar y Azucar 63-3:56-7.
Taselaar, Arjen
1998 De Nederlandse koloniale lobby: Ondernemers en de Indische politiek, 1914-
1940. Leiden: Research School CNWS, School of Asian, Afri-
can, and Amerindian Studies. [CNWS Publications 62.] [PhD
dissertation, University of Leiden.]
Termorshuizen, Gerard
2001 Journalisten en heethoofden: Een geschiedenis van de Indisch-Nederlandse
dagbladpers, 1744-1905. Met medewerking van Anneke Scholte.
Amsterdam: Nijgh & Van Ditmar, Leiden: KITLV Uitgeverij.
Thompson, F.M.L.
1968 ‘The second agricultural revolution, 1815-1880’, Economic His-
tory Review (Second Series) 21:62-77.
1996 ‘Agriculture and economic growth in Britain’, in: Peter Matthias
and John A. Davis (eds), The nature of industrialisation. Vol. 4: Agri-
culture and industrialisation: From the eighteenth century to the present day,
pp. 40-68. Oxford: Blackwell.
2000 ‘Agricultural, chemical and fertiliser industries’, in: E.J.T. Collins
(ed.), The agrarian history of England and Wales. Vol. 7, 2. pp. 1019-
44. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tichelaar, J.J.
1924 ‘De ge-employeerde in dienst der Java suikerindustrie, en hunne
opleiding’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 32,
II:1197-1212.
1925 ‘De ge-employeerde in dienst der Java suikerindustrie, en hunne
opleiding’, Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indië 33,
I:21-9, II:1210-24, 1433-7.
Tio Poo Tjiang
1923 De suikerhandel van Java. Amsterdam: De Bussy. [PhD dissertation,
Nederlandsche Handelshoogeschool, Rotterdam.]
282
Bibliography |
Veenendaal, G.
2004 ‘De locomotief van de moderniteit: Aanleg van het net van
spoor- en tramwegen’, in: W. Ravesteijn and J. Kop (eds), Bouwen
in de archipel: Burgelijke Openbare Werken in Nederlands-Indië, 1800-
2000, pp. 129-57. Zutphen: Walburg Press.
Verslag Dienst Opiumregie
1916-1934 Verslag betreffende den Dienst der Opiumregie. Batavia: Dienst der
Opiumregie.
Verslag proef diffusie
1885 Verslag der resultaten der te Djattiwangie genomen proef met de diffusie
gedurende den maaltijd van Ao. 1885. Batavia: Ernst.
Vierhout de Vries, Marjolijn
1995 ‘“Indië heeft toch ook nog een andere waarde dan die zich in
geld laat uitrekenen”: Over het leven en werk van G.P.J. (de la)
Valette’, Louis Couperus Nieuwsbulletin 5:27-37.
Voorwoord
1895 ‘Voorwoord’, Archief voor de Java-Suikerindustrie 3, I:1-2.
Walker, Herbert S.
1910 The sugar industry in the Island of Negros. Manila: Department of
the Interior, Bureau of Science.
Warnford Lock, Charles G., G.W. Wigner and R.H. Harland
1882 Sugar growing and refining: A comprehensive treatise. London: Spon.
Weitzell, E.C.
1946 ‘Resource development in the Pacific Mandated Islands’, The
Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 22-3:201.
Wellenstein
[1932] Wellenstein, Krause & Co.: Java 1882-1932. ’s-Gravenhage: Mou-
ton.
Wereldproductie kunstmeststoffen
1913 ‘Wereldproductie en wereldverbruik van kunstmeststoffen’,
Wichers Hoeth, A.W.
[1929] Van Heekeren & Co en hunne voorgangers 1720-1929. Amsterdam: De
Bussy.
Williams, Jack F.
1980 ‘Sugar: The sweetener in Taiwan’s development’, in: Ronald G.
Knapp (ed.), China’s island frontier: Studies in the historical geography
283
| Bibliography
of Taiwan, pp. 219-51. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.

