ROUTINE DECK MAINTENANCE

Maintenance
Planned Maintenance
Maintenance and Survey Requirements
Survey
Corrosion and Deterioration
Preservation of Structures
Glues
Sealants
Working with Confined spaces
Marine Pollution

Planned Maintenance

The master is responsible for the seaworthiness of the vessel and must
ensure that all national and international requirements regarding safety and
pollution prevention are being complied with. Effective planning is required to
ensure that the vessel, its machinery systems and its services are functioning
correctly and being properly maintained, including dry-docking to maintain
hull smoothness.

Planned maintenance is primarily concerned with reducing breakdowns and

the associated costs. Planned maintenance is of two kinds:
Preventative maintenance is aimed at preventing failures or discovering a
failure at an early stage.
Corrective maintenance is aimed at repairing failures that were expected, but
were not prevented because they were not critical for safety or economy.

Advantages of Planned Maintenance

Fewer breakdowns and repairs.

Equipment operates efficiently at all times.
Fewer hazards to the crew when working with well maintained equipment.
Vessel complies with survey requirements at all times.
No areas of the vessel or items of equipment are overlooked or neglected.

Elements of a Planned Maintenance Program

You can develop a basic maintenance program for your vessel by taking the
following steps:
Step 1 Determine what items need to be maintained.
Step 2 Determine the type of maintenance tasks required on each item.
Step 3 Determine the frequency of carrying out particular maintenance jobs.
Step 4 Prepare a maintenance schedule.
Step 5 Develop operational and recording procedures.
You will need to consider the following issues in the planning process

Is an item worth maintaining? What would be the real cost of failure to

maintain that item?
Equipment manufacturers instructions.
Statutory survey requirements.
Classification society requirements.
Maximum length of survey cycle.
Magnitude of maintenance task.
Maintenance/inspection that can only be carried out when the vessel is out of
water.
Resources required.
Recording.
Length of voyages, routes and trades the vessel is involved in.
Spare parts replacement.

The plan must be adaptable to various weather conditions and must be

flexible enough to accommodate changes in vessel’s trade.

It is convenient to draw up a maintenance schedule by breaking down the

plan into various ‘time phases’. Two suggested categories are:
Short-term maintenance.
Long-term maintenance.

Short-term maintenance may include weekly, fortnightly or monthly

inspections and greasing routines. Long term maintenance will involve major
overhauls and surveys. Remember too that some operational maintenance
tasks will only be carried out as and when necessary.

The actual operation and documentation of the plan will vary from vessel to
vessel. Many vessels use a card index system or computer program for this
purpose. Usually, a job sheet is prepared for each job. The job sheet
contains a description of the work and a list of relevant spare parts and
references to drawings and instruction manuals. On completion of the job,
relevant details are entered in the job sheet.

Maintenance and Survey Requirements

It is obvious that for a vessel to float, water must be prevented from gaining
entry into the hull. The vessel designer has to ensure that under normal use
water will not enter the hull in sufficient quantities to sink it. The shipbuilder
ensures that is of sound construction to meet these requirements. This is
verified at the initial survey carried out by an Authority.

It is your responsibility to ensure that your vessel’s watertight and weather

tight integrity is maintained throughout it’s period of service. This is ensured
by periodic surveys carried out by the Authorities. In general terms, the
survey requirements require the vessel to be watertight below the freeboard
deck and weathertight above the freeboard deck. This means that the shell
plating must be intact and the closures to all openings leading to the hull
should be in efficient working order. No alterations should be done to any
structure that would adversely affect the watertight integrity of the hull without
the approval of the appropriate survey authority.

It is essential that you are thoroughly familiar with the locations and closing
mechanisms of all openings on your vessel through which water may enter
the hull. This way you will not neglect to maintain, test and check the
efficiency of any of the closing arrangements.

Maintenance Items
Check that all access openings at ends of enclosed structures are in good
condition. All door clips, clamps, and hinges should be free and well
greased. All gaskets and watertight seals should be crack free. Ensure that
the doors open from both sides. Figure 1.25 shows the typical components of
a weathertight door.

Figure 1.25 Weathertight door on Main deck

Check all cargo hatches and access to holds for weathertightness.

Seals should never be painted.

Regularly inspect all machinery space openings on exposed decks.

Check that any manholes and flush scuttles are capable of being made
water-tight.

Check that all ventilator openings are provided with efficient weathertight
closing appliances and repair any defects.

All air pipes of diameter exceeding 30mm bore, must be provided with
permanently attached satisfactory means for closing the openings.
Ensure that the non-return valves on overboard discharges are operating in a
satisfactory manner.

Check that all freeing ports are in a satisfactory condition, e.g. shutters are
not jammed, hinges are free and that pins are of non corroding material.
Check that any securing appliances, if fitted, work correctly.

