Pocketbookofobstetricneonatalnpediatricemergencies PDF

POCKET BOOK OF

OBSTETRIC, NEONATAL
AND PAEDIATRIC
EMERGENCIES
INCLUDING MAJOR TRAUMA
TRAUMA

Maternal & Childhealth Advanced Life Support

Advocacy International Group
1 Columba Court, Laide, 29-31 Ellesmere
Achnasheen, Highland Street, Swinton
IV22 2NL Manchester
UK M27 0LA
Tel/Fax +44 (0) 1445 Tel: +44 (0)161 794

731595 Mobile 1999
+44(0)7710 674003 Fax: +44 (0)161 794
9111
Website: e-mail:
www.mcai.org.uk [email protected]
Email:
[email protected]: www.alsg.org
www.mcai.org.uk
www.ihpi.org
Updated October 2013
MCAI UK and ALSG: all rights reserved
1
Authors and Contributors
The material in this manual was derived from a number of different sources. Throughout it
has been made as compatible as possible with published advice from the World Health
Organisation. The following were major sources of the material:
Initiative for maternal mortality programme assessment. IMMPACT

www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/
The International Federation of Infection Control www.ifac.narod.ru
Primary Mothercare Ed. Maurice King
The Resuscitation Council (UK) and Richmond S (ed). Resuscitation at birth. The
Newborn Life Support (NLS) Provider Course Manual The Resuscitation Council
(UK) 2001 London.
CD Rom of APLS (emergency care of babies and children). The CD Rom
includes 120 videos and more than 400 X-rays and other clinical pictures.
Published BMJ Books April 2003.
CD Rom of obstetric and neonatal emergency care (still under preparation)
International Child Health Care: a practical manual for the hospital care of
children worldwide. Published BMJ Books November 2001.
Pocket Emergency Paediatric Care - A Practical Guide to the Diagnosis and
Management of Paediatric Emergencies in hospitals and other healthcare
facilities worldwide. British Medical Journal Books. 2003
A manual for the control of pain in children. Royal College of Paediatrics and
Child Health UK 1990
Advanced Paediatric Life Support: The Practical Approach, BMJ Books.
Managing Obstetric Emergencies & Trauma: The Practical Approach, ALSG
A Pocket Guide to Teaching, BMJ
Editors
Dr Johan Creemers Consultant Obstetrician, The Netherlands
Dr Assad Hafeez, Consultant Paediatrician and epidemiologist, WHO Pakistan
Dr Brigid Hayden Consultant Obstetrician
Dr Edmund Hey, Consultant Paediatrician
Dr Barbara Phillips, Consultant in Paediatric Accident and Emergency Medicine
Prof David Southall, Consultant Paediatrician and Honorary Director, Maternal &
Childhealth Advocacy International
Dr Diane Watson, Consultant Anaesthetist
Mrs Sue Wieteska, Chief Executive Officer, Advanced Life Support Group
2
Contents
SECTION TITLE
1 Triage
2 Drug And Fluid Administration
3 Blood transfusion
4 Pain Management and Sedation
5 Transport of Ill Patients
6 Basic Life Support

Safe approach
Are you alright
Airway opening actions
Breathing actions
Circulation actions
7 Choking in the child
8 Advanced Life Support

Airway equipment and skills
Breathing equipment and skills
Circulation equipment and skills
Additional Procedures
Surgical airway
Pulse oximetry
Spacers and nebulisers
Needle thoracocentesis
Chest drain
Blood glucose
Lumbar puncture
Gastric tube
Urethral catheter
Rectal drugs
9 Management of cardiac arrest

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation in pregnancy
10 Structured approach to the seriously ill

Primary Assessments, resuscitation and re-assessments: of
Airway and Breathing
Effort of breathing: Respiratory rate/rhythm: Stridor/wheeze:
Auscultation: Skin colour
Circulation
3
Heart rate: Pulse volume: Capillary refill: Skin temperature
Cardiac failure
Disability
Mental status/conscious level: Posture: Pupils: Blood glucose
Exposure
Summary
Primary assessment and reassessment
Secondary assessment
Emergency treatment
Stabilisation and transfer to definitive care
11 Management of Medical Emergencies in the Pregnant Mother

Airway and Breathing problems
Asthma
Lower respiratory tract infection (pneumonia)
Heart failure
Circulation
Severe anaemia
Anaphylaxis
Pulmonary embolus
Hyperemesis gravidarum
Shock in pregnancy
Ruptured ectopic pregnancy

Abdominal pain early pregnancy
Acute appendicitis
Miscarriage
Major haemorrhage second and third trimesters of pregnancy
APH
Ruptured uterus
PPH
Retained placenta and manual removal
Septic shock
Puerperal sepsis
Severe gastroenteritis
Disability-confusion, fits and coma
Coma
Pathway of care status epilepticus not due to eclampsia
Hypertension, pre-eclampsia and eclampsia
Meningitis
Severe malaria
Diabetes mellitus and diabetic ketoacidosis
12 Complications of labour and delivery

Obstructed labour
Ruptured uterus
4
Shoulder dystocia
Twins
Reduced fetal movements, IUD and stillbirth
Malpresentations and malpositions: occiput posterior, brow, face,
transverse, breech
Fetal distress in labour
Prolapsed cord
Inverted uterus
13 Care of the Newborn at Birth

Recognising at risk babies
Preparation for birth
Management at delivery
Stabilising the term baby after birth
ABCDEF of resuscitation of the newborn (Resuscitation Council
Guidelines)
Airway management
Trachea blocked
Breathing
Mask inflation
Mouth to mouth/nose
Preterm
Circulation
Drugs
Acute blood loss
Umbilical venous catheter
Environment
Family
Poor response to resuscitation
Stopping resuscitation
Documentation
Vitamin K
14 Common emergencies in the first month of life

Breathing problems
RDS
Transient tachypnoea of the newborn
Aspiration pneumonia
Bacterial pneumonia
Persistent fetal circulation
Pneumothorax
Congenital malformations
Recurrent apnoea
Suspected infection
Antibiotics
Severe jaundice
5
Phototherapy
Exchange transfusion
Late jaundice
Late anaemia
Fits, spasms and coma
Management of fits
Hypoglycaemia
Meningitis
Tetanus
Biochemical
Kernicterus
Inborn errors of metabolism
Intrapartum asphyxia
Drug related
Developmental disorders
Anticonvulsant treatment
Vomiting and feeding problems
15 Management of emergencies in the child

Recognising the seriously ill child
Serious breathing difficulties
Upper airway obstruction
Anaphylaxis
Severe asthma
Shock
Dehydration and gastro-enteritis
Diabetic ketoacidosis
Septicaemia
Cardiogenic
Acute renal failure
Coma
Meningitis
Severe malaria
Convulsions
16 Severe malnutrition in children
17 Serious Injuries in pregnancy and childhood

Structured approach
Primary survey ABCDE and resuscitation
Secondary survey
Emergency radiology
Analgesia
Major Trauma in the pregnant mother-physiological issues
Procedures in trauma
Cervical spine immobilisation
6
Log roll
Pericardiocentesis
18 Burns, envenomation and poisoning in the child and in pregnancy

Electrical injuries
Near drowning
Envenomation
Poisoning
19 Post operative Management for mothers undergoing surgery for

obstetric emergencies
Basic nursing issues
Post operative complications
Care of those receiving spinal anaesthesia
20 Appendix
7
Section 1 Triage
Section 1 Managing emergencies and triage
Initial management
Stay calm.
Do not leave the patient unattended.
Have one person in charge to avoid confusion.
SHOUT FOR HELP. Have one person go for help and another to get emergency
equipment and supplies for example oxygen cylinder, emergency kit.
Assess Airway, Breathing, Circulation and Disability.
If patient is conscious, ask what happened and what symptoms he/she has.
Triage Seeing the sickest first

Table 1 Rapid initial assessment of a pregnant woman or girl who may be pregnant
Assess
Danger signs Consider
Airway and LOOK FOR: severe asthma

breathing cyanosis (blueness) pneumonia
respiratory distress heart failure
severe anaemia
EXAMINE: malaria
skin: pallor diabetic ketoacidosis
lungs: wheezing or creps anaphylaxis
pulmonary embolus
amniotic fluid embolus
Circulation EXAMINE: Haemorrhage-revealed or

(signs of shock) concealed
Severe gastroenteritis
skin: cool and clammy
Septicaemia
pulse: fast (110 or more)
and weak (pulse may be Anaphylaxis
bounding in septic Trauma
shock)
blood pressure: low
(systolic less than 90
mm Hg)
urine output absent
Vaginal bleeding ASK IF: abortion

(early or late pregnant, length of gestation ectopic pregnancy
pregnancy or after recently given birth molar pregnancy
childbirth) placenta delivered
abruptio placentae
EXAMINE: placenta praevia
vulva: amount of bleeding, ruptured uterus
placenta retained, obvious atonic uterus
tears tears of cervix and vagina
8
Section 1 Triage
Assess
Danger signs Consider
uterus: atony retained placenta

bladder: full inverted uterus
DO NOT DO A DIGITAL
VAGINAL EXAM IF THERE
IS A RISK OF PLACENTA
PRAEVIA
Unconscious or ASK IF: Eclampsia
convulsing pregnant, length of gestation Malaria
Epilepsy
EXAMINE: Tetanus
blood pressure: high Meningitis
(diastolic 90 mm Hg or more) Poisoning
temperature: 38C or more
(may be normal in eclampsia)
Dangerous fever ASK IF: Septicaemia

weak, lethargic urinary tract infection
frequent, painful urination malaria
pneumonia
EXAMINE:
temperature: 38C or more metritis
unconscious pelvic abscess
neck: stiffness peritonitis
lungs: shallow breathing, breast infection
consolidation
abdomen: severe
tenderness
vulva: purulent discharge complications of abortion
breasts: tender
Severe abdominal ASK IF: ovarian cyst
pain pregnant, length of gestation appendicitis
ectopic pregnancy
EXAMINE:
blood pressure: low (systolic
less than 90 mm Hg) possible term or preterm labour
pulse: fast (110 or more) amnionitis
temperature: 38C or more abruptio placenta
uterus: state of pregnancy ruptured uterus
The mother also needs prompt attention if she has any of the following signs:
BLEEDING with palpable contractions;
ruptured membranes;
pallor;
weakness;
fainting;
severe headaches;
blurred vision;
vomiting;
fever;
respiratory distress.
9
Section 1 Triage
The woman or girl should be sent to the front of the queue and promptly treated.
Triage of Children
Emergency Triage Assessment and Treatment (ETAT)
Triage is the process of rapidly screening sick children and infants when they first arrive at
the health facility and placing them in one of 3 groups:
Emergency signs- patients who require immediate treatment to avert death. This
group includes those with IMCI Danger signs
Priority signs -patients who should be given priority within the queue so that they
can be assessed and treated without delay
Non-urgent cases-patients who have neither emergency or priority signs
Check for Neck / Head Trauma before treating child do not move neck if cervical spine
injury is possible
EMERGENCY SIGNS
Always assess in the following order

Airway
Breathing
Circulation
Disability
If any emergency signs present:

give treatment(s)
call for help
take blood for emergency laboratory investigations (Blood glucose, Malaria screen, Hb,
Blood culture if possible etc)
TABLE 3 Rapid initial assessment of a child
Assess Emergency signs Treatment
Oru
AIRWAY AND Obstructed breathing or IF FOREIGN BODY
BREATHING Central Cyanosis or ASPIRATION
Severe Respiratory Distress See Choking Protocol
or IF NO FOREIGN BODY
Oxygen Saturations <92% if ASPIRATION
available Manage airway ie: Head
tilt/chin lift
unless neck trauma (jaw
thrust)
Neutral position (infant);
Sniffing (child)
Oro-pharyngeal airway
Give Oxygen
Ensure Child is warm
10
Section 1 Triage
Cold Hands with Stop any bleeding
CIRCULATION Capillary Refill Time longer Give Oxygen
than 3 seconds AND Ensure child is not
Weak and fast pulse hypothermic
Low Blood pressure
IF NOT SEVERLY
Check state of nutrition MALNOURISHED
Insert IV and begin giving
fluids rapidly (20mls/kg)
If not able to gain peripheral
access use intraosseous or
other method
IF SEVERLY
MALNOURISHED
(visible severe wasting
especially buttocks and
bilateral pedal oedema)
If lethargic or unconscious
Give IV glucose (5mls/kg 10%
glucose)
Insert IV line and give fluids
(15mls/kg over 1 hour
Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
and 5% Dextrose wait 2 hrs
for response)
If not lethargic or unconscious

Give Glucose orally or per NG
tube
Proceed immediately to full
assessment and treatment
Coma (U on AVPU) Manage airway
DISABILITY Convulsing (now) IF CONVULSING

Give diazepam or other
appropriate anticonvulsant
IF UNCONSCIOUS
If trauma suspected stabilise
neck
If trauma not suspected
position child in left lateral
position
Give IV 5ml/Kg 10% glucose

Make sure child is warm
11
Section 1 Triage
Diarrhea plus any 2 of:
HYDRATION Lethargy IF NO SEVERE
(child with diarrhea-) Sunken eyes MALNUTRITION
Very Slow capillary
Insert IV line and begin giving
refill (skin pinch) (>3
fluids rapidly according to
secs)
WHO Plan C
IMCI Danger signs of:
Vomiting continuously
Unable to drink IF SEVERE MALNUTRITION
Do not insert IV
Proceed immediately to full
assessment and treatment
PRIORITY SIGNS - these children need prompt assessment and treatment

Visible severe wasting
Oedema of both feet
Severe palmar pallor
Any sick young infant (<2 months of age)
Lethargy
Continually irritable and restless
Major burn
Any Respiratory Distress
An Urgent Referral Note from another facility
Note: If a child has trauma or other surgical problems, get surgical help follow trauma
guidelines.
NON-URGENT CASES proceed with assessment and further treatment according

to the childs priority
12
Section 2 Fluids and drug administration
SECTION 2 Drug and fluid administration
Fluid replacement
Oral rehydration solutions used in gastro-enteritis to maintain electrolyte balance.

Prepare by adding 1 sachet to 7 oz (210 ml) clean water. One ounce = 30ml
Importance of enteral fluids:
Best method of maintaining caloric intake is through enteral feeding

If patient is unable to drink then pass gastric tube.
When commencing feed fill syringe to required amount with feed, draw plunger back as far
as possible and then attach syringe to tube. Kink tube and remove plunger. Allow feed to
pass into stomach using gravity.
Observe patients colour and respiratory rate for any signs of aspiration.
Breast milk is the best food for infants. It is always available at the correct temperatur e, no
preparation is required and no sterilising equipment involved.
If the infant is too ill to suck and is fed through a gastric tube, encourage mother to express
milk into sterile receptacle. To encourage release of milk and ease of expression
encourage mother to express whilst holding the baby. Store excess milk in a freezer.
Defrost the quantity needed for 4 hours of feeding at a time.
IV fluids
IV fluids must only be used when essential and enteral feeds not available or
absorbed.
Always check before use: seal is not broken, expiry date, solution is clear and free of
visible particles
Dextrose/glucose solutions unless in Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns are not appropriate for
replacing fluid losses
Never infuse plain water IV: causes haemolysis and will be fatal
Always specify concentrations of dextrose and Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns

solutions to be infused.
Maintenance requirement of electrolytes:

+
Sodium (Na ) 3-4 mmol/kg/24 hour in child 150mmol/24hour in mother
+
Potassium (K ) 2-3 mmol/kg/24 hour in child 100 mmol/24hour in mother
Crystalloids (Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns) are used to replace vascular compartment
losses. When infused IV only remains inside the vascular compartment, the rest passes
into the extra-cellular space.
All fluids should be prepared and given using an aseptic technique. It is important to
observe cannula site (directly by removing dressing) for redness and swelling before each
IV injection. Observe patient for pain or discomfort at drip site. If any signs of
inflammation, stop fluids, reassess need for continuing IV fluid drugs and resite cannula.
Record fluid intake/hour on a fluid balance chart.
Fluids can be calculated in drops/minute as follows: (standard giving sets) 20 drops = 1ml
and ml/hour divided by 3 = drops/minute.
13
Ensure that site is kept clean
Flush cannula with 0.9% saline or Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns 4-hourly if continuous

fluids are not being given
Prescribing practice and minimising drug errors

Introduction - general
oral administration is safer and less expensive, if tolerated
the following antibiotics are as effective orally as IV: amoxycillin, ampicillin,
chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, co-trimoxazole, erythromycin, flucloxacillin, fluconazole,
metronidazole, sodium fusidate,
if a drug is given down an oro/nasogastric tube, flush through
rectal drugs are less reliably absorbed than oral drugs
liquid formulations are better than suppositories for rectal treatment in infants
Prescribing
use block capitals
use approved names
dosages should be in grams (g) milligrams (mg) or micrograms ALWAYS WRITE
MICROGRAMS IN FULL
volumes should be in milliliters (ml)
avoid decimal places when possible (eg write 500mg not 0.5g) if used, prefaced by a zero
(eg write 0.5ml not .5ml)
write times using 24 hour clock
routes of administration can be abbreviated to: IV (intravenous), IM (intramuscular), PO
(orally), SC (subcutaneous) NEB (nebuliser), PR (rectally)
'as required' prescriptions must be specific as to how much, how often and for what
purpose (indicate maximum 24 hour dose)
'stop dates' for short course treatments should be recorded when first prescribed
Measuring Drugs
multiple sampling from drug vials risks introducing infection: they do not contain
preservatives or antiseptic
dilute drugs so that volumes can accurately be measured eg do not use doses <0.1ml for a
1 ml syringe
do not forget to consider the dead space in the hub of the syringe for small volumes
for dilutions >10 fold, use a small syringe to inject the active drug connected by a sterile 3
way tap to a larger syringe and then add diluent to the large syringe to reach desired
volume
Delivery
MUST BE GIVEN IN AN ASEPTIC MANNER
give IV drugs slowly in all cases
after injection into line (eg through a 3 way tap), use the usual rate of the IV infusion to
drive the drug slowly into the patient
if there is no background infusion, give sufficient follow-up (flush) of 0.9% saline or 5%
dextrose to clear the drug from the cannula or T piece
repeat flushes of 0.9% saline can result in excess sodium intake in infants - use 0.45%
saline if possible
flush over 2 minutes to avoid sudden surge of drug (remember the hub)
Infusions
MUST BE GIVEN IN AN ASEPTIC MANNER
adjust total 24 hour IV fluid intake
14
never put more drug or background IV into syringe or burette than is needed over a defined
period of time
check and chart rate of infusion and confirm this by examining amount left every hour
Use cannula NOT butterfly needles for infusions if available
DO NOT mix incompatible fluids IV
do not add drugs to any line containing blood or blood products
infusions of glucose >10%, and adrenaline, can cause problems if outside the vein
most IV drugs can be given into an infusion containing 0.9% saline or Ringer-Lactate or
Hartmanns or up to 10% glucose (exceptions include phenytoin and erythromycin)
if using only one line wait 10 minutes between each drug infused, or separate by 1 ml of
0.9% saline or sterile water
Safe IV infusions where no burettes are available

Mark the infusion bottle with tape for each hour of fluid to be given and label each hour.
Or
Empty until only the necessary amount of fluid to be given is left in bottle
Intravenous Lines
always place cannula aseptically and keep the site clean
use sterile bungs, NOT syringes, for closing off cannula/butterfly needles between IV
injections
change giving sets every 3 or 4 days
change the giving set after blood transfusion, or if a column of blood has entered the
infusion tubing from the vein (site of potential bacterial colonization)
always inspect the cannula tip before and whilst injecting any drug IV - never give a drug
into a drip that has started to tissue - severe scarring can occur, for example from calcium
solutions.
always use luer lock connections to minimize extravasations
Sampling
clear the dead space first (by 3x its volume)
glucose levels cannot be accurately measured from any line through which a glucose
solution is infused
blood cultures should always be taken from a separate, fresh, venous needle or stab
sample
after sampling, flush the line - beware that repeat flushes of 0.9% saline can result in
excess sodium intake in infants
Complications
infection
o local infection can become systemic, especially in neonates or the immunosuppressed ( eg
HIV)
o if there is erythema in tissue, remove the cannula
o if lymphangitis is present, remove cannula, take a blood culture from a separate vein and
start IV antibiotics
air embolism
o umbilical or other central venous lines are particularly high risk
o another source of air embolus is through the giving set, especially when pumps are used
o always use a tap or syringe on the catheter, especially during insertion
o if air reaches the heart it can block the circulation and cause death
haemorrhage
o in neonates this can occur from the umbilical stump
o all connections must be luer locked
o the connections to the cannula and its entry must be visualized at all times
15
Minimising Errors with IV infusions

prescribe or change infusion rates as infrequently as possible
have the minimum number of IV infusions running at the same time
use a burette in which no more than the prescribed volume is present (especially in infants
and young children, or with drugs like quinine)
record hourly the amount given (from burette, syringe or infusion bag) and the amount left
check the infusion site hourly to ensure fluid outside the vein has not occurred
ensure that flushes are only used when essential and are given slowly over at least 2
minutes
be careful with potassium solutions given IV (use enteral route when possible)
check and double check the following:
o is it the right drug? Check ampoule as well as box
o is it the right concentration?
o is shelf life within expiry date?
o has it been constituted and diluted correctly?
o is it for the right patient?
o is the dose right (2 health workers ideally to check the prescription chart)
o is it the correct syringe? (deal with one patient at a time)
o is the IV line patent?
o is a separate flush needed? If so has the flush been checked?
o are sharps disposed of (including glass ampoules)?
o has it been signed off as completed (ideally countersigned)?
o If not received is reason given?
Intramuscular injections
IM injections are unsafe in shock, especially with opiates
eg a high dose can be released once recovery of the circulation occurs
to avoid nerve damage, only the anterior aspect of the quadriceps muscle in the thigh is
safe in infants
alternate between legs if multiple injections are needed
do not give IM injections if a bleeding tendency is present
draw back the plunger to ensure that the needle is not in a vein before injecting (especially
adrenaline or lidocaine)
In very poorly resourced situations the IM route might be preferred because the drug might
reach the patient sooner than if the patient had to wait in a queue to have an IV sited. It
also
requires less nursing time
less expensive: venous cannula are often in short supply
as effective as IV injections in many situations
16
Section 4 Blood transfusion
Section 3 Blood and blood transfusion and techniques to avoid transfusion
wherever possible.
Ensure the blood is compatible with the recipient, is infection free and is given safely.
Normal Hb (after the neonatal period) is around 12G/dl. WHO defines anaemia as any Hb
below 11G/dl but in pregnancy haemodilution means that a figure of <10g/dl is more
appropriate.
Severe anaemia in a child is Hb 5G/dl or less. Hb 5G/dl is the widely accepted level at
which transfusion might be indicated and < 4G/dl if severe malnutrition. In a pregnant
woman, transfusion may be considered at a Hb level of 6 7 G/dL taking into account
other factors.
Factors other than the Hb level must be taken into account when considering
transfusion:
What is the heart rate? If rapid this will favour the decision to transfuse
What is the respiration rate? If rapid this will favour the decision to transfuse
Is a patient grunting? If so this will favour the decision to transfuse
Is the patient already in circulatory collapse (shock)? Transfusion is very urgent
Some patients will not show any of these features, and it might then be justifiable to delay
transfusion and use haematinics iron and folic acid. Some patients may show the above
features and have a Hb of more than 5G. It will also be necessary to transfuse such
patients.
Who needs blood?
woman or girl with obstetric emergencies eg APH, PPH

Children with severe malaria. Usually under 2 years old
Patients involved in major trauma or surgery
Children with severe burns
A childs body contains 80ml blood for every kg body weight; therefore a 3 year old
weighing 12kg will have 960ml blood. A pregnant woman or girls body contains
100ml/Kg of blood.
During initial transfusion give 20ml/kg body weight in a child; i.e. increase the blood
volume by 25% (in severe malnutrition give 15ml/Kg and watch carefully for heart failure)
and in the pregnant woman or girl give 2 units (1000 ml) with frusemide 40mg IV after
each 500ml.
The transfusion should ideally take 4 hours except in cases of shock when blood must
be given as quickly as possible. Each unit of blood transfused should never take longer
than 6 hours. Blood left out of the fridge longer than 6 hours should be discarded.
17
A trained person must monitor the patient as frequently as possible during a transfusion
(T,P,R,BP, urine output)
Blood should be warm before it is infused. This can be achieved by passing the coiled
delivery tube through a bowl of lukewarm water by the patients side (be careful of the risk
from electricity at this time) or by warming the transfusion pack under a relatives clothes.
For blood there are 20 drops per ml; in changing ml per hour into drops per minute you
divide by 3.
Eg a 10kg child require 10 x 20ml blood for transfusion = 200ml

200ml in 4 hours = 50ml per hour
50ml per hour divided by 3 = 17 drops per minute
Any rate between 16-18 drops per minute would be acceptable for this transfusion
If the drip goes at the correct rate throughout the transfusion, you can use the time to know
when the right amount of blood has been delivered. Eg, the 10kg child with a 500ml bag of
blood up, will require only 200ml of it. If you run your transfusion at 16-18 drops per minute
as calculated above, you know that the 200ml will have gone through in 4 hours. So, if
your transfusion started at 2.00pm, and your drip rate stays at 16-18 drops per minute
your 200ml will have gone in at 6.00pm. This is more accurate than guessing the
amount remaining in the bag. The safest way of giving blood when there is a danger
of fluid overload is by using an IV giving set with an in-line burette.
Blood Groups
There are 4 major blood groups - A, B, AB and O. To avoid ABO incompatibility, the blood
group of the donor and the receiver must be known. Blood can only be donated in the
direction of the arrows:
A
O AB
Donors with blood group O can donate to patients with blood group A, B, AB or O
Donors with blood group A can donate to patients with blood group A or AB
Donors with blood group B can donate to patients with blood group B or AB
Donors with blood group AB can donate only to patients with blood group AB
18
Rhesus negative donors can give to rhesus +ve and ve patients
Rhesus positive donors can only give to rhesus +ve patients
If blood group unknown and blood is required before a cross-match can be performed, give
O Rhesus negative blood if available.
Blood Transfusion Reactions

Causes of acute complications of transfusion
Acute haemolytic transfusion reaction
Incompatible transfused red cells react with the patient's own anti-A or anti-B
antibodies or other alloantibodies (eg anti-rhesus (Rh) D) to red cell antigens.
Complement can be activated and may lead to disseminated intravascular coagulation
(DIC).
Infusion of ABO incompatible blood almost always arises from errors in labelling
sample tubes/request forms or from inadequate checks at the time of transfusion.
Where red cells are mistakenly administered, there is about a 1 in 3 risk of ABO
incompatibility and 10% mortality with the severest reaction seen in a group O
individual receiving group A red cells.
Non-ABO red cell antibody haemolytic reactions tend to be less severe.
Infective shock
Bacterial contamination can be fatal.
Acute onset of hypertension or hypotension, rigors and collapse rapidly follows the
transfusion.
Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI)
TRALI is a form of acute respiratory distress due to donor plasma containing
antibodies against the patient's leukocytes.
Transfusion is followed within 6 hours of transfusion by the development of prominent
nonproductive cough, breathlessness, hypoxia and frothy sputum. Fever and rigors
may be present.
CXR if available shows multiple perihilar nodules with infiltration of the lower lung
fields.
Fluid overload
This occurs when too much fluid is transfused or too quickly, leading to pulmonary
oedema and acute respiratory failure.
Patients at particular risk are those with severe or chronic anaemia, severe
malnutrition and who have normal blood volumes (that is not bleeding) and those with
symptoms of cardiac failure prior to transfusion.
19
These patients should receive packed cells rather than whole blood via slow
transfusion, with diuretics if required.
Non-haemolytic febrile reactions to transfusion of platelets and red cells
Fevers (>1C above baseline) and rigors may develop during transfusion due to
patient antibodies to transfused white cells.
This type of reaction affects 1-2% of patients.
Multiparous women and those who have received multiple previous transfusions are
most at risk. Reactions are unpleasant but not life-threatening. Usually symptoms
develop towards the end of a transfusion or in the subsequent two hours. Most febrile
reactions can be managed by slowing or stopping the transfusion and giving
paracetamol.
Severe allergic reaction or anaphylaxis
Allergic reactions occur when patients have antibodies that react with proteins in
transfused blood components.
Anaphylaxis occurs where an individual has previously been sensitised to an allergen
present in the blood and on re-exposure, releases immunoglobulin E (IgE), or IgG,
antibodies. Patients with anaphylaxis become acutely dyspnoeic due to
bronchospasm and laryngeal oedema and may complain of chest pain, abdominal
pain and nausea.
Urticaria and itching are common within minutes of starting a transfusion.
Symptoms are usually controlled by slowing the transfusion and giving antihistamine
and the transfusion may be continued if there is no progression at 30 minutes.
Pre-treatment with an antihistamine should be given when a patient has experienced
repeated allergic reactions to transfusion.
Presentation
Symptoms or signs may occur after only 5-10 ml of transfusion of incompatible blood
so patients should be observed very closely at the start of each blood unit
transfused.
Symptoms:
Feeling of apprehension or 'something wrong'
Flushing
Chills
Pain at the vene-puncture site
Muscle aches
Nausea
Pain in the abdomen, loins or chest.
Shortness of breath
Signs:
Fever (rise of 1.5C or more) and rigors
Hypotension or hypertension
Tachycardia
Respiratory distress
Oozing from wounds or puncture sites
Haemoglobinaemia
Haemoglobinuria
Investigations and management
Where a serious acute transfusion reaction is suspected, stop the transfusion and
take down the donor blood bag and giving set and send back to the blood bank with
notification of event.
To detect a haemolytic reaction, send post-transfusion blood (for FBC and clotting,
repeat type and crossmatch, antibody screen and direct Coombs' test) and urine
20
specimen (for detection of urinary haemoglobinuria: if available) from the transfusion
recipient.
Where bacterial contamination is suspected, send blood cultures from patient and bag
remnants.
If the patient is dyspnoeic, obtain CXR if possible and check for fluid overload and
pulmonary oedema.
Type of reaction Investigation findings
Visual inspection of centrifuged plasma - pink-

red discolouration (haemoglobinaemia) where
significant intravascular haemolysis.
Acute haemolytic
reactions Visual inspection of centrifuged urine - red
discolouration due to haemoglobinuria.
Retype donor and recipient red blood cells
(RBCs) - discrepancy suggests that the
transfusion has been mismatched and blood
samples mixed up.
Direct Antiglobulin (Coombs) Test (DAT) -
ABO-related acute transfusion reactions
usually cause a positive DAT test.
Evidence of increased RBC destruction, eg fall
in Hb and/or rise in bilirubin.
May be evidence of DIC.
Negative blood cultures.
Febrile non-haemolytic Visual inspection of recipient's plasma and urine is

reactions normal.
Retyping shows no incompaibility and negative
DAT test.
Allergic and anaphylactic Urticaria, itching, dyspnea (see chapter 2.7.C for
reactions symptoms and signs of anaphylaxis)
Pulse oximeter shows hypoxaemia.

CXR (if available) - bilateral lung infiltrates.
TRALI FBC frequently shows low white blood cell and high
eosinophil count
Blood cultures positive and congruent for both

Transfusion transmitted donor and recipient blood.
bacterial infection
Management
Where the only feature is a rise in temperature of <1.5C from baseline or urticaria, recheck
that the correct blood is being transfused, give paracetamol and antihistamine, reset the
transfusion at a slower rate and observe more frequently.
21
Whilst fever or rigors are not uncommon in response to a transfusion and may represent a
non-haemolytic febrile reaction, they may also be the first sign of a severe adverse
reaction.
Where the reaction is more severe:
Stop the transfusion and call a doctor urgently to review the patient.
Vital signs (temp, BP, pulse, respiratory rate, O 2 saturation levels) and
respiratory status (dyspnoea, tachypnoea, wheeze and cyanosis) should be
checked and recorded. Look for heart failure (basal lung crepitations, enlarged
liver)
Check the patient's identity and recheck against details on blood unit and
compatability label or tag.
Initial management where ABO incompatibility is suspected is to:
Take down blood bag AND giving set with blood in it
Keep the intravenous (IV) line open with 0.9% saline or Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns.
Give oxygen and fluid support.
Monitor urine output, usually following catheterisation. Maintain urine output at more
than 100 ml/hour, giving furosemide if this falls.
Consider inotrope support if hypotension is prolonged.
Treat DIC by giving fresh new blood fully matched to recipient
Inform the hospital transfusion department immediately.
Where another haemolytic reaction or bacterial infection of blood unit is suspected:
Send haematological and microbiological investigations as outlined above.
General supportive management is as for ABO incompatibility.
Start broad-spectrum IV antibiotics if bacterial infection is considered likely.
Where anaphylaxis or severe allergic reaction is suspected:
Follow anaphylaxis protocols for women and children (see chapters 2.7.C and 5.1.B).
Where TRALI is suspected:
Give high-concentration oxygen, IV fluids and inotropes (as for acute respiratory
distress syndrome).
Ventilation may be urgently required - discuss with anaesthetist.
TRALI improves over two to four days in over 80% cases with adequate management
and respiratory support.
Where fluid overload is suspected:
Give furosemide IV and high-concentration oxygen.
22
Section 4 Pain management
SECTION 4 Pain management
* An adjuvant is another drug (eg steroid or anxiolytic) or type of treatment (eg TENS or
radiotherapy) which can relieve pain
Local anaesthetics infiltrated: Lidocaine 0.5 to 2%
used for rapid and intense sensory nerve block

onset of action is within 2 minutes MUST NOT DO PROCEDURE UNTIL TAKES EFFECT
effective for up to 2 hours
maximum dose given locally 3 mg/kg (7mg/Kg with 1 in 200,000 adrenaline)
safest is to use 0.5%
3mg/kg of 1%, up to a maximum of 200mg not more than 4 hourly, nothing about increased
dose with adrenaline
DO NOT use local anaesthetic containing adrenaline in areas served by an end

artery, eg finger, toe, penis. Tissue necrosis will occur.
If the procedure requires a small surface to be anaesthetized or in the pregnant woman

or girl requires less than 40 mL of 0.5% lidocaine: adrenaline is not necessary.
Advantages of adding adrenaline:

less blood loss
longer effect of anaesthetic (usually 12 hours);
less risk of toxicity because of slower absorption into the general circulation.
23
The concentration of adrenaline to use is 1:200 000 (5 micrograms/mL). In children
maximum dose of adrenaline is 5 micrograms/kg.
Note: It is critical to measure adrenaline carefully and accurately using a 1 ml syringe.

Mixtures must be prepared observing strict infection prevention practices.
Table 4 Preparing 0.5% lidocaine solutions containing 1 in 200 000 adrenaline
Desired Amount of 0.9% Saline Lidocaine 1% Adrenaline 1:1 000
Local Anaesthetic
Needed
20 mL 10 mL 10 mL 0.1 mL
40 mL 20 mL 20 mL 0.2 mL
100 mL 50 mL 50 mL 0.5 mL
200 mL 100 mL 100 mL 1.0 mL
COMPLICATIONS OF LOCAL ANAESTHESIA
Prevention of complications
If more than 40 mL of 0.5% lidocaine is to be used, add adrenaline as above.

Procedures that may require more than 40 mL of 0.5% lidocaine are Caesarean Section or
repair of extensive perineal tears.
Use the lowest effective dose.
Inject slowly.
Avoid accidental injection into a vessel. There are three ways of doing this:
moving needle technique (preferred for tissue infiltration): the needle is
constantly in motion while injecting, this makes it impossible for a substantial
amount of solution to enter a vessel
plunger withdrawal technique (preferred when considerable amounts are injected
into one site): the syringe plunger is withdrawn before injecting, if blood appears
the needle is repositioned and attempted again
syringe withdrawal technique: the needle is inserted and the anaesthetic is
injected as the syringe is being withdrawn.
Symptoms and signs of lidocaine allergy and toxicity
Allergy: Shock, redness of skin, skin rash/hives, bronchospasm, vomiting, serum sickness
Management of lidocaine toxicity
24
Life-Threatening Toxicity
Mild Toxicity Severe Toxicity
(very rare)
Numbness of lips and tongue Sleepiness Tonic-clonic convulsions
Metallic taste in mouth Disorientation Respiratory depression or

arrest
Dizziness/lightheadedness Muscle twitching
Ringing in ears and shivering Cardiac depression or arrest
Difficulty in focusing eyes Slurred speech
direct intra-arterial or IV injection of even a small amount may result in cardiac arrhythmias
and convulsions
resuscitative facilities and skills should be present
can be absorbed through mucous membranes in sufficient concentration to be toxic
Immediately stop injecting and prepare to treat severe and life-threatening side effects.
If symptoms and signs of mild toxicity are observed wait a few minutes to see if the
symptoms subside. Check vital signs and talk to the patient. Continue the procedure if
possible.
Adrenaline Toxicity
Restlessness, sweating, hypertension, cerebral haemorrhage, rapid heart rate,

cardiac arrest
Non-Opiate Analgesics
Paracetamol
the most widely used analgesic and anti-pyretic
does not cause respiratory depression
dangerous in overdose
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID)
anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic drug with moderate analgesic properties
less well tolerated than Paracetamol causing gastric irritation, platelet disorders and
bronchospasm
should be avoided with gastric ulceration, platelet abnormalities, and significant asthma
especially useful for post-traumatic pain because of anti-inflammatory effect
given by mouth or by rectal administration (for example diclofenac)
rd
Caution: use in 3 trimester of pregnancy may close the ductus arteriosus and
predispose to pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. It may also delay the onset
and progress of labour
25
Opiate Analgesics
Morphine
in appropriate dose, analgesia occurs without loss of consciousness
in single doses has minimal haemodynamic effect in a supine patient with normal
circulating volume
in hypovolaemic patients it will contribute to hypotension
o monitor cardiovascular status
o have IV fluid bolus of 0.9% Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns ready (20ml/kg in a child and
500ml to 1 litre in a pregnant woman or girl)
opiates produce a dose-dependent depression of ventilation and decreased respiratory
rate.
Patients who have received opiates need observation and/or monitoring of respiratory rate
and sedation
o do not discharge home until the opiate's effects are significantly reduced
nausea and vomiting seen in adults and children
better controlled IV than IMif giving IV, give small dose initially and repeat every 3-5
minutes until patient is comfortable. Individuals vary widely as to the doses needed to
provide pain relief
dangerous in situations of raised intracranial pressure without means to provide respiratory
support
in pregnant woman or girls can produce respiratory depression in the neonate
Codeine
oral codeine, usually with paracetamol, for moderate pain
less potent opiate than morphine and has fewer effects on the central nervous system
Avoid in first trimester of pregnancy (facial abnormalities)
codeine must not be given IV as it causes profound hypotension.
Do not give codeine and morphine together as codeine will reduce the effect of morphine
Naloxone
Naloxone is an opiate antagonist which reverses sedative, respiratory depressive, and

analgesic effects of morphine and codeine
Sedative Drugs
may be useful with analgesics when undertaking lengthy or repeated proc edures. The aim
of sedation is to make the procedure more comfortable while maintaining verbal contact
with the patient.
start with small dose IV, wait 2-3 minutes, observe response and repeat if necessary
relieve anxiety and not pain
when given to pregnant woman or girl can result in floppy babies
may reduce a patients ability to communicate discomfort and therefore should NOT be
given without concomitant analgesia
side effects include hyper-excitability or prolonged sedation, delaying discharge after
procedure
Midazolam
26
is an amnesic and sedative drug
can be given orally, intra-nasally, or IV
has an onset time of action of 15 minutes if given orally or intra-nasally
duration of action is about an hour after oral or intranasal use
can cause respiratory depression
needs monitoring of respiratory rate and depth, and pulse oximetry
Diazepam
An anxiolytic, amnesic and sedative drug also used to stop convulsions
half the sedative potency of midazolam
can be given orally (15 minutes to onset of action), IV or rectally (few minutes to
absorption)
can cause respiratory depression
Other agents useful for inducing Light Sedation in children
Promethazine hydrochloride (Phenergan): 0.5mg/kg Deep IM or IV, or 1 to 2 mg/kg orally

to maximum of 50mg
Chloral hydrate
single doses up to a maximum of 50mg/kg or total 1gm rectally
25-50mg/kg (max 1g), oral or rectal, 45-60 minutes before procedure
Can give 100mg/kg (max. 2g) with respiratory monitor
Can be used in conjunction with Trimeprazine at 2mg/Kg. In children over 2 years, max
60mg 1-2 hours before procedure
Post operative pain management

Provide analgesia before pain becomes established.
Use safe and effective doses of opioids along with regular paracetamol and non-steroidals
to reduce the amount of opioid required.
Avoid IM injections if possible.
Give analgesia - check response - reassess
Most at risk of poor pain control are children with limited/absent verbal ability.
If pain seems out of proportion to surgical trauma consider complication and re-
assessment by surgeons.
If asleep, assume pain is acceptable -don't wake up to make assessment but check
regularly to ensure still asleep. If awake and lying quietly do not assume comfortable
without enquiring.
Analgesia/anti-emetics during labour

morphine 10mg IM or 2.5- 5mg IV or pethidine 50- 100 mg IM or 25-50mg IV
promethazine 25-50 mg IM or IV, max 100mg if vomiting occurs-although some
antiemetics better if given before vomiting starts
Barbiturates and sedatives should not be used to relieve anxiety in labour.
Special issues regarding pain in the newborn infant

Neonates (premature and full term) react to, and certainly feel, pain.
Infants can easily be forced to put up with suffering.
Small doses should be measured and given with an oral syringe.
Local anaesthetics must be used when they would be used in an older child undergoing the
same procedure.
27
Pain control during procedures in neonates

Breast feeding during procedures may be helpful.
In all cases comfort and containment (swaddling) should be provided by a parent or a
nurse.
Table 5 - analgesic drug doses
Analgesic
Morphine IV Pain Severity Moderate - severe
Dose Pregnant woman or girl:- 10mg diluted to
No standard dose of 10mls give 2mg (2mls) every 5 mins until
IV morphine pain relieved
Give repeated small Over 1 year:
doses until pain is -200 micrograms/kg diluted to 10mls give
relieved 2mls every 5 mins until comfortable
1-12 months
100-200 micrograms/kg diluted to 10mls
give 1-2mls every 5 mins until comfortable
Neonate
- 50-100 micrograms/kg - diluted to 1ml in 1ml
syringe give 0.2mls boluses every 5 mins
with dextrose 10% flush between each bolus
Frequency of dose 4-6hrly
Common side effects Respiratory depression, hypotension
Comments Monitor
- respiration
- SaO2
- ECG (ideally)
Analgesic
Pethidine IV Pain Severity Moderate - severe
or IM Dose Pregnant woman or girl:-1mg/Kg (maximum
dose 100mg) if given IV dilute to 10mls and
give 2 mls every 5 mins until pain relieved
Obstetric/acute pain-50-100mg IM, max
400mg/24hrs, then 1-3 hrly
Acute pain IV 25-50mg, repeat after 4 hours
Frequency of dose 3 hourly
Common side effects Respiratory depression, hypotension
Comments Monitor
- respiration
- SaO2
- ECG (ideally)
28
Analgesic
Pain Severity Moderate
Morphine Dose Pregnant woman or girl:- 10-20mg
oral Child over 1 year:
- 400 micrograms/kg
Under 1 year:
- 200 micrograms/kg
Frequency of dose 4 hourly
Common side effects Constipation
Comments Observe respiration
Analgesic
Codeine Pain Severity Mild -moderate
ORAL/IM Dose Pregnant woman or girl :- 30-60mg
Child: 0.5-1mg/kg oral or IM, same dose for
neonates
Frequency of doses 4 hours, max 240mg/24hrs for pregnant
woman or girls, max 3mg/kg/24hrs for
children
Common side effects Constipation
Comments Care if < 1 year
DO NOT GIVE IV
Analgesic
Pain Severity Mild
Paracetamol Dose Pregnant woman or girl:- 500 mg to 1 gram 6
oral hourly
Child over 3 months:
- 20mg/kg orally or rectally
Under 3 months
15mg/kg PO/PR 4-6 hourly max 60mg/kg/day
Frequency of dose 4-6hrly, max 4g/24hrs for pregnant woman or
girl, max 80 mg/kg/24hrs for children
Common side
effects
Comments Avoid in liver impairment
Analgesic
Pain Severity Mild - moderate
Ibuprofen oral Dose NOT IN PREGNANCY
Child:- 5mg/kg up to 30mg/kg/day in 3-4
divided doses
Frequency of dose 6-8 hourly
Common side effects Avoid in asthmatics
Comments Not recommended for patients <10kg
29
Analgesic
Pain Severity Moderate
Diclofenac - Dose Child over 6 months:- 1mg/kg orally or
Oral or rectal rectally max 150mg/day
Frequency of dose 8hr
Common side effects Avoid in asthmatics and NOT IN
PREGNANCY
Comments Not for patients under the age of 1yr
Specific Clinical Situations
Severe Pain
- give IV morphine as described above
- a further dose can be given after 5-10 minutes if sufficient analgesia is not achieved
- monitor ABC (HR, RR, chest wall expansions, BP, SaO 2 )
- have IV 0.9 Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns replacement available (20ml/Kg in a child and
500ml to 1 litre in a pregnant woman or girl)
Head Injuries
- an analgesic dose does not necessarily cause sedation

- if the patient is conscious and in pain, the presence of a potential deteriorating head injury
is NOT a contraindication to giving morphine but give maximum dose of 100
micrograms/Kg in a child or 5mg in a pregnant woman or girl.
- if the patient's conscious level does deteriorate, then assess ABC. If hypoventilation
occurs, ventilate with bag-valve-mask
- if necessary, a dose of naloxone will help distinguish whether reduced conscious level is
due to morphine or increasing intracranial pressure but will reverse analgesia
30
Section 5 Transport of ill patients
SECTION 5 Transport of ill patients
With pregnancy related emergencies remember there are two patients: pregnant woman or
girl and baby.
Preparation and planning are essential. All transfers carry potential risks.
The patient must be in the best possible condition before transfer or transport - no patient
should be stabilised 'on the way'.
All resuscitation, emergency treatment and stabilisation must be performed before moving
the patient.
Transfers of sick patients should be carried out by health workers trained in transport.
Never assume that ambulances, if available, will have equipment.
The basic principles of transport are ongoing ABCD
- Have enough oxygen

- Have enough blankets
- Have glucose for giving IV or via gastric tube
31
Section 6 Basic life support
SECTION 6: Basic Life Support
Introduction
Basic Life Support is a technique that can be employed by a single rescuer to support
respiratory and circulatory functions of a collapsed patient using no equipment.
Children are classified into 2 groups:
o Infants (<1 year)

o Children between 1 year and puberty
The Safe Approach
Additional help should be summoned. It is essential the rescuer does not become the
second victim. Remove the patient from continuing danger.
When more than one rescuer is present one starts BLS. The second person activates the
Emergency Medical Services (EMS) system then returns to assist in the BLS effort.
For infants and pre-pubertal children where there is only one rescuer, and no help has
arrived, after 1 minute of CPR the rescuer must activate the EMS system themselves. In
the case of a baby or small child the rescuer will probably be able to carry the victim to a
telephone whilst continuing CPR.
In pregnancy a single rescuer should seek help as soon as there is evidence that the
patient is not breathing adequately.
32
Pathway of Care: Basic Life Support infant and child in cardio-respiratory
arrest
Shout for help

Approach with care
SAFE Free from danger
approach Evaluate ABC
Are you alright?
Head tilt/chin lift

Jaw thrust only if trained
Airway opening and competent
LOOK for adequate chest movements

LISTEN for breath sounds
FEEL for breaths
For up to 10 seconds
5 INITIAL RESCUE BREATHS
Check pulse
Check for signs of circulation
YES Continue
Present?
breaths
NO
15 chest compressions to 2 Child on back - hard

ventilations surface
Compress chest by one
third A-P diameter
Call emergency services if available
33
Pathway of Care: Basic Life Support in pregnancy
Shout for help

SAFE Approach with care
approach Free from danger
Evaluate ABC
Are you alright?
Head tilt/chin lift sniffing

Jaw thrust only if trained
Airway
and competent
opening
LOOK for adequate chest movements Agonal gasps = not

LISTEN for breath sounds adequate
FEEL for breaths FOR 10 sec If doubt = not adequate
IS BREATHING ADEQUATE?
YES NO
RECOVERY POSITION
GET HELP
5 rescue breaths
REASSESS REGULARLY
Hard surface
15-30 degree lateral
Remove outer clothing tilt using pillow
Centre of chest
15 chest Compress chest by one-
2 hands compressions third A-P diameter (4-5
cms)
OPEN AIRWAY
2 BREATHS TO 15 COMPRESSIONS
REPEAT CYCLES UNTIL BREATHING ADEQUATE
Caesarean Section should be viewed as part of the resuscitation of the mother and the
baby should be delivered within 5 minutes of cardiac arrest regardless of the state of the
fetus
34
Are you alright?
An initial simple assessment of responsiveness consists of asking the patient 'Are you
alright?and gently shaking him/her by the shoulder. Infants may make some noise or open
their eyes.
In cases associated with trauma, or possible trauma, the cervical spine should be
immobilised during this procedure by placing one hand firmly on the forehead while one of
the patient's shoulders are shaken.
Airway opening actions (A)
An obstructed airway may be the primary problem and correction of the obstruction can
result in recovery without further intervention. A conscious child or pregnant woman or girl,
however, will often find his/her best position to maintain an airway and should not be forced
to adopt a position that makes obstruction worse or upsets the patient. If unconscious the
recovery position, or if pregnant the left lateral position, must be adopted.
Diagram
demonstrating
recovery position
The Resuscitation Council (UK) recommends this sequence of actions to place a victim in
the recovery position:
Remove the victims spectacles-if present.

Kneel beside the victim and make sure that both her legs are straight.
Place the arm nearest to you out at right angles to her body, elbow bent with the
hand palm uppermost.
Bring the far arm across the chest, and hold the back of the hand against the
victims cheek nearest to you.
With your other hand, grasp the far leg just above the knee and pull it up,
keeping the foot on the ground.
Keeping her hand pressed against her cheek, pull on the far leg to roll the victim
towards you onto her side.
Adjust the upper leg so that both the hip and knee are bent at right angles.
Tilt the head back to make sure the airway remains open.
Adjust the hand under the cheek, if necessary, to keep the head tilted.
Check breathing regularly.
35
If the victim has to be kept in the recovery position for more than 30 minutes turn to the
opposite side to relieve the pressure on the lower arm.
Airway opening actions (A)
If the patient is not breathing, it may be because the airway is blocked by the tongue falling
back obstructing the pharynx. Attempt to open the airway using head tilt/chin lift
maneuver. The rescuer placing his/her nearest hand on the patients forehead does this,
and applying pressure to tilt the head back gently. The correct positions are neutral in the
infant (0 1 year) or "sniffing" (nose up in the air) in the child and pregnant woman or
girl.
HEAD TILT CHIN LIFT INFANT = HEAD TILT CHIN LIFT CHILD OR
NEUTRAL POSITION PREGNANT PATIENT = SNIFFING
POSITION
The fingers of the other hand should then be placed under the chin and the chin should be
lifted upwards. As this action may close the patient's mouth it may be necessary to use the
thumb of the same hand to part the lips slightly.
If the head tilt / chin lift is not possible, or is contraindicated (possible cervical spine injury),
then the jaw thrust
maneuver can be
performed.
JAW THRUST
36
This is achieved by placing two or three fingers under the angle of the mandible bilaterally,
and lifting the jaw upward. This is the safest maneuver where there is a history of trauma
as head tilt / chin lift may exacerbate cervical spine injury. Jaw thrust requires training and
experience and if the rescuer is not confident then he/she should move to next step.
(A) Airway opening actions
Patency of the airway should then be assessed by :
LOOK for adequate chest movements

LISTEN for breath sounds
FEEL for breaths
This is best achieved by the rescuer placing his/her face above the patient's, with the ear
over the nose, the cheek over the mouth, and the eyes looking along the line of the chest.
If there is anything obvious in the mouth and it is easy to reach remove it.
Do not perform a blind finger sweep of the mouth
This can damage the soft palate and foreign bodies may be forced further down the airway
becoming lodged below the vocal cords.
The pregnant patient has a serious risk of regurgitation and aspiration if the airway is not
opened, maintained and protected.
The causes of airway problems include:
Head injury with decreased level of consciousness

Other causes of decreased level of consciousness which include: hypoxaemia,
hypovolaemia, cerebral malaria, meningitis, eclampsia and poisoning
Injuries to the face and neck
Airway problems may be immediate, delayed or deteriorate with time. Careful monitoring
of a patient with an airway problem, or with a condition which may deteriorate and cause
an airway problem (e.g. facial burns), must be carefully managed. An airway that has been
cleared may obstruct again if the patients level of consciousness decreases, if there is
further bleeding into the airway or if there is increased swelling in and around the airway.
Airway obstruction must be suspected when breath sounds are absent or noisy or if the
patient is cyanosed.
(B) Breathing Actions (B) in the Infant, pre-pubertal child or pregnant woman or girl
If airway opening techniques do not result in the resumption of adequate breathing within
10 seconds, and a self inflating bag/mask system is not available then exhaled air
resuscitation which should be commenced.
37
Definition of adequate breathing A victim may be barely breathing, or taking infrequent,
noisy, agonal gasps. Do not confuse this with normal breathing.
If in doubt about the adequacy of breathing, 5 initial rescue breaths should be given.
While the airway is held open, the rescuer breathes in and seals his/her mouth around the
patient's mouth or mouth and nose (infant). If the mouth alone is used then the nose should
be pinched using thumb and index finger of the hand maintaining head tilt. Slow exhalation,
1-2 seconds, by the rescuer should result in the
patient's chest rising.
Mouth to mouth with nose pinched

in sniffing airway position (child and
in pregnancy)
Mouth to mouth and nose neutral position infant
Guidance for exhaled air resuscitation
The chest should be seen to rise

Inflation pressures may be higher because of small airways
Slow breaths at the lowest pressure reduce gastric distension
Firm gentle pressure on the cricoid cartilage may reduce gastric insufflation
If the chest does not rise then the airway is not clear. The usual cause is failure to apply
correctly the airway opening techniques previously discussed. The first step to try is to
readjust head tilt / chin lift position and try again. If this is not successful jaw thrust should
be tried. If two rescuers are present one should maintain the airway whilst the other
breathes for the patient.
Failure of both head tilt / chin lift and jaw thrust should lead to suspicion that a foreign body
is causing the obstruction.
C Circulation actions in the infant, child and pregnant woman or girl
38
Check pulse and state of circulation (take no more than 10 seconds)
Once the initial 5 breaths have been given circulation should be assessed.
Inadequacy of circulation is indicated by the absence of a central pulse for up to 10

seconds or in babies and young children only by the presence of a pulse at an insufficient
rate (less than 60 beats/minute) or by the absence of other signs of circulation, i.e. no
breaths or cough in response to rescue breaths and no spontaneous movement. In
children the carotid pulse in the neck can be palpated. Infants, however, generally have a
short fat neck so the carotid pulse may be difficult to identify. The brachial artery in the
medial aspect of the ante-cubital fossa or the femoral artery in the groin should be felt.
If the pulse is absent for up to 10 seconds start compressions. Compressions should

also be started if in an infant or young child there is an inadequate heart rate (less than
60/minute) BUT ONLY IF ACCOMPANIED BY SIGNS OF POOR PERFUSION which
include pallor, lack of responsiveness and poor muscle tone. Even experienced health
professionals can find it difficult to be certain that the pulse is absent within 10 seconds so
the absence of signs of circulation are an indication to start chest compressions also.
Signs of a circulation include: movement, coughing or normal breathing (not agonal gasps -
these are irregular, infrequent breaths).
Start chest compressions if:
no pulse OR
slow pulse (less than 60 per minute in infant or young child with poor perfusion) OR
no signs of circulation
Unnecessary chest compressions are almost never damaging and it is important not to
waste vital seconds before starting them. If the pulse is present and has an adequate
rate, with good perfusion but apnoea persists, exhaled air resuscitation must be
continued until spontaneous breathing resumes.
ALWAYS KEEP AIRWAY OPEN DURING CHEST COMPRESSIONS SO THAT AIR
CAN BE SUCKED IN AND OUT OF THE LUNGS BY THE COMPRESSIONS (IDEALLY
WITH ANOTHER PERSON HOLDING IT OPEN)
Chest compressions
For the best output the patient must be placed on his/her back, on a hard surface. The
chest should be compressed by a third of its depth. Children vary in size, and the exact
nature of the compressions given should reect this. In general infants (less than 1 year)
require a technique different from children up to puberty, in whom the method used in
adults can be applied with appropriate modications for their size
39
Chest compressions in an infant
Chest compressions one-handed technique
Chest compressions two-handed

technique
40
Position for chest compressions
Chest compressions should compress the lower third of the sternum. The finger/thumb or
hand position for all ages is found by finding the angle where the lowest ribs join in the
middle and placing the finger/thumb or hand one fingers breadth above this.
Infants Infant chest compression can be more effectively achieved using the hand-
encircling technique: the infant is held with both the rescuers hands encircling or partially
encircling the chest. The thumbs are placed over the correct part of the sternum (as
detailed above) and compression carried out, as shown in Figure. This method is only
possible when there are two rescuers, as the time needed to reposition the airway
precludes its use by a single rescuer if the recommended rates of compression and
ventilation are to be achieved. The single rescuer should use the two-nger method,
employing the other hand to maintain the airway position as shown in the Figure.
Pre-pubertal children Place the heel of one hand over the lower third of the sternum one
fingers breadth above the angle of the junction of the ribs. Lift the fingers to ensure that
pressure is not applied over the childs ribs. Position yourself vertically above the childs
chest and, with your arm straight, compress the sternum to depress it by approximately
one third of the depth of the chest (Figure).
For larger children or pregnant woman or girl, or for small rescuers, this may be achieved
most easily by using both hands with the fingers interlocked (Figure). The rescuer may
choose one or two hands to achieve the desired compression of one third of the depth of
the chest.
Once the correct technique has been chosen and the area for compression identied, 15
compressions should be given to 2 ventilations.
Continuing cardiopulmonary resuscitation

The compression rate at all ages is 100 per minute. A ratio of 15 compressions to 2
ventilations is maintained whatever the number of rescuers. If no help has arrived the
emergency services must be contacted after 1 minute of cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
With pauses for ventilation there will be less than 100 compressions per minute although
the rate is 100 per minute. Compressions can be recommenced at the end of inspiration
and may augment exhalation. Apart from this interruption to summon help, basic life
support must not be interrupted unless the patient moves or takes a breath.
Any time spent readjusting the airway or re-establishing the correct position for com-
pressions will seriously decrease the number of cycles given per minute. This can be a real
problem for the solo rescuer, and there is no easy solution. In the infant and small child, the
free hand can maintain the head position. The correct position for compressions does not
need to be re-measured after each ventilation.
Table 6 Summary of basic life support techniques in infants and children
Infant (<1 yr) Child (1 yr to puberty) and
pregnant woman or girl
Airway
Head-tilt position Neutral Sniffing
Breathing
Initial slow breaths Five Five
Circulation
Pulse check Brachial or femoral Carotid
41
Landmark One finger-breadth above One finger-breadth above
xiphisternum xiphisternum
Technique Two fingers or two thumbs One or two hands
CPR ratio 15:2 15:2
Call emergency services (if they exist)
If no help has arrived, the emergency services must be contacted after a minute of
resuscitation has been delivered. An infant or small child may be carried to a telephone or
to get help and attempts continued. Apart from this interruption to summon help, basic life
support must not be interrupted unless the patient moves or takes a breath.
Special Circulation Actions in the pregnant woman or girl
Call for emergency help (you may have to leave the victim alone).
Place on hard surface in the left lateral tilt position (use pillow or coat or whatever
available).
To overcome vena caval compression a wedge must be placed under the right hip to
displace the gravid uterus to the left. If an assistant is available they can lift the uterus off
the vena cavae. Effective chest compressions can be accomplished at a 15-30 degree tilt
to the left.
LATERAL TILT AND /OR UTERINE DISPLACEMENT
Give 5 rescue breaths and then give 15 chest compressions. Loosen the outer
clothing and using 2 interlocking hands
42
Kneel by the side of the victim.

Place the heel of one hand in the centre of the victims chest.
Place the heel of your other hand on top of the first hand.
Interlock the fingers of your hands and ensure that pressure is not applied over
the victim's ribs. Do not apply any pressure over the upper abdomen or the
bottom end of the bony sternum (breastbone).
Position yourself vertically above the victim's chest and, with your arms straight,
press down on the sternum 4 - 5 cm.
After each compression, release all the pressure on the chest without losing
contact between your hands and the sternum.
Repeat at a rate of about 100 times a minute (a little less than 2 compressions a
second).
Compression and release should take an equal amount of time.
Combine chest compression with

rescue breaths.
After 15 compressions open the

airway again using head tilt and
chin lift (use jaw thrust if you are
experienced and capable of
doing it properly)
Pinch the soft part of the victims
nose closed, using the index finger and thumb of your hand on her forehead.
Allow her mouth to open, but maintain chin lift.
43
Take a normal breath and place your lips around her mouth, making sure that
you have a good seal.
Blow steadily into her mouth whilst watching for her chest to rise; take about one
second to make her chest rise as in normal breathing; this is an effective rescue
breath.
Maintaining head tilt and chin lift, take your mouth away from the victim and
watch for her chest to fall as air comes out.
Take another normal breath and blow into the victims mouth once more to give a
total of two effective rescue breaths. Then return your hands without delay to the
correct position on the sternum and give a further 15 chest compressions.
Continue with chest compressions and rescue breaths in a ratio of 15:2.
Stop to recheck the victim only if she starts breathing normally; otherwise do
not interrupt resuscitation.
If your rescue breaths do not make the chest rise as in normal breathing, then
before your next attempt:
o Check the victim's mouth and remove any visible obstruction.
o Recheck that there is adequate head tilt and chin lift.
o Try jaw thrust if you are able to do this effectively
Do not attempt more than two breaths each time before returning to chest
compressions.
If there is more than one rescuer present, another should take over CPR
about every 2 min to prevent fatigue. Ensure the minimum of delay during
the changeover of rescuers.
Chest-compression-only CPR.
If you are not able, or are unwilling, to give rescue breaths, give chest
compressions only.
If chest compressions only are given, these should be continuous at a rate of
100 a minute.
Stop to recheck the victim only if she starts breathing normally; otherwise do not
interrupt resuscitation.
Continue resuscitation until:

qualified help arrives and takes over
the victim starts breathing normally
you become exhausted.
Section 7 CHOKING IN THE CHILD
Introduction
Suspect if sudden respiratory compromise with coughing, gagging and stridor.
Airway obstruction also occurs with infections such as acute epiglottitis and croup.
In these cases attempts to relieve the obstruction using the methods described
below are dangerous. Children with known or suspected infectious causes of
obstruction, and those who are still breathing and in whom the cause of obstruction
is unclear should be taken to hospital urgently.
44
Section 7 Choking
If a foreign body is easily visible and accessible in the mouth then remove it but while
attempting this, take great care not to push it further into the airway. Do not perform blind
nger sweeps of the mouth or upper airway as these may further impact a foreign body and
damage tissues without removing the object.
The physical methods of clearing the airway, described below, should therefore only be
performed if:
1. The diagnosis of foreign body airway obstruction is clear-cut (witnessed or strongly

suspected) and ineffective coughing and increasing dyspnoea, loss of consciousness or
apnoea have occurred.
2. Head tilt/chin lift and jaw thrust have failed to open the airway of an apnoeic child.
Assess
Ineffective Effective
cough cough
Conscious Unconscious
Encourage
5 back blows Open airway
coughing
5 chest/abdo
5 rescue breaths
thrusts
Support and
Assess and CPR 15:2 assess
repeat Check for FB continuously
If the child is coughing she/he should be encouraged. A spontaneous cough is more

effective at relieving an obstruction than any externally imposed maneuver. An effective
cough is recognised by the victims ability to speak or cry and to take a breath between
coughs. The child should be continually assessed and not left alone at this stage. No
intervention should be made unless the cough becomes ineffective, that is quieter or silent,
and the victim cannot cry, speak or take a breath, or if he becomes cyanosed or starts to
lose consciousness. Then call for help and start the intervention.
These manoeuvres are then alternated with each other, and with examination of the mouth
and attempted breaths as shown in the above figure.
Infants
45
Section 7 Choking
Abdominal thrusts may cause intra-abdominal injury in infants. Therefore a combination of
back blows and chest thrusts is recommended for the relief of foreign body obstruction in
this age group.
The baby is placed along one of the rescuers arms in a head-down position, with the
rescuers hand supporting the infants jaw in such a way as to keep it open, in the neutral
position. The rescuer then rests his or her arm along the thigh, and delivers 5 back blows
with the heel of the free hand.
If the obstruction is not relieved the baby is turned over and lay along the rescuers thigh,
still in a head-down position. Five chest thrusts are given using the same landmarks as for
cardiac compression but at a rate of one per second. If an infant is too large to allow use of
the single-arm technique described above, then the same manoeuvres can be performed
by laying the baby across the rescuers lap.
Figure Back blows in infant
Figure Chest thrusts in an infant
Children
Back blows can be used as in infants or in the case of a larger child, with child supported in
a forward leaning position. In the child the abdominal thrust (Heimlich manoeuvre) can also
be used. This can be performed with the victim either standing or lying but the former is
usually more appropriate.
If this is to be attempted with the child standing, the rescuer moves behind the victim and
passes his or her arms around the victims body. Owing to the short height of children, it
may be necessary for an adult to raise the child or kneel behind them to carry out the
standing manoeuvre effectively. One hand is formed into a st and placed against the
childs abdomen above the umbilicus and below the xiphisternum. The other hand is placed
over the st, and both hands are thrust sharply upwards into the abdomen. This is repeated
5 times unless the object causing the obstruction is expelled before then.
To carry out the Heimlich maneuver in a supine child, the rescuer kneels at his or her feet.
If the child is large it may be necessary to kneel astride him or her. The heel of one hand is
placed against the childs abdomen above the umbilicus and below the xiphisternum. The
other hand is placed on top of the rst, and both hands are thrust sharply upwards into the
abdomen, with care being taken to direct the thrust in the midline. This is repeated 5 times
unless the object causing the obstruction is expelled before that.
46
Section 7 Choking
Figure Back blows in a small child
Following successful relief of the obstructed airway assess the child clinically. There may
be still some part of the foreign material in the respiratory tract. If abdominal thrusts have
been performed the child should be assessed for possible abdominal injuries.
Each time breaths are attempted look in the mouth for the foreign body and remove it if
visible. Take care not to push the object further down and avoid damaging the tissues. If
the obstruction is relieved the victim may still require either continued ventilations if not
breathing, and chest compressions if there are no signs of a circulation.
47
Section 7 Choking
Figure Heimlich maneuver in a standing child
If the child breathes effectively then place him in the recovery position and continue to
monitor him.
Unconscious infant or child with foreign body airway obstruction
Call for help.