[Association of American Geographers.]
Wines, Richard A.
1985 Fertilizer in America: From waste recycling to resource exploitation. Phila-
delphia: Temple University Press.
World sugar economy
[1960] The world sugar economy in figures, 1880-1959 = L’économie sucrière
mondiale exprimée en chiffres, 1880-1959 = La economía mundial del
azúcar en cifras, 1880-1959. [Rome]: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations. [Commodity Reference
Series 1.]
Wright, Arnold (ed.)
1909 Twentieth century impressions of Netherlands India: Its history, people,
commerce, industries, and resources. London: Lloyd’s Greater Britain
Publishing Company.
Wijck
1953 ‘Van der Wijck’, Nederland’s Adelsboek 46:476-514.
1987 ‘Van der Wijck’, Nederland’s Adelsboek 78:385-403.
Z. [= H.C. Zentgraaff]
1927 Van Westersch grootbedrijf. [Soerabaia]: n.n. [Overdruk eener serie
artikelen uit Soerabaiasch Handelsblad van 30, 31 Mei, 1, 2 en 3
Juni.]
Zijl, C.E. van der
1922 ‘De huidige stand der mechanistische grondbewerking op Java’,
284
Index
Abdul Rahim Oosman & Co 226 Bank of Taiwan (BOT) 48, 50, 216
adolescents and children (workers) Bank voor Indië 48
72-3, 75-7, 80 Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij
agro-industry 13-4, 53, 58, 63, 69, (BPM) 166
71-2, 75, 83, 94-5, 123, 153, 155, Batavia 29-30, 48, 65, 67, 99, 105,
186, 189, 191, 205, 208 108, 114, 117, 126, 133-5, 241
Algemeen Syndicaat van bean cake 22-3 see also bungkil
Suikerfabrikanten in Nederlandsch- Bedadoeng 185
Indië 102 see also sugar syndicate beet sugar 1, 3-4, 6, 10, 13, 18, 29,
American Sugar Empire 28-9, 233 32-3, 37-9, 42, 45, 51, 89, 101, 123,
Amsterdam 15, 18-9, 23, 28, 48, 78, 132, 183, 213, 227, 235-6
109, 111-2, 114, 124-6, 128-9, Bengal 34
134-5, 137, 144, 166, 177, 186, Big Sugar ix-x, 2, 10-2, 14-5, 97,
211-2 99-100, 103-5, 112, 114, 117, 120,
Archief voor de Suikerindustrie in 123, 128, 143-4, 146, 152, 154-6,
Nederlandsch-Indië 91-2 158-9, 165, 180, 189, 213, 224,
Asian connection 13, 17, 19, 32, 39, 235-8
46, 51 Bihar 34, 213, 228
Australia 33, 39, 90, 191, 244-6 Binnenlands Bestuur (BB) 112, 114
Austria-Hungary 1, 20, 33, 38, 41-2, Bolk, F.W. 154
213 Bombay 37, 41, 177, 213, 225, 227,
Austro-Hungarian Empire see 229
Austria-Hungary Brantas (river) 113, 145, 184, 187,
194
Baarn 109 British India see India
Bali 165 Brooklyn 25-7
Balluseck, Maria Christine von 101 brown sugar(s) 11, 23, 32, 43, 219
Bandjaratma 146 Brussels (Sugar) Convention 19
| Index
bungkil 64, 66 De Javasche Bank (DJB) 48, 50