Tests
You can test the efficiency of closures by means of a simple “hose test” or by
a “chalk test”.

Survey

Definitions

Survey a thorough examination performed by, or in the presence of

a surveyor or an authorised person or society.

Inspection a visual inspection performed by an approved person.

The Certificate of Survey is issued on completion of an Initial Survey. The surveyor

submits a report, detailing the condition of the hull, machinery and equipment, and makes
a written declaration of such condition.

Initial Survey

The main purpose of this survey is to ensure that the vessel will be able to
perform the tasks for which it is intended.

All aspects of the vessel’s construction are examined to ensure that it meets
the requirements of Section 5 of the USL Code. After the construction is
complete, the Authority surveys the vessel once more and if satisfied, issues
the owner with a “Certificate of Survey”.

The Certificate of Survey or its evidence (plasticized document or metal

plate) should be displayed:
near the steering position, except on passenger vessels, where the evidence
should be displayed in such a position that it is readily visible to passengers,
or if the Authority requires,
in a position on board that it shall be visible from outside the vessel.

Periodic Surveys and Inspections

All vessels must under go 'Periodic Surveys and Inspections' to satisfy the
Authority that the vessel continues to comply with all its laws and regulations.
Typical Annual Surveys

Equipment.
Running trial of each main engine and associated gearbox.
Operational test of bilge pumps, bilge alarms and bilge valves
Operation test of all valves in the fire main system.
Operational test of all sea injection and overboard discharge valves and
cocks.
Operational test of main and emergency means of steering.
Running trial of all machinery essential to the safe operation of the vessel.
Inspection of all pipe arrangements.
General examination of machinery installation and electrical installation.
All safety and relief valves associated with the safe operation of the vessel to
be set at the required working pressure.
Pressure vessels, and associated mountings used for the generation of
steam under pressure or the heating of water to a temperature exceeding 99
degrees Celsius
Inspection of the liquefied petroleum gas installation.
Inspection of cargo handling, fishing and trawling gear.
Inspection of escapes from engine room and accommodation spaces.
Inspection of personnel protection arrangements in machinery spaces.
Inspection of casings, superstructures, skylights, hatchways,
companionways, bulwarks and guard rails, ventilators and air pipes, together
with all closing devices.
Inspection of ground tackle (anchors and chains).

Two Yearly Surveys

Hull externally and internally except in way of tanks forming part of the
structure.
Sea injection and overboard discharge valves and cocks.
Inspection of propellers, rudders and under water fittings.
Pressure vessel and associate mountings of an air pressure/salt water
system having a working pressure of more than 275 kPa.

Four Yearly Surveys

Each screw and tube shaft.

Anchors and cables to range.
Chain locker internally.
Tanks forming part of the hull, other than oil tanks, internally.
Void spaces internally.
Compressed air pressure vessels having a working pressure of more than
275 kPa and associated mountings.
Pressure vessel and associated mountings of an air pressure/fresh water
system having a working pressure of more than 275 kPa.
Cargo handling, Fishing and trawling gear.
Insulation test of all electrical installations above 32V A.C. or D.C.
Eight Yearly Surveys

Each rudder stock and rudder stock bearing

Steering gear.
Hull in way of removable ballast.
Selected sections of internal structure in way of refrigerated space.
Twelve Yearly Surveys

Fuel oil tanks internally

Corrosion and Deterioration

Deterioration of Timber

Fungal Attack

Breakdown of wood by fungi, commonly called rot or decay, can occur in

timber whenever the moisture content rises above 20 to 25 percent. The
fungi which cause decay spread by means of microscopic spores which are
usually present in the air, so that any moist susceptible timber, even in
almost completely sealed cavities, is subject to attack.

Warning signs of decay are:

Paint or varnish failure
A musty smell like mushrooms
Fruiting bodies, like toadstools, spongy growths, or soft incrustations of
various colours
Mycelium, generally white threadlike growth, sometimes thick like cotton wool
Any softening, cracking or other physical breakdown of the wood

Marine Insect Attack

Timber may be attacked by any of the following, depending upon conditions:
Termites and White Ants
Subterranean types
Tree dwelling type
Dry wood type
All three of these varieties dislike the light and may be exterminated by the
use of proprietary poisons.

Lyctus Borers
These only attack hardwoods which have sapwoods containing a high starch
content. Fortunately 33% of Australian hardwoods are immune from attack.
The attack becomes evident when an accumulation of fine flour dust appears
on the surface of the timber. This borer may be exterminated by the use of
proprietary poisons.