Place the child supine on a flat surface.
48
Section 7 Choking
Open the mouth and attempt to remove any visible object.
Open the airway and attempt 5 rescue breaths, repositioning the airway with each breath if
the chest does not rise.
Start chest compressions even if the rescue breaths were ineffective.
Continue the sequence for single rescuer CPR for about a minute then summon help again
if none is forthcoming.
Each time breaths are attempted, look in the mouth for the foreign body and remove it if
visible. Take care not to push the object further down and avoid damaging the tissues.
If the obstruction is relieved the victim may still require either continued ventilations if not
breathing but is moving or gagging or both ventilations and chest compressions if there are
no signs of a circulation. Advanced life support may also be needed.
If the child breathes effectively then place her/him in the recovery position and continue to
reassess.
49
Section 8 Advanced life support-oro-pharyngeal airway
SECTION 8 Advanced Life Support
AIRWAY: Equipment and skills for opening and maintaining the airway
Suction
Remove blood and secretions from the mouth with a rigid suction tube. If attempts to clear
the airway do not result in spontaneous breathing, this may be because the airway is still
not patent or because the airway is open but there is no breathing.
To clear the oropharynx of debris eg.vomit a rigid sucker (e.g. Yankauer) should be
used with care not to damage delicate tissue or induce vomiting.
Oro-pharyngeal airway
The oro-pharyngeal or Guedel airway is

used in the unconscious or obtunded patient
to provide an open airway channel between the tongue and the posterior pharyngeal wall.
In the awake patient or lightly unconscious patient with an intact gag reflex, it may not be
tolerated and may induce vomiting, laryngospasm or apnoea and is therefore potentially
dangerous.
A correctly sized oro-pharyngeal airway when placed with its flange at the centre of the
incisor teeth, then curved around the face, will reach the angle of the mandible. Too small
an airway may be ineffective; too large an airway may cause laryngospasm. Either may
cause mucosal trauma or may worsen airway obstruction. Reassessment following
placement is therefore a vital part of safe insertion of an airway device.
There are two methods for inserting the oro-pharyngeal airway depending on whether the
child is small or large however there is no especial age for change it depends on
practicality and skills of operator. The important issue is not to push the tongue back by
inserting carelessly.
50
Section 8 Advanced life support-oro-pharyngeal airway
The twist technique is used for the larger child and adult and means that the convex side of
the airway is used to depress the tongue as the airway is pushed into the mouth.
However, in the infant and small child, as the tongue is bigger relative to the size of the
mouth, you can't turn it over after it's in the back of the mouth without causing trauma;
hence the tongue is controlled with a spatula and not by the reversed airway. With small
undernourished children up to (say) 5 years and babies use the spatula to depress the
tongue and place the airway without rotation.
The test of success, as in all therapeutic interventions, is that insertion of one of

these devices should result in improvement in the patients condition. It if does not
occur then a reappraisal of the choice or size of airway is urgently required.
Inserting airway in an infant and small

child
Inserting airway in a child or pregnant mother
Magill's forceps
Used to grasp a foreign body in the throat and remove it.
51
Section 8 Advanced life support-surgical airway
Emergency Surgical airway: Surgical cricothyroidotomy
Only in desperate situation if other methods of airway opening procedures have

failed
Call surgeon (ENT) and anaesthetist (if available)
1. Place supine.
2. If no risk of neck injury, consider extending neck to improve access. Otherwise, maintain a
neutral alignment.
3. Identify cricothyroid membrane in the following manner. Place your finger over the most
prominent part of thyroid cartilage (Adams apple). Move the finger downwards i.e. towards
the chest, keeping strictly in the mid-line. The first dip felt is the area of cricothyroid
membrane.
4. Prepare skin and, if patient is conscious, infiltrate with local anaesthetic.
5. Place index and middle fingers of your left hand on each sides of midline of neck to
stabilise cricothyroid membrane, and to protect lateral vascular structures from injury.
6. Make Figure
a small 1vertical incision in skin, and with the index and the middle fingers of the left
hand, press lateral edges of incision outwards, to minimise bleeding.
7. Make a transverse incision through cricothyroid membrane, being careful not to damage
cricoid cartilage.
8. Insert a tracheal spreader to open airway.
9. Insert an appropriately sized endotracheal or tracheostomy tube. It is advisable to use a
slightly smaller size than would have been used for oral intubation e.g. size 6.0mm internal
diameter for age 12-16years or size 7.0mm for adults.
10. Ventilate patient and check that this is effective if not and if large air leak after inflating
cuff may need to change tube for a size bigger.
11. Secure tube to prevent dislodgement.
Complications
- Asphyxia: Aspiration of blood or secretions: Haemorrhage or haematoma.
- Creation of a false passage into tissues: Surgical emphysema (subcutaneous or
mediastinal).
- Pulmonary barotraumas: Subglottic oedema or stenosis: oesophageal perforation.
- Infection.
52
Section 8 Advanced life support-oxygen
BREATHING: Equipment and skills for helping the patient to breathe
Oxygen
Give oxygen if respiratory distress (recessions, nasal flaring, head bobbing etc.) or if
cyanosis (blueness) is central (around lips and tongue or inside mouth (difficult to see in
black children) or if shocked or if fitting. If SaO 2 monitoring is available give O 2 if SaO2 <
92% consistently (unless at high altitude)
If oxygen supplies are limited, use oxygen at sufficient flow rates to maintain oxygen
saturations at >94%. If using low flow rates do not use reservoir bag
If using oxygen mask, ensure that mask is large enough to cover mouth and nose. Both
low and high flow O2 (up to 15l/min) can be given. Hold mask in place using the elastic
strap around back of head or ask mother to hold it as close as possible to childs face.
A mask with a reservoir bag allows up to 100% oxygen to be delivered. Without a reservoir,
it is only possible to deliver around
40%.
Nasal cannulae come in 3 sizes small,

medium, large to give O 2
concentrat
ions of up
to 40%.
Nasal
cannulae
have a
curved
appearan
ce; apply
by placing
curve of cannulae into natural curve of
nasal passage. Secure with small
53
Section 8 Advanced life support-oxygen
piece of tape on both cheeks over tubing.
O2 cylinders contain compressed gas. A flow meter needs to be fitted to regulate flow. A
hissing noise can be heard if gas is being delivered.
Take the reading of flow rate from the middle of the ball. Always switch off flow when not in
use; ensure indicator ball at bottom of flow meter and not moving.
DO NOT leave anything flammable near to the O 2 supply. DO NOT ALLOW SMOKING
near to O2.
Check adequate O2 supply is available at least 3 times a day (use a signed log book). If
gauge indicating amount left in cylinder is not available, switch on flow and listen to hiss.
Replace empty cylinders as they empty. Ensure cylinders are stored in an upright position
on a flat surface and are secure. Cylinder keys should be tied to each cylinder.
Oxygen concentrators may be available. They give >95% oxygen with a flow of 1-8 L/min.
Face masks with seal over nose and mouth for positive pressure ventilation
These are used for either mouth to mask or more commonly bag-mask ventilation. Masks
are available in various sizes and the appropriate size to cover the mouth and nose should
be chosen.
Self-inflating bags
This is one of the most important pieces of equipment allowing hand ventilation by
facemask without a supply of gas. The two appropriate sizes are 500ml and 1600ml (the
smaller for infants <1 year and the larger for children and pregnant woman or girl).
These bags have pressure-limiting valves that operate at between 30 and 45cm H 2O. Test
the valve by placing the mask on a surface and pressing the bag and ensuring the valve
opens. It can be overridden if necessary for stiff, poorly compliant lungs.
54
Section 8 Advanced life support-bag valve mask inflations
The bag connects to the patient through a one-way valve to direct exhaled gas to the
atmosphere. The other end connects to the oxygen supply and can attach to a reservoir
bag which allows high concentrations of oxygen to be delivered (can be up to 98%).
Without the reservoir bag concentrations of up to 40% O 2 are delivered. The bag itself is
easily dismantled and reassembled. It is important to realize that this system will operate
without an attached oxygen supply, allowing resuscitation to be initiated before oxygen is
available. However, if resuscitation is failing, check that oxygen is being delivered into the
bag and patient and that O2 has not been disconnected.
Always use high flow oxygen and reservoir bag during resuscitation
Clean the system after each patient
It is essential that the mask is properly sized and correctly placed over the mouth and nose
of the patient.
55
Section 8 Advanced life support-bag valve mask inflations
Mask holding techniques
If the chest does not rise then the airway

is not clear. The usual cause is failure to
apply correctly the airway opening
techniques previously discussed. The first
step to try is to readjust head tilt / chin lift
position and try again. If this is not
successful jaw thrust should be tried.
Failure of both head tilt / chin lift and jaw
thrust should lead to suspicion that a
foreign body is causing the obstruction.
Once breathing restarts, replace

bag-valvemask system with simple face-
mask and reservoir. Because of the
internal valves it is not possible to spontaneously breathe through the bag-valve-mask
system.
Pulse Oximetry
1. Switch on the oximeter.
56
Section 8 Advanced life support-pulse oximetry
2. Make sure any mains supply is also switched on (this will charge the internal battery, if this
exists) - the sensor should light up.
3. Apply the sensor to a relatively translucent part of the body, for example, a finger or toe in
a child or adult, or to the side of the foot, the palm, thumb or big toe in an infant.
4. Fix the sensor in position:
flexible sensors should be secured with either their own sticky tape, or additional sticky
tape that stretches, so arterial pulsations are not impaired
rigid sensors, or crocodile clips, usually attach on a finger and do not need further fixation
5. In situations of bright light, or poor skin perfusion, consider covering the sensor further
using, for example, a glove, mitten, or sock.
6. Wait for a short period of time, usually 30 seconds, before reading the measurement of
SaO2 and heart rate from the oximeter, but only when an adequate arterial (or other)
pulsation is found. Most oximeters will have either a bouncing bar display or arterial pulse
waveform that is in time with the patients pulse or heart rate.
7. Set the low and high alarm limits for the oxygen saturation (eg 85% and 100%) and pulse
rate.
8. Take readings of SaO2 and pulse rate when a good pulsation is present and the values are
relatively stable.
Normal Values
These are usually 95-100% when breathing room air at sea level, and in the presence of
good pulse detection. AIM TO KEEP SAO2 94-98%.
Lower levels if breathing or cardiac problems.
Low levels whilst breathing additional oxygen usually indicate very serious breathing
problems.
Normal levels whilst breathing additional oxygen do not mean that ventilation is normal
(may have a significant retention of carbon dioxide).
May not get accurate reading if patient shivering, moving, if cold hands or feet, wearing nail
varnish or if there is carbon monoxide poisoning, as with for example burns.
Note: skin colour, sickle cell disease and other haemoglobin disorders do not significantly
affect the measurement of SaO2.
Spacers and nebulisers
Spacers
Salbutamol can be delivered using spacer device 2-10 puffs -4 hourly.

0-3 years use mask and spacer. Take MDI and shake, place in end of spacer, ensure
good facial seal (distraction and play are useful to ensure compliance). Press MDI once
and ask child to take 5 normal (effective) breaths, press MDI second time and repeat (NB if
breaths ineffective request 10 instead of 5 breaths). Shake MDI after each 2 puffs, as if
this is not done only propellant will be delivered.
Assess benefit after 10 puffs (whole process takes 5-10 minutes dependant on
compliance).
This can be repeated every hour. As symptoms improve increase time between
treatments to 1 hourly/2 hourly/4 hourly. Usually need to have 10 puffs 4 hourly for 48 hour
then 2 puffs as required.
After 3 years of age the mouth piece of the spacer can be used.
If patient is requiring O2 therapy via nasal cannula < 2 litres/minute it can be continued
whilst spacer treatment is delivered.
Use of a spacer
57
Section 8 Advanced life support-nebuliser and spacers
When spacer is new, and also between treatments, it should be washed with warm soapy
water and left to dry naturally. Drying by any other means will build up static and
encourage the drug to stick on the sides of the spacer rather than be delivered to the
patient.
As child takes a breath with a commercial spacer, a disk will be seen and heard to move
back and forth allowing medication to be delivered. If child sleeping and still requiring
treatment then the spacer and mask can be used. Place the mask over mouth and nose
ensuring good seal. Tilt spacer 40 angle to open valve, medication will be naturally
delivered. Ensure 5-10 breaths between puffs.
If there is no proper spacer:

A very effective spacer can be made using a plastic IV fluid bottle see picture or soft
drink bottle.
Failing this an effective aid to inhalation is a paper bag. Express salbutamol into the paper
bag and place the bag tightly around the nose and mouth of the patient. Have the patient
breathe in and out ten times.
Nebuliser
Nebulisers can be driven by oxygen or electrically (must deliver at least 6-9 litres/minute).
If severe asthma and possible hypoxia, use O2 to drive the nebuliser.
Need regular cleaning and servicing.
Equipment required
Straight O2 tubing (bubble tubing can be used if this is all that is available)
Medication chamber
Mask
Attach tubing to medication chamber, add dose of salbutamol to medication chamber and
attach mask.
Switch O2 on at 8 litres/minute (= best flow for dispersement of medication).
58
Section 8 Advanced life support-needle thoracocentesis
Continuous nebulised treatment can be given until symptoms improve. Then treatments
can be reduced 1 hourly/2hourly/4 hourly and then as required to control symptoms.
Change to MDI and spacer prior to discharge.
Mask should always be used for <7 years.
>7 year mouthpiece can be attached instead of mask. However this is difficult to use in
severe asthma.
Between treatments medication chamber and mask should be washed with warm soapy
water and left to dry naturally.
If there is no nebuliser:
Use a spacer and give salbutamol continuously
When a tension pneumothorax is present this procedure can be life saving. It can be
performed quickly with minimum equipment. A confirmatory CXRay is not required or
appropriate. It should be followed by chest drain placement.
Procedure for thoracocentesis
Identify second intercostal space in mid-
clavicular line on the side of the
pneumothorax (opposite side to the
direction of tracheal deviation)
Swab chest wall with surgical prep
Attach syringe ideally via a 3 way tap to
needle / IV cannula/butterfly
Insert needle / cannula vertically into
chest wall, just above the rib below to
avoid vessels, and aspirate
If air is aspirated, leave cannula in place
and proceed to chest drain insertion
59
Section 8 Advanced life support-chest drain
Chest drain insertion This is best performed by an open technique as this minimizes lung
damage by avoiding use of the trochar. The largest tube which will pass between the ribs
is used.
Procedure
Indications Prepare patient this must be a fully sterile
Post thoracocentesis procedure
Simple pneumothorax
th th
Identify landmarks 4 or 5 intercostal space, mid-
Haemo-pneumothorax th
axillary line (4 intercostal space in pregnancy)
If conscious use local anaesthetic
Make a 1-3 cm incision immediately above the rib
below (to avoid damage to the neurovascular bundle
under the lower edge of the rib)
Use artery forceps for blunt dissection between the
ribs and puncture the pleura
If possible, clear the path with a gloved finger (not
possible in babies / small children)
Hold about 1 cm from end and pass the chest drain
Sites for chest through the hole and ensure all side holes are within
drain insertion the chest
Connect to underwater seal or Heimlich valve
Check the tube is in place (misting should occur and
air entry should improve)
Suture tube in place - make sure the area is
anaesthetised
Cover wound and get CXR if possible
Check the patient has improved
Ensure water level is always below the chest to
prevent water leaking back into the chest
Suture tube in place - make sure the area is
anaesthetized. Leave an additional suture untied
adjacent to the tube for closing the wound after the
tube is removed
If there is no Heimlich valve?

One can be made using the finger of a sterile surgical glove.
60
Section 8 Advanced life support-chest drain
Complications of chest drains
1. Failure to position properly

2. Infection
3. Surgical (subcutaneous) emphysema
4. Haemorrhage
5. Damage to internal thoracic artery if drain is placed too medially
6. Damage to intrathoracic or abdominal structures
7. Kinking of chest tube or obstruction by blood clot
CIRCULATION: Equipment and skills for maintaining the circulation
Intraosseous cannulation and infusion
Indication
In emergency when other attempts at IV access

have failed in an infant, child or pregnant woman or
girl
1. Identify the infusion site. The landmark for the upper tibial site is the anterior
surface, 2 - 3 cm below the tibial tuberosity
2. Clean the skin over the chosen site and apply sterile drapes.
3. Insert local anaesthetic (1% lidocaine with fine needle 22-25G) down to
periosteum if patient is conscious.
o
4. Insert the needle at 90 to the skin. Ideally 18G intra-osseous needle (at least
1.5cm in length). In situation of poor resources, a lumbar puncture needle or
even standard 16-18 gauge needle can be used. For infants 21G green needles
are quite adequate. A butterfly needle which has a short bevel may also be
helpful in the infant.
5. Continued to advance the needle in a rotating fashion until a give is felt as the
medullary cavity of the bone is entered. The needle should stand up by itself.
6. Attach the 5 ml syringe and aspirate blood/marrow for as required; cross match,
Hb, culture, glucose and then flush with 0.9% saline or Ringer-Lactate or
Hartmanns to expel clots and observe for subcutaneous swelling to confirm
correct positioning.
61
Section 8 Advanced life support-intraosseous cannula
7. Attach the 50 ml syringe, usually containing, Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns, but
can be compatible blood or 10% glucose if hypoglycaemia is suspected, and
push in the infusion fluid in boluses.
8. Secure IV access as soon as possible. When needle is removed cover with
sterile dressing.
9. Do not place distal to a major fracture or where there is infection.
10. GIVE PROPHYLACTIC ANTIBIOTICS after immediate emergency is managed.
Complications
Dislodgement
Misplacement (penetration through posterior cortex, failure to penetrate cortex producing
haematoma
tissue necrosis
compartment syndrome
Skin infection
Osteomyelitis
Tibial fracture in babies
Useful issues
All drugs and fluids used for treating a sick child can be given.
IV access should be obtained as soon as possible after IO placement so that IO needle
can be removed to reduce complication risk.
Measurement of Hb, platelets and wbc counts are inaccurate, but blood group and cross
match and blood cultures can be performed.
External jugular vein

- Place in a 15 to 30 head-down position (or with padding under shoulders so that head
hangs lower than shoulders).
- Turn head away from site of puncture. Restrain child as necessary in this position.
- Clean skin.
- Identify external jugular vein, which can be seen passing over sternocleidomastoid muscle
at junction of its middle and lower thirds.
- Have an assistant place his or her finger at lower end of visible part of vein just above
clavicle. This stabilises it and compresses it so that it remains distended.
- Puncture skin and enter vein.
- When free flow of blood is obtained, ensure no air bubbles are present in tubing and then
attach a giving set.
- Tape cannula securely.
INTRAOSSEOUS INFUSION USING POWERED DEVICES
The EZ-IO drill is a powered device which enables rapid insertion of an intraosseous
needle.
62
The landmarks are used as follows:
Proximal tibia
Proximal humerus
The procedure is less painful for the conscious victim due to its rapidity and the sharpness
of the needles. The EZ-IO needles are in two sizes - under 40kg and over 40kg.
The procedure for insertion is as follows:

1. Universal precautions for sterile procedure
2. Clean site.
3. Choose appropriate size needle and attach to drill - it will fix magnetically
4. Remove the safety cap from the needle
5. If conscious control patients movement during insertion
6. Hold the drill and needle at 90 degrees to the skin surface and push through the skin
without drilling, until bone is felt. Ensure at least 5mm of the needle is visible at this point.
63
7. Squeeze the drill button and drill continuously and apply gentle, steady downward
pressure until there is sudden loss of resistance - there is a palpable give as the needle
breaches the cortex. Release trigger and stop insertion at this point.
NOTES: If the driver stalls and will not penetrate the bone you may be applying too much
downward pressure.
If the driver fails (rare) remove it, grasp the needle kit by hand and twist it into the bone
marrow.
8. Remove drill and unscrew trochar.

9. Aspirate marrow if possible directly from needle.
10. Attach pre-prepared connection tube containing sterile Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
before any infusion is given
Do not attach a syringe directly to the EZIO catheter hub except when drawing blood with
the needle set stabilised by hand (sterile).
11. There is an optional device to secure the needle but this is not essential.
12. Proceed with required therapy.
It should be noted that rapid infusion of fluid may be painful for the conscious patient and if
this proves to be the case 0.5ml/kg of 2% lignocaine may be infused slowly to combat this.
13. Apply sterile dressing

14. When removing the catheter, attach luer lock syring, continuously rotate clockwise
whilst slowly and gently applying traction to the catheter. Do not rock or bend the
catheter during removal.
15. DO NOT LEAVE THE IO CATHETER IN PLACE FOR MORE THAN 24 HOURS.
64
Section 8 Advanced life support-long saphenous vein cannulation
Cut down long saphenous venous cannulation
Indication: continuous IV access where percutaneous attempts have failed: (in an

emergency an infant or child intra-osseous access is faster and easier)
Equipment
Procedure
Make a transverse incision two finger breadths
superior and two fingers anterior to the medial
malleolus. Use the patients finger breadths to define
the incision: this is particularly important in the infant
or child.Identify landmarks:
Infant Half a fingerbreadth superior and anterior to medial malleolus

Small child one fingerbreadth superior and anterior to medial malleolus
Older child and
two fingerbreadths superior and anterior to medial malleolus
1. Immobilise limb and apply blood pressure cuff at pressure between venous and arterial
2. Clean skin and drape with sterile towels.
3. Infiltrate local anaesthetic into skin after marking the site of the vein (if conscious).
4. Incise skin perpendicular to long axis of vein.
5. Bluntly dissect subcutaneous tissues with curved artery forceps (tips pointing downwards)
parallel to vein. With tips pointing up scoop up tissues and open the forceps- you should
have picked up vein. Clear about 2cm of vein from surrounding tissue.
6. Insert the largest possible venous cannula into it as you would if going through the skin and
then remove the trochar.
7. Close incision with interrupted sutures, place antiseptic ointment (eg iodine) over wound,
and suture catheter to skin (ensure local anaesthetic at suture site if conscious).
Nasogastric tubes
Insertion of a gastric tube is essential after intubation and may also relieve respiratory
distress in spontaneously breathing patients with abdominal emergencies or gastric stasis.
It allows decompression of a stomach full with air from both bag and mask ventilation as
well as air swallowed by a distressed patient. Without a gastric tube, the patient may vomit
or aspirate on stomach contents. In addition venting of stomach gas will avoid
diaphragmatic splinting. A nasogastric tube will increase airway resistance through the
nose, which in a spontaneously breathing infant in respiratory failure can be significant. An
65
Section 8 Advanced life support-gastric tube
oro-gastric tube has less effect on ventilation but is less easily tolerated and less easily
fixed in position.
Equipment
Syringe: Gastric tube: Lubricant (KY jelly or clean water): Stethoscope.

Litmus paper: Adhesive tape.
Procedure
- Place supine with head in 'sniffing' position.

- Measure length of tube-from nose or
mouth via earlobe to mid-point
between xiphoid and umbilicus.
- Feed tube lubricated with KY jelly or
0.9% Saline through either nose or
mouth directly backwards. (The
neonate is a nose breather and
therefore the oral route is preferred).
Try to advance tube as patient
swallows. If infant has respiratory
distress, orogastric tube is best. If
passed through nose increases upper
airway resistance.
- Check position of tube by aspirating
stomach contents and checking a
change in the litmus paper (blue to
pink), or flush the tube with 2 to 3ml
air (only 1ml in neonate) and listen
over stomach. If in doubt Xray
chest/abdomen. NB: acidity of gastric
fluid may be reduced in preterm
infants
Secure the tube by taping it to cheek

and record length of tube outside nose or mouth.
Measuring Blood glucose
Blood can be used from: samples taken for malarial screen etc dont remove from
bottle containing EDTA. Only require one drop
Capillary sample
Source needs to be warm and well-perfused.
Area needs to be clean (sugar free!) but make sure alcohol has evaporated as this can
confuse results.
Using Vaseline (petroleum jelly) rubbed over skin makes drops easier to collect.
Suitable areas include finger pulp and earlobes (sides of heels in neonate).
66
Section 8 Advanced life support-lumbar puncture and blood glucose measurement
If available use lancet/tender-touch etc. If an ordinary needle is used puncture skin at
angle of 45 degrees to avoid unnecessarily deep wound.
Squeeze GENTLY to gain drop.
If using BMstix or Dextrostix check they have not expired, are dry and not discoloured.
You can use one stick for more than one test if it is cut lengthways before use. Cover
indicator mark with drop (do not smear). Wait one minute before wiping off drop and
reading against the colour chart on tube.
For Neonates readings are not reliable below 5 if any doubt, treat as hypoglycaemia.
Generally, hyperglycaemia if >10 and hypoglycaemia if < 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl).
Normal values 3.3 - 5.5 mmol/l (63-99 mg/dl).
Lumbar puncture
Dangerous in the presence of raised intra-cranial pressure

9
Beware if blood clotting disorder (eg. platelets <80 x 10 /litre).
Excessive neck flexion when positioning can lead to hypoxaemia and acute respiratory
deterioration.
If spinal needle is unavailable and a normal (non-stylet ) needle is used, the needle bore
may become blocked with skin on insertion and hence not flow. There is also risk of tissue
implantation leading to dermoid cyst.
Advance needle slowly. Subarachnoid space is only 0.5 to 0.7 cm below skin in premature
infants and 1 cm in babies; hence over-penetration is an easy mistake. Over-penetration
leads to puncturing of anterior vertebral venous plexus and a bloody sample, so that CSF
microscopy is less informative or impossible.
Equipment
Skin prep, sterile gloves, sterile dressings pack, spinal needle with stylet (in poorly
resourced healthcare facilities an ordinary 18-22 gauge needle may be used), small sterile
dressing.
Positioning for lumbar puncture

Indications
To diagnose meningitis.
As part of a septic screen (especially in infants).
Procedure
- Full surgical asepsis must be undertaken.
- Position patient on the edge of the examination table in lateral
decubitus or sitting up. An experienced assistant to hold patient is
helpful. Flex spine maximally whilst avoiding excessive neck flexion.
- Clean the lumbar area with skin prep. Drape with sterile towels.
- Identify site of insertion: L4 to L5 lumbar space (on level with iliac
crests).
- Slowly insert spinal needle in midline, aiming towards umbilicus.
67
Section 8 Advanced life support-lumbar puncture and blood glucose measurement
- Stop advancing when "give"/puncture sensation is felt on entering subarachnoid space
(often not felt in neonates). May have to do frequent stylet withdrawals during procedure to
see if CSF flows, this is to ensure that subarachnoid space has been successfully enter ed.
- Withdraw stylet. Allow 6 drops of CSF to drip into each sample container.
- Replace stylet.
- Withdraw needle and swab puncture site with skin prep.
- Cover site with sterile dressing.
- Send samples for
- microbiology (gram stain, mycobacterium culture if suspected, microscopy, cell counts,
culture and sensitivity).
- glucose and protein.
-
Urethral Catheterisation
Indications:
To collect sample (eg infant can be removed once sample obtained)
Where no spontaneous urine output
If continuous urine output measurement is required
Caution: Signs of urethral damage should be excluded first before urethral catheterization
(eg blood at external meatus or bruising to the scrotum or perineum). If any doubt, or in
cases of abdominal / pelvic injury, decision to catheterize must be decision of surgeon.
Methods
Use appropriate size of
catheter i. e. one that is
smaller in diameter than the
external urethral meatus
(risk of subsequent urethral
stricture formation). Sterile
NGT can also be used
there is a risk of it falling out,
but with critically ill child this
is adequate if taped to penis
and medial aspect of thigh
and patient nursed carefully.
Do not attempt to use a tube
larger than the meatus.
If male patient conscious
(esp older children) use
lidocaine gel if available.
Lubricants should be used even in unconscious patients.
Use sterile precautions (gloves etc), wash area, have sterile pot to hand to take sample,
large syringe or catheter bag if available, syringe of water to inflate balloon if is Foley
balloon catheter and an assistant to hold legs away
With male hold glans penis securely; there is no need to try and retract foreskin for child
less than 3 years. No need for force. Catheter is in sufficiently far when urine is seen in
tube.
68
Section 8 Advanced life support-urethral catheter
Rectal Administration of Drugs
In conscious patient explain what you are going to do it should not be painful. Need
consent from an older child.
In most situations rectal quills will not be available so a large NGT cut to about 7 cm,
attached to syringe, can be used.
Patients should be on their side with legs bent (fetal position) ask the mother or an
assistant to help hold patient in that position.
If KY jelly etc available place on index finger of gloved hand, open anal margin gently and
cut end of NGT, advance tube as far as possible, inject drug whilst holding buttocks
together.
Keeping plunger of syringe advanced withdraw the syringe and NGT whilst keeping
buttocks together.
Continue holding buttocks together for 2 minutes more
69
Section 9 Cardiac arrest
Section 9 Management of cardiac arrest
Cardiac arrest has occurred when there is no effective cardiac output. Before any specific
therapy is started effective basic life support must be established as described in Section 6.
Four cardiac arrest rhythms can occur:
1. Asystole
2. Pulseless electrical activity (including electro mechanical dissociation)
3. Ventricular fibrillation
4 Pulseless ventricular tachycardia
The four are divided into two groups: two that do not require defibrillation (called non-
shockable) and two that do require defibrillation (shockable). Only non-shockable
rhythms will be discussed here.
Non-shockable cardiac arrest (asystole and pulseless electrical activity).
Asystole
This is the most common arrest rhythm in children and pregnant women or girls. The
response of the young heart to prolonged severe hypoxia and acidosis is progressive
bradycardia leading to asystole.
The ECG will distinguish asystole from ventricular fibrillation, ventricular tachycardia and
pulseless electrical activity. The ECG appearance of ventricular asystole is an almost
straight line; occasionally P-waves are seen. Check that the appearance is not caused by
an artifact e.g. a loose wire or disconnected electrode. Turn up the gain on the ECG
monitor.
Asystole
Pulseless Electrical Activity (PEA)
This is the absence of a palpable pulse or other signs of circulation despite the presence
on the ECG monitor of recognisable complexes which normally produce a pulse. PEA is
treated in the same way as asystole and is often a pre-asystolic state.
70
PEA may be due to an identifiable and reversible cause. In children and in pregnancy there
are reversible causes; severe hypovolaemia, tension pneumothorax or pericardial
tamponade. PEA is also seen in hypothermic patients and in patients with electrolyte
abnormalities. It may be seen after massive pulmonary thromboembolus.
Management of Asystole/PEA
First establish ventilations and chest compressions effectively. Ensure a patent

airway, initially using an airway maneuver to open the airway and stabilising it with an
airway adjunct. Ventilations are provided initially by bag and mask with high concentration
oxygen.
Provide effective chest compressions at a rate of 100 per minute with a compression/
ventilation ratio of 15: 2 for an infant or child and 30:2 in pregnancy. Ideally a cardiac
monitor is attached and if there are more than one health worker present, continue chest
compressions without pausing during ventilation.
If asystole or PEA is identified give adrenaline 10 micrograms per kilogram (0.1 ml of

1:10,000 solution/Kg) intravenously or intra-osseously in a child and 1mg IV in
pregnancy. Adrenaline increases coronary artery perfusion and enhances the contractile
state of the heart and stimulates spontaneous contractions. This is best given through a
central line but if one is not in place it may be given through a peripheral line. Where there
is no existing IV access the IO route is recommended as the route of choice as it is rapid
and effective. In each case the adrenaline is followed by a normal saline flush (2 to 5 mls).
If available, and as soon as is feasible, a skilled and experienced operator should intubate
the patients airway. This will both control and protect the airway and enable chest
compressions to be given continuously, thus improving coronary perfusion. Once the
patient has been intubated and compressions are uninterrupted, the ventilation rate should
be 10 per minute. It is important for the team leader to assess that the ventilations remain
adequate when chest compressions are continuous.
71
Ventilate with high

concentration O2
Intubate if possible
Continue CPR
IV/IO access
Adrenaline
10 microgram/kg IV or IO
4 min CPR Check monitor

every 2 minutes
Consider 4 Hs & 4 Ts
Consider alkalising agents
Protocol
Asystole or PEA
CHILD
** IV atropine after first dose of adrenaline if asystole once only
During and following adrenaline, chest compressions and ventilations should continue.
Giving chest compressions is tiring for the operator so if others are available change
regularly.
At intervals of about 2 minutes briefly pause in the delivery of chest compressions to

assess the rhythm on the monitor. If asystole remains, continue CPR while again checking
the electrode position and contact. If there is an organised rhythm, check for a pulse or
signs of a circulation. If there is a return of spontaneous circulation, continue post-
resuscitation care. If there is no pulse and no signs of a circulation, continue the protocol.
Give adrenaline about every 4 minutes at a dose of 10 micrograms per kilogram IV/IO in a
child and 1mg IV in a pregnant woman or girl. If asystole, or in the pregnant woman or girl
slow PEA (< 60bpm), give one dose of IV/IO atropine (3mg in the pregnant woman or girl
and 20micrograms/Kg in the child maximum here 600 micrograms) as soon as possible to
prevent severe vagal effects.
72
Ventilate with high

concentration O2
Intubate if possible
Continue CPR
IV/IO access
Lateral tilt
Adrenaline Emergency
1mg IV CS
4 min CPR Check monitor

every 2 minutes
Consider 4 Hs & 4 Ts
Consider alkalising agents
Protocol asystole and PEA in pregnancy
** IV atropine after first dose of adrenaline if asystole or PEA rate < 60bpm once only
Reversible causes
Sometimes cardiac arrest is due to an identifiable and reversible cause, such as shock
from massive haemorrhage. In the trauma setting cardiac arrest may be caused by severe
hypovolaemia, tension pneumothorax and pericardial tamponade.
It is appropriate to give an early IV bolus of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns (20 mls/kg in a

child and 500ml to 1 litre in a pregnant woman or girl - depending on her weight) as this will
be supportive in cases related to severe hypovolaemia. In addition, however, a tension
pneumothorax and/or pericardial tamponade require definitive treatment. Continuing blood
replacement and the stopping of haemorrhage may also be required.
73
Rapid identification and treatment of reversible causes such as hypovolaemic shock,
hypothermia, electrolyte and acid-base disturbance, tension pneumothorax and pericardial
tamponade are vital.
Continually, during CPR, consider and correct reversible causes of the cardiac arrest
based on the history of the event and any clues that are found during resuscitation.
The 4Hs and 4Ts:
Hypoxia is a prime cause of cardiac arrest in childhood and is key to successful

resuscitation. Hypovolaemia may be significant in arrests associated with trauma,
gastroenteritis, pregnancy related haemorrhage, anaphylaxis and sepsis and requires
infusion of crystalloid or, if haemorrhage, give blood.
Hyperkalaemia, hypokalaemia, hypocalcaemia, acidaemia and other metabolic
abnormalities may be suggested by the patients underlying condition (e.g. renal failure),
tests taken during the resuscitation or clues given in the ECG (see CD/DVD rom).
Intravenous calcium (0.2 mls/kg of 10% calcium gluconate) is indicated in hyperkalaemia
and hypocalcaemia.
Hypothermia is associated with drowning incidents and requires particular care and a low
reading thermometer must be used to detect it (see CD/DVD rom).
Tension pneumothorax and cardiac tamponade are especially associated with PEA and
are often found in trauma cases.
Toxic substances, either as a result of accidental or deliberate overdose or from a
iatrogenic mistake, may require specific antidotes.
Thromboembolic phenomena (pulmonary or amniotic fluid) in pregnancy.
Drugs in Cardiac Arrest

Adrenaline is the first line drug for cardiac arrest
The initial IV or IO dose is 10 micrograms/kg (0.1 ml/kg of 1:10,000 solution) in a child and
1mg (1ml of 1 in 1000 solution) in a pregnant woman or girl. In the child with no existing IV
access, the intraosseous route is recommended as the route of choice as it is rapid and
effective. In each case adrenaline is followed by a 0.9% saline flush (2 to 5mls).
Sodium Bicarbonate
Good basic life support is more effective than alkalizing agents, which may be considered if
spontaneous circulation has not returned after the first or second dose of adrenaline. It is
recommended in the treatment of patients with hyperkalaemia and tricyclic antidepressant
overdose.
The dose is 1 mmol/kg in a child (1 ml/kg of an 8.4% solution or 2ml/kg of 4.2% solution) or
50mmol in a pregnant woman or girl.
Bicarbonate must not be given in the same intravenous line as calcium because
precipitation will occur.
Sodium bicarbonate inactivates adrenaline and dopamine and therefore the line must be
flushed with saline if these drugs are subsequently given.
Bicarbonate must not be given by the intra-tracheal route.
74
Hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl)
All patients, especially infants and pre-school age children, can become hypoglycaemia
when seriously ill. Blood glucose should be checked frequently and hypoglycaemia must
be corrected. If suspected and blood glucose cannot be measured always give 5ml/kg
10% glucose in a child or 50 ml of 25% glucose in pregnancy, preferably IV if not enterally
(gastric tube). If blood glucose levels can be measured then avoid hyperglycaemia (blood
glucose >12mmol/l).
In pregnancy to make 25% glucose add 50ml of 50% glucose to 50ml of 0.9% saline or
Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
Cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the obstetric patient
Background
Cardiac arrest in late pregnancy or during delivery is rare and maternal survival is very low
(3-33% in published series). The cause of the arrest is not often reversed and the
physiologic changes present in late pregnancy hinder effective CPR.
Cardiac arrest in the pregnant woman or girl results in absent uterine perfusion and the
fetus will also die. Even when CPR is ideal, it is not possible to generate a cardiac output of
more than 30%.
Causes include
Massive haemorrhage
Pulmonary embolism
Trauma
Amniotic fluid embolism
Severe infection
Local anaesthetic toxicity
Physiologic changes of pregnancy as they relate to cardiopulmonary resuscitation

Pregnant women or girls more easily develop hypoxaemia.
The enlarged uterus along with the resultant upward displacement of the abdominal viscera
decreases lung compliance.
The most serious is aorto-caval compression in the supine position. During closed-chest
cardiac compression the best cardiac output that can be achieved is between one-fourth to one-
third of normal. Although many factors contribute to this, poor venous return to the heart is of
paramount importance. At term the vena cava is completely occluded in 90 percent of supine
pregnant patients. This results in a decrease in cardiac stroke volume of as much as 70%.
CS early in resuscitation vastly improves the effectiveness of maternal resuscitation.
Peri-mortem Caesarean section (CS)

o CS should be performed as soon as possible. This will immediately relieve the vena caval
obstruction and increase the chance of survival for both infant and pregnant woman or girl.
CPR must be continued throughout the procedure until spontaneous and effective cardiac
activity occurs.
o Assisted ventilation may have to be continued for a longer period of time. Some infants
have survived when delivered after 20 minutes of maternal resuscitation.
75
o Without CS <10% arresting in hospital will survive to discharge. Removal of the infant
improves maternal circulation during resuscitation cardiac output immediately increases
20 25%.
Perform the CS with a midline vertical incision, or whatever the operator is most
used to doing, and remove the baby as fast as possible. Remove lateral tilt when
baby is delivered.
When to stop resuscitation (local guidelines should be in place)
Resuscitation efforts are unlikely to be successful, and can be discontinued, if there is no

return of spontaneous circulation at any time after 30 minutes of cumulative life support
and in the absence of recurring or refractory VF/VT. Exceptions are patients with a history
of poisoning or a primary hypothermic insult where prolonged attempts may occasionally
be successful. Prolonged external cardiac compressions during which central (femoral or
arterial) pulses were felt has successfully resuscitated children with tricyclic antidepressant
overdoses.
The presence of relatives at the patients side during resuscitation enables them to gain a
realistic understanding of the efforts made to save their loved ones life.
76
Section 10 Structured approach
SECTION 10 Structured approach to the seriously ill infant, child or
Assessment and resuscitation occur at the same time. The order of assessment and
resuscitation enables identification of immediately life threatening problems, which are
treated as they are found.
Primary assessment during emergencies
Airway/Breathing/Circulation/Disability ABCD
Primary Assessment of the Airway

Vocalisations, such as crying or talking, indicate ventilation and some degree of airway
patency.
Assess patency by
Looking for chest and/or abdominal movement
Listening for breath sounds
Feeling for expired air
Reassess after any airway opening manoeuvres ie jaw and neck positioning
In addition, note other signs that may suggest upper airway obstruction:
the presence of stridor
evidence of recession
Give oxygen throughout this time
Consider suction and foreign body removal and oro- or nasopharyngeal airway
Consider intubation and surgical cricothyroidotomy if all else fails and the upper airway is
severely obstructed
Primary assessment of Breathing

Respiratory rate (make count over 1 minute when patient is calm)
Rates at rest at different ages are:

Age (yrs) Respiratory rate
<1 30-40
1-2 25-35
2-5 25-30
5-12 20-25
>12 and Pregnancy 15-20
Care should be taken in interpreting single measurements: infants can show rates of
between 30 and 90 breaths per minute depending on their state of activity. More useful are
trends in measurements as an indicator of improvement or deterioration.
77
WHO definitions of Fast Breathing are:
< 2 months is 60 breaths per minute

2 12 months is 50 breaths per minute
12 months to 5 years is 40 breaths per minute
Tachypnoea from either airway or lung disease or metabolic acidosis

Bradypnoea due to fatigue, raised intracranial pressure, or pre-terminal
Recession
- intercostal, sub-costal or sternal recession shows increased effort of breathing
(particularly seen in infants with more compliant chest walls)
- degree of recession indicates severity of respiratory difficulty
- in the patient with exhaustion, chest movement and recession will decrease
Inspiratory or expiratory noises
- stridor, usually inspiratory, indicates laryngeal or tracheal obstruction
- wheeze, predominantly expiratory, indicates lower airway obstruction
- volume of noise is not an indicator of severity
Grunting
- seen in infants and children with stiff lungs to prevent airway collapse (represents closure
of the larynx during expiration)
- is a sign of severe respiratory distress
Accessory muscle use
In infants the use of the sternocleidomastoid muscle creates head bobbing and is
ineffectual
Flaring of alae nasi
Gasping
A sign of severe hypoxaemia and may indicate impending respiratory arrest and death
Exceptions
Increased effort of breathing DOES NOT OCCUR in 3 circumstances:
1. exhaustion
2. central respiratory depression eg. from raised intracranial pressure, poisoning or
encephalopathy
3. neuromuscular disease eg. poliomyelitis
Efficacy of breathing
Breath sounds on auscultation
1. reduced or absent
2. bronchial
3. symmetrical or asymmetrical
Chest expansion (most important) / abdominal excursion
Pulse oximetry (normal oxygen saturation (SaO2) in a patient at sea level is 95 100% in
air).
Effects of breathing failure on other physiology
Heart rate Increased by hypoxia, fever or stress and by pregnancy
Bradycardia with hypoxia is a sign of impending cardio-respiratory arrest
Skin colour
Hypoxia first causes vasoconstriction and pallor
Cyanosis is a late sign and may indicate impending cardio-respiratory arrest
Mental status
Hypoxic child will be agitated first, then drowsy, then unconscious
Pulse oximetry may be difficult to measure in the agitated patient
78
Primary assessment of Circulation

Circulatory status: Heart rate
Heart rate increases in shock. Bradycardia may be a sign of imminent cardio-respiratory
arrest.
Rates at rest at different ages are:
Age (yrs) Heart rate (beats/min)

<1 110-160
1-2 100-150
2-5 95-140
5-12 80-120
>12 60-100
Pregnancy 65-115
WHO definitions for tachycardia are: > 160 bpm aged under 1 year and >120 bpm aged
1 to 5 years.
Heart rates in pregnancy are increased by 10-15% (65-115 beats/min)
Circulatory status: Pulse volume

Absent peripheral pulses or reduced central pulses can indicate shock
Circulatory status: Capillary refill

Pressure on the centre of the sternum or fingernail for 5 seconds should be followed by
return of the circulation to the skin within 3 seconds. May be prolonged by shock, cold
environment, or the vasoconstriction that is present as a fever develops. Not a specific or
sensitive sign of shock Should not be used alone as a guide to the response to treatment
Circulatory status: Blood pressure

Cuff should cover at least 80% of the length of the upper arm, and the bladder more than
two thirds of the arms circumference (in pregnancy to avoid missing a raised blood
pressure the largest possible cuffs should be used).Korotkoff 5 sounds (disappearance)
should be used for measuring diastolic pressure. K4 sound should only be used if the
sound does not disappear until near zero.
Hypotension is a late sign of circulatory failure in both children and pregnant woman
or girl and will rapidly be followed by cardio-respiratory arrest unless treated
urgently
Blood pressure may increase in pregnancy and be accompanied by proteinuria and

oedema.
Age (yrs) Systolic blood pressure Diastolic blood pressure

<1 70-90
1-2 80-90
2-5 80-95
5-12 90-110
>12 100-120
Pregnancy 90 -120 50-70
79
Blood pressure is a difficult measure to obtain and interpret especially in infants and
children <5 years. A formula for calculating normal systolic blood pressure in children is
80 + (2 x Age in years)
The cardiovascular system in a child and pregnant woman or girl compensates well
initially in shock. Hypotension is a late and often sudden sign of decompensation and,
if not reversed, will be rapidly followed by death. Serial measurements of blood
pressure should be performed frequently
Circulatory status: Effects of circulatory inadequacy on other organs

Respiratory system tachypnoea and hyperventilation occurs with acidosis eg. poor tissue
perfusion
Skin pale or mottled skin indicates poor perfusion
Mental status agitation, then drowsiness, then unconsciousness
Urine output - <2ml/kg/hour in infants <1ml/kg/hour in a child <30ml/hour in pregnancy
indicates inadequate renal perfusion
On uterus can lead to fetal compromise
Cardiac failure: Features suggesting cardiac cause of respiratory inadequacy
Cyanosis, not corrected with oxygen therapy

Tachycardia out of proportion to respiratory distress
Raised jugular venous pressure
Gallop rhythm
Enlarged liver
Absent femoral pulses in an infant or child
Basal lung crepitations
Primary assessment of Disability
Always assess and treat Airway, Breathing and Circulatory problems before undertaking
neurological assessment.
Neurological function A ALERT
Conscious level: AVPU

V responds to VOICE
P responds to PAIN
U UNRESPONSIVE
If the patient does not respond to voice it is important that assessment of the response to
pain is undertaken. A painful central stimulus can be delivered by sternal pressure, by
80
supra-orbital ridge pressure or by pulling frontal hair. A patient who is unresponsive or who
only responds to pain has a significant degree of coma.
Posture
Many patients who are suffering from a serious illness in any system are hypotonic. Stiff
posturing, such as that shown by decorticate (flexed arms, extended legs) or decerebrate
(extended arms, extended legs), are signs of serious brain dysfunction. These postures
can be mistaken for the tonic phase of a convulsion. Alternatively a painful stimulus may be
necessary to elicit these postures.
Severe extension of the neck due to upper airway obstruction can mimic the opisthotonus
that occurs with meningeal irritation. A stiff neck and full fontanel in infants are signs which
suggest meningitis.
Pupils
Many drugs and cerebral lesions have effects on pupil size and reactions. However, the
most important pupillary signs to seek are dilatation, unreactivity, and inequality, which
indicate possible serious brain disorders.
Check blood glucose. Hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl) can cause
unconsciousness
Raised Intracranial Pressure may cause:

Hyperventilation
Slow sighing respirations
Apnoea
Hypertension
Bradycardia
Respiratory effects of central neurological failure

The presence of any abnormal respiratory pattern in a patient with coma suggests mid- or
hind-brain dysfunction.
Circulatory effects of central neurological failure

Systemic hypertension with sinus bradycardia (Cushings response) indicates compression
of the medulla oblongata caused by herniation of the cerebellar tonsils through the foramen
magnum. This is a late and pre-terminal sign.
Assessment by Exposure
Although not part of the primary assessment, the examination of the seriously ill patient will
involve examination for markers of illness that will help provide specific emergency
treatment.
Temperature
A fever suggests an infection as the cause of the illness, but may also be the result of
prolonged convulsions or shivering.
Rash
Examination is made for rashes, such as urticaria in allergic reactions, purpura, petechiae
and bruising in septicaemia, child abuse or partner violence, or maculo-papular and
erythematous rashes in allergic reactions and some forms of sepsis.
81
Summary
The whole assessment should take less than a minute.
Summary: rapid clinical assessment of an infant, child or pregnant woman or girl
Effort of breathing: Respiratory rate/rhythm: Stridor/wheeze: Auscultation: Skin colour
Circulation
Heart rate: Pulse volume: Capillary refill: Skin temperature
Disability
Mental status/conscious level: Posture: Pupils: Blood glucose
Only when airway, breathing and circulation problems have been recognised and treated
should definitive management of underlying condition proceed.
During treatment, reassessment of ABCD at frequent intervals will be necessary to

assess progress and detect deterioration.
The structured approach to the seriously ill infant, child or pregnant woman or girl
Primary assessment
Resuscitation
Secondary assessment and looking for key features
Emergency treatment
Stabilisation and transfer to definitive care
Primary assessment and resuscitation involve management of the vital ABC functions and
assessment of disability (CNS function). This assessment and stabilisation occurs before
any illness-specific diagnostic assessment or treatment takes place. Once the patients
vital functions are supported, secondary assessment and emergency treatment begins.
Illness-specific pathophysiology is sought and emergency treatments are instituted. During
the secondary assessment vital signs should be checked frequently to detect any change
in the patients condition. If there is deterioration then primary assessment and
resuscitation should be repeated.
RESUSCITATION
Airway
If the airway is not patent, then this can be secured by:
a chin lift or jaw thrust
82
the use of an airway adjunct such as oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal airway
tracheal intubation (call for anaesthetist if available)
Breathing
Give high-flow oxygen (flow rate 15 l/min) through a
non-rebreathing mask with a reservoir bag to any patient with respiratory difficulty or
hypoxia.
In the patient with inadequate breathing this should be supported with bag valvemask
ventilation or intubation and intermittent positive pressure ventilation (if this is available).
Circulation
Give high-flow oxygen to every patient with an inadequate circulation (shock). This will be
through either a non-rebreathing mask with a reservoir bag (or an endotracheal tube if
intubation has been necessary).
Venous or intraosseous access should be gained and an immediate infusion of crystalloid,

colloid or blood as appropriate (20 ml/kg in a child and 500ml to 1 litre in an adult) given.
Urgent blood samples may be taken at this point.
FOR A CHILD WEIGHT CAN BE CALCULATED AS FOLLOWS:

Estimate of Weight
Infant = up to 12 months old

Birth weight - doubles by 5 months
- triples by 1 year
- quadruples by 2 years
After 12 months, the formula can be applied, but needs to be modified according to
whether the child is small or large compared with the average
Weight (Kg) = 2 x (age in years + 4)
Disability (Neurological)
Consider intubation (if this is safely available) to stabilise the airway in any patient with a
conscious level recorded as P or U (only responding to painful stimuli or unresponsive).
Treat hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl) with 5 ml/kg of 10% dextrose after
having taken blood for glucose measurement (ideally by both stick tests and in the
laboratory).
Intravenous/intraosseous lorazepam, buccal midazolam or rectal diazepam should be

given for prolonged or recurrent fits (see below)
SECONDARY ASSESSMENT AND EMERGENCY TREATMENT

The secondary assessment takes place once vital functions have been assessed and the
initial treatment of those vital functions has been started. It includes a medical history, a
clinical examination and specific investigations. At the end of secondary assessment, the
practitioner should have a better understanding of the illness affecting the patient and may
have formulated a differential diagnosis. Emergency treatments will be appropriate at this
stage either to treat specific conditions (such as asthma) or processes (such as raised
intracranial pressure). The establishment of a definite diagnosis is part of definitive care.
83
The history often provides the vital clues that help the practitioner identify the disease
process and provide the appropriate emergency care. In the case of infants and children
the history is often obtained from an accompanying parent, although a history should be
sought from the child if possible. Do not forget to ask the first responder about the patients
initial condition and about treatments and response to treatments that have already been
given.
Some patients will present with an acute exacerbation/complication of a known condition

such as pregnancy, asthma or epilepsy.
The secondary assessment is not intended to complete the diagnostic process, but rather
is intended to identify any problems that require emergency treatment.
The following gives an outline of a structured approach in the first hour of emergency
management. It is not exhaustive but addresses the majority of emergency conditions that
are amenable to specific emergency treatments in this time period.

Common symptoms Signs Emergency investigations
Breathlessness Bubbly noises in throat O2 saturation

Coryza Cyanosis Blood culture if infection
Tachypnoea Recession suspect
Choking Noisy breathing grunting, Chest X-ray (selective)
Cough stridor
Abdominal pain Drooling and inability to
Chest pain drink
Apnoea Wheeze
Feeding difficulties Tracheal shift
Hoarseness Abnormal percussion note
Crepitations on
auscultation
Acidotic breathing
Emergency treatment
If bubbly noises are heard the airway is full of secretions. These may require clearance
by suction.
If in a pre-school child there is a harsh stridor associated with a barking cough and severe
respiratory distress upper airway obstruction due to severe croup should be suspected.
Give the child oral prednislone and nebulised adrenaline (5 ml of 1:1000 nebulised in
oxygen).
If there is a quiet stridor and drooling in a sick-looking child consider epiglottitis or
tracheitis. Intubation is likely to be urgently required, preferably by an anaesthetist. Do not
put the airway at risk by unpleasant or frightening interventions. Give intravenous
antibiotics. Surgical airway may be needed so contact a surgeon.
With a sudden onset and significant history of inhalation consider a laryngeal foreign
body. If the choking protocol has been unsuccessful the patient may require
laryngoscopy. Do not put the airway at risk by unpleasant or frightening interventions but
contact an anaesthetist/ENT surgeon urgently. However in extreme, life threatening cases
84
immediate direct laryngoscopy to remove a visible foreign body with Magills forceps may
be necessary.
Stridor following ingestion/injection of a known allergen suggests anaphylaxis. Patients in
whom this is likely should receive IM adrenaline (10 microgram/kg for a child and 1mg for
an adult).
Patients with a history of asthma or with wheeze, significant respiratory distress, and/or
hypoxia should receive inhaled salbutamol and oxygen. Infants with wheeze and
respiratory distress are likely to have bronchiolitis and require oxygen.
In acidotic breathing take blood glucose. Treat diabetic ketoacidosis with IV 0.9% saline
and insulin (sections 10 and 12).
Circulation
Common symptoms Signs Emergency investigations
Haemorrhage Tachycardia or bradycardia O2 saturation

Breathlessness Abnormal pulse volume or Blood culture if infection
Palpitations rhythm suspect
Feeding difficulties Abnormal skin perfusion or Chest X-ray (selective)
Abdominal pain colour ECG (selective)
Chest pain Haemorrhage or hidden HB
Apnoea haemorrhage Urea and electrolytes (if
Feeding difficulties Severe malnutrition available)
Hoarseness Fever Clotting studies (if available)
Drowsiness Hypo- or hypertension Malarial parasites
Cyanosis
Pallor
Enlarged liver
Lung crepitations
Poor urine output Cardiac
murmur
Peripheral oedema
Raised jugular venous pressure
Low muscle tone
Dehydration
Purpuric rash
Emergency treatment
Further boluses of fluid should be considered in shocked patients who have not had a
sustained improvement to the first bolus given at resuscitation. However in trauma, where
there is uncontrolled bleeding, early surgical intervention has priority and too much IV fluids
may be harmful.
Consider inotropes, intubation and central venous pressure monitoring if available.
Consider IV broad spectrum antibiotics in shocked patients with no obvious fluid loss as
sepsis is likely.
If a patient has a cardiac arrhythmia the appropriate protocol should be followed.
If anaphylaxis is suspected give IM adrenaline 10 micrograms/kg in a child, or 1mg in a
pregnant woman or girl, in addition to fluid boluses.
Targeted treatment for obstetric emergencies known to cause shock (may include urgent
surgery).
Surgical advice and intervention for certain gastro-intestinal emergencies.
85
The following symptoms and signs may suggest intra-abdominal emergencies: vomiting,
abdominal pain, abdominal tenderness, rectal bleeding, abdominal mass.
Disability (neurological)
Common Signs Emergency investigations

symptoms
Headache Altered or change in conscious Blood glucose
Drowsiness level O2 saturation
Vomiting Convulsions Blood culture if infection
Change in behavior Bradycardia suspect
Visual disturbance Altered pupil size and reactivity HB
Abnormal postures Urea and electrolytes (if
Meningism available)
Fever Malarial parasites
Papilloedema or retinal
haemorrhage
Altered deep tendon reflexes
Hypertension
Emergency treatment
If hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl) is possible, treat urgently.
If convulsions persist treat
If evidence of raised intracranial pressure (decreasing conscious level, abnormal posturing
and/or abnormal ocular motor reflexes) then the child should undergo:
o Bag valve mask ventilations if apnoea or slow or poor breathing
o Nursing with head in-line and 2030 degree head-up position (to help cerebral venous
drainage)
IV infusion with mannitol 250 to 500 mg/kg over 15 minutes, and repeated as needed
Consider dexamethasone 500 microgram/kg twice daily (for oedema surrounding a
space occupying lesion)
In a child with a depressed conscious level or convulsions consider
meningitis/encephalitis. Give antibiotics and acyclovir as appropriate.
In drowsiness with sighing respirations check blood glucose. Think of salycylate
poisoning. Treat diabetic ketoacidosis with IV 0.9% saline and insulin.
In unconscious patients with pin-point pupils consider opiate poisoning. A trial of naloxone
should be given.
External (exposure)
Signs
Rash
Purpura
Swelling of lips/tongue and/or urticaria
Fever
Emergency treatment
In a child with circulatory or neurological symptoms and signs a purpuric rash suggests
septicaemia/meningitis or Dengue haemorrhagic fever. The patient should receive IV broad
spectrum antibiotics preceded by a blood culture.
86
In a patient with respiratory or circulatory difficulty the presence of an urticarial rash or
angio-oedema suggests anaphylaxis. Give adrenaline IM (10 microgram//kg for a child
or 1mg for a pregnant woman or girl).
Further history
Developmental and social history
Particularly in a small child or infant knowledge of the childs developmental progress and
immunisation status may be useful. The family circumstances may also be helpful,
sometimes prompting parents to remember other details of the familys medical history.
Drugs and allergies
Any medication that the patient is currently, or has been, on should be recorded. In
addition ask about any medication in the home that a child might have had access to if
poisoning is a possibility. A history of allergies should be sought.
SUMMARY
The structured approach to the seriously ill patient outlined here allows the practitioner to
focus on the appropriate level of diagnosis and treatment during the first hour of care.
Primary assessment and resuscitation are concerned with the maintenance of vital
functions, while secondary assessment and emergency treatment allow more specific
urgent therapies to be started. This latter phase of care requires a system-by-system
approach and this minimises the chances of significant conditions being missed.
87
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-severe asthma
SECTION 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy
THE pregnant woman or girl WITH SPECIFIC AIRWAY AND BREATHING PROBLEMS
Severe Bronchial Asthma

Assessment
Features of severe asthma Features of life-threatening asthma
too breathless to eat or talk conscious level depressed / agitated
recession/use of accessory muscles exhaustion
respiratory rate>40 breaths/min poor respiratory effort
pulse rate >120 beats/min SaO2 < 85% in air / cyanosis
silent chest
o Bronchial asthma complicates 34% of pregnancies. Pregnancy is associated with

worsening of the symptoms in one-third of affected women or girls.
o A CXR is indicated only if there is severe difficulty in breathing, uncertainty about the
diagnosis, asymmetry of chest signs (possible pneumothorax) or signs of severe infection.
o Continuous pulse oximetry is valuable (if available) since hypoxaemia is a major feature of
all severe asthma attacks.
o Avoid prostaglandins. For the prevention and treatment of post partum haemorrhage give
oxytocin 10 units IM and ergometrine 500 micrograms IM
88
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-severe asthma
Severe Asthma Pathway of Care in pregnancy
High flow oxygen by face mask and reservoir

Prop up in left lateral tilt position
Salbutamol inhaler 100 micrograms/puff: 10 puffs over approx 2 minutes
Back to oxygen
for 4 minutes
Is the mother
improving?
NO
YES
Nebuliser driven by O2
Shake Salbutamol inhaler: 2 puffs Salbutamol 5mg**
over approx 1 minute
If NOT improving
Repeat x 5 cycles as long as Continuous salbutamol by nebuliser or
improving inhaler (if nebuliser not available)
Repeat dose as soon as the last one
finishes
Give oral prednisolone 30-60mg
or if not able to take oral medicine
hydrocortisone 100mg IV/IM 6 hourly If NOT improving
IV aminophylline 250mg as
Subcutaneous/IM
loading dose over 15 minutes
Adrenaline 0.5 to 1mg
Then IV infusion of 1mg/kg/hr
** Salbutamol may inhibit uterine contractions
If not responding, or deteriorating condition

1. Nebulised salbutamol may be given continuously.
2. In those with poor respiratory effort, depressed conscious level and poor oxygenation
despite maximum oxygen therapy
o attempt to support ventilation with bag-valve-mask
o summon experienced support if available and consider intubation for
mechanical ventilation with IV ketamine induction
Other measures
o Reassure patient, avoid upset
o IV fluids - restrict to two-thirds of the normal requirements
o Antibiotics - give only if there are clear signs of infection
o When recovered review maintenance treatment and inhaler technique
89
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-pneumonia, heart failure, severe anaemia
Lower respiratory tract infection

Always consider HIV infection, the resulting opportunistic infections and tuberculosis.
A high fever usually means pneumonia, epiglotittis or bacterial tracheitis. In the absence of
stridor and wheeze, breathing difficulties in association with a significant fever are likely to
be due to pneumonia.
Pleuritic chest pain, neck stiffness and abdominal pain may be present if there is pleural
inflammation. Pleural effusions and empyema are complications of pneumonia.
Emergency treatment
o Assess ABC
o High concentration of oxygen via a facemask with reservoir bag. Attach pulse oximetry
o If a low flow maintains SaO2>94% then nasal cannulae may be used with a flow up to
2 l/min
o Antibiotics - cefuroxime fluxcloxacillin (for staph aureus), erythromycin (for chlamydia or
mycoplasma pneumonia) or whatever is available locally and is appropriate
o Sit upright in left lateral tilt
o Maintain hydration
o extra fluid may be needed to compensate for fluid loss from fever
o restriction may be needed because of inappropriate ADH secretion
o Chest x-ray is indicated
o large pleural effusions/empyemas should be diagnosed where possible by ultrasound
and pleural drainage under ultrasound cover (beware of placing chest drain into the
heart, liver or an undiagnosed tumour or hydatid cyst). Remember that in advanced
pregnancy the diaphragm is elevated.
o Effusions/empyemas adjacent to the heart on the left side may cause pericarditis and
arrhythmias (listen regularly for pericardial rub and ideally monitor ECG until stable)
Heart Failure
Assessment
Features suggesting a cardiac cause of breathing difficulty
o cyanosis, not correcting with O2
o tachycardia out of proportion to respiratory difficulty
o raised jugular venous pressure
o gallop rhythm / murmur
o enlarged liver
o basal lung crepitations
Rheumatic Heart Disease

This is a common cause of heart failure in the pregnant woman or girl. The risk of heart
failure is increased by anaemia.
Damage to the heart valves increases the chance of sub-acute bacterial endocarditis so
that any invasive procedures and labour should be covered by antibiotics (1gm amoxycillin
plus 120 mg gentamicin IM). If the pregnant woman or girl is allergic to amoxycillin an IV
infusion of vancomicin (1gm over 60 minutes) plus gentamicin (120 mg IV) is an
alternative.
Treatment
o Assess ABC
90
o High concentration of oxygen via facemask with reservoir bag
o If there are signs of pulmonary congestion or a large heart on chest x-ray give IV frusemide
40mg (and repeat as required). Venesection may be required.
o If severely anaemic a partial exchange transfusion may help. Careful transfusion of
packed cells, with 40mg IV frusemide for each unit of packed cells, will almost always be
required.
o Morphine 10mg IM
o Sit upright on left side
o Bed rest
o Consider digoxin
o Consider nitroglycerine 300 micrograms under the tongue, repeated in 15 minutes, if
necessary
Management of heart failure during labour

MAKE SURE THE pregnant woman or girl DELIVERS SITTING UP.
Give her oxygen from a face mask.
Prop up in the left lateral tilt position.
Limit infusion of IV fluids, to decrease the risk of circulatory overload, and maintain a strict
fluid balance chart.
Ensure adequate analgesia.
If oxytocin infusion is required, use a higher concentration at a slower rate while
maintaining a fluid balance chart (e.g. the concentration may be doubled if the drops per
minute are decreased by half). Consider early reduction of oxytocin when contractions
become established.
Increase the rate of oxytocin infusion only to the point where good labour is established
and then maintain infusion at that rate.
Do not give ergometrine.
Have the pregnant woman or girl avoid sustained bearing down efforts during the second
stage, if possible.
Perform an episiotomy and assist delivery by vacuum extraction or forceps.
Ensure active management of third stage.
Heart failure is not an indication for Caesarean section.
Severe Anaemia
In normal pregnancy there is an increased total blood volume and a marked increase in
plasma, thus haemoglobin concentration falls. Pathological anaemia is mainly due to iron
deficiency, associated with depleted iron stores before pregnancy and poor diet. Anaemic
women cope poorly with blood loss at delivery. Oral iron supplementation is advised
during all pregnancies. It is particularly important in the woman or girl who is anaemic
before pregnancy or who has a poor diet. WHO recommends an iron supplement of 60 mg
per day for pregnant women or girls with adequate iron stores and 120mg/ day for those
with none. If oral therapy is not tolerated, or is not possible, give 250mg IM monthly x 3.
o Treat any malaria, consider and prevent future inoculations with impregnated bed nets etc.
o Treat any chronic parasitaemia eg hookworm or schistosomiasis.
o Genetic blood disorders such as thalassaemia and sickle cell syndrome may be causes of
chronic anaemia and may be passed on to the fetus. Check for these using Hb
Electrophoresis.
o Severe anaemia exists if Hb < than 5 g/dl or if there are signs of heart failure and Hb is
<7.5g/dl. It is very dangerous for both pregnant woman or girl and baby.
o In haemolysis the urine will usually be dark brown in colour.
91
o The patient will be weak, with palms, soles and tongue near white, and signs of heart
failure
o If heart failure give high concentration of oxygen, bed rest and sit upright on left side
o A transfusion of 500ml whole blood or 1 unit (330 ml) of packed cells can increase the Hb
by 1 gm/dl. Transfusion with packed cells is optimal when the Hb is less than 5 g/dl. If
blood cannot be centrifuged let the bag hang until the cells have settled. Infuse the cells
slowly and dispose of the remaining serum.
o Give 40 mg frusemide IV with each unit of blood transfused.
o Partial exchange transfusion may be safer
o Over-hydration may lead to pulmonary oedema
IF LABOUR occurs when severely anaemic

o deliver sitting up in left lateral position
o Cross match blood in case of subsequent post partum haemorrhage
o Consider shortening the second stage by using a ventouse
o Manage the third stage actively (give oxytocin) and suture any tears without delay
o The pregnant woman or girl is in danger for at least 24 hours after delivery
o After delivery the store of iron in her body will probably not be normal, so give her iron
120mg/day for 3 months and folate 400 micrograms/day during the puerperium.
Anaphylaxis
Assessment
An allergic reaction to ingested, inhaled or topical substances, which may present as either
shock or respiratory distress. Common causes include allergy to penicillin, radiographic
contrast media, latex and certain foods, especially nuts.
This situation is potentially life-threatening and may result in: change in conscious level,
collapse, respiratory or cardiac arrest. Some patients may carry their own adrenaline.
Note: Adrenaline 1mg is given IM, unless intractable shock or cardiac arrest on
presentation when give the same dose IV
Moderate to severe anaphylaxis symptoms
Moderate Severe
Symptoms - Coughing/ wheezing - Difficulty breathing

- Loose bowel motions - Collapse
- Sweating - Vomiting
- Irritability - Uncontrolled defaecation
Signs - Bronchospasm - Severe bronchospasm

- Tachycardia - Laryngeal oedema
- Pallor - Shock
- Respiratory arrest
- Cardiac arrest
92
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-hyperemesis
Pathway of care for Anaphylaxis in pregnancy
Remove
allergen
Adrenaline 0.5 to 1mg IM (0.5-1ml of 1 in 1000)

Partial Nebulised adrenaline 5ml of 1 in 1000
Assess airway obstruction/ Repeat nebuliser every 10 minutes as required
stridor Hydrocortisone 100mg IV 6 hourly
No Complete Intubation with cricoid pressure or surgical

problem obstruction airway or laryngeal mask
Adrenaline 1mg IM (1ml of 1 in 1000)

Nebulised adrenaline 5ml of 1 in 1000
Assess Repeat nebuliser every 10 minutes as required
Wheeze
breathing Hydrocortisone 100mg IV 6 hourly
If no response Aminophylline 250mg in 10ml 0.9%
saline IV over 15 minutes
Anti-histamine
No
Apnoea
problem
Bag-mask ventilation
Assess Cardiac compressions plus bag-mask

No pulse
circulation ventilation
No 1 litre Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns IV rapidly

problem Shock
as bolus
Airway
Reassess ABC
deterioration
No
problem
Observe
93
Pulmonary embolism
Risk factors include operative delivery, prolonged labour, instrumental vaginal delivery, the
pregnant woman or girl > 35 years and obesity.
Signs and symptoms of pulmonary embolism
Findings Patients with proven Pulmonary

embolism (%)
Tachypnoea 89
Dyspnoea 81
Pleuritic pain 72
Apprehension 59
Cough 54
Tachycardia 43
Haemoptysis 34
0
Temperature >37 C 34
Physical findings may be few. Prevention with anti-embolism stockings and subcutaneous
heparin for medium and high-risk women, particularly if they are immobilised, is important.
Management
Suspect pulmonary embolism in all patients presenting with sudden onset of shortness of
breath, chest pain, unexplained rapid heartbeat or cardiovascular collapse.
Call senior obstetrician, anaesthetist and medical team (if available)
Assess and ensure adequate Airway, Breathing and Circulation
Transfer the patient to a high dependency area and commence non-invasive monitoring of
blood pressure, pulse oximetry, ECG and urine output. Send the blood for full blood count.
Request chest x-ray and ECG.
Treat any suspected pulmonary embolism (confirmatory tests are unlikely to be available).
Patients in shock should be referred, when possible, for expert and intensive management
such as intubation, ventilation, inotropes and more intensive monitoring.
Commence anticoagulation. Treatment should be commenced with Low Molecular Weight
Heparin (LMWH) such as enoxaparin given subcutaneously. The drug is available in
syringes of 40, 60, 80 and 100 mg. The dose closest to the patients pre-pregnancy weight
should be given 12 hourly (for example if weight is 70Kg give 60 or 80mg). If coagulation
tests are available the aim is to achieve an APTT of 1.5 to 2.5 times the pre-treatment
level. If these tests are not available careful monitoring for signs of overdose which can
cause haemorrhage should be performed and the pregnant woman or girl warned of the
symptoms to look for.
The pregnant woman or girl can then be discharged home having been taught how to
administer the injections and dispose safely of the needles.
LMWH should be continued for the duration of the pregnancy and at least 3 months after
delivery. An expert should be consulted about the use of prophylactic heparin during any
further pregnancy.
On entering labour the pregnant woman or girl should not give any further doses of LMWH
until after the delivery of the placenta. If an elective Caesarean section is planned the
pregnant woman or girl should have the usual dose of LMWH on the night before surgery
but omit the morning dose. After delivery the twice daily dose of enoxaparin should be
restarted 4 hours after a vaginal delivery and 8 hours after a Caesarean Section.
94
Hyperemesis gravidarum
Some nausea and vomiting are common in early pregnancy with nausea affecting between
70 and 85% of women. About half of pregnant women experience vomiting. However, in a
small proportion of patients severe vomiting (hyperemesis) can occur. This condition is
more common where there is a larger than normal placental mass (for example in multiple
pregnancy and molar pregnancy). Hyperemesis peaks at 11 weeks with 90% resolved at
16 weeks
Associated conditions
Severe hyperemesis requiring hospital care is associated with the following:
Depression and severe stress
Multiple pregnancy
Molar pregnancy
Consequences of hyperemesis that is severe enough to require hospital care

These include:
Ketosis
Hypochloraemic alkalosis, hypokalaemia, hyponatraemia
Malnutrition with anaemia and hypoalbuminaemia
Ulcerative oesophagitis
Wernick's encephalopathy from thiamine deficiency
Worsened depression with risks of seeking termination of pregnancy
It is dangerous in type 1 diabetes and can result in ketoacidosis
Investigations:
Ultrasound examination to exclude molar or multiple pregnancy
Urine for ketones
Blood for Hb, urea and electrolytes
Special investigations as indicated to exclude serious medical problems affecting
the gastrointestinal, genitourinary, neurological, metabolic or endocrine and
psychological systems.
Treatment of severe hyperemesis

Intravenous 0.9% saline 1 litre over 4 hours initially and then repeated as required is the
most effective treatment for severe hyperemesis with dehydration.
Small volumes (100-200 ml every 2-3 hours) of WHO oral rehydration salts (ORS) powder
dissolved in one litre of water giving Na+ 75mmol/litre, K+ 20mmol/litre and glucose 75
mmol/litre can be given in addition to IV fluids until vomiting settles.
After IV fluids have been started, antiemetic drugs may not be required but if vomiting
continues try prochlorperazine 12.5 mg IM and then orally 5 to10mg three times daily. An
alternative is cyclazine 50 mg IM, IV or orally three times daily.
Supplements with thiamine must be considered if there is evidence suggesting a severe
deficiency may be present (Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome).
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
Symptoms of Wernicke's encephalopathy include the following:
Confusion
Loss of muscle coordination (ataxia)
Leg tremor
Vision changes
95
Abnormal eye movements (back and forth movements called nystagmus)
Double vision
Eyelid drooping
Symptoms of Korsakoff syndrome:

Inability to form new memories
Loss of memory, can be severe
Making up stories (confabulation)
Seeing or hearing things that aren't really there (hallucinations)
Treatment of severe hyperemesis where possible symptoms or signs of Wernicke-

Korsakoff syndrome are present
Give an IV infusion of 7ml of pabrinex in 100 ml of 0.9% saline over 1 hour (7ml contains
250 mg of Thiamine plus ascorbic acid, nicotinamide, pyridoxine and riboflavin).
Subsequently give oral thiamine 50 mg three times daily until vomiting has stopped.
Other managements on discharge from hospital
Withhold iron tablets until vomiting has resolved but ensure that subsequently they are
taken as iron deficiency anaemia may have been an important consequence of the
hyperemesis.
Try and help with any depression that is present and also, if resources to address intimate
partner violence are present in the community, make sensitive inquiries of the woman or
girl in case this is a factor.
The pregnant woman or girl with shock during pregnancy and the puerperium
The pregnant patient who is shocked from hypovolaemia (the most important cause: see
below) will be pale, cold and clammy, have a rapid weak pulse, and may have reduced
conscious level, be confused or unconscious. If the shock is due to sepsis the patients
skin may become warm from vasodilatation. In labour, the most likely cause of shock is
blood loss, but in the post-partum period the shock can also be due to infection acquired
before or during labour.
Diagnostic pointers: during assessment and resuscitation, a focused history of the previous
24 hours and previous illnesses should be gained. This may point to the likeliest working
diagnosis for emergency treatment.
o A history of vomiting and/or diarrhoea points to fluid loss, either externally (e.g.
gastroenteritis) or into the abdomen (e.g. appendicitis/peritonitis, early stages of
gastroenteritis).
o A history of bleeding. This may be vaginally, or silently into the abdominal cavity, as in
ectopic pregnancy, placental abruption or ruptured uterus.
o Fever or a rash points to septicaemia.
o Urticaria, angio-neurotic oedema or a history of allergen exposure points to
anaphylaxis.
o Heart failure points to severe anaemia (usually with severe pallor) valve disease or
cardiomyopathy.
o A history of sickle cell disease or diarrhoeal illness and low haemoglobin points to
acute haemolysis.
96
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-shock
o A history of major trauma points to blood loss, and more rarely, tension
pneumothorax, haemothorax, cardiac tamponade or spinal cord transection.
o Severe tachycardia or signs of heart failure point to an arrhythmia or to a
cardiomyopathy.
o A history of polyuria, sighing, respirations and a very high blood glucose points to
diabetes (see diabetic ketoacidosis).
o A history of drug ingestion points to poisoning.
Physiology of septic shock