Butterfield and Swire 17, 23-6, 29-30 Delfos, F.M. 148
division of labour 72-3
Calcutta 41, 213, 226, 228-9 Djatiroto 15, 165-6, 168-86, 189
cane sugar 38, 45, 51, 54, 72, 127, Doorepaal & Co 125
222, 233, 235-6 drainage 55, 162-3, 171, 179, 192
Capellen, W.A. van der 122
carbonation process 33, 38, 40 East Java Sugar Research Institute
Caribbean 5-6, 10, 13, 23, 28-9, 44, see Proefstation Oost-Java (POJ)
54, 70, 87-8, 127, 168, 233, 236 Eeghen, S.P. van 125-6
centrales 55, 57, 59 Eeghen & Co, Van 125
Chen Jitang 220 Eibergen Santhagens, Daniel Cornelis
China 3, 17-8, 21-3, 34-6, 42, 48, 66, van 134-5
187, 213-4, 217-21, 224-5, 231-2, Eibergen Santhagens, Reinier van
234, 244-6 134
China Sugar Refinery (CSR) 17, 21, Erdmann & Sielcken 29, 48, 226
24, 27, 218 Eurasians 65, 82
Cirebon (Cheribon) 67, 122, 163, Everts, Steven 78, 131-2
173, 200, 206
Cochin China 22 factory white 32-4, 36-7, 39-42, 51,
coffee 37, 63, 149 213, 217-9, 222, 225, 235
Colijn, Hendrik 181-2, 186-7 female labour 13, 71-2, 75-7, 80-1,
cotton goods 223-4 88, 162
Couperus, Louis 111 Feng Rui 220
Couperus, Trudy 105, 107 fertilizer 13, 15, 22, 53-4, 63-71, 76,
Creole science 64 80-1, 87-8, 92, 94, 162, 191-2, 194,
Cuba 1, 5, 8-10, 38-9, 50, 54-7, 69, 207, 236
78, 87, 90, 111, 127-8, 168-9, 171, First World War 15, 39, 41-2, 45-6,
173, 183, 214, 218, 229, 233, 235-6 50, 53, 64, 87, 92, 108, 118, 136,
Cultuurmaatschappij der 138, 140, 143, 146, 150, 156,
Vorstenlanden (CMV) 109, 125, 159-61, 187, 189, 196
128, 141, 146 Fock, Dirk 181
Cultuurstelsel 6-8, 11, 58-9, 65, 73, Formosa (Taiwan) 21, 34, 42-3, 45,
157-8, 194 50, 55, 90, 111, 122, 205, 208-9,
Czechoslovakia 220, 228 216-7, 221-5, 230, 234, 244-6
Fraser Eaton & Co 29, 47-8, 226,
Dai Nihon refinery 46 232
David Sassoon & Co 226
286
Index |
gambling 79 Idenburg, A.W.F. 179, 180-1