Marine Borers
The pill bug - a crustacean
The gribble - a crustacean
The shipworm or toredo - a mollusc

The crustacean borers cause the typical "hour glass" type of wastage seen in
neglected piles of wharves, etc. If allowed to go unchecked they are
responsible for considerable damage to the underwater section of wooden
vessels. Sometimes they are referred to as "putty borers".
The toredo commences life as free swimming larva which attach to
submerged timber and immediately begin to bore. In Australian waters they
may reach a length of up to 1 metre. They use the attached wood as
habitation, the worm feeding on minute marine life in the surrounding water.
For the owners of wooden vessels these borers are a constant worry.
Prevention of attack from both forms of marine borer is possible by deep and
total impregnation of the timber with creosote or proprietary preservatives.
An alternative by costly procedure is metal sheathing.

Corrosion of metal
Corrosion is the alteration and decomposition of metals or alloys by direct
chemical attack or by persistent electrochemical reactions. Corrosion can be
classified as:
Chemical corrosion. Electrochemical
corrosion.

Chemical Corrosion
This is the attack of metals by solutions of acids or alkaline which will
chemically combine with the metal to form entirely new products. The
material can be considered as being dissolved in the solution. Such attack is
usually caused by spillage of liquids such as battery acids, galley refuse, or in
toilet areas.1.2.2 Electrochemical Corrosion
This is the most common type of corrosion. It is caused by very small
electrical currents flowing between one metallic area to another. These
electrical currents cause the material which is being corroded to change to a
completely different substance; for example, steel changes to rust. Whether
the corrosion takes place below the waterline, or above the waterline, the
presence of both oxygen and an electrolyte (i.e. a conducting solution) play
an important part. Saltwater is a liquid which encourages corrosion because
it is an excellent conductor of electricity. Corrosion is indicated by the
presence of rust or wastage of a metal.

The galvanic Scale of metals comparative reactivity.

ANODIC END
(GREATER TENDENCY TO CORRODE)
1 MAGNESIUM
2 ZINC
3 ALUMINUM ALLOYS
4 CADMIUM
5 MILD STEEL
6 CAST IRON
7 NICKEL CAST IRON
8 ALUMINIUM BRONZE
9 BRASSES
10 TIN
11 COPPER
12 LEAD-TIN SOLDERS
13 ALUMINIUM BRASS
14 MANGANESE BRONZE
15 SILICON BRONZE
16 TIN BRONZES (GUNMETAL)
17 STAINLESS STEEL 400 SERIES
18 NICKEL SILVER
19 NICKEL -CHROMIUM ALLOYS
20 LEAD
21 COPPER NICKEL
22 BRONZES
23 NICKEL -SILVER
24 COPPER -NICKEL ALLOYS
25 SILVER SOLDER
26 NICKEL
27 SILVER
28 STAINLESS STEELS 302, 304
29 MONEL
30 STAINLESS STEELS 316, 317
31 TITANIUM
32 GOLD
33 PLATINUM
34 GRAPHITE
CATHODIC END (noble)

Preservation of Structures
Preservation of Timber

The following precautions will keep the risk of fungal and insect attack to a
minimum.
Ensure good ventilation throughout the boat, particularly when it is lying idle.
Make sure rainwater cannot get in.
Prevent condensation by ventilation. Where it is unavoidable eg. on insides
of windows, use water-repellent preservative on woodwork.
Use a water soluble preservative in the bilge water. A cheap and effective
one can be made by dissolving 0.65 Kg of borax and 0.45 Kg of boric acid in
4 litres of hot water. This mixture is non-corrosive and harmless to animals.
Inspect the vessel’s timbers for decay regularly, at least every 6 months. If
decay is found act at once, a few weeks in summer is enough for major
damage to be done.
Use a preservative from a variety of preservatives that have been developed
for the successful treatment of timber for decay resistance.
Use a proprietary poison for extermination of marine insects.

Preservation of Metals

There are two ways of preventing corrosion.

1. By providing a piece of material which will corrode in preference to the

vessel. Such a substance is usually found attached to the hull near the
propeller or attached inside a tank, in the form of a sacrificial anode. When
two metals in contact with each other result in one of the metals corroding,
the metal which is preserved is called more "Noble" than the metal that
corrodes.
In such cases aluminium will corrode in preference to steel; steel will
corrode in preference to brass; brass will corrode in preference to stainless
steel. Different metals should not be used in close contact unless there is
good insulation between them; for example, it is bad practice to connect a
steel valve to an aluminium hull, without insulation. The aluminium may
corrode around the steel.

Lead, in contact with aluminium will cause rapid wasting of the

aluminium. For this reason, lead based paints must never be used on
aluminium hulls. Lead incidentally, is more noble than steel, but the problem
is not nearly as noticeable.