Tissue perfusion is decreased through the action of bacterial toxins and host inflammatory
mediators.
o Abnormal distribution of blood in the microcirculation, sometimes with peripheral
vasodilatation.
o Loss of intravascular fluid into the extra-vascular space due to capillary leakage
o Depressed myocardial contractility due to toxins and acidosis.
o Although cardiac output may be normal or raised from baseline, it may still be too low to
deliver sufficient oxygen and nutrients to the tissues because in septic shock, cells do not
use oxygen properly. There appears to be a block at the mitochondrial level in the
mechanism of oxygen uptake. This progressive deterioration in cell oxygen consumption
can lead to multiple organ failure.
Early (compensated) septic shock
This is characterised by:
o raised cardiac output with tachycardia.
o sometimes decreased systemic resistance, warm extremities, and a wide pulse pressure.
o sometimes increased systemic resistance with cold extremities and a raised diastolic BP.
o hyperpyrexia and hyperventilation .
o mental confusion.
All of these signs may be minimal: mental confusion in particular needs to be looked for
carefully, if septic shock is not to be overlooked at this stage. In the group with increased
systemic resistance, decreased capillary return is a useful sign in these circumstances.
A pregnant patient may lose 1200 1500 mL before obvious signs of shock (20% of
circulating blood volume 6 to 7 litres). Maternal signs of hypovolaemia are late.
Fetal distress may be the first sign of shock in pregnancy.
Graphs to indicate the progression of shock in relation to clinical signs
Stage 1 At first with less than 1000 mL loss, there are very few signs and symptoms. The
patient may be slightly anxious and the pulse and respiratory rate are slightly elevated, but
still within the normal range. Therefore, if that is the first recording taken, you may think this
is normal for that patient but it may actually be abnormal for her (see figure 2.5.A.1 Stage 1
shock).
Note that in the anaemic mother, signs and risks may be worse earlier than this.
97
Figure 1 Stage 1 shock
Stage 2
After further blood loss, the perfusion to organs is maintained by the bodys stress
response. This increases the diastolic pressure, with a resultant reduction in the pulse
pressure and the pulse rate continues to rise, now over 100 (see figure 2 Stage 2 shock).
Meanwhile, urine is not being produced and the mothers respiratory rate starts to increase.
Note that in the anaemic mother, signs and risks may be worse earlier than this.
Figure.2 Stage 2 shock
Stage 3
When 2000 mL has been lost, a drop in blood pressure is seen, along with other symptoms
and signs of hypovolemia. It has to be reinforced that the commonly -used sign of
hypotension as an indicator for severity of blood loss is a very late sign.
Generally, the pulse rate should be lower than the systolic blood pressure. If the pulse rate
is higher than the systolic pressure, then the patient is in grave danger (see figure 2.5.A.3
Stage 3 shock).
98
Note that in the anaemic mother, signs and risks may be worse earlier than this
Stage 4
If more than 2000 mL are lost, this is an uncompensated very late stage of hypovolaemia,
which could result in death very rapidly if emergency measures are not instituted
immediately (see figure 2.5.A.4 Stage 4 shock).
Note that in the anaemic mother, signs and risks may be worse earlier than this
In late (uncompensated) septic shock
o Hypotension occurs as a result of decreased vascular resistance, and even with

a normal or raised cardiac output, shock develops.
o The cardiac output may fall gradually over several hours, or precipitously in
minutes.
o As tissue hypoxia develops, plasma lactic acid levels increase.
o Survival in septic shock depends on the maintenance of a hyper-dynamic state.
99
Choice of fluid for volume replacement
Crystalloid or colloid fluids are appropriate for volume replacement in shock (see fluid and
electrolyte management section)
However, dextrose/glucose infusions (particularly hypotonic ones such as 5%

glucose or 0.18% saline in 5% glucose) do not constitute appropriate fluid
resuscitation and can be dangerous as they lower serum sodium which can produce
seizures and brain swelling.
Compared to colloids, crystalloid fluids:

o diffuse more readily into the interstitial space
o may be associated with more peripheral oedema
o where capillary leak exists, allow more water to enter the interstitial space, because of
lower osmotic pressure
o need 2-3 times the volume of colloids to expand the vascular space
o have been reported to be associated with lower mortality
Nevertheless, the use of both crystalloid and colloid is appropriate although crystalloids
(e.g. Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns or normal saline) are more likely to be available.
Choice of crystalloid
The fluid traditionally infused into the circulation for the management of shock has been
normal saline (0.9% NaCl). This fluid has increasingly shown to be dangerous, especially in
the sick patient. An infusion of normal saline causes a hyperchloraemic acidosis (a high
chloride concentration leading to an acidosis) which in the shocked patient, who is already
acidotic, causes a deterioration in the health of cells in vital organs even though perfusion
of the cells has been improved by the increased circulating volume.
There are sodium containing alternatives to normal saline which are safer as they
approximate more closely to human serum/plasma in content although they are a little
more expensive. We recommend the use of either of these alternatives (Ringer Lactate
and Hartmans solution are widely available) for all fluid replacement. Hospitals are advised
to change their standard crystalloid from 0.9% (normal) saline to Ringer Lactate or
Hartmanns as soon as possible. Recognising that not all hospitals will have access to
these solutions immediately, there may sometimes be no alternative but to start fluid
replacement with normal saline. But if more than 20 mL/kg needs to be given, then one of
the safer alternatives should be used in very sick patients if at all possible.
Blood
If there is significant blood loss or pre-existing severe anaemia in the face of any blood
loss, blood will be needed. Full cross-match takes about 1 hour to perform. For urgent
need, type-specific non-cross-matched blood (which is ABO- and rhesus- compatible, but
has a higher incidence of transfusion reactions) takes about 15 minutes to prepare. In dire
emergencies, O-negative blood must be given.
Warm fluids
Fluids should be warmed, especially if needed in large volumes. In the absence of heaters,
bags of fluid /blood can be warmed by placing them under the clothes next to the skin of a
100
relative. Even this takes time and another method is to pass the tubing of IV set through a
bowl containing warm water.
Primary assessment and resuscitation
Suspect or anticipate shock if at least one of the following is present:
bleeding in early pregnancy (e.g. miscarriage, induced abortion,, ectopic pregnancy or
molar pregnancy)
bleeding in late pregnancy or labour (e.g. placenta praevia, abruptio placentae, ruptured
uterus)
bleeding after childbirth (e.g. ruptured uterus, uterine atony, tears of genital tract, retained
placenta or placental fragments)
infection (e.g. induced or septic miscarriage/abortion, chorio-amnionitis, endometritis,
pyelonephritis)
trauma (e.g. injury to uterus or bowel during induced abortion, ruptured uterus, tears of
genital tract).
Primary assessment indicating shock
fast, weak pulse (100-110) per minute or more)
pallor (especially of inner eyelid, palms or around mouth)
sweatiness or cold clammy skin
rapid breathing (> 30 breaths per minute)
anxiousness, reduced conscious level, confusion or unconsciousness
low BP (systolic less than 90 mm Hg, a late sign)
reduced urine output (<30 ml per hour).
Resuscitation
If heavy bleeding is suspected as cause of shock: take steps simultaneously to stop the
bleeding. These comprise uterotonic drugs such as oxytocin or misoprostol, uterine
massage, bimanual compression, aortic compression and condom catheter, anti-shock
garment in postpartum haemorrhage. Urgent surgical intervention may be required, for
example for ruptured ectopic pregnancy.
Airway and try to stop bleeding by surgical or specific medical treatments as urgently as
possible.
Use an opening manoeuvre, if the airway is not open or is partially obstructed. Keep the
airway open. If there is improvement but if airway closes without active opening support,
consider airway adjuncts to maintain the airway if unconscious (P or U on the AVPU scale).
Suction if necessary
The airway may need to be maintained and protected by intubation, using experienced
senior help (if available)
Breathing
Provide high concentration of oxygen through a face mask with reservoir bag if adequate
spontaneous respiration
For inadequate ventilation, respiration should be supported with oxygen via a bag-mask,
and experienced senior help summoned (if available)
Circulation
Gain IV access
o Use a short, wide-bore (16-18 gauge)IV cannula if possible, for IV access.
o Internal jugular and external jugular vein access are good options if peripheral access is
impossible. Long saphenous vein cut down may also be considered and the new
intraosseous drill can be used when all else fails.
101
Pressure on the site of the bleeding can be valuable in many
circumstances, for example in post partum haemorrhage and external
haemorrhage from major trauma
Try to obtain two vascular access sites to give large volumes quickly, and in case
one line is lost.
A BP cuff can be used to speed up infusions in emergency situations. Wrap the
cuff around the blood/fluid bag and place inside a non-compressible bag. .
Left lateral tilt position or recovery position to minimise aortic and vena caval
compression, and to reduce the risk of aspiration if after 20 weeks gestation
Elevate legs by raising the foot of the bed.
Consider non-pneumatic anti-shock garment (NASG).
Give initial rapid bolus of 500ml to 1 L of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns or
blood if hemorrhaging. A colloid in the same dose can also be given, if
available. It is essential that the bolus is given as rapidly as possible. In the
absence of syringe pumps, they should be manually pushed in using 20-50 mL
syringe (using a 3 way tap and link to an IV giving set).
Further 500-1000 mL boluses will usually be required in the first 1 hour. Once >2
L has been given IV, complications such as pulmonary or cerebral oedema may
occur. If available, expert help, including CVP monitoring, is valuable.
The concept of hypotensive resuscitation is important if the cause of

hypovolaemic shock is haemorrhage. Here the initial boluses of IV crystalloids
required to treat shock should only be given to keep the vital organs (especially brain,
heart and kidneys) perfused before blood becomes available and, of most importance,
surgery and specific medical treatments to stop the bleeding have started working.
Giving too much IV fluids may increase the blood pressure and thus increase bleeding
by disrupting early clot formation.
Our suggestion is that when giving boluses of crystalloid or blood in shock due to
bleeding, only the amount needed to keep the BP at a level sufficient to perfuse the
vital organs should be given. There is no clear evidence to indicate the precise blood
pressure that should be achieved in a woman in shock due to haemorrhage in
pregnancy and the puerperium. Adequate perfusion of vital organs may best be
indicated by the following: a radial pulse which can be palpated and an alert
conscious level. During pregnancy, the adequacy of the fetal heart rate may also be
helpful.
In this situation, therefore, and to maintain a palpable radial pulse, start with IV
boluses of 500ml of crystalloid or ideally blood and reassess after each.
Transfuse blood as soon as possible to replace blood loss
Tranexamic acid
If bleeding is the cause of shock, this inexpensive and safe drug can be helpful. The
drug should be started as soon as possible and within the first 3 hours after the onset
of major haemorrhage to be effective.
The loading dose is 1 g over 10 minutes followed by an IV infusion of a further 1 gram
over 8 hours. The slow IV bolus dose is given by injecting 1 gram of tranexamic acid
into a 100ml bag of 0.9% saline and letting it run through over about 10-20 minutes
(the exact timing is not crucial). The 8 hour infusion is given by injecting one gram of
tranexamic acid into a 500ml bag of 0.9% saline and giving it over 8 hours
(approximately 60 ml/hour).
102
Keep warm but do not overheat, as this will cause peripheral vasodilatation and
reduce blood to vital parts of the body such as the brain.
Determine the cause of bleeding.

If bleeding during first 24-28 weeks of pregnancy, suspect miscarriage, induced
abortion, ectopic pregnancy or molar pregnancy.
If bleeding after 24-28 weeks or during labour but before delivery, suspect
placenta praevia, abruptio placentae or ruptured uterus.
If bleeding occurs soon after childbirth, suspect atonic uterus, retained placenta
placental fragments, ruptured uterus, tears of genital tract and occasionally
inverted uterus.
If infection is suspected as the cause of shock:

collect appropriate samples (blood, urine, pus, swabs) for microbial culture
before starting antibiotics, if facilities are available
give combination of antibiotics to cover aerobic and anaerobic infections and
continue until fever-free for 48 hours
o benzyl penicillin 2.4 g initially then 1.2 g IV 6
hourly OR ampicillin 2g initially then 1 g IV/IM
every 6 hours PLUS gentamicin 80mg IV/IM 8
hourly or 5mg/Kg body weight IV/IM once every
24 hours
o or ceftriaxone 2-4 g IV once daily or cefotaxime 2
g 12 hourly IV PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV
every 8 hours.
do not give antibiotics by mouth or IM in shock it will not be absorbed.
reassess the patients condition for signs of improvement.
If trauma is the cause of shock where haemorrhage is the most likely cause:
prepare for surgical intervention
give smaller IV fluid resuscitation boluses (500 mL) and reassess after each
(hypotensive resuscitation see above)
General issues
DO NOT GIVE IV boluses of 5% dextrose or dextrose saline (4%/0.18%) as they cause
hyponatraemia, and may lead to cerebral oedema and death.
An antibiotic such as cefotaxime 1 gram IV should be given but, if not available, use any
broad spectrum antibiotic that is available when a diagnosis of septicaemia is made
obvious by the presence of a purpuric rash (suspect meningococcal infection) or other
clinical signs of severe infection.
Take blood for the following investigations (if available): full blood count (FBC), renal and
liver function tests, blood culture, cross-match, blood clotting, glucose stick test and
glucose laboratory test
Whole blood clotting time
If lab clotting tests are not possible: - Take 2 mL of venous blood into a small,
dry, clean, plain glass test tube (approximately 10 mm x 75 mm);
103
Hold the tube in your closed fist to keep it warm (+ 37C);
- After 4 minutes, tip the tube slowly to see if a clot is forming. Then tip it again
every minute until the blood clots and the tube can be turned upside down;
Failure of a clot to form after 7 minutes, or a soft clot that breaks down
easily, suggests a blood clotting disorder.
Catheterise and monitor urine output

If peritonitis is possible, add metronidazole IV
If a blood clotting disorder is present
Q. What can I do if fractionated blood products are not available?
Use fresh whole blood (straight from the donor if possible). In general in obstetric
emergencies, volume overload is not a problem.
If volume overload is a concern, allow the whole blood to stand for 30 minutes. The red
blood cells will drop to the bottom. The fluid/plasma above them containing clotting factors
can be drawn off with a syringe and needle and the plasma only can be given.
Central venous access

This can be valuable provided that the health workers present have the skills needed to do
this safely (ideally using a multi-lumen catheter coated with heparin). The catheter should
be inserted in the intra-thoracic IVC or SVC via the femoral, internal jugular or subclavian
vein routes. However, it is essential that resuscitation is not delayed by trying to
insert a central venous catheter and that if there is a clotting disorder, never use the
subclavian route.
A normal CVP is +4 to +10cm H2O, and optimising CVP can improve cardiac output with
less risk of inducing heart failure. Take great care if CVP> 12 cm H 2O, since cardiac failure
may be induced by excessive IV fluids, especially if severe anaemia, malnutrition or a
primary cardiac disorder are present.
Re-assess ABC on a regular basis
Reassess response to fluids to determine if the womans condition is improving. Signs of
improvement include:
o decreasing pulse rate (rate of 100 to 110 per minute or less);
o increasing blood pressure (systolic 90-100 mm Hg or more);
o improving mental status (less confusion or anxiety);
o increasing urine output (30 ml per hour or more).
Continue monitoring to ensure pulse rate and BP do not deteriorate after improvement
indicating return of shock. If the mothers condition improves:
Adjust IV fluids to 1 L over 6 hours, and continue management for the underlying cause of
shock.
If >3 L have been given IV in a mother, and if shock is still present and facilities are
available, intubate by rapid sequence induction of anaesthesia and provide assisted
ventilation.
Correct any hypoglycaemia
Inotropes
An IV infusion of dobutamine and/or dopamine at 5-20 micrograms/kg/minute should be
considered, especially if a third bolus of fluid is required. Sometimes adrenaline by IV
infusion at 0.05-2 micrograms/kg/minute may be required.
104
These infusions can initially be given CAREFULLY through a peripheral vein until central
venous access is obtained
Patients who require ventilation and inotropic support should be cared for in a high
dependency or intensive care unit with invasive monitoring (if available). Seek early advice.
Shock in pregnancy or the puerperium: pathway of care
CALL FOR HELP INCLUDING SURGICAL AND

ANAESTHETIC ASSISTANCE AS NEEDED
Position: sniffing
Closed Head tilt - chin lift
Airway Jaw thrust
Oropharyngeal airway
Intubation
Open
Breathing
No
Yes Rescue breaths - self inflating
bag and mask with reservoir
High flow oxygen - face 100% O2
mask + reservoir
Circulation
Lateral tilt or recovery position
if after 20 weeks
Elevate legs
Take blood from IV cannula: FBC,

Wide bore IV cannula or U&E, Blood culture, Xmatch (if
intraosseous bleeding), clotting, blood glucose - stick
test and lab test
Consider further bolus ** ** After 2 litres of IV

Bolus 500ml to 1 litre Ringer-Lactate or if still shocked Ringer- fluid boluses be aware
Hartmanns IV/IO as rapidly as possible Lactate or Hartmanns of possibility of cardiac
or colloid. 500ml-1000ml failure
2nd IV access for

safety (ideally central Re-assess after every
vein or internal IV bolus
jugular)
Correct any 50 ml 25% glucose

Bleeding or suspected hypoglycaemia IV
Yes
Give O neg or Xmatched blood if ** If PPH is the cause of shock,

possible (1 hour wait) Group consider the controlled
specific blood (15 minutes wait) hypotensive approach and
give boluses of 500 ml of IV antibiotic for
crystalloid until blood and suspected
measures to stop bleeding are septicaemia
Consider tranexamic available
acid (1 gram IV over 10
minutes then 1 gram
over 8 hrs) and/or anti-
shock garment
105
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-major haemorrhage-ruptured ectopic
Major haemorrhage in first trimester
Ruptured ectopic pregnancy
Introduction
The definition of an ectopic pregnancy is: the implantation of the fertilised ovum outside the
uterus: usually within the fallopian tube.
The fetus implants in a tube and grows there. When it is a few weeks old it bursts out of
the tube. When it does this, there is bleeding into the peritoneal cavity. In the Figure the
fetus has implanted in the narrow middle part of a tube.
If the ovum is expelled tubal abortion it leaves from the fimbrial end of fallopian tube
with blood collecting as a haematoma; usually at about 8 weeks gestation;
If the fallopian tube ruptures, there is severe abdominal pain, with or without shock,
depending on the amount of bleeding. Rupture usually happens from 8 weeks gestation
onwards.
The causes of ectopic pregnancy are unknown but associated factors are:
pelvic inflammatory disease salpingitis, especially from gonococcus,
chlamydia or TB
If pregnant with intra-uterine contraceptive device in place (a rare occurrence)
previous tubal surgery tubal ligation, tubal re-anastomosis

previous ectopic pregnancy
previous intra-abdominal infection (peritonitis)
Clinical presentation: symptoms and signs
Abdominal pain which is lower abdominal (which tends to be unilateral),

cramping or stabbing, due to distension of the tube and peritoneal irritation from
blood in the abdominal cavity
Shoulder tip pain, from blood irritating the diaphragm
Rectal pain or perineal discomfort from blood in the pouch of Douglas
106
Hypovolemic shock occurs as soon as sufficient blood has been lost. Often
there will be fainting or a feeling of faintness requiring lying down.
Fast weak pulse (heart rate 100 or more)
Hypotension (a late sign after much blood lost: systolic pressure < 90 mmHg)
Vaginal bleeding which can mimic a normal menses (75%)
Usually after the ovum has died.
Usually dark, not heavy.
May be irregular
Signs and symptoms of early pregnancy are unusual- tiredness, nausea/vomiting
(especially early morning), breast swelling, urinary frequency
Anaemia if chronic, slower bleeding
In all women or girls of reproductive age with diarrhoea and /or dizziness/fainting undertake
a pregnancy test and think about possible ectopic pregnancy.
Abdominal examination reveals muscle guarding, rebound tenderness, probably fever, the
differential diagnosis is from appendicitis. There may be abdominal distension with shifting
dullness if there is free blood in the abdomen.
Pelvic examination: caution must be exercised when doing a bimanual vaginal

examination if an ectopic is possible because of the risk of rupture during and due
to the examination. Vaginal examination may show general pelvic tenderness; with
sometimes a mass in the fornix, or increased tenderness on one side. There may be
cervical excitation, bluish discolouration of vagina and cervix and/or slight uterine
enlargement
Diagnosis
Think of this diagnosis in any girl or woman who has entered puberty
Especially if any anaemia, shock or abdominal pain is greater than expected for amount of
vaginal bleeding. Consider of the woman or girl has any risk factors for an ectopic
pregnancy?
Differential diagnosis: threatened miscarriage, acute or chronic pelvic inflammatory

disease (PID), torsion or ruptured ovarian cyst, acute appendicitis or peritonitis.
Tip test
Tilt head down. If blood in peritoneal cavity it will irritate diaphragm as shoulder tip pain.
Useful if positive, but negative does not exclude haemorrhage
Do a pregnancy test in all potentially fertile girls/women with abdominal pain,

fainting or shock. If unable to provide a specimen, consider urinary catheter to
obtain one but never delay surgery.
Ultrasound
If there is a positive pregnancy test but no intra-uterine pregnancy seen on the ultrasound,
then an ectopic pregnancy is very likely. The likelihood of ectopic pregnancy increases if
free fluid and/or an echogenic mass are seen.
Culdocentesis is not recommended as it may delay surgery and introduce infection.
107
Primary assessment and resuscitation if shocked
Call for help. A surgeon and anaesthetist must be urgently requested. The
operating theatre must be prepared.
Airway
Use an opening manoeuvre, if the airway is not open or partially obstructed.
If there is improvement, use airway adjuncts to support the airway or ask assistant to hold it
open.
Suction if needed
The airway may need to be maintained and protected by intubation using
experienced senior help (if available).
Breathing
Provide high concentration of oxygen through a face mask with reservoir bag for
those with adequate spontaneous respiration
For inadequate ventilation or depressed conscious level (AVPU = P or U),
respiration should be supported with oxygen by bag-valve-mask inflations and experienced
senior help obtained including an anaesthetist.
Circulation
Elevate legs and consider Non-pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment

Gain intravenous access
Use a short, wide-bore IV cannula if possible (14-16G)
External jugular vein access is a good option if peripheral access is impossible.
Long saphenous vein cut down may also be considered and, if adequately
trained, central venous access ideally via internal jugular can be extremely
helpful or intraosseous if not possible
Try to obtain two vascular access sites to give large volumes quickly and in case
one line is lost
Take blood for cross match of 4-6 units, FBC, renal function tests (if available),
blood clotting
Give 500 mL-1 L Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns by rapid bolus whilst awaiting
blood for transfusion
Remember that young, healthy women/girls can lose a lot of blood before
becoming shocked, especially if it is a slow leak, rather than a sudden large loss.
The concept of controlled hypotensive resuscitation is important when, as here,
the cause of hypovolaemic shock is haemorrhage. Here the initial boluses of IV
crystalloids required to treat shock should only be given to keep the vital organs
(especially brain, heart and kidneys) perfused before blood and, of most importance,
surgery have become available. . Giving too much IV fluids can increase the blood
pressure and thus increase bleeding by disrupting early clot formation.
Our suggestion is that when giving boluses of crystalloid or blood in shock due to
bleeding, only the amount needed to keep the blood pressure at a level sufficient to
perfuse the vital organs should be given. There is no clear evidence to indicate the
precise blood pressure that should be achieved in a woman in shock due to a
ruptured and bleeding ectopic pregnancy. Adequate perfusion of vital organs may
best be indicated by the following: a radial pulse which can be palpated and an alert
conscious level.
In this situation, therefore, and to maintain a palpable radial pulse, start with IV
boluses of 500ml of crystalloid or ideally blood and reassess after each.
Disability
108
Conscious level on AVPU scale
Central venous access

This is valuable if skilled staff are available to undertake it and it does not delay definitive
surgical treatment. Ideally should be achieved using a multi-lumen catheter coated with
heparin, if available, with catheter placed in the intra-thoracic IVC or SVC.
A normal CVP is +4 to +10cm H 2O and optimising CVP can improve cardiac output with
less risk of inducing heart failure. Take great care if CVP> 12 cm H 2O since cardiac failure
may be induced by excessive IV fluids, especially if severe anaemia, malnutrition or
primary cardiac disorders are present.
Emergency treatment
If diagnosis is ruptured ectopic with shock, order blood for transfusion and
immediately prepare operating theatre. Obtain surgeon urgently and proceed to
urgent laparotomy while resuscitation is underway. Do not wait for blood.
At laparotomy, undertake salpingectomy. Repair of tube carries MAJOR risk of

future ectopic pregnancy and should not be undertaken in poorly resourced
situations.
Autotransfusion
If blood is unquestionably fresh and free from infection, blood can be collected after
the abdomen is opened and transfused:
When the woman is on the operating table prior to surgery and the abdomen is distended
with blood, it is sometimes possible to insert a needle through the abdominal wall and
collect the blood in a donor set.
Alternatively, open the abdomen:
scoop the blood into a basin and strain through gauze to remove clots
clean the top portion of a blood donor bag (containing anti-coagulant)
with antiseptic solution and open it with a sterile blade;
pour the mothers blood into the bag and infuse it through a filtered set
in the usual way;
if a donor bag with anticoagulant is not available, add sodium citrate
0.3 molar 10 mL to each 90 mL of blood.
Advice post salpingectomy for ruptured ectopic pregnancy

Early ultrasound as soon as new pregnancy suspected.
Offer family planning advice
DIAGNOSIS of abdominal pain in early pregnancy
Symptoms Clinical Signs Possible

diagnosisDiagnosis
Abdominal pain Palpable, tender Ovarian cyst
Light vaginal bleeding discrete mass in lower
abdomen
109
Adnexal mass on
vaginal examination
Lower abdominal pain Rebound tenderness Appendicitis
Anorexia Paralytic ileus
Low-grade fever Increased white blood
Nausea/vomiting cell count
Dysuria Cystitis
Retropubic/suprapubic pain
Increased frequency and
urgency of urination
Abdominal pain
Dysuria Loin tenderness Acute pyelonephritis

Retropubic/suprapubic pain
Spiking fever/chills
Increased frequency and
urgency of urination
Abdominal pain
Anorexia, nausea/vomiting
Fever/rigors Rebound tenderness Peritonitis

Lower abdominal pain Rigid abdomen
Anorexia Abdominal distension
Nausea/vomiting Absent bowel sounds
Shock
Abdominal pain Closed cervix Ectopic pregnancy
Fainting Tender adnexal mass
Light vaginal bleeding Uterus slightly larger
Amenorrhea than normal
Shoulder tip pain Uterus and cervix softer
than normal
Acute appendicitis
Appendicitis should be suspected in any woman or girl with abdominal pain, whether
pregnant or not. The diagnosis of appendicitis can be more difficult in pregnancy, due to
the possibility of pregnancy-related conditions, including ectopic pregnancy, abruptio
placentae, torsion of an ovarian cyst and pyelonephritis).
As pregnancy advances, the enlarging uterus displaces the appendix from its usual
position, shifting the site of maximal tenderness towards the right upper quadrant (Figure 1
). In the third trimester, it may consequently mimic cholecystitis. The site of an incision for
appendicectomy should be over the point of maximum tenderness.
Clinical management
If appendicitis is suspected clinically, give a combination of antibiotics before surgery, and
continue until the woman is postoperative and fever-free for 48 hours.
Ampicillin 2 g IV every 6 hours;
PLUS Gentamicin 80mg IV/IM every 8 hours or 5mg/Kg body weight IV/IM once every 24
hours;
110
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-appendicitis and miscarriage
PLUS Metronidazole 500 mg IV every 8 hours.
Morphine 100 mcg./kg. body weight loading dose may be administered I.V. as analgesia.
Immediate surgical exploration is required, regardless of stage of gestation.
Appendicectomy should be performed even if the appendix does not look infected.
Note: Delaying diagnosis and treatment can result in rupture of the appendix, which may
lead to generalized peritonitis. This has a high maternal mortality in pregnancy as well as a
significant risk of miscarriage or pre-term labour. If there are signs of peritonitis (fever,
rebound tenderness and guarding), give antibiotics as for peritonitis. If appendicitis occurs
in late pregnancy, the infection may be walled off by the gravid uterus. As the uterus rapidly
decreases in size (involutes) after delivery, the infection may spill into the peritoneal cavity.
In these cases, appendicitis then presents as generalised peritonitis.
Sites for appendicectomy as pregnancy advances
Miscarriage
Types of miscarriage
Consider miscarriage or induced abortion in any woman or girl of reproductive age with
more than a month having passed since her last menstrual period, and having one or more
of the following: bleeding, lower abdominal pain, and partial expulsion of products of
conception, dilated cervix or smaller uterus than expected for gestation.
1. Spontaneous miscarriage is the loss of a pregnancy before fetal viability (28 weeks
gestation in low resource settings) and occurs in at least 15% of pregnancies.
The stages of spontaneous miscarriage may include:

threatened miscarriage (pregnancy may continue);
inevitable miscarriage (pregnancy will not continue and will proceed to
incomplete or complete miscarriage);
incomplete miscarriage (products of conception are partially expelled);
complete miscarriage (products of conception are completely expelled).
Miscarriages can be complicated by infection
Threatened miscarriage
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Here there is light vaginal bleeding and sometimes cramping lower abdominal pain. On
examination there is a soft uterus corresponding in size to the date of the last menstrual
period and the cervix is closed.
If bleeding stops, advise woman to avoid strenuous exercise and sexual intercourse.
Follow-up in the antenatal clinic. If bleeding continues, assess for fetal viability and if
available undertake ultrasound scan. No medication can prevent progression to a
complete miscarriage.
Inevitable miscarriage. See below for different managements if incomplete compared with
complete.
Managing an incomplete miscarriage
If pregnancy is less than 16 weeks, use sponge forceps to remove products of conception
protruding through the cervix and proceed to evacuate the uterus:
Manual Vacuum Aspiration (MVA) (Figure 1) is the preferred method
of evacuation. Evacuation by curettage should only be done if MVA is not
available.
if evacuation is not immediately possible and there is significant
bleeding, give ergometrine 200 to 500 micrograms OR misoprostol 200
micrograms orally, sublingually or rectally.
Proceed to evacuation as soon as possible.
If pregnancy is greater than 16 weeks:
infuse oxytocin 40 units in 1 L IV fluids (Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns) at 40 drops per
minute until expulsion of products of conception occurs;
if oxytocin infusion does not work, and especially if there is heavy bleeding, give
misoprostol 200 micrograms orally/rectally every 4 hours until expulsion, but do not
administer more than 800 micrograms;
evacuate any remaining products of conception from the uterus if necessary.
If bleeding continues after evacuation and despite the use of a uterotonic drug, there is
likely to be something wrong and probably retained products are still in the uterus.
Safe evacuation of retained products

Consent explain the procedure and reasons for undertaking it
This must be a surgically aseptic procedure including the use of sterile gloves
and gown. Apply antiseptic solution (chlorhexidine) to the vagina and cervix (especially the
os) by first inserting a high-level disinfected or sterile speculum into the vagina and then
using a sterile or high level disinfected sponge forceps with cotton or gauze swab and
applying three applications of antiseptic.
Where possible undertake procedure in the operating theatre if there is a risk of
heavy bleeding for examples molar pregnancy or suspected coagulation disorder
Even when bleeding is not heavy, give oxytocin 10 units IM or ergometrine 200
microgram IM before MVA to make the uterus firmer and reduce the risk of perforation.
Prepare the MVA syringe by closing the pinch valve and pulling back on the
plunger until its arms lock. In the case of large amounts of retained products (eg molar
pregnancy) prepare 2 or 3 syringes.
Bimanually examine the uterus to assess whether it is anteverted or retroverted
prior to instrumentation
Provide an oral analgesic paracetamol 1 gram and, if the cervix is not dilated
sufficient to pass the MVA catheter, prepare 20 mL of 0.5% lignocaine (without
adrenaline) with a 3.5 cm long 22 or 25 gauge needle to perform a paracervical nerve
block
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Using a Cuscos speculum visualize the cervix. You will need an adequate light
source.
Inject 1mL of 0.5% lignocaine into the anterior or posterior lip of the cervix
whichever has been exposed if a tenaculum is to be used.
Apply either a tenaculum or sponge(ring) forceps (the latter do not need prior
local anaesthetic and are less likely to tear the cervix in incomplete miscarriage) to the lip
of the cervix.
If the cervix is insufficiently dilated for the MVA catheter undertake a paracervical
nerve block following slight traction applied to the cervical lip to identify the junction
between the cervix and vaginal wall where injections of lignocaine are to be made. Inject 2
mL of lignocaine just under the epithelium (no deeper than 3mm) at 3, 5, 7, and 9 oclock
positions. Ensure that the needle is not in a vein with each injection by drawing back
before injection as IV injection of lignocaine is dangerous and can cause convulsions and
cardiac arrest. Wait 2 minutes and check that the cervix is anaesthetised by pinching it
gently with forceps. If the pinch is felt, wait for another 2 minutes.
Grasp the lip of the cervix with the sponge forceps and apply gentle traction.
Cervical dilatation with Hagar dilators is only needed where products have remained in the
uterus for several days. Slowly introduce the dilators (smallest first) into the cavity being
mindful of whether the uterus is anteverted or retroverted, until resistance is felt when the
fundus is reached. Note the depth of the cavity and DO NOT pass instruments beyond this.
Risk of uterine perforation is higher in cases complicated by sepsis or in a post partum
uterus with retained products of conception (see chapter 2.5.D.iv). Usually a dilatation of
10-12 mm is sufficient. Ensure that the cervix is not torn or a false passage created by the
dilators.
Manual vacuum aspiration kit including cannulae of different sizes
Inserting the MVA cannula
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Evacuating the uterine contents
Pass the MVA cannula gently with a rotating movement through the cervix into the uterine
cavity just beyond the internal os.
Slowly push the cannula into the uterus until it touches the fundus. Measure the depth by
dots visible on the cannula and then withdraw the cannula by about 0.5 cm. Attach the
prepared MVA syringe to the cannula and release the pinch valves allowing the vacuum to
transfer to the cannula and inside of the uterus.
Evacuate uterine contents by gently rotating the syringe from 10 to 12 oclock and moving
the cannula back and forth within the uterus. Do not allow the cannula at this stage to be
withdrawn past the cervical os into the vagina as vacuum will be lost. If vacuum is lost or
syringe is more than half full empty it and then reestablish the vacuum. Do not hold the
syringe by the plunger arms whilst vacuum is present as they may become unlocked and
the plunger slip back into the syringe pushing materials back into the uterus.
To ensure that all products have been removed, red or pink foam but no tissue is seen in
the cannula. The uterus will have a gritty feel when the cavity is empty and haemostasis
should be achieved. The uterus may contract around the cannula. Always examine the
syringe contents after the procedure. An absence of products in a patient with signs of
pregnancy or positive pregnancy test and continued bleeding raises 3 possibilities: 1) the
miscarriage was complete before evacuation 2) the products are still in the uterus (needs
repeat evacuation) or 3) there is an ectopic pregnancy. Be very careful about the 3rd
possibility.
If MVA is not available and a curette is used, undertake procedures up to 11) above.
Apply the curette with firm but controlled movements in all 4 quadrants of the uterus
(anterior wall, left lateral, posterior wall, right lateral). The uterus will have a gritty feel
when the cavity is empty and haemostasis should be achieved. If there is ongoing bleeding
ensure the cavity is empty with additional gentle curettage.
IV antibiotics should be given as a single dose unless there are signs of sepsis when a full
course of antibiotics should be given.
Anti-D immunoglobulin prophylaxis if available and affordable should be given to women
with a Rhesus negative blood group. In well resourced countries, a dose of 250 IU of anti
D Ig is given before 20 weeks gestation and 500 IU after 20 weeks.
Give paracetamol 500mg to 1 gram orally if needed for pain.
If an unsafe induced abortion is suspected, examine the woman for signs of infection and
uterine, vaginal, bladder or bowel injury and thoroughly irrigate the vagina with sterile
Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns to remove any herbs, local medications or caustic
substances before MVA is undertaken.
114
Follow up after a miscarriage, especially where evacuation has occurred.
Uncomplicated evacuations may not need follow up. The patient should be encouraged to
eat and drink and be mobile. She should be advised to seek help if there are any
symptoms such as ongoing bleeding, severe abdominal pain, offensive vaginal secretions,
fever, or malaise. Rigors or fainting potentially indicate severe complications and the
woman must return immediately to the hospital. Family planning should be discussed and
the woman advised to avoid pregnancy for at least 3 months.
Uterine perforation
Uterine perforation may occur following evacuation of the uterus either in a medical or in
non-clinical setting. The risk of complications, such as infection, perforation, damage to
visceral organs such as bladder and bowel is high where procedures are carried out in
non-clinical settings and here a laparotomy will be required along with high dose
intravenous antibiotics.
In most perforations where only the uterus has been damaged, the hole will heal
spontaneously. Keep the woman under close observations for at least 48 hours.
Symptoms and signs of perforation when evacuation has occurred in a non-medical
setting
Severe abdominal pain, vaginal bleeding, weakness, dizziness or fainting.
On examination of the abdomen there will be guarding, rebound tenderness or a rigid

abdominal wall.
Frequently there will be signs of septic shock.
Complete miscarriage
Evacuation of the uterus is not needed, observe closely for evidence of bleeding and follow
up the woman in the clinic.
Abortion is the deliberate termination of pregnancy before fetal viability.
Unsafe abortion is a procedure performed by persons lacking necessary skills, and/or

in an environment lacking minimal medical standards.
Septic abortion is abortion complicated by infection. Sepsis may result from ascending
infection from the lower genital tract. Sepsis is more likely to occur if there are
retained products of conception and evacuation has been delayed. Sepsis is a
frequent complication of unsafe abortion involving instrumentation.
Molar pregnancy / gestational trophoblastic disease (relatively uncommon).
Gestational trophoblastic disease refers to molar pregnancy (complete and partial moles),
choriocarcinoma and placental site trophoblastic tumour.
Complete and partial molar pregnancies are only distinguished by histopathological

features. Complete moles usually result from duplication of a single sperm following
fertilization of an empty ovum. There is no evidence of fetal tissue. Partial moles usually
result from dispermic fertilization of an ovum. There is usually evidence of a fetus or fetal
red cells. Only complete molar pregnancy is likely to progress to choriocarcinoma.
Signs of pregnancy are exaggerated the uterus increases in size more rapidly than
normal, vomiting is often but not always severe and constant, there may be pre-eclampsia
in the first trimester, and HCG is very high. The symptoms and signs typically present are:
115
heavy bleeding, dilated cervix, uterus larger than dates and softer than normal, with partial
expulsion of products of conception which resemble grapes. MVA is required to evacuate
the uterus (with anti-D prophylaxis in Rhesus negative women if available and affordable).
Diagnosis in low resource settings is very difficult and requires good quality ultrasound and
ability to monitor urine B-HCG levels. The products of conception should be examined
histologically.
Management of molar pregnancy

This is difficult and referral to hospital, ideally with expert facilities, if available
MVA will usually be required
There is a higher risk of bleeding and therefore must cross match prior to MVA
Will need follow up HCG measurements, regular ultrasound and possibly chemotherapy
(see below)
Will need CXR and liver function tests if available.
The woman should be strongly advised not to become pregnant within the next 1 year and
family planning advice is particularly important.
Septic abortion or miscarriage
Septic abortion is defined as abortion complicated by infection. Sepsis may result from
infection if organisms rise from the lower genital tract following either spontaneous
miscarriage or induced abortion. Sepsis is more likely to occur if there are retained
products of conception and evacuation has been delayed. Sepsis is a frequent
complication of unsafe abortion involving instrumentation.
Diagnosis
Consider the possibility of septic abortion in any woman or girl with a history of termination
of pregnancy or attempted termination. Presentation is typically with some of the following
symptoms and signs: lower abdominal pain, prolonged vaginal bleeding, tender uterus, foul
smelling vaginal discharge, purulent cervical discharge, fever and malaise.
Treatment If septic shock is present, this will be shown by some of the following signs and
symptoms
fast, weak pulse (100 to 110 per minute or more)

pallor (especially of inner eyelid, palms or around mouth)
sweatiness with cold or warm (vasodilated) skin
rapid breathing (> 30 breaths per minute)
anxiousness, confusion or unconsciousness
low BP (systolic less than 90 mm Hg, a late sign)
reduced urine output (<30 mL per hour).
Resuscitation then proceeds as follows:

Airway
Use an opening manoeuvre, if the airway is not open or is partially obstructed. Keep the
airway open. If there is improvement but if airway closes without active opening support,
consider airway adjuncts to maintain the airway if unconscious (P or U on the AVPU scale).
The airway may need to be maintained and protected by intubation, using experienced
senior help (if available)
Breathing
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Provide high concentration of oxygen through a face mask with reservoir bag if adequate
spontaneous respiration
For inadequate ventilation, respiration should be supported with oxygen via a bag-mask,
and experienced senior help summoned (if available)
Circulation
Gain IV access
o Use a short, wide-bore (16-18 gauge)IV cannula if possible, for IV
access.
o Internal jugular and external jugular vein access are good options if
peripheral access is impossible. Long saphenous vein cut down may
also be considered
o Try to obtain two vascular access sites to give large volumes quickly,
and in case one line is lost.
Elevate legs by raising the foot of the bed.
Give initial rapid IV/IO bolus of 500 mL 1 L of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns. It
is essential that the bolus is given as rapidly as possible.
Further 500-1000ml boluses will usually be required in the first 1 hour. Once >2
L has been given IV, complications such as pulmonary or cerebral oedema may
occur. If available, expert help, an anaesthetist, and the use of inotropes,
sodium bicarbonate, IPPV with PEEP are all potentially valuable.
A fresh blood transfusion may also be important.
Antibiotics after taking specimens for culture if facilities available (blood cultures high
vaginal swab, urine)
All patients, shocked or not, require the following without delay:
Ampicillin 2 g IV every 6 hours PLUS Gentamicin 80mg IV/IM 8 hourly or 5mgs/kg body
weight IV/IM every 24 hours
PLUS Metronidazole 500mg IV every 8 hours.
All until the woman is fever-free for 48 hours
Patients who are not apparently shocked on first examination, nevertheless need frequent
observations to look for the early signs of shock for the first 6-12 hours, then frequency can
be reduced.
Start antibiotics as soon as possible before attempting manual vacuum aspiration
The woman or girl may also need:

manual vacuum aspiration (MVA) to remove infected products of conception. MVA should
be preferred to curettage because perforation might have happened already, or is easily
possible because of friable uterine wall.
hysterectomy after stabilisation if infection cannot be controlled
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Major haemorrhage in second or third trimester
1) Antepartum haemorrhage
Placental abruption placental separation with blood loss concealed or revealed
Placenta praevia placenta lies across the cervix
Vasa praevia placental blood vessels lying in the membranes and in front of the babys
head.
Uterine rupture usually related to a previous Caesarean Section or other operation on the
uterus
2) Postpartum haemorrhage
Uterine atony: The commonest cause
Genital tract injury
Retained products of conception. This is can be retained pieces, or the entire placenta.
This is particularly likely if the placenta is excessively adherent as sometimes happens
after a previous Caesarean Section
3) Coagulation Failure
This may be due to a pre-existing coagulation problem, or in relation to complications of the
pregnancy causing excessive bleeding and consumption of the clotting factors.
Causes include:
Placental separation before delivery
Pre-eclampsia or eclampsia
Retained dead fetus
Septicaemia including intra-uterine sepsis
Incompatible blood transfusion
Amniotic fluid embolism
Management of major haemorrhage in the second or third trimester

Call for the most senior help available
Think about possible causes when taking a history and assessing the patient.
Recognise signs of hypovolaemia
Tachycardia
Cold, pale, sweaty and possibly cyanosed skin
Alteration of mental state: confusion or unconscious
Fall in urine output
Narrowed pulse pressure
Hypotension (late sign)
Restore circulating volume

Position the pregnant woman or girl in the left lateral position to minimise the effects of
aorto-caval compression. A wedge may be used during obstetric procedures. Assistants
can also manually displace the uterus.
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Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-major haemorrhage-later pregnancy
Administer high concentration oxygen (10-15 L per minute) with close fitting face mask and
reservoir regardless of her oxygenation assessment.
Assess the airway and respiratory effort. Intubation (if safe and available) may be
necessary to protect the airway if the woman has depressed consciousness or to maximise
the oxygenation. Otherwise place in the recovery position.
Establish two IV lines using the largest available cannula. Lower limb and femoral vessels
should be avoided.
Take blood for Hb, whole blood clotting time and cross match blood (minimum 4 units).
Expand the circulation
The concept of hypotensive resuscitation is important if the cause of hypovolaemic
shock is haemorrhage. Here the initial boluses of IV crystalloids required to treat shock
should only be given to keep the vital organs (especially brain, heart and kidneys) perfused
before blood and, of most importance, other medical and surgical measures have become
available. Giving too much IV fluids can increase the blood pressure and thus increase
bleeding by disrupting early clot formation. IV crystalloid also dilutes the red cells in the
circulation but whether or not this could reduce oxygen carrying capacity requires further
research.
Our suggestion is that when giving boluses of crystalloid or blood in shock due to bleeding,
only the amount needed to keep the blood pressure at a level sufficient to perfuse the vital
organs should be given. There is no clear evidence to indicate the precise blood pressure
that should be achieved in a woman in shock due to massive haemorrhage in pregnancy.
Adequate perfusion of vital organs may best be indicated by the following: a radial pulse
which can be palpated and a conscious level of A or V on the AVPU scale (i.e. the woman
is either awake or will respond by opening her eyes when spoken to).
In this situation, therefore, and to maintain a palpable radial pulse, start with IV boluses of
500ml of crystalloid or ideally blood and reassess after each.
O Rh negative blood can be used in life-threatening haemorrhage but ideally ABO and
Rhesus compatible blood should be used
When stable move to a place where there is adequate space, light and equipment to
continue resuscitation and treatment.
Blood transfusion
If time allows full cross match should be undertaken. If the pregnant woman or girls blood
group is known and she needs blood very urgently type specific blood can be given. In the
life-threatening situation O Rhesus Negative blood may be used.
One unit (500 ml) of whole blood will raise the haemoglobin by 1 g/dl. Concentrated red
cells have a volume of 300 ml (220 ml of red cells and 80 ml of saline-adenine- glucose-
mannitol solution).
Frequent checks of the haematocrit are helpful to guide massive transfusions, particularly
when adequate measure of loss is impossible. Stored blood has a reduction in platelet
numbers and important clotting factors so if a massive transfusion is r equired the
administration of clotting factors and platelets will be required. If not give blood which is as
fresh as possible.
Any large volume of IV fluids or blood should be carefully warmed before use, ideally by a
dry electrical warmer. Traditional water baths carry the risk of electrical hazards. If no
warmer is available an assistant can warm each bag against their body. Keeping the
patient warm is also essential.
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Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-major haemorrhage-later pregnancy
If large volumes of blood are needed uregently, inflate a blood pressure cuff around the
bag of IV fluid to increase rate of infusion. Alternatively use 3 way tap, 20 or 50 ml
syringes and rapid manual infusion.
Evaluation of response
Essential monitoring includes pulse, BP, respiration rate, SaO 2 and fluid balance. Regular
checks of the haematocrit and whole blood clotting time are important.
Ante-partum haemorrhage
Antepartum haemorrhage (APH) is defined as bleeding from the uterus or vagina occurring
after potential viability from 24 weeks gestation. The main causes of APH are placenta
praevia, placental abruption or bleeding from cervical or vaginal lesions.
Bleeding from the cervix is common but is not usually heavy. This may be due to rapid
cervical dilatation, cervical ectropian or polyps. Ectropians and polyps may bec ome more
vascular and friable in pregnancy predisposing to bleeding.. Endo-cervical and vaginal
infections such as Chlamydia, Neisseria, Trichomonas and Candida can give rise to
bleeding. Cervical carcinoma is another cause of APH.
Speculum examination should be carried out to visualize the cervix and help assess the
likely cause of bleeding as well as aid in evaluation of severity of bleeding.
Bleeding from the vagina or vulva may result from local trauma or infection. Vulval
bleeding may be due to vulval varices, and may be heavy.
Diagnosis
Important points in history taking

Provoked or unprovoked?
o Bleeding due to placenta praevia is likely to be unprovoked, however
bleeding may be precipitated by intercourse/vaginal examination
o Abruption is more likely after abdominal trauma
o Intercourse may cause bleeding from cervical or vaginal lesions
Painful or painless?
o Bleeding due to placenta praevia is usually painless
o Bleeding due to placenta abruption is initially painless, but as it
continues contractions will occur and eventually become tonic with
constant severe pain and a woody feel to the uterus.
Fresh bleeding or old blood?
Amount of bleeding
Management of APH
ABC
Monitor vital signs
IV access and fluid resuscitation
Send urgent Hb, grouping and cross-match, Kleihauer if available
Catheterise
Abdominal examination assess uterine tone, tenderness and for presence of
contractions, auscultation of presence of fetal heart
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Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-major haemorrhage-APH
Speculum examination assess for vaginal/cervical lesions, severity of bleeding
USS if available to assess placental location if placenta praevia is expected prior
to VE if indicated
Listen to fetal heart
Insert a venous cannula if active bleeding, contractions, tenderness or increased tone of

the uterus. If shocked proceed to assessment and resuscitation (see below)
Investigations: Hb, platelets,clotting tests, urea and electrolytes, liver functions tests, cross
match 4 units if major (50mL to 500mL) or massive (>500ml) haemorrhage, group and
save if < 50 mL loss. Perform a Kleihauer test if women is Rhesus negative or major
abdominal trauma and if available and affordable give anti-D immunoglobulin.
Table 1 Causes of major (50mL to 500mL) or massive (> 500 mL) antepartum
haemorrhage
Symptoms Clinical signs Diagnosis Treatment
Severe constant Shock Placental Call for surgical and
abdominal pain Tense and tender uterus abruption anaesthetic help
Light or heavy on abdominal Oxygen
vaginal bleeding examination Left lateral tilt or
(or not visible Fetal distress or absent recovery position
bleeding in fetal heart rate IV fluid boluses for
concealed shock + blood
abruption) Xmatch 4 units of
Reduced fetal blood and freeze
movements or dried plasma if
absent available
Dizziness transfuse prior to
Shortness of delivery if possible
breath to try and correct
Confusion any clotting
abnormality
Deliver fetus as
soon as possible if
viable either by
inducing labour or
by CS
Vaginal bleeding Soft uterus Placenta Call for surgical and

which can be light Presenting part may be praevia anaesthetic help
or very heavy higher than expected. Treat shock if
Bleeding can be Malpresentation is more present including
precipitated by common. lateral tilt or
intercourse or Fetus may be distressed, recovery position
vaginal non-viable or (see above)
examination uncompromised with Must not
No pain normal movements and undertake digital
normal fetal heart rate vaginal
pattern examination as
Ultrasound will show this may
placenta praevia precipitate
Shock may be present massive bleeding
121
depending on how much which may be fatal
bleeding and for how long by puncturing the
placenta.
If preterm and
bleeding not too
heavy, give
steroids, admit for
bed-rest and only
go for CS if there is
a further bleed
Xmatch ideally 4
units of blood
Continuous Shock (especially an Ruptured uterus Call for surgical and

abdominal pain increasing heart rate anaesthetic help
Vaginal bleeding detected ideally on Treat shock if
which may be light partograph) present
or heavy Tense, distended and Xmatch ideally 4
tender abdomen units of blood
Easily palpable fetal parts Prepare theatre for
Absent fetal movements laparotomy while
and heart sounds resuscitating patient
Malpresentation Stop oxytocin
transverse lie infusion if in situ
Signs of CPD
Scar from previous
surgery
Haematuria
Heavy vaginal and Bleeding from sites in Coagulation Fresh blood
other bleeding addition to the vagina failure transfusion
Signs of other conditions Blood products
that may be responsible, such as platelets,
such as: fresh frozen plasma
1. Placental abruption, and cryoprecipitate
2. Pre-eclampsia or if available
eclampsia (high BP and
proteinurea) Antibiotics if
3. Retained dead fetus appropriate
4. Septicaemia, including
intra-uterine sepsis
5. Incompatible blood
transfusion
6. Amniotic fluid embolism
Vaginal bleeding Fetal distress or death Vasa praevia If diagnosed by
which is light placental blood ultrasound before
Bleeding can be vessels lying in labour, plan for
precipitated by the membranes Caesarean section
intercourse or and in front of
artificial rupture of the babys head.
membranes
No pain
Management of the different causes of APH

122
1) Placenta praevia
Placenta praevia is an abnormally-situated placenta in the lower uterine segment. It

presents with painless bleeding often with no precipitating factor. Bleeding may be heavy
and is bright red.
Early detection of placenta praevia is very important to prevent serious bleeding.
Any bleeding during pregnancy must be investigated by an US scan.
Mothers with placenta praevia should have immediate access to an obstetric unit
with facilities for CS.
Mothers >28 weeks with a placenta praevia and bleeding should stay in hospital until
delivery by caesarean section, or live very near to an obstetric unit that can perform
CS.
Never allow a digital vaginal examination to be undertaken on a patient known

to have, or suspected to have placenta praevia. It can precipitate massive
vaginal bleeding.
Careful speculum examination can help to exclude bleeding from the cervix or
vagina.
2) Placental abruption
Placental abruption refers to the premature separation of a normally situated placenta.

The bleeding may be concealed or revealed or mixed. It may be partial or complete (with
the latter the fetus will be dead).
The characteristic symptoms and signs are initially painless bleeding and can be concealed
but is more likely to occur vaginally. As abruption becomes worse contractions will occur
and eventually become tonic with constant severe pain and a woody feel to the uterus. At
this stage there will usually be shock, severe abdominal pain, and tenderness over the
uterus. In early bleeding the uterus may still be soft to touch but after a few hours it has a
hard woody feel due to uterine contraction. It may be difficult to palpate fetal parts. There
may be signs of fetal distress or intra-uterine fetal death. Disseminated intravascular
coagulation (DIC) is a common complication. A large placental abruption can occur without
any visible vaginal blood loss (concealed haemorrhage).
Remember blood loss is invariably underestimated. Young, healthy women will
compensate and maintain their blood pressure until they lose around 20% of their
circulating volume.
Risk factors for placental abruption include most frequently a previous abruption.
Increased maternal age, maternal hypertension and trauma also increase risk
3) Ruptured uterus
Uterine rupture is full thickness tear of the uterine muscle and the overlying visceral
peritoneum, associated with extrusion of the fetus, placenta or both into the abdominal
cavity.
Bleeding from a ruptured uterus can occur either before or after the onset of
labour, although most cases occur during labour itself, especially if oxytocic
agents are being used to augment contractions in combination with
cephalopelvic disproportion.
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Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-major haemorrhage-APH Ruptured uterus
A previous caesarean section scar may rupture during labour. However
obstructed labour, even without a uterine scar, particularly in a woman of high
parity, may cause uterine rupture.
Excessive doses of oxytocin during labour can also precipitate this. Oxytocin is
especially dangerous in multi-parous women and no mother receiving this
drug during labour should be left alone.
Careful thought must be given to the administration of oxytocin in labour
to a woman with a uterine scar, because of the increased risk of uterine
rupture. This applies to women with previous myomectomy as well as to
those with previous caesarean section.
Women with scars in the uterus should only receive oxytocin before
delivery in low resource countries when a high level of supervision is
available.
Ideally, always use a burette in-line giving set to administer IV oxytocin to avoid
over-dosage.
Rupture of the uterus can also occur following violence or major trauma.
Symptoms and signs

Characteristically there is pain and tenderness over the uterus with blood loss vaginally
and cessation of contractions.
Ruptured uterus usually presents with shock, some of which is due to bleeding and some
to increased vagal nerve stimulation (so there may be a slow rather than a fast pulse). The
baby is usually dead or has severe fetal distress.
There may be a change in nature of the pain in labour from severe intermittent pain to a
constant pain.
Vaginal bleeding may or may not be present. Bleeding from a ruptured uterus can fail to
drain vaginally due to an impacted fetal head, and the head should be manipulated to
detect bleeding).
Maternal shock can be made worse by dehydration, exhaustion and acidosis if prolonged
obstructed labour has preceded the rupture.
The abdomen is tender to palpation, and fetal parts are usually too easily palpable.
On vaginal examination, the presenting part may be high or impacted: the fetal head may
have retreated into the uterus.
There may be a marked maternal bradycardia (<60/minute) due to increased vagal tone.
The main differential diagnosis is placental abruption.
Management
1. Suspect in any patient with risk factors such as previous CS
2. Primary assessment, resuscitation and emergency treatment for shock (see belo
3. Call obstetrician and anaesthetist
4. Obtain consent and prepare operating theatre
5. Perform urgent laparotomy
6. Give prophylactic IV antibiotics (ampicillin 1 gram IV/IM 6 hourly, gentamicin 80mg IV/IM 8
hourly or 5mg/Kg body weight IV/IM once every 24 hours and metronidazole 500 mg IV 8
hourly) for 7 days.
See above for the dangers of oxytocin during labour and its management and
contraindications.
4.Vasa praevia
An uncommon, but life-threatening condition for the fetus/neonate. In this condition, fetal
vessels run over, or close to, the cervix beneath the presenting part, unprotected by
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Whartons jelly or placental tissue. These vessels are vulnerable to laceration and
compression, most commonly at the time of delivery.
Fetal or neonatal death can occur due to exsanguination or asphyxiation.
Antenatal diagnosis can be made only by skilled ultrasound. CS is then needed to reduce
high mortality rate
5) Failure of blood clotting
This may be due to a pre-existing coagulation problem, or to complications of the

pregnancy causing excessive bleeding and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC,
consumption of the clotting factors).
Causes include:
placental abruption
pre-eclampsia or eclampsia
retained dead fetus
septicaemia including intra-uterine sepsis
incompatible blood transfusion
amniotic fluid embolism
Primary assessment and resuscitation and secondary assessment and emergency

treatment for bleeding in pregnancy
In any patient with vaginal bleeding after the uterus has been palpated abdominally,
do not do a digital vaginal examination. If placenta praevia is present, such a
procedure can precipitate massive and fatal haemorrhage. A careful speculum
examination can rule out vaginal or cervical causes of APH and an ultrasound scan should
be undertaken to help rule out placenta praevia.
Aims
To prevent shock and disseminated intravascular coagulation
To achieve intact fetal survival if viability is possible in the circumstances
Call for experienced obstetric and anaesthetic assistance (if available) and ensure
the operating theatre is ready
Airway
Open the airway using chin lift or jaw thrust techniques if it is closed or partially obstructed.
If there is improvement, keep the airway open using either an assistant or an
oropharyngeal airway if unconscious and tolerated without gagging.
The airway may need to be secured by intubation using experienced senior help (if
available).
Breathing
Normal respiratory rates in a pregnant mother at rest are 15 to 20/minute: tachypnoea can
be due to acidosis.
Provide high flow oxygen by face mask with reservoir bag for adequate spontaneous
respiration regardless of SaO 2. This increases fetal O2 delivery as well as improving
maternal tissue oxygenation.
If ventilation is inadequate, especially when there is depressed conscious level (P or U on
AVPU scale), airway and breathing should be supported by bag-valve-mask inflations with
high flow oxygen and experienced senior help called, including an anaesthetist if available.
Circulation
Normal heart rates in a pregnant mother at rest are 60 to 90 bpm
Normal blood pressure in a pregnant mother at rest is 105/60 to 120/70
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Dont forget to position the patient in the left lateral tilt or recovery position and elevate the
legs
Monitor HR and BP and reassess regularly. Aim to keep the heart rate at 100 to
110/minute or less and the systolic BP 100mm Hg or more
Recognise signs of hypovolaemia
Tachycardia
Tachypnoea
Cold, pale, sweaty and possibly cyanosed skin
Alteration of mental state: confusion or unconsciousness
Fall in urine output < 30mls per hour
Narrowed pulse pressure
Hypotension (late sign)
Healthy women or girls who are pregnant can maintain a normal blood pressure when
large volumes of blood are lost. Most, but not all, will demonstrate tachycardia if bleeding
significantly, but bradycardia may also be observed.
Remember that young, healthy women can lose a lot of blood before becoming
shocked, especially if it is a slow trickle, rather than a sudden large loss.
Restore circulating volume

Position mother in the left lateral tilt or recovery position to minimise the effects
of compression of the inferior vena cava or aorta. Lateral tilt can be undertaken
with a pillow, blanket or rolled up towel. A wedge may be used during obstetric
procedures. Assistants can also manually displace the uterus.
Manual displacement of uterus and left lateral tilt
Gain intravenous access and take blood for full blood count, cross-match and
blood clotting measurement. If access is not possible consider intraosseous
needle insertion.
o Use a short, wide-bore IV cannula if possible (14 (usually orange) or
16G (usually grey)
o External jugular vein access is a good option if peripheral access is
impossible. Long saphenous vein cut down may also be considered. If
adequately trained personnel are available, central venous access,
ideally via internal jugular vein, can be extremely helpful. If access is
not possible consider intraosseous needle insertion (chapter 8.4.B)
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o Try to obtain two vascular access sites to give large volumes quickly,
and in case one line is lost. Do not waste time, and as soon as the first
IV cannula is in place, give an IV fluid bolus.
o Take blood for XMATCH (ideally 4-6 units), FBC, renal function tests
(if available), and blood clotting.
Elevate legs
Give an initial IV bolus of 500 mL to 1 L of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns solution
as fast as possible using a three way tap and 20-50 mL syringes to push in as
rapidly as possible. If re-assessment of the circulation shows little or no
improvement, then a further 500ml should be repeated and followed by blood
transfusion as soon as this is available. (A normal adult has 5 L circulatory blood
volume, and when pregnant, this increases by 40% to 7 L).
Tranexamic acid can help in patients with continued bleeding, The loading dose
is 1 g over 10 minutes followed by an IV infusion of a further 1 gram over 8
hours. The slow IV bolus dose is given by injecting 1 gram of tranexamic acid
into a 100ml bag of 0.9% saline and letting it run through over about 10-20
minutes (the exact timing is not crucial). The 8 hour infusion is given by injecting
one gram of tranexamic acid into a 500ml bag of 0.9% saline and giving it over 8
hours (approximately 60 ml/hour).
Ensure adequate transfusion; the best resuscitation for the fetus is to resuscitate
the mother. Inadequate transfusion is common, especially in cases of placental
abruption.
A central venous pressure (CVP) line can assist with deciding on whether more
fluid is needed. However, insertion should not delay initial resuscitation, and
must be undertaken by a competent person. If peripheral access is inadequate,
this route may be used for volume replacement. If DIC is established, CVP
insertion is more hazardous and the subclavian vein should be avoided, because
it is not externally compressible.
If shock is accompanied by a bradycardia < 60/minute, (for example with a
ruptured uterus) give Atropine 500 to 600 micrograms as an IV injection.
Blood products
Fresh whole blood is best in managing obstetric haemorrhage.

Use cross-matched blood unless an immediately life- threatening emergency,
when group- specific blood should be used, as cross-matching may take up to an
hour.
The patient's blood group should be established during pregnancy, which
facilitates the provision of blood when needed.
All large volume infusions should be warmed. In particular, do not infuse cold
fluid through a CVP line. The patient should also be kept warm, as hypothermia
will exacerbate poor peripheral perfusion, acidosis and coagulation
abnormalities. Any benefits of blood filters may be outweighed by their
deleterious effect on the speed of transfusion. A good way of warming blood is to
place the cold bag under the clothes of a relative next to their skin until the blood
is warmed.
Hand- inflated pressure bags are effective to give blood and other fluids fast.
Identify and treat any blood clotting disorders.

Assess bedside clotting: failure of clot to form after 7 minutes, or a soft clot that
breaks easily indicates coagulopathy. Suspect, and aggressively treat, blood
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clotting disorders using warmed fresh blood, platelets (if platelet count < 20,000),
fresh frozen plasma (15 mL/kg) and cryoprecipitate as appropriate and if
available.
Freeze dried plasma is being used in the military in adverse conditions as it is
shelf stable for two years and easily reconstituted within minutes with sterile
water. It would be a very useful addition to the emergency stores in resource
poor countries where the use fresh or frozen plasma involves major storage
problems.
Urinary catheterisation for measurement of hourly urine output. Aim for >30
mL/hour.
When stable, move to a place where there is adequate space, light and equipment to
continue resuscitation and treatment.
Fetal assessment
When the mother has been resuscitated:
listen for fetal heart sounds
if significant haemorrhage has occurred and the fetus is considered viable after
birth in the prevailing circumstances, consider immediate delivery only if safe
for the mother.
Anaesthetic issues
Cardiovascular instability is a relative contra-indication to spinal anaesthesia.
Rapid sequence induction agents with minimal peripheral vasodilator action,
such as ketamine 1-2 mg/kg, should be considered.
Adrenaline and atropine should be ready in case of cardiovascular collapse on
induction. Ventilation with high oxygen concentrations may be needed until
bleeding is controlled.
Volatile agents have been associated with increased blood loss due to their
relaxant effects on uterine muscle. Anaesthesia should be maintained with IV
agents (usually ketamine) if uterine atony is a problem.
If spinal anaesthesia is used, compensatory lower limb vasoconstriction is
abolished, so profound hypotension may occur.
Delivery options
Diagnose and treat source of bleeding
CS for major abruption or placenta praevia
Induction of labour if the fetus is dead and no placenta praevia.
o Urine output should be monitored hourly and CS considered if labour
does not become established fairly quickly. The longer the dead fetus
stays in utero the greater the chance of developing DIC
o Expect and be prepared for massive post partum haemorrhage
whether the baby is delivered vaginally or by CS. In cases of severe
APH requiring surgery, discuss the possibility of hysterectomy.
It is the APH that weakens and the PPH that kills because the APH uses up the
clotting factors and platelets leaving the woman in danger if the PPH follows soon
afterwards.
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If no safe operating theatre facilities for CS are present, give oxygen, transfuse fresh blood
and transfer as soon as safe/stable. Ensure IV fluids are in place, catheterise, and ensure
nil by mouth.
Monitoring Essential monitoring should include pulse rate and volume, blood
pressure, respiratory rate, oxygenation (SaO 2 if available), temperature and fluid
balance with a urinary catheter. Regular checks of the haematocrit, clotting studies
and blood gases will help guide resuscitation.
Monitor blood glucose and treat any hypoglycaemia
Pathway of care for massive APH
Call for surgical and anaesthetic help and

initiate resuscitation
Intensive monitoring throughout and keep

Airway the patient warm
Breathing: 100% oxygen and mask/bag if Urinary catheter
not breathing Pulse, BP, temp and SaO2
Consider a CVP line (hazardous if DIC)
Take blood for FBC, clotting Monitor for clotting disorders (and treat)
and cross match 4 to 6 units
Circulation: left lateral tilt or recovery
position and 2 IV lines (14-16G)
Once available give warmed Elevate legs
blood as much and as rapidly
Beware of subsequent PPH
as needed.
Ideally cross matched (takes
1 hour); If shocked: Give 500 ml boluses Ringer-
Blood type specific (takes 15 Lactate or Hartmanns as rapidly as
minutes); possible whilst awaiting blood
O-ve (immediate) *** If clotting disorder present give
warmed fresh blood
Listen for fetal heart sounds
If fetus alive and of viable age consider If no heart sounds confirm fetal death with
immediate delivery ultrasound and exclude placenta praevia
Placenta praevia
Major abruption No placenta praevia
Ruptured uterus
Caesarean section under GA Induce labour
Beware of subsequent PPH as the APH If bleeding continues, consider

may have used up vital clotting factors tranexamic acid and the anti-shock
garment
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Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-major haemorrhage-PPH
Postpartum haemorrhage
The definition of a postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is blood loss of more than 500ml from a
vaginal birth and > 1 litre after a caesarean section. It is common, occurring in 1-3% of all
pregnancies, and globally causes 25-50% of maternal deaths being the leading cause of
death in low resource settings.
Estimates of blood loss are inaccurate and tend to be low, often half the actual loss. Blood
is mixed with amniotic fluid and sometimes with urine. It is dispersed on sponges, towels
and linens, in buckets and on the floor.
The importance of a given volume of blood loss varies with the mothers haemoglobin level.
A mother with a normal Hb will tolerate blood loss that would be fatal for an anaemic
woman. This is why it is essential to ensure that every woman reaching labour has an
adequate haemoglobin.
Even healthy, non-anaemic women can have catastrophic blood loss.
Bleeding may occur at a slow rate over several hours and the condition may not be
recognized until the mother is shocked. Previously well women can compensate for
substantial blood loss until a relatively late stage.
Risk assessment in the antenatal period does not necessarily predict women who will have
PPH. However, identification and treatment of anaemia antenatally will allow women to
better withstand life-threatening postpartum haemorrhage.
Prevention of PPH
Active management of the third stage of labour is essential in preventing PPH and consists
of 4 possible interventions:
1. A prophylactic uterotonic drug after delivery after checking there is not a second
twin present.
2. Early cord clamping and cutting
3. Controlled cord traction
4. Uterine massage after delivery of the placenta
Of these, 1. the uterotonic drug is the most important with oxytocin 10iu IM or, if shocked
5iu by slow (over 1-2 minutes) IV injection, is the first choice because it causes uterine
contraction to prevent atony rapidly with minimal adverse effects. Atony is the most
common cause of PPH (around 80% of cases). Where oxytocin is unavailable or does not
work, other uterotonics should be used including ergometrine 200 or 500 micrograms IM or
misoprostol 600 micrograms sublingually or orally (provided the mother is fully conscious)
or misoprostol 800 micrograms rectally if drowsy or unconscious
All uterotonics should be given within 1 minute of the complete birth of the fetus to aid
separation of the placenta by enhancing uterine contractions and reducing the risk of
bleeding from an atonic (relaxed) uterus. It is essential that you are certain there is not
another fetus in the uterus before such drugs are given.
Ensure that both oxytocin and ergometrine are protected from heat damage by close
attention to the cold chain and their storage, otherwise they may not be effective. Store
oxytocin ideally in a fridge but it can be kept at 15-30 degrees C for 3 months. Oxytocin
must never be frozen. Store ergometrine in a fridge at 2-8 degrees C all of the time.
Remember that ergometrine is contraindicated in heart disease, hypertension, pre-
eclampsia and eclampsia, as it raises the blood pressure by vasoconstriction, with
the risk of cerebrovascular accidents. Misoprostol is not affected by ambient
temperature.
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Early cord clamping and cutting (2) as part of the active management of the third stage is
not an essential part of the active management and is no longer recommended unless the
infant needs resuscitation.
Controlled cord traction (3) is optional where delivery is undertaken by a skilled birth
attendant but contraindicated if a skilled attendant is not available. Details are given in
chapter 2.3.
Strong uterine massage (4) should always be undertaken immediately after delivery of the
placenta until the uterus is contracted and remains so. Check the state of contraction of
the uterus every 15 minutes for 2 hours and repeat massage if at any time the uterus
becomes soft and relaxed.
Figure 1 Strong massage applied to cause uterus to contract
In order to prevent PPH during/after caesarean section oxytocin plus cord traction is
recommended in preference to manual removal of the placenta.
rd
How to manage the 3 stage if uterotonic drugs are not available?
Unfortunately it is not uncommon for hospitals to run out of uterotonic drugs. In this
avoidable and dangerous situation, expectant/physiological management should be
undertaken.
1. Place baby on mothers breast
2. Leave cord alone
3. Observe for signs of placental separation:
A small gush of blood
A lengthening of the cord at the introitus
The mother feels uncomfortable, feels a contraction and wants to bear
down
Most placenta separate within 1 hour of birth. If not seek help.
4. Deliver the placenta
Sit the mother upright
Encourage mother to bear down with a contraction (only after
separation)
Catch the placenta. If membranes are dragging behind gently twist a
few turns and with slight traction and an up-and-down movement
deliver the placenta plus membranes
Controlled cord traction should not be undertaken prior to the separation of the placenta
in the absence of uterotonic drugs.
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Monitoring after the placenta has been delivered by active or expectant management
1. Monitor BP, pulse and state of the uterus (is it contracted?) every 15 minutes for
2 hours after placenta delivery.
2. Examine placenta for completeness.
Causes of PPH
Primary PPH
Occurs within 24 hours of birth with 80% due to uterine atony.
Remember the 4 Ts : Tone, Tissue, Trauma, Thrombin
Tone: atonic uterus: failure to contract after birth

Tissue: retained placenta or placental fragments
Trauma: ruptured uterus, or trauma to cervix, vagina or perineum
Thrombin: clotting defects, notably disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
Remember also:
Haemorrhage may be concealed within the uterus or within the abdominal cavity
Ruptured uterus can cause concealed bleeding, as can bleeding following CS.
Inverted uterus is associated with PPH
Any degree of PPH is dangerous if there has been severe anaemia before delivery.
Secondary PPH (24 hours or more after delivery up to 6 weeks after birth) is commonly
associated with retained products of conception which undergo necrosis, become infected
and prevent involution (sustained contraction) of the uterus. A fever suggests an infective
component.
See below for management of this problem.