Geldrop 134 India 1, 3-4, 6, 13, 16, 18, 20, 23,
Germany 1, 18, 20, 33, 38, 41-2, 51, 30, 33-4, 36-7, 39-41, 47, 51, 66,
64, 67, 87, 101, 139, 169, 177, 182, 90, 187, 189, 211, 213-6, 225-34,
213, 228, 233 236, 244-6 see also Raj
Geuns, Mozes van 165-8, 173, 176, India Development Company 228
179 Indian subcontinent see India
Goenoengsari 185 Indies Business Community (het
Graaff, Simon de 181 Indische bedrijfsleven) 124-6, 151
Guangdong 21, 220 Indies-Chinese x, 30-1, 46-7, 49-50,
guano 65 75, 122, 150-1, 159, 203, 216, 232
Indonesia ix-xi, 1-14, 16, 31, 62, 84,
Haber-Bosch process 64 86, 92-3, 105, 127, 129, 189, 213,
Hallsche Machine Fabriek 177 220, 235-9
Handelsvereeniging Amsterdam industrial workforce 69, 73, 88
(HVA) 15, 128-30, 137-8, 141-2, Internatio 110, 128, 132-3
144-6, 149-50, 163, 165-6, 168-74, International Sugar Journal 89, 228
176-7, 179-87, 189 irrigation 55, 60, 113-4, 116, 155,
Hausbrand, Georg Fr. 183 160, 162-3, 171, 178-9, 192-4, 203,
Havemeyer & Elder 25-8, 32 236
Hawaii 44, 55, 57, 87, 90, 153-6,
163-4, 169, 173, 233 Jaager, C.J. de 97, 112-4, 116
Heekeren & Co, Van 109-10 Jacob, H. s’ 108
Heldring, Ernst 19 Japan 1, 16, 18, 24, 27, 29, 31-2, 34,
Hilversum 131-2, 134 36, 42-51, 53, 121-2, 150, 154, 191,
Hoevenaar, Anna 133-4 208, 211, 213-25, 230, 233-6,
Hoevenaar, Hubertus 133 238-9, 244-6
Hoevenaar Concerns 133-5, 139 Japanese Sugar Empire 44-6, 215-7,
Holmberg de Beckfelt, Otto Carel 221-3, 230, 233, 236, 238
133 Jardine Matheson 17, 21-2, 24-5,
Hong Kong 2, 17, 21-32, 35, 42-3, 27, 43
50-1, 215, 218-21, 234-5 Java-China-Japan Line 46
Honolulu Ironworks 220 Javasche Cultuurmaatschappij 135
Hudig, Jan 130 Jut, D.J. 65-6, 80-1, 194
Hungary 228
hygiene 174-6 Kediri 113, 162
khand 36-7
287
| Index
Kian Gwan 30-1, 49-50, 216, 220-1, Maclaine Watson & Co 29-30, 48,
226, 232 67, 126, 226-7, 232
Kobe 44, 46, 50 Madiun 151, 162
Koenir 145, 184 Madras 34
Koloniale Bank (KB) 66, 128, 130, Malay Pensinsula 5
141, 146 Manchuria 45, 218
Koningsberger, J.C. 105 mandur 74, 84, 87, 196-7, 200
Koninklijke Nederlandsche Marianas (Micronesia) 45
Stoomboot Maatschappij (KNSM) Mauritius 4, 9, 33, 37, 90
19-20 McNeill & Co 29
Koninklijke Paketvaartmaatschappij McOnie Harvey 228
(KPM) 109 Merano 133
Kooy & Co 148 Mestfabriek Java (Java Fertilizer
Korea 45, 234 Factory) 67
Korn, Ferdinand 26 Mirrlees Watson 177, 228
Kwik Hoo Tong Trading Society Mitsubishi 44
(KHT) 31, 47, 49-50, 217 Mitsui 44, 46-7, 49, 225-6
Kyushu 34 Mitsui Bussan Kaisha 49, 225
modernity 15, 35, 43, 45, 169
laboratory staff 84-6 Modjo-Agoeng 192, 194-8, 206, 208,
labour recruitment 74, 198 250 see also Soeko Dhono
labour-intensive (agriculture) 62, 72 Mozambique 228
Leeuwen, van 117 Mullemeister, J. 99
Lichtenburg (Notary) 134 Muller, Abram 148
Limburg Stirum, J.P. van 108, 181 multiple effect 3, 5, 6, 24, 56, 62, 232
Lippman, E.O. von 89 Musschenbroek, C.J.W. van 101
London 2, 23-4, 28-30, 41, 226, 228, Musschenbroek, S.C. van 98-111,
242 115, 116, 132, 140, 143, 148, 176
Loon, W.H. van 125
Louisiana 90, 169 Nanjing 220
Lucassen (family) 132 Nanyo Yusen KK Java-line 46
Lumajang 165-6, 176, 179, 183 Nederland Lloyd 135
Luzon 21, 176 Nederlandsch-Indische Handelsbank
Lijnden, D.W.J.C. van 101 133, 147
Nederlandsch-Indische Landbouw-
M.V. Patel 226 Maatschappij (NILM) 128, 133-4,
Maclaine Sugar Company 227 141-2, 147, 203
288
Index |
Nederlandsch-Indische Vereeniging Poland 228