2. By coating the surface with a substance such as paint. Paint sticks

closely to any surface to which it is applied and prevents corrosion. In order
to ensure that the bond between the paint and the surface is good the
surface must be properly prepared.
In particular -
Any cracked or flaking paint should be removed.
The surface should be clean, dry and free from salt, oil, grease etc.
Any corrosion should be removed.
Any internal repairs to the surface should be completed.
It is beyond the scope of this learner’s guide to describe every type of paint
there is, but some of the common types of paints are as follows:
Anti-corrosive Paints - used on metal surfaces to prevent corrosion from
occurring.

Heat Resistant Paints - either sprayed aluminium or aluminium/graphite

pigments.

Fire Retardant Paints - the action of these paints is that as they burn, gasses
are given off which blanket the flame and slow or stop the combustion
reaction.

Anti-fouling Paints - used on the hull to prevent the growth of marine

organisms.

Barrier Paints - in the case of painting an underwater section with a new coat
of anti-fouling, unless the old system is completely removed, it is essential
that a coat of barrier paint is used between the old and the new coats of anti-
fouling.
This is because the solvent in the new paint will react with the old and some
of the poison will leach down through the old paint thereby reducing the
amount available to come out of the new coat to seaward.
Likewise when using a ‘high performance’ 2 part paint over the top of a coat of
conventional paint, the coats must be separated by a coat of barrier paint. The chemical
reaction occurring in the HP paint will damage the underlying conventional paint.

Non Skid Paints - used on decks and steps to prevent slippage. Generally
around door entrances, windlass area, boarding areas and on steel step
ladders.
Paints can be applied by brush, roller or spray gun. In all cases you should
refer to the manufacturer’s instructions on the recommended procedure,
materials and safety precautions. This information is usually available from
the paint container itself.

Glues
There are six main glue types commonly used in boats:

Animal Glues & Resins:

Non waterproof and unsuitable for exterior use.

PVA (Polyvinyl Acetate):

Non waterproof and unsuitable for exterior use.

Rubber:
Contact adhesives that may be natural or synthetic. They are applied to both
surfaces and allowed to partially dry before bonding together.
Melamine-Urea:
Cascamite (Casco urea formaldehyde) is a powder that is mixed with water
with only a few hours shelf life. It is water resistant but brittle with poor filling
qualities..
Aerolite is a two part catalyst and resin powder with water mix. The powder &
water mix has a shelf life of a few days.The clear catalyst is applied to one
surface and creamy resin applied to the other, allowing the coating of all
surfaces prior to the event of bonding. Useful in tricky clamping up operations
such as laminating multiple timbers or stitch and glue construction where
time is a consideration.

Epoxies:
Two part with a hardener and a resin and a shelf life of an hour or two, epoxy
resin glues are now universally used in marine timber construction. They are
waterproof, very strong but do not penetrate the end grain of timber. The
West System successfully uses additives and extenders to modify the
qualities of epoxy resins for composite construction.

Resorcinols:
Aerodux or Cascophen are superior two parts with good spreading qualities.
They are fully waterproof and UV resistant with a few days shelf life after
mixing. They are not gap filling.

Rubber=1 Melamine Urea=2 Epoxy Resins=3 Resorcinols=4

APPLICATIONS FOR TYPES OF GLUES
Metal Fabric Rubber Wood Paper Ceramic
Metal 2 3 1 1 2 3 1 3 1 2 3
Fabric 1 1 1 1 1 1
Rubber 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1 2 1 1
Wood 1 3 1 1 2 2 3 4 1 1 3
Paper 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3
Ceramic 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
Thermoplastic 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1
Modern bedding sealants are increasingly being used as adhesives with
success.

Sealants
Sealants are used to form tough but flexible gaskets between fittings for insulation,
waterproofing and increasingly as a bedding adhesive.

Traditional sealants:
Shellac:
Shellac, a natural resin, is nowadays more commonly associated with French polish for
furniture finishing. It is dissolved in methylated spirit and was used as a bedding material
under decking as it does not dissolved in water or by the action of the oils in wood.
Tar:
Stockholm tar with its distinctive smell is still used to waterproof natural fibre
ropes, yarn and canvas.

Pitch:
A solid form of tar at normal temperatures, it is melted and laid into the gaps
between deck planking to seal them. Geofferies Marine Glue

Putty:
A linseed oil and chalk mixture that was fortified with powdered white lead
(lead oxide) but is now commonly mixed with the less toxic red metal primer
paint, and used to seal the plank seams in timber carvel construction.

Mastic:
Very slow drying natural or mineral oil pastes that provides a sticky
waterproof seal that is flexible. As mastics age they dry, shrink and crack
away from the surfaces. They are most successfully used as gaskets rather
than surface fillets or beadings.

Modern sealants:
Polyurethane:
Form a permanent bond and should not be used for fittings that require to be moved. Not
suitable for ABS type plastics. Some are not suitable for overpainting. Liquid nails,
Construction adhesive

Polysulphide:
Single and two part varieties provide a rubber like flexible sealant. They can
be premoulded to form gaskets and components can be disassembled with
varying degrees of ease. They must be applied to dry surfaces. Oily timber
will require sealing with a primer. Most can be sanded and overpainted.
Sikaflex.