Factors predisposing to PPH
Previous APH
Retained products of conception
Trauma to uterus or birth canal (e.g. from instrumental delivery)
Uterine over-distension (e.g. multiple pregnancy or polyhydramnios)
Grand multiparity
Prolonged labour
Table 1 Diagnosis of causes of PPH
Symptoms Signs Possible diagnosis
Immediate heavy bleeding Uterus soft and not Atonic uterus

after birth contracted
Immediate heavy bleeding Uterus contracted Trauma to cervix, vagina or
after birth perineum
Bleeding which may be light Placenta not delivered Retained placenta
if clot is blocking cervix within 30 minutes of birth
Bleeding which is usually Portion of placenta missing Retained placental parts
light but continues for many
hours
Uterus contracted
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Bleeding for > 24 hours Portion of placenta missing Retained placental parts +/-
Foul smelling lochia may be infection
present
Fever may be present
Severe anaemia
Lower abdominal pain of Uterus not felt on abdominal Inverted uterus
varying intensity palpation
Immediate but usually light Inverted uterus may be
bleeding seen at vulva
Bradycardia may be present
Shock
Usually during labour there Shock Ruptured uterus (more
has been a change from Abdominal distension likely before delivery of the
intermittent labour Tender over uterus baby)
contractions to a constant
pain which may become
less after rupture has
occurred
Sometimes oxytocin drip in
place
Vaginal bleeding which may
be light or heavy
History of a previous CS or
other operation on the
uterus
Management of PPH
First call for help (include surgeon and anaesthetist), palpate the uterus and
massage it strongly and immediately as it is most likely that an atonic uterus is the
cause (see Figure 1 and below).

Ensure the airway is open and remains open.
Provide high flow oxygen through a face mask with reservoir bag if adequate
spontaneous respiration. Give 100% oxygen (mask with reservoir and high flow rate).
For inadequate ventilation or depressed conscious level (assessed by AVPU), respiration
should be supported as appropriate with oxygen via a bag-valve-mask, and experienced
senior help summoned (if available).
Circulation
Primary assessment denoting shock

Fast, weak pulse (100 to 110 per minute or more). Normal heart rates in a
pregnant mother at rest are 60-90 bpm. Tachycardia is an early sign of
shock.
Low volume (weak) pulse.
Pallor (especially of inner eyelid, palms or around mouth).
Sweatiness or cold clammy skin.
Prolonged capillary refill time (> 3 seconds).
Rapid breathing (> 30 breaths per minute). Normal respiratory rates at rest
are 15 to 20; tachypnoea can be due to acidosis.
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Low BP (systolic less than 90 to 100mm Hg) is a very late sign. Healthy
women and girls can maintain a normal or even high blood pressure while
large volumes of blood are lost.
Nausea +/- vomiting
Anxiety, confusion or unconsciousness.
Reduced urine output (<30 mL per hour). Urinary catheterisation is needed
for measurement of hourly urine output if shocked (normal >30 mL/hour).
Procedures for stopping haemorrhage must be started first and then undertaken in
parallel with IV fluid resuscitation.
Measures to stop further haemorrhage due to uterine atony
Rubbing up a contraction
Poor contraction of the uterus after delivery is the commonest cause of post-partum
haemorrhage. Rub up a contraction of the uterus (not just pinch the skin).
As the muscle fibres are stimulated to contract, they compress the blood vessels running
between the muscle fibres and help to stop bleeding.
Abdominal massage of the uterus

If the uterus is atonic, a contraction may be rubbed up by abdominal massage.
o Massage fundus firmly and continuously in a circular motion with cupped palm
of the hands until contracted
o When well contracted, place fingers behind fundus and push down in one swift
action to expel clots
Uterotonic drugs, drugs to make the uterus contract

Give 10iu of oxytocin IM or 5 iu IV slowly especially if already shocked and repeat after 5
minutes if still bleeding and/or uterus is not contracted. This is the drug of first choice.
It starts to work 2-3 minutes after IV injection, but has a relatively short duration of action,
and an infusion will be needed to maintain a contracted uterus. Following an oxytocin
bolus, give an IV infusion of oxytocin 40 iu in 500 mL (60 drops per minute with a standard
IV giving set where 20 drops = 1ml) or 1 litre (120 drops per minute) of Ringer-Lactate or
Hartmanns over 4 hours
Side-effects include hypotension (due to vasodilatation when given as a rapid IV bolus) and
fluid retention.
If the mother does not have eclampsia, pre-eclampsia or hypertension, ergometrine 200 to
500 micrograms IM in addition may help uterine contraction.
If the first dose of oxytocin does not stop bleeding within a few minutes, give misoprostol
(which, unlike oxytocin and ergometrine, does not need to be kept in a refrigerator). It is
given rectally as 4 x 200 microgram tablets or pessaries (800 micrograms total) or, if
conscious, orally 3 x 200 microgram tablets or 400 micrograms powder sublingually.
Ergometrine as part of Syntometrine (oxytocin 5 iu ergometrine plus 500 micrograms IM) or

alone, is contra-indicated in pre-eclampsia due to its hypertensive action where it increases
the risk of convulsions and cerebrovascular accidents.
Urinary catheterisation
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This may help the uterus contract.
Bimanual uterine compression

If heavy PPH continues despite uterine massage and oxytocin/ergometrine/misoprostol,
and the placenta has been removed, apply bimanual uterine compression.
Must wear sterile or disinfected gloves
Introduce right hand into vagina, clench fist with back of hand posteriorly and
knuckles in the anterior fornix.
Place other hand on abdomen behind the uterus and squeeze the uterus firmly
between both hands.
Continue compression until bleeding stops (no bleeding when compression
released), and uterus is contracted.
This procedure is painful and should only be undertaken when there is no other option. It
is best used to give time for other actions to work.
Bimanual compression
Aortic compression
If bleeding still persists, apply aortic compression.
Apply downward pressure with a closed fist (with the thumb outside the fist) over the
abdominal aorta directly through the abdominal wall:
The point of compression is just above the umbilicus and slightly
to the left;
Aortic pulsations can be felt through the anterior abdominal wall
in the immediate postpartum period. Press the aorta down onto
the vertebral column.
With the other hand, palpate the femoral pulse with 4 fingers parallel to and
just below the inguinal ligament to check the adequacy of compression:
If the pulse is palpable during compression, the pressure exerted
by the fist is inadequate;
If the femoral pulse is not palpable, the pressure exerted is
adequate;
Aortic compression
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Continue until bleeding stops. If bleeding continues, continue pressure whilst transferring
mother to a facility where expert help is available.
Uterine tamponade
Uterine packing with a hydrostatic balloon such as a Rusch balloon or condom over a
simple in-out urinary catheter can help to control haemorrhage from an atonic uterus that
does not respond to the above measures.
A condom catheter, which is inserted into the uterus as a sterile procedure and filled with
250 to 500 mL sterile Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns or 0.9% saline to create a uterine wall
tamponade, is an effective way of stopping uterine bleeding which is continuing despite
uterotonic drugs and procedures. It is important that care is taken to ensure that the
balloon is fully inside the uterus as it is inflated and that measures are taken to ensure that
it does not become displaced into the vagina.
Condom catheter inflated with sterile IV fluid
Leave the balloon in until the bleeding has stopped for 3-4 hours. Prior to removal ensure
that at least 1 unit of cross matched blood for possible transfusion is available, plus group
and save procedure if more blood is required. Theatre staff and an anaesthetist should be
warned in case of bleeding when the catheter is removed. One approach is to remove 50
mL every 30 minutes until it is fully emptied. Observe closely for 4 hours after removal,
looking at vaginal blood loss and vital signs. IV antibiotics (ampicillin 2 g IV should be
given when the catheter is put into place and continued (ampicillin 2 g 6 hourly) for 48
hours .
Fluid resuscitation to maintain perfusion of vital organs (brain, heart and kidneys)
undertaken at the same time as the above manoeuvres
Elevate legs (raise foot of bed).
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Try to obtain two vascular access sites to give large volumes quickly and in case one
line is lost. Insert wide-bore IV cannula x 2 (14G-16G) and send blood for full blood
count, cross-match (4-6 units) and clotting. If peripheral veins are difficult to access,
external jugular or long saphenous vein cut-down are good alternatives. If a skilled
person is available, an internal jugular vein central line is can be helpful especially if
CVP can be measured.
If venous access is not possible consider inserting an intra-osseous line using the
newly available drill system (see chapter 8.4.B)
Give 500 ml of O negative blood if it is immediately available. If not, standard
practice is to give an initial rapid IV bolus of 1 liter of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
solution (or of 0.9% saline if the former are not available) whilst awaiting blood for
transfusion. It is essential that the IV bolus is given as rapidly as possible, with the aid
of pressure bags or manual pressure. A BP cuff wrapped around the fluid bag and
inflated can be used to speed up infusions. (Figure 9). An alternative is to push the
boluses in using a 20-50 mL syringe (with a 3 way tap linked to the IV giving set).
As soon as it is available, give as rapidly as possible 1 unit of blood (500ml) and
repeat as required. Fresh blood is particularly useful to combat the coagulopathy that
occurs in major blood loss if specific coagulation components such as platelets are
unavailable. Remember blood loss is usually underestimated.
Further 500-1000 mL boluses of IV crystalloid or blood, if available, will usually be
required in the first 1 hour. Once >2 L has been given IV, complications such as
pulmonary oedema may sometimes occur, so watch for circulatory over-load.
The concept of controlled hypotensive resuscitation may be helpful here. The initial
boluses of IV crystalloids required to treat shock should only be given to keep the vital
organs (especially brain, heart and kidneys) perfused before blood becomes available and,
of most importance, specific treatments to stop the bleeding have started working. Giving
too much IV crystalloid fluids could theoretically increase bleeding by disrupting early clot
formation. There is no clear evidence to indicate the precise blood pressure that should be
achieved in a woman in shock due to PPH. Adequate perfusion of vital organs may be
indicated by a radial pulse which can be palpated and a fully alert conscious level.
In this situation, therefore, we start with IV boluses of 500 mL of crystalloid or ideally blood
and reassess after each.
Keep patient warm but do not overheat as this will cause peripheral vasodilatation and
reduce blood to vital centres. Hypothermia will exacerbate poor peripheral perfusion,
acidosis and coagulation abnormalities.
If there is evidence for a blood clotting problem give fresh frozen plasma and/or other
clotting factors, if available.
Further IV fluid administration should be guided by response of pulse rate, blood
pressure, capillary refill time, and later by hourly urine output. Aim for a pulse rate
100-110 or less and BP systolic 90-100 mmHg or more and stable.
Pressure bag over Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns bag or blood
Blood products
Fresh whole blood is the best. Full cross-match of blood may take up to an hour. In an
emergency, group specific blood should be used. The patient's blood group should have
been established during pregnancy, which facilitates the provision of blood when needed.
O rhesus negative blood can be transfused in acute emergencies.
137
All large volume infusions of blood should be warmed. A good way is to place each bag of
blood or fluid under a relatives clothes next to their skin. Do not infuse cold fluid directly
through a central venous line.
New treatments that could be valuable in treating PPH
Tranexamic acid
If there is continuing bleeding, especially if caused by trauma of the genital tract, this
inexpensive and safe drug can be helpful. Recent evidence has shown that tranexamic
acid can reduce mortality from major haemorrhage in major trauma in adults. The drug
should be started as soon as possible and within the first 3 hours after the onset of major
haemorrhage to be effective.
The loading dose is 1 g over 10 minutes followed by an IV infusion of a further 1 gram over
8 hours.
The slow IV bolus dose is given by injecting 1 gram of tranexamic acid into a 100ml bag of
0.9% saline and letting it run through over about 10-20 minutes (the exact timing is not
crucial).
The 8 hour infusion is given by injecting one gram of tranexamic acid into a 500ml bag of
0.9% saline and giving it over 8 hours (approximately 60 ml/hour). If there is a gap
between the initial bolus and the subsequent infusion this probably does not matter too
much, but ideally one should follow the other.
The Non-pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment (NASG)
This compression garment is made from Neoprene, a stretchable material that recoils and
applies pressure through the skin. It feels like a tight diving wet-suit to wear and consists
of 5 segments that compress the legs (segments 1-3), pelvis (segment 4) and abdomen
(segment 5). (see Figures 10 and 11). The abdominal segment includes a foam
compression ball that presses on the area of the uterus. The segments are held in place
by Velcro. It is a very promising, potentially life-saving technique for low resource settings
that continues to undergo clinical assessment.
NASG garment before it is placed on the patient
Preliminary pre and post intervention trials have shown that it significantly reduces shock,
reduces blood loss, reduces the need for emergency hysterectomy, and reduces maternal
mortality and severe morbidity associated with PPH and other causes of obstetric
haemorrhage. Randomised controlled trials are currently underway by WHO and others in
Zambia and Zimbabwe.
The NASG is reported to reduce shock by compressing blood vessels in the lower parts of
the body diverting up to 30% of total blood volume to the heart, lungs, brain and possibly
138
kidneys. There is evidence that, through the applied pressures of 25-50 mmHg, it
decreases blood flow in the pelvis and, in PPH, blood loss from the atonic uterus.
It is particularly promising in settings where there can be delays in transfer into sites where
comprehensive EMOC is available and where blood transfusion and surgery can be
undertaken. In such settings, even in hospitals, blood transfusion is frequently delayed for
between 1 and 3 hours with O negative blood rarely available and supplies of stored blood
precarious. The NASG by stabilising the patient gives time for blood transfusion to become
established and other treatments to be given, as well as possibly/probably by reducing the
amount of blood that subsequently needs to be transfused.
NASG on a patient
As reported by FIGO, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, The

NASG is not a definitive treatment-the woman will still need to have the source of bleeding
found and definitive therapy performed. We would qualify this and substitute the word
may for will, since sometimes the bleeding, particularly in PPH, may be reduced during
the application of the NASG and advanced treatments such as surgery will not then be
required.
The NASG is applied in sequence from the lower legs up to the abdominal compression
segment (segment 5). With experience it can be applied by one person in 2 minutes,
although taking from 5-10 minutes if the applicator is alone and unused to applying it. Help
from others present, such as porters or relatives, can be valuable. In PPH from uterine
atony, it is particularly important that someone is massaging the uterus and giving the other
treatments outlined above when the NASG is being applied. After it is in place the legs no
longer need to be elevated and the uterus can still be externally massaged by placing a
hand underneath the pelvic segment of the NASG. Vaginal examinations and repair of
cervical or vaginal tears can be performed whilst the NASG is in place. The pelvic and
abdominal segments can be opened for surgery such as emergency hysterectomy or B-
Lynch sutures.
The NASG can be applied in addition to all the other measures for PPH described above
when signs of shock first appear. The only contraindication is known heart disease. The
aim with all treatments is for a pulse rate 100-110 or less and BP systolic 90-100 mmHg or
more and stable in a woman who is fully alert and has a urine output of 30 ml/hour or more.
The NASG is removed segment by segment when bleeding has reduced to safe levels and
the patient has been cardiovascularly stable for at least 2 hours (BP 90-100 mmHg systolic
or more, heart rate 100-110/minute or less and Hb 7g/dl or more). Removal begins at the
ankles with 15 minute gaps between each segment opened and clinical measurements
before each segment is removed. If the systolic BP drops by 20mmHg or more and/or
heart rate increases by 20 / minute or more then re-apply that segment of the NASG and
consider additional treatments such as more blood transfusion.
139
Between patients, the NASG can be laundered as for blood stained sheets. First soak in
0.5% chloride solution for 15 minutes. Then wash and scrub with a soft brush in soapy
water. Finally rinse in clean water and air-dry. Fold and store when fully dried.
Each NASG can be used 50-100 times and costs at present 150 to 200 US dollars.
Stop bleeding due to trauma to perineum, cervix or vagina

If the bleeding continues despite all the measure above, examine perineum, vagina and
cervix with a sterile speculum. Postpartum bleeding with a contracted uterus is usually due
to a cervical or vaginal tear. Trauma to the lower genital tract is the second most frequent
cause of PPH, and may coexist with an atonic uterus.
Examine the mother carefully and repair tears. Bleeding from trauma can be substantial
and lead to death, especially if there is pre-existing severe anaemia. Suture packs, torch,
Sims speculum and sutures must always be immediately available on the PPH emergency
trolley.
Initially stop bleeding with sterile packing until a surgeon is able to repair the wounds.
It is always essential to ensure that the uterus is contracted even when a traumatic cause
is present.
Repairing a vaginal perineal tear

Get a good light, and start at the top of the tear.
A. Put into the lithotomy position only if the tear extends high into the vagina.
B. Use a cutting needle on the skin and a round-bodied needle on other tissues.
C Put the first stitch in high up.
D. When you get to the junction between the vaginal mucosa and the skin, put a needle
through the loop and tie a knot.
E. The completed knot.
F. Putting the stitches into the muscle and fascia.
G and H. Put the needle in through the skin on one side, and then on the other.
I. Use interrupted sutures.
Repairing a bleeding cervical tear

Search all round the patients cervix with ring forceps, and then suture by starting at the
highest point.
If you cannot insert sutures, control bleeding by vaginal pack and transfer
140
Stopping bleeding due to retained placenta or retained products of conception.
Examine the placenta and ensure it is complete.
Retained placenta
Definitions: 1) After active management of the third stage and the placenta is not delivered
within 30 minutes of birth
2) After expectant management of the third stage and the placenta is not delivered within
60 minutes of the birth.
Risk factors include a full bladder, a previous retained placenta, high parity, uterine fibroid,
history of previous uterine surgery and placenta praevia. It may become trapped in the
cervix or lower uterus. There may be no bleeding with a retained placenta, especially if
there is abnormal adherence (placenta accreta).
It occurs in around 2% of deliveries.
Management of retained placenta

If there is a clinically significant post partum haemorrhage (PPH), the placenta must
be removed urgently. Call for help including anaesthetist and obstetrician, insert a
venous cannula, and take blood for Hb and cross match as for PPH and ensure operating
theatre is ready.
Massage the uterus and, if there is atony, manage as for PPH above. However, although
oxytocin should be used as necessary, do not give ergometrine because it causes tonic
uterine contraction, which may delay expulsion.
Cause 1. The placenta is separated but trapped in the lower part of the uterus or cervix.
If the placenta is undelivered after 30 minutes of oxytocin stimulation, and the uterus is
contracted and the placenta separated (usually indicated by the gushing of blood and rising
of the uterus into the abdomen as a firm, more movable structure as with a normal
placental separation and delivery), attempt controlled cord traction. During this procedure,
and at all times, a hand is present on the abdomen supporting the uterus and preventing it
from inversion. Note: Avoid forceful cord traction and fundal pressure, as they may cause
uterine inversion.
This situation usually responds to firm and persistent traction on the cord with the other
hand countering this on the uterus to prevent inversion. Ensure that the bladder is empty.
Ask the mother to empty the bladder or catheterise the bladder, if necessary. If you can
see the placenta, ask the mother to push it out; an upright position may help. Undertake a
sterile vaginal examination and if you can feel the placenta in the vagina or cervix, remove
it.
Cause 2. The placenta has failed to separate from the uterus.

If controlled cord traction plus uterotonic drugs are unsuccessful, manual removal of
placenta is required (see below). Note: if the cord has broken from the placenta, it is still
possible for the placenta to be pushed out by contractions and by the mother.
Cause 3 The placenta is morbidly attached to the uterus

Very adherent tissue may be placenta accreta a situation that is more likely after a previous
caesarean section. Efforts to extract a placenta that does not separate easily may result in
heavy bleeding or uterine perforation which usually requires hysterectomy. In such cases
the placenta can be left in-situ and should separate and expel itself over time. In these
cases the mother must be observed carefully for signs of infection, given prophylactic (one
dose) antibiotics (ampicillin 2g IV/IM plus 80mg gentamicin IV or IM 8 hourly or 5mg/Kg
141
Section 11 Medical emergencies pregnancy- PPH, retained placenta and manual removal
body weight IV/IM once every 24 hours ) and warned about what to expect when the
placenta is eventually expelled.
If bleeding continues, assess clotting status using a bedside clotting test. Failure of a clot to
form after 7 minutes or a soft clot that breaks down easily, suggests coagulopathy.
If there are signs of infection (fever with foul-smelling vaginal discharge), give antibiotics as
for endometritis.
Manual removal of placenta

This is a painful procedure with a high risk for infection unless undertaken using full sterile
procedures. In many low resource settings, manual removal of the placenta is undertaken
without analgesia or anaesthesia and often not even in the operating theatre.
Unless undertaken as an emergency for major PPH, we consider it should be undertaken

in an operating theatre with preceding morphine or ketamine (1-2 mg/Kg or 50-100mg)
slowly IV in the presence of an anaesthetist. Elbow-length sterile gloves should be used.
Provided active PPH is not occurring, the mother should first be adequately resuscitated
with IV fluids/blood and oxygen. There should be close monitoring of pulse rate, blood
pressure, oxygen saturation and urine output. Facilities for blood transfusion and, if
necessary, emergency hysterectomy should ideally be available.
After removal of the placenta, massage the uterus to encourage tonic uterine contraction.
An IV infusion of oxytocin 40 units in 500 mL or 1 litre of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
should be administered over 4 hours to ensure continued uterine contraction.
A single dose of prophylactic antibiotics should be given just before all manual removals
(IV or IM ampicillin 2g plus 80 mg IM/IV gentamicin).
Introducing one hand into the vagina along the cord:
Supporting the fundus while detaching the placenta. Reach the placenta from the
implantation site by keeping the fingers tightly together and using the edge of the hand to
gradually make a space between the placenta and the uterine wall.
142
Withdrawing the hand plus the placenta from the uterus
Treatment of PPH which continues despite all of the above interventions

Reassess. Is bleeding continuing? Is there a clotting disorder? Assess clotting status
using a bedside clotting test. Failure of a clot to form after 7 minutes or a soft clot that
breaks down easily suggests coagulopathy.
If bleeding continues, re-examine and ensure that the oxytocin IV infusion is running
correctly. (40 units oxytocin in 500 mL Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns over 4 hours).
Exclude: Inverted uterus
Retained products
Damage to genital tract: check for bleeding from the cervix, vaginal walls and perineum.
Management if all of the above fails to control PPH
DO NOT WAIT TOO LONG
Operative interventions
B Lynch sutures
Hysterectomy may be life- saving, and should be considered early to reduce risk of life-
threatening coagulopathy.
Check Hb or haematocrit after resuscitation, and consider oral iron if anaemic.
Treatment of secondary PPH

This is particularly dangerous in low resource settings. Severe and life-threatening
anaemia can rapidly develop and frequently the woman is admitted in shock and urgently
requiring blood transfusion. Severe life-threatening septic shock can also develop.
Assess vital signs and temperature and if shocked proceed as above for massive PPH.
Assess the uterine size and perform speculum examination and note whether the cervix is
still open. Take a high vaginal swab for bacteriology if available before antibiotics are
given.
Insert an IV line and take blood for Hb, blood cultures, cross match and blood clotting (as
DIC may occur)
143
Urgently start 7 days treatment with IV antibiotics as the bleeding is often secondary to
infection. This especially likely if there is foul smelling lochia, a fever, or there has been
prolonged rupture of membranes prior to delivery.
Give IV ampicillin 2 g IV every 6 hours;
PLUS gentamicin 80mg IV or IM every 8 hours or 5mg/Kg body weight IV/IM once every 24
hours;
PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV every 8 hours;
OR ceftriaxone 2grams IV or IM once daily plus metronidazole 500 mg IV every 8 hours.
Provide blood transfusion (ideally fresh blood) if Hb < 5g/dl or < 7.5 g/dl with symptoms
suggesting early cardiac failure or shock.
Examine for suspected retained placental fragments but beware of the great risk of uterine
perforation. Feel inside the uterus using elbow length sterile gloves, and try to remove any
retained products manually or using ovum forceps. Be very careful not to perforate the
uterus. Placental tissue that sticks to the uterus may be placenta accreta, which may result
in heavy bleeding (see below for management). If the cervical os has already started to
close, this approach might not be possible. If a curette is used, it should be blunt, and great
caution should be taken as the uterus will be soft and easy to perforate. A vacuum
aspirator, as used for treating miscarriage, or digital curettage may be a safer choice.
Laparotomy is occasionally needed to deal with the continued bleeding from an infected or
ruptured uterine incision or infected placental bed.
Evacuating the uterus
Management of placenta accreta This serious complication is caused by the placenta

being morbidly adherent to deeper layers in the uterine muscle or even external to the
uterus. It is more common after a previous Caesarean section and in the presence of a
placenta praevia. Any woman with a history of caesarean section and with a placenta
praevia in this pregnancy is at serious risk of placenta accreta. Adherent portions should
be left attached as trying to separate them can cause severe bleeding. There is a risk of
infection and prophylactic antibiotics may help reduce this complication. Where there is
significant haemorrhage, uterine and vaginal packing with gauze or balloon tamponade (in
low resource situations a condom-catheter may be the most effective) can halt the bleeding
and eventually allow the placenta to disintegrate on its own. Hysterectomy will be needed
if bleeding cannot be stopped by the measures described above. Ensure cross matched
blood is available and closely monitor for shock and regularly monitor haemoglobin and
blood clotting status.
Anaesthetic issues in managing PPH
Cardiovascular instability is a relative contra-indication to regional blockade.
144
Rapid sequence induction agents with minimal peripheral vasodilator action, such as
ketamine, should be considered. Adrenaline and atropine should be ready in case of
cardiovascular collapse on induction. Ventilation with high concentrations of oxygen may
be needed until bleeding is controlled.
Volatile agents have been associated with increased blood loss due to their relaxant effects
on uterine muscle. Anaesthesia should be maintained with IV agents (ketamine or
etomidate) if uterine atony is contributing to haemorrhage.
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
Suspect and aggressively treat coagulopathy using warmed fresh blood, platelets, fresh
frozen plasma and cryoprecipitate as appropriate and available. It is more likely if there
has been a previous ante-partum haemorrhage.
Sheehans syndrome
Very rarely, massive PPH can cause pituitary infarction Sheehans syndrome. This
presents initially as failure of breast-feeding, then no return of menstrual bleeding, fatigue,
low blood pressure and loss of pubic and axillary hair. Treatment is with replacement
hormones, including oestrogen, progesterone, thyroid and adrenal hormones. Specialist
endocrinological advice is necessary
Monitoring after PPH

Once bleeding is controlled, frequent observations of respiratory rate, pulse rate, BP,
urinary output and oxygen saturation (if available) are vital both to detect problems and to
monitor the response to treatment. At least 48 hours of close observations are required.
145
Pathway of care for PPH
Call for help and initiate resuscitation

Immediately massage the uterus
Airway
Breathing: high flow oxygen and mask/bag
if stops breathing
Circulation: Stop bleeding by continuous

Take blood for FBC, clotting
massage and giving uterotonic drugs: Continually reassess ABC
and cross match 6 units
Oxytocin 10 iu IM or 5iu IV slowly if Urinary catheter
shocked and maintain contraction with Regularly monitor pulse volume
Once available give warmed oxytocin 40 iu in 500ml Ringer-Lactate or and rate, BP, temp and SaO2
blood as much and as rapidly Hartmanns over 4 hours Place baby on breast as soon
as needed. Place as well enough
Ideally cross matched (takes 2 IV lines (14-16G cannula) Treat coagulation problem with
1 hour); fresh blood and if possible
Blood type specific (takes 15 platelets and clotting factors
minutes); If shocked: Give 500 ml boluses Ringer-
O negative (immediate) Lactate or Hartmanns as rapidly as
possible whilst awaiting blood
Elevate legs
If still bleeding
If placenta is in place: remove urgently

If still bleeding and shocked: try ergometrine* 200 mcg IV over
2-3 minutes
If still bleeding: add misoprostol (3 x 200 micrograms orally or
sublingually or 4 x 200 microgram rectally if drowsy) * do not give ergometrine if pre-
Consider tranxenamic acid and NASG eclampsia
If still bleeding
If still bleeding examine cervix and vagina for lacerations: if

present pack and take to theatre for repair
If no lacerations and still bleeding from uterus:
Apply bimanual compression and/or aortic compression whilst
assembling hydrostatic balloon (condom catheter) into uterus
inflated with 250-500 ml sterile crystalloid
If still bleeding
Laparotomy and possible hysterectomy

Do not leave it too late
146
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-septic shock
Septic causes of shock
Sepsis is a common cause of maternal death and long term morbidity.
Important causes of sepsis in obstetric patients

o Infection of the uterus and birth canal after septic abortion or birth of the baby: postpartum
endometritis (puerperal sepsis)
o Acute gastroenteritis
o Pneumonia
o Meningitis
o Malaria
o Pyelonephritis
o Wound infection
o Acute appendicitis with peritonitis
Clinical signs of sepsis

o tachypnoea
o tachycardia
o fever
o altered mental state
o shock
Some septic patients may not have a fever. Infection after delivery can be slow in onset
and progress rapidly. Treatment of underlying infection must be linked to monitoring and
supporting failing organ functions. Appropriate monitoring in the early stages of sepsis
includes temperature, pulse, respiratory rate, blood pressure, SaO 2 and hourly urine
output. Early investigations include full blood count, whole blood clotting time, urine
microscopy, urea and electrolytes, liver function tests and blood cultures.
Management of sepsis
Maintenance of adequate oxygenation is an important step in the resuscitation of patients
with sepsis. Many patients who develop shock will ideally require intensive care including
intubation and ventilation because of the development of adult respiratory distress
syndrome.
Circulation
Almost all patients with septic shock have hypovolaemia and IV fluid resuscitation is a
mainstay of treatment. Patients who remain hypotensive despite adequate fluid
resuscitation will require more intensive fluid management with central venous pressure
monitoring and inotropes.
Prevention of sepsis
Prophylactic antibiotics should be seriously considered following invasive procedures such
as Caesarean Section, manual removal of placenta and during the delivery of a pregnant
woman or girl with a valvular heart disease. Septic abortion is a major cause of mortality
and antibiotic cover should be considered for instrumental uterine evacuation.
147
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-puerperal sepsis
Severe infection in the puerperal period
Diagnosis of infection after childbirth
Table 1 Symptoms and signs of infection to lead to diagnosis and treatment
Symptoms Signs Investigati Diagnosis Treatment

ons
Rigors/chills Fever (usually > 38 Full blood Endometritis Treat shock

Lower degrees C count urgently if
abdominal/pelvic Tender uterus including present
pain Shock White IV antibiotics
Foul smelling Delayed rate of blood cell Ampicillin 2 g
liquor involution of uterus count IV/IM every 6
Persistent light Blood hours;
vaginal bleeding culture - PLUS
History of Lochia for Gentamicin
incomplete microscopy 80mg IV/IM
placenta delivered , culture every 8 hours
History of and or 5mg/Kg body
prolonged rupture sensitivity weight IV/IM
of membranes, once every 24
frequent unsterile hours;
vaginal - PLUS
examinations in Metronidazole
labour 500 mg IV
every 8 hours
Breast pain Tender over breast Mastitis If evidence of
Rigors Red wedge shaped bacterial
area of induration of infection is
one breast suspected give
Fever > 38 degrees anti-
C staphylococcal
antibiotics
Flucloxacillin or
cephalexin
orally for 7 days
Breast pain Swinging fever Breast Surgical
Rigors/chills/malai Fluctuant swelling abscess drainage
se in the breast, If systemically
possibly with very unwell
pointing and anti-
draining of pus staphylococcal
antibiotics IV
Flucloxacillin or
Cefotaxime or
ceftriaxone
History of High, swinging Wound Surgical
Caesarean section fever abscess drainage
Rigors, chills, Swelling and
148
malaise redness around
incision
Severe abdominal High fever Peritonitis Treat shock
pain Abdominal IV antibiotics
Vomiting distension Naso- gastric
Rigid abdomen tube
Absent bowel Immediate
sounds laparotomy in
Shock (see above operating
for signs) theatre
Lower abdominal Swinging fever Full blood Pelvic IV antibiotics
pain Swelling in adnexae count abscess Ampicillin 2 g
Diarrhea or pouch of including IV/IM every 6
History of CS Douglas White hours;
Tender uterus blood cell - PLUS
Ultrasound count Gentamicin
Blood 80mg IV/IM
culture every 8 hours
Pus for or 5mg/Kg body
microscopy weight IV/IM
, culture once every 24
and hours;
sensitivity - PLUS
Metronidazole
500 mg IV
every 8 hours
Surgical
drainage
Pain in the lower High fever Microscop Pyelonephriti IV antibiotics
abdomen or loin Tender one of the e urine s (see chapter
Nausea/vomiting loins over the Stick tests If shock ,
Increased kidney for initiate
frequency of Normal bowel infection (if immediate
passing urine sounds available) treatment
Urine
culture and
sensitivity
if possible
Difficulty breathing Fever Chest Xray Pneumonia IV antibiotics
Cough sometimes Respiratory distress Ultrasound (see chapter
with expectoration Signs of if effusion 2.8.A
Pleuritic chest pain consolidation/effusi
on
Rigors Fever Full blood Malaria Anti-malarial

Headache Enlarged spleen count drugs (see
Muscle/joint pains Shock Thick film chapter 2.8.D)
Reduced for
consciousness parasites
Jaundice Blood
Anaemia glucose
Fitting
149
Endometritis (the most serious and common cause of puerperal sepsis)
Accounts for up to 15% of maternal deaths in poorly resourced countries.
Infection of retained products of conception is the most common cause (suspect if

excessive vaginal bleeding or poor involution of uterus). This can lead to long-term health
problems - infertility, chronic pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancies.
Defined as infection of the genital tract any time between the onset of rupture of the
membranes or labour and the forty second day following delivery or abortion, in which two
or more of the following are present:
abdominal/pelvic pain
fever of 37.5 degrees C or more (can be masked by paracetamol/other anti-
pyretic drugs)
abnormal quantity of vaginal discharge
foul odour of discharge
delay in the rate of involution of the uterus
Puerperal sepsis can present with few symptoms (woman feels unwell and usually has a
fever). It can also advance rapidly to become life-threatening within hours.
Pathogens causing sepsis:
Most commonly, Group A Beta Haemolytic Streptococcus often of community origin,

endotoxin producing enterobacteria e.g. E coli, less commonly clostridia and bacteroides,
chlamydia and mycoplasma. Bacterial infections are often mixed.
Risk factors
Prolonged rupture of membranes (> 48 hours before delivery)
Contact with others with a bacterial throat infection (Streptococcus)
Frequent (particularly unsterile) vaginal examinations
Prolonged and obstructed labour
Instrumentation e.g. forceps delivery
Caesarean section (especially in an emergency)
Retained products of conception
Lack of sanitary towels and hygienic materials to manage lochia during the post natal
period
Sickle cell disease
Pathogenesis
Endotoxin is released from cell wall of gram negative bacteria.

Endotoxins can cause shock
Extensive tissue necrosis, even gangrene, may occur, especially in the uterus
Prevention
Antibiotic prophylaxis for prolonged rupture of membranes, manual removal of
placenta and caesarean section
Antiseptic cream for vaginal examinations (e.g. hibitane obstetric cream)
Provision of sanitary towels and other hygienic items to all women/girls who have
given birth and where family poverty prevents availability
Complications
150
1. Wound infection, wound dehiscence/burst abdomen
2. Peritonitis
3. Ileus
4. Septicaemia, possibly accompanied by shock
5. Abscess formation in cul-de-sac and sub-diaphragmatic space
6. Adnexal infections
7. Ovarian abscess
8. Pelvic abscess
9. Breast infection/abscess
10. Deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolus
Investigation
High vaginal swab if bacteriology available
MSSU and microscopy of urine
Treatment
Treat as an emergency including IV fluid boluses if shock is present and if: persistent
tachycardia exceeding 100 to 110/minute, hypotension (systolic BP less than 90 to 100
mmHg), increased respiratory rate (> 25/minute), confusion or disorientation, oliguria (< 30
ml/hour), rash or bradycardia (<50/minute).
Give antibiotics until fever-free for 48 hours or 7-10 days:
ampicillin 2 g IV every 6 hours;
PLUS gentamicin 80mg IV/IM every 8 hours or 5mg/Kg body weight IV/IM once every 24
hours;
If fever is still present 72 hours after initiating antibiotics, re-evaluate and consider revising
diagnosis.
Oral antibiotics are not necessary after stopping IV antibiotics.
If retained placental fragments are suspected, perform a digital exploration of the uterus to
remove clots and large pieces. Use ovum forceps or a large curette if required but be very
careful not to penetrate the uterine wall, which is very soft at this stage. Where general
anaesthesia is not available, agents such as ketamine may be considered for this
procedure.
If there is no improvement with conservative measures, and there are symptoms and signs
of general peritonitis (abdominal pain, fever and abdominal tenderness with rebound
tenderness), perform a laparotomy to drain the pus and if uterus is the source do not leave
it too late to perform hysterectomy.
Wound infections
Wound infections may be superficial or deep. Superficial infections involve the skin and
subcutaneous tissues, but not the rectus sheath (fascia). Superficial infections may present
with cellulitis or abscess formation. Cellulitis should be treated with antibiotics; this may
prevent the development of a wound abscess.
Clear or purulent fluid extruding from the wound should raise concern that the infection is
deep to the sheath. Where there is abscess formation, the wound should be opened by
removing sutures to skin and subcutaneous tissues, to allow drainage of pus. Antibiotics
are not always required if an abscess is drained and the surrounding tissues appear
healthy.
151
The wound may require debridement if there is suspicion of tissue necrosis. If the sheath
looks healthy and intact, the fascial sutures should be left in situ. The wound should be
packed with a damp dressing, which is changed every 24 hours.
If the sheath appears necrotic or infected, it should be opened and the peritoneal cavity
inspected for collections of pus. If pus is present, it should be evacuated, and a broad
corrugated drain left in situ in the peritoneal cavity to facilitate drainage post-operatively.
Necrotising fasciitis is a relatively uncommon but potentially life-threatening variant of

wound infection, which presents with rapidly-spreading cellulitis, with severe pain and
tenderness. Urgent wide debridement of necrotic tissue is required, with antibiotics as for
deep wound infection (see below). Secondary closure should be undertaken two to four
weeks later, provided that the infection has resolved.
Antibiotic regimes for wound infections

Where possible, swabs should be taken for culture & sensitivity before starting antibiotics.
Superficial infections
Ampicillin 500 mg by mouth, four times per day for 5 days;
PLUS metronidazole 500 mg by mouth, three times per day for 5 days.
Deep infections
Benzyl penicillin, 2 million units (1200mg) IV every 6 hours;
hours;
IV antibiotics should be continued until at least 48 hours after the pyrexia has settled.
The patient may then be switched to oral antibiotics, as above.
Peritonitis
Treat shock, if present, then:

provide nasogastric suction.
infuse IV fluids for maintenance and replacement.
give antibiotics IV til fever-free for 48 hours:
o Ampicillin/amoxicillin 2 g IV/IM every 6 hours;
o PLUS gentamicin 80mg IV/IM every 8 hours or 5mg/Kg body weight IV/IM once every 24
hours;
o PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV every 8 hours.
if necessary, perform a laparotomy to repair diseased or injured bowel.
Pelvic abscess
Give antibiotics before draining the abscess and continue until fever-free for 48 hours:
Ampicillin/amoxicillin 2 g IV every 6 hours;
hours;
PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV every 8 hours.
If the abscess is fluctuant in the cul-de-sac, drain the pus through the cul-de-sac----
culdocentesis (see below). If the spiking fever continues, perform a laparotomy.
Bowel may be secondarily involved in the inflammatory process, and care must be taken to
avoid bowel perforation.
Peritonitis may develop in association with pelvic abscess. Prompt nasogastric suction and
administration of intravenous fluids are important, as well as IV antibiotic therapy as above.
152
Culdocentesis and colpotomy
Culdocentesis for the detection of pus
Apply antiseptic solution to the vagina (especially the posterior fornix).
Infiltrate with lignocaine 1%.
Gently grasp the posterior lip of the cervix with a tenaculum and gently pull to elevate the
cervix and expose the posterior vagina.
Place a long needle (e.g. spinal needle) on a syringe and insert it through the posterior
vagina, just below the posterior lip of the cervix (see Figure 1)
Pull back on the syringe to aspirate the cul-de-sac (the space behind the uterus).
If pus is obtained, keep the needle in place and proceed to colpotomy (see below).
Culdocentesis: diagnostic needle aspiration of the cul-de-sac
Colpotomy for a pelvic abscess
If pus is obtained on culdocentesis, keep the needle in place and make a stab incision at
the site of the puncture:
Remove the needle and insert blunt forceps or a finger through the incision to break loculi
in the abscess cavity (Figure.2)
Allow the pus to drain;
Insert a disinfected soft rubber corrugated drain through the incision;
o If a surgical drain is not available a make-shift drain can be prepared by cutting off the
fingertips of a disinfected rubber glove.
If required, use a stitch through the drain to anchor it in the vagina;
Remove the drain when there is no more drainage of pus.
If no pus is obtained, the abscess may be higher than the pouch of Douglas. A
laparotomy will be required for peritoneal lavage (wash-out).
153
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-acute gastroenteritis
The pregnant woman or girl with severe acute gastroenteritis
Is a common cause of dehydration and shock
Assess fluid deficit (extent of dehydration) and measure ongoing losses of fluid
Weigh
Keep accurate fluid balance chart
Important to give fluids which:
- Correct deficit
- Provide maintenance
- Replace ongoing losses
Differential Diagnosis
Look for abdominal mass or abdominal distension.
Remember
- HIV infections
- surgical conditions such as acute appendicitis, peritonitis, bowel obstruction (if suspected
resuscitate and call for surgical opinion)
- typhoid (high grade fever, rash, hepato-splenomegaly, toxicity)
- antibiotic associated colitis
- rarely, inflammatory bowel disease
Treatment if not shocked

- Start ORAL REHYDRATION SOLUTION (ORS) with 1 to 2 litres over 2-4 hours
- Carer gives small amounts of ORS fluid (eg small cup)
- Gradually increase the amount as tolerated using tablespoon, cup or glass
- REASSESS HYDRATION after 2-4 hours, then progress to the maintenance phase or
continue re-hydration
Severe dehydration (> or =10% fluid deficit +/-shock)

- If shocked, start IV re-hydration immediately (2 intravenous lines if possible, or long
saphenous vein cut down or intra-osseous needle)
- Give 1 litre bolus of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns as rapidly as possible IV
- Reassess pulse, perfusion (capillary refill) and mental status and repeat bolus if still
abnormal
- DO NOT EVER USE low sodium containing IV fluids such as 0.18% saline with 4%
glucose which can be DANGEROUS if given quickly (hyponatraemia and cerebral
oedema). Instead use Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns, ideally also containing 10% glucose
(obtained by adding 100ml of 50% glucose to each 500ml)
When shock has resolved and the patients level of consciousness returns to normal, the
remaining estimated deficit MUST BE TAKEN by mouth or by gastric tube especially if
severe malnutrition and/or anaemia (danger of large IV fluid volume IV)
Assess hydration status frequently

Oral Fluids
Recommendations for oral replacement therapy in gastroenteritis are:
- use either low-sodium ORS (containing 40-60 mmol/L of sodium), or
- if unavailable, use ORS containing 75-90 mmol/L of sodium with an additional source of
low-sodium fluid (eg water)
- Dose = 300-500ml/hour
- giving high osmolar fluids may contribute to hypernatraemia, whilst giving water alone, or
low salt drinks may cause hyponatraemia
- oral glucose within ORS enhances electrolyte and water uptake in the gut
- home made ORS can be made by adding a pinch of salt (1ml) and a handful of sugar ( 5ml)
to a glass of clean water (250ml)
154
Intravenous Fluids
- even in patients who are drinking poorly, try to give enteral fluids by mouth or by gastric
tube until the IV drip is running
- use Ringer's Lactate or Hartmann's Solution which has Na 131mmol/l; K 5mmol/l; HCO3
29mmol/l; Ca 2mmol/l
- Hartmann's solution has no glucose to prevent hypoglycaemia: this can be corrected by
adding 100ml of 50% glucose to 500ml of Hartmann's giving approximately a 10% glucose
solution (adding 50ml gives a 5% solution)
- Ringer's Lactate Solution already prepared with 5% dextrose has the added advantage of
providing glucose to help prevent hypoglycaemia.
- If Ringer's Lactate or Hartmann's is unavailable, use 0.9% saline. It does not contain a
base to correct acidosis and does not replace potassium losses, therefore add 5mmol/litre
of Potassium Chloride. Also it does not contain glucose and therefore add 100ml of 50%
glucose to 500ml of 0.9% saline to give approximately a 10% glucose solution (adding
50ml of 50% glucose gives a 5% solution).
Do NOT use plain 5% glucose solutions, or 0.18% saline + 4% glucose. They do not
contain adequate electrolytes, do not correct the acidosis or hypovolaemia and can
produce dangerous hyponatraemia
- all patients should start to receive some ORS solution (about 300ml per hour) when they
can drink without difficulty, which is usually within 1 - 2 hours. This provides additional base
and potassium, which may not be adequately supplied by the IV fluid. Alternatively give as
soon as possible by gastric tube.
Over-hydration
- oedematous (puffy) eyelids may be a sign of over hydration, cardiac failure (as in severe
malnutrition), chronic malnutrition or protein losing enteropathy
- cardiac failure (especially in severe malnutrition or severe anaemia), chronic malnutrition or
protein losing enteropathy
- A CXR may be helpful in showing pulmonary plethora or oedema
- stop giving ORS solution, but give plain water and food
- do not give a diuretic
When the oedema has gone, resume giving ORS solution
Reassess
- ABC
- state of intravascular repletion
- plasma electrolytes if possible
- urine output and urine electrolytes
- give fluid according to plan, don't forget ongoing losses
- reassess regularly (including biochemistry if possible)
Don't forget glucose
155
Pathway of care for severe dehydration (10% or more) in pregnancy
Yes
2 peripheral IV lines or long
Shock
saphenous line
No
500 ml to 1 litre Ringer-
Lactate or Hartmanns IV
No shock
Reassess Conscious?
Yes No
Shock
Repeat 500 ml to 1 litre Fluids given by

Ringer-Lactate or Vomiting?
NG tube or IV
Hartmanns IV
No YES
Maintenance fluids
DO NOT USE IV FLUIDS enterally ORS 300 to IV Fluids
CONTAINING LOW SODIUM
500ml per hour
Pass NG tube if Ringer-Lactate or

cannot drink Hartmanns each 500ml
unit containing 100ml of
50% glucose (approx 10%
glucose) or containing
ORS (Resomal if
50ml of 50% glucose
severe
(approx 5% glucose)
malnutrition)
*Weigh or estimate
weight
Give fluid over % dehydration x weight
Give fluid deficit* 24 hours - (kg) x 10 = deficit in ml)
PLUS deficit* always
enterally
1
E.g. for a 70kg patient,
fluid needed per day:
1
Maintenance Maintenance 2400ml
PLUS fluid needed per hour:
100ml
PLUS
For each diarrhoea stool
Ongoing losses = 500ml
Ongoing losses For each vomit = 200ml
PLUS
Watch for over-hydration (oedema of face)

or cardiac failure: enlarged liver and for Measure plasma
basal lung creps) CXR = pulmonary electrolytes if possible.
plethora or oedema Correct any sodium or
potassium problem )
156
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-coma and convulsions
THE CONFUSED, FITTING OR UNCONSCIOUS pregnant woman or girl
a) Airway
The patient with a reduced level of consciousness is more likely to have a
compromised airway as the tongue falls into the back of the mouth. There is also a
risk of aspiration. Assess the airway and maintain its patency. Apply oxygen at 15
litres per minute via a tight fitting face mask with a reservoir bag. If an anaesthetist is
present intubation can be performed to protect the airway, otherwise adopt the
recovery position. Careful suction of the nose and/or mouth maybe helpful.
b) Breathing
Assess the breathing, give high flow O 2 via face mask and reservoir bag if necessary.
Assist ventilation.
c) Circulation
Inadequate perfusion of blood to the brain initially produces confusion and later coma.
Measurement of the blood pressure in addition to other markers for shock is crucial in
recognising hypovolaemia after haemorrhage or unconsciousness after an eclamptic
fit with hypertension. IV access should be achieved and blood sent for blood count,
blood smear for malarial parasites, electrolytes, liver function tests, blood glucose, and
blood culture.
d) Disability (neurological)
If the blood sugar is low give 50 ml of 25% glucose IV and then add 100ml of 50%
glucose to each 500ml of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns infused (this makes a solution
of 10% dextrose in Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns). In pregnancy to make 25%
glucose add 50ml of 50% glucose to 50ml of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns.
157
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-coma and convulsions
Pathway of care in coma in a pregnant woman or girl
URGENT: Assess and stabilise ABC

Establish/protect airway Give high concentration O2
(place into recovery
position if unprotected
and intubation not
possible)
Consider intubation and Establish IV access
ventilation if possible
< 2.5 mmol/l

Glucose stick test.
Dilute 50% glucose with equal

volume of Ringer-Lactate or
Hartmanns and then give 100 ml
of 25% solution
Rapid assessment of
Unresponsive conscious level
Alert or
Establish/protect airway as
responds to
above
voice or pain
Identification and immediate

treatment of the treatable
Signs of raised
ICP
Reassess
Raised ICP management
Commence diagnostic
workup if possible
Inform specialist teams if
available
May require transfer
Definitive care
158
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-status epilepticus
Pathway of Care status epilepticus in pregnancy (not due to eclampsia)
Airway
High concentration oxygen
Check blood glucose (if possible)
Yes Vascular access if rapidly No

possible
Rectal diazepam 10mg PLUS Rectal

DO NOT GIVE
paraldehyde 10ml in equal volume of
DIAZEPAM IM
vegetable oil
(WHO give 20mg diazepam rectally)
IV diazepam 10mg over 5 minutes OR Yes

IV lorazepam 4mg over 5 minutes
Vascular access?
PLUS 50 ml of 25 % glucose IV
No
Still convulsing
15 minutes
Still convulsing
15 minutes
Phenobarbitone 15mg/Kg IV over *Note: only 0.9% saline
15 minutes can be used to infuse
phenytoin. All other IV
fluids will cause
crystallisation of
Rectal paraldehyde 10ml phenytoin.
plus equal volume of - Flush IV line with 0.9%
15 minutes
Still convulsing vegetable oil saline before and after
infusing phenytoin;
- Do not infuse phenytoin
15 minutes at a rate exceeding 50mg
Still convulsing per minute due to the risk
of irregular heart beat,
IV Phenytoin* 15mg/kg bolus hypotension and
(usually 1gram) over 10-30 respiratory depression;
minutes at rate not - complete administration
exceeding 50mg/minute within 1 hour of
preparation
159
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-status epilepticus
When the patient is stable, consider the following causes of confusion, coma or fits.
1 Eclampsia
2 Trauma
3 Cerebral malaria
4 Meningitis
5 Pre-existing epilepsy
6 Sub-arachnoid haemorrhage
7 Cerebral thrombosis
8 Hypoglycaemia (usually in the pregnant woman or girl on insulin especially early
pregnancy)
9 Drug intoxication
10 Anaesthetic complications eg total spinal block.
Convulsions
If there are fits, has the pregnant woman or girl having eclampsia? Test the urine for
protein and measure her blood pressure.
If she is not suffering from eclampsia, prevent her having more fits with a loading dose and
subsequent maintenance doses of phenytoin.
PHENYTOIN
Loading dose
Infuse phenytoin 1 g (approximately 18 mg/kg body weight) in 50100 ml 0.9% saline over
30 minutes (final concentration not to exceed 10 mg per ml):
Note: Only 0.9% saline can be used to infuse phenytoin. All other IV fluids will cause
crystallization
Flush IV line with 0.9% saline before and after infusing phenytoin.
Do not infuse phenytoin at a rate exceeding 50 mg per minute due to the risk of
arrhythmias, hypotension and respiratory depression.
Complete administration within 1 hour of preparation.
Maintenance dose
Give phenytoin 100 mg IV slowly over 2 minutes or by mouth every 8 hours beginning at
least 12 hours after the loading dose.
160
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-hypertension, pre-eclampsia, eclampsia
Hypertension, pre-eclampsia and eclampsia
Hypertension in pregnancy is when systolic BP is greater than or equal to 140 mm Hg

and/or diastolic BP is greater than or equal to 90 mm Hg. If the BP is elevated, confirm by
repeated measurements (see below).
Severe hypertension (systolic pressure greater than or equal to 170 mm Hg and/or diastolic
blood pressure greater than or equal to 110 mm of mercury) must be treated, because
systolic or a diastolic blood pressure at or above these levels risks cerebral haemorrhage
and hypertensive encephalopathy.
The categories of hypertension in pregnancy

These can be classified as follows:
Pre-eclampsia is hypertension (BP 140/90 or greater) developing after 20 weeks gestation

always, in association with proteinuria (greater than or equal to 0.3 gram in a 24 hour
specimen). This level correlates with 1+ or more on dipstick testing.
Pre-eclampsia is a multi-system disorder.
Other conditions cause proteinuria, and false positive results are possible, for example
from contamination with normal vaginal discharge or amniotic fluid. Urinary infection may
also produce proteinuria, but rarely 2+. Blood in the urine due to catheter trauma,
schistosomiasis and contamination from vaginal blood may also give false positive results.
Random urine sampling, such as the dipstick test for protein, is a useful screening tool. A
change from negative to positive during pregnancy is a warning sign. If dipsticks are not
available, a sample of urine can be heated to boiling in a clean test tube. Add a drop of 2%
acetic acid to check for persistent precipitates that can be quantified as a percentage of
protein in the sample. Only clean-catch mid-stream specimens should be used.
Catheterisation for this purpose is not justified due to the risk of urinary tract infection.
Eclampsia is fitting associated with the syndrome of pre-eclampsia - seizures can occur
without any previous signs or symptoms.
The diagnosis of preeclampsia is made when there is hypertension after 20 weeks

gestation along with one or more of the following:
Significant proteinurea > 0.3 gram/24 hours (see above)
Complications
Renal involvement (serum/plasma creatinine > 90micromol/L with or without
oliguria)
Haematological involvement (low platelets, haemolysis, DIC)
Liver involvement (raised transaminases, epigastric or right upper quadrant
abdominal pain)
Neurological involvement (headache, persistent visual disturbances including
photophobia, scotomata, blindness and retinal vasospasm, hyper-reflexia with
sustained clonus, stroke)
Pulmonary oedema
Intra-uterine growth retardation
Placental abruption
161
HELLP is a syndrome comprising Haemolysis, Elevated Liver enzymes and Low Platelets.
It may occur in pre-eclampsia, sometimes without significant hypertension or proteinuria.
Pre-eclampsia and eclampsia remains one of the main causes of maternal mortality and
morbidity in low resource countries.
In one study, 38% of eclamptic fits occur antenatally, 18% intra-partum and the remaining
44% post-partum, usually in the first 48 hours after delivery. Sometimes the first fit occurs
post-natally.
Oedema occurs equally in women with or without pre-eclampsia. However, if oedema

develops suddenly and is widespread always screen for pre-eclampsia. Test for oedema
by pressing with your finger for one minute over the bony part of the mothers tibia. If there
is a dent when you take your finger away, there is oedema. If the mother has been lying
down, look for oedema over the sacrum. Oedema can also make a finger ring tight.
Oedema of the face is more likely to represent a sign accompanying pre-eclampsia.
Management of pre-eclampsia and hypertension

Preeclampsia progresses during pregnancy and the only definitive treatment is delivery. If
the patient is at term (after 36 weeks) then, after stabilisation of the woman/girl, the baby
should be delivered as soon as possible.
There is no evidence that bed rest improves outcome for the woman or fetus. However,
heavy physical labour is clearly inappropriate. However, it is common to see women in low
income settings working in this way despite being in advanced pregnancy.
Mild cases can be cared for without hospital admission but there needs to be regular at
least weekly checks on BP and urine and knowledge by the family of the warning signs of
severe preeclampsia or eclampsia (see below).
If there is severe pre-eclampsia or eclampsia, if the blood pressure cannot be adequately

controlled, if there is pulmonary oedema, deteriorating renal or liver function, placental
abruption or evidence of falling platelets or DIC, then delivery is urgent but always after
stabilisation.
If before 37 weeks gestation, an injection of dexamethasone or betamethasone

dexamethasone 12 mg IM 2 doses 12 hours apart or 6 mg IM 4 doses 12 hours apart,
improves the chances of avoiding neonatal respiratory failure (see chapter 3.1).
Stabilisation involves correction of severe hypertension, control of fluid intake and output,
correction of blood clotting disorder (in low resource settings with fresh blood transfusion)
and prevention/control of eclampsia (see below).
Anti hypertensive drugs for pre-eclampsia
Mild pre-eclampsia does not require anti hypertensive drugs.
Where either the systolic BP is 150-160 mmHg and/or diastolic BP 95-105mmHg treatment
with oral antihypertensive drugs should be started.
Blood pressures 170 mm Hg systolic and/or 110 mmHg diastolic must be urgently
treated with antihypertensive drugs. However, it is essential that BP is not lowered too
162
rapidly as this can seriously affect the womans cerebral circulation and circulation
to the placenta and fetus. Aim for a systolic BP of 150 mmHg.
Oral anti-hypertensive drug treatment
Methyldopa. This drug acts directly on the central nervous system and takes 24 hours to
work. Doses are 250mg tds initially increasing every 2 days up to 750 mg tds. Side effects
include dry mouth, postural hypotension, sedation and depression. It is contraindicated in
depression and liver disease.
The simultaneous administration of oral iron can interact with orally given
methyldopa to result in clinically significant increases in blood pressure (increases
> 15mmHg systolic and > 10 mmHg diastolic).
Labetolol. This is a beta blocker with mild alpha blocking effects. Doses are 100-400 mg
tds. Side effects are bradycardia, bronchospasm, weakness, scalp tingling (only for 24-48
hours), nausea and headache. It is contraindicated in asthma.
Hydralazine. This is a vasodilator. Doses are initially 25mg bd increasing gradually to 50

mg tds. Side effects are uncontrolled hypotension, flushing, tachycardia, palpitations,
headache and, uncommonly, a lupus syndrome.
Treatment of severe hypertension

It is vital that severe hypertension is controlled at any gestation, before and after delivery.
Anti-hypertensive drugs should be given urgently to all patients with a systolic BP of 170
mm Hg and/or diastolic BP 110 mmHg.
Without urgent treatment there is a risk of cerebral haemorrhage, eclampsia and

pulmonary oedema.
The aim should be a gradual and sustained reduction in BP with one or more of the
following drugs.
BP must not be allowed to fall below 140/80 mmHg before delivery.
Hydralazine
This is the most available anti-hypertensive in low resource settings. Give 5 mg IV slowly
over 5 minutes (it acts within 5 minutes), then 5 mg IV every 15 minutes until diastolic BP is
90-100mmHg. Repeat hourly as needed, or give hydralazine 12.5mg IM every 2 hours as
needed.
Alternatively, give hydralazine IV infusion, 20 mg in 200 mL 5% dextrose at 0.5 mL (10

drops) per minute (20 drops = 1mL for a standard giving set), and stop the drip when
diastolic BP is 90 mm Hg or less. Hydralazine may cause increased maternal heart rate.
Side effects are uncontrolled hypotension, flushing, tachycardia, palpitations, headache

and, uncommonly, a lupus syndrome.
Labetolol
Intravenous labetolol is preferable to hydralazine if the maternal pulse rate exceeds 120
beats per minute.
163
Labetolol dosage is 10 mg IV. If response is inadequate (diastolic blood pressure remains
above 110 mm Hg) after 10 minutes, give a further dose of labetolol 20 mg IV. Increase the
dose to 40 mg and then 80 mg if satisfactory response is not obtained after 10 minutes of
each dose.
Alternatively use an IV infusion of 200 mg in 200 mL Ringer Lactate at 40 mg/hour,

increasing dose at half-hourly intervals as required to a maximum of 160 mg/hour.
Side effects are bradycardia, bronchospasm, weakness, scalp tingling (only for 24-48
hours), nausea and headache. Labetolol is contra-indicated in asthma, as it may cause
bronchospasm.
Nifedipine
Nifedipine is a calcium antagonist which may be administered as an initial 10mg oral dose
(onset of action within 10-20 minutes) with a repeat of 10 mg if inadequate response after
30 minutes. Subsequent oral doses are 20 mg bd. Side effects are severe headaches
associated with flushing and tachycardia. Oedema, weakness and constipation may occur.
It is contraindicated in aortic stenosis. It may inhibit labour. It may rarely interact with
magnesium sulphate, and give profound hypotension and/or heart block.
Give prophylactic magnesium sulphate if severe hypertension is accompanied by

proteinuria and/or symptoms suggesting that eclampsia may occur (see below).
Eclampsia or severe pre-eclampsia

Although pre-eclampsia and eclampsia are commonest in primigravidae, they c an occur in
multiparous patients.
Symptoms and signs of impending eclampsia
Headache, visual disturbances, epigastric pain, vomiting.

Rapidly developing generalised (especially facial) oedema
Pulmonary oedema
Right upper quadrant tenderness
Recently developed hypertension 170/110 with proteinuria >1 g/24hours or
rapid rise in blood pressure
Clonus and increased tendon reflexes
HELLP
nd
Any headache or epigastric pain occurring in the 2 half of pregnancy should be
investigated for pre-eclampsia (take BP and test urine for protein).
Differential diagnosis (see table)

A seizure:
in a patient with known epilepsy
in severe malaria
in head injury
in meningitis/encephalitis
Intoxication (local anaesthetic overdose)
Amniotic Fluid Embolus
164
Table 2.5.E.1 Differential diagnosis of hypertension and convulsions in pregnancy
Symptoms Signs Results of Diagnosis Treatment

Investigat
ions
None unless BP140/90mmH Urine for Essential Consider
very severe g before 20 protein hypertension antihypertensive
weeks gestation negative drugs
Renal
function
tests
normal
None unless BP140/90mmH Proteinuria Hypertension Treat hypertension
very severe g before 20 up to 2+ secondary to with drugs if severe
weeks gestation other disease and treat the
such as renal underlying
impairment, condition
auto-immune
disease
None unless BP140/90mmH No Pregnancy Treat hypertension
very severe g after 20 weeks proteinuria induced with drugs if severe
gestation hypertension
None unless BP140/90mmH Proteinuria Mild to moderate Avoid work

very severe g before 20 up to 2+ pre-eclampsia involving heavy
weeks gestation labour
Headaches BP Proteinuria Severe pre- Urgent admission

increasing in 140/90mmHg 2+ or eclampsia to hospital
frequency and after 20 weeks more Magnesium
unrelieved by gestation..Hyper- sulphate
paracetamol reflexia
Visual Passing less
disturbance than 400 mL
Upper urine in 24 hours
abdominal pain Pulmonary
Shortness of oedema.
breath Facial and
Passing small rapidly
amounts of developing
urine oedema
Oedema
May be history Generalised Eclampsia ABC
of the above fitting Proteinuria Magnesium
Generalised Coma 2+ or sulphate
convulsions BP140/90mmH more
Unconscious g after 20 weeks
gestation
Facial and
rapidly
developing
oedema
165
Difficulty Spasms face, Tetanus ABC,
opening mouth neck, trunk. Penicillin, anti
and swallowing Arched back tetanus
Board-like immunoglobulin
abdomen Muscle relaxants
(magnesium and/or
diazepam)
NG feeding
Past history of Convulsions EEG Epilepsy ABC, blood

convulsions Coma abnormal glucose
Normal BP Anticonvulsant
drugs
Chills/rigors Fever Blood Severe malaria ABC, blood
Headache Convulsions smear for glucose
Muscle/joint Coma malarial Anti-malarial drugs
pain Severe anaemia parasites
Jaundice
Headache Fever Full blood Meningitis or ABC
Stiff neck Stiff neck count encephalitis Anti-bacterial or
Photophobia Reduced Blood antiviral drugs
Vomiting conscious level culture
or coma LP (unless
Convulsions raised
intracrania
l pressure)
Headache Normal BP No Migraine Paracetamol
Blurred vision proteinuria Bed rest in dark
Photophobia room
History of
migraine
Cerebral venous
thrombosis
Maintain a high index of suspicion of pre-eclampsia/eclampsia even in those with malaria,

migraine or epilepsy, as they may co-exist.
A small proportion of mothers with eclampsia have normal blood pressure. Treat all
convulsions as eclampsia until another diagnosis is confirmed.
Convulsions with signs of pre-eclampsia indicate eclampsia.
Convulsions due to eclampsia:

can occur regardless of the severity of hypertension;
are difficult to predict but rarely occur without increased tendon reflexes,
headache or visual changes;
are tonic-clonic and resemble grand mal convulsions of epilepsy;
may recur frequently, as in status epilepticus, and may be fatal;
will not be observed if the woman is alone;
may be followed by coma that lasts minutes or hours depending on the
frequency of convulsions.
166
occur after childbirth in about 44% of cases, usually but not always within the first
24 hours after birth. The longer the gap between delivery and a fit, the more
likely the diagnosis is to be other than eclampsia (for example cerebral venous
thrombosis).
The first eclamptic fit is usually self limiting.
Control of BP is essential in the management of severe pre-eclampsia or eclampsia
where high BP may cause a cerebrovascular accident (stroke) Magnesium sulphate
is essential in preventing eclampsia and, if eclampsia occurs, in preventing further
fits.
Maternal complications of severe pre-eclampsia:
eclampsia
cerebro-vascular accident (stroke)
renal failure
HELLP, possible leading to rupture of liver capsule
pulmonary oedema
placental abruption, possibly leading to DIC
IUGR, fetal death
Pathway of care for eclampsia (mother fitting)
Call for surgical and anaesthetic help

and initiate resuscitation
Protect from injury
Magnesium sulphate
Airway open and place in recovery Antihypertensives
position: consider oropharyngeal airway
In poorly resourced settings Breathing: 100% oxygen and mask/bag Treat hypertension if systolic
if not breathing BP170 mmHg or diastolic BP
Loading dose MgSO4 5g in 110mmHG
10ml by deep intramuscular Aim to reduce BP to around 140/90-
injection in each buttock. Thus Circulation: assess pulse and 100mmHg
total dose given = 10 grams. BP place in left lateral tilt and Beware treatment related maternal
IV access hypotension
Maintenance dose MgSO4 5g
IM 4 hourly using alternate Hydralazine 5 mg IV slowly
buttocks. Repeated doses of 5mg IV 15
CONTROL FITS minutes apart may be given if
Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 necessary. If heart rate > 120 do not
In well resourced settings give hydralazine - use labetolol
Labetolol 10 mg IV slowly and repeat
Loading dose MgSO4 after 10-20 minutes or start IV
4g IV over 20 minutes. infusion 20mg/hour increasing dose
TREAT HYPERTENSION at 30 minute intervals up to maximum
Maintenance dose MgSO4 160mg/hour
1g per hour infusion If IV not available give 100mg orally
and transfer
If seizures continue or
recur
MgSO4 2g IV over 5-10
minutes or IM. Urgent delivery
If this fails: Diazepam 2mg
IV every 2 minutes to
maximum total 10mg IV Aim to deliver within 12 hours
DELIVER THE BABY UNLESS
STABILISE THE MOTHER BEFORE
POST PARTUM
DELIVERY
Ergometrine should not
Stop MgSO4 if:
be used in severe pre-eclampsia and
respiratory rate < 16/minute
OR if SaO2 <90% eclampsia
OR urine output< 100ml in 4
hours Maintain close monitoring
Antidote: 10% calcium as the majority of eclamptic seizures
gluconate 10 ml IV over 10 occur after delivery
minutes
167
Call for help

never leave the patient alone
prevent maternal injury during the convulsion
Airway
If the airway is not open - use an airway opening manoeuvre and keep it open. Consider
an airway adjunct such as an oropharyngeal airway or intubation
The oropharynx may need gentle suctioning under direct vision being careful to avoid
inducing laryngospasm
The recovery position should be adopted to minimise the risk of aspiration of vomit
Breathing
If there is spontaneous breathing, give high concentration of oxygen via a facemask plus
reservoir. Give 100% oxygen (mask with reservoir and flow rate of at least 6L/min)
regardless of mothers oxygen saturation (increases fetal O2 delivery as well as improving
maternal tissue oxygenation).
If apnoea or hypoventilation, provide chest inflations with bag-valve-mask-reservoir
ventilation and 100% oxygen
Circulation
Look for signs of life (breathing, movement, gagging/coughing) or for a pulse at the carotid:
if absent or you are not sure, initiate CPR (see chapters 1.12 and 1.13)
If over 20 weeks gestation, left lateral tilt and/or manually displace uterus to reduce vena
caval compression or recovery position
Secure IV or intraosseous access
Monitor blood pressure
Attach pulse oximeter
Insert urinary catheter with strict fluid input/output chart
Insert a 14G-16G IV cannula and take 20 mL blood for full blood count, cross-match (4
units = 2 L) and clotting. Undertake a 20 minute whole blood clotting time (WBCT20) test if
laboratory studies not available.
A central venous pressure (CVP) line may be a helpful monitor to avoid fluid overload, but
the benefits must be weighed against risks. If disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
is established, CVP insertion is more hazardous (must avoid subclavian vein access).
Emergency drug treatment of eclampsia
Stage 1 Stop convulsion and prevent further convulsions
The majority of seizures are self-limiting.
Commence magnesium sulphate to prevent further fits.
Magnesium sulphate is the anti-convulsant of choice.
If mother is conscious always warn her that there will be a feeling of warmth passing
through her body when MgSO4 is infused and that this is not harmful. Failure to do
so may result in the mother pulling out her IV cannula and other potentially
dangerous reactions.
168
Loading dose in well- resourced settings
Four grams MgSO4 as 20 mL of a 20% solution of magnesium sulphate IV added to 80 mL
of 5% dextrose solution given slowly over 20 minutes (total 100ml). (To make 20 mL of a
20% solution, add 8 mL of 50% MgSO4 solution to 12 mL sterile water).
If convulsions recur after completion of the loading regime, give 2 g MgSO 4 (10 mL of 20%
solution is added to 90 mL Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns) and given IV slowly over 10
minutes.
Do not use the same IV line to inject other drugs if MgSO 4 is being given by IV infusion.
Loading dose in poorly - resourced settings

Five grams MgSO4 (10 mL of 50% solution) by deep intramuscular injection in each
buttock. Thus total dose given = 10 grams. (sometimes 0.5mL of 2% 0r 1mL of 1%
lignocaine is given in the same syringe for each injection of 5 grams to reduce the pain of
the injections). An aseptic technique is essential
.
Maintenance dosage
Well- resourced countries: Provided there is close monitoring (ideally with a burette in
giving set), give 1g MgSO 4/hour IV for 24 hours that is 25ml/hour of the loading dose
solution of 4 grams in 100ml described above.
Poorly resourced countries: 5 g IM 4 hourly (plus 1 mL of 1% lignocaine [ 0.5 mL of
2%] in same syringe) using alternate buttocks.
Alternative regime recommended in Asia where pregnant women are smaller than in
Africa and resources better
Loading dose: Four grams MgSO4 as 20 mL of a 20% solution added to 80 mL of 5%

dextrose solution slowly IV over 20 minutes (total 100ml). (To make 20 mL of a 20%
solution, add 8 mL of 50% MgSO4 solution to 12 mL sterile water).
Then immediately give 3 g (6 mL of 50% solution) by deep intramuscular injection in each
buttock. (sometimes 1 mL of 1% or 0.5mL of 2% lignocaine is given in the same syringe to
reduce the pain of the injections)
Maintenance dose
Give 2.5 gram MgSO4 IM every 4 hours in each alternate buttock.
If seizures continue or recur:
Give MgSO4 2 g < 70kg; 4 g >70kg as an extra loading dose IV over 5-10 minutes or IM in
low resource settings.
Alternative regime undertaken in some West African countries and recommended in

2003 by WHO
Loading dose: 4g IV of magnesium sulphate over 20 minutes: add 8ml 50% to 92ml
Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns. This is followed by 10g 50% MgSO4 solution IM (5g in each
buttock: deep IM injections with lidocaine as above in same syringe). Ensure needle is not
in a vein
Maintenance dose is 5g MgSO4 50% solution with lidocaine every 4 hours into alternate
buttocks
169
If eclampsia recurs and only after 15 minutes give 2g MgSO4 over 5 minutes IV : add 4ml
50% to 16ml of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
Continued treatment with magnesium sulphate
Continue MgSO4 for 24 hours after delivery or the last convulsion, provided that:
respiratory rate is > 12-16 per minute
urine output > 30 mL per hour (WHO figure is >100 mL over 4 hours)
tendon reflexes are present
Discontinue magnesium sulphate when:
BP stable and consistently below 150/100
Diuresis started
No neurological symptoms
Monitor the fetus by regular heart rate assessments.