voor de Afzet van Suiker (NIVAS) Portuguese East Africa 228
120-1, 230 Pott, Cassels & Williamson 177
Nederlandsche Handel-Maatschappij Prinsen Geerligs, H.C. 89, 153,
(NHM) 9, 28, 48, 61, 62, 65-6, 78, 211-3, 231
103, 119-21, 125, 128-9, 131-2, Proefstation Oost-Java (POJ) 82,
134, 148, 166, 173, 177, 185, 192, 89-90, 92-4, 182, 208
194-6, 211, 227, 229 Proefstation Midden-Java 67
New York 2, 25, 29, 140 prostitution 79-80
Nieuw Tersana 120-2, 173-4, 185
NV Suikercultuur Maatschappij 135 R&D (Research and Development)
54, 71, 88, 90, 92, 153
Oei Tiong Ham Concern (OTHC) Raad van Indië (Council of the
31, 47, 50, 150-1, 216 Indies) 97, 99, 114
oil ix, 22, 64, 66, 109, 124, 136-7, railways 40, 68, 72, 74, 111-2, 160,
149, 152, 166, 175, 182, 186, 233 173-5, 179, 200, 228
oil cake 64, 66-8 see also bungkil Raj 16, 211, 225, 228, 230 see also
Onderzoek naar de mindere welvaart India
(Inquiry into diminished welfare) Ralli 30, 226-7, 232
80, 117 Ramaer, J.W. 103-5, 148, 153, 163
Oosthoek (East Corner) 30, 162 raw sugar 3, 6, 17, 21-5, 28-9, 33,
opium 79 35, 42, 46, 216, 219, 222, 235
Osaka 43 Redjo Agoeng 31, 151
Outer Islands (Indonesia) 187, 239 refined sugar 35-6, 42-3, 218
Reineke, Hendrik 130
Pagongan 203-5 Reineke, Pieter 138, 144, 168-73,
Pandji 30 177, 181-4, 187
Pasuruan 79, 105-6, 108 see also Reynoso, Alvaro 69
Proefstation Oost-Java (POJ) Reynoso System 69-71
Patna and Sons 226 Rotterdam 48, 110, 128, 133, 135
Pax Neerlandica 11, 111-2 Royal Dutch see Royal Dutch Shell
Personeel Fabriek Bond (PFB, Union Royal Dutch Shell 109, 137, 139,
of Factory Personnel) 161 182
Peru 57 rubber 5, 149, 152, 179, 186
Philippines 4, 21, 43-4, 55, 90, 111, Ruhaak & Co 135
115, 128, 233 Ryukyu Islands 1, 34
Poerworedjo 110-1, 116, 140, 148-9,
184-5
289
| Index
Sarekat Islam 118-9, 157, 160-1 Surabaya 29, 46, 66-7, 103-5, 108,
Second World War ix, 16, 44, 203, 112, 140, 155, 162, 169, 174, 194,
233, 238-9 226, 250
Semarang 29, 31, 67-8, 112, 163, Surakarta 59
200 Suzuki 44, 46-7, 216
Semarang-Cheribon Stoomtram
Maatschappij 68 Taikoo 17, 21, 23-30, 32, 34-6, 218,
Semboro 185-6 221, 234
sereh (cane disease) 88, 207 Taiwan see Formosa
Shanghai 22, 39, 45, 50, 217-9 Taiwan Ginko see Bank of Taiwan
Shantou (Swatow) 21-3 tea 37, 50, 149, 186
Singapore 244-6 Teding van Berkhout, Alphreda
Skoda 220 Louisa 133
Smissaert, Henriette 133 Teding van Berkhout, Maria 99, 133
smokeless sugar 217 The Hague 99, 103, 105, 110, 112,
Soeko Dhono 65-6, 80, 194 see also 117, 119, 133-4, 150, 181
Modjo-Agoeng Tjoekir 140-1
Soerabaiasch Handelsblad 165, Tjokroaminoto 118-9
167-8, 173, 176, 179 Tjomal 83, 86, 99, 103, 109-10,
Soeriadi, Raden Adipati Ario 122 132-3, 143, 176, 189, 190, 202
Sollewijn Gelpke, J.H.F. 113 tobacco 63, 179, 186
Solo (river) 113 Tokyo 43, 216
South Asia 36, 41, 187, 219, 227, tramways 68
231-2 234-5 see also India
Spanish Influenza 15, 161, 197 Uithoorn 112
Stibbe, G.Th. 118-9 Umbgrove Commission 115
Stok, J.E. van der 153 United States 11, 28-9, 38-9, 46, 55,
Stork-Werkspoor 233 63, 127, 150, 168-9, 192, 214, 220,
Straits Chinese 221 233
Straits Settlements 22
sugar syndicate 90, 98-9, 102-5, 108, vacuum pan 3, 5, 24, 27, 232
118, 148, 153, 155, 165, 192, 211 Valette, G.J.P. de la, 105-8
Suiker-Enquête Commissie (Sugar veldpolitie (field police) 199
Inquiry Commission) 118-9 Vereenigde Javasuiker Producenten
sulphate of ammonia see zwavelzure (VJSP, United Java Sugar Producers
ammoniak Association) 47-9
Sumatra 99, 137, 145, 179, 187 Vereeniging van Soerabaiasche
supervision 58, 72-3, 81-4 Suikerfabrikanten 66
290
Index |
Vogel, Henriette Caroline de 131 Wijck, C.H.A. van der 97-100, 103,
Volkart 227 108-10, 112, 115-6, 132-3, 140, 148
Volksraad 75, 108, 118, 180-1
Vorstenlanden 59, 132 Yangtze 217
Vreede, Davina Alida Sophie 112 Yen Block 230
Yogyakarta 59, 110, 146
waduk 192, 194 Yokohama Specie Bank 48
wages 37, 61-2, 69, 72-3, 76-8, 119,
160, 197-202, 237-8, 248 zaibatsu 42-4, 216
Wellenstein Krause 29, 48, 226 Zentgraaff, H.C. 177
wisselbouw 7, 59-60, 155, 162-3 zwavelzure ammoniak (ZA) 53, 63-4,
women (workers) see female labour 67-8, 81, 162, 191-2
Wonopringgo 61-2, 75
291