Silicone:
Bond well to all surfaces to form a highly elastic seal. Most can be
disassembled with ease and are not paintable. They are readily available and
you will get a quality of Sealant that matches the price you are willing to pay
for.

Exellent=1 Very good=2 Good=3 Not Recommended=4

Sealant/Bedding table
Material Polysulphide Polyurethane Silicone
ABS to GRP 4 4 3
ABS to Wood 4 4 3
Deck/hull joints 1 1 2
Deck seams 1 4 4
Electrical insulation 2 1 1
GRP to GRP 2 1 2
GRP to glass 2 1 2
Glass to metal 2 1 2
Glass to vinyl 4 4 3
Glass to wood 1 2 3
Metal to wood 1 2 3
GRP to metal 1 1 2
Plank seams underwater 1 4 4
GRP to plastic 4 4 2
Plastic to wood 4 4 3
GRP to wood 1 1 2

Working with Confined spaces

General duties of employers and employees
Duties of employers

Under all NOHSC standards and codes, employers have a duty to:

◾ implement a systematic process of hazard identification, risk

assessment, risk control and review in the workplace;
◾ make sure employees receive appropriate training, instruction and
supervision, including induction and ongoing training;
◾ obtain and provide appropriate information;
◾ consult with employees likely to be exposed to risks, and with their
health and safety representatives;
◾ keep appropriate records.

Additional or more specific requirements apply in some areas.

hazardous substances;

◾ HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B;

◾ major hazard facilities;
◾ plant;
◾ working in confined spaces.

Duties of employees

Under all NOHSC standards and codes, employees have a duty to:

◾ comply, as far as they can, with all activities carried out in accordance
with the standard
◾ report to their employer anything that might affect the employer’s
compliance with the standard.

What is a Confined Space?

Confined spaces are fully or partially enclosed areas which aren’t designed to
be normal places of work, and where entry and exit are restricted. They
include things like storage tanks, silos, pits or degreasers, pipes, shafts or
ducts, or confined space onboard ships.

Working inside spaces like this (including putting one’s head or upper body
inside them) can be dangerous for various reasons. Fatalities or severe
injuries can occur because:

• there’s not enough oxygen, or too much oxygen (leaking from an oxygen
supply, for example);
• the atmosphere or surfaces inside are contaminated,
• steam, water, or other gases or liquids may enter the space in an
uncontrolled way;
• there is a risk of suffocation (eg by grain, sand, flour), electrocution,
explosion or fire.

Confined spaces can increase the risk of injury from other hazards too—such
as equipment operating in the space, noise (tasks such as hammering may
become louder), radiation, or temperature (conditions may be too hot or too
cold as a result of the work process or the weather conditions, bad ventilation
or inappropriate clothing).The constraints of the space can also make manual
handling injuries and falls more likely.

Standards and codes of practice

Joint National Standard for Safe A set of requirements for employers
Working in a Confined Space (and designers) about:
Australian Standard AS2865-1995
(produced jointly by Standards • how to eliminate or minimise the
Australia and the NOHSC) need to enter confined spaces;
and
• how to protect the health and
safety of anyone who needs to
enter a confined space.

Special duties

In addition to the duties outlined previously, employers must also:

• ensure that any modifications to a confined space do not make entry

and exit more difficult;
• ensure that no one enters a confined space without an entry permit;
• ensure that appropriate rescue and first aid procedures are planned,
established and rehearsed.
• keep the following records:

- entry permits (for one month);

- risk assessment reports (for five years);

- training (for the term of the employee’s employment).

The national standard also sets out various duties which apply to people who
design, manufacture or supply confined spaces.

Identifying hazards and assessing risks

Getting Started

Start by listing the confined spaces in your workplace, noting any work
associated with them (regular maintenance, for example) and whether it is
necessary to enter the space to perform the work.

You’re looking for:

• hazards associated with entering the confined space itself, as well as

• hazards associated with what is actually to be done inside the space.

Use checklists, perhaps based on those in the accompanying show.

Controlling risks

1. Options which eliminate the hazard

The best option is eliminate the need to enter the confined space at all—use
tanks designed to be self-cleaning, for example, or equipped with observation
windows.

2. Options which minimise the risk

Substitution: If it’s absolutely necessary to work in a confined space,

substitutions can be made to ensure the work itself is as safe as
possible—using a non-flammable solvent instead of a flammable one, for
example, or a brush instead of aerosol application.

Isolation: The space should be isolated from all potentially hazardous

services to prevent accidental activation of things like machinery, accidental
energisation, or accidental introduction of contaminants or other unwanted
materials through piping, vents, drains etc.