A fluid blance chart must be kept (see below)
Remember to subtract volume containing MgSO4 infused from total maintenance infusion
volume to avoid fluid overload
When using magnesium sulphate, monitor hourly urine output, respiratory rate,
SaO2 and tendon reflexes every 15 minutes for the first 2 hours, and then every 30
minutes
Progressive symptoms of magnesium toxicity:
1. feeling of warmth, flushing, double vision, confusion, slurred speech, nausea and
weakness
2. loss of tendon reflexes
3. respiratory depression (<12-15 breaths per minute) and/or SaO2 < 94%
4. respiratory arrest
5. cardiac arrest
6.
If magnesium toxicity is suspected, stop infusion and administer antidote of 10 mL
10% calcium gluconate IV slowly over at least 1-2 minutes.
Stop infusion of magnesium sulphate if:
patellar reflexes are absent
there is respiratory depression (respiratory rate less than 12-15/min) or a fall in
oxygen saturation 92% on a pulse oximeter. Give oxygen to keep oxygen
saturation 94-98%.
urine output is less than 30 mL/hour over last 4 hours
If respiratory depression develops: give 100% oxygen by face mask with reservoir, and
give calcium gluconate 1 g (= 10 mL of 10% solution) IV slowly over 5 minutes. Too rapid
administration can result in loss of consciousness, cardiac arrhythmias and cardiac arrest
If respiratory arrest occurs:

give chest inflations with bag-valve-mask ventilation with 100% oxygen
inject calcium gluconate 1 g (10 mL of 10%) IV slowly over 5 minutes
The magnesium sulphate infusion may be recommenced at a reduced dose, if thought

necessary, once normal respiration and reflexes have returned.
170
Note for anaesthetists: there is an increased sensitivity to muscle relaxants (particularly
non-depolarising agents) in patients on magnesium.
Note for obstetricians: If possible, avoid the use of nifedipine for lowering BP when
magnesium sulphate is being used or anticipated, because of rare potential cardiac
toxicity when the two drugs are given together.
In patients with known renal disease or myasthenia gravis, magnesium sulphate is

contraindicated and, if available, phenytoin should be used. The loading dose is 15 mg/Kg
(maximum dose 2grams) over 20 minutes by slow IV injection. Subsequently a dose of
100mg bd orally can be given. IV injection if given too rapid can cause severe
hypotension, cardiac arrhythmias or respiratory arrest.
Other anticonvulsant drugs
Other causes of fitting should be considered if fits persist/recur despite magnesium

sulphate. These include a cerebrovascular accident (stroke), malaria and meningitis.
If magnesium sulphate is not available: use diazepam(see below)
Diazepam
Must have bag valve mask immediately available in case patient stops breathing
Loading dose
Diazepam 2 mg increments IV every 2 minutes up to 10 mg.
If convulsions recur, repeat loading dose.
Maintenance dose
Diazepam 40 mg in 500 mL Ringer-Lactate/Hartmanns, titrated to keep the mother
sedated but able to be woken and without hypoventilation.
Maternal respiratory depression may occur when dose exceeds 30 mg in 1 hour:

Assist ventilation (bag-valve-mask, anaesthesia apparatus, intubation), if
necessary.
Do not give more than 100 mg in 24 hours.
Rectal administration: give diazepam rectally when IV access is not possible. The loading
dose is 20 mg in a 10 mL syringe. Remove the needle, lubricate the barrel and insert the
syringe into the rectum to half its length. Discharge the contents and leave the syringe in
place, holding the buttocks together for 10 minutes to prevent expulsion of the drug.
Alternatively, the drug may be instilled in the rectum through a catheter.
If convulsions are not controlled within 10 minutes, administer an additional 10 mg per hour
or more, depending on the size of the woman and her clinical response.
Be prepared for neonatal resuscitation when diazepam has been used, especially if in large
doses.
Management of Severe pre-eclampsia
Stage 1 Prevention of fitting
If significant increased tendon reflexes often also with ankle clonus, before delivery or
afterwards, and the patient shows other signs of impending eclampsia, (e.g. confused,
jittery, has severe headache), prophylactic 'anticonvulsant' therapy (where possible
magnesium sulphate) should be commenced.
Other indications for magnesium sulphate treatment where eclampsia has not yet occurred:
Persistent hypertension despite adequate antihypertensive drugs and good fluid
management
Evidence of thrombocytopenia or liver dysfunction if these can be measured
The same regimen of magnesium sulphate (or diazepam if magnesium sulphate is not
available) is used for prophylaxis as described above for the treatment of eclampsia. A
loading dose alone may suffice.
171
Stage 2. Reduction of BP and expansion of intravascular volume
Hypertension should be treated if 170/110 mm Hg as described above. Careful fetal

monitoring during commencement of treatment is vital as a rapid fall in maternal blood
pressure may cause fetal heart rate abnormalities, especially in a growth-restricted or
compromised fetus.
If the gestation is less than 36 weeks, dexamethasone or betamethasone 12 mg IM in two

doses 24 hours apart should be given to improve fetal lung maturity and decrease the risk
of neonatal respiratory failure if time allows.
Anti-hypertensive drugs (see earlier)
Volume expansion during anti-hypertensive treatment

Antihypertensive agents such as nifedipine and hydralazine, act as vasodilators. In pre-
eclampsia where intra-vascular volume is reduced, a small volume load should be given
immediately prior to IV antihypertensive treatment (300 mL Ringer-Lactate/Hartmanns IV
over 20 minutes). Colloid or starch such as Haemaccel (500 mL) which remains for longer
in the intravascular compartment may help. Clinical examination for signs of cardiac failure
should be sought before and after such treatment.
Stage 3 Anticipate/manage complications

Keep airway clear.
The respiratory rate should be recorded regularly. Respiratory rate should be 15 to 40
breaths per minute.
Beware of over-sedation, aspiration, pulmonary oedema and laryngeal oedema
(which presents with stridor)
If respiratory rate <12-15 breaths per minute, particularly if the mother is receiving
magnesium sulphate or opiates for pain control, action should be taken and other
signs of toxicity sought (see above).
o If an opiate is being used, naloxone may be required.
o If magnesium sulphate is being given, stop magnesium sulphate and give
calcium gluconate (see above).
Oxygen can be given using nasal cannulae (ideally with SaO 2 monitoring) if SaO2
<94%. Keep SaO2 94-98%.
Arrange chest X-ray if aspiration is suspected.
An increased respiratory rate is an early sign of pulmonary oedema.
Circulation
Consider fluid balance/fluid overload (urinary catheterisation is important)
Usually there is net fluid overload in pre-eclampsia, but the fluid has leaked out of the intra
vascular compartment due to low oncotic pressure (partly due to hypoalbuminaemia) and
increased capillary permeability.
Complications of excessive fluid in the wrong compartment include cerebral oedema,
pulmonary oedema and laryngeal oedema (stridor).
Renal failure may develop secondary to the hypertension or to intravascular hypovolaemia

(or as a primary injury in severe pre-eclampsia).
172
Keep IV fluids at a rate less than 100 mL per hour or less than 1ml/Kg per hour (WHO
suggests a rate < 1 L in 6 to 8 hours). Fluid restriction should be maintained until there is
post partum diuresis which is easy to recognize as there is usually oliguria in severe pre-
eclampsia. If there is APH or PPH fluid restriction will probably not be appropriate.
Insert indwelling urinary catheter, and keep strict intake-output chart with hourly
running totals. The total maintenance fluid intake should not exceed 1.5 - 2 L over 24
hours. If the average urine output is less than 30 mL per hour over a period of four
hours, this is usually due to the decreased intra vascular volume and will res pond to a
bolus of 200 mL of IV Ringer-Lactate/Hartmanns, which can be repeated if
necessary.
In the presence of over hydration, particularly with heart failure or renal impairment,
furosemide 20-40 mg IV should be given. Mannitol is not advisable because of the
fluid load resulting from its administration and because of its rebound effects.
Beware cardiac arrhythmias: ideally monitor potassium regularly and ECG
continuously.
Magnesium sulphate is renally excreted and so careful observation for magnesium
toxicity is required if there is oliguria.
Fluid infusion equal to the same quantity as the urinary output in the preceding hour
plus 30 mL is a guide to IV fluid administration.
Central venous pressure monitoring may be useful to guide management, especially if
urine output is low. (Keep at up to +6 in a spontaneously breathing patient)
Additional organ involvement
Neurological complications
These include cerebro-vascular accidents and cerebral oedema.
Undertake regular (two hourly) neurological examination (including pupillary and tendon
reflexes) and record AVPU and/or Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) levels. All patients should
open their eyes to stimulus, obey commands and respond to questions about name and
age - if not they are over-sedated or may be developing cerebral complications.
A GCS of 8 or less indicates coma and an airway that is not protected by

pharyngeal/laryngeal reflexes.
Cerebral oedema is usually localised to the occipital and parietal cortical areas and is a
result of cerebral vasospasm. Magnesium sulphate can help prevent this by vasodilating
these vessels. Mannitol is not indicated. Recurrent convulsions despite magnesium
sulphate +/- other anticonvulsants may require intubation and controlled ventilation (if
available).
Haematological complications
These include disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).
Group and save and cross-match fresh blood.
Check FBC including platelet count if possible.
Do a whole blood clotting test as well as APTT (if available) see 7.5. Failure
of a clot to form after 7 minutes or a soft clot that breaks down easily
suggests coagulopathy.

9
If platelet count is >100 000 x 10 , a major coagulation problem is unlikely.
9
Spontaneous haemorrhage may occur with counts below 10,000 x 10 .
173
In frank DIC, give whole fresh blood if bleeding.
Hepatic complications
These include jaundice, bleeding tendency, hepatic failure, hepatic sub-capsular oedema
or hepatic rupture (the last two causing right upper quadrant or epigastric pain).
Delivery of the baby is urgent.
Fetal problems
These include intra-uterine growth retardation, fetal distress in labour, preterm delivery as a
result of obstetric intervention, fetal death due to placental abruption or fetal asphyxia in
labour.
General nursing care

Airway and breathing management as appropriate, including ensuring SaO2
remains normal at 94% or higher.
Maintain patient in lateral tilt or recovery position at all times before delivery
Indwelling aseptically placed urinary catheter and hourly urine output
measurement
Care of eyes and oral hygiene
HELLP (Haemolysis, Elevated Liver enzymes, Low Platelet counts) syndrome

This is a dangerous form of severe preeclampsia.
9
If the platelet count is <50,000 x10 there is a high risk of bleeding and if bleeding occurs in
the absence of platelet transfusions, fresh blood may be helpful.
Liver dysfunction may cause upper abdominal pain and lowering of the BP may help.
Delivery is urgent
Stage 4. Delivery of the baby
The need for in-utero transfer should be considered, particularly if there are maternal
complications likely to require a caesarean section or high dependency care. The need for
delivery is dependent on the maternal and fetal conditions. Either caesarean section (CS)
or induction of labour may be appropriate, depending on the clinical findings. Although
delivery will resolve the disease, it is inappropriate to deliver an unstable mother, even if
there is fetal distress. Once eclamptic seizures are controlled, severe hypertension treated
and any hypoxaemia corrected, delivery can be expedited.
In severe pre-eclampsia, aim to deliver within 24 hours of symptoms. In eclampsia, aim to

deliver within 12 hours of the onset of convulsions.
It is important to stabilise the mothers condition first then decide about the mode of
delivery
In selected patients, labour may be induced if the following conditions apply:
the cervix is favourable

the maternal condition is stable, eclampsia and blood pressure are controlled -
there is no fetal distress and a cephalic presentation
Assess the cervix
174
If the cervix is favourable (soft, thin, partly dilated), rupture the membranes with
an amniotic hook or a Kochers forceps, and induce labour using an oxytocin
infusion (see chapter 2.3) or oral misoprostol (see chapter 2.3 and below).
If vaginal delivery is not anticipated within 12 hours (for eclampsia) or 24 hours
(for severe pre-eclampsia), deliver by CS.
If there are fetal heart rate abnormalities (less than 110 or more than 160 beats
per minute), consider CS if safe for the mother.
If the cervix is unfavourable (firm, thick, closed) and the fetus is alive, deliver by
CS if mother is adequately resuscitated.
If there are no facilities for caesarean section or if the fetus is dead or too
premature for survival then deliver vaginally.
Aiming for vaginal delivery If the cervix is unfavourable (firm, thick, closed), and the fetus
is alive, caesarean section should be carried out. If the fetus is dead, consideration should
be given to induction of labour using misoprostol (unless there has been a previous
caesarean section when misoprostol is contraindicated).
There are many possible misoprostol regimens for induction of labor (vaginal misoprostol
tablet, oral misoprostol solution or oral misoprostol tablet). Each has been widely used. The
latest evidence is that oral misoprostol solution is the most appropriate treatment
(Cochrane reviews).
Oral misoprostol solution. A single misoprostol tablet is dissolved in drinking water (200
micro grams tablet in 200 mL water or a 100 micrograms tablet in 100 mL of water), and
20-25 mL of misoprostol solution(20-25 micrograms) is then given every two hours. The
solution is stable for up to 24 hours at room temperature but should then be discarded
Oral misoprostol tablets. 100 microgram misoprostol tablets cut to 25 micrograms size and
administered orally every 2 hours to a maximum of 6 doses. However, this may not be very
accurate and there is a danger of incorrect dosage: the solution above is much safer.
Caesarian section (CS) If CS is performed, ensure that coagulopathy has been treated.
Have fresh blood for transfusion available.
Spinal anaesthesia is usually safer than GA for Caesarean section unless there is a
contraindication ie. maternal refusal, coagulopathy, thrombocytopenia, decreased
conscious level or ongoing seizures. There does not appear to be an exaggerated
decrease in blood pressure after spinal anaesthesia and vasopressors (such as ephidrene,
should be used cautiously to avoid a hypertensive response. An IV bolus of 500ml of
Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns may occasionally be required if BP does fall.
General anaesthesia in severe preeclampsia/eclampsia is high risk there may be

laryngeal oedema making airway management difficult and increases in blood pressure
during intubation and extubation, risking intracranial haemorrhage. Drugs to weaken the
vasopressor response to intubation should be used.
Local anaesthesia or ketamine in women with pre-eclampsia or eclampsia are

contraindicated unless facilities and/or expertise dictate that these are the safest
options in that situation.
175
Stage 5. Management after delivery
If post-eclampsia or at high risk of convulsions, continue parenteral anticonvulsants

i.e. magnesium sulphate (or diazepam if MgSO4 is not available) for 24 hours after
birth. Continue for as long as the patient has increased tendon reflexes.
Do not give ergometrine to women with pre-eclampsia, eclampsia or high blood
pressure because it increases the risk of convulsions and cerebrovascular
accidents.
Monitor the mother closely.
Use antihypertensive agents if diastolic BP > 105-110 or systolic BP >160mmHg.
Continue oxytocin infusion to keep the uterus contracted.
Syntometrine (which contains ergometrine and can cause/worsen hypertension)
is contraindicated. Give oxytocin alone or with misoprostol and avoid possible
hypertensive effects of ergometrine. If post partum haemorrhage manage as in
chapter 2.5.D.iv.
Keep in delivery unit/high observation area for at least 24 hours after the last fit.
Review need for further anti-convulsants and anti-hypertensives.
Regular monitoring.
Plans for care should be communicated with the patient and her attendants. The
attendants should be educated about the left lateral tilt pre delivery, rec overy position
post convulsion, risk of aspiration of food and care of IV site.
Before going home, the family and attendants should be warned about the risk of
postnatal depression, especially if the outcome has been poor. The woman/girl should
be followed up closely in the community.
Antenatal care by the hospital during a future pregnancy is important. There is an
increased risk of preeclampsia and hypertension if these problems have been
present.
All patients are at risk of deep vein thrombosis and so close observation and
appropriate treatment when identified are important (see chapter 2.5.H). Anti-
embolism stockings and low molecular weight heparin prophylaxis should be
considered early on.
Hypertension may take many days and even up to 3 months to resolve. Resolution will
happen if the diagnosis is pre-eclampsia unless there is an underlying medical cause
Monitoring and preparation for emergencies
Pulse rate and volume, BP, respiratory rate and oxygen saturation regularly.
Monitor fluid intake and urinary output hourly.
Monitor AVPU/GCS, reflexes, and pupil responses hourly.
Monitor for confusion and visual disturbance.
Monitor fetus regularly.
Record all drugs used.
Each maternity unit should have an emergency box to ensure that appropriate
equipment and drugs are readily available.
176
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-meningitis and severe malaria
Meningitis
Signs and symptoms:

Headache
Vomiting
Neck stiffness
Opisthotonus
Photophobia
Rash
Altered consciousness
A lumbar puncture may be dangerous in the presence of raised intracranial pressure. High
dose IV antibiotics according to local protocols will be needed for at least 10 days.
Severe complicated malaria, usually falciparum

This results in fever, extreme weakness, headaches, vomiting, jaundice, drowsiness,
convulsions and coma. Malaria in pregnancy may be misdiagnosed as eclampsia; always
measure the BP and look for protein in the urine.
Pregnant women or girls with severe malaria are particularly prone to hypoglycaemia,
pulmonary oedema, anaemia, convulsions and coma.
Malaria is especially dangerous during the last trimester.
Drug treatment
IV artesunate
This is the first line treatment
LOADING DOSE
Give artesunate 2.4 mg/kg IV as a single bolus slowly over 5 minutes on the first day of
treatment.
MAINTENANCE DOSE : At 12 and 24 hours, give a maintenance dose of 1.2 mg/kg IV
over 3 minutes. Then give artesunate 1.2 mg/kg daily until conscious and able to swallow.
When able to swallow give artesunate 2 mg/kg by mouth once daily to complete 7 days of
treatment.
IM Artemether
This is the second choice for treatment

LOADING DOSE: Artemether IM 3.2 mg/Kg
MAINTENANCE DOSE: Artemether IM 1.6mg/Kg once daily for 3 days
Quinine dihydrochloride
This is only given if artesunate or artemether is not available
LOADING DOSE : Infuse quinine dihydrochloride, 20 mg/kg body weight (usually 1.2
grams for the average 60 kg pregnant woman) (max 1.4g) in 1 litre of IV fluids (5% or 10%
dextrose or Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns plus 5 or 10% glucose) over 4 hours. Do not
allow the infusion to go in too quickly by using a burette within an IV giving set. Quinine
is usually available in 2 ml ampoules of either 150 mg/ml where 1.2 g is thus 8 ml OR
300mg/ml where 1.2 g is thus 4ml.
Never give an IV bolus injection of quinine
If it is definitely known that the pregnant woman or girl has taken an adequate dose of
quinine (1.2 g) within the preceding 12 hours, do not give the loading dose. Proceed with
the maintenance dose only (see below).
177
If the history of treatment is not known or is unclear, give the loading dose of quinine;
Always wait 4 hours before giving the maintenance dose.
MAINTENANCE DOSE
Infuse quinine dihydrochloride 10 mg/kg body weight (usually 600mg) (max 700mg) in 1
litre of 5 or 10% glucose in Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns IV over 4 hours. Repeat every 8
hours (i.e. quinine infusion for 4 hours, no quinine for 4 hours, quinine infusion for 4 hours,
etc.).
Note: Monitor blood glucose levels for hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5 mmol/litre
(45mg/dl) every hour while the pregnant woman or girl is receiving quinine IV.
Continue the maintenance dosing schedule until the pregnant woman or girl is conscious
and able to swallow and then give: quinine dihydrochloride or quinine sulfate 10 mg/kg
body weight (usually 600mg) by mouth every 8 hours to complete 7 days of treatment. Ask
the pregnant woman or girl to swallow tablets quickly with milk.
Alternatively, in areas where sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine is effective, give

sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine-Fansidar 3 tablets as a single dose.
Caution!
Watch for hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl): always give IV quinine in a
5-10% glucose solution as described above.
Make sure plenty of fluids are given so that the urine output is adequate. Keep a strict fluid
balance chart and do not overload with fluid.
If the Hb falls below 6 g/dl give a blood transfusion with 40mg IV frusemide immediately
before the blood starts. When the pregnant woman or girl is improving give iron and folate
tablets.
Intramuscular quinine.
This is given at strength of not more than 60 mg/ml. Some ampoules are 60 mg/ml
(usually 10 ml ampoules). Some ampoules are 300 mg/ml or 600 mg/ml. Dilute these in
0.9% saline to a concentration of 60 mg/ml. (For example 600 mg of quinine in 10 ml of
saline). If you dont dilute quinine, the pregnant woman or girl may get an injection
abscess. Use the same dose as you would give IV. Give half the dose into each anterior
thigh. (WHO does not recommend dilution)
Caution!
When giving quinine by IM injection, regularly draw back to ensure the needle is not in a
vein.
If you know that the pregnant woman or girl has had an adequate dose of quinine in the
previous 12 24 hours, dont give a loading dose. If you dont know what quinine
treatment she has had, if any, give a loading dose.
178
COMPLICATIONS OF SEVERE MALARIA
Life threatening anaemia

Monitor Hb levels daily.
Transfuse as necessary. If the Hb is 5 g/dl or less or there is pulmonary oedema,
transfusion is urgent.
Monitor fluid balance very carefully.
Give frusemide 40mg IV with each unit of blood.
Give iron 120 mg by mouth plus folic acid 5mg (WHO 400 micrograms) by mouth daily
upon discharge for 3 months.
This can occur on admission or after quinine. Often it causes no symptoms until it results
in coma and death. Watch for abnormal behavior, sweating, and sudden coma. Always
give glucose with quinine. If drowsy, delirious or unconscious, dont assume the pregnant
woman or girl has cerebral malaria: she is probably hypoglycaemic. Check blood glucose
every hour if possible, especially if on quinine.
Treat suspected hypoglycaemia with IV 50 ml of 25% glucose, OR 250 ml of 10% glucose.

50% glucose is very irritant to veins and harmful if extravasated, so dilute it with 0.9%
saline or Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns to make a 25% solution. Subsequently give 250ml
of 10% glucose over 8 hours.
If you dont have IV glucose, give sugar water by mouth or by nasogastric tube. Dissolve 4
level teaspoons (20 g) in 200 ml of clean water.
Fluid imbalance
Maintain a strict fluid balance chart and monitor the amount of fluids administered and
urine output to ensure that there is no fluid overload. Assess clinical status regularly.
If urine output is poor (< 30 ml per hour): Re-hydrate with IV fluids (Ringer-Lactate or
Hartmanns).
If urine output does not improve, give frusemide 40 mg IV as a single dose and monitor
urine output.
Pulmonary oedema
The pregnant woman or girl may have it on admission, or it may come on after several
days. Fast difficult breathing is the first sign. Frothy (bubbly) fluid may be coming from the
mouth. It causes hypoxia, fits, coma and death. It can also be caused by too much IV
fluid. Sometimes it is caused by malaria and too much IV fluid, so monitor the central
(JVP) venous pressure regularly.
Keep upright, so prop up with pillows in the left lateral tilt position and lower the foot of the
bed.
Give high concentrations of oxygen using face mask and reservoir.
Give frusemide 40 mg IV. If there is no response (no increase in urine output) increase the
dose progressively, every 4 hours, to a maximum of 200 mg.
If the pregnant woman or girl might be getting too much IV fluid, stop all IV infusions.
179
Convulsions
If there are fits, has the pregnant woman or girl got eclampsia? Test the urine for protein
and measure her blood pressure.
If she is not suffering from eclampsia, prevent her having more fits with a loading dose and
subsequent maintenance doses of phenytoin.
LOADING DOSE Infuse phenytoin 1 g (approximately 18 mg/kg body weight) in 50100 ml
0.9% saline over 30 minutes (final concentration not to exceed 10 mg per ml):
Note: Only 0.9% saline can be used to infuse phenytoin. Flush IV line with 0.9% saline
before and after infusing phenytoin.
Do not infuse phenytoin at a rate exceeding 50 mg per minute due to the risk of
arrhythmias, hypotension and respiratory depression.
Complete administration within 1 hour of preparation.
MAINTENANCE DOSE ; Give phenytoin 100 mg IV slowly over 2 minutes or by mouth

every 8 hours beginning at least 12 hours after the loading dose.
If convulsions occur despite the above give diazepam 10 mg IV slowly over 2 minutes,
OR if no IV access give rectal diazepam 10mg OR rectal paraldehyde 10ml. ( see CD/DVD
rom).
If eclampsia is diagnosed, prevent subsequent convulsions with magnesium sulfate.
Diabetes mellitus in pregnancy
Management
During pregnancy
Insulin dependent pregnant women or girls (Type 1 Diabetes)
Signs of hyperglycaemia include a gradual onset of drowsiness and polyuria, dehydration,
hypotension, difficulty breathing and a ketotic smell to the breath. Signs and symptoms of
hypoglycaemia are usually of rapid onset with sudden onset of unconsciousness,
particularly if the pregnant woman or girl has taken insulin but has not taken her usual food.
Delivery
For spontaneous labour, induction of labour and elective Caesarean Section
1. Measure glucose on admission and hourly in labour
2. Site IV line with 500 ml 10% dextrose containing potassium chloride 10mmol and give at
60 ml /hour
.
Blood glucose mmol/l Hourly subcutaneous injections of insulin
<2 No insulin dextrose only
2 to 4.0 1 unit
4.1 to 9.0 2 units
9.1 to11.0 3 units
11.1 to16.9 4 units
If the glucose level is >17 mmol/l expert advice should be sought

Aim for glucose levels of 4 9 mmol/l
Reduce insulin by half at delivery and aim to resume pre-pregnancy insulin dosage 24
hours after delivery. If the mother is breast feeding, her insulin requirement may be lower.
180
Section 11 Medical emergencies in pregnancy-diabetes
Pathway of care: severe diabetic keto-acidosis in pregnancy
Position: sniffing/nose in air

Closed Head tilt - chin lift
Airway Jaw thrust
Intubation
Open
No Rescue breaths - self inflating bag

Breathing
and mask with reservoir 100% O2
Yes
100% oxygen -
face mask +
reservoir
Circulation
If 24 weeks pregnant
or more LEFT
LATERAL TILT
If shocked:
Measure blood glucose hourly at first (stick test - checked with lab), U&E,
500-1000ml 0.9%
ideally blood gas, blood culture, urine
saline IV
Assess degree of dehydration (Wt)
Assess AVPU
Look for fever = infection
Insert NG tube (ileus is usually present)
Accurate fluid balance (consider urinary catheter)
Neurological assessments hourly
ECG for hypokalaemia
1
E.g. for a 70kg patient,
fluid needed per day: 2400ml
1 2
Fluids = maintenance + deficit fluid needed per hour: 100ml
(calculate as no greater than 8%
dehydrated) 2
Weigh or estimate weight
% dehydration x weight (kg) x 10 =
deficit in ml)
Give over 24
hours
Blood glucose >12mmol/l - 0.9% saline IV

Blood glucose <12mmol/l - 0.45% saline
IV
Watch Na+ carefully - avoid rapid falls
(cerebral oedema risk)
Replace any large gastric aspirates as
0.45% saline + 10mmol/l KCl
Potassium
Add 20mmol KCl to every 500ml unit of IV fluid
OR
Give proportion of fluids enterally as ORS plus
25-50mmol of KCl orally 12 hourly
If cerebral oedema
Mannitol 100ml of 20% IV (20 grams)
Insulin 2/3 maintenance IV fluids
0.6 units/kg/dose of short acting soluble insulin Keep Na >135mmol/litre
6 hourly subcutaneously Avoid fever >38 degrees centigrade
OR Head midline and 30 degrees elevated
0.1 units/kg/hour short acting soluble insulin IV
(ONLY if safe and well resourced)
181
Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: prolonged/obstructed labour
Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery

Prolonged and obstructed labour, uterine rupture and shoulder dystocia
Recognition of prolonged or obstructed labour and early referral
Remember: 3 Ps: Power (too little), Passenger (too big) and Passage (too small).
Prevention of prolonged labour
Good antenatal care so that the presentation of the fetus is known before the onset of
labour (ideally confirmed by ultrasound examination): If presentation is abnormal, the
mother must be transferred to hospital as soon as she enters labour.
Use of the modified WHO partograph
Good nutritional state in the mother
Absence of anaemia in the mother
Adequate fluids and glucose during labour

Main causes of slow progress in labour:
1. Poor quality uterine contractions
2. Mal-presentations and mal-positions
3. Disproportion between the size of the baby and of the pelvis**
** Exclude 1 and 2 before diagnosing this

All need urgent transfer to hospital
Diagnostic issues in obstructed labour
The mother
The patient may be dehydrated, tachycardic, ketotic (urine positive for ketone
bodies, breath smells of ketones), febrile and exhausted, and there may be
infected vaginal secretions.
The bladder may be distended with retained urine, or may be oedematous.
Abdominal examination may reveal haemoperitoneum from a ruptured uterus.
Blood may not appear vaginally, due to the impacted fetal head, which should be
dislodged upwards to allow full assessment. Where ruptured uterus is suspected,
a laparotomy should be carried out. (See below)
Abdominal examination may reveal distended bowel from sepsis and ileus.
The fetus
o The lie and relationship of the fetus to the pelvis must be assessed.
o Despite visible caput at the introitus, there may still be 60% of the fetal head
palpable abdominally.
182
Table 1 Diagnosis of unsatisfactory progress of labour
Cervix not dilated False labour
No palpable contractions/infrequent contractions
Cervix not dilated beyond 4 cm after 8 hours of regular Prolonged latent phase
contractions
Cervical dilatation to the right of the alert line on the Prolonged active phase
partogram
Secondary arrest of cervical dilatation and descent of Cephalopelvic

presenting part in presence of good contractions disproportion
Secondary arrest of cervical dilatation and descent of Obstruction

presenting part with large caput, third degree moulding, cervix
poorly applied to presenting part, oedematous cervix,
ballooning of lower uterine segment, formation of retraction
band, maternal and fetal distress
Less than 3-4 contractions in 10 minutes each lasting less Inadequate uterine activity
than 40 secs to one minute with a minute of relaxation
between each contraction.
Presentation other than vertex with occipito-anterior Malpresentation
Cervix fully dilated and woman has urge to push, but there is Prolonged expulsive
no descent (second stage) phase
Emergency treatment for obstructed labour
Assess ABCs and resuscitate if required

Place a wide-bore IV cannula (14-16g).
Place mother in left lateral tilt or recovery position.
Send blood for haemoglobin, group and crossmatch, and electrolytes if
possible.
Give IV 1 L of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns containing 5 or 10% glucose
over 1 hour as an infusion, or as rapidly as possible if shocked, then re-
assess.
Catheterise the patient to decompress the bladder, measure urine output
and look for haematuria.
o The presence of haematuria may suggest uterine rupture.
o If there is concern about the viability of the vaginal and bladder
wall, the catheter may be kept in situ for up to 6 weeks to prevent
or minimise the formation of a vesico-vaginal fistula.
183
Give IV/IM ampicillin (2g 6 hourly), gentamicin (80mg IV/IM 8 hourly or
5mg/Kg body weight IV/IM once every 24 hours) and metronidazole (500
mg 8 hourly). Cefuroxime (1.5 g 8 hourly, if available) can be given instead
of ampicillin + gentamicin.
Measure pulse rate, capillary refill time (CRT), BP, temperature, and urine
output frequently.
If uterine rupture excluded, shock may be due to hypovolaemia, sepsis or
both.
If there is recent food intake, or abdominal distension is present, the stomach should be
emptied using a nasogastric tube, and then magnesium trisilicate oral suspension (dose=
10 mL) should be given to reduce the acidity of gastric contents.
Overcoming slow progress in labour
If cervix fully dilated and cephalic presentation and no signs of obstruction,

instrumental delivery (ventouse or forceps) can avoid CS. However, if the cervix
is fully dilated and there is obstruction, instrumental delivery can make CS very
difficult by causing further impaction of the fetal head.
If cervix not fully dilated, in primigravida with cephalic presentation: Oxytocin
infusion.
If cervix not fully dilated, and abnormal presentation: caesarean section.
If ruptured uterus: laparotomy/CS hysterectomy.
Urgent referral/transport if the above is not possible. Stabilise mothers ABC before transfer
if necessary.
Reasons for fetal death in obstructed labour
Strong contractions with inadequate relaxation between contractions (sometimes

made worse by inappropriate use of oxytocin) interfere with placental exchange.
Excessive moulding of the head, in cephalic presentation, leading to intracranial
haemorrhage. In breech presentation, the head may be trapped by an
incompletely dilated cervix, or may not enter the pelvis because of disproportion.
Ascending infection, amnionitis and severe intrauterine infection due to
prolonged ruptured membranes and labour, and/or unsterile vaginal
examinations.
Ruptured uterus.
Risks of caesarean section in obstructed labour
1. Intra-operative hemorrhage
2. Post -operative shock
3. Generalised peritonitis
4. The hazards of general or regional anaesthesia
5. Rupture of the uterine scar in subsequent pregnancies
6. Wound complications
7. Pelvic abscess
8. Visceral damage especially to bladder it may be difficult to pass a catheter with a
very impacted fetal head and the bladder is often oedematous
184
The management of uterine rupture in this setting depends on the site and extent of uterine
rupture. With a straightforward anterior rupture without extension, uterine repair (plus
bilateral tubal ligation) may be most appropriate and safe.
If infection is present before a CS is undertaken, dangerous complications can follow. In

107 CS (performed in 156 patients with intra-partum infection) the following complications
occurred:
post operative shock 18 (17%)

generalised peritonitis 70 (65%)
mortality 13 (12%)
Pathway of care in obstructed labour

Assess Airway, Breathing and Circulation and treat as required
Assess:
State of hydration
Presence of ketosis
presence of fever/infected vaginal secretions/ileus
Bleeding suggesting ruptured uterus (PV or intra-abdominal)
No Yes
Ruptured uterus?
Circulation:
Wide bore IV cannula (16G-18G)
Assess progress of labour:
Blood for Hb, Gp and Xmatch, culture and clotting
Lie and presentation of fetus
IV 500ml Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns containing 5%
Degree of cervical dilatation
dextrose as fast as possible
Bladder distension
Elevate legs and consider anti-shock garment
Catheterise - look for urine output/haematuria
Cervix fully dilated, baby cephalic IV Ampicillin 2g 6 hourly plus IV Gentamicin 80 mg 8

and head fully engaged? hrly or 5mg/kg once daily plus IV Metronidazole
500mg 8 hourly
No Yes if ileus or abdominal distension NG tube
Magnesium Trisilicate antacid enterally
Caesarean Ventouse or
forceps Laparotomy/Caesarean Section/
Section
Hysterectomy
185
Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: obstructed labour ruptured uterus
Ruptured uterus
Complete rupture of the uterus is life- threatening to both mother and baby.
Causes
A previous caesarean section scar may rupture during labour. However, obstructed labour,
even without a uterine scar, particularly in a woman of high parity, may cause uterine
rupture. It may be caused by inappropriate use of oxytocic drugs, especially in multiparous
women, or in the presence of cephalopelvic disproportion. No woman receiving an oxytoxin
infusion should be left alone.
Ideally, always use a burette giving set to administer IV oxytocin to avoid too paid infusion
and overdosage. In the absence of a burette, refer to the progressive oxytocin dosage,
and use as described in the chapter on normal delivery, making sure to slow/stop once
labour is well established.
Uterine rupture may be caused by violence or trauma during pregnancy, sometimes as part
of intimate partner violence.
Risk factors for uterine rupture
Malpresentation and malposition.

Previous CS, especially if oxytocic agents used, or if a classical CS scar is
present.
Previous uterine surgery e.g. myomectomy, or uterine perforation at the time of
dilatation and curettage (D&C) or manual removal of placenta (MR). It may be
recognised or (more often) unrecognised.
The multiparous woman who has delivered normally before and has a
significantly bigger baby or a malposition in the current pregnancy and is allowed
a prolonged second stage.
Symptoms and signs
This usually presents with hypovolaemic shock, but vaginal bleeding can be concealed.
The baby is usually dead
50% of ruptures occur at or near full dilatation.
Change in nature of pain, from severe intermittent to constant dull ache.

Vaginal bleeding may or may not be present.
Maternal shock due to blood loss +/- vagal stimulation, plus dehydration,
exhaustion, ketoacidosis if prolonged obstructed labour.
Abdominal distension, tender to palpation, fetal parts may be very easily
palpated, absent fetal heart,
On vaginal examination, the presenting part may be high or impacted
May be preceded by the appearance of Bandls ring (see figure 9)
186
Bandls ring in obstructed labour, uterine rupture may be imminent
Suspect rupture in the patient with any risk factors
Call for help, especially for a surgeon and anaesthetist, urgent laparotomy will be
required
Airway
If the airway is not open - use an airway opening manoeuvre and keep it open.
Consider an airway adjunct such as an oropharyngeal airway or intubation.
The oropharynx may need gentle suctioning under direct vision, being careful to avoid
inducing laryngospasm.
The recovery position should be adopted to minimise the risk of aspiration of vomit
(see Figure 10).
Recovery position
Breathing
If there is spontaneous breathing, give high concentration of oxygen via a

facemask with reservoir. Give 100% oxygen (mask with reservoir and flow
rate of at least 6L/min) regardless of mothers oxygen saturation. This
increases fetal O2 delivery as well as improving maternal tissue
oxygenation.
If apnoeic or hypoventilating, provide chest inflations with bag-valve-mask-
reservoir ventilation and high flow oxygen.
187
Circulation
Evaluate pulse rate and volume, peripheral circulation (capillary refill time) and
blood pressure
If signs of life are absent, initiate CPR
Perform left lateral tilt or manual displacement of uterus
If signs of shock, support circulation as below
o Insert a 14G-16G IV cannula and take 20 mL blood for full blood count,
crossmatch (4 units = 2 L) and clotting. Undertake whole blood clotting time
(WBCT) test if laboratory studies not available.
Give 500 ml to 1 L of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns by rapid bolus IV
Re-assess, and if shock still present, give blood if available (500 mL as rapidly as
possible after warming) or another 500ml to1 L of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns.
If ketotic from prolonged obstructed labour, add 50 mL of 50% glucose to the second
litre of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns.
Central venous access may be needed for volume replacement if peripheral access
not possible.
Emergency treatment
7. Obtain consent for laparotomy and hysterectomy.

8. Try to place a second IV cannula.
9. Perform urgent laparotomy under general anaesthesia.
10. The type of operation will depend upon the size and site of rupture, and the degree of
haemorrhage.
11. Give IV prophylactic antibiotics (ampicillin 2 g or cefuroxime 1.5 g plus metronidazole
500 mg).
The rupture may extend anteriorly towards the back of the bladder, laterally towards the
uterine arteries, or into the broad ligament plexus of veins and leading to massive
haemorrhage.
Posterior rupture may occur and is usually associated with intrauterine malformations, but
has occurred in patients who have had a previous CS or uterine trauma, or after rotational
forceps. Fundal rupture has been documented, and detailed history usually elicits previous
D and C or manual removal of placenta.
Continuing haemorrhage is an indication for performing a total or subtotal hysterectomy.

Subtotal hysterectomy is a simpler procedure than total hysterectomy, and has a reduced
risk of ureteric or bladder damage.
The choice of uterine repair depends on the site of the injury. In one series of 23 cases of
ruptured uterus, hysterectomy was undertaken in 15 (65%) cases and repair in the other 8.
Five successful further pregnancies were reported without repeat rupture (all delivered by
CS). In another Middle Eastern series of 11 cases of uterine rupture, 8 had uterine repair -
all became pregnant again and delivered by CS.
188
Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: shoulder dystocia
Shoulder dystocia
Shoulder dystocia is due to impaction of the shoulders against the bony pelvis. Special
manoeuvres are required to deliver the shoulders. The reported incidence is between
0.15% and 2% of all vaginal deliveries. It carries a significant risk to the baby due to
hypoxia, fractures of the clavicle and humerus and injuries to the brachial plexus.
The problem lies at the pelvic brim where the anterior shoulder gets caught, while the
posterior shoulder has usually entered the pelvis. Treatment therefore aims to encourage
the anterior shoulder into the pelvis, or if this fails either rotating the posterior shoulder
round into the anterior position or delivering the posterior arm first. Traction on the head
when the anterior shoulder is caught above the pelvic brim will not work and is dangerous.
Delivery should occur within five minutes of the delivery of the head, and hypoxic injury to
the baby is increasingly likely the longer the delay.
Post-partum haemorrhage is common after shoulder dystocia, and there is a risk of serious
vaginal and perineal lacerations.
During delivery, signs include:

difficulty delivering the face and chin
head retractions between contractions
head bobbing
the delivered head becomes tightly pulled back against the perineum (turtle sign).
As soon as the situation is suspected, a plan of action should be initiated.
Management of shoulder dystocia

If risk factors are present, try if possible to have an experienced obstetrician present in the
second stage. Fifty percent, however, are unexpected.
Be prepared for the problem, including post partum haemorrhage, which may follow.
Try each manoeuvre for 30-60 seconds only: if it does not work, move on. Try to recognize
it early-on and before applying any traction to the head which can delay helpful procedures
and cause Erbs paralysis.
The ALSO acronym below is helpful see www.also.org.uk
HELPERR: H = HELP
E = EVALUATE/EPISIOTOMY
L = LEGS (McRoberts)
P = PRESSURE (suprapubic)
E = ENTER (posterior arm and Woods screw)
R = ROTATE (onto all 4s)
R = REPEAT
1. Call for help: it needs the most experienced team and extra helpers
2. McRoberts manoeuvre (Legs) See figures below.
189
Both thighs are sharply flexed, abducted and rotated outwards ideally by two assistants.
Each assistant holds the leg in the region of the thigh and flexes the leg until the thigh lies
parallel to the anterior abdominal wall. This will reduce the angle between the sacrum and
the lumbar vertebrae to help free the impacted shoulder. If two assistants are not
available, the mother may be placed in the all fours position (see below).
McRoberts manoeuvre
3. Supra-pubic pressure with moderate traction (not fundal pressure)

Supra-pubic pressure is applied to reduce the diameter between the shoulders and push
the anterior shoulder underneath the symphysis pubis. It is important to know where the
fetal back lies so that pressure is applied in the right direction (that is from the fetal back
forwards towards the fetal chest). If unsure of position of back, confirm by vaginal
examination. Pressure should be applied to the back of the shoulder with the heel of the
hand and sometimes a rocking movement may be helpful. Strong traction and fundal
pressure should be avoided.
Suprapubic pressure
4. Apply moderate traction (harder pulling can make impaction worse and cause Erbs
paralysis)
Once both McRoberts and supra-pubic pressure are in place, moderate traction can be
applied while discouraging maternal efforts (which can increase the impaction of the
shoulders).
5. Consider an episiotomy
190
A medio-lateral episiotomy is recommended to allow more room for manoeuvres such as
delivering the posterior shoulder, allowing the operator to use the sacral hollow and
reducing vaginal trauma.
6. Deliver posterior arm and shoulder

Insert a hand up to the fetal axilla and hook the posterior shoulder down. Traction on the
posterior axilla then brings the posterior arm within reach: run your index or middle finger or
both along the back of the fetal humerus, then flex the elbow at the ante-cubital fossa
which will disengage the arm which can then be brought down (hold the hand and sweep it
across the chest). Sometimes it comes out directly lying alongside the head. Sometimes it
comes out with an element of rotation anteriorly.
Delivery of the posterior arm
7. Internal rotational manoeuvres Rubins and Woods screw manoeuvres

These measures are rarely required.
Rubins manoeuvre
Rubins manoeuvre. The operator inserts the fingers of one hand vaginally, positioning the
fingertips behind the anterior shoulder. The shoulder is then pushed towards the fetal
chest.
Woods screw manoeuvre. If Rubins manoevre is unsuccessful the fingers of the opposite
hand may be inserted vaginally to approach the posterior shoulder from the front of the
fetus. The combination of these two movements may allow rotation of the shoulders and
aid delivery. If delivery of the posterior shoulder or arm is not successful try to rotate the
posterior shoulder 180 degrees in a corkscrew fashion (clockwise or anticlockwise) to bring
it to an anterior position from whence the delivery can continue as normal (this rotation
releases the impacted anterior shoulder that ends up in the posterior pelvis). It is important
not to twist the fetal head or neck during this manoeuvre.
191
Woods screw manoeuvre
Reverse Woods screw manoeuvre
8. All fours position

This is another procedure which can be useful if no help is available. The mother quickly
positions herself evenly on hands and knees. (Gaskin manoeuvre). In many cases this
alone relieves the dystocia. It also can assist with the delivery of the posterior arm. The
other manoeuvres described above can also be performed with the mother in this position.
Early on try to deliver posterior shoulder from this position. Sometimes pushing one or
other leg forward into the starting of a race position can open up the pelvis from this
position.
Figure 18 All fours position for shoulder dystocia. Guide the head downwards so that the
posterior shoulder which has now become upwards with the adoption of the all 4s position
is delivered.
9. Symphysiotomy
If the baby is still undelivered, symphisiotomy should be considered.
10. Check vagina and perineum for trauma and repair accordingly
11. Prepare for PPH.
192
Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: multiple births
Multiple births
If ultrasound scan is not available, abdominal examination after delivery of any first baby
should be performed to exclude a second twin before oxytocin or syntometrine is
given to aid delivery of the placenta.
If the mother develops premature labour, a course of ante-natal steroid injections should be
given.
betamethasone 12 mg IM 2 doses 24 hours apart
or
dexamethasone 6 mg IM 4 doses 12 hours apart.
A second course of dexamethasone or betamethasone can be given if > 2 weeks has

passed since a first course of treatment has been given and delivery has not occurred but
premature labour has restarted. More than 2 courses should not be given.
Steroid injections improve the maturity of the fetal lungs and reduce the risk of respiratory
distress syndrome in the newborn.
How twins present
In 40% of cases, both twins are cephalic. In 21%, the second twin is a breech. In 14%, the
first twin is a breech. In 10% of cases, both twins are breeches. In all remaining cases,
one twin or other, or occasionally both, are transverse. In figure 2.6.D.2, the first twin is the
lower one.
The variety of twin positions in utero at birth
Antenatal monitoring in multiple pregnancy
Check-up (urine for protein, BP, ultrasound if possible) two-weekly from 28 - 36

weeks; warn about the risk of preterm delivery
Check-up weekly from 37 weeks
Watch for signs of pre-eclampsia and premature labour
Twin delivery
193
Vaginal delivery is usually safe but must be undertaken in a health facility where
comprehensive EmOC is available. If labour has not started by 39-40 weeks gestation,
consider induction.
Summary of management during labour
Delivery of first twin
Insert I.V. cannula. Maternal blood should be obtained for a full blood
count and blood group. A blood sample should be kept for cross-match
Ensure longitudinal lie of the first baby
Augment contractions only when indicated.
Prepare two delivery packs / extra clamps. Remember there are
almost always two membranes to rupture with twins.
Make sure the cervix is fully dilated.
Empty mothers bladder.
Deliver first baby as normal
After birth of first baby: stabilise the lie of the second twin if it is
longitudinal. If not undertake version (see below)
Tie a marker (eg gauze) to the clamp on the cord of first baby to
identify it.
Delivery of second twin
The second baby should preferably be born within 30 minutes.

Check FHR of second baby.
Stabilise the lie of the second twin with version if necessary.
Provided lie is longitudinal and contractions do not restart 5 - 10 minutes after delivery
of the first baby, then start oxytocin infusion 5 Units in 500 mL 5% dextrose,
commenced at a rate of 1 milliunit per minute, that is 6 mL/hour ( in a standard giving
set where 20 drops per mL), increasing carefully to achieve adequate contractions.
Note that contractions may not be felt by the mother, so it is important to keep your
hand on the uterus to identify these.
When the presenting part is well into the pelvis, rupture of membranes can be
performed during a uterine contraction.
Delivery of the second baby should not be rushed, but assisted delivery should be
considered if the baby has not been delivered by 30 minutes after delivery of the first.
If the lie of the second twin is transverse, attempt external version.
If external version is successful, or the second twin is longitudinal, wait for the
presenting part to enter the pelvis then do artificial rupture of membranes (ARM) and
allow normal cephalic or breech delivery if there is no fetal distress
If ECV is unsuccessful, either carry out internal version with breech extraction or
perform a CS.
Internal podalic version: It is essential that every manoeuvre undertaken ensures that
the fetal back is kept anterior. Grasp the correct fetal foot (by pulling on the correct
foot the fetal back must go anterior for delivery). (Ensure it is a foot not a hand). Pull
gently down in to the birth canal so that the fetal back goes anterior. The membranes
are ruptured as late as possible. The baby is delivered as an assisted breech or
breech extraction.
If the fetal back is inferior , the operator's hand needs to grasp the foot nearest to the
mothers back so that when pulling on this the fetal back goes anterior (see figure 3).
If there is fetal distress or delay, carry out assisted vaginal delivery
194
Internal version for transverse lie in a second twin
Transverse lie in a second twin, ensuring the correct foot is pulled so that the fetal back
becomes anterior in the birth canal
195
Postpartum management of twin birth
After birth of second baby, give10 IU oxytocin IM after ensuring that there is no third
baby in the uterus. Then give oxytocin 40 units IV in 500 mL of Ringer-Lactate or
Hartmanns over 4 hours, to reduce the risks of PPH due to atonic uterus. .
Deliver the placenta by controlled cord traction after oxytocin IM.
After birth of placenta and membranes, examine and record in chart the number of
placentas, amnions, chorions and cord vessels. Check the placenta and membranes
for completeness.
Check and repair any vaginal and perineal damage.
Monitor carefully for post-partum bleeding over the next few hours.
Provide extra support to assist with the care of the babies.
At least 24 hours stay in hospital
Observe vaginal bleeding closely, because of risk of PPH
Hooking/locking of heads
This is a rare complication during vaginal delivery.
Women may present with locked twins with the first trunk partially delivered. The head of
the second twin will have entered the maternal pelvis, and needs to be pushed upwards to
allow descent of the head of the first twin. If the first baby is already dead, it can be
delivered by decapitation. After delivery of the body, the head is dis-impacted and the
second twin is delivered. Finally the first head is delivered with a volsellum.
If, fortunately, the first baby is still alive (e.g. if delivering in hospital), or if despite
decapitation the second baby cannot be delivered, then proceed immediately to caesarean
section if safe for the mother to do so.
Locked twins
196
Pathway of care for twin delivery
197
Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: reduced fetal movement, IUD, stillbirth
Reduced fetal movements, intrauterine death and stillbirth
Initial management
Check for fetal heart sounds and, if present, measure the fetal heart rate.
If the fetal heart cannot be detected with a pinard stethoscope, Doppler device or
ultrasound scan, refer to the table below:
Diagnosis
Table 1 Diagnosis of reduced fetal movements
Symptoms Signs Investigation Diagnosis Treatment
Decreased or Shock in Pinard Placental Deliver baby
absent fetal mother stethoscope, abruption as soon as
movements Doppler device possible (see
Bleeding (but Tense/tender or ultrasound below) by
may not be uterus scan caesarean
external) Fetal distress or section if signs
Collapse absent fetal of fetal life
Severe heart sounds
constant
abdominal pain
Decreased or Shock in mother Pinard Ruptured Treat shock
absent fetal stethoscope, uterus When stable
movements Diffuse uterine Doppler device Major risk do laparotomy
Bleeding (but tenderness with or ultrasound factors are
may not be easily felt fetal scan prolonged
external) parts labour,
Collapse previous
Severe Fetal distress or caesarean
constant absent fetal section and
abdominal pain heart sounds use of
oxytocin
Decreased or Abnormal fetal Pinard Fetal asphyxia Deliver baby
absent fetal heart rate (less stethoscope, as soon as
movements than 100 or Doppler device possible (see
If membranes more than 180 or ultrasound below) by
ruptured, beats per scan caesarean
meconium minute) Partogram section if signs
staining of should show of fetal life
liquor alerts
Absent fetal Symphysis- Pinard Fetal death Deliver baby

movements fundal height stethoscope, as soon as
If membranes decreases Doppler device possible (see
ruptured, or ultrasound below)
meconium scan
staining
Full blood count
in mother
Clotting screen,
including
measurement of
platelets in
mother
198
Fetal death in the absence of an abruption
Fetal death in utero may be the result of fetal asphyxia from placental failure, fetal infection,
cord accident or congenital anomalies. Where syphilis is prevalent, a large proportion of
fetal deaths are due to this disease.
Fetal death can be confirmed by abdominal ultrasound with confidence if there is lack of
fetal heart activity.
If fetal death in utero is diagnosed, inform the woman/girl and her family and discuss with
them the options for management.
Expectant management
Explain to the mother that in 90% of cases the fetus is spontaneously expelled within 1
month of diagnosis. However, most mothers and their families will request delivery as soon
as possible.
If platelets are decreasing or clotting studies become deranged or more than 4 weeks have
passed without spontaneous labour, consider active management.
Active management
If the cervix is favourable (soft, thin, partly dilated), induce labour using oxytocin. Avoid
rupturing membranes early as this can increase risk of infection, and also the
presenting part can be very soft in these circumstances.
If the cervix is unfavourable (firm, thick, closed), ripen the cervix using misoprostol). The
regime for administration of misoprostol is as follows:
Give misoprostol 25 micrograms orally. Repeat after six hours if required.
If there is no response after two doses of 25 micrograms, increase to 50 micrograms every
6 hours.
Note: Do not use more than 50 micrograms at a time and do not exceed a total of 200
micrograms, as this may lead to uterine rupture.
If the membranes have been ruptured for more than 24 hours, and even if no signs of
infection, consider IV antibiotics during labour.
Do not use oxytocin within eight hours of using misoprostol. Monitor strength and
frequency of uterine contractions closely in all patients undergoing induction of
labour with prostaglandins.
If there are signs of infection (fever, and/or foul-smelling vaginal discharge), give antibiotics
as for endometritis.
If a clotting test shows failure of a clot to form after seven minutes, or a soft clot that breaks
down easily, suspect coagulopathy. Obtain fresh blood for transfusion and give broad
spectrum IV antibiotics including metronidazole.
Avoid caesarean section if possible, except for unavoidable obstetric reasons such as
transverse lie, suspected uterine rupture or major abruption.
Fetal death in the presence of an abruption
Adopt the active management approach described above.
Stillbirths
Early stillbirths are defined by the International Classification of Diseases as a birth weight
of 500 grams or, if missing, 22 completed weeks of gestation or, if missing, body length
25 cm.
WHO defines stillbirth as a birth weight 1000 grams or, if missing, 28 completed weeks
of gestation or, if missing, body length 35 cm.
Causes
199
The major causes are listed below and these are the same as the causes of maternal and
neonatal mortality:
Complications of childbirth
Maternal infections in pregnancy (for example syphilis)
Medical disorders of pregnancy (especially pre-eclampsia/hypertension)
Maternal under-nutrition and fetal intra-uterine growth retardation
Congenital abnormalities
Prevention
The most important issues in low resource situations are to increase the number of skilled
birth attendants who can manage antenatal and intra-partum care, an increase in facility
based births, and the prevention and treatment of syphilis and malaria during pregnancy.
Specifically the following 10 interventions have been subject to systematic review and
reported to reduce stillbirth rates:
1. Folic acid before and soon after conception
2. Insecticide treated bed nets or intermittent preventive drug treatment against malaria
3. Syphilis detection and treatment
4. Detection and management of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy
5. Detection and management of diabetes
6. Detection and management of fetal growth restriction
7. Routine induction to prevent post-term pregnancy
8. Skilled care at birth
9. Basic emergency obstetric care
10. Comprehensive emergency obstetric care
The main aim is to strengthen the health systems involved in ante-partum and intra-partum
care which include in addition to the 10 items above:
Prevention of malaria and syphilis in endemic areas
The availability of emergency obstetric surgery, in particular caesarean section, without
delay with attention to task shifting to improve access especially in rural areas.
Improved antenatal care
Advocacy to address poverty and its consequences (stillbirth rates inversely correlate with
wealth and development)
Systems to manage and prevent domestic violence
Efforts to achieve sexual equality, improve reproductive health and the secondary
education of boys and girls
Bereaved families should join together and advocate for change at all of the levels
identified above.
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Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: malpresentations and malpositions
Mal-presentations and mal-positions including breech delivery
Introduction
Malpresentations and malpositions can be due to maternal pathology (e.g. contracted

pelvis or uterine fibroids), or fetal pathology (e.g. hydrocephalus), which ideally should be
diagnosed antenatally. Most often, there is no apparent cause.
Malpresentations are all presentations of the fetus other than vertex, for example face or
breech presentation.
Malpositions are abnormal positions of the vertex of the fetal head (with the occiput as the
reference point) relative to the maternal pelvis.
A fetus in an abnormal position or presentation may result in prolonged or obstructed

labour.
Management
Review progress of labour using a partograph.
Note: Observe the mother closely. Malpresentations increase the risk for uterine rupture
because of the potential for obstructed labour.
Table 1 is a Table of diagnostic features of malpositions and malpresentations
Assessing the fetal position

Determine the presenting part
The most common presentation is the vertex of the fetal head. If the vertex is the
presenting part, use landmarks of the fetal skull to determine the position of the fetal head
(Figure). However, although the anterior fontanelle is larger than the posterior and has 4
sutures leading from it, one of them is small and may be difficult to feel.
Determine the position of the fetal head
201
The fetal head normally engages in the maternal pelvis in an occiput transverse position.
With descent, the fetal head rotates so that the fetal occiput is anterior in the maternal
pelvis (Table 1). Failure of an occiput to rotate to an occiput anterior position should be
managed as an occiput posterior position.
An additional feature of a normal presentation is a well-flexed vertex (figure), with the fetal
occiput lower in the vagina than the sinciput.
Well flexed vertex presentation
If the fetal head is well-flexed with occiput anterior or occiput transverse (in early labour),
proceed with delivery.
If the fetal head is not occiput anterior, identify and manage the malposition (table 1).
If the fetal head is not the presenting part or the fetal head is not well-flexed, identify and
manage the malpresentations (Table.1)
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Table.1 Table of diagnostic features of malpositions and malpresentations {near here)
Position Observations Picture from introitus
OCCIPUT On vaginal
ANTERIOR examination
providing the
head is flexed
only the posterior
fontanelle with 3
sutures entering
it is felt
203
OCCIPUT On vaginal
examination, the
POSTERIOR
posterior
fontanelle is
towards the
sacrum and the
anterior
fontanelle may
be easily felt if
the head is
deflexed
On abdominal
examination the
lower part of the
abdomen is
flattened, fetal
limbs are
palpable
anteriorly
MALPRESENTATIONS
BROW On abdominal
PRESENTATION examination,
is caused by more than half
partial extension the fetal head is
of the fetal head above the
so that the symphysis pubis
occiput is higher and the occiput is
than the sinciput palpable at a
higher level than
the sinciput.
On vaginal
examination, the
anterior
fontanelle and
the orbits are felt.
FACE On abdominal
examination, a
PRESENTATION
is caused by large amount of
hyper-extension head is palpable
on the same side
of the fetal head
so that neither the as the back,
occiput nor the without a
cephalic
sinciput are
palpable on prominence on
vaginal the same side as
the limbs.
examination.
204
On vaginal
examination, the
face is palpated,
the examiners
finger enters the
mouth easily and
the bony jaws
are felt.
COMPOUND Both the
PRESENTATION prolapsed arm
occurs when an and the fetal
arm prolapses head present in
alongside the the pelvis
presenting part. simultaneously.
205
TRANSVERSE The fetus lies in
LIE AND the transverse
SHOULDER position with
PRESENTATION usually the
shoulder
presenting.
On abdominal
examination,
neither the head
or buttocks can
be felt at the
symphysis and
the head is
usually in the
flank
On vaginal
examination, a
shoulder may
sometimes be
felt. An arm may
prolapse and the
elbow, arm or
hand may be felt
in the vagina
206
BREECH On abdominal
PRESENTATION examination, the
occurs when the head is felt in the
buttocks and/or upper abdomen
the feet are the and the breech in
presenting parts. the pelvic brim.
Auscultation
locates the fetal
heart higher than
expected with a
vertex
presentation.
On vaginal
examination
during labour,
the buttocks
and/or feet are
felt; thick, dark
meconium is
normal.
207
Figure Diameter of presenting part changes as extension occurs
Malpositions of the fetal head
As a babys head extends (deflexes), the diameter that has to pass through the mothers
birth canal gets greater, until the baby becomes a brow presentation (14 cm). Then it gets
smaller as the baby becomes a face presentation (see Figure 3)
Figure A, C, E and G are all vertex presentations. The only normal one is the well flexed
head A. As A turns through to become G, a babys head gets more and more extended
(deflexed).
Labour gets more difficult as the head extends, with brow and mento-posterior face
presentations being impossible to deliver vaginally.
A face presentation is easier to deliver than a brow. This is because the head has now
become fully deflexed.
The vertex presentations in Figure 3 show the diameters of the skull. When the head is
well flexed (A) the shortest diameter of the skull is entering the mothers pelvis. In a brow
presentation (E, most difficult) the longest diameter is trying to enter it.
Management of malpositions
208
Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: occiput posterior
Occiput posterior positions
Fifteen to 20 % of term cephalic fetuses are in an occiput posterior (OP) position before
labour and approximately 5 % are OP at delivery. Most fetuses (around 90%) rotate to the
occiput anterior (OA) position, some, maintain a persistent OP position, and others rotate
from OA to OP position.
Arrested labour may occur when the head does not rotate and/or descend. Delivery may
be complicated by perineal tears or extension of an episiotomy. The newborn infant is more
likely to need resuscitation.
Diagnosis of OP position in the second stage is generally made by digital examination, but
if there is uncertainty, ultrasound examination is both useful and accurate.
Management There is no effective method to facilitate rotation from occiput posterior to

occiput anterior before labour begins.
In the first Stage Manual rotation (see below) must not be attempted in the first stage of
labour as it can lead to prolapsed cord or complex presentations such as hand. It is also
technically more difficult and may introduce infection.
1. If there are signs of obstruction or the fetal heart rate or pattern is abnormal (less than
110 or more than 160 beats per minute or abnormal dips) at any stage, deliver by
Caesarean section if this can be safely undertaken.
2. If the membranes are intact, rupture them.
3. If there are no signs of obstruction, augment labour with oxytocin.
In the second stage If the cervix is fully dilated:
if the fetal head is more than 2/5 or 3/5 palpable above the symphysis pubis, or the
leading bony edge of the head is above -2 station and there is fetal distress and/ failure to
descend perform caesarian section.
if the fetal head is less than 2/5 or 3/5 above the symphysis pubis, or the leading bony
edge of the head is between 0 station and -2 station: try manual rotation (see below)
Expectant management of OP position is, however, appropriate in the presence of a

reassuring fetal heart rate, adequate space on clinical examination of the pelvis, and
continued progress in the second stage. More than 50 % of multiparous women and more
than 25 % of nulliparous women with persistently OP fetuses achieve spontaneous vaginal
delivery.
Thus, it is not appropriate routinely to perform prophylactic rotation at the beginning of the
second stage.
Delivery from an OP position rather than rotation (see below) is more appropriate in women
who, on clinical examination, have ample room between the fetal occiput and maternal
sacrum/coccyx and when the pelvis is too narrow to permit anterior rotation (women with
209
an anthropoid pelvis with a narrow transverse diameter and women with an android pelvis
with a narrow arch.
Manual rotation Successful rotation after the onset of the second stage is more likely to
be successful if performed before arrest occurs. Manual rotation can convert 90% of OP or
transverse arrest situations to OA.
Manual rotation is more successful in multiparous women and young women.
Rotation is important if there is a need for a fast delivery and/or if minimal or slow descent
after a trial of pushing.
First empty the bladder.
There are two methods for rotating the fetus.
1. FINGER ROTATION A hand is inserted into the vagina with the palm upward. Digital
rotation is performed by placing the tips of the index and middle fingers in the anterior
segment of the lambdoid suture near the posterior fontanelle ( Figure 4).
The fingers are used to flex and slightly dislodge the vertex, rotating the fetal head to the
OA position via rotation of the operator's hand and forearm. The thumb may also be used
with gentle downward pressure more anteriorly on the parietal bone to aid in this rotation.
The fetal head should be held in place for a few contractions to prevent rotation back
toward the posterior position.
Figure Finger rotation of occiput posterior to occiput anterior position
2. MANUAL ROTATION The operator's four fingers are placed behind the posterior parietal
bone with the palm up and the thumb over the anterior parietal bone. The right hand is
used for left OP position and the left hand is used for right OP position. The head is
grasped with the tips of the fingers and thumb. During a contraction, the patient is
encouraged to push and the operator attempts to flex and rotate the fetal head anteriorly.
Occasional, mild upward pressure may help to slightly displace the head and facilitate
rotation (Figure 5)
210
If rapid delivery is indicated, failed manual rotation may be followed by vacuum delivery
from the OP position. Manual rotation performed prior to instrumental birth has little or no
increase in risk to the pregnant woman or to the fetus.
Vacuum or forceps delivery should never be attempted above +2 station or if the head is
more than 3/5 above the symphysis pubis.
Spontaneous rotation to the anterior position occurs in 90% of cases. Arrested labour may
occur when the head does not rotate and/or descend. Delivery may be complicated by
perineal tears or extension of an episiotomy.
1. If there are signs of obstruction or the fetal heart rate or pattern is abnormal (less than
110 or more than 160 beats per minute or abnormal dips) at any stage, deliver by
Caesarean section if this can be safely undertaken.
2. If the membranes are intact, rupture them.
3. If the cervix is not fully dilated and there are no signs of obstruction, augment labour with
oxytocin.
4. If the cervix is fully dilated but there is no descent in the expulsive phase, assess for
signs of obstruction and if there are no signs of obstruction, augment labour with oxytocin.
5. If the cervix is fully dilated:
and if the fetal head is more than 3/5 palpable above the symphysis pubis, or the leading
bony edge of the head is above -2 station, perform caesarian section.
and if the fetal head is between 1/5 and 3/5 above the symphysis pubis, or the leading
bony edge of the head is between 0 station and -2 station: it may be appropriate to
undertake delivery by vacuum extraction after symphysiotomy.
and if the head is not more than 1/5 above the symphysis pubis, or the leading bony edge
of the fetal head is at 0 station, deliver by vacuum extraction or forceps.
If the operator is not proficient in symphysiotomy, perform caesarean section.
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Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: brow and face presentations
Delivery of a brow presentation (see Table 1) In brow presentation, engagement is

usually impossible, and arrested labour is common. Spontaneous conversion to either
vertex presentation or face presentation can rarely occur, particularly when the fetus is
small or when there is fetal death with maceration. It is unusual for spontaneous
conversion to occur with an average-sized live fetus once the membranes have ruptured.
If the fetus is alive, deliver by caesarean section if this can safely be undertaken.
If the fetus is dead and:
the cervix is not fully dilated, deliver by caesarean section

the cervix is fully dilated, deliver after craniotomy
If the operator is not proficient in craniotomy, deliver by caesarean section.
Do not try to deliver a brow presentation by vacuum extraction, outlet forceps or

symphysiotomy.
Delivery of face presentation (see Table.1)
Occurs in 1 in 500 to 1 in 1,000 pregnancies. It is due to extension of the fetal neck, either
from a fetal abnormality or progression from a deflexed occipito- posterior position in
labour. Diagnosis is important as it may be mistaken for breech presentation.
Diagnosis
Face presentation may be detected on ultrasound scan before labour but the majority are
unpredictable as they arise in labour.
On abdominal examination, a large amount of head is palpable on the same side as the
back, without a cephalic prominence on the same side as the limbs.
On vaginal examination: in early labour the presenting part is high. Landmarks are the
mouth, jaws, nose, and malar and orbital ridges. The presence of bony gums (alveolar
margins) distinguishes the mouth from the anus. The mouth and the zygoma ridges of the
maxillae (upper jawbone) form the corners of a triangle, whilst the anus is on a straight line
between the ischial tuberosities.
Avoid damaging the eyes by trauma or antiseptics.
Vacuum must not be used.
In early labour, particularly with the occipito-posterior position and a multiparous patient,
deflexion is common. In such cases, uterine contractions often cause increased flexion,
and delivery will proceed as normal. If extension occurs however, a brow presentation and
finally the fully extended face will result. Most face presentations therefore only become
obvious late in labour.
212
Descent is usually followed by internal rotation with the chin passing anteriorly. If the chin
is towards the pubis (mento-anterior), then the baby can often be delivered normally,
although an episiotomy is usually necessary. If the chin lies towards the back, then
delivery will not occur and a caesarean section will be required.
The widest biparietal diameter is 7cm behind the advancing face, so even when the face is
distending the vulva, the biparietal diameter has only just entered the pelvis. Descent is
less advanced than vaginal examination suggests, even allowing for gross oedema. The
head is always higher than you think.
Abdominal examination is helpful.
The head is born by flexion, causing considerable perineal distension in the process and
risking considerable perineal trauma: consider an episiotomy. Anterior rotation having
occurred, the neck comes to lie behind the symphysis pubis and the head is born by
flexion. The shoulders and body are born in the usual way.
With satisfactory uterine action and mento-anterior (MA) position, spontaneous delivery or
easy lift out (forceps only) assisted delivery will ensue in 60-90% of cases (see Figure 6).
Mento anterior position
If spontaneous delivery of a mentoanterior face does not occur, a lift out forceps delivery
can be performed (see section on forceps delivery).
In mento-posterior (MP) positions (Figure 7), the neck is too short to span the 12cm of the
anterior aspect of the sacrum. Additionally the neck would have to be extended to pass
under the symphysis but it is already maximally extended. Delivery is impossible unless a
very small fetus or one that is macerated allows the shoulders to enter the pelvis at the
same time as the head.
Figure Mento posterior position
213
Even with MP positions, anterior rotation will occur in the second stage in 45-65% so that
persistent MP position or mento-transverse arrest is encountered in only 10% of face
presentations.
Persistent MP positions are usually delivered by caesarean section (if possible and safe) to
reduce fetal and maternal morbidity.
After birth, the oedema and bruising of a childs face may persist for some days, and may
make feeding difficult.
Vaginal manipulation of persistent MP position has been successfully achieved with

ultrasound guidance.
Management
Make a diagnosis.
Check for cord presentation or prolapse.
Continuously monitor fetal heart rate.
Examine regularly to check progress is adequate.
Give oxytocin if progress not satisfactory.
Do not use scalp electrodes or perform fetal blood sampling.
If the position is mento-anterior, vaginal delivery should be possible.
Perform an episiotomy.
If fetus is persistently presenting mento-posterior, deliver by caesarean section
(if appropriate resources and safe).
Delivery of compound presentations (see Table 1)
Here more than one part of the fetus is facing the cervix, for example an arm prolapsing
alongside the presenting part. It is more common in prematurity. It c an be managed
expectantly in the early stages of labour in the multiparous patient, with active treatment
only being required if there is a delay in the first or second stages of labour.
Transverse and oblique lies (see Table 1)
Background
These are associated with prematurity, uterine fibroids and placenta praevia, and
consequently are associated with high maternal and fetal morbidity. Always try to identify
the underlying pathology if any.
If the membranes are intact in early labour external cephalic version is worth attempting
(see below under breech).
The presentation of shoulder, limb or cord in the presence of ruptured membranes means
that Caesarean section is the only option for delivering a viable infant. If the fetus is dead,
unless it is very small and macerated, it is safer to perform a destructive procedure.
Practical points to remember