Commodities and Colonialism - Nodrm PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Commodities and Colonialism - Nodrm PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Commodities and Colonialism - Nodrm PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Verhandelingen van het

Henk Schulte Nordholt

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/vki

The Story of Big Sugar in Indonesia, 1880-1942

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013931781

Copyright 2013 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

3 bureaucracy versus plantocracy

4 no business like sugar business

7 making the best of it

conclusion and postscript

appendix 1. various data, circa 1880-1940 241

appendix 2. main export destinations

appendix 3. productions costs at the modjo agoeng

Sugar yesterday was what oil is today: a commodity of immense global

binaries to which it gave rise, is hardly a matter for elaboration today.

Java sugar and the age of mass production

During the middle decades of the nineteenth century (circa 1830-1880),

Together with the science-based technologies likewise associated with the

2 See, in particular, Dye 1998:1-4, 10-4.

steam and steel in the garden of the east

the immediate region, attempts to produce sugar on an industrial scale

Indeed, it was in respect to the adoption of the multiple-effect ap-

sugar without plantations: the java sugar complex

Similar advantages, however, did not accrue so unequivocally in respect

the financing of production: the colonial state and

The availability of capital was always an issue for an industry dependent

isolated from the ‘mother country’, moreover, the Indies bourgeoisie’s

15 In this context, as in others, once-current notions of the ‘isolation’ of the mid-nineteenth-century

java and the world market for sugar

The mid-nineteenth-century Java industry had grown up in a highly

the state they were in

terest whose operations were contingent on the existence of secure mass

sugar’s late colonial trajectory: surprising

the crisis of 1884 and the ‘asian connection’

The book begins by drawing attention to the vital importance of the

the fertilizer revolution and agro-industry in the

First and foremost, they were able to do so because of developments in

big sugar and the colonial state

no business like sugar business

To some degree, the capitalization of the large-scale commodity pro-

be negated by the constraints imposed by its socio-economic setting in

no escape: the hva and the djatiroto project

From the viewpoint of some of Big Sugar’s more aggressive executives

making the best of it: the twenties and the apogee

commercial nemesis: java, japan and the raj

In tandem with the economic autarchy elsewhere in Asia that accompa-

The Asian connection

3 Mansvelt 1924-26, II:310-2; Prinsen Geerligs 1912:140-1.

the dutch re-discovery of asia and the collapse of

sugar had been so heavily subsidized (through a system of bonuses) in its

the aftermath of 1884: the case of the hong kong

The impact in Asia of the drastic drop in the international price of

12 China sugar trade 1880:492.

scale and scope: industrialized sugar refining in late

industrially equipped refinery that began to make its appearance in East

Butterfield & Swires’ Taikoo sugar refinery, one of the