Engineering controls may include mechanisms for lockouts, for cleaning

contaminants from the confined space, for monitoring conditions inside the
space, or for ensuring the atmosphere (including oxygen level, pressure and
temperature) is safe (and remains safe all the time anyone is inside the
space).

Try to get the design right in the first place: If the space can’t be designed to
eliminate the need for entry, the design of the space should minimise the risk
to anyone entering or working inside it (including providing safe means of exit
and entry).

3. Backup controls

Safe work practice should be designed to ensure that, wherever a risk to

health and safety has been identified:

• no-one enters a confined space without an entry permit, and without at

least one person standing by outside;
• suitable signs are erected outside while people are inside;
• the confined space is only returned to service after making sure (and
acknowledging in writing) that the work is finished and no one remains
inside,
• suitable procedures are in place for rescue, first aid and fire
suppression.

Personal protective equipment such as respiratory equipment, safety

harnesses and protective clothing, may be used when risks cannot be
sufficiently controlled using other means, or as a temporary measure until
other controls can be implemented.

Risk factors within confined spaces

Risk factors are things which could affect the risk of harm from working in
confined spaces

• Nature of the confined space

Risk increases with:

• unsound or insecure structures

• low visibility or lack of illumination
• size and shape which restricts movement
• difficult or obstructed entry/exit points
• presence of moving equipment which may crush, or trap a person
• potential for uncontrolled introduction of steam, water, or other gas or
liquid.

State of the atmosphere inside the space

Risk increases with:

• presence of inert gases which dilute air

• presence of contaminants (gases, vapours, fumes, particulates)
• presence of explosive or volatile substances
• lack of ventilation
• higher or lower than normal temperature and/or atmospheric pressure
• Substances currently or last contained

Risk increases with:

• substances (either organic or inorganic) which have been slowly

oxidising (using available oxygen)
• substances which absorb oxygen (grains, chemicals, soils)
• substances which leave contaminants on surfaces (solids, liquids,
sludges)
• presence of solid materials (eg grains, sand, flour, fertiliser) which can
cause suffocation
• Work in adjacent areas
• Risk may increase with hot work or use of moving equipment such as
forklifts in adjacent areas

The requirements of the work to be done

Risk increases with:

• the need for physical activity, which increases the body’s use of oxygen
and raises body temperatures
• the use of equipment which could leak excess oxygen into the
atmosphere
• the use of equipment which could make entry/exit difficult
• the use of processes which release contaminants (eg painting with toxic
or flammable substances, welding or brazing with metals producing toxic
fumes)
• the use of processes involving combustion(which use up oxygen)
• the need for hot work
• the use of equipment which produces radiation (eg lasers, welders,
radiation gauges)
• processes producing noise which may be amplified by the confined
space

Number of people inside the space

• Risk increases the more people there are inside (although two may be
safer than one in some circumstances??)

The length of time spent inside the space

• Risk increases the longer or more often work is required inside a

confined space.

Number of people outside the space

• There should be enough people outside to maintain essential

equipment, monitor progress and carry out rescue procedures

Fitness, skills and experience of employees

• Risk increases for inexperienced or untrained employees.

• Use and effectiveness of control measures

Training tips

Training programs about working in confined spaces should cover:

• hazards associated with such working conditions;

• risk assessment procedures and control measures;
• emergency procedures;
• selection, use, fitting and maintenance of safety equipment.

Training should be provided for people working in or on confined spaces, as

well as people who:

• are on standby during confined space work

• issue entry permits;
• design and lay out the workplace;
• manage or supervise people working in or near confined spaces,
• maintain equipment used for confined space work;
• buy, distribute, fit or maintain personal protective equipment
• are involved in rescue and first aid procedures.

Advice and training materials can be obtained from State and Territory
governments, and employer and employee groups.

Marine Pollution

The enormous growth in the maritime transport of oil and the size of tankers,
the increasing amount of chemicals being carried by sea and a growing
concern for the world’s environment as a whole made many feel that the
1954 OILPOL Convention was no longer adequate, despite the various
amendments which had been adopted. In 1969 the IMO Assembly (again
prompted partly by the TORREY CANYON incident two years previously)
decided to arrange an international conference to consider a completely new
convention. The Conference duly met in London in 1973.

The Convention which resulted - the International Convention for the

Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) - is the most ambitious
international treaty covering maritime pollution ever adopted. It deals not only
with oil but with all forms of marine pollution from ships except the disposal of
land-generated waste into the sea by dumping (which was covered by
another Convention adopted the previous year).

Australia is a party to the 1973/78 International Convention for the Prevention

of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) as well as the 1972 Convention on
the prevention of Marine Pollution by dumping of Wastes and other Matter.
Australian maritime pollution laws apply to vessels of all nations within 200
nautical miles offshore.