Try to identify the cause of the abnormal lie (ultrasound) if any
214
Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: breech
Positively exclude placenta praevia with ultrasound before conducting digital
vaginal examinations, although if there has been no vaginal bleeding this is
unlikely.
Caesarean section can be extremely difficult:
o The lower segment will be poorly formed.
o Fibroids, when present, can distort anatomy and inhibit access.
o Placenta praevia is associated with severe haemorrhage.
A vertical uterine incision may sometimes be most appropriate for the above reasons.
Keep the membranes intact while making and extending the uterine incision. as this
helps with manipulating the fetus into a longitudinal plane for delivery.
If there is any difficulty in delivering a fetal head or breech, then find, grasp and bring
down a foot (recognisable by the heel) into the wound.
If delivery is still impossible, the uterine incision can be extended upwards in the
midline, making an inverted T. It is essential if an extended uterine incision has
been undertaken to undertake an elective Caesarean section in subsequent
pregnancies, because of the risk of uterine rupture in labour.
Breech delivery (see Table 1)
At 28 weeks, 20% of babies present by the breech, but most fetuses will turn
spontaneously so that only 3-4% will remain breech at term. There is a higher rate with
prematurity. Vaginal delivery (although safer for the mother than caesarean section)
carries higher risk of perinatal and neonatal mortality and morbidity due to birth asphyxia
and trauma.
Hazards of vaginal breech delivery

Compared to the cephalic presentation at term, there is a greater risk of perinatal and
neonatal mortality and morbidity, due principally to fetal congenital anomalies and birth
trauma/asphyxia. In terms of maternal outcomes, vaginal birth is generally better for mother
than CS, as the operative complications associated with major abdominal surgery and the
resulting uterine scar are avoided. All of these are especially relevant in poorly- resourced
countries.
Minimising problems
Options
If no associated complications of pregnancy (e.g. previous Caesarean section, pre-

eclampsia)) explain the 3 options to the patient and her family:
1. external cephalic version (ECV),
2. trial of vaginal breech,
3. elective caesarean section (CS) only if safe.
On current evidence, all women with uncomplicated breech presentation at term
should be offered ECV.
If CS, wait until 39+ weeks (babies may still turn spontaneously until then).
A trial of vaginal breech delivery is appropriate if both mother and baby are of normal
proportions.
o The presentation should be either frank (hips flexed, knees extended) or
complete (hips flexed, knees flexed but feet not below the fetal buttocks).
o There should be no evidence of feto-pelvic disproportion: adequate pelvis -
using clinical judgment and Estimated Fetal Weight (EFW) <4000g (clinical
measurement).
215
o In some smaller women it may be appropriate to exclude a vaginal breech
option where the EFW is <4000g provided CS is safe.
o There should be no evidence (on ultrasound) of hyper-extension of the fetal
head.
Fetal complications of breech presentation

cord prolapse
birth trauma as a result of extended arm or head, incomplete dilatation of the cervix or
cephalopelvic disproportion
asphyxia from cord prolapse, cord compression, placental detachment or arrested head
damage to abdominal organs
broken neck.
Trial of vaginal breech delivery
This is a difficult issue where there is limited availability of safe surgery or surgery without
delay. A trial may not be appropriate if:
the mother is very small and/or the baby is large.
evidence of fetal-pelvic disproportion: an inadequate pelvis, using clinical judgment
and estimated fetal weight exceeding 4Kg.
evidence (on ultrasound) of hyper-extension of the fetal head.
If there has been a previous caesarean section or other scar in the uterus, a repeat CS
may be preferable, although this will depend on the availability of safe surgery. Moving the
woman to a waiting home next to a unit providing comprehensive EmOC from 37 weeks
gestation (if available) may be a good option.
Procedure
The mother should confirm her informed choice of vaginal delivery if it is safe to
undertake a caesarean section both in the short and long term. .
If in hospital an obstetrician, anaesthetist and operating theatre should be ready.
Careful fetal monitoring and documentation of the partograph undertaken.
The bladder must be emptied either naturally or by in-out catheter.
If spontaneous rupture of membranes occurs, do a vaginal examination to check for
cord prolapse. Meconium is common and not a sign of fetal distress.
Amniotomy may be used to accelerate labour, and careful use of oxytocin may be
used to correct poor uterine activity if the mother is having her first baby. However,
oxytocin should only be used in a well resourced hospital. Oxytocin should not be
used for poor progress due to poor uterine contractions in a mother who has
previously given birth.
Caesarean section should be considered if there is poor progress or fetal distress.
Ensure a health worker with adequate experience in delivering breech babies
vaginally is present during the second stage.
The basic principle of delivering a breech is to avoid interfering:

Active pushing should not be encouraged until the breech has descended to the pelvic
floor and the cervix is fully dilated as confirmed by vaginal examination (VE).
Sitting the patient up at this stage may help to encourage descent of the breech. An
episiotomy may well be required, but should not be performed until the anus is visible
or until the babys buttocks are distending the perineum.
The breech will usually rotate spontaneously to lie with the sacrum anteriorly (rarely it
will try to turn posteriorly - this must be prevented)
216
Extended legs are delivered by flexing the knee joint of the baby and then extending
at the hips.
The baby is supported only when the arms are delivered and the nape of the neck
becomes visible. (Avoid holding the babys abdomen as internal organs may be
traumatized; the pelvis should be held gently).
As the mother pushes, the anterior shoulder tip will become visible. A finger is run
over the shoulder and down to the elbow to deliver the arm. The other shoulder will
rotate anteriorly spontaneously to allow similar delivery of the other arm. If the arms
are not delivering spontaneously despite the shoulders being visible, then Lovsets
manoeuvre should be undertaken (see Figure 2.6.E.10) Traction on the baby
combined with rotations as hown (multiple if necessary) will usually result in each arm
dropping out of the cervix. Minimal assistance by the health worker running a finger
along the arm to disengage it may sometimes help.
Breech delivery Lovsets method
The baby lies supported as the head engages and the neck comes into view (Figure).
Figure Breech delivery: the baby should hang until the hair line at the back of the neck is
seen
Delivery of the head may then be performed by the Maurice-Smellie-Veit manoeuvre

(Figure). The right hand is placed into the vagina, the fetus is supported on the right
forearm, the middle finger of hand is passed into the babys mouth and the first and third
fingers are placed just below the bony ridges of the lower part of the orbits (the maxilla).
The eyes must not be compressed. Pressure is applied to flex and deliver the head. The
left hand is used to press upwards and posteriorly on the back of the fetal head t o
encourage flexion.
217
Alternatively, forceps may be used to achieve the controlled delivery of the head. An
assistant should hold the babys feet to elevate the body above the horizontal to allow the
operator access to apply forceps. The nape of the neck must be in view before the babys
body is lifted upwards, or damage to the fetal neck may be caused. It is also essential that
the baby is not lifted too high as this will damage the neck.
Breech delivery: delivering the head by the Maurice-Smellie-Veit manouvre
If the head fails to descend into the pelvis, that is the nape of the neck does not appear,
first check that the cervix is fully dilated. If it is not then it will need to be incised. If the
cervix is fully dilated and if possible, forceps (ideally Pipers) may be applied to the fetal
head to facilitate delivery. If these fail, a symphysiotomy should be considered. All 3 of
these maneuvers are potentially dangerous for the mother. If the fetus dies, then a
destructive procedure should be undertaken.
Elective caesarean section for breech
This is advisable for:
failed external cephalic version

double footling breech
a very large fetus
a small or malformed maternal pelvis
hyperextended or deflexed fetal head
Before and at operation:
218
explain to the woman that she will have a scarred uterus, which may create problems in
future pregnancies
ensure that the presentation remains breech before anaesthetising the patient
note that if the uterine incision is too small, there can be difficulty delivering the after-
coming head
remember to keep the fetal back upwards during delivery.
.
219
Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: fetal distress in labour
Fetal distress during labour
Careful thought has to be given to the assessment and management of the fetal condition
in labour. This is especially so in poorly-resourced countries, where severe shortages of
equipment, and of suitably-trained personnel, often mean that women do not receive the
life-saving care which they require in labour.
In such situations, strict prioritisation of needs is required and fetal wellbeing has to take
second place to maternal survival.
When considering the possibility of taking steps to monitor fetal wellbeing, the following
factors must be borne in mind:
1.The cost of monitoring equipment, including maintenance, and replacement of disposable

items.
2. The cost of training staff in the use of such equipment.
3. The proportion of care-givers time required to be allocated to assessment of fetal

wellbeing.
4. The availability of suitable interventions, should fetal distress be diagnosed.
5. The potential risks to the mother of an intervention for the sake of fetal wellbeing.
6. The availability of neonatal care facilities and expertise, following on from an intervention
to deliver a distressed and possibly premature baby.
Methods of monitoring fetal wellbeing in labour range from the low-cost, low-technology.
Pinards stethoscope, to the relatively expensive, high-technology cardiotocograph.
Pinards stethoscope
The Pinards stethoscope is cheap, portable and resilient, and requires no electricity or
battery. It is used to listen to the fetal heart through the maternal abdomen, for the last part
of the contraction and for the next 30 seconds. It should be recorded every 15-30 minutes
in the active phase of the first stage of labour, every 5 minutes in the second stage, and
after every contraction when the woman is pushing in the second stage.
A healthy fetus will withstand the relative hypoxia brought about by the compression of the
blood vessels in the placenta during a uterine contraction.
A fetal tachycardia (greater than 160/min.) may also reflect fetal distress. It may be
secondary to maternal infection, maternal hypovolamia, dehydration, drugs (such as
tocolytics) or blood loss.
220
A simple ultrasound Doppler monitor (for example a Sonicaid) can be used instead of a
Pinard stethoscope but it does require batteries.
Clinical assessment of fetal wellbeing
A large amount of information may be gained by clinical assessment, as follows:
History
Gestational age is important, as immature fetuses withstand the stresses of

labour less well than if they had reached term. Similarly those with intrauterine
growth retardation are at risk.
A reduction in fetal movements should always give rise to concern, as it may
reflect fetal distress.
Pre-eclampsia, APH, PPROM, or other obstetric or medical problem, prolonged
pregnancy, multiple pregnancy, diabetes, previous CS all increase risk of fetal
distress
The use of oxytocin, a maternal fever, meconium or blood stained liquor,
prolonged first and second stage of labour also increase risk
The duration of labour at the time of admission is crucial, as obstructed labour is a potent
cause of severe maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality.
Examination of maternal abdomen

Fetal size: small or large for dates?
Amniotic fluid volume: oligohydramnios (too little) or polyhydramnios (too much)?
o Oligohydramnios is often associated with poor fetal growth. Growth-
restricted fetuses are more likely to become distressed in labour than
are well-grown fetuses.
o Polyhydramnios may be associated with fetal abnormalities or fetal
infection in utero.
Abdominal tenderness +/- hardness feeling like wood: placental abruption?
Colour of amniotic fluid after rupture of membranes
o Blood-staining: placental abruption?
o Meconium-staining: possible hypoxic episode causing fetal distress?
Passage of meconium is often a physiological (normal)
phenomenon in a mature fetus.
In the presence of plentiful amniotic fluid, the meconium will
be dilute. Where there is little fluid, it will be thick.
Meconium may signal fetal distress. It may also trigger
neonatal respiratory problems through meconium aspiration,
which occurs when a distressed fetus gasps in utero or
during delivery.
During the final stages of a breech delivery, meconium may
be passed because of the compression of the fetal
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abdomen. In this case, meconium passage is not
necessarily a sign of fetal distress
Frank blood loss vaginally

o Placental abruption?
o Uterine rupture?
o Placenta praevia
o Vasa praevia?
Haematuria in labour
o This may signal uterine rupture, usually in association with severe
abdominal pain and tenderness, commonly in a woman with a
previous caesarean section scar or in a woman of high parity,
particularly where labour is induced or augmented.
Management of fetal distress
Where fetal distress is suspected, attention should first be paid to detecting and
treating maternal factors, including hypovolaemia, sepsis, obstructed labour and
uterine rupture.
The woman should be turned (tilted) on her left side or placed in the recovery
position, to prevent aorto-caval compression.
Antibiotic therapy will be indicated if infection (including chorio-amnionitis) is
suspected.
Vaginal examination should be carried out to assess the feasibility of vaginal
delivery, either spontaneously or by using forceps or ventouse.
If the umbilical cord is noted to be prolapsing, a management decision has to be
made, based on whether or not the cervix is fully dilated, how low the presenting
part is, and the availability of facilities and skills to deliver the baby either
vaginally with a ventouse, or abdominally by caesarean section.
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Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: prolapsed cord
Prolapsed umbilical cord
Incidence
Prolapse of the cord occurs in approximately 0.2% of all births, mostly in multiparous
mothers. There is significant risk of fetal death due to mechanical compression of the cord
and spasm of the cord vessels when exposed to cold air.
Sagittal view showing compressed cord
Prolapsed cord presenting
Risk factors for prolapsed cord
The presenting part does not remain in the lower uterine segment due to:
Fetal Causes
Malpresentations: for example: complete or footling breech, transverse and
oblique lie.
Prematurity or low birth weight
Polyhydramnios
Multiple pregnancy
Anencephaly
Maternal Causes
Contracted pelvis
Pelvic tumours
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Other Predisposing Factors
Low grade placenta praevia
Long cord
Sudden rupture of membranes in polyhydramnios
Management of prolapsed cord
The longer the time between the diagnosis of cord prolapse and delivery, the greater the
risk of stillbirth and neonatal death. If the baby is dead, deliver in the safest way for the
mother.
1. Assess fetal viability: if the baby is alive and of a viable gestation (fetal heart sounds heard
with a Pinard or ideally hand held ultrasound fetal heart rate detector eg sonicaid), urgently
relieve pressure on the cord by placing in the knee elbow or exaggerated Sims position.
This gives time for decision making.
2. Discontinue oxytocin if being used.
3. Buy time to allow baby to be delivered by giving tocolysis with terbutaline 250 micrograms
every 6 hours subcutaneously.
4. If fetus is alive, prepare for either emergency vaginal delivery or emergency caesarean
section, assuming that this can safely be undertaken.
5. If fully dilated in a multigravida woman and delivery likely within 5 minutes attempt
ventouse. If a ventouse is not available and the head is engaged, forceps may be used.
6. If caesarean section is safe and the only option (cervix not fully dilated, fetus alive and
viable) , fill the bladder to raise the presenting part off the compressed cord for an
extended period of time allowing the woman or girl to be transferred to the operating
theatre.. Insert 500ml sterile IV fluid into the bladder using an IV giving set attached to a
Foley catheter inserted into the bladder. Inflate the balloon of the Foley catheter, clamp it
and attach drainage tubing and urine bag. The full bladder may also decrease or inhibit
uterine contractions. The bladder must be emptied by unclamping the catheter before
opening the peritoneal cavity for Caesarean section. Mark the mothers abdomen to ensure
that this is not forgotten. At skin incision, the bladder clamp must be released and the
bladder emptied.
7. Ensure venous access is in place with reliable IV cannula.
8. Transfer woman to theatre in exaggerated Sims position on a trolley
Maternal positions to immediately relieve pressure on prolapsed cord {near here}
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Elevate the fetal presenting part by inflating the bladder with sterile IV fluid
Pathway of care for prolapsed cord
Knee elbow or exaggerated Sims position
Discontinue oxytocin
Assess Fetal Viability with Pinard or hand held

ultrasound heart detector (eg sonicaid)
Fetal heart beating
Yes No
Is cervix fully
Await spontaneous delivery - unless transverse
No dilated? Yes
position (which needs CS or destructive
Is baby
procedure)
cephalic?
Consider
Catheterise 500ml sterile ventouse or
IV fluid into bladder and forceps
then clamp catheter
Mark abdomen to show
bladder inflated
Consider tocolysis with

terbutaline 250 mcg 6
hourly subcutaneously
Caesarean section
after emptying
fluid from bladder
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Section 12 Complications of labour and delivery: inverted uterus
Inverted uterus
Definition: the uterus, after or during delivery of the placenta, is inverted and can appear at
the introitus. The inverted uterus has the endometrium and sometimes the placenta on the
outside
Prevention: prevent by avoiding cord traction until the uterus is contracted and placental
separation and ensuring uterus is held back with one hand during cord traction.
Clinical signs
Most commonly presents as a pelvic mass, sometimes protruding from the vagina. Wher e
the inverted uterus does not protrude from the vagina, it may go undetected resulting in a
sub-acute or chronic inversion which is very dangerous and may even present as a sudden
unexpected maternal death.
Symptoms and signs include severe lower abdominal pain in the third stage of labour,
haemorrhage, shock out of proportion to blood loss, uterus not palpable on abdominal
examination, and vaginal examination showing a mass in the vagina.
Early recognition is vital as shock is the most common complication. Shock out of
proportion to blood loss may be due to increased vagal tone, which may also produce a
bradycardia (<60/minute), worsening the shock and confusing its diagnosis. Inversion is
associated with haemorrhage in >90% of cases. Alternatively, c oncealed bleeding may
produce tachycardia and other signs of shock.
Incomplete inversions present more subtly with continuing PPH despite a contracted
uterus; the fundus of the uterus may feel dimpled.
Suspect a diagnosis of inverted uterus if there is:
shock with little obvious bleeding.

continuing PPH despite an apparently well- contracted uterus.
associated lower abdominal pain.
dimpled uterine fundus, or fundus not palpable abdominally.
Management
It is urgent to replace the uterus as soon as inversion is recognised, as this

becomes more difficult over time. Call for help and try and push it back whilst ABC
resuscitation is being undertaken.

Call for senior help, including surgeon and anaesthetist
If shock is present, manage ABC as described below
Manual replacement of the uterus
As soon as possible and wearing sterile gloves, attempt manual replacement of the
uterus by pushing the fundus back through the cervix (the longer the delay the more
difficult it will be to achieve resolution).
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Grasp the uterus and push it through the cervix towards the umbilicus to its normal
position, using the other hand to support the uterus (see figure 1). If the placenta is still
attached, perform manual removal after correction.
It is important that the part of the uterus that came out last (the part closest to the
cervix) goes in first.
Bimanual replacement of inverted uterus
Do not attempt to separate the placenta until inversion corrected.

However, if the inversion has been present for some time (for example occurring at
home) and replacement is not possible without placental removal, then be prepared,
if undertaken, for possible severe bleeding.
Hydrostatic correction
If manual replacement is unsuccessful, hydrostatic correction should be

attempted
Place the woman in deep Trendelenburg position (lower her head about 0.5
metres below the level of the perineum).
Prepare a high-level sterile douche system with large nozzle and long tubing (2
metres) and a reservoir (1 to 2 L of sterile Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns at room
temperature not from a refrigerator).
o Note: This can also be done using Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns and
an ordinary IV administration set.
Identify the posterior fornix. This is easily done in partial inversion
when the inverted uterus is still in the vagina. In other cases, the
posterior fornix is recognized by the place where the ridged vagina
becomes the smooth vagina.
Place the nozzle of the douche in the posterior fornix.
At the same time, with the other hand hold the labia sealed over the nozzle and
use the forearm to support the nozzle.
Ask an assistant to start the douche with full pressure (raise the water reservoir
to at least 2 metres). Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns will distend the posterior
fornix of the vagina gradually so that it stretches. This causes the circumference
of the orifice to increase, relieves cervical constriction and results in correction of
the inversion.
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If a silc-cup ventouse is available, this can be used to occlude the vagina and
give a seal. Two IV infusion sets are inserted into the narrow end whilst the wide
end lies against the inverted uterus vaginally.
Terbutaline 250 micrograms subcutaneously may help stop any uterine
contractions which prevent correction of the inversion.
Manual correction under general anaesthesia
If hydrostatic correction is not successful, try manual repositioning under general

anaesthesia, using halothane. Halothane is recommended because it relaxes the uterus,
but be aware of possible atonic uterus and haemorrhage.
Grasp the inverted uterus and push it through the cervix in the direction of the umbilicus to
its normal anatomic position. If the placenta is still attached, perform a manual removal
after correction.
Airway
Use an opening manoeuvre, if the airway is not open or is partially obstructed. Keep
the airway open. If there is improvement but the airway closes without active opening
support, consider using an airway adjunct to support the airway.
Suction, only under direct vision and only if necessary
The airway may need to be secured by intubation using experienced senior help (if
available).
Breathing
Provide a high concentration of oxygen through a face mask with a reservoir bag if there is
adequate spontaneous respiration. Give 100% oxygen (mask with reservoir and flow rate
of at least 61/min) regardless of SaO 2. This increases fetal O2 delivery as well as improving
material tissue oxygenation.
For inadequate ventilation or depressed conscious level (AVPU), res piration should be
supported with oxygen via a bag-mask, and experienced senior help summoned (if
available).
Circulation
Primary assessment suggesting shock:

Fast, weak pulse (100 to 110 per minute or more). Normal heart rates in a pregnant mother
at rest are 60-90 bpm. Tachycardia is the first sign of shock.
Bradycardia < 60 bpm may occur as a result of increased vagal tone due to the inversion.
Low volume (weak) pulse.
Pallor (especially of inner eyelid, palms or around mouth).
Sweatiness or cold clammy skin.
Prolonged capillary refill time (> 3 seconds).
Rapid breathing (> 30 breaths per minute) Normal respiratory rates in a pregnant mother at
rest are 15 to 20/minute: tachypnoea can be due to acidosis.
Low BP (systolic less than 90 to 100 mm Hg) is a very late sign. Healthy women and girls
can maintain a normal or even high blood pressure while large volumes of blood are lost.
Anxiety, reduced conscious level, confusion or unconsciousness.
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If the woman or girl is shocked, obtain vascular access to give large volumes quickly. Insert
two wide-bore IV cannulae (14 G-16 G) and send blood for full blood count, cross-match (2
units) and clotting. If peripheral veins are difficult to access, external jugular or long
saphenous vein cut-down are good alternatives.
Give an initial rapid bolus 500ml to 1 L of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns solution or

blood if available. It is essential that the bolus is given as rapidly as possible. In the
absence of syringe pumps, they should be manually pushed in using 20-50 mL
syringe (using a 3 way tap and link to an IV giving set)
Further 500-1000ml boluses may be required in the first 1 hour. Once >2 litres has
been given IV, complications such as pulmonary or cerebral oedema may occur. If
available, expert help, including CVP monitoring are valuable.
A BP cuff can be used to speed up infusions in emergency situations. Wrap the cuff
around the blood/fluid bag and place inside a non-compressible bag.
Keep patient warm but do not overheat as will cause peripheral vasodilatation and
reduce blood to vital centres. Hypothermia will exacerbate poor peripheral perfusion,
acidosis and coagulation abnormalities.
Elevate legs (raise foot of bed).
Give O negative or group specific blood if no time for full cross-match. Have O
negative blood ready in the ward at all times if possible.
Consider atropine 100 micrograms IV and repeat every 2 minutes up to maximum of
400 micrograms IV if bradycardia < 60 bpm.
Consider the Non-pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment (NASG)
Post procedure care
Once the inversion is corrected, infuse IV oxytocin 40 units in 500 mL Ringer-Lactate or

Hartmanns over 4 hours:
If the uterus does not contract after oxytocin, give misoprostol 3 tablets each of 200
microgram orally or 600 micrograms of powder sublingually if conscious, or 4 x 200
micrograms rectally if drowsy.
Give a single dose of prophylactic antibiotics after correcting the inverted uterus. Use
ampicillin 2 g IV PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV and give appropriate analgesia.
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Pathway of care for inverted uterus
Airway: maintain as level of

consciousness requires
Breathing: Give 100% O2 by face

mask or bag and mask if needed
Circulation: Shock is usually severe

Take blood for FBC, 2 IV lines (14-18G)
clotting and cross match Elevate legs
4-6 units Consider NASG
Give 500 ml to 1 litre Ringer-Lactate

or Hartmanns IV as rapidly as
possible whilst awaiting blood
Give atropine IV 100 micrograms and repeat every 2

minutes up to maximum of 400 micrograms if
bradycardia < 60 per minute.
Establish monitoring of pulse, BP, respiratory rate,

SaO2, urine output
Establish adequate analgesia and call for senior help

(if available)
Attempt manual replacement as soon as possible:

gently push the fundus back through the cervix
before attempting to separate off the placenta
Unsuccessful
Hydrostatic replacement:
2 litres 0.9% saline or Ringer-Lactate or
Hartmanns run in under gravity from a
height of 2 metres into the posterior fornix
Successful
using 2 wide bore tubes using clenched fist
to maintain a seal at the introitus. A silastic
ventouse cup can be used to deliver the fluid
and provide a seal. The reduction is usually Once reduced, maintain hand in
achieved in 5-10 minutes. uterine cavity until a firm
contraction occurs, and IV
oxytocin is being given. Then
remove the placenta and
explore the cavity gently for
If fails (<3%) requires a laparotomy trauma
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Section 13 Care of the newborn at birth
SECTION 13 Care of the Newborn infant at Birth
1. RECOGNISING THE BABY AT RISK

Preterm birth
Defined as: less than 37 weeks gestation. Maturity matters more than birth weight.
Preventative Strategies may include:
Minimising the risk of surfactant deficiency
Can be halved if the pregnant woman or girl is given a short course of high dose steroid
treatment before delivery. Give two 12 mg doses IM or oral betamethasone or dexamethasone
24 hours apart.
Stopping premature uterine contractions

Crush a 10 mg nifedipine capsule between the teeth to achieve sublingual absorption. Up to
three further doses can be given at 15 minute intervals if uterine contractions persist.
If this stops labour give 20 mg -50mg of a slow release tablet three times a day for the next
three days.
Other problems associated with preterm birth

1. Nutrition
2. Infection
3. Hypothermia
1 Nutrition
Babies born before 36 weeks of gestation nearly always need some help with feeding.
Breast milk is ideal, and everything possible should be done to help the mother sustain her
lactation until the baby is ready to feed reliably from the breast. Ability to suck and swallow
remains unpredictable, unreliable and uncoordinated until 36 weeks gestation.
Partial breast feeding can also help the mother to sustain her lactation the mother should
regularly express milk. Expressing breast milk may be difficult for some mothers.
2 Infection
Ascending infection may be symptomatic or asymptomatic.
Treatment needs to protect against group B streptococcal, coliform and Listeria
infection, making a combination of ampicillin and gentamicin the best strategy for
the newly born.
Treatment needs to be considered in any pregnant woman or girl going into active
spontaneous labour before 35 weeks gestation. It should also be considered at any
gestation if the pregnant woman or girls membranes rupture more than six hours
before other signs of overt labour develop (because membrane rupture can be both a
sign of, and a risk factor for, ascending bacterial infection).
Premature rupture of membranes (PROM) where the membranes rupture before there
are detectable uterine contractions. When this happens in the preterm baby it is often
a sign of ascending infection
[1] In mothers with PROM who show signs of being clinically infected give antibiotics.
[2] In PROM where there is no evidence of infection and no evidence of labour you can delay
delivery by a week or more by giving the mother amoxicillin or, better still, erythromycin.
[3] In mothers who are in active labour five or more weeks before term and who give a clear
history that the membranes had ruptured before they were able to detect any uterine
contractions the risk of the baby becoming infected during delivery can be reduced
substantially by giving antibiotics (ideally probably both penicillin and gentamicin) during
labour.
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A maternal temperature in excess of 38C during labour is an important but uncommon

sign of early ascending infection.
Many of the babies who become infected during delivery develop respiratory symptoms
very soon after birth, but in a few the features are those of neonatal sepsis.
3. Hypothermia
Seriously increases the risk of surfactant deficiency and hypoglycaemia and must be
avoided.
2. PREPARATION FOR BIRTH

EQUIPMENT NEEDS FOR CARE OF THE NEWLY BORN
A clean dry towel
A firm working surface
A good soft well-fitting face mask (size 0/1 and 00)
T piece and manometer/pressure gauge or Self inflating bag and reservoir
A source of air or oxygen (it does not need to be oxygen)
A pressure limiting device at 30 cm H 20
A stethoscope
Laryngoscope and set of suitable sized ET tubes (2.5, 3.0 and 3.5mm)
Suction devices: ideally mechanical plus wide bore suction tubes and those suitable
for ET tubes
Umbilical venous catheter plus Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
Clock
Roll of zinc oxide tape for name-band
Pulse oximeter (ideal)
Heat source
3. MANAGEMENT AT DELIVERY
Summary of management of the healthy baby at birth

1. Clamp cord when pulsation stopped
2. Prevent hypothermia
3. Early feeding
4. Minimise risk of infection
5. Injection Vitamin K
Preventing heat loss after birth

As long as the baby becomes pink, and starts to breathe without distress, most babies
must be with their mothers and have a first feed at the breast within minutes of birth.
Colostrum is extremely nutritious and all mothers should be informed that it is ideal for their
baby to feed on this as soon after birth as possible.
Babies very easily get cold immediately after birth, and using water or oil to clean the skin
within four hours of birth before body temperature has stabilised can make the baby
dangerously hypothermic (a problem that may well be missed if a low reading thermometer
is not used). Nothing is a more effective source of warmth than the mothers own body as
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long as the baby is first gently dried to minimize evaporative heat loss and mother and
baby are then both protected from draught.
Heat and water loss through the skin can be a particular problem in babies born before 32
weeks gestation. This can be limited by wrapping all but the face in a plastic drape for a
few hours after birth.
Covering the head with a shawl or blanket also reduces heat loss from the head (babies
have relatively big heads). Remember, however, that plastic over the face can cause death
from suffocation.
A larger sheet or blanket can be used to protect both mother and baby from the convective
heat loss caused by draughts.
Heat supplementation can be provided by locally built and maintained incubators, overhead
heating systems and by Kangaroo care.
Managing the placenta, cord and umbilical stump

Wait a minute before cutting the cord if it is still pulsating unless there is an overriding
need to start stabilising the baby.
The cord must be cut cleanly in a way that avoids even the slightest risk of tetanus
developing, and the cut stump secured in such a way that minimises the risk of late
haemorrhage.
The umbilical stump will shrink as it dries out. Plastic clamps that shut down further
as the cord starts to shrink are very effective. They are relatively inexpensive, and
they do make it possible to cut the stump short (about a centimeter from the skin). An
elastic band is a cheap, and well tried, alternative. A stump that is left long provides a
reservoir where bacteria can breed and multiply with great speed. A short stump does
not need to be covered except to keep it from snagging on clothes and blankets. It
will also wither and fall off quicker if kept dry, left exposed and not routinely treated
with any antiseptic lotion or powder.
A little stickiness is of no concern but a local antiseptic should be applied if a red skin
flare suggests early spreading staphylococcal cellulitis. Some of these babies also
merit an oral anti-staphylococcal antibiotic. Oral cloxacillin or oral flucloxacillin (25
mg/kg three times a day) is usually the most logical choice, but babies who become
systemically unwell need urgent broad-spectrum antibiotic IV or IM
Any residual risk of neonatal tetanus can be eliminated by ensuring that all pregnant
women or girls are themselves immunised against tetanus before delivery.
The risk of cross-infection during or after birth

Antibiotic treatment has reduced the risk of death, but it has not lessened the need for
meticulous hand washing. Failure to observe this simple but important precaution also puts the
baby at risk of cross-infection, especially if the baby is being cared for in a hospital setting.
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Section 13 Resuscitation of the newly born
3. RESUSCITATION OF THE TERM BABY AFTER BIRTH
Sequence of actions during resuscitation of the newly born
FIRST Keep the baby warm and assess
Babies are born small and wet. They get cold very easily, especially if they remain wet and
in a draught.
Whatever the problem, first make sure the cord is securely clamped and then dry the baby,
remove the wet towels, and cover the baby with dry towels.
For significantly preterm babies (30 weeks and below), there is now good evidence that placing
the baby under a radiant heater and, without drying the baby beforehand, immediately covering
the head and body, apart from the face, with food-grade plastic wrapping, is the most effective
way of keeping these very small babies warm during resuscitation or stabilisation at birth.
Drying the baby will provide significant stimulation and will allow time to assess colour, tone,
breathing, and heart rate.
Reassess these observations regularly (particularly the heart rate) every 30 sec or so
throughout the resuscitation process. The first sign of any improvement in the baby will be an
increase in heart rate.
Consider the need for help; if needed, ask for help immediately.
A healthy baby will be born blue but will have good tone, will cry within a few seconds of
delivery, will have a good heart rate (the heart rate of a healthy newborn baby is about 120-150
beats min1), and will rapidly become pink during the first 90 sec or so. A less healthy baby will
be blue at birth, will have less good tone, may have a slow heart rate (less than 100 beats min-
1), and may not establish adequate breathing by 90-120 sec. An ill baby will be born pale and
floppy, not breathing and with a slow or very slow heart rate.
The heart rate of a baby is best judged by listening with a stethoscope. It can also be felt by
gently palpating the umbilical cord but a slow rate at the cord is not always indicative of a truly
slow heart rate - feeling for peripheral pulses is not helpful.
Second A Keep the airway open
Before the baby can breathe effectively the airway must be open.
The best way to achieve this is to place the baby on his/her back with the head in the
neutral position, i.e. with the neck neither flexed nor extended. Most newborn babies will
have a relatively prominent occiput, which will tend to flex the neck if the baby is placed on
his/her back on a flat surface. This can be avoided by placing some support under the
shoulders of the baby, but be careful not to overextend the neck.
If the baby is very floppy it may also be necessary to apply chin lift or jaw thrust.
The best way to stabilise a babys condition at birth is to ensure that the upper airway
remains unobstructed. The baby will then have little difficulty in drawing air into its lung for
itself when it takes its first spontaneous gasp or cry. Unfortunately books often talk of the
need to keep the airway clear, giving the false impression that the baby is going to find it
difficult to breathe unless all the fluid and mucus is first sucked out of the way. There is
almost no evidence that this is ever necessary. Moreover, blind deep suction of the
234
nose or mouth can stimulate the vagus nerve leading to bradycardia and
laryngospasm.
However, the upper airway of any baby who is born limp and hypotonic certainly needs to
be maintained and secured in just the same way as the airway of any other unconscious
patient. In an unconscious patient pharyngeal tone decreases even more than it does
during sleep causing the upper airway to narrow or close. When such patients are laid on
their back the tongue also falls back, further obstructing the airway. The three key ways to
counter this are to:
1 .hold the head in the neutral position and
2. support the chin or
3. push the jaw forward.
JAW THRUST
CHIN LIFT
235
An oro-pharyngeal airway may be of help, especially if the jaw is small or there is some
other oro-facial abnormality. Choose an airway that reaches the angle of the jaw when the
flange is under the nose, and make sure it passes over the tongue and does not merely
push the tongue further back. Put the airway into the mouth in the way you want it to lie
after insertion do not turn it round during insertion as is generally done when using such
an airway in an adult.
Although it is rare for debris to totally block

the trachea such a problem should be
suspected if a baby tries to breathe but
remains cyanosed and bradycardic, with
laboured breathing and marked inter-costal
and/or sub-costal recession. This is one of
the few situations where tracheal intubation
can be life saving at birth.
Meconium Attempts to aspirate meconium from the nose and mouth of the unborn baby
while the head is still on the perineum does not prevent meconium aspiration syndrome
and this practice is no longer recommended.
Attempts to remove meconium from the airways of vigorous babies after birth also fail to
prevent this complication.
However, if babies are born through thick meconium and are unresponsive (or not
vigorous) at birth, the oropharynx should be inspected and cleared of meconium. If
intubation skills are available, the larynx and trachea should also be cleared.
What to do if the trachea seems blocked

Meconium seldom blocks the trachea, and elective intubation and direct tracheal toilet at
delivery does not seem to reduce the risk of a subsequent chemical pneumonitis.
Thick particulate debris can, however, rarely cause tracheal obstruction. Greasy vernix, a lump
of gelatinous postnasal mucus, a congealed blood clot, and thick particulate meconium, have all
been found to cause laryngeal obstruction on occasion. Such debris is never going to be drawn
up any standard suction catheter threaded into an endotracheal tube. The best that can be
done is to insert an endotracheal tube as far into the trachea as possible, apply mechanical
suction to the end of this tube, draw some of the material into the tube, and then remove the
tube and blow it clear. Such a manoeuvre may need to be repeated 2-3 times. Luckily,
experience suggests that such a problem will only be encountered once in every 5000 births at
most.
Third Ensure the baby is Breathing B
If the baby is not breathing adequately by about 90 seconds give 5 inflation breaths. Until now
the baby's lungs will have been filled with fluid. Aeration of the lungs in these circumstances is
likely to require sustained application of pressures of about 30 cm of water for 2-3 sec these
are 'inflation breaths'.
If the heart rate was below 100 beats/min initially then it should rapidly increase. If the heart rate
does increase then you can assume that you have successfully aerated the lungs. If the heart
236
rate increases but the baby does not start breathing, then continue to provide regular breaths at
a rate of about 30-40 min-1 until the baby starts to breathe.
If the heart rate does not increase following inflation breaths then it is most likely that you have
failed to aerate the lungs effectively.
Consider:
o Is the babys head and neck in the neutral position?
o Do you need jaw thrust?
o Do you need a longer inflation time correct time is 2-3 sec inspiration?
o Do you need a second persons help with the airway?
o Is there an obstruction in the oropharynx (laryngoscope and suction under direct vision)?
o What about an oropharyngeal (Guedel) airway?
Check progress before moving on

If the heart rate has not risen about 100 beats per minute within 20 seconds of initial lung
aeration something is wrong. Never move on until you are quite sure you have achieved
objective A and B. To do so is quite futile - chest compression will never restore the
circulation until the blood being massaged from the lung to the heart contains oxygen.
Look and see if the chest moves each time you apply mask pressure. It is usually easier
to judge success with your eyes than with a stethoscope.
Go back and check that the babys head is well positioned. Check chin support and jaw
thrust. Ask a second person to help you position the baby optimally.
Few babies need support with their breathing once their lungs have been aerated. Most
will gasp, cry, or breathe just as soon as an attempt is made to get air into the lung and
then continue breathing adequately.
A few may, however, benefit from further support if they do not start to breathe regularly, or
only gasp occasionally. Some may be limp and hypotonic, and a few may be drowsy
because of drugs given to the pregnant woman or girl during labour. Check that the heart
rate remains normal (above 100 beats per minute) and that there is no central cyanosis
(best judged by looking at the colour of the tongue).
If breathing is laboured, or irregular, or the babys colour remains grey or blue, try and
assess whether there is hypoxaemia with a pulse oximeter. The aspiration of liquor or
meconium into the lung before birth can also render a baby oxygen dependent. Other
possibilities include intrapartum pneumonia, diaphragmatic hernia, choanal stenosis,
pneumothorax, and, more rarely, pulmonary hypoplasia (possibly associated with a skeletal
or renal abnormality). Cyanotic congenital heart disease is another possibility, although this
usually takes a little time to appear. Hypoxaemia can also be the first sign of persistent
fetal circulation. You should be able to achieve a saturation of at least 95% when the baby
is breathing 100% oxygen if there is no right-to-left shunt. Many babies continue to be
given oxygen for a few minutes after birth when this is really not necessary. In contrast,
many of the small number who really do need continuing supplemental oxygen are often
only recognised to be in need of this when they have already become quite ill.
If breathing does require continued support, try and reduce mask inflation pressures to little
more than half of what was needed to aerate the lung in the first place. It is not difficult to
over-ventilate a baby with healthy lungs and to wash out so much of the carbon dioxide
that normally provides the main stimulus to breathing that all such activity stops for a while.
There is also increasing evidence that sustained over-ventilation can seriously reduce
cerebral blood flow.
237
Preterm babies
Babies with surfactant deficiency may have difficulty in expanding their lungs, and in
developing a normal cushion of trapped lung gas (functional residual capacity, or FRC), at
birth.
The preterm lung is, however, quite a delicate structure with relatively little elastic support,
and any use of undue pressure during resuscitation can initiate what later becomes a
cascade of barotrauma.
While an inspiratory pressure of 30 cm H 2O may well be necessary to aerate the lung at
birth, such pressure is best not applied too abruptly, and should be reduced as rapidly as
possible after that. The key aim must be to conserve such surfactant as already exists by
sustaining the lungs functional residual capacity an objective best achieved by providing
at least 5 cm H2O of positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) consistently. Aim to achieve
this, not only during initial stabilisation at delivery, but also during transfer to, and care in,
the nursery. Where this can be achieved using nasal prongs or a nasal mask (nasal
PEEP) it may be possible to avoid tracheal intubation altogether.
Fourth ensure Circulation C Chest compressions

If the heart rate remains slow (less than 60/ min) or absent following 5 inflation breaths,
despite good passive chest movement in response to your inflation efforts, start chest
compression. Almost all babies needing help at birth will respond to successful lung
inflation with an increase in heart rate followed quickly by normal breathing.
Chest compression should be started only when you are sure that the lungs have been
aerated successfully.
In babies, the most efficient method of delivering chest compression is to grip the chest in
both hands in such a way that the two thumbs can press on the lower third of the sternum,
just below an imaginary line joining the nipples, with the fingers over the spine at the back.
Compress the chest quickly and firmly, reducing the antero-posterior diameter of the chest
by about one third.
Because oxygenation is such an important part of neonatal resuscitation the ratio of
compressions to inflations in newborn resuscitation is 3:1.
Allow enough time during the relaxation phase of each compression cycle for the heart to
refill with blood. Ensure that the chest is inflating with each breath.
Fifth Drugs D
Drugs are needed only if there is no significant cardiac output despite effective lung
inflation and chest compression.
238
The drugs used are adrenaline (1:10,000), sodium bicarbonate (ideally 4.2%), and
dextrose (10%). They are best delivered close to the heart, usually via an umbilical venous
catheter. or, failing that, by direct cardiac puncture (only by those trained in this).
Unfortunately, most of the babies in whom cardiac output only returns after treatment with
bicarbonate do not survive to discharge, and most of those who do survive later develop
profound disabling spastic quadriplegia.
Where the cause of the babys terminal apnoea is a sudden, and much more abrupt,
asphyxial event such as shoulder dystocia or an occasional case of late cord prolapse
these reservations may be less valid. Here there is at least anecdotal evidence that the
outlook, if the circulation can be restarted, is much less bleak.
Adrenaline: The recommended dose for adrenaline is 10 microgram kg-1 (0.1 ml /Kg of
1:10,000 solution). If this is not effective a dose of up to 30 microgram/ Kg (0.3 ml/Kg of
1:10,000 solution) may be tried. A solution of 1 in 10,000 adrenaline should be made up
and available in all delivery areas. Do not use a higher dose by these routes as it is
harmful.
Sodium bicarbonate: The dose for sodium bicarbonate is between 1 and 2 mmol /Kg (2 to
4 ml of 4.2% bicarbonate solution). This has to be given intravenously; giving it into
the trachea would cause a lethal chemical burn. Indeed it really has to be delivered
into the heart itself (either by direct puncture or through an umbilical catheter) to be
effective when there is complete circulatory standstill.
Dextrose: The dose of dextrose recommended is 200 mg/Kg (2 ml/Kg of 10% dextrose).
Higher doses can lead to hyperglycaemia which is associated with cerebral oedema and
cerebral haemorrhage. It is known that severe hypoglycaemia is rare immediately after
birth, but tends to present after 1-2 days. However, hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5
mmol/litre (45mg/dl) is a potential problem for stressed or asphyxiated neonates, so its
use should be considered in cardiac arrest, as the heart will not recover in the presence of
hypoglycaemia. This should be followed by an infusion of 5ml/kg/hour of 10% dextrose,
until feeding is well established.
The route of administration is IV, but dextrose may also be given in the same dose via NG
tube (10% solution) if the baby is not feeding well.
Naloxone can be used to reverse profound opiate induced respiratory depression, but
has no real role in neonatal resuscitation. If it does prove necessary, give it
intramuscularly, and give a full 200 microgram depot dose irrespective of body weight. If
naloxone is given intravenously it is likely to be eliminated from the body six times as fast
as the opioid drug causing the respiratory depression.
No other drug has ever shown itself to be of any use during neonatal resuscitation.
Acute blood loss as a cause of circulatory arrest (circulatory volume support)

Sudden acute blood loss is rare, but often unrecognised, cause of acute circulatory
collapse. Bleeding from an aberrant placental blood vessel (vasa praevia) can rapidly lead
to hypovolaemic death. The response to a rapid, generous, infusion of any intravenous
fluid can be equally dramatic. Circulatory collapse probably does not occur until the baby
has lost between 30 and 40 ml/kg of blood, but 20 ml/kg of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
will usually reverse the immediate critical hypovolaemia rapidly. The initial intravenous
fluid bolus should be 10 ml/kg of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns, and this can be repeated
ONCE if there is no immediate response, or only minimal response. So can plasma
albumin, or some artificial plasma expanding agent (such as gelatin). A packed red cell
transfusion using group O Rh-negative blood can be given later to correct the associated
anaemia.
Other, less well recognised, causes of hypovolaemic collapse include acute feto-maternal
blood loss, sudden twin-to-twin transfusion, and accidental incision of the placenta during
239
caesarean delivery. There are reports suggesting that placental abruption can also
occasionally cause fetal blood loss. Partial cord occlusion can occasionally obst ruct the
umbilical vein while blood flow from the baby to the placenta remains uninterrupted causing
acute unrecognised hypovolaemia. The resultant circulatory arrest and bradycardia does
not respond to any of the maneuvers commonly used during resuscitation, but does
respond promptly to volume replacement.
Aside from these specific indications volume should not be used during neonatal
resuscitation. There is no evidence to suggest benefit from this, and routine use only
compounds the problem of fluid balance that can develop over the next 2-3 days if severe
intrapartum stress causes secondary renal failure.
240
Newborn Resuscitation Algorithm
BIRTH
Cover/keep warm
Keep lower than placenta
for 1 min. then clamp and
YES
Breathing or crying? cut cord
DRY/KEEP WARM
Reassess
Give to mother
NOT BREATHING GASPING
NOTES Cut cord

The actual number of heart Dry and wrap
beats/minute does not have Open airway
to be exact Clear airway if meconium/blood
clot
The healthworker should Assess breathing and heart rate
identify the rate as being
FAST (>100), SLOW (<100)
or VERY SLOW (<60 or GASPING OR
undetectable) NOT BREATHING HEART RATE <100
HEART RATE
The healthy neonate has a FAST Continue lung
rapid heart rate, normally Give 5 inflation breaths >100 inflations 30-40/min
>100 If ineffective, reposition airway
until effective
Give 5 inflation breaths
HEART RATE breathing
If the heart rate <100 this
SLOW
indicates hypoxia
60 -100
If the heart rate is <60 or HEART RATE
undetectable the baby VERY SLOW <60
without adequate
resuscitation is likely to die
or develop brain injury HEART RATE
FAST
Give effective lung inflations >100 Continue lung
Give oxygen if cyanosis inflations only until
Start chest compressions 3 : 1 effective breathing
HEART RATE
SLOW
1 MINUTE AND HEART 60-100
RATE VERY SLOW <60
Give IV/IO adrenaline 10 to 30

micrograms/Kg
Continue ventilations and
compressions 3:1
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Section 13 Umbilical vein catheter
Umbilical vein catheterisation
The only quick way of correcting hypovolaemia in a shocked baby at birth is to catheterise
the umbilical vein. The essential steps are as follows
Place a loose cord ligature round the base of the cord (tightening and securing this later as
necessary).
Cut the cord about one cm from the skin in a single clean stroke using a sharp scalpel or a
razor blade (a saw like action can leave the edge of the vein jagged and hard to
cannulate).
Identify the three cord vessels. The thin-walled vein is usually in the upper right quadrant
(towards the head end of the baby). The two stiff, white, contracted, bloodless arteries
(which pass down the abdominal wall to join the iliac arteries) are usually in the two lower
quadrants.
Take an end-hole umbilical catheter and attach it, via a 3-way tap, to an empty 2 ml
syringe.
Take hold the edge of the vein with fine artery forceps and thread the catheter in far
enough for blood to flow back easily. If you are able to advance the catheter 10 cm in a 3
kg baby the tip has probably just entered the right atrium (7cm is a more appropriate
distance for a 1 kg baby). Never force the catheter if resistance is encountered in the first
2-3 cms. Ideally check position with Xray or ultrasound.
Take a blood sample for haematocrit if possible, and then give any emergency drug or fluid
as required.
Ensure that no air bubbles are present in
the catheter by with drawing some blood.
Then flush the catheter with saline or
Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns to maintain
patency, and secure the catheter in place
with two sutures and tape as shown.
The whole procedure should be done as

cleanly as possible although, in a real
emergency, there is no time to adopt a full
aseptic technique.
If you are on your own, the mothers

needs come first most babies are quite
good at looking after themselves.
242
Section 13 Poor response resuscitation and when to stop
Poor response to resuscitation

If the baby either fails to respond, or makes a poor response to resuscitation, the most
likely problem is inadequate oxygenation. The following steps should be taken:
Check the airway and ventilation

Check for technical faults if using equipment
o Is the oxygen attached?
o Is the airway blocked?
o has the correct size of oropharyngeal airway been selected?
o Is the endotracheal tube in the correct place?
Re-examine the chest to see if a pneumothorax has developed this is not

uncommon, but seldom causes a problem. Drain a tension pneumothorax with a
small cannula over needle (21 gauge) in the second intercostal space in the mid-
clavicular line
Consider the possibility of a congenital heart lesion if the baby remains
cyanosed, despite breathing and a good heart rate
Consider the possibility of maternal opiates or anti-hypertensive sedation such
as diazepam or phenobarbitone if the baby is pink, well perfused, but requires
assisted ventilation
Severe anaemia, caused by blood loss, should respond to a rapid bolus of 10 to
20ml/kg of O-ve blood.
Consider hypoglycaemia
Stopping resuscitation
Even with the most effective resuscitation, not all babies will survive. The prognosis is poor
if the baby has been without a cardiac output after 10 minutes of resuscitation. If the baby
does not respond in spite of effective ventilations and chest compressions, the outcome is
unlikely to be altered by use of drugs, although these should be considered. The decision
to stop resuscitation should be taken by the most senior health worker present, and the
reason for the decision should be clearly documented.
Documentation
It is important to keep accurate records of the steps taken during resuscitation, so that the
reason for any decision is clearly documented, including the decision to start as well as end
resuscitation. This is important, irrespective of the immediate outcome of the resuscitation
effort. As with any documentation, keep to the facts and make a complete record of all the
steps taken, their timings and the impact they had on the babys progress.
Remember to sign and date the record.
Vitamin K
Following resuscitation/stabilisation of the newborn ALL should receive 1mg Vitamin K
intramuscularly (NOT INTRAVENOUSLY AS IM INJECTION PROVIDES A DEPOT OVER
MANY WEEKS) to prevent possible haemorrhagic disease of the newborn.
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Section 14 Emergencies in the neonatal period: breathing problems
Section 14 Common emergencies in the first month of life
MANY EMERGENCIES CAN BE PREVENTED BY ATTENTION TO INFECTION
PREVENTION, ADEQUATE WARMTH AND GOOD FEEDING PRACTICES.
DRUG USE IN THE NEWBORN BABY
All the products listed as capable of being given by intramuscular injection (IM) in this
section can also be given intravenously (IV) unless otherwise stated. The IV route should
always be considered if the baby is already being given IV glucose or glucose with saline
or Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns, because this can reduce the amount of pain to which the
baby is subjected. There are dangers associated with rapid administration however, and
breaking into an existing IV line can increase the risk of sepsis. Erecting an IV line merely
to administer drugs also risks exposing the baby to a dangerous fluid overload unless a
syringe pump can be used to control the rate at which fluid is infused.
BREATHING PROBLEMS
Breathing problems are particularly common in the period immediately after birth.
Features of respiratory distress in the newborn include

Tachypnoea (rate > 60 /min),
Recession of the chest wall and sternum
Expiratory grunting
Nasal flaring
Prolonged apnoea
Gasping
Tachycardia
SaO2 < 94% in air
Cyanosis late presentation of a respiratory cause, may reflect cardiac cause
Causes of respiratory distress in the newborn
Common
Lack of surfactant causing respiratory distress syndrome in the pre-term baby
Infection acquired before or during delivery
Transient tachypnoea of the newborn (wet lung)
Less common
Meconium aspiration
Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn
Pneumothorax
Rare
Pulmonary hypoplasia
Congenital abnormalities e.g. diaphragmatic hernia, choanal atresia, tracheo-
oesophageal fistula
Respiratory distress syndrome in the term baby
Pulmonary haemorrhage
Non-respiratory
Cardiac lesions
Intra-cranial pathology
Severe anaemia
244

Babies should be offered enough supplemental oxygen to avert any suggestion of central
cyanosis. Pulse oximetry offers an ideal way of assessing need and of rationalising use. It
can be employed to assess initial disease severity, to monitor subsequent progress, and to
ensure that such supplies of oxygen as are available are optimally used. Giving oxygen
into a clear plastic hood (head box) placed over the head stops the oxygen supply from
dropping every time a tent or incubator door is opened. A nasal catheter, or prongs,
optimises the efficient use of the available supply. These devices also make it very much
easier to move and handle the baby without disrupting that supply. However they make it
rather more difficult to assess how much oxygen is needed to control cyanosis.
Babies should always have their actual oxygen needs monitored at regular intervals.
Measuring the inspired concentration needed to keep their oxygen saturation levels within
the normal range (94-98%) is one of the best ways of measuring of the babyss changing
condition.
The level of SaO2 that is optimal in the neonate continues to be the subject of debate.
ESS-EMCH advises that SaO2 be kept between 94% and 96% in babies cared for at sea
level.
Keep the baby warm, and keep handling to a minimum. Where it can be afforded, the
semi-continuous use of a pulse oximeter makes it possible to leave the baby clothed, to
minimise handling, and to dispense with any other monitoring of pulse and respiration.
Try to humidify the air the baby is breathing if the oxygen content needs to rise much
above 40% (since piped and cylinder supplies of oxygen are very dry).
Babies with serious respiratory distress should not be offered milk (or anything else by
mouth) until their condition has stabilised and a probable cause for the distress has been
established. Support expression of breast milk in the mother so that she is ready when her
baby has recovered to provide breast milk.
Babies less than 2-3 days old, and older babies who look fluid depleted, should always be
started on an hourly IV infusion of 5 ml/kg/hour of 10% dextrose (or, for babies more than 3
days old, of 10% dextrose with 0.18 % sodium chloride). 5ml/Kg per hour of 10% glucose is
the minimum amount of glucose (equivalent to 8mg/Kg/minute of glucose) needed to avoid
hypoglycaemia in a baby who is not receiving any enteral glucose. Higher concentrations
than 10% are sclerosing to veins and there is good evidence that the newborn can easily
excrete 120ml/Kg/day. NOTE: 5ml/Kg per hour corresponds to 5 drops/minute in a
standard infusion giving set in a 3Kg infant and 3.5 drops per minute in a 2Kg infant.
Ideally use an infusion set with a micro-dropper (where 1ml = 60 micro-drops). A standard
infusion set gives 20 drops/ml and can lead to dangerous fluid overload if not carefully
controlled. Older babies who seem relatively stable and only moderately ill can be offered
small quantities of milk through a fine oro-gastric feeding tube.
Give antibiotics, at least for the first 48 hours, if bacterial infection could be the reason for the
babys respiratory distress (either IM, or IV if there is an IV line in place). Take blood for culture
first wherever possible.
Take a chest x-ray where facilities allow.
Specific management issues: Primary surfactant deficiency (RDS)
The principles of treating RDS are

Minimal handling of the baby
Supplementary oxygen
IV fluids
No oral feeding
245
Increased end expiratory pressure
Avoid hypothermia
Surfactant deficiency is by far the commonest cause of respiratory distress in the preterm baby
in the first three days of life. Luckily it is a self-limiting condition, because birth always triggers
an immediate increase in surfactant production. The challenge is, therefore, to support the baby
for the first two days of life without doing further damage to the lung until such time as the
deficiency resolves itself.
The key features of RDS (cyanosis, an expiratory grunt, tachypnoea, and intercostal
and/or sub costal recession) all become clinically obvious within four hours of birth.
Treatment is supplemental oxygen, minimal handling, IV fluid and nil by mouth
The expiratory grunt which is a characteristic feature of this condition is the babys own
method of sustaining positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP), and holding the alveoli
open. Making the baby breathe against a constant positive airway pressure (CPAP)
gradient achieves the same thing and, by applying this pressure at the nose (nasal CPAP),
the complications associated with tracheal intubation can be avoided.
To be maximally effective we now know that CPAP should be applied from birth, just as
soon as the lung has first been aerated. Paired short prongs or specially made nasal mask
are probably best because they minimise airway resistance.
Even the 3mm nasal cannulae normally used to

provide supplemental oxygen have some effect.
However pressures of 5 to 8 cm H 2O really require the use of a purpose made device.
There are several to choose from. All that is then required is a controlled flow of blended,
humidified, air and oxygen, and a simple device for producing controlled adjustable back
pressure. Regular nursing attention is necessary to make sure that the device remains
correctly positioned and does not cause necrotic pressure damage to the nose, but this is a
skill that does not take long to acquire.
Transient tachypnoea of the newborn This is almost indistinguishable from RDS at

birth. Unlike RDS however, the symptoms do not become more marked with time in the
hours after birth. Most of these babies are born at, or near, term, all are tachypnoeic, and
a few are overtly cyanosed for a 6-12 hours after birth. The condition seems to be caused
by some poorly defined difficulty with lung aeration and pulmonary adaptation at birth. All
these babies will recover on their own as long as handling is kept to a minimum and as
long as they are not fed until their symptoms have subsided. Some need supplemental
oxygen, but few need it for more than 24 hours.
246
Aspiration pneumonia Aspiration of particulate matter can occasionally almost block the
trachea. It can also, more commonly, cause a chemical pneumonitis. Meconium can be
particularly irritant in this regard, making the term baby very oxygen dependent for the best
part of a week. It may also trigger a persistent fetal circulation (see below). Nevertheless
with minimal handling, IV fluid and generous supplemental oxygen, most of these babies
can be expected to make a complete recovery as long as there has been no associated
anoxic cerebral damage. Providing unnecessary respiratory support may actually make
matters worse by increasing the risk of pneumothorax. Antibiotics should probably be
given until it is clear there is no associated bacterial infection.
Aspiration after birth can also cause a similar picture. Milk can block the trachea but it
seldom causes much of an inflammatory reaction. Gastric acid can be much more
damaging. Recurrent minor unrecognised reflux and aspiration is probably commoner than
a single massive episode of aspiration and it can certainly, over time, render the baby quite
oxygen dependent. Babies who are hypotonic, or have a poor cough reflex, are at
particular.
Bacterial pneumonia This should be managed as outlined in the section on suspected

infection, remembering that there may be septicaemia as well as pneumonia.
Persistent fetal circulation

This is an uncommon, but potentially life threatening, condition caused by poor lung perfusion
after birth. It may complicate birth asphyxia, meconium aspiration, early bacterial pneumonia,
diaphragmatic hernia, RDS or very occasionally be a primary disorder.
After birth the pressures in the pulmonary vessels remains high, so that the normal fall in
pressure in the right atrium, right ventricle and pulmonary arteries, does not occur. As a result
of this, the blood flows through the fetal circulation (the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus),
from the right side of the heart, to the left. This blood has not been oxygenated, so the baby
soon becomes cyanosed. It is difficult to differentiate this from a congenital cardiac
malformation. Serious cyanosis in a baby with a well aerated lung on chest x-ray and
progressive acidosis can cause rapid self-perpetuating cyclical deterioration.
The treatment in the first instance is oxygenation, minimal handling, IV fluids and avoidance of
oral feeds.
Survival is only likely however, once a well established problem has developed, in a unit
capable of providing sustained respiratory support.
Pneumothorax This is present more frequently than expected, and may occur
spontaneously in up to 2% of babies. It is often asymptomatic, and may be associated with
meconium aspiration and respiratory distress syndrome. It does not automatically need to
be treated, unless it causes progressive respiratory distress. Emergency treatment is by
th th
thoracocentesis followed by the insertion of a chest drain into the 4 or 5 intercostal space
in the mid to anterior axillary line.
Congenital malformation The commonest congenital defect causing respiratory distress

soon after birth is diaphragmatic hernia. This occurs in 1:4000 births and more commonly
affects the left side. Clinical examination reveals reduced air entry on the affected side, and a
displaced apex beat. The chest x-ray is diagnostic. An IV line should be erected in the
interim, the gut kept as empty of gas as possible, and food withheld. Restricted lung
growth means that only about half these babies have any chance of survival.
247
Management of diaphragmatic hernia

oxygen supplements,
minimal handling,
IV fluids and withholding of oral feeds
NGT to keep the stomach empty
Stabilisation of respiration
Transfer to surgical care if responds to treatment
Congenital heart disease occasionally causes overt cyanosis from birth, but there are
seldom any associated signs of respiratory distress.
Recurrent apnoea
Irregular, and periodic, breathing is common in the preterm baby and often becomes more of a
problem after the first few days of life before then becoming less common again. It usually stops
being an issue at least 3-4 weeks before the baby was due to be born. Pre-term babies may
suffer episodes of hypoxaemia with or without absent ventilation (apnoea). Sometimes recurrent
apnoea is associated with gastric reflux, particularly in neurologically compromised babies with poor
airway protective reflexes.
Exclude sepsis and/or seizures.
Monitoring is needed if the baby becomes bradycardic and cyanosed - the best monitoring device is
a pulse oximeter.
Gentle stimulation is usually all that is required to start the baby breathing again.
Bag-Valve-Mask resuscitation can occasionally be called for, and there should always be
equipment to hand so that this is not delayed should it be necessary.
Oral caffeine, if available, will nearly always reduce the number of episodes in the preterm baby,
and caffeine seldom causes the tachycardia and the other side effects sometimes seen with
theophylline. Caffeine citrate Give a 20 mg/kg loading dose by mouth, followed by 5 mg/kg
once every 24 hours. No commercial formulation is generally available, but an oral solution is
not difficult to prepare.
Stubborn recurrent apnoea occasionally requires management with a period of nasal CPAP.
Sometimes a sudden cluster of apnoeic episodes can be an indication of early sepsis in a
previous well baby.
248
Section 14 Emergencies in the neonatal period: NEONATAL SEPSIS
NEONATAL SEPSIS
Babies are very prone to infection and can become ill very rapidly once infection takes
hold. Antibiotic treatment is only likely to work if started early, but the recognition of early
infection is not easy.
Signs associated with infection in the neonate
Child feeding less than well than before
Child lying quiet and making few spontaneous movements
Deep body temperature more than 38C
Capillary refill time > 3 seconds
Respiratory rate 60 or more breaths a minute
Indrawing of the lower chest wall when breathing, or grunting
Cyanosis
History of a convulsion
All such babies deserve immediate admission and careful review. Suspect bacterial
septicaemia with or without early meningitis and treat
Secure the airway and ensure the baby is breathing adequately
Give high flow oxygen until stable
Insert an IV cannula, using full sterile precautions. Umbilical vein catherisation may be the
easiest way to gain vascular access quickly in a shocked baby less than a week old.
Otherwise it might be necessary to site an intra-osseous line or cannulate a scalp vein. Take
a sample of blood for culture if available and for blood glucose and other biochemical tests
if available. Failure to sterilise the skin rigorously can render blood culture results
uninterpretable.
Give 2 ml/kg of 10% glucose IV over 23 minutes, followed by a first dose of ampicillin and
gentamicin (or chlorampheniocol). If the baby becomes more alert and active then you
know that hypoglycaemia was probably one of the babys problems, even before the
laboratory report Continue 10% glucose infusion until the baby is well enough to be fed
orally.
If IV access is not immediately possible give initial antibiotic dose IM. Never wait for the
results of cultures or microscopy before starting antibiotics.
Start an hourly IV infusion of 5 ml/kg of 10% dextrose (or 10% dextrose in 0.18% sodium
chloride after 3 days) wherever possible in any baby who is shocked, dazed or drowsy, and
in any baby less than a week old.
If the baby is shocked, give an IV bolus of 10ml/kg of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
If the baby has any respiratory symptoms take a chest x-ray if facilities allow.
Look regularly to see if cyanosis is developing and give supplemental oxygen using a nasal
catheter or prongs or a head box. Most of the babies who become infected during delivery
develop respiratory symptoms and progressive signs of septic shock within a few hours of
birth. Do not give anything by mouth to a baby who is breathless, especially if there is
additional evidence of oxygen dependency, until symptoms have stabilised.
If there are any features suggestive of meningitis get a lumbar puncture done within 2
hours of starting antibiotic treatment because the blood culture is sterile in 15% of babies
with early meningitis. Do not delay antibiotic therapy for a lumbar puncture.
249
3
Microscopic examination of the CSF (meningitis = 20 or more cells/mm ) can provide early
confirmation of meningitis, but a differential white blood cell count does not help with the
decision to initiate or continue antibiotic treatment.
Urinary tract infection can cause a Gram negative septicaemia. Check a clean catch or
supra-pubic urine sample for infection (primarily by microscopy). Identification of a urine
infection may suggest imaging of the renal tract and prophylactic antibiotics.
Watch for, prevent and correct any sign of, hypothermia.
Antibiotics can be stopped after 48 hours if the blood cultures are negative and the baby
has improved. If blood cultures are not available, continue the antibiotics for the full course
appropriate for the site of infection (meningitis 10-14 days).
Drugs used for severe infection in the neonate
Ampicillin (or amoxicillin) Give 100 mg/kg per dose IV where meningitis is a possibility.
Give 50 mg/kg per dose in other situations. Give one dose every 12 hours in the first week
of life, every 8 hours in a baby 13 weeks old, and every 6 hours in a baby older than that.
Oral dosing can sometimes be used to complete a course of treatment.
Benzylpenicillin Give 60 mg/kg if meningitis, or tetanus is a possibility. The same high
dose should be given if congenital syphilis is compounded by CNS involvement. Give 30
mg/kg per dose in all other situations. Time the interval between each dose as for
ampicillin. Oral dosing (with phenoxymethylpenicillin) can sometimes be used to complete
a course of treatment.
Cefotaxime Give 50 mg/kg per dose IV or IM. Time the interval between each dose as
for ampicillin except in meningitis where doses are given 6 hourly.
Ceftriaxone Give 50 mg/kg once a day IV or IM. A single dose will suffice when treating
gonococcal conjunctivitis.
Chloramphenicol This remains a useful antibiotic, although there is a serious risk of
death from liver failure if the dose suggested here is exceeded. Give a 25 mg/kg loading
dose IM followed by 12 mg/kg once every 12 hours to babies less than 1 week old. Give
this dose every 8 hours in babies 14 weeks old unless there is evidence of liver damage
or renal failure. Babies older than this can be given 25 mg/kg once every 8 hours from
the outset. Oral dosing can be used to complete any course of treatment.
Cloxacillin (or flucloxacillin) Give 100 mg/kg per dose IM or IV if meningitis or osteitis is
a possibility. Give 50 mg/kg per dose in other situations. Time the interval between each
dose as for ampicillin. Oral treatment can often be given to complete a course of
treatment.
Erythromycin Give 12.5 mg/kg per dose by mouth once every 6 hours. There is no
satisfactory IM Preparation.
Eye drops (and ointments) Prophylactic 1% silver nitrate drops have been used to
minimise the risk of gonococcal infection (IM ceftriaxone being used for overt infection).
The use of 2.5% polyvidone-iodine solution may be equally effective. 1% tetracycline
ointment should be used (with oral erythromycin) to treat chlamydia conjunctivitis - a
condition that is not prevented by silver nitrate use. Pseudomonas infection requires
treatment with systemic and topical gentamicin (0.3% eye drops).
Gentamicin Give 5 mg/kg IM or IV once every 24 hours. If baby weighs less than 2Kg
give 4mg/Kg per dose. Leave 36 or 48 hours between each dose if there is renal failure.
Metronidazole Give a 15 mg/kg loading dose and 7.5 mg/kg per dose once every 12
hours in babies less than 4 weeks old and every 8 hours in children older than that.
Treatment can be given IV or my mouth, but solubility makes IM use unsatisfactory.
Miconazole This controls infection with Candida (thrush) better than topical nystatin.
Use the oral gel at least four times a day and the skin cream twice a day for at least 7 days.
Topical treatment with 0.5% aqueous gentian violet for not more than 4 days may be
250
equally effective. Oral nystatin drops (1 ml four times a day) can be used to reduce heavy
intestinal tract carriage.
Nevirapine Give the pregnant woman or girl a 200 mg oral dose in labour. Then give the
baby one 2 mg/kg dose by mouth 2 days later to minimise feto-maternal transmission of
HIV infection. It is not easy to get clear evidence to show that this is worth doing where the
pregnant woman or girl had already started taking zidovudine at least 4 weeks before
delivery. Advice on breast feeding has to be individualised when the mother has HIV.
Procaine penicillin Give asymptomatic babies born to mothers with evidence of untreated
syphilis a single 100 mg/kg IM injection. Never give this drug IV. Babies thought to be
infected at birth are often given 100 mg/kg once a day for 10 days, but repeated IM
injections can cause a sterile abscess with subsequent muscle fibrosis and atrophy, and
treatment with IM or IV benzylpenicillin for 10 days (as specified above) is just as effective.
Babies born to mothers fully treated for syphilis (1.8 grams (2.4 megaunits) of benzathine
benzylpenicillin at least 4 weeks before birth need no further treatment after birth.
Zidovudine Babies born to mothers taking zidovudine during pregnancy should be given
2 mg/kg once every six hours for 6 weeks after delivery. In babies born more than 6 weeks
early this dose should only be given once every 12 hours for the first 24 weeks. Advice
on breast feeding has to be individualised when the mother has HIV.
SEVERE JAUNDICE
All babies become progressively more jaundiced for a few days after birth. The serum
bilirubin level usually peaks at between 100 and 300 mol/l 35 days after birth (Figure),
PHOTOTHERAPY EXCHANGE TRANSFUSION
Age Healthy newborns Newborns < 35 weeks Healthy newborns Newborns < 35
> or = 35 weeks gestation or any risk > or = 35 weeks weeks
Gestation factors gestation gestation or any
risk factors
Day 1 Any visible jaundice 260 mmol/L 220 mmol/L
(15 mg/dL) (10 mg/dL)
Day 2 260 mmol/L 170 mmol/L 425 mmol/L 260 mmol/L
(15 mg/dL) (10 mg/dL) (25 mg/dL) (15 mg/dL)
Day3+ 310 mmol/L 250 mmol/L 425 mmol/L 340 mmol/L
(18 mg/dL) (15 mgd/L) (25 mg/dL) (20 mg/dL)
but this peak may be higher.
There is in this situation an increasing risk that bilirubin will breach the blood/brain barrier
causing critical damage to many cells in the brains basal nuclei if, in the presence of
haemolysis, the unconjugated serum bilirubin level is allowed to rise much above 350
mol/l. Indeed, in a small preterm baby who is also ill, the safe limit may be nearer to 250
mol/l).
Regular early and frequent enteral feeding, by increasing bilirubin elimination

through the gut, can make such a problem less likely.
Haemolysis
Term babies should seldom need treatment with phototherapy unless there is an unusually
high rate of red cell breakdown. However, phototherapy should be started just as soon as
jaundice becomes apparent if there is evidence of haemolytic disease. The trend in the
bilirubin level should then be checked twice a day (the level can not be judged from skin
colour once phototherapy has been started).
Most importantly: clinically noticeable jaundice within 24 hours of birth (or any level
above the dashed line in figure), especially if the mother is blood group O and the
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Section 14 Emergencies in the neonatal period: JAUNDICE
baby is group A or group B, or the mother is rhesus negative and the baby is rhesus
positive.
These factors below suggest a risk for haemolysis.
Red cell antibodies in the mothers blood.
A positive Coombs or direct anti-globulin test in blood from the umbilical cord.
A family history of G6PD deficiency or congenital spherocytosis.
A history that previous children were seriously jaundiced in the first week of life.
Otherwise unexplained neonatal anaemia at birth (a haemoglobin level <130 g/l or a
haematocrit < 40%).
Causes of abnormally raised Causes of Physiological Jaundice in the Neonate

bilirubin
Haemolytic disease
Increased breakdown of red blood cells in the
Neonatal sepsis
first few days of life
Breast milk jaundice
Reduced life span of red cells (70 days
Hypothyroidism
compared with 120 in the adult)
Congenital infection
Less efficient metabolism of bilirubin by the
Toxoplasmosis
immature liver
Cytomegalovirus
Rubella
Hepatitis
Collecting blood
Only a small amount of blood is

needed to check the bilirubin.
Although described as a heel prick,
sticking a needle into the heel runs
a high risk of entering the
underlying bone, and can lead to
osteomyelitis, so should be avoided.
It is safe to take blood from any
part of the back third of the foot.
Try and use a 2.4 mm blood lance, but never use the same lance on more than one baby
because of the risk of transmitting hepatitis or HIV infection. It is not necessary or
appropriate to try and sterilise the skin first as long as it is clean, and the use of anesthetic
cream does nothing to reduce the response of the baby to the pain inflicted. The baby will
also show fewer signs of distress if held, or given something to suck, during the procedure.
Grip the heel firmly enough to make it go red, but not white, stab the heel just once, and
then squeeze gently and intermittently to stimulate blood flow. The use of a standard lance
should optimise blood collection because it helps to ensure that the skin is punctured to a
standard depth. Slight finger pressure on the site for about a minute is usually enough to
stop any further bleeding after the procedure is over.
252
Exchange transfusion
Exchange transfusion is generally only undertaken if the rate of red cell breakdown is likely
to exceed the ability of phototherapy to control levels of bilirubin. However this is very likely
to occur in babies with a positive Coombs test who are already anaemic (because of fetal
haemolysis) at birth, and a cord blood haemoglobin of less than 130 g/l serves to identify
most of these babies.
Function of exchange transfusion
Removal of maternal antibodies

Removal of antibody coated red blood cells before they haemolyse
Corrects anaemia
Lowers total bilirubin, if sufficient time for equilibration between
intravascular and extravascular levels
Exchange Transfusion
1. Calculate the babys circulating volume = 80 ml/kg. Twice this amount of blood will be
required. Do not exceed this (usually <1 bag of blood = 450ml) Do not use blood > 4
days old
2. Check that the blood is compatible with the mothers serum and the same ABO group as the
baby. If the exchange is for severe anaemia, use packed red cells if possible
3. Ensure the baby is closely monitored throughout the procedure
4. This is a sterile procedure, so gloves and gowns must be used and universal precautions
applied
5. Secure umbilical vein access
6. Ideally, use a blood warmer (especially for low birth weight infants) otherwise warm by
placing under mother's dress next to skin
7. Set up a closed circuit with either a 4-way tap, or two 3-way taps. The four links are
a. The baby
b. The syringe for removing and replacing blood
c. The blood to be transfused
d. The route for discarding the babys blood
8. Make sure that the total blood in and out is recorded. Plan to spend 1.5 to 2 hours on the
procedure
9. Withdraw 6 mls of blood from the baby and discard it
10. Withdraw 6 mls of blood from the blood bag or bottle and transfuse into the baby
Steps 9 and 10 should in total take about 3 minutes to avoid abrupt changes in BP
11. Repeat steps 9 and 10 until the correct volume of blood has been exchanged.
12. Symptomatic hypocalcaemia may occur as the citrate in donor blood binds calcium. This
responds best to halting the procedure for 15 minutes. Giving calcium gluconate is of little
benefit and may be hazardous, so is best avoided.
Exchange transfusion should only be undertaken once all the attendant risks have been
considered. Even in experienced hands 1% of babies may suffer a sudden circulatory
arrest during or shortly after the procedure. This should respond to prompt intervention
using the approach adopted when dealing with circulatory standstill at birth but the baby
253
needs to be monitored closely, and staffs need to be ready for such a possibility if this is
not to prove fatal. Air embolism can kill within minutes, and faulty technique can cause
sudden hypo- or hypervolaemia, or introduce later sepsis. The use of donor blood more
than five days old can cause serious hyperkalaemia and an arrhythmia. Blood straight
from the fridge at 4C can impose a major cold stress.
254
Section 14 Emergencies in the neonatal period: FITS SPASMS AND COMA TETANUS
FITS, SPASMS AND COMA

Causes of neonatal fits
Hypoxia
Hypoglycaemia
Meningitis
Drug related seizures
Sepsis
Tetanus
Hypocalcaemia
Hyper or hypo natraemia
Metabolic abnormalities
Developmental disorders
Benign neonatal seizures
If the baby is alert and well between episodes of seizure activity, seems normal on
examination, and is feeding normally, it may be perfectly appropriate to do nothing.
In benign neonatal sleep myoclonus, jerky movements that spare the face only occur
when the baby is going to (or waking from) sleep. No treatment is required and the
problem disappears before the baby is a year old.
Benign neonatal seizures, which are sometimes familial, can also be managed without
drug treatment, and resolve within a few days or weeks.
Focal seizures can also be the sign of what was otherwise a silent haemorrhagic infarction
of part of the brain.
Well but jittery baby Baby with clonic seizures

No abnormal eye movements Abnormal eye movements
No apnoea Apnoea
No colour changes Pallor or cyanosis
No heart rate changes Tachycardia
Easily triggered by handling and stopped by Independent of handling
gentle passive flexion of the affected limb
Rhythmical movements Jerky with fast and slow components that
are not equal
Management of the fitting neonate

Circulatory access
Give glucose IV or NG (2ml/Kg of 10% glucose)
Give antibiotics IV or IM
Stop fit with anticonvulsant:
o Phenobarbitone 20mg/Kg over 5 minutes IV or IM
o Paraldehyde 0.2ml/Kg IM or 0.4ml/Kg rectally
Achieve vascular access if possible
255
Pathway of Care Prolonged Fitting in neonates
A Airway opening if needed (airway adjunct if needed)

Recovery position
B High flow oxygen
Bag mask ventilation if not breathing
Do not leave alone Call for help
Yes No
Existing vascular access?
Rectal diazepam 500 microgram/kg

OR
2ml/Kg of 10% glucose IV ideally after blood glucose Rectal paraldehyde 0.4ml/Kg
Only if glucose does not stop fitting within 5 minutes OR
ADD IV Phenobarbital 20mg/Kg over 15 minutes Buccal midazolam 300microgram/Kg
Gain venous access 2 attempts OR
PLUS if available intraosseous
Rectal paraldehyde 0.4ml/Kg IV/IO 2ml/Kg 10% glucose after blood
glucose
Still convulsing 10 minutes
Only if glucose has not stopped fitting

ADD IV Phenobarbital 20mg/Kg over 15
minutes
15 minutes
At end of phenobarbital dose
Still convulsing
Only 0.9% saline can be used
to infuse phenytoin. Flush IV
line with 0.9% saline before
and after infusing. Do not
infuse at a faster rate due to
risk of irregular heart beat,
Phenytoin 20mg/kg bolus over 20 minutes hypotension and respiratory
depression;- complete
administration within 1 hour of
preparation.
Repeat blood glucose and if hypoglycaemia treat with

IV/IO 2ml/Kg 10% glucose
NOTES
Indications: Still fitting when seen OR If already in hospital where onset of fit is seen and
generalised convulsion lasting > 10-15 minutes or repeated convulsions without return of
consciousness between fits.
Hypoglycaemia is blood glucose <2.5 mmol/l (45mg/dl) if well nourished and < 3.0mmol/l
(55mg/dl) if severe malnutrition
If blood glucose cannot be measured treat as hypoglycaemia.
256
If hypoglycaemia has been present give feed (milk or sugar water) orally or NG when
conscious. To make an oral or NG sugar solution dissolve 4 level teaspoons of sugar (20
gram) in 200ml of clean water.
If IV/IO glucose does stop fitting, repeat blood glucose 30 minutes later.
If there is any concern that the baby is not otherwise entirely well it is essential to rule out
the three main treatable causes of fitting (hypoglycaemia, meningitis and tetanus)
since any delay in diagnosis could be serious.
1. Hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl) Always think of this Erect an IV
line, using sterile precautions and take a sample of blood for blood culture and for
biochemical tests (if available). Then give 2 ml/kg of 10% dextrose over 23 minutes. If
the baby almost immediately becomes more alertit is then important to keep the blood
sugar level stable by starting a sustained infusion of 5 ml/kg of 10% dextrose per hour for
the next 2-4 days while gradually building up oral feeds.
Fits due to hypoglycaemia typically start in a previously well baby on the second day of
life. Although laboratory estimates of blood glucose are ideal for diagnosing and managing
this condition reagent strips can be helpful.
2. Meningitis Always try to recognize this. Start treatment as soon as the diagnosis is
suspected. Ampicillin and gentamicin (see the neonatal formulary) is the most frequently
used combination where the organism remains uncertain. Benzylpenicillin may be
preferable for known group B streptococcal infection. Cefotaxime is the drug of choice for
most Gram negative organisms (with ceftazidime for Pseudomonas infection). Neither
cefotaxime nor ceftazidime should be used on its own if Listeria infection is a possibility. It
is important to attempt lumbar puncture once the baby has been stabilised, and ideally
within 2 hours of initiating antibiotic treatment, because this serves to confirm the
diagnosis. Lumbar puncture is also more likely than blood culture to identify the organism
responsible, and to identify it quickly.
3. Tetanus
Do not forget tetanus. Neonatal tetanus has to be considered if a previously well and still
conscious infant starts to develop increasingly frequent muscle spasms 314 days after
birth. This becomes more relevant if there is any doubt about the way the umbilical cord
was managed at birth or if there is no proof that the mother was ever immunised with
tetanus toxoid vaccine. Involuntary muscle contractions are typically triggered by quite light
touch or sound and the hands and jaw are often held firmly clenched.
Airway and Breathing are frequently compromised. Secure and maintain the
airway, ensure adequacy of ventilation. Oxygen may help if the spasms are causing
cyanosis, but in severe cases survival may be dependent on the availability of respiratory
support sometimes with tracheostomy to protect the airway. Intubation may trigger very
dangerous spasm of the airway and must be undertaken by a skilled person.
Insert an intravenous line for drug and antibiotic administration.
Give high dose benzyl penicillin 60 mg/kg IV one dose every 12 hours in the first
week of life, every 8 hours in a infant 13 weeks old, and every 6 hours in a infant >3
weeks old age. Oral dosing (with phenoxy methylpenicillin) can sometimes be used to
complete a course of treatment.
Give a 150 unit/kg dose of IM human tetanus immunoglobulin, and 0.5 ml of IM
tetanus toxoid vaccine into a different limb. Other IM injections must be avoided at all
costs, since they will provoke spasms.
257
If the infant/child is in acute spasm, this should be terminated by giving
diazepam by bolus IV infusion over 15 minutes (dose 200 micrograms/kg) or rectally
(400 micrograms/kg). Ensure that for intravenous infusion, diazepam is diluted to 100
micrograms/ml and that extravasation does not occur (very irritant). Slow and incomplete
absorption means that IM Diazepam is not effective. .
Also give an IV loading dose of 25-40mg/Kg of magnesium sulphate over 20-30
minutes
Subsequently give IV diazepam 200 micrograms/Kg every 4-6 hours and magnesium
sulphate 10-20mg/Kg 2-4 hourly IV to control spasms.
Stop diazepam if magnesium alone controls the spasms.
Reduce the dose of diazepam if apnoeic episodes occur.
ALWAYS HAVE A BAG MASK AVAILABLE IN CASE THE PATIENT STOPS
BREATHING AS A SIDE EFFECT OF THE DIAZEPAM.
When stable, a nasogastric tube, ideally passed by an anaesthetist, will allow fluids,
food and drugs to be given with minimal disturbance. Feeds need to be given frequently
(ideally hourly) and in small amounts due to reduced gut motility. Regular breast milk
feeds via a nasogastric tube are essential.
In neonatal tetanus, wide excision of the umbilical stump is not indicated.
Finally the disease itself does not induce immunity, so after recovery tetanus vaccine
must be given for future prevention.
Treat any obvious umbilical infection with an additional broad-spectrum
antibiotic.
Minimise handling in a quiet, dark room and give frequent small tube feeds.
Immunising the mother (two 0.5 mL doses a month apart) will prevent a similar
tragedy in any future pregnancy.
May need muscle paralysis and ventilation
Treatment of neonatal tetanus
Airway and Breathing: Oxygen as needed and tracheostomy may be required

Benzyl penicillin
Tetanus toxoid vaccine into different limb
Consider diazepam IV or PR to control spasms
Magnesium sulphate has been recently shown to help prevent spasms in
tetanus
Minimise handling
Frequent small tube feeds
Rule out any biochemical cause

Remember the biochemical disturbance may not be the main underlying problem In
many babies with evidence of hypoglycaemia or hypocalcaemia, the biochemical
disturbance is only one symptom of another more serious illness. Of these by far the most
important treatable condition is meningitis. Unless the baby is otherwise well it is important
not to miss this possibility.
Other important diagnostic possibilities include hypocalcaemia, hyponatraemia and
hypernatraemia. Other clinical features will help in the recognition of hypo- and
hypernatraemia, and a serum sodium level clinches the diagnosis. Any existing problem
will be made worse if hypernatraemia is corrected too rapidly.
Fits due to hypocalcaemia (a serum calcium of < 1.7 mmol/l), with or without
hypomagnesaemia, are generally benign and occur unexpectedly in an otherwise well but
258
hyper-reflexic baby more than 2-3 days old. As with hypoglycaemia symptoms may settle
if the baby is given 2 ml/kg of 10% calcium gluconate as a slow IV infusion, but such
seizures usually respond to oral supplementation. They are not a serious cause for
concern, but it is appropriate to investigate the mother for an unrecognised endocrine
abnormality if facilities allow. DO NOT ALLOW IV CALCIUM TO GO OUTSIDE THE VEIN
AS IT WILL CAUSE SEVERE TISSUE DAMAGE.
Kernicterus Babies with brain damage due to jaundice are stiff and stuporose, but
seldom have fits. Symptoms usually appear quite abruptly 3-6 days after birth, but by the
time they appear it is too late to initiate treatment.
Inborn errors of metabolism Other more complex biochemical disturbances are usually
associated with metabolic acidosis and progressively deepening coma in a baby who was
initially well for 12 days after birth. They are generally too complex to treat without
substantial biochemical support, but it may be appropriate to take specimens for later
diagnostic evaluation because many of these conditions are familial and genetically
determined. Pyridoxine deficiency is one of the few rare treatable conditions. Other
problems arising during delivery Once bacterial meningitis has been excluded
intrapartum asphyxia or birth trauma will be the underlying problem in most other babies
presenting with fits in the first 23 days of life. Most of these babies look unwell within a
few hours of birth. The onset may be a little more sudden and abrupt in the preterm baby
who suffers a sudden intraventricular haemorrhage. These babies usually become
progressively more stuporose and unresponsive over time, and there is relatively little that
can be done to improve the long term outlook. An attempt should be made to minimise
hypoxia, and anticonvulsant treatment is sometimes initiated in the hope that it will reduce
the number of apnoeic episodes. Many are too ill to accept even tube feeds and, where
this is the case, it may be appropriate to minimise the risk of hypoglyceamia by giving IV
glucose. Where there is any possible suggestion of a generalised bleeding tendency give
1 mg of IM vitamin K (unless this was given at birth).
The outlook is fairly bleak for babies who have not recovered and started to feed normally
within a week of birth.
Drug related seizures Accidental infiltration of the fetal scalp during the injection of
lidocaine into the maternal perineum can cause fits simulating intrapartum asphyxia but,
with supportive treatment, there is every prospect of complete recovery. Some babies
born to drug-dependent mothers show symptoms of drug withdrawal 12 days after
delivery and a small minority have seizures.
Developmental disorders It is said that up to 10% of otherwise unexplained neonatal

seizures are associated with the existence of some underlying cerebral problem. Some of
these children will benefit from continuing anticonvulsant treatment.
Anticonvulsant treatment
Treatment with phenobarbital will often control neonatal seizures although it is doubtful
whether it often has any major influence on the long term outcome.
Adding phenytoin increases the success rate. In cases where such anticonvulsant
treatment is effective it can usually be stopped after 710 days.
Paraldehyde can be an extremely effective short term measure. While large IM injections
can cause a painful sterile abscess, this is not a problem when the volume does not
exceed 1 ml. Also consider the rectal route which can be equally effective
259
Phenobarbital Give a 20 mg/kg loading dose followed by 4 mg/kg once every 24 hours.
Treatment can be given IV, IM or by mouth. Seizure control may be achieved more
quickly if the first dose is given IV, but this loading dose must be given slowly, over at least
5 minutes, to minimise the risk of shock, hypotension or laryngospasm. Some recommend
the use of a higher dose if the standard dose fails, but this can cause respiratory
depression.
Phenytoin Initial seizure control with this drug requires the presence of a saline filled IV
line (because the drug crystallizes in dextrose solutions). The same problem also renders
the IM route unavailable. Give a 20 mg/kg loading dose IV slowly over 10-20 minutes (to
avoid cardiac arrhythmia) and then 2 mg/kg IV or by mouth once every 8 hours. Babies
more than 2-3 weeks old may need a considerably larger maintenance dose.
Paraldehyde Give 0.2 ml/kg by deep IM injection. This dose can be repeated once if
seizures persist. Give within 10 minutes when using a plastic syringe (because
paraldehyde interacts with many plastics). It can also be given as a single 0.4 ml/kg dose
mixed with an equal volume of mineral oil into the rectum.
VOMITING AND BOWEL PROBLEMS

Ingested liquor / blood - Babies who have swallowed a lot of liquor, or blood, before birth
may retch and appear distressed after birth, particularly if the liquor contained meconium.
Such problems almost always settle within a few hours without any intervention
Oesophageal atresia should always be considered in the baby with excess frothy saliva.
Surgery is much more likely to be successful if this can be performed before aspiration
pneumonia develops. Pass a large bore catheter as far down the oesophagus as possible.
If an x-ray shows that this has stopped at the level of the heart and has not entered the
stomach the diagnosis is made. Such a baby needs referral for surgery and steps taken to
suck the blind upper oesophageal pouch clear of all accumulating secretions at least once
an hour before and during transfer. Site an IV line and ensure the baby does not become
hypoglycaemic
Uncoordinated feeding - Babies born before 36 weeks gestation often have difficulty
sucking and swallowing in a coordinated way. Most will initially need some tube feeds.
They are not likely to start gaining weight until they are taking at least 120 ml/kg of milk a
day, and they need to be fed regularly at least once every 4 hours day and night.
Regurgitation - Hurried feeding may cause regurgitation and, if the cough reflex is poorly
developed, this can cause the baby to inhale milk into the lung. This will cause a chemical
pneumonitis which could progress to bacterial pneumonia, and make the baby
increasingly oxygen dependent. Newborn babies benefit, therefore, from frequent small
feeds every 2-3 hours. Dehydration (and the risk of hypoglycaemia) need to be prevented
during this period by giving supplemental 10% dextrose IV so that total fluid intake (taking
the IV and the oral intake together) does not fall below 120 ml/kg per day.
Respiratory distress A small proportion of babies show signs of respiratory distress
during the first 2-3 days of life because lung surfactant production is limited. Such babies
should not be offered anything by mouth until these problems settle. Peristaltic activity is
also reduced or absent in babies who are shocked, ill or infected, so these too should not
be offered anything by mouth. The passage of stool, a renewed interest in sucking, and
return of bowel sounds suggests that the paralytic ileus has resolved, and oral feeding can
be re-introduced.
Feeding tubes - Orogastric feeding is the best option for babies who have not yet
developed a coordinated suck and swallow reflex. Nasogastric tubes can block one nostril,
significantly increasing the work of breathing. Preterm babies nearly always accept a large
orogastric feeding tube without showing any sign of distress. In this situation, therefore, it
is often better to pass a wide-bore oral tube each time, test for any gastric residual,
syringe the feed slowly in over about five minutes, and then withdraw the tube again in one
steady movement. The tube can then be washed out, left in weak sodium hypochlorite,
260
Section 14 Emergencies in the neonatal period: VOMITING AND BOWEL PROBLEMS
and reused for the same baby indefinitely. Small frail babies should be handled as little and
gently as possible and can be left lying undisturbed in their cots during a tube feed as long
as the head end of the cot is elevated 25 cm.
If drowsy, unconscious or convulsing, check blood glucose.
If glucose <1.1 mmol/l (<20 mg/100 ml), give glucose IV.
If glucose 1.12.2 mmol/l (2040 mg/100 ml), feed immediately and increase feeding
frequency.
If you cannot check blood glucose quickly, assume hypoglycaemia and give
glucose IV. If you cannot insert an IV drip, give expressed breast milk or glucose through
a nasogastric tube.
Change in feeding habit - A sudden reluctance to feed is one of the commonest early
signs of bacterial infection. Babies who are becoming drowsy also show no interest in
feeding.
Vomiting Persisting minor reflux is seldom a problem even if it makes the baby go
temporarily apnoeic. Such reflux in a small baby often responds to smaller more frequent
feeds.
Serious vomiting, often associated with abdominal distension, in the first few days of life
suggests the existence of a problem requiring referral for surgical review. This is
particularly true if the vomit is green or bile stained as this is suggestive of duodenal atresia
and requires urgent surgical intervention. If serious vomiting develops in a baby who has
passed changing stool, the diagnoses of volvulus, pyloric stenosis or intussusception
must be a considered, so surgical evaluation is essential.
Necrotising enterocolitis Preterm or light for dates babies are at increased risk of
developing this condition, as are those with underlying cardiac abnormalities.
Suspect the condition in a baby who had started accepting oral feeds, and then develops
an ileus or becomes lethargic and starts passing a bloody stool. The problem is caused by
the sudden focal invasion of bacteria into an area of ischaemic gut, and an abdominal x-ray
will often show gas accumulating within the gut wall. Treat as for suspected sepsis and,
because the gut wall has often been invaded by anaerobic Gram negative organisms, give
metronidazole as well. Feeds should be discontinued for at least 5 days. Measure
haemoglobin daily and transfuse if it falls below 8g/dl (haematocrit below 24%).
Immediate mortality is quite high, but many cases resolve without surgical intervention
(although a stricture may occasionally develop later in the affected area of gut), and it is
usually possible to reintroduce feeds after ~5 days. A baby who is sucking and showing
interest in food is usually ready for feeding. Intestinal perforation is generally the main
indication for surgical intervention, but the prognosis really depends on whether there is
generalised peritonitis, and on whether some part of the gut has become totally dead and
gangrenous.
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Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: recognition of the seriously ill child
SECTION 15 Management of Paediatric Emergencies
Recognition of the seriously ill child
The outcome following cardiac arrest is poor for children. Early recognition and treatment of
children presenting with problems affecting respiratory, cardiovascular and CNS function
reduces mortality and morbidity.
The primary assessment ensures that problems with the greatest threat to well being are
treated first. The priority is assessment and management of
A airway
B breathing
C circulation
D disability which covers conditions affecting the CNS
To be able to evaluate the child, you must be aware of the normal respiratory and heart rates
of children at different ages
WHO definitions tachycardia: > 160 bpm aged under 1 year and >120 bpm aged 1 to 5 years.
WHO definitions for raised respiratory rates in the child are:
< 2 months fast breathing is > or = 60/minute
2months to 11 months fast breathing is > or = 50/minute
1 to 5 years fast breathing is > or = 40/minute.
Primary Assessment of the Airway
If the child is crying or able to talk, then they have a patent airway. The degree of patency can
be assessed by
Look
obvious obstruction to upper airway
chest and abdominal movements
drooling of saliva
posture adopted e.g. is the neck extended to maximise the airway opening.
Listen
Noises - coughing or choking sounds
- Stridor which suggests an upper airway obstruction
- Air entry
Feel air movement
If any concerns regarding patency of the airway, use the opening airway techniques
and re-assess. Proceed along the lines of basic life support and airway maintenance.
Primary Assessment of Breathing

It is important to check
Effort of breathing how hard is the child having to work to breathe; and is the child
becoming exhausted
Efficacy of breathing is the effort being put in resulting in good air entry and
oxygenation
Effects of inadequate breathing looking for signs that in spite of the effort being put in,
the child is not being adequately oxygenated
262
Effort of breathing
Be aware of the exhausted child who may show signs of little respiratory effort, but be
seriously unwell. Apparent reduction in effort should be accompanied by improvement in the
childs condition. If it is not, the child is getting worse, and getting tired. Children with CNS
depression and those with neuromuscular problems may not have increased effort of
breathing this does not mean they are recovering.
Respiratory rate
Too fast suggests either lung / airway disease, or a metabolic acidosis
Too slow suggests fatigue or raised intra-cranial pressure
Recession
More common in younger children, and suggests a serious problem if noted in a child over the
age of 6-7 years
Look for intercostal, subcostal and sternal recession
The degree of recession is a useful indicator of the severity of the problem
Inspiratory / expiratory noises
Stridor is usually inspiratory and suggests upper airway narrowing
Severe obstruction might cause expiratory stridor
Wheeze is usually expiratory and associated with lower airway disease
In neither stridor nor wheeze is the volume of noise an indicator of the severity of the condition
Grunting
This means the child is trying to breathe out against a partially closed larynx, to prevent
collapse of small airways at the end of expiration
It is usually heard in infants with stiff lungs and is a sign of severe respiratory distress
Use of accessory muscles
Head bobbing in infants is an attempt to use the sternocleidomastoid muscles to increase air
entry.
flaring of the nostrils increases the calibre of the nasal airway in infants
neck extension helps keep the airway straight as to allow ease of air entry
splinting of the pectoral girdle assists when there is increased stiffness of the lungs
Efficacy of breathing
look chest movements
listen bilateral air entry
a silent chest is a very serious sign
pulse oximetry
useful in almost all cases
unreliable in severe anaemia, shock or carboxyhaemoglobinaemia
Effects of inadequate respiration on other organ systems
Heart rate
o hypoxia leads to tachycardia
o fever, pain and anxiety also cause tachycardia, so this is a non-specific sign. Measuring trends
in heart rate is useful
o severe hypoxia leads to slowing of the heart rate this is a very serious sign and can rapidly
progress to cardio-respiratory arrest if the hypoxaemia is not effectively treated.
Skin colour
o Hypoxia causes pallor.
o Cyanosis is a late sign and may not be detectable in an anaemic child. Unless chronic and
associated with congenital heart disease, it represents a serious life threatening problem that
needs urgent treatment.
Central nervous system
o Hypoxia and/or hypercapnia cause agitation and drowsiness
263
o The change in mental status is difficult to detect in infants
o Failure to interact or recognise parents is a serious sign
o Check AVPU
If there are problems with breathing, provide a high flow of oxygen. It may be necessary
to help with ventilation.
Primary Assessment of Circulation

It is important to check
Cardiovascular status
Effects of circulatory inadequacy on other organs
Cardiovascular status
Heart rate
o Initially increases in shock as the body tries to maintain cardiac output with a falling stroke
volume
o Be sure to be familiar with normal heart rates (above)
Pulse volume
o The quality of the pulse may be helpful; the absence of peripheral pulses and weak central
pulses is a sign of serious cardiovascular problems
Capillary refill
o This is measured by pressing over the sternum, or non-dependant periphery, for 5 seconds
and then releasing. Normal capillary refill is 3 seconds
o It is less reliable when the child is cold
o Although not a sensitive or specific sign of shock, it is a useful measure which, taken with
other signs, may help in evaluating the response to resuscitation
Blood pressure
o Systolic BP = 80 + (age in years x 2)
o Always use the correct sized cuff the length should be 2/3 the length of the upper arm, and
the bladder should go round at least 40% of the arm but not overlap.
o BP may be maintained despite a loss of up to 50% of the circulating blood volume so is a late
sign which if not treated urgently may progress to cardio-respiratory arrest.
o Monitoring trends in BP and changes in pulse pressure is useful.
Effects of circulatory inadequacy on other organ systems
Respiratory system
Tachypnoea and hyperventilation occur in response to metabolic acidosis when the child tries
to increase the rate of oxygenation of the blood being circulated.
Skin
Pale, mottled skin indicates under perfusion
Central nervous system
Altered mental status indicates an under-perfused brain
Urine output
< 2ml/kg/hr in infants and <1ml/kg/hr in the older child indicates under perfusion of the
kidneys.
If there are signs of SHOCK, consider giving a fluid bolus of 10-20ml/kg of Ringer-
Lactate or Hartmanns
264
Primary assessment of disability
Once a respiratory or cardiac cause of altered level of consciousness has been ruled out, it is
important to consider the CNS causes. In order to function properly the brain needs
adequate perfusion with adequately oxygenated blood and this may be compromised by
respiratory or cardiovascular inadequacy (as above) or by raised intracranial pressure,
causing reduced cerebral perfusion pressure
intracranial pressure may be raised by
increased brain volume e.g. infection, oedema, trauma or tumour
increased CSF e.g. outflow obstruction
increased volume of blood e.g. trauma, hypercapnia
glucose- hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl) is an important cause of
impaired consciousness in children.
CNS function may be compromised by convulsions, drugs, and CNS infections
CNS compromise presents with neurological deficit, and effects the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems
Neurological assessment
Conscious level
A rapid assessment of conscious level can be made by using the AVPU scoring
system
A ALERT
V responds to VOICE
P responds to PAIN
U UNRESPONSIVE
Pain should be elicited by sternal pressure or by pulling the frontal hair. A child who
only responds to pain has a Glasgow Coma score of 8
Posture
Many children who are seriously unwell have a degree of hypotonia particularly infants
Decerebrate or decorticate postures are ominous signs and may need to be elicited by
use of a painful stimulus
Pupils
Note pupil size, equality and reactivity
The most important signs are inequality, dilation and unreactivity to light which
indicate serious brain disorder
Many drugs have an impact on the pupils and their effects are symmetrical
Respiratory effects of CNS failure

Raised intracranial pressure or drugs may cause
Hyperventilation
Irregular respiratory patterns (Cheynes Stokes) suggestive of a mid or hind brain
problem
Slow, sighing respiration
265
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: breathing difficulties
Apnoea
Cardiovascular effects of CNS failure

Hypertension and bradycardia (Cushings response) are indicative of a life-threatening
rise in intracranial pressure and represent the brains efforts to increase cerebral
perfusion pressure
The same signs appear with pressure on the medulla oblongata caused by herniation of
the brain through the foramen magnum. This is associated with altered pupillary signs
and is a late sign which if not treated will lead to cardio-respiratory arrest.
If there is a problem with the CNS, make sure the airway, breathing and circulation
problems have been corrected. Always check blood glucose and correct if it is low
The Infant or Child with Serious Breathing Difficulties
Once the initial assessment has been completed, attention must be focused on managing the
most likely cause of the breathing difficulty.
When dealing with a child with respiratory problems, always perform the primary assessment
and manage problems as they arise.
A always support and protect the airway
B --provide high flow oxygen; assist ventilation if needed
C give IV fluids if signs of circulatory failure
Whatever the cause of the breathing difficulty, it is important to act when there are signs that
the child is getting worse. Some important signs to look for are below
Increasing recession
Increasing respiratory rate
Decreasing respiratory rate in a child who is not improving
Apnoeic episodes
Increasing pulse rate or bradycardia
Fatigue or exhaustion
Altered mental state
Cyanosis
266
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: breathing difficulties
Table Range of problems that cause breathing difficulties
Breathing difficulties Causes
Upper airway obstruction Diphtheria

Anaphylaxis
Croup
Foreign body
Epiglottitis
Retro-phargyngeal abscess
Anatomical causes
Lower airway obstruction Tracheitis

Asthma
Bronchiolitis
Disorders affecting lungs Pneumonia

Pulmonary oedema
Disorders around the lungs Pneumothorax

Empyema
Rib fractures
Disorders of the respiratory Neuromuscular

muscles
Disorders below the diaphragm Peritonitis
Abdominal distension
Increased respiratory drive Diabetic ketoacidosis

Shock
Poisoning (eg salicylates)
Anxiety attack
Hyperventilation
Increased respiratory drive Diabetic ketoacidosis

Shock
Poisoning (eg salicylates)
Anxiety attack
Hyperventilation
Decreased respiratory drive Coma

Convulsions
Raised intracranial pressure
Poisoning
267
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: upper airway obstruction
Upper airway obstruction
This is potentially life threatening and may be caused by swelling, secretions or foreign
material. The smaller the child the more at risk they are because of the small cross
sectional area of the airways.
Pathway of Care: Acute Upper Airway Obstruction in Children
Apply choking protocol if aspiration of foreign body suspected

Do not upset child by examination or procedures
Crying can precipitate respiratory arrest
Yes No
Is the child alert?
Allow the child to adopt most comfortable

position
Parent to hold/support child Call for anaesthetist and ENT surgeon
High flow oxygen Open airway
Alert anaesthetist and ENT surgeon head tilt, chin lift, jaw thrust
Consider nebulised adrenaline 5ml 1 in 1000 oropharyngeal airway
If croup give oral dexamethasone High flow oxygen
150micrograms/kg or nebulised budesonide Try nebulised adrenaline 5ml 1 in 1000
2mg If anaphylaxis adrenaline 10 micrograms/kg IM
Assist ventilation with bag, valve, mask if
possible
Laryngoscopy to remove foreign body if present
Consider intubation
Consider urgent surgical airway
ACTION AFTER AIRWAY SAFE
IV antibiotics effective against epiglottitis, bacterial tracheitis or diphtheria

If diphtheria - antitoxin 60,000 units IV after test dose 0.1ml intradermal - observe for cardiac arrhythmias
Dexamethasone 150 micrograms/kg IV/orally daily for 3 days if severe croup
Dexamethasone 600 micrograms/kg IV/orally daily for 3 days if diphtheria
268
Croup Croup is usually caused by a virus. As with any condition which affects the airway,
the patient will be frightened. Do not do anything to make this worse. Do not put anything in
the childs mouth, or cause pain by repeated attempts at cannulation.
Clinical Features
Child age 6months 5 years
1 3 days coryza
mild fever < 38.5
barking cough or hoarseness, worse at night
inspiratory stridor
variable respiratory distress
usually resolve without need for admission
Treatment of Croup
Oxygen if SaO2 < 95%
In severe cases nebulised adrenaline 5ml 1:1000
Dexamethasone 0.6 mg/kg PO or IM or equivalent dose of other steroid**
Or
Budesonide 2mg nebulised
If concerned re bacterial tracheitis treat with antibiotics (e.g. cefuroxime)
Intubation may be needed in severe cases
** 1mg prednisilone = 5mg hydrocortisone = 0.15mg dexamethasone
Epiglotittis This is almost always caused by Haemophilius Influenzae type B and is very
rare in children who have been immunized. Some of the features are similar to croup, but
the child is more unwell; the onset is more rapid and cough is not a feature
Comparison of Croup and Epiglotittis

Feature Croup Epiglotittis
Onset Over a few days Over a few hours
Preceding coryza Yes No
Cough Severe, barking Absent or slight
Able to drink Yes No
Drooling saliva No Yes
Appearance Unwell Toxic, very unwell
Fever < 38.5 > 38.5
Stridor Harsh, rasping Soft
Voice Hoarse Muffled, soft voice
Need for intubation 1% > 80%
269
Treatment of Epiglotittis
Calm, reassurance. Do not distress the child
Elective intubation is the best treatment but may be very difficult consider the need for
surgical airway
IV antibiotics only when airway is safe ceftriaxone or cefotaxime 30mg/kg
Measles
Measles is a highly contagious viral disease with serious complications (such as blindness
in children with pre-existing vitamin A deficiency) and high mortality. It is rare in infants
under 3 months of age.
Diagnosis
Fever plus a generalized maculopapular rash and one of the followingcough,
runny nose, or red eyes. In children with HIV infection, these signs may not be
present and the diagnosis of measles may be difficult.

Life threatening complications

Pneumonia
Diarrhea: treat dehydration, bloody diarrhea or persistent diarrhea
Measles croup: WHO say do not give steroids: EMCH as with other causes of
croup give one dose of steroids
Eye problems. Conjunctivitis and corneal and retinal damage may occur due to
infection, vitamin A deficiency, or harmful local remedies. In addition to giving
vitamin A (as above), treat any infection that is present. If there is a clear watery
discharge, no treatment is needed. If there is pus discharge, clean the eyes
using cotton wool boiled in water, or a clean cloth dipped in clean water. Apply
tetracycline eye ointment, 3 times a day for 7 days. Never use steroid ointment.
Use a protective eye pad to prevent other infections. If there is no improvem ent,
refer to an eye specialist.
Mouth ulcers. If the child is able to drink and eat, clean the mouth with clean,
salted water (a pinch of salt in a cup of water) at least 4 times a day.
Apply 0.25% gentian violet to the sores in the mouth after cleaning.
If the mouth ulcers are severe and/or smelly, give IM/IV
benzylpenicillin (50,000 units/kg every 6 hours (50mg/kg) and oral
metronidazole (7.5 mg/kg 3 times a day) for 5 days.
If the mouth sores result in decreased intake of food or fluids, the child
may require feeding via a nasogastric tube.
Neurological complications. Convulsions, excessive sleepiness, drowsiness or
coma may be a symptom of encephalitis or severe dehydration.
Severe complicated measles

The above plus:
inability to drink or breastfeed
vomits everything
270
convulsions
On examination, look for signs of late complications after the rash has disappeared, such
as:
lethargy or unconsciousness
corneal clouding
deep or extensive mouth ulcers.
pneumonia
dehydration from diarrhea
stridor due to measles croup
severe malnutrition.
Treatment of severe measles

Children with severe complicated measles require treatment in hospital
Vitamin A therapy. Give oral vitamin A to all children with measles unless the child has
already had adequate vitamin A treatment for this illness as an outpatient. Give oral vitamin
A 50 000 IU (for a child aged <6 months), 100 000 IU (611 months) or 200 000 IU (12
months up to 5 years). If the child shows any eye signs of vitamin A deficiency or is
severely malnourished, a third dose must be given 24 weeks after the second dose.
If the temperature is 39 C (102.2 F) and this is causing the child distress, give
paracetamol.
Nutritional support
Anaphylaxis
This is a severe allergic reaction, which may cause respiratory or circulatory problems or
both. The main treatments are IM adrenaline 10micrograms/kg (only given IV / IO if severe
shock or cardiac arrest) steroids and IV fluids
Diagnosis
Allergic reaction with respiratory difficulty and / or shock
271
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: anaphylaxis
Pathway of care for Anaphylaxis in a child
Remove
allergen
Adrenaline 10micrograms/kg IM (0.1ml/kg of 1 in 10,000)

Nebulised adrenaline 5ml of 1 in 1000
Partial Repeat nebuliser every 10 minutes as required
Assess airway obstruction/ Hydrocortisone 4mg/kg initial dose then 2-4mg/kg 6
stridor hourly
Intubation with cricoid pressure or surgical airway

No Complete
problem obstruction Adrenaline 10micrograms/kg IM (0.1ml/kg of 1 in 10,000)
Nebulised salbutamol 2.5 mg less than 5 years and 5mg for 5 years
or older
Repeat nebuliser every 10 minutes as required
Hydrocortisone 4mg/kg initial dose then 2-4mg/kg 6 hourly
Assess Consider Aminophylline 5mg/kg IV over 15 minutes or nebulised
Wheeze
breathing salbutamol
No Bag-mask ventilation
Apnoea
problem Adrenaline 10micrograms/kg IM (0.1ml/kg of 1 in 10,000)
Repeat adrenaline every 10 minutes as long as present
Assess
No pulse
circulation Basic and advanced life support
Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns 20ml/kg IV

No Adrenaline 10microgram/kg IM (0.1ml/kg of 1 in
problem 10,000)
Shock Repeat adrenaline every 10 minutes as long as
present
Chlorpheniramine tds for 48 hrs to prevent

No recurrence
Reassess ABC
problem
272
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: bronchiolitis
Lower Respiratory Tract infections
Wheeze The commonest diagnosis is either Bronchiolitis in children under 1 year old or
Asthma in older children
Pathway of care for Bronchiolitis
Clinical Features: Assessment:

Age 1-9 months (rare > 1 yr) Respiratory rate, signs of distress, history of apnoea
Winter epidemics SaO2
Clear nasal discharge Pulse, capillary refill time
Dry cough and respiratory Temperature
distress Fine, end-inspiratory crackles and high pitched
Feeding difficulties wheeze
Ask about feeding and any difficulties
Mild Severe
Moderate As moderate +
Alert
Resp rate >50 Marked recession
Good colour in air
Pulse >140 Unable to feed or talk
SaO2 >92%
Temp >38 SaO2 <85%
Feeding well
SaO2 <93% Agitated or exhausted
Minimal respiratory
Poor feeding Apnoeic episodes
distress
High oxygen
Age <3/12
Past respiratory or
cardiac disorder Management Management
Prematurity and
needing oxygen O2 to keep SaO2 >94% O2 to keep SaO2 >94%
Poor home consider humidity consider bronchodilators
circumstances oral or nasogastric Intubation if apnoeic or
feeds and fluid exhausted
reassess regularly Maintain hydration and
Is baby a high risk? nutrition
No Yes
Bronchodilators
Discharge Not usually helpful, but try if >6/12

Admit
Not moderate or severe Salbutamol or atrovent may be
observe
bronchiolitis used
Baby seen to feed Document any response
No O2 required
Give antibiotics in severe cases of bronchiolitis
273
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: severe asthma
Asthma
The classic features of acute asthma are cough, wheeze and breathlessness. Any increase in these
symptoms, difficulty walking, talking or sleeping, suggests the asthma is getting worse. Worsening
asthma is often caused by a viral infection in young children, and by exercise in older children.
Assessment of severity
When trying to decide how severe an attack is, it is helpful to know how often the child has attacks;
how severe they are (e.g. has the child ever been intubated); and what treatment is usually given.
The clinical examination helps to decide if the child has moderate or severe/life threatening asthma
Management
Avoid allergic/irritant factors, for example smoke, chemical fumes, house dust mites,
animal fur. Discourage cigarette smoking and new pets at home.
Do not stop child from exercising, but pre-dose 5-10 minutes beforehand with a dose of
inhaled beta-2 agonist bronchodilators (for example salbutamol or terbutaline).
Occasional symptoms (for example on 2-4 days per week) may be relieved with a
bronchodilator (a reliever).
Use inhaled where possible, apart from in acute severe or life-threatening attacks when
the intravenous route may be used.
Use an aerosol spray (metered dose inhaler) with a spacer (first choice):
(i) A commercial medium to large volume spacer, for example Volumatic,
Aerochamber, or a large (2 litre) plastic bottle with the aerosol sealed into
one end, and the open end held closely over the nose and mouth. (see
Figure)
(ii) Use 200-1000 micrograms of salbutamol (2-10 sprays) or : more may be
needed in younger children, or if acutely breathless (and repeated)
(iii) Each spray/puff should be inhaled individually in turn with 4-5 breaths, rather
than filling the spacer device with multiple sprays
(iv) For children < 5 years old, attach a facemask (for example inverted adult
mask) to the mouthpiece of a spacer
Clean spacer with soapy water and leave to dry naturally to reduce static electrical
charges on inside.
Alternatively use a nebuliser to deliver salbutamol (less portable).

Children with asthma should always have immediate availability to their usual
reliever
inhaler device: over 7-8 year olds may keep their device with them.
More frequent symptoms, regular nocturnal symptoms or daily use of a bronchodilator

should be treated with regular medication aimed to control airway inflammation (preventer),
such as inhaled steroids. Use inhaled, preferably through a spacer (first choice)
o eg beclometasone proprionate or budesonide: 200-400 micrograms twice
daily
274
o rinse mouth after each dose of inhaled steroid
o aim for rapid control of symptoms, and then tail down dose over months
o gaining control may be helped by a short course (7-10 days) of systemic
steroid (for example prednisolone 500 micrograms/kg once daily after food
or milk, maximum daily dose 40 mg)
o continue with bronchodilator use for symptom relief (avoid regular use)
For regular or severe symptoms, consider:

if diagnosis is correct
aggravating factors, for example rhinitis, stress, gastro-oesophageal reflux
medication is being taken and taken correctly
increasing inhaled steroid dose (beclomethasone to 400-800 micrograms
twice daily) or
or
oral methylxanthines (for example theophylline 5 mg/kg 3-4 times a day)
as a last resort, use of alternate-day oral prednisilone (start at 500
micrograms/kg on alternate days and reduce rapidly to 100 micrograms/kg on
alternate days [to nearest 1mg or 5mg tablets]). Stop as soon as possible.
Children on inhaled or oral steroids should have regular checks of their growth and
be watched for steroid side effects (for example oral thrush)
The control of asthma should be regularly reviewed (for example three-monthly)
and medication stepped up or down dependent on symptoms. Families should have
written instructions and may learn to change treatment themselves, with support.
Management of an episode of acute asthma
Initial treatment of a mild to moderate acute attack of asthma includes:

Reassure child and parents and avoid upset which may exacerbate respiratory distress
Give regular inhaled beta-2 agonist bronchodilator, for example salbutamol aerosol
200-1000 micrograms (2 to 10 sprays each of 100 mcg with each spray given after
every 4-5 breaths) via spacer maximum every 30 minutes to 2hourly until the child is
better.
OR if not responding to spacer 2.5 mg for <5 years and 5 mg for >5 years via nebuliser
2-4 hourly (use oxygen to drive the nebuliser if possible)
Give systemic steroids: oral prednisolone 1mg/kg (maximum of 40 mg) for 3-5 days
depending on duration of symptoms with food or milk to avoid gastric irritation
Treat or remove any exacerbating factors (see "Diagnosis" above).
Give antibiotics only if signs of pneumonia, especially a persistent fever
Very severe or life-threatening asthma
Features of severe or life-threatening asthma include:
too breathless to feed, drink or talk
275
marked recession/use of accessory muscles
respiratory rate > 50 breaths/min
pulse rate > 140 beats/min
poor chest movement/silent chest
exhaustion/agitation/reduced conscious level (due to hypoxia or hypercapnia)
hypoxaemia SpO2 less than 90% in air or cyanosis (very late sign)
Treat immediately (use 'ABC' approach):

100% oxygen via facemask held by parent or nurse close to childs face with reservoir bag
at 10-15 litres/min or if appropriate nasal cannulae to keep SaO2 94-98%.
Inhaled beta-2 agonist bronchodilator via spacer as above in acute asthma, that is
salbutamol aerosol 1000 micrograms (10 sprays each of 100 mcg with each spray given
after every 4-5 breaths) via spacer maximum every 10 minutes and if no better use
nebuliser as below. If nebuliser not available, continue to give 10 sprays over 40-50
breaths every 10 to 30 minutes until better.
Children aged <3 years are likely to require a face mask connected to the mouthpiece of a
spacer for successful drug delivery.
Inhalers should be sprayed into the spacer in individual sprays and inhaled immediately by
tidal breathing.
Or inhaled from a nebuliser 2.5 mg nebules for <5 years and 5 mg for >5 years, and
repeated as required (ideally drive the nebuliser with oxygen at 6-8 litres/minute rather than
compressed air). Sometimes nebulisers made be needed continuously (described as back-
to-back that is as each nebule finishes repeat)
If nebulised or inhaled B agonist bronchodilators are not available, give a subcutaneous
injection of adrenaline10 micrograms/Kg (0.01 ml/kg of 1:1000 solution) (up to a
maximum of 300 micrograms), measured accurately with a 1 ml syringe (ensure the
needle is not in a vein before injecting). If there is no improvement after 15 minutes,
repeat the dose once.
Systemic steroids oral prednisolone (see above) or IV/IM hydrocortisone 4 mg/kg 4-6
hourly until no longer has symptoms of an acute episode. Start the steroids as soon as
possible. A soluble preparation dissolved in a spoonful of water is preferable in those
unable to swallow tablets. Use a dose of 20 mg for children 2-5 years old. Repeat the dose
of prednisolone in children who vomit and give intravenous (or IM if a venous cannula
cannot be inserted) hydrocortisone (4 mg/ kg repeated four-hourly) in those who are
unable to retain orally ingested medication. Treatment for three to five days is usually
sufficient, but the length of course should be tailored to the number of days necessary to
bring about recovery. Weaning is unnecessary unless the course of steroids exceeds 14
days.
IF 2-3 DOSES OF INHALED BRONCHODILATOR AND SYSTEMIC STEROIDS DO NOT
RESULT IN IMPROVEMENT OR IF LIFE-THREATENING FEATURES ARE PRESENT,
USE:
intravenous beta-2 agonist salbutamol (loading dose 5-15 micrograms/kg over 10-15
min, followed by 100-500 nanograms/kg/min (that is 0.1-0.5 micrograms/kg/min) by IV
infusion (only in well resourced settings) OR
Intravenous magnesium sulphate 40 milligrams / kg (maximum 2 grams) over 20
minutes OR
an alternative to the above treatments include aminophylline (loading dose 5 mg/kg over 20
minutes, followed by 1 mg/kg/hour by IV infusion if 1-12 years and 500 micrograms/kg/hour
if > 12 years or < 1 year of age. Do not give the loading dose if already received any form
of aminophylline or caffeine in the previous 24 hours. Side effects include nausea,
276
vomiting, tachycardia or tachyarrhythmia and seizures and have made this a less preferred
treatment.
Severe and life-threatening hypokalaemia may occur with IV salbutamol, potentiated by

+
steroids. If possible monitor the ECG continuously and check K 12 hourly. ECG signs of
hypokalaemia are: ST depression, T wave reduction and prominent U waves. Ensure
maintenance potassium intake is given.
If there is poor response to the above treatment, or the childs condition worsens suddenly,
obtain a chest X-ray to look for evidence of pneumothorax. In the presence of
hyperinflation from asthma, detection of a pneumothorax on the chest x ray may be
difficult.
Monitor above clinical features regularly and also monitor oxygen saturation, by pulse
oximeter if available. Keep SpO2 94-98% by the administration of oxygen, either by face
mask or by nasal cannulae. Use oxygen to drive nebulisers.In cases not responding to
above measures, obtain chest Xray and consider mechanical ventilation (slow rate, long
expiration). A blood gas measurement showing respiratory acidosis can be valuable at this
time, but remember that invasive procedures can worsen respiratory distress.
If intubation and ventilation becomes essential, ketamine induction followed by inhalational

anaesthetic gases (for example halothane) may assist broncho-dilatation.
Severe Asthma - Indications for intubation and ventilation (if available):

Increasing exhaustion
Progressive deterioration in
- clinical condition
- oxygenation decreasing and/or oxygen requirement increasing
- pCO2 increasing (if measurable from arterial/capillary gas)
Sudden deterioration and always think about a pneumothorax
Follow-up care
Once improved sufficiently to be discharged home, inhaled salbutamol through a metered
dose inhaler should be prescribed with a suitable (not necessarily commercially available)
spacer and the parents instructed in how to use this.
277
Pathway of Care for Severe Asthma
High flow oxygen by mask held close to nose and mouth

Salbutamol by spacer (see drug list)
Back to oxygen
for 4 minutes
Is the child
improving?
YES NO
Nebulised Salbutamol driven by oxygen

Repeat Salbutamol by spacer 2.5mg < 5 years and 5 mg for 5 years or older
Oral prednisilone once daily Or
Continuous back to back spacers
If NOT improving
Continuous nebulised salbutamol
IV hydrocortisone 4mg/kg or oral
Drugs in asthma prednisilone if not vomiting
Salbutamol
Inhaled by spacer without valve: give a spray of 100 If NOT improving
mcg into spacer after every 4-5 breaths. Initially give
10 sprays (that is over 40 to 50 breaths) and then wait OR
10 minutes , review and repeat every 10-30 minutes
as necessary Subcutaneous or IM IV aminophylline
Nebuliser Adrenaline (ensure OR
2.5mg if <5 years old not into vein) IV magnesium sulphate
5mg for > 5 years old OR
IV loading: 1 month to 2 years 5mcg/kg, 2-18 years IV salbutamol
15mcg/kg .
IV infusion 1-2 microgram/Kg/minute according to
response, heart rate and serum K+ level (essential) Omit loading dose of aminophylline
Aminophylline if any given in preceding 24 hours
Loading 5-6mg/kg over 20-60 mins (max dose = Stop infusion if vomits, HR >180/
300mg) min, convulses or headache
Infusion 1mg/kg/hr
Magnesium sulphate
40 milligrams / kg (maximum 2 grams) over 20
minutes by IV infusion
Adrenaline
10microgram/kg IM or SC
Steroids
Hydrocortisone 4 to 8 mg/kg IV (max. 300mg)
Prednisolone 1mg/kg orally
278
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: pneumonia
Acute lower respiratory tract infection (pneumonia)
Always consider that the child might be suffering from TB or HIV infection.
A high fever in a child with breathing difficulties is likely to be due to epiglotittis, bacterial tracheitis or
pneumonia. If the airway is clear, the most likely diagnosis is pneumonia. Although high fever and
respiratory signs are the usual way for pneumonia to present, it should always be considered in the list
of causes of abdominal pain and neck stiffness
Clinical examination (and CXR) cannot reliably tell the difference between a viral and a bacterial
pneumonia, so all cases are treated with antibiotics
Features of Pneumonia
Fever, cough, breathlessness and lethargy following an upper respiratory infection
Pleuritic chest pain, abdominal pain and neck stiffness indicate pleural involvement
Signs of consolidation
o Dull percussion
o Reduced breath sounds
o Bronchial breathing
May be absent in an infant
CXR may show pleural effusion or empyema as well as consolidation
Treatment
Oxygen to maintain SaO2 > 94%

IV antibiotics
o Cefotaxime plus either
Flucloxacillin
OR
Erythromycin
o WHO benzyl penicillin and amoxicillin (see below)
Maintain hydration and replace losses due to high fever
Do not overload
CXR is helpful, but not essential
CLASSIFICATION OF THE SEVERITY OF PNEUMONIA (WHO)
Sign or symptom Classification Treatment
Cough or difficult breathing plus at

least one of the following: Very severe Admit to hospital
o central cyanosis pneumonia Give recommended antibiotic
o inability to breastfeed or Give oxygen
drink, or vomiting Manage the airway
everything Treat high fever if present
o convulsions, lethargy or
unconsciousness
severe respiratory distress
279
Central cyanosis
Severe respiratory
distress e.g. head
nodding,
Not able to drink
Chest in-drawing Severe Admit to hospital
pneumonia Give recommended antibiotic
Manage the airway
Treat high fever if present
Fast breathing Pneumonia Home care
60 breaths/minute in a child aged Give appropriate antibiotic for 5
<2 months days
50 breaths/minute in a child aged 2 Soothe the throat and relieve
11 months cough with a safe remedy
40 breaths/minute in a child aged 1 Advise the mother when to
5 years return immediately
Follow up in 2 days
Definite crackles on auscultation
In addition, some or all of the other signs of pneumonia or severe pneumonia may be
present, such as:
fast breathing: age <2 months: 60/minute
age 211 months: 50/minute
age 15 years: 40/minute
nasal flaring
grunting (in young infants)
lower chest wall indrawing
chest auscultation signs of pneumonia:
decreased breath sounds
bronchial breath sounds
crackles
abnormal vocal resonance (decreased over a pleural effusion, increased over
lobar consolidation)
pleural rub
If possible, obtain a chest X-ray and SaO2.
Emergency Treatment
Admit the child to hospital
Antibiotic therapy
o Give ampicillin (50 mg/kg IM every 6 hours) and gentamicin (7.5 mg/kg IM once a
day) for 5 days; then, if child responds well, complete treatment at home or in hospital
with oral amoxicillin (15 mg/kg three times a day (max 500mg, 1g in severe)) plus IM
gentamicin once daily for a further 5 days.
o Alternatively, give chloramphenicol (25 mg/kg IM or IV every 8 hours) until the child
has improved. Then continue orally 4 times a day for a total course of 10 days. Or use
ceftriaxone (80 mg/kg IM or IV once daily).
280
o If the child does not improve within 48 hours, switch to gentamicin (7.5 mg/kg IM once
a day) and cloxacillin (50 mg/kg IM or IV every 6 hours), as described below for
staphylococcal pneumonia. When the child improves, continue cloxacillin (or
dicloxacillin) orally 4 times a day for a total course of 3 weeks.
Oxygen therapy
Give oxygen to all children with very severe pneumonia

Oxygen if SaO2 < 90% (WHO) or < 94% ESSEMCH until the signs of hypoxia (such as
severe lower chest wall in-drawing or breathing rate of 70/minute) are no longer present.
Nurses should check every 3 hours that the catheter or prongs are not blocked with mucus
and are in the correct place and that all connections are secure.
Supportive care
o If the child has fever (39 C or 102.2 F) which appears to be causing distress,
give paracetamol.
o If wheeze is present, give a rapid-acting bronchodilator
o Remove by gentle suction any thick secretions in the throat, which the child
cannot clear.
o Ensure daily maintenance fluids appropriate for age but avoid over-hydration.
Encourage breastfeeding and oral fluids.
If the child cannot drink, insert a nasogastric tube and give
maintenance fluids in frequent small amounts. If the child is taking
fluids adequately by mouth, do not use a nasogastric tube. If oxygen is
given at the same time as nasogastric fluids, pass both tubes through
the same nostril.
o Encourage eating as soon as food can be taken.
Complications
If not improved after two days, or if condition has worsened, if possible, obtain a chest X-
ray.
Staphylococcal pneumonia. This is suggested if there is rapid clinical deterioration

despite treatment, by a pneumatocoele or pneumothorax with effusion on chest X-ray,
numerous Gram-positive cocci in a smear of sputum, or heavy growth of S. aureus in
cultured sputum or empyema fluid. The presence of septic skin pustules supports the
diagnosis.
Treat with cloxacillin (50 mg/kg IM or IV every 6 hours) and gentamicin (7.5 mg/kg IM or IV
once a day). When the child improves, continue cloxacillin orally 4 times a day for a total
course of 3 weeks. Note that cloxacillin can be substituted by another anti-staphylococcal
antibiotic such as oxacillin, flucloxacillin, or dicloxacillin.
Pleural effusion and empyema
Diagnosis
On examination, the chest is dull to percussion and breath sounds are reduced or absent
over the affected area.
A pleural rub may be heard at an early stage before the effusion is fully developed.
A chest X-ray shows fluid on one or both sides of the chest.
(An ultrasound examination may be helpful in identifying the size of the effusion and
helping to guide drainage ESS-EMCH)
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Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: heart failure
When empyema is present, fever persists despite antibiotic therapy and the pleural fluid is
cloudy or frankly purulent.
Treatment
Drainage
Pleural effusions should be drained, unless they are small. If effusions are present on both
sides of the chest, drain both. It may be necessary to repeat drainage 23 times if fluid
returns.
Subsequent management depends on the character of the fluid obtained. Where possible,
pleural fluid should be analysed for protein and glucose content, cell count and differential
count, and examined after Gram and Ziehl- Neelsen staining, and bacterial and
Mycobacterium tuberculosis culture.
Failure to improve
If fever and other signs of illness continue, despite adequate chest drainage and
antimicrobial therapy, assess for possible tuberculosis. A trial of antituberculosis therapy
may be required
Heart failure
Heart failure causes fast breathing and respiratory distress.
Underlying causes include congenital heart disease (usually in the first months of life),
acute rheumatic fever, myocarditis, suppurative pericarditis with constriction, infective
endocarditis, acute glomerulonephritis, severe anaemia, very severe pneumonia and
severe malnutrition.
Heart failure can be precipitated or worsened by fluid overload, especially when giving salt -
containing IV fluids.
Diagnosis
The most common signs of heart failure, on examination, are:
o Tachycardia (heart rate >160/minute in a child under 12 months old; >120/minute
in a child aged 12 months to 5 years).
o Gallop rhythm
o Basal crackles on auscultation.
o Enlarged, tender liver.
In infantsfast breathing (or sweating), especially when feeding
In older children oedema of the feet, hands or face, or distended neck veins (raised JVP).
Severe palmar pallor may be present if severe anaemia is the cause of the heart failure.
If the diagnosis is in doubt, a chest X-ray can be taken and will show an enlarged heart.
Measure blood pressure if possible. If raised consider acute glomerulonephritis:
microscope urine
Treatment
The main measures for treatment of heart failure in none-severely malnourished children
are:
Diuretics. Give frusemide a dose of 1 mg/kg should cause increased urine flow within 2
hours. For faster action, give the drug IV. If the initial dose is not effective, give 2 mg/kg
282
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: heart failure
and repeat in 12 hours, if necessary. Thereafter, a single daily dose of 12 mg/kg orally is
usually
sufficient. Maximum is around 40mg per dose, but can give more.
Digoxin.
Supplemental potassium. Supplemental potassium is not required when frusemide is
given alone for treatment lasting only a few days. When digoxin and frusemide are given,
or if frusemide is given for more than 5 days, give oral potassium (35 mmol/kg/day).
Oxygen. Give oxygen if the child has a respiratory rate of 70/min, shows signs of
respiratory distress, or has central cyanosis or an oxygen saturation of < 94% (EMCH).
Supportive care
Avoid the use of IV fluids, where possible.
Support the child in a semi-seated position with head and shoulders elevated and lower
limbs dependent.
Relieve any fever with paracetamol.
Management of the Infant or Child in Shock
Shock is defined as inadequate perfusion of vital organs with adequately oxygenated

blood. Management of shock is focused in two areas
Resuscitation and support for the circulation, after making sure the airway
and breathing are stable and supported
Treatment of the underlying cause
There are many causes of shock
Loss of fluid e.g. gastroenteritis; trauma
Redistribution of fluid e.g. septicaemia; anaphylaxis
Failure of circulation e.g. cardiac disease; tension pneumothorax
It is often possible to identify the cause of shock with a good history and a careful
examination.
Diagnostic pointers to the cause of shock
Diarrhoea and / or vomiting Gastroenteritis; volvulus; intussusception

Fever; non-blanching (purpuric) rash
Septicaemia, Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever
Urticaria; wheeze; oedema; exposure Anaphylaxis
to allergen
Trauma Blood loss; tension pneumothorax; internal
bleeding
Burns Fluid loss; blood loss
Baby < 4 weeks old; cyanosis, with Congenital heart disease
no response to oxygen
Very fast pulse; heart failure Arrhythmia; cardiomyopathy
Dehydration, polyuria, polydipsia, Diabetic keto-acidosis
high glucose
History of sickle cell disease or Haemolysis with severe anaemia
diarrhoeal illness and low
haemoglobin
Pallor, tachycardia, malnutrition Severe anaemia
283
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: shock, dehydration and severe diarrhea
Initial Management of Shock
Even though it may be clear on initial inspection that the child is in shock, the first priority
will still be the airway, followed by breathing and then management of the circulation.
Intravenous access with short, wide venous cannula, or placement of an intraosseous line
(see procedures) is important. It is best to try and get more than one line in case rapid fluid
resuscitation is needed. Always take blood for investigations (if available)
FBC; glucose; renal and liver function; blood culture and cross matching
284
Pathway of Care for the Child in Hypovolaemic/Septic Shock

Not open Head tilt - chin lift
or at risk Jaw thrust
Airway
Intubation
OPEN
Inadequate
Breathing Assist ventilation
Yes
**Oxygen is vital in all cases
100% oxygen** - face especially severe anaemia and
mask + reservoir severe malnutrition
Baseline assessment
Repeat observations
Circulation regularly to assess
response
Take blood for:
Hb; glucose; Xmatch;
IV or IO access blood culture (if available)
If hypoglycaemic on
blood test or suspected
5ml/kg 10% glucose IV/IO
Shock due to Severe malnutrition and/or

Shock due to severe
bleeding severe anaemia on clinical
dehydration or sepsis
examination and/or Hb <5g/dl
if no severe anaemia
or severe malnutrition
Stop bleeding Give 10ml/Kg R-L or Hartmanns
IV/IO bolus 10ml/kg R-L with 5% dextrose over 30-60
IV bolus 20 ml/kg or Hartmanns and minutes whilst awaiting blood.
Ringer-Lactate or urgently ^^ Then give 10ml/kg bolus of blood
Hartmanns Start successive 10ml/ over 15 minutes then reassess and
kg boluses of whole repeat 10ml/kg every hour until
IV antibiotics* fresh blood until shock total 40ml/kg ** given, observing
resolves ** closely for circulatory overload
Assess response to ** When total of 40ml/kg IV/IO

fluid - if no better given, request anaesthetist ideally
IV antibiotics*
**repeat IV bolus of present before more fluids or
20ml/kg R-L or blood are given
Hartmanns up to Consider inotrope (dopamine ^^ Hypotensive
maximum 40ml/kg infusion or adrenaline boluses) resuscitation if
and IPPV + PEEP to support bleeding from a
further IV fluid boluses if available penetrating injury
* IV antibiotics for septicaemia Ceftriaxone or Ampicillin + Gentamicin Add

metronidazole if anaerobes possible especially intra-abdominal cause.
Correct any biochemical abnormality if possible (including bicarbonate if
severe acidosis, especially when severe anaemia)
Re-evaluate after each step to check treatment is working and for
development of pulmonary oedema
285
Specific illnesses causing shock
The most important thing to do is to give high dose oxygen, stabilise the circulation
and maintain perfusion of vital organs. Once this is underway, the cause of the
problem needs to be treated.
Dehydration
Dehydration is loss of water, sodium and other essential electrolytes

Children are at greater risk because of their higher percentage of total body water
The most common causes are gastroenteritis and diabetic ketoacidosis
It is important to also consider surgical causes of dehydration, such as
intussusception and volvulus
Most can be treated with oral rehydration solution (ORS) by mouth or NG tube
In children with severe malnutrition, use a solution with a lower sodium content such
as ReSoMal. Care for patients with malnutrition is discussed later.
Dehydration is classified by the percentage of body water lost and is usually only an
estimate.
Classification of Dehydration
Dehydration is classified according to clinical criteria. This may not apply in severe
malnutrition where CARE IS NEEDED
No dehydration <3% wt loss = NO SIGNS!
Some dehydration 3-9% wt loss
Increased thirst, drinks eagerly: dry mucous membranes: loss of skin turgor, tenting when
pinched : sunken eyes: sunken fontanelle in infants: restless or irritable behavior
Severe dehydration 10% wt loss

More pronounced effects of signs seen in moderate dehydration
Lack of urine output
Lack of tears when crying
Not able to drink or drinks poorly
Hypovolaemic shock, including:
o rapid and feeble pulse (radial pulse may be undetectable)
o low or undetectable BP
o cool and poorly perfused extremities
o decreased capillary refill (> 3s)
o peripheral cyanosis
Rapid, deep breathing (from acidosis)
Altered consciousness or coma
Lethargy
Emergency treatment of severe dehydration: Principles of treatment

1. Recognise and treat shock
o Give a fluid bolus 20ml/kg Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns IV
o A second bolus may be needed if the child does not respond well (see the
"shock" pathway)
o It is unusual to need more than this in cases of dehydration due to gastroenteritis
think of other causes. If sepsis is suspected, treat with IV antibiotics
286
2. Decide on the most likely cause of dehydration
3. Decide what level of dehydration you are treating (see above)

Calculate the fluid deficit, maintenance needs and on-going losses (see below)
When shock has resolved and the patients level of consciousness returns to
normal, the remaining estimated deficit MUST BE TAKEN by mouth or by
gastric tube especially if severe malnutrition and/or anaemia (danger of large
fluid volume IV)
In severe cases, intubation, ventilation, CVP monitoring and inotrope support might be
indicated, if these are available
Check the serum sodium, and if >155mmol/l, reduce it slowly over 48 hrs. Too rapid a
reduction in sodium leads to cerebral oedema
Further tests might include abdominal X-ray or ultrasound, if there is concern
regarding a distended abdomen.
A surgical opinion is needed if bile stained vomiting or abdominal guarding
Calculating Fluid Requirements
WHO Plans A-C for gastroenteritis in children (see Pathway of care) include estimates of
total fluid requirements and assume that most children will be drinking by 4 hours into
treatment and thus able to self-regulate. For patients where this is not the case, Fluid
Management can be conducted using the following guidelines.
Estimating Fluid requirements

The amount of fluid that the child needs over a 24 hour period needs to be calculated. It is
the sum of:
Estimated fluid deficit + maintenance requirements + on-going losses
Deficit
If an accurate recent pre-illness weight is available, subtract current weight to estimate lost
fluid (1 kg = 1 litre of fluid)
eg a child who weighed 9.2 kg is seen with diarrhea and weight 8.3kg:
estimated fluid loss is [9.2 - 8.3]kg = 0.9kg = 900ml deficit, that is 10% dehydrated
If no recent weight or considered to be unreliable:
decide degree of dehydration
weigh child (or estimate from age as follows: wt(kg) = 2x[age(yrs)+4])
use formula: % dehydration x weight (kg) x 10 = deficit (in mls)
eg a child whose weight is estimated as 10 kg is 10% dehydrated:
estimated fluid loss is 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000 mls (40 ml/hour if replaced over 24 hours)
Maintenance
Estimated maintenance fluid requirements based on body weight for a child are:
Body weight Fluid needed per day Fluid needed per hour
First 10kg body weight 100 ml/kg 4 ml/kg
Second 10kg 50 ml/kg 2 ml/kg
Subsequent kg 20 ml/kg 1 ml/kg
287
Ongoing losses
<2 yrs old, give 50-100 ml

for each diarrhea stool
> 2 yrs old give 100-200 ml
2ml / kg ORS: give small frequent volumes (eg 5ml every minute
for each vomit
in a child) via spoon or syringe or cup
Replace volume for volume with either ORS or Ringer-Lactate or