As a result, we have two major Acts of Parliament in this country regarding

pollution from ships:

1 The Protection of the Sea (Prevention of Pollution from Ships) Act 1983.
2 The Environmental Protection (Sea Dumping) Act 1981.

In New South Wales and other States, there is a parallel legislation (e.g.,
NSW Marine Act 1987).
Under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
1973/78 (known as MARPOL), all of the above applies. In Australia, this
convention is enacted in the Protection of the Sea (Prevention of pollution
from ships) Act 1983 and the Navigation Act 1912.

The MARPOL Convention includes 6 technical Annexes. Annexes I and II,

dealing with oil and bulk noxious liquid substances respectively, are
mandatory, in the sense that ratification of the Convention is impossible
without ratification of these Annexes. Annexes III, IV, V and VI, dealing
respectively with harmful substances in packaged forms, sewage, garbage
and air pollution are optional. The Convention also has two Protocols, dealing
respectively with reports of incidents involving harmful substances and
arbitration.

Entry into force is as follows:

MARPOL 73/78 2 October 1983 (international) 14 January 1988 (Australia)

Annex I 2 October 1983 (international) 14 January 1988 (Australia)
Annex II 6 April 1987 (international) 14 January 1988 (Australia)
Annex III 1 July 1992 (international) 10 January 1995 (Australia)
Annex IV 27 September 2003 (international) expected 2004 (Australia)
Annex V 31 December 1988 (international) 14 November 1990 (Australia)
Annex VI Not yet in force (expected 2004)

The Annexes can be summarised as follows:

Annex I Oil - oil mixtures, distillates, gasoline, jet fuels, etc.

Annex II Noxious liquid substances - mainly chemicals including acids,

alcohols, castor oil, hydrogen peroxide, pentane, etc. Also citric

juice, glycerine, milk, molasses, wine, etc.

Annex III Harmful substances in packaged form - includes freight

containers, portable tanks, road and rail tank wagons, etc.

Annex IV Sewage - wastes from toilets, drainage from medical premises,

drainage from spaces containing live animals, etc.

Annex V Garbage - plastic bags, synthetic ropes, food wastes, paper

products,

glass, metal, crockery, packaging material, synthetic fishing nets, etc.

Annex VI Air Pollution

Annex I - Oil

Except where otherwise stated, these regulations apply to all tankers of 50

gross tons (about 30 metres in length) and above and other ships of 400
gross tons (about 40 metres) and above.

A complete ban on operational discharges of oil from ships except under the
following conditions:

For all ships,

1 The rate at which oil may be discharged must not exceed 60 litres per
mile travelled by the ship;
2 The oil content of any bilge water discharged must be below 100 parts
per million;
3 Ship must be more than 12 miles from nearest land; and
4 Ship must have in operation an approved oil discharge monitoring and
control system, oily water separating equipment or oil filtering
equipment.

Parties to the Convention are obliged to provide adequate facilities for the
reception of residues and oily mixtures at oil loading terminals, repair ports,
etc.

Oil tankers must have the equipment necessary to operate the “load on top
system” or to retain oily residues on board until they can be discharged into
shore reception facilities. This equipment includes slop tanks, oily-water
separating equipment or filtering systems, oil content meters, oil discharge
monitoring and control systems, sludge tanks and suitable pumping and
piping arrangements.
All ships of 400 gross tonnage and above - including non-tankers - must be
equipped with oily-water separating equipment or a filtering system for the
discharge of machinery space bilges.

Every oil tanker of 150 tons gross tonnage and above, and every other ship
of 400 tons gross tonnage and above will be subject to the survey specified
below:

(a) an initial survey before the ship is put in service, or before the Certificate
is issued for the first time, to ensure that the structure, equipment,
systems, fittings, arrangements, and material fully comply with the
requirements of the Annex;
(b) a period survey at intervals of five years before the re-issue of the
Certificate, for the same reasons stated in (a);
(c) one intermediate survey held not before six months prior to, nor later
than six months after the halfway date of the Certificate’s period of
validity, to ensure that the equipment and associated pump and piping
systems, including oil discharge monitoring and control systems, crude
oil washing systems, oily water separating equipment and oil filtering
systems, fully comply with the requirements of the Annex;
(d) an annual survey held within three months before or after the
anniversary date of the Certificate; except when the annual survey
coincides with the intermediate survey, then the annual survey will not
be necessary.

For existing crude oil tankers a third alternative was permissible for a period
of two to four years after entry into force of MARPOL 73/78. This was called
dedicated ‘clean ballast tanks’ (CBT) and was a system whereby certain
tanks were dedicated solely to the carriage of ballast water: This was
cheaper than a full SBT system, since it utilised existing pumping and piping,
but when the period of grace expired (2 October 1987), other systems had to
be used.

National Plan To Combat Marine Pollution

This was set up after the grounding of the Oceanic Grandeur in Torres Strait
in April 1970.

Stockpiles of dispersant materials and equipment are set up at 9 ports

around Australia. The material and equipment can be taken by sea or air
rapidly to any area where it may be needed. Sydney also has a separate
stockpile of transfer equipment, which can be used to lighten tankers in the
event of collision or stranding. It consists of submersible pumps, hoses,
generators, fenders, etc. The cost of this is met by the Pollution of the Sea by
Oil (Shipping Levy) and (Shipping Levy Collection) Acts.

Pollution Prevention From “Small” Vessels

• Observe anti-spill and fire precautions when re-fuelling.

• Don’t discharge oily bilges within 12 nautical miles from coast. Observe
the above guidelines when discharging outside 12 miles. Oily bilges
must be discharged into a mobile or a shore based pump-out facility.
Observe the above “large vessel” guidelines when discharging at sea.
Bilge water can easily be cleaned by installing an oil absorbent pad or a
oily water separator near the bilge pump. Bilge sponges are available
from most chandlers.
• Engine oil must only be discharged into an oil reception barge or a shore
facility.
• If a vessel is not fitted with a separate oily waste tank, oily bilge water
should be pumped into a container on deck for disposal when ashore.
• No discharge of any type is permitted in the specially protected area of
the Great Barrier Reef. This means that vessels are prevented from
discharging unprocessed garbage within 12 nautical miles of the outer
edge of the reef - in some places this is as much as 162 nautical miles
from the Queensland coast.
• You are required to report any polluting spill from your own vessel, and,
requested to report sighting of any other.

In Case Of An Oil Spill

• Cease operation
• Ease pressure on overflowing tank.
• Sound emergency alarm
• Ban smoking anywhere on board
• Take all fire precautions
• Control spill
• Inform authorities
• Clean up on deck
Fuel Expansion In Hot Weather

Fuel expands in volume about 0.5% per 1°C rise in temperature. Therefore,
with a 10° rise in air temperature - a common daily fluctuation in Australia -
the fuel in a tank, sitting in open air, may expand by 5%. Ignoring some
expansion of the tank itself, this amounts to 5 cm rise in the sounding in a
tank full of fuel, measuring 1 x 1 x l metre. Without sufficient ullage (space
between the liquid and tank top), the fuel could overflow. Due to pollution
hazards associated with fuel, it is usual for fuel tanks to be fitted with a
venting pipe.

Great Barrier Reef

Under MARPOL, no discharge of any type is permitted in the area of Great

Barrier Reef. In some cases this can be as much as 150 nautical miles from
the Queensland coast. Where discharges are prohibited within a certain
distance from the land these distances are measured from the outer edge of
the reef.

A POLPREP

(1) Each report shall contain in general:

(a) identity of the ship;

(b) the time and date of the occurrence of the incident;
(c) the geographic position of the ship when the incident occurred;
(d) the wind and sea conditions prevailing at the time of the incident;
and
(e) relevant details respecting the condition of the ship.

(2) Each report shall contain, in particular:

(a) a clear indication or description of the harmful substances involved,

including, if possible, the correct technical names of such
substances (trade names should not be used in place of the correct
technical names);
(b) a statement or estimate of the quantities; concentrations and likely
conditions of harmful substances discharged or likely to be
discharged into the sea; and
(c) where relevant, a description of the packaging and identifying
marks; and
(d) if possible, the names of the consignor, consignee or manufacturer.
(3) Each report shall clearly indicate whether the harmful substance
discharged, or likely to be discharged is oil, a noxious liquid substance, a
noxious solid substance or a noxious gaseous substance and whether
such substance was or is carried in bulk or contained in packaged form,
freight containers, portable tanks, or road and rail tank wagons.

(4) Each report shall be supplemented as necessary by any other relevant

information requested by a recipient of the report or which the person
sending the report deems appropriate.

Spill Or Discharge By Ship

A1 Ship: name, size, type, call sign/ship station identity and flag

A2 Name, address and contact details of owner and agent of ship/place on

land/purpose-built pipeline/apparatus

A3 Position of discharge and position of place on land/purpose-built

pipeline/apparatus

B Date and time of event

Note: Express as Universal Co-ordinated Time

C Position: latitude and longitude, or

D Position: true bearing and distance

Note: Give C or D

E True course

F Speed in knots

L Route information: intended track

M Radio communications: means of communication

N Time of next report

Note: Express as Universal Co-ordinated Time

P1 Type of oil or the correct technical name of the noxious liquid substances
on board

2 UN numbers

3 Pollution category (A, B, C or D) for each noxious liquid substance

4 Names of manufacturers of substances or consignee or consignor

5 Estimate of the quantity of each substance

Note: Include item P in the case of probable discharge