For naso-gastric tube
Hartmanns with 5 or 10% glucose and 5mmol/litre of potassium
aspirates
chloride OR Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns with 5 or 10% glucose.
Over-hydration
oedematous (puffy) eyelids may be a sign of over hydration, cardiac failure (as in
severe malnutrition) chronic malnutrition or protein losing enteropathy
cardiac failure (especially in severe malnutrition) chronic malnutrition or protein losing
enteropathy
crepitations at lung bases
A CXR may be helpful in showing pulmonary plethora or oedema
stop giving ORS solution, but give breast milk or plain water, and food
do not give a diuretic unless pulmonary oedema, then give frusemide 1 mg/kg/IV
288
Pathway for management of gastroenteritis in children (no or some dehydration)
Estimate % loss
None <3% Some 3-9%
Manage at home Start ORS straight away (at triage even in queue
Continue breast feed (frequently etc.) MUST be in first 4 HOURS
or longer at each feed) or diet Give ORS 75ml/Kg over 4 hours or:
suitable for their age, even if
vomiting Wt Age ORS in first 4
hrs
Frequent sips from cup: if vomits,
wait 10 minutes then give slowly <6Kg <4mth 200-400ml
Give extra fluid (as much as will
take to prevent dehydration) ORS, 6 to <10Kg 4-12 months 400-700ml
food based fluids (soup, rice
water, yoghurt) or clean water 10 to <12Kg 12m to 2 700-900ml
after each stool (50-100ml up to 2 years
yrs and 100-200ml after 2 yrs) 12-19 Kg 32 5 yrs 900-1400ml
Give extra fluid until diarrhea
stops
Make sure the mother knows to
return if the child becomes Continue breast feeding if applicable
sicker, is unable to drink or has Reassess after 4 hours and reclassify dehydration
blood in the stools If wants more ORS give more: sips from cup or
Follow up check in 5 days teaspoon every 1-2 minutes
Use age only if weight not available
WHO PLAN A WHO PLAN B
289
Pathway for management of gastroenteritis in children (severe 10%)
Estimate % loss
Severe 10%
Signs of severe
malnutrition? Yes: see later
No
If shocked, follow Shock Pathway

Give ORS and start IV fluids
Either WHO PLAN C OR
Estimate deficit, maintenance needs and on-
going losses
On-going losses
Deficit in mls Maintenance After each loose stool give
% dehydration x wt (kg) x Body wt Fluid/24hrs Fluid/hr extra fluid
10 st
1 10 kg 100ml/kg 4 ml/kg 2yrs old give 50-100 ml
In 10% dehydration =
nd
100ml/kg 2 10kg 50ml/kg 2 ml/kg
> 2 yrs old give 100-200ml
Subsequent 20ml/kg 1ml/kg
kg
Fluid replacement
Start IV at once and give 100ml/kg Ringer- lactate or Hartmanns as follows
Infants < 1 year 30ml/kg in 1 hour Then 70ml/kg in 5 hrs
Children 1 year 30ml/kg in 30 mins Then 70ml/kg in 2.5 hrs
Repeat once if pulse still very weak
If available check initial U&E and repeat at 4 hours
Give ORS as soon as child can drink (about 5ml/kg/hr)
Reassess and re-classify at 3 hrs for child and 6 hours for infant
If no IV/IO access, give fluid through NGT at 20ml/kg/hr for 6 hours 290
Do not discharge patient until oral re-hydration is established
Consider and treat severe hypokalaemia
In poorly resourced countries severe hypokalaemia with acidosis is common in severe

gastroenteritis (BMJ 2002:324;369-270). Potassium replacement here needs to be at
a higher rate than recommended; namely up to 2mmol/Kg per hour and up to a
maximum daily requirement of 15mmol/Kg/24 hours. Earlier we suggested the
following regime for treating severe hypokalaemia: Initially an IV infusion of
0.5mmol/Kg over 30 minutes followed by an IV infusion of potassium not exceeding
0.5mmol/Kg per hour.
Reassess
ABC
state of intravascular repletion
plasma electrolytes if possible
urine output and urine electrolytes
give fluid according to plan, don't forget ongoing losses
reassess regularly (including biochemistry if possible)
don't forget glucose
Gastroenteritis in Childhood
Gastroenteritis is an acute infection of the small bowel leading to diarrhoea, and often
vomiting, and is common in children below the age of three years. In 80% of cases it is viral
and settles over 3-5 days. Bacterial cases may be associated with prolonged or severe
symptoms and a higher fever. Dehydration risk is greatest in infants < 1year old; stool
frequency > 8/day; vomiting for > 2 days
Making the diagnosis

Diarrhoea, abdominal discomfort +/- vomiting; headache and fever often present
Alternative diagnoses especially if vomiting is more prominent than diarrhoea
Surgical abdomen
o Intussusception / Appendicitis / Volvulus / Incarcerated hernia
Medical causes DKA; pneumonia
Infants and young children are more likely than older children or adults to present with
shock due to sudden fluid loss in gastro-enteritis or with concealed fluid loss secondary
to a surgical abdomen such as a volvulus. Cholera is also a common cause.
In infants gastroenteritis may occasionally present as a circulatory collapse with little or no

significant preceding history of vomiting or diarrhea. The infecting organism can be any of
the usual diarrhea pathogens, of which the most common is rotavirus. The mechanism
leading to this presentation is that there is a sudden massive loss of fluid from the bowel
wall into the gut lumen, causing depletion of the intravascular volume and the appearance
of shock in the infant. This occurs before the stool is passed so that the diagnosis may be
unsuspected. Usually during resuscitation of these infants, copious watery diarrhea is
evacuated.
291
Management
The two essential elements in management of all children with diarrhea are re-hydration
and continued feeding. Do not give any drugs to control diarrhea or vomiting, as they can
have serious side effects, and do not improve hydration or nutritional status. Only give
antibiotics if there is acute bloody diarrhea or suspected cholera.
Oral Fluids
Recommendations for oral replacement therapy in gastroenteritis are:
use either low-sodium ORS (containing 40-60 mmol/L of sodium), or
if unavailable, use ORS containing 75-90 mmol/L of sodium and 75mmol/l of glucose
with an additional source of low-sodium fluid (eg breast milk, formula, or clean water)
encourage the mother to continue breastfeeding her child
giving high osmolar fluids may contribute to hypernatraemia, whilst giving water alone,
or low salt drinks may cause hyponatraemia
oral glucose within ORS enhances electrolyte and water uptake in the gut
Avoid high sugar drinks (hyper-osmolar) e.g. coca cola or fruit juices can worsen
diarrhea by their osmotic effects.
Intravenous Fluids
even in patients who are drinking poorly, try to give enteral fluids by mouth or by
gastric tube until the IV drip is running
use Ringer's Lactate or Hartmann's Solution which has Na 131mmol/l; K 5mmol/l;
HCO3 29mmol/l; Ca 2mmol/l
Hartmann's solution has no glucose to prevent hypoglycaemia: this can be corrected
by adding 100ml of 50% glucose to 500ml of Hartmann's giving approximately a 10%
glucose solution (adding 50ml gives a 5% solution)
Ringer's Lactate Solution already prepared with 5% dextrose has the added
advantage of providing glucose to help prevent hypoglycaemia.
If Ringer's Lactate or Hartmann's is unavailable, use 0.9% saline. It does not contain a
base to correct acidosis and does not replace potassium losses, therefore add
5mmol/litre of Potassium Chloride. Also it does not contain glucose and therefore add
100ml of 50% glucose to 500ml of 0.9% saline to give approximately a 10% glucose
solution.
do NOT use plain 5% glucose solutions, or 0.18% saline + 4% glucose. They do
not contain adequate electrolytes, do not correct the acidosis or hypovolaemia
and can produce dangerous hyponatraemia
all patients should start to receive some ORS solution (about 5 ml/kg/hour) when they
can drink without difficulty, which is usually within 3 - 4 hours (for infants) or 1 - 2
hours (for older children). This provides additional base and potassium, which may not
be adequately supplied by the IV fluid. Alternatively give as soon as possible by
gastric tube.
Management of diarrhea using WHO guidelines
See pathway of care above for plans A and B (no or some dehydration)
Diarrhea with severe dehydration
If no signs of severe malnutrition: Plan C treatment:
While setting up IVI (or Intraosseous if needed), give ORS

Start IV immediately; 100mls/kg of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns divided as follows:
292
Age First give 30ml/Kg in: then give 70mls/kg in
Infants < 12 months 1 hour * 5 hours
Children 1 to 5 years 30 minutes * 2.5 hours
* Repeat once if pulse is still very weak; reassess every 15-30 minutes until strong radial
pulse present:
then reassess every 1-2 hours if hydration not improving give IV more rapidly.
If available take U&E initially and at 4 hours but dont let this delay your
treatment.
Also give ORS (about 5mls/kg/hour) as soon as the child can drink
Reassess and Reclassify
at 3 hours for child, 6 hours for infant and choose appropriate plan for continued
management
If IV or IO access not possible, and child not able to drink, give ORS by NGT at
20mls/kg/hour for 6 hours, reassessing every 1-2 hours (IV or IO access must be
obtained if hydration status not improving)
If possible, observe the child for at least 6 hours after rehydration to be sure
adequate hydration can be maintained orally.
If signs of Severe Malnutrition:

Remember that dehydration is generally over diagnosed in malnourished
children, but that low circulating volume can co-exist with oedema
Do NOT use IV route for rehydration except in cases of shock.
Standard ORS is not suitable (Sodium to high, Potassium too low); use ReSoMal
(can be prepared by adding one 1 litre WHO-ORS packet to 2 litres of water,
adding 50g Sucrose and 40 mls of Electrolyte/mineral solution)
Give ReSoMal PO or NG more slowly than well-nourished child rate:
o 5mls/kg every 30 minutes for first 2 hours
o then 5-10 mls/kg/hour for the next 4-10 hours
Then proceed to starter-F-75 solution (see Malnutrition section)
Monitor every 30 minutes for first 2 hours be alert to signs of over-hydration
(increasing respiratory and pulse rates): stop and reassess after one hour if
found
Zinc treatment
All patients with diarrhea should be given zinc supplements as soon as possible after the
diarrhea has started.
Up to 6 months give 1/2 tablet (10 mg) per day
6 months and more give 1 tablet (20 mg) per day for 1014 days
293
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: shock, diabetic ketoacidosis
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
DKA is the commonest endocrine emergency and should be suspected in any patient
presenting with dehydration, abdominal pain, ketotic breath, altered level of consciousness.
The mainstay of treatment is to correct dehydration, reduce blood glucose levels and treat
any inter-current infection. The most serious acute complication of DKA is cerebral oedema
(mortality rate 80%) which is thought to be due to over vigorous resuscitation
294
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: shock, diabetic ketoacidosis
Pathway of care for DKA
Not open or at Correct Position

risk Head tilt - chin lift
Airway Jaw thrust
Intubation
OPEN
Inadequate
Breathing Breathe for the child
Yes
High flow
oxygen - face Check (where possible)
mask + reservoir Blood glucose
Urea &Electrolytes
Blood gas
Circulation Blood culture
Obtain IV or IO Urine microscopy
access
If shocked:
Give bolus 10-20ml/ Continuing Care
kg 0.9% saline
Measure blood glucose hourly
U&E 4 hourly
Reassess ABC and degree of dehydration regularly
Estimate fluid needs Treat infection - cefotaxime 100mg/kg
Fluids = maintenance + deficit Insert NG tube (ileus usual)
Accurate fluid balance (consider urinary catheter)
Neurological assessments hourly - look for evidence
Give over 24 of cerebral oedema
hours ECG for hypokalaemia
Blood glucose >12mmol/l - 0.9% saline IV

Blood glucose <12mmol/l - 0.45% saline
IV + 5% glucose IV
Watch Na+ carefully - avoid rapid falls
(cerebral oedema risk)
Replace any large gastric aspirates as
0.45% saline + 10mmol/l KCl If cerebral oedema
Mannitol 250-500mg/kg of 20% IV
2/3 maintenance IV fluids
Keep plasma Na >135mmol/litre
Avoid fever >38 degrees centigrade
Potassium Head midline and 30 degrees elevated
Add 20mmol KCl to every 500ml unit of IV fluid
OR
Add 2mmol/kg to oral fluids every 12 hours
Short acting Insulin

0.6 units/kg SC 6 hourly
OR
0.1 units/kg/hour IV infusion (ONLY if SAFE)
295
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: shock, septicaemia
Septicaemia
Introduction
Septic shock develops when a number of different mechanisms of shock operate in the
context of an invasive bacterial infection (an exception is dengue which is caused by a viral
agent). These mechanisms are:
hypovolaemic: from abnormal capillary permeability, fever and accompanying
vomiting and diarrhoea
distributative: there is loss of the normal sympathetic nervous system control of
vascular tone so that blood is lost from vital organs into non-vital areas
cardiogenic: impaired cardiac function secondary to hypovolaemia and the toxic
effects of the pathogen
These multiple factors make septic shock difficult and complex to treat and contribute to a
high mortality rate in these conditions.
The bacteria causing septic shock include meningococcus, staphylococcus, streptococcus
pneumoniae and pyogenes, together with gram negative organisms like E. coli which
particularly affect patients at risk with lower immunity, such as the newborn, those with
HIV/AIDS and the malnourished.
Diagnosis of septic shock

The early recognition and treatment of septic shock is key to a good outcome, so a high
degree of vigilance for this condition is necessary.
In a child who has an infection, with a fever (although the at risk group mentioned above
may have a normal or subnormal temperature), the development of a change in mental
status, such as irritability, drowsiness, lack of interaction or reduced or absent eating or
breast feeding is often the first feature to alarm parents and is the result of the effect of
poor cerebral perfusion and possible accompanying hypoglycaemia on the childs brain.
The signs which should then be sought include the following:
tachycardia (best measured with a stethoscope)
weak pulse (ideally central - brachial, femoral or carotid but difficult to gauge)
reduced urine output (early sign)
cold skin with poor circulation or sometimes peripheral skin vasodilatation
prolonged capillary refill time (CRT) > 3 seconds
agitation, anxiety
increased skin sweating in some cases
extreme central pallor (in cases with severe anaemia)
raised respiratory rate (due to acidosis)
reduced conscious level (serious and dangerous sign)
low BP (late sign and difficult to measure in young children: needs the correct
sized cuff)
Meningococcal septicaemia
Purpuric non-blanching rash
7% no rash; 15% blanch
not always associated with meningitis
Toxic shock syndrome
high fever, headache, confusion
red conjunctivae and oral mucosa
scarletiniform rash+ desquamation
subcutaneous oedema
vomiting and watery diarrhoea
Non-typhoidal salmonella 296
Common in malarial areas
Difficulties in managing septic shock
In well-resourced countries or well resourced areas of countries with specialist paediatric

intensive care units (PICUs) or high dependency units, some cases of septic shock are still
difficult to manage and some children die.
In resource poor countries there are additional difficulties which need to be taken into
account, as follows:
Severe malnutrition: this makes the diagnosis of septic shock more difficult as
the childs malnourished body does not respond with the same physical signs as a well
nourished child. In addition, malnourished children may have poor myocardial function and
almost always have severe anaemia. This will result in cardiac failure and probable death if
rapid infusions of large and repeated boluses of fluid (an important part of septic shock
management) are given (see chapter 5.10.B)
Severe anaemia: as shock is a failure of oxygen delivery to the tissues, clearly
anaemia will make this worse. Rapid crystalloid fluid infusion will dilute the blood further
and worsen the heart failure which may be present in severe anaemia. These children
need early fresh whole blood transfusion where the red cells will improve oxygen carrying
capacity: the plasma will support the circulation and supply coagulation factors. If only
stored blood is available, it should be packed to provide predominantly red blood cells. In
the absence of a suitable centrifuge, hanging the bag vertically allows red cells to fall to the
bottom of the pack and these can be transfused first.
HIV/AIDS: again diagnosis may be difficult, physical signs and laboratory tests
may be unreliable. A low threshold for treatment of suspected sepsis with broad spectrum
antibiotics is recommended (see chapter 6.2.D)
Lack of PICU or high dependency care facilities: even in children with good
nutrition, no severe anaemia and no other long term debilitating condition, the amount of
fluid infusion required to successfully treat some cases of septic shock is sufficient to
induce heart failure and pulmonary oedema. If facilities are available, intubation and
ventilation, the IV infusion of inotropic drugs such as dopamine and adrenaline, invasive
cardiovascular monitoring, renal dialysis and other aspects of paediatric intensive care are
required. The absence of these facilities limits the treatment that can be offered to children
with septic shock.
Initial management of septic shock
Even though it may be clear on initial inspection that the child is in shock, the first priority
will still be to call for help, manage the airway, followed by breathing and then manage the
circulation.
Call for help

Airway
Assess the airway by the simple technique of asking the child are you alright? any
vocalisation such as a reply or crying indicates an open airway and some ventilation. In the
absence of a response, formally open the airway with a head tilt/chin lift or a jaw thrust
manouvre and assess breathing by looking, listening and feeling for its presence.
Breathing
All children with suspected shock must receive high flow oxygen.
If possible, this should be given through a mask with a reservoir to achieve the higher
concentrations. In the absence of spontaneous breathing give assisted ventilation with a
bag/mask.
Circulation
297
Some assessment of weight will be necessary to calculate the amounts of fluid and
antibiotics to be given. If the child is not malnourished, use the formula: weight = 2(age +4).
If the child is malnourished this formula can still be used but perhaps a percentage such as
25-50% removed from the result.
Intravenous access with a short, wide bore venous cannula, or placement of an

intraosseous line (see chapter 8.4.b) is vital. More than one line is preferable as rapid fluid
resuscitation may be needed and other drugs may need to be given simultaneously but
start IV treatment as soon as the first line is in place before seeking additional IV access
(unless sufficient staff are available). Take blood for investigations: FBC, glucose,
electrolytes (including calcium and lactate if possible), blood group and crossmatch blood
in all cases. Treat hypoglycaemia if identified.
First fluid
The next step is to give fluid and antibiotics intravenously.
Malnourished and/or severely anaemic

If the child is malnourished and/or anaemic (Hb < 5 g), fluid must be given much
more carefully. Give 10 mL/kg IV over 30 to 60 minutes. The recommended
solution is Ringer Lactate solution or Hartmanns solution, each with 5% glucose
(insert 50 mL of 50% dextrose into a 500 mL bag of the bolus fluid) but give
normal saline (0.9%) if this is all that is available, also with 5% dextrose. For
antibiotics see below.
Give a bolus of 10 mL/kg over 15 minutes of fresh blood (if available) or stored
blood as soon as possible
Assess and if the child is not in clinical heart failure, give another 10 mL/kg bolus
over 15 minutes of fresh or stored blood.
If the child is in heart failure, give 10 mL/kg of blood as packed red cells over 2-3
hours or use a partial exchange transfusion as follows: use a cannula in a large
vein, withdraw 5-10 mL of patients anaemic blood (depending on childs size)
and infuse 10-20 mL respectively of new blood over 5 minutes and repeat 10
times.
If the child is not improving having given the above treatment and antibiotics (see
below), further clinical interventions must be determined by the individual
situation.
Normal nutrition
If the child is not malnourished infuse a crystalloid such as Hartmanns or Ringer Lactate
solution as quickly as possible but give Normal Saline (0.9%) if this is all that is available.
In well nourished children, the initial bolus volume of fluid to be given is usually 20 mL/kg
which is one quarter of the childs circulating volume. Shock is not usually clinically evident
until a quarter of the circulation has been lost, so any child with signs of shock must have
lost this amount of fluid from the circulation, at least. So a 12 kg child would need 240 mL
of crystalloid. This fluid should be given as quickly as possible, usually over 5-10 minutes.
It is easily given by pushing the fluid in using a 50 mL syringe.
Antibiotics
While giving the first bolus of IV fluid, also give IV antibiotics if sufficient staff are available
to avoid inducing delays with the first fluid bolus. The choice of antibiotics will depend on
the clinical clues as to the infecting organism. In the presence of a purpuric rash (and in a
non endemic dengue area) meningococcus is the likely organism, otherwise streptococcus
or staphylococcus or gram negative organisms are candidates. A third generation
cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone or a combination of gentamycin and a penicillin would
be advisable. Flucloxallin should be added if staphylococcus is suspected, for example if
298
there are boils or a known abscess. In newborn infants or children with suspected intra-
abdominal sepsis, gram negative organisms are likely. Metronidazole to cover anaerobic
organisms should be given if clinically appropriate.
Reassessment
The next very important step before a second IV bolus is given is to re-assess the patients
vital signs to see if the fluid has helped. Check the pulse rate, capillary return, limb
temperature, blood pressure and pay particular attention to the childs mental status. See
how the parent child interaction is occurring. Is the child more or less responsive to the
parent? Look for signs of heart failure, that is: raised jugular venous pressure, enlarged
liver, crackles in lung bases.
If the child still shows the signs of shock, then give further fluid. If there are signs of fluid
overload with or without heart failure, then stop the IV fluid.
Further fluid
If there has been a little improvement or no improvement, give a further bolus of 10-20 mL
of fluid. Re-assess the child after each 10 mL/kg of fluid: check the pulse rate, capillary
return, limb temperature, blood pressure and alertness: look for signs of heart failure,
raised jugular venous pressure, enlarged liver, crackles in lung bases.
Once a total of 40 mL of fluid have been given, there is an increasing risk that you will
cause fluid overload with pulmonary oedema which will make the child worse, not better.
The problem is that there may still be leakage of fluid out of the circulation (into which you
have been infusing the crystalloid or other fluid) which makes the tissues oedematous but
leaves the circulation still hypovolaemic and the tissues under perfused.
Inotropes
One response to this situation is to give an infusion of a drug which stimulates the heart to
pump harder and supports the circulation (an inotrope). Dopamine is a very potent drug
and must be given carefully. It should be given into a peripheral vein or intraosseously at a
starting dose of 5 micrograms per kg per minute. The dose can be increased in steps up to
20 micrograms per kg per minute if lower doses do not help.
Dopamine infusion
Make up 0.3 mg/kg of dopamine in 500 mL of Ringers Lactate or Hartmanns or
normal saline. This will give 0.1 microgram/kg/min if run at a rate of 1 mL/hr. Use a 100 mL
paediatric burette in the infusion line for this fluid. The burette can then be filled with a
further 100 mL and a further dose of dopamine added when necessary. To give 5.0
microgram/kg/minute, give 50 mL/hr of this dilution in a child. Do not forget that the fluid
that you are using for the infusion must be included in your calculations of total fluid given.
If dopamine is not available or is not having any significant effect in the larger
doses, then adrenaline, which is more potent than dopamine, may be tried
Intermittent adrenaline infusions

Dissolve 0.1 mL of 1 in 10,000 adrenaline in 10 mL of 0.9% saline and give 1 mL
IV: check response (in particular of BP) and repeat after 15-30 minutes if it helps to
improve perfusion. Then intermittently give further doses as required. 1 mL of this solution
is 1 mcg/kg.
It must be stressed that in the absence of paediatric intensive care, the above infusions of
inotropic (circulation supporting) drugs are an attempt to save a child in extremis and may
not be effective.
299
Once the infusion of inotropes has been started and the childs vital signs re-assessed,
fluid may cautiously be continued, re-assessing frequently and stopping the infusion if
signs of heart failure appear.
If there is a skilled person (anaesthetist or surgeon available, the placing of a central

venous line would be very helpful to monitor the venous pressure (around +8mmHg is a
good target) and to infuse the dobutamine or adrenaline centrally.
Once 60 mL/kg have been given in total, further fluid is unlikely to be beneficial unless
skilled ventilation is available.
In this situation, provided there are adequate facilities and expertise, positive pressure
ventilation through an endotracheal tube (usually with PEEP) can assist the circulation and
help to manage the effects of any pulmonary oedema.
Reviewing FBC and biochemistry

Blood tests were taken at the beginning of treatment, but it is useful to check the
blood tests again (taking the blood from a vein with no IV in place).
Check the Hb to see if there is now a need for a blood transfusion (fresh blood
would be best). Studies have shown that the Hb should ideally be above 10
g/dL when treating shock in children.
Check blood glucose and treat with 2 mL/kg of 10% dextrose in a neonate and 5
mL/kg of 10% dextrose in an older infant or child if the level is less than 2.5
mmol: also add glucose to any infusion fluid.
Check calcium and if the level of ionised calcium is less than 1 mmol/L then give
0.3 mg/kg of 10% calcium gluconate IV slowly (over 30 minutes, calcium can
cause cardiac arrest if given too quickly).
Consider giving 0.5 to 1 mmol/kg of sodium bicarbonate (0.5 to 1 mL/kg of 8.4%
sodium bicarbonate) over 15 minutes IV for refractory acidosis not responding to
fluid resuscitation and effective ventilation.
Steroids
There is some evidence that IV steroids can be helpful in some cases of septic shock. If
the suspected organism is meningococcus or the child has previously been on a prolonged
course of steroid treatment (for example with nephrotic syndrome) then IV hydrocortisone
can be given at a dose of 1-2 mg/kg/day in divided doses or as a continuous infusion.
Occasionally higher doses up to 50 mg/kg/day have been used.
Further treatment
Many children with septic shock may respond to the above treatments. For those who have
not done so, paediatric intensive or high dependency care is needed. If this is available,
then contact should be made with the PICU team as soon as it becomes clear that the child
has septic shock. Advice on the care can then be given from experts and arrangements
made, if possible, for the child to be retrieved by the intensive care team coming to
stabilise and transfer the child.
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Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever
Dengue fever affects older children and young adults. It is characterised by a biphasic
fever with headache, muscle and joint pains, rashes and a low white cell count. It is usually
benign but can be incapacitating with severe muscle and joint pain known as break-bone
fever. Occasionally it is associated with severe haemorrhage Dengue haemorrhagic
fever. This is an emergency and can progress to untreatable shock
Clotting disorders are monitored by serial measurement of platelets and APTT if available
(or by measuring the whole blood clotting time).
Grading of Severity of Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever
Grade Features Management
1 Fever; general malaise; positive tourniquet Antipyretics; analgesics; oral

test fluids avoid NSAIDs
2 Spontaneous bleeding in skin other As above plus IV fluids if
haemorrhage needed
3 Evidence of shock; weak pulse, low BP; IV fluid resuscitation with
rising haematocrit Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns
4 Profound shock with undetectable BP or Careful fluid resuscitation with
peripheral pulse colloid if available. May need
blood transfusion and
correction of clotting disorder
Treat Dengue fever with shock along the lines of the common care pathway for shock, but
be careful not to fluid overload. If fluid overload occurs, treat with frusemide 1mg/kg IV and
repeat as necessary.
Tourniquet test in Dengue

Haemorrhagic Fever
Apply BP cuff inflated to level of
mean arterial pressure (systolic +
diastolic, divided by 2). Leave
inflated for 5 minutes; a positive test
is if there are 10 petechiae in 1 sq
inch after the cuff is removed
301
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: shock, cardiogenic
Cardiogenic shock
Causes
Abnormal pulse rate or rhythm
Congenital cardiac abnormality
Cardiomyopathy
Abnormal pulse rate or rhythm - Presentation

History of palpitations
Poor feeding
Heart failure or shock
Episodes of loss of consciousness
When a child presents in shock or imminent cardiac failure due to an abnormal pulse, the
treatment priorities are to secure the airway and breathing, and provide oxygen.
Treatment of the rhythm will depend on a few simple criteria
Assessment
Is the child stable or in shock?
Is the rate too fast or too slow?
Is the pulse regular or irregular?
If there is an ECG, are the QRS complexes wide or
narrow?
Is there a non-cardiac cause of the problem?
302
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: shock, cardiogenic
Emergency treatment
Airway Secure the airway with simple opening manoeuvres and adjuncts as
necessary
Breathing High flow oxygen. Assisted ventilation will be needed if the child is
shocked
Circulation
o Heart rate < 60
start chest compressions and vigorous resuscitation
ensure adequate oxygenation
give a bolus of fluid 20ml/kg IV or IO
try atropine 20mcg/kg and adrenaline 10mcg/kg
if organophosphate poisoning, give atropine 50-100mcg/kg IV or IM
o If heart rate 150 - 180 (up to 220 in infant) no ECG and no history of cardiac
disease or exposure to drugs causing VT, presume the child has SVT.
o If ECG shows SVT (or no ECG available)

Apply vagal manoeuvres (ice pack on face; valsalva; firm carotid
massage
If shocked and access to defibrillator give 0.5, 1 and 2 joules
If not shocked or no defibrillator, give IV adenosine 50mcg/kg; followed
by 100mcg/kg and 250mcg/kg as necessary
If no adenosine or defibrillator, try digoxin
o If ECG shows VT and the child is shocked

Cardiovert with 0.5, 1 then 2joules/kg as needed
If no defibrillator, give amiodarone 5mg/kg over 30 mins
If no other options available
treat hyperkalaemia with calcium gluconate and glucose
plus insulin
give magnesium sulfate (25-50mg/kg) over a few minutes
o If poisoning with Tricyclic antidepressants

treat with sodium bicarbonate 1mmol/kg followed by phenytoin
15mg/kg over 15 minutes if no improvement
After Resuscitation and Emergency Treatment
After emergency treatment of shock a search should be made for organ damage so that
appropriate treatment may be given eg.renal function.
303
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: shock, acute renal failure
The infant or child with acute renal failure
Introduction
>1ml/Kg/hour in children
Minimum urine output:
>2ml/Kg/hour in infants
Types
o Pre-renal:
insult to renal tubule cells from poor perfusion, usually due to shock. This is most
commonly associated with gastroenteritis, but must also be thought about in trauma, burns,
sepsis and heart failure.
o Renal:
usually due to the same problem causing pre-renal failure, but is more serious. Other
causes include poisoning by drugs eg gentamycin, end stage glomerular diseases and
haemolytic-uraemic syndrome.
o Post renal:
Acute complete obstruction is rare. Causes include a stone obstructing urethra.
Diagnosis and initial management of ARF

Pre-renal Failure Renal Failure
Urine Na+ mmol/l <10 >10
Urine osmolality plasma osmolality >1.5 <1.5
FENa <1% >2% **
Microscopy of Urine no casts granular/red cell casts
(**Fractional excretion of sodium is the diagnostic test for discriminating between pre-renal
and renal failure)
Pre-renal acute renal failure

o Clinical diagnosis reflects features of shock
o usually low BP. However, BP may be unexpectedly high because of
powerful renin drive in response to hypovolaemia.
o abdominal pain (induced by splanchnic ischaemia as blood flow diverted
from gut to more vital organs).
o Laboratory diagnosis by measuring fractional excretion of sodium (FENa). Measure
the sodium and creatinine in a simultaneously obtained sample of urine and blood.
FENa (%) = U/P sodium x P/U creatinine x 100
o If FENa <1% , renal tubule cells are still alive, and able to respond to shock by
reabsorbing sodium which confirms a diagnosis of pre-renal failure. No other tests,
including measurements of osmolality, of urinary Na concentration alone, nor urine
microscopy can reliably differentiate pre-renal from established renal failure.
Ultrasound looks normal or echo-bright.
304
o Treatment is by urgent rehydration. Give 20 ml/kg as rapidly as possible initially,
and repeat if necessary. Thereafter give Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns to fully correct
the fluid deficit within 2 to 4 hours. The deficit can be estimated by multiplying the
child's weight by the estimated percentage dehydration.
o Once rehydration has started give frusemide 2 mg/kg orally or IV.
o If blood pressure remains markedly depressed after rehydration, it may be due to
cardiogenic shock; consider inotropes (if available).
Established acute renal failure

o Laboratory diagnosis FENa is typically > 2% because damaged tubules unable to
reabsorb sodium avidly.
o Fluid repletion and frusemide will not result in recovery of renal function.
o If FENa not available, give trial of frusemide (2mg/Kg IV) and consider a fluid
challenge if evidence of dehydration
o If not dehydrated (or after correction of dehydration) carefully maintain fluid and
electrolyte balance and nutrition while waiting/hoping for recovery.
o Dialysis may be needed (if available).
o If recovery not started by 4 weeks, it is unlikely.
Post-renal ARF
o All cause severe acute colicky abdominal pain: unilateral with ureteric obstruction, or
lower abdominal with bladder neck obstruction.
o Ultrasound, if available, will reveal stones and dilatation proximal to obstruction.
o Remove or bypass the obstruction. For a bladder neck stone obstruction, catheterise.
Pain relief with an opiate and a muscle relaxant may allow time for an obstructing
stone in the ureter to pass, or for the intermittent blockage from a pelviureteric junction
narrowing to clear. If not, stone removed cystoscopically or by ureterolithotomy, or the
upper renal tract drained by insertion of a percutaneous nephrostomy under
ultrasound guidance. This may require transfer to another centre
Ongoing management of persistent ARF

Good general care:
Meticulous fluid balance:
o Accurately measure all intake and losses. For babies, stool and urine losses
estimated by weighing clean and dirty nappies.
o Insensible water losses: (see appendix for table of estimate of body surface
area)
o 300ml/m2/24 hours or
o 12ml/Kg/24 hours if > 1 year
o 15ml/Kg/24 hours if an infant
o 24ml/Kg/24 hours if a preterm infant
o Increased in hot climate by around 50%.
o Best guide is to weigh twice daily.
o Adequate nutrition is important but difficult to provide. Aim to provide normal
calorie intake from carbohydrates and fats
o limit protein intake to about 1 g/kg/day to minimise uraemia.
o Young infants who normally take milk, and children too ill to eat solid food, or
with gastrointestinal involvement, will need NG feeding or IV nutrition
o nutrition may have to be delivered in a large fluid volume.
o If there is polyuric renal failure or high non-renal water losses such as from
diarrhoea or drain fluids this can be achieved.
305
o if oligoanuric, it is not possible to give sufficient nutrition without fluid overload
leading to hypertension and pulmonary oedema.
o Concentrated fat-based oral feeds can be made up from double cream.
o sophisticated IV fluids with high glucose content and individually adjusted sodium
(and bicarbonate) concentrations, tailored to balance losses are usually only
available in well resourced settings.
Usually necessary to limit salt intake to prevent sodium retention with hypernatraemia,
leading to insatiable thirst, and fluid overload.
Provide some bicarbonate to prevent acidosis, typically at a starting dose of 1
mmol/kg/day sodium bicarbonate (note, 1 ml of an 8.4% sodium bicarbonate solution
contains 1 mmol, and 1 g of powder contains 12 mmol)
Dietary potassium must be restricted to avoid hyperkalaemia. Hyperkalaemia causes
arrhythmias, especially in ARF where other metabolic changes may exacerbate the
risk (for example, hypocalcaemia). Aim to keep plasma potassium < 6.5 mmol/L in an
older child and < 7.0 mmol/L in neonates who tolerate hyperkalaemia better.
Dietary phosphate restricted to prevent hyperphosphataemia. Giving calcium
carbonate with the food (eg, 0.5 to 2 grams with each meal) will bind the intestinal
phosphate and reduce hyperphosphataemia as well as improving the tendency to
hypocalcaemia.
Blood pressure monitoring and anti-hypertensives may be needed
Many drug dosages will need adjustment as they are renally excreted
Peritoneal dialysis
This is indicated if
o oligoanuria persists
o hyperkalaemia occurs (the commonest indication)
o severe metabolic acidosis. Treatment with sodium bicarbonate is
limited because this may lead to massive sodium overload, and hence
to dangerous levels of hypernatraemia, and to greater fluid retention.
o hypoglycaemia occurs and needs IV glucose solutions
o other fluids are required such as platelets.
o urea rises > 40 mmol/L causing clinical uraemia
306
Pathway of care Acute Renal Failure in a child
Minimum urine output >1ml/Kg/hour in children

>2ml/Kg/hour in infants
Measure Fe Na%( = u/p sodium x p/u creatinine x 100)
>2% renal
<1% pre-renal
Try Frusemide 2mg/Kg IV

Shock usual Correct dehydration
Urgent rehydration
20ml/Kg Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns IV
Measure all intake and losses

Repeat x 1 if necessary 2
Calculate insensible loss: 300ml/m /24 hours
or 12ml/Kg/24 hours >1 year
15ml/Kg/24 hours infant
24ml/Kg/24 hours if preterm infant
Correct fluid deficit with Ringer-Lactate by 50% if hot climate
or Hartmanns over 2-4 hours
Add all losses to insensible loss and give total

Frusemide 2mg/Kg IV fluid containing as many calories as possible
Weigh twice daily

If BP still low - inotropes Observe for oedema and heart failure
Limit protein intake 1g/Kg/day

Give calories as carbohydrate and fat
Consider need for dialysis
Oligo or anuria
Hyperkalaemia
Restrict salt intake
Severe acidosis Avoid potassium in diet
Urea >40 Restrict phosphate intake and add calcium
Hypoglycaemia carbonate orally 0.5-2g with each meal
Need for other IV fluids
307
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: coma
The Infant or Child in Coma
Coma may be the presentation of many illnesses. It is unusual for children to have a
structural problem so the cause of coma is most likely to be a diffuse metabolic or infective
process, or to be associated with trauma.
Causes of coma
Hypoglycaemia
Malaria
Meningitis (including TB)
Head injury see trauma section
HIV
Drugs / poisons
Post convulsion
Primary assessment
The first steps in managing a child with an altered level of consciousness are to assess
and, if necessary, support Airway, Breathing and Circulation.
Airway this is at risk if the child scores P or U on the AVPU scale
Breathing this may be the cause of coma, by inadequate oxygenation or increasing
CO2; or be compromised by coma with centrally driven hypoventilation.
Circulation hypotension leads to under-perfusion of the brain. In late stages of
raised intracranial pressure, the child becomes hypertensive.
The body responds by reducing heart rate.
Hypertension and bradycardia are very serious signs.
Disability
Assess using AVPU score
Check blood glucose
Check pupils for size, equality and reaction to light
Palpate fontanelle for signs of raised ICP
A more formal assessment may be made using the
Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)
Pupillary changes
Pupil size & Causes

reactivity
Small, Metabolic disorder
reactive Medullary lesion
Pin-point Metabolic disorder
Narcotics /orgnophosphates
Fixed, dilated Hypothermia
Hypoxic / ischaemic brain
During and post seizure
Anticholinergics / barbiturates
One fixed. Ipsilateral lesion
dilated pupil Tentorial; herniation
III cranial nerve lesion
Epileptic seizure
308
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: coma
Pathway of Care for Child in Coma
URGENT:
Establish/protect airway
(place into recovery position Assess and stabilise ABC Support if :
if unprotected and intubation Give high flow O2 inadequate breathing
not possible) Absent cough or gag reflex
Consider intubation and GCS <9 or P or U on AVPU
ventilation if possible scale
Circulation:
Establish IV access
Glucose stick test, blood

Hypoglycaemia cultures, U&E and FBC if
possible.
Aim to maintain normal BP AVPU and GCS
IV antibiotics if suspect infection Pupils
Lateralising signs
Fontanelle
5ml/kg 10% glucose IV
Neck stiffness/photophobia
CONSIDER NEED FOR
LUMBAR PUNCTURE
Disability
Unresponsive
Establish/protect airway as Alert or responds

above to voice or pain
Key Points in Management:
Monitor vital signs regularly
Identification and immediate Maintain normal blood glucose
treatment of the treatable Avoid Hyponatraemia - do not give
eg meningitis, encephalitis, hypotonic solutions
hypoglycaemia and malaria Treat seizures
NG tube and frequent small feeds
Signs of raised Avoid hyperthermia (T>37.5)
ICP Urinary catheter to monitor status
of circulation
Reassess Nurse head up at 30 degrees
Raised ICP management:

Maximise oxygenation and
circulation
Minimise disturbance Diagnostic pointers to cause:
Control fits Recent trauma
Mannitol 250-500 mcg/kg over High fever
15 minutes Travel in endemic area for
malaria, encephalitis, sleeping
sickness
Convulsions at any time
Meningitis - Ingestion of drugs/poisons
cefotaxime 100mg/kg (WHO benzyl Skin rash
penicillin + chloramphenicol)
dexamethasone 150mcg/kg 6 hrly
Malaria -
quinine 20ml/kg in 20ml/kg 5% (WHO
20mg/Kg in 10ml /Kg of 5%
dextrose)glucose over 4-6 hours
309
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: meningitis
Specific conditions
1. Meningitis or encephalitis (after the neonatal period)
The three common organisms causing meningitis are

Neisseria meningitides which has a high mortality and morbidity;
Haemophilus influenzae which is much less common in areas with
immunisation programmes
Streptococcus pneumoniae which is more commonly seen in disadvantaged
countries and in immunocompromised patients
Gram negative organisms such as Ecoli in neonates
Classic signs might be absent in a small child. A bulging fontanelle is a clear sign of
intracranial infection, but may be masked by associated dehydration. Meningitis is almost
always associated with raised ICP, so the symptoms and signs are related to this.
Diagnosis in a child 3 yrs old Diagnosis in a child 4 years old

Reduced level of Headache or neck pain
consciousness Vomiting
Irritability Neck stiffness
Poor feeding or vomiting Opisthotonous
Fever with no apparent cause Photophobia
Convulsions with or without Rash
fever Altered level of consciousness
Apnoeic or cyanotic episodes Recent head injury
Purpuric rash
Recent head injury
Early diagnosis is essential for effective treatment.

There is a risk of coning if an LP is performed in a child with raised ICP
.Laboratory investigations
If possible, confirm the diagnosis with a lumbar puncture and examination of the CSF. If the
CSF is cloudy, assume meningitis and start treatment while waiting for laboratory
confirmation. Microscopy should indicate the presence of meningitis in the majority of
cases with the white cell (polymorph) count above 100/mm3. Confirmatory information can
be gained from the CSF glucose (low: <1.5 mmol/litre), CSF protein (high: >0.4 g/litre), and
Gram staining and culture of the CSF, where possible.
During a confirmed epidemic of meningococcal meningitis it is not necessary to perform a

lumbar puncture on children who have petechial or purpuric signs, which are characteristic
of meningococcal infection. During such epidemics, give oily chloramphenicol (100 mg/kg
IM as a single dose up to a maximum of 3 grams) for the treatment of meningococcal
meningitis.
The oily suspension is thick and may be difficult to push through the needle. If this problem
is encountered, the dose can be divided into two parts and an injection given into each
buttock of the child.
Consider tuberculous meningitis if:

310
fever persists for 14 days
fever persists for more than 7 days and there is a family member with
tuberculosis
a chest X-ray suggests tuberculosis
the patient remains unconscious
CSF continues to have moderately high white blood cell counts (typically,
<500 white cells per ml, mostly lymphocytes), elevated protein levels (0.84 g/l) and low
glucose levels (<1.5 mmol/litre).
In children known or suspected to be HIV-positive, tuberculous or cryptococcal meningitis
should also be considered. For diagnosis of cryptococcus, do a CSF stain with India ink.
Treatment
If the CSF is obviously cloudy, treat immediately with antibiotics before the results of
laboratory CSF examination are available. If the child has signs of meningitis and a lumbar
puncture is not possible, treat immediately.
Antibiotic treatment
Give antibiotic treatment as soon as possible. Choose one of the following two regimens:
1. Chloramphenicol: 25 mg/kg IM (or IV) every 6 hours plus ampicillin: 50 mg/kg IM (or IV)
every 6 hours
OR
2. Chloramphenicol: 25 mg/kg IM (or IV) every 6 hours plus benzylpenicillin: 60 mg/kg (100
000 units/kg) every 6 hours IM (or IV).
Where there is known significant drug resistance of common pathogens (e.g. Haemophilus
influenzae or Pneumococcus) to these antibiotics, follow the national guidelines. In many
circumstances, the most appropriate treatment will be a third-generation cephalosporin
such as:
ceftriaxone: 50 mg/kg IM/IV, over 3060 minutes every 12 hours; or 100 mg/kg IM/IV,
over 3060 minutes once daily; or 1month-12 years: 50-80mg/kg OD, 12-18 years: 1g, up
to 2-4g in severe infections
cefotaxime: 50 mg/kg IM or IV, every 6 hours.
Review therapy when CSF results are available. If the diagnosis is confirmed, give
treatment parenterally for at least 5 days. Once the child has improved, give
chloramphenicol orally unless there is concern about oral absorption (e.g. in severely
malnourished children or in those with diarrhoea), in which cases the full treatment should
be given parenterally. The total duration of treatment is 10 days.
If there is a poor response to treatment:

Consider the presence of common complications, such as subdural effusions (persistent
fever plus focal neurological signs or reduced level of consciousness) or a cerebral
abscess. If these are suspected, refer the child to a central hospital with specialized
facilities for further management
Look for other sites of infection which may be the cause of fever, such as cellulitis at
injection sites, arthritis, urinary tract infection or osteomyelitis.
-Repeat the lumbar puncture after 35 days if the fever is still present and the childs
overall condition is not improving, and look for evidence of improvement (e.g. fall in
leukocyte count and rise in glucose level).
Steroid treatment
311
There is not sufficient evidence to recommend routine use of dexamethasone in all children
with bacterial meningitis in poorly resourced countries.
Do not use steroids in:

newborns
suspected cerebral malaria
suspected viral encephalitis
areas with a high prevalence of penicillin-resistant pneumococcal invasive disease.
TB meningitis
Consider tuberculous meningitis if:

fever persists for 14 days
fever persists for more than 7 days and there is a family member with
tuberculosis
a chest X-ray suggests tuberculosis
the patient remains unconscious
CSF continues to have moderately high white blood cell counts (typically,
<500 white cells per ml, mostly lymphocytes), elevated protein levels (0.84 g/l) and low
glucose levels (<1.5 mmol/litre).
In children known or suspected to be HIV-positive, tuberculous or cryptococcal meningitis
should also be considered. For diagnosis of cryptococcus, do a CSF stain with India ink.
Consult national tuberculosis programme guidelines if TBM is found or strongly suspected.

The optimal treatment regimen, where there is no drug resistance,
comprises:
isoniazid (10 mg/kg, max 300mg) for 69 months; and
rifampicin (1520 mg/kg, max 600mg) for 69 months; and
pyrazinamide (35 mg/kg max 2g) for the first 2 months.
Dexamethasone (0.6 mg/kg/day for 23 weeks, tailing the dose over a further 23 weeks)
should be given to all cases of tuberculous meningitis.
Antimalarial treatment
In malarial areas, take a blood smear to check for malaria since cerebral malaria should be
considered as a differential diagnosis or co-existing condition. Treat with an antimalarial if
malaria is diagnosed. If for any reason a blood smear is not possible, treat presumptively
with an antimalarial drug.
Supportive care
Examine all children with convulsions for hyperpyrexia and hypoglycaemia. Treat the
hypoglycaemia. Control high fever (39 C or 102.2 F) with paracetamol.
In an unconscious child:
Maintain a clear airway.
Nurse the child on the side to avoid aspiration of fluids.
Turn the patient every 2 hours.
Do not allow the child to lie in a wet bed.
Pay attention to pressure points.
Monitor for signs raised intracranial pressure Give mannitol 250-500mg/kg if
deteriorating
312
Oxygen treatment
Oxygen is not indicated unless the child has convulsions or associated severe pneumonia
with hypoxia (SaO2 <90%) (EMCH <94%), or, if you cannot do pulse oximetry, cyanosis,
severe lower chest wall in-drawing, respiratory rate of >70/minute.
Fluid and nutritional management

There is no good evidence to support fluid restriction in children with bacterial meningitis.
Give them their daily fluid requirement, but not more because of the risk of cerebral
oedema. Monitor IV fluids very carefully and examine frequently for signs of fluid overload.
Provide food as soon as it is safe. Breastfeed every 3 hours, if possible, or give milk feeds
of 15 ml/kg if the child can swallow. If there is a risk of aspiration, give the sugar solution by
nasogastric tube. Continue to monitor the blood glucose level and treat accordingly (as
above), if found to be <2.5 mmol/ litre or <45 mg/dl.
Complications
Convulsions
If convulsions occur, give anticonvulsant treatment.
Hypoglycaemia
Give 5 ml/kg of 10% glucose solution IV rapidly Recheck the blood glucose in 30 minutes
and if the level is low (<2.5 mmol/litre or <45 mg/dl),give further dose of glucose solution.
Prevent further hypoglycaemia by feeding, where possible (see above). If you give IV
fluids, prevent hypoglycaemia by adding 10 ml of 50% glucose to 90 ml of Ringer-Lactate
or Hartmanns. Do not exceed maintenance fluid requirements for the childs weight. If the
child develops signs of fluid overload, stop the infusion and repeat the 10% glucose bolus
(5 ml/kg) at regular intervals.
2. Malaria
Features
There are no pathognomic signs; fever in an endemic area is malaria until
proven otherwise
Typical features include high swinging fever, chills, rigors, sweating,
myalgia, arthralgia, headache, lethargy, cough, nausea, vomiting and
diarrhea
In infants the only findings may be fever and failure to feed properly
(malaria is very rare in < 2/12 old because of the protective effect of HbF)
Severe disease may cause altered level of consciousness, fits, severe
anaemia and jaundice
Cerebral malaria is associated with raised ICP and rapid onset coma
Malaria may be accompanied by non-typhoid salmonellosis or meningitis
Signs of severe malaria Cerebral malaria

Altered conscious level Plasmodium falciparum
Convulsions Altered level of consciousness
Severe anaemia Commonest cause coma in age 1-5 in
Acidosis endemic areas
Hypoglycaemia Convulsions, severe anaemia,
Hyperpyrexia hypoglycaemia, hyperpyrexia and
Pulmonary oedema- uncommon in children acidosis are common
Renal failure Signs of raised ICP
Jaundice Other causes of coma such as
DIC meningitis should be sought
313
Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: malaria
Diagnosis
Investigations (if available)
Investigation Findings
Thick & thin blood films Thick confirms diagnosis; thin identifies
species
FBC and sickle test Anaemia; sickle disease / trait
Blood glucose Hypoglycaemia
U&E Effect of vomiting / diarrhoea
Group & save ? need transfusion
Urinalysis UTI, haemaglobinurea (may cause renal
failure)
Lumbar puncture not if signs of ?meningitis
raised ICP. However, if suspect RICP
assume meningitis is present and give
antibiotics IV.
CXR ? pneumonia / pulmonary oedema
Blood gases Monitor acid / base status
Management
Airway & Breathing

Assess and provide support as needed. Protect airway if altered level of
consciousness. Consider NGT to prevent aspiration
High flow oxygen
Check for acidotic breathing
Circulation
IV or IO access; if not possible, or risk of fluid overload, use NGT
Treat hypoglycaemia (less than 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl) with 5ml/kg 10%
glucose (via NGT if no IV access)
o Recheck glucose after 30 mins and repeat if needed
Treat severe anaemia Hb < 5g/dl; or haematocrit < 15%; or evidence
cardiac failure
o Packed cells 10ml/kg or whole blood 20ml/kg over 3-4 hours
o If severely malnourished there is a risk of overload; if occurs treat with
frusemide 1-2mg/kg
If acidosis (or acidotic breathing in absence of blood gas analysis) give
extra fluids
Monitor urine output and aim for 1ml/kg/hr. Rehydrate to maintain output;
consider use of frusemide if unable to achieve 4ml/kg/24hrs
Shock is unusual in malaria if present treat with fluid bolus 20ml/kg. Take
blood cultures and start broad spectrum antibiotics in addition to anti-
malarial treatment
Disability
Treat convulsions
Consider lumbar puncture but avoid if V, P or U on AVPU (GCS <13); signs
raised ICP or papilloedema (treat for meningitis as well if these signs are
present)
Consider other causes of coma
314
Avoid or treat hyperpyrexia (T > 39, or > 38 if cerebral malaria) use tepid
sponging, fanning and oral / rectal Paracetamol 20mg/kg
Malarial treatment
IV artesunate is the first line drug. Give 2.4 mg/kg IV or IM on admission, followed by 1.2
mg/ kg IV or IM after 12 hours, then daily for a minimum of 3 days until the child can take
oral treatment of another effective antimalarial.
An alternative is:
IM artemether. Give 3.2 mg/kg IM on the first day, followed by 1.6 mg/kg IM daily for a
minimum of 3 days until the child can take oral treatment. Use a 1 ml tuberculin syringe to
give the small injection volume.
Complete treatment in severe malaria following parenteral artesunate or artemether

administration by giving a full course of artemisinin-based combination therapy or oral
quinine to complete 7 days of treatment. If available and affordable, quinine should be
combined with clindamycin.
IV quinine is a drug that can be used if artesunate or artemether is not available never
give it as a bolus
Use quinine dihydrochloride salt.
20mg/kg in 20ml/kg 5% dextrose over 4-6 hours (WHO = 20mg/Kg quinine in 10ml/Kg
5% dextrose over 4-6 hours).
Must not be given too quickly because of serious cardiac effects
If there is a risk to IV, give 10mg/kg IM (diluted in 0.9% saline to give concentration of
60mg salt/ml to aid absorption and is less painful) followed by 10mg/kg IM at 4 hours
Subsequent dose given 8 hours following start of loading dose of 10mg/kg over 4
hours, every 12 hours until child able to take oral treatment (WHO 10mg/Kg over 2
hours repeated 8 hourly)
Change to oral medication as soon as possible and give 10mg/kg every 8 hours for 7
days
Supportive care
As for care of severe malaria
Specific precautions during rehydration

Check for dehydration and treat appropriately.
During re-hydration, examine frequently for signs of fluid overload. The most reliable
sign is an enlarged liver. Additional signs are gallop rhythm, fine crackles at lung
bases and/or fullness of neck veins when upright. Eyelid oedema is a useful sign in
infants.
If, after careful re-hydration, the urine output over 24 hours is less than 4 ml/kg body
weight, give IV frusemide, initially at 2 mg/kg body weight. If there is no response,
double the dose at hourly intervals to a maximum of 8 mg/kg body weight (given over
15 minutes).
In children with no dehydration, ensure that they receive their daily fluid requirements
but take care not to exceed the recommended limits Be particularly careful in
monitoring IV fluids.
Complications
Coma (cerebral malaria)
315
Assess the level of consciousness according to the AVPU or another locally used coma
scale for children
Give meticulous nursing care and pay careful attention to the airway, eyes, mucosae, skin
and fluid requirements.
Exclude other treatable causes of coma (e.g. hypoglycaemia, bacterial meningitis).
Perform a lumbar puncture if there are no signs of raised intracranial pressure. If you
cannot do a lumbar puncture and cannot exclude meningitis, give antibiotics as for
bacterial meningitis.
Convulsions
These are common before and after the onset of coma. When convulsions are present,
give anticonvulsant treatment.
Correct any possible contributing cause such as hypoglycaemia or very high fever. If there
are repeated convulsions, give phenobarbital.
Shock
Some children may have a cold, clammy skin. If there are signs of shock (cold extremities,
weak pulse, capillary refill longer than 3 seconds) these features are not usually due to
malaria alone. Suspect an additional bacteraemia and give both an antimalarial and
antibiotic treatment, as for septicaemia.
Severe anaemia
This is indicated by severe palmar pallor, often with a fast pulse rate, difficult breathing,
confusion or restlessness. Signs of heart failure such as gallop rhythm, enlarged liver and,
rarely, pulmonary oedema (fast breathing, fine basal crackles on auscultation) may be
present.
Give a blood transfusion as soon as possible to:
all children with a haematocrit of 12% or Hb of 4 g/dl
less severely anaemic children (haematocrit >1215%; Hb 45 g/dl) with any of
the following:
clinically detectable dehydration
shock
impaired consciousness
deep and laboured breathing
heart failure
very high parasitaemia (>10% of red cells parasitized).
Give packed cells (10 ml/kg body weight), if available, over 34 hours in preference to
whole blood. If not available, give fresh whole blood (20 ml/ kg body weight) over 34
hours.
A diuretic is not usually indicated because many of these children have a low blood volume
(hypovolaemia).
Check the respiratory rate and pulse rate every 15 minutes. If one of them rises, transfuse
more slowly. If there is any evidence of fluid overload due to the blood transfusion, give IV
frusemide (12 mg/kg body weight) up to a maximum total of 20 mg.
After the transfusion, if the Hb remains low, repeat the transfusion.

In severely malnourished children, fluid overload is a common and serious complication.
Give whole blood (10 ml/kg body weight rather than 20 ml/kg) once only and do not repeat
the transfusion.
Hypoglycaemia
316
Hypoglycaemia (blood glucose: <2.5 mmol/litre or <45 mg/dl) is particularly common in
children under 3 years old, in children with convulsions or hyperparasitaemia, and in
comatose patients. It is easily overlooked because clinical signs may mimic cerebral
malaria.
Give 5 ml/kg of 10% glucose solution IV rapidly Recheck the blood glucose in 30 minutes,
and repeat the glucose (5 ml/kg) if the level is low (<2.5 mmol/litre or <45 mg/dl).
Prevent further hypoglycaemia in an unconscious child by giving 10% glucose infusion
(add 10 ml of 50% glucose to 90 ml of a 5% glucose solution, or 10 ml of 50% glucose to
40 ml of sterile water). Do not exceed maintenance fluid requirements for the childs
weight. If the child develops signs of fluid overload, stop the infusion; repeat the 10%
glucose (5 ml/kg) at regular intervals.
Once the child is conscious, stop IV treatment. Feed the child as soon as it is possible.
Breastfeed every 3 hours, if possible, or give milk feeds of 15 ml/kg if the child can
swallow. If not able to feed without risk of aspiration, give sugar solution by nasogastric
tube. Continue to monitor the blood glucose level, and treat accordingly (as above) if found
to be <2.5 mmol/ litre or <45 mg/dl.
Respiratory distress (acidosis)

This presents with deep, laboured breathing while the chest is clear sometimes
accompanied by lower chest wall in-drawing. It is caused by systemic metabolic acidosis
(frequently lactic acidosis) and may develop in a fully conscious child, but more often in
children with cerebral malaria or severe anaemia.
Correct reversible causes of acidosis, especially dehydration and severe anaemia.

If Hb is 5 g/dl, give 20 ml/kg of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns IV over 30 minutes.
If Hb is <5 g/dl, give whole blood (10 ml/kg) over 30 minutes, and a further 10 ml/kg over
12 hours without diuretics. Check the respiratory rate and pulse rate every 15 minutes. If
either of these shows any rise, transfuse more slowly to avoid precipitating pulmonary
oedema
Aspiration pneumonia
Treat aspiration pneumonia immediately because it can be fatal. Place the child on his/her
side. Give IM or IV chloramphenicol (25 mg/kg every 8 hours) until the child can take this
orally, for a total of 7 days. Give oxygen if the SaO2 is <90% (<94% EMCH), or, if you
cannot do pulse oximetry, there is cyanosis, severe lower chest wall in-drawing or a
respiratory rate of 70/minute.
Monitoring
The child should be checked by nurses at least every 3 hours and by a doctor at least twice
a day. The rate of IV infusion should be checked hourly. Children with cold extremities,
hypoglycaemia on admission, respiratory distress, and/ or deep coma are at highest risk of
death. It is particularly important that these children be kept under very close observation.
Monitor and report immediately any change in the level of consciousness, convulsions, or
changes in the childs behaviour.
Monitor the temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate (and, if possible, blood pressure)
every 6 hours, for at least the first 48 hours.
Monitor the blood glucose level every 3 hours until the child is fully conscious.
317
Check the rate of IV infusion regularly. If available, use a giving chamber with a volume of
100150 ml. Be very careful about over-infusion of fluids from a 500 ml or 1 litre bottle or
bag, especially if the child is not supervised all the time. Partially empty the IV bottle or
bag. If the risk of over-infusion cannot be ruled out, re-hydration using a nasogastric tube
may be safer.
Keep a careful record of fluid intake (including IV) and output.
Management of the infant or child with convulsion
Remember, cerebral malaria, meningitis, including TB, HIV, metabolic disorders are
common cause of convulsions
Introduction
Convulsive status epilepticus (CSE) is a life threatening condition in which the brain is in a
state of prolonged, electrical discharges. It is defined as a generalised convulsion lasting
more than 30 minutes or recurrent convulsions which occur very frequently over a 30
minute period where the patient does not regain consciousness in between seizures.
The duration of the convulsion is very relevant as the longer the duration of the episode,
the more difficult it becomes to control it. Convulsions that persist beyond 10 minutes are
much less likely to stop spontaneously, Hence it is usual practice to institute anticonvulsive
treatment when the episode has lasted 5 minutes or more.
Common causes of convulsions in children include:

fever with a predisposition to febrile convulsions (usually between ages 6 months
to 6 years),
meningitis
epilepsy
hypoxia
metabolic abnormalities.
abrupt withdrawal of anti-seizure medication, especially phenobarbitone
acute cerebral event /injury (e.g. haemorrhage or trauma)
ingestion of medication
Tonic-clonic status occurs in approximately 5% of patients with epilepsy. Up to 5% of

children with febrile seizures will present with status epilepticus. The mortality rate of status
epilepticus can be high (up to 20% in adults), especially if treatment is not initiated quickly.
However with optimal management and adherence to a structured and standardised
management plan, the mortality in children is much lower and patients can survive with
minimal or no brain damage.
Evaluation and immediate management of status epilepticus

Diagnostic pointers
Fever suggestive of infection, but also occurs with ecstasy, cocaine and
salicylate poisoning
Hypothermia associated with ingestion of barbiturates or alcohol
Rash Purpuric suggestive of meningococcal disease
Bruising Consider trauma, including non-accidental injury or bleeding
disorder
Retinal Suggest subdural bleed; consider child abuse
bleed/bruises/fractures
Urinalysis If available, check for evidence of poisoning or drug ingestion
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Section 15 Paediatric emergencies: convulsions
During a seizure;
turn the child on their side.
take an ABC approach. It is vital to ensure satisfactory respiration and circulation
and to exclude or treat hypoglycaemia before giving anti-epileptic drugs.
ensure the airway is patent and there is adequate respiratory effort and
circulatory volume. Institute corrective measures immediately if so required.
if available apply oxygen via a mask.
check glucose and treat if low < 3.0 mmol/L (54 mg/dL). If in doubt or unable to
check, it is safer to treat as if hypoglycaemia is present and give 10 % dextrose
IV 5 mL/kg as an initial bolus and, if safe to do so, followed by an infusion
containing a glucose containing fluid to avoid the risk of rebound hypoglycaemia.
if the seizure has lasted more than five minutes (or if the duration is not known)
prepare for anticonvulsant treatment. Short recurrent seizures lasting less than 5
minutes should also be treated (see flow chart in figure 5.16.E.1).
Must have available self inflating bag with non-return valve (e.g. Ambubag) and
suitably sized face mask in case of excessive respiratory depression from
benzodiazepines.
treat the fever if present by exposure, tepid sponging and rectal paracetamol
(Dose: 40 mg/kg loading dose, 20 mg/kg if <3 months).
Drugs
Lorazepam IV or IO
Lorazepam is a benzodiazapine with a quick onset of action and a longer duration of effect
(1224 hours) compared to diazepam (which is less than one hour). It produces less
respiratory depression as compared to other benzodiazepines, is less likely to need
additional anticonvulsants to stop the seizure. However absorption from the rectal route is
poor. Lorazepam is not available in every country but is no more expensive than diazepam.
Dose: 0.05-0.1mg/kg/dose IV or IO (dose can be repeated)
Midazolam
Midazolam is an effective, quick acting anticonvulsant, which takes effect within minutes
but has a shorter lasting effect (15-20 minutes). Most children do not convulse again once
the seizure has been terminated.
Buccal midazolam is twice as effective as rectal diazepam, but both drugs produce the
same degree of respiratory depression. This occurs only in about 5% of patients, is short
lived and is usually easily managed with bag valve mask ventilatory support.
It can be given by the buccal or intravenous routes, however the ready made buccal
midazolam may not be available in some countries. In such situations the standard IV
preparation can be used instead via the buccal route. Simply draw the required dose in a
syringe using a needle so as to filter off any glass fragments and after removing the needle
apply the drug on the buccal mucosa between the lower lip and the gum.
Dose: 0.05-0.1mg/kg/dose IV/IO (dose may be repeated)

0.2- 0.5 mg/kg/dose (maximum 10mg) Buccal application (dose may be repeated)
Diazepam
Diazepam is an effective, commonly used, readily available and quick acting anticonvulsant
with similar characteristics to midazolam. It is widely used, but may now be superseded by
319
the more effective lorazepam or buccal midazolam where the latter is available. The rectal
dose is well absorbed.
Dose: 0.5 mg/kg/dose rectally

0.1-0.2 mg/kg/dose IV or IO (dose may be repeated)
Lorazepam intranasal
This has been found to be safer than IM paraldehyde and is also less expensive and easier
to access. It is directly instilled into any one nostril, with the patient in a supine position,
drop by drop over 3060 seconds.
Dose: The same as IV lorazepam above
Paraldehyde
Paraldehyde is an effective and cheap anticonvulsant with a sustained level of effect and a
good safety profile, however it may be difficult to find in some countries. Paraldehyde takes
10-15 minutes to commence its effect and its action is sustained for two to four hours.
It is generally given by the rectal route after mixing up the required dose with an equal
amount of any edible oil (e.g. olive oil). This mixture is then quickly pushed up the rectum
using a simple feeding tube attached to a syringe. Do not leave paraldehyde standing in a
plastic syringe for longer than a few minutes as the drug dissolves plastic. The
intramuscular route can also be used but is very painful and can lead to abscess formation.
This route is better avoided. Paraldehyde causes little respiratory depression. It should not
be used in liver disease.
Dose: 0.4 mL/kg rectally (0.4g/kg)
Phenytoin
Phenytoin is a readily available anticonvulsant capable of producing very good results with
little effect on respiration. It has a peak action within one hour with a long half life. Its action
therefore is more sustained than diazepam.
It is given as an intravenous infusion mixed with 0.9% sodium chloride solution made up to
a concentration of 10 mg per mL given over a 20 minute period. Phenytoin can cause
dysrhythmias and hypotension (more so if given rapidly), it is therefore important to monitor
the electrocardiogram (ECG) and blood pressure (BP) where available. In addition, local
irritation, phlebitis, and dizziness may accompany intravenous administration.
If the child is known to be on oral phenytoin it is better to either avoid using phenytoin (use
phenobarbitone instead) or to use a lower loading dose (i.e. 10 mg/kg).
Dose of phenytoin: 20 mg/kg IV infusion given over 20 minutes (only use normal saline for
dilution)
Phenobarbitone
Phenobarbitone is a time tested anticonvulsant and readily available in many countries,
and the parenteral preparation is on the WHO essential drug list. It can be used to good
effect in all age groups with little respiratory depression. It is given by the intravenous route
as a slow injection over 5-15 minutes, and can be given intramuscularly although the
absorption is variable. It has a sustained effect lasting over 12-24 hours.
There is now evidence to suggest that phenytoin and phenobarbitone may have some
synergistic effect when used sequentially. It is thought that one primes the brain in
readiness for the other thus producing a beneficial effect. Controversy, however, surrounds
as to which drug should be used first.
320
Dose: 20 mg/kg IV infusion over 5-10 minutes
Thiopental
Thiopental (Thiopentone) sodium is a drug better used by experienced staff who are
familiar with it (usually anaesthetists) and are capable of intubating difficult cases. It is a
general anaesthetic agent with no analgesic properties and marked cardiorespiratory
effects. It is usually given after paralysis and intubation in an induction of anaesthesia.
Other antiepileptic medication must be continued .The child should not remain paralysed
as continued seizure activity cannot otherwise be monitored. A paediatric neurologist
should continue to give clinical advice and support.
General measures once seizures are controlled:
Maintain a normoglycaemic state using 5% glucose containing solutions (10% in

young infants) .Often children may show a hyperglycemic pattern following seizures
as a stress induced response. This does not need correction with insulin.
Normal maintenance fluid volume can be given to avoid hypoglycaemia and to
maintain electrolyte balance. However evidence of raised intracranial pressure or
increased antidiuretic hormone secretion should necessitate fluid restriction.
Assess and maintain electrolyte balance maintaining serum sodium within the normal
range (135-145 mmol/L). Avoid hyponatraemia by using Ringer Lactate or Hartmanns
solution.
Aspirate the stomach contents.by inserting a gastric tube and perform gastric lavage
or give charcoal (1gm per year of childs age) if appropriate for specific drug
ingestions
Regulate temperature, ensuring temperatures above 37.5 C are avoided.
Treat raised intracranial pressure, if clinically present by:
o Supporting ventilation (maintain a P CO 2 of 4.5 5.5 kPa)

o Maintaining a 20 head up position
o Giving 20 % mannitol 250 500 mg/kg ( 1.25 2.5 mL/kg) IV over 15 minutes.
This may be repeated on a 2 hourly basis as required
o Give dexamethasone 500 micrograms/kg twice daily (for oedema surrounding a
space occupying lesion).
Catheterise the bladder as distension may aggravate raised intracranial pressure.

Frequent reassessment of ABC is mandatory as therapy may cause depression of
ventilation or hypotension, especially if benzodiazepines or barbiturates have been
used.
If available a standard EEG can be done to establish cessation of electrical seizure
activity.
Identify and treat the underlying cause of the convulsion
Following seizure control there are several regimes for continued drug control of the
convulsions but they are outside the scope of this text.
321
Pathway of Care Prolonged Fitting in post-neonatal infants and children
CLOSED Head tilt - chin lift
Jaw thrust
Airway
Intubation
OPEN
Breathing Assist ventilation

Inadequate
Yes
100% oxygen - face

Recovery position
mask + reservoir
Baseline assessment
Circulation Repeat observations
regularly to assess response
Take blood for:

Hb; glucose; Xmatch; blood
IV or IO access culture (if available)
IV/IO If hypoglycaemic on
IV/IO in NOT in blood test or suspected
place place
5ml/Kg 10% glucose

IV/IO
No response 5 minutes
after start of fit Midazolam buccal
500 mcg/kg
Lorazepam slow IV/IO 50- OR
100 mcg/Kg Lorazepam intranasal 50-
OR 100 mcg/Kg
Diazepam IV 200 mcg/kg OR
slow with dilution Diazepam rectal
500 mcg/kg
IV/IO
IV/IO in No response 10 minutes after
NOT in
place above treatments
place
Lorazepam slow IV/IO 50-

100 mcg/Kg Rectal paraldehyde
OR 0.4ml/Kg
Diazepam IV 200 mcg/kg
slow with dilution
CALL FOR SENIOR
HELP
No response a further 10
minutes after above treatments
Phenytoin IV 20mg/kg diluted in 20mls of normal saline given over 20

minutes
If already on oral Phenytoin reload with Phenytoin IV 10mg/kg diluted in
20 mls of normal saline over 20 minutes
OR
Phenobarbital IV 20 mg/Kg slow over 5 minutes
No response
Consider Rapid sequence induction with Thiopentone

Anaesthetist must be present
322
Febrile Convulsions
Definition a seizure in a child aged up to 6 years, caused by fever arising from infection or
inflammation outside the central nervous system in a child who is otherwise neurologically
normal. Simple febrile convulsions are generalized, tonic-clonic seizures. They usually last
< 10 minutes (50% last < 3 minutes). A small proportion (5%) last more than 30 minutes.
This is a common condition with an estimated prevalence of 2-4% and there is often a
family history. Long term effects are rare.
Management
Temperature control
o Paracetamol 20mg/kg and / or ibuprofen 4-10mg/kg
o Tepid sponging
o fanning
Identification of the cause of infection always check the urine
Any child with a prolonged or focal seizure, or who has not recovered within an hour,
should be suspected of having serious pathology.
Although most children rapidly make a good recovery, it is important to have considered
other causes of fever and/or convulsions before planning to discharge
Indications for admission after febrile

Causes of fever convulsions convulsion
In an endemic area consider malaria Age < 18 months unless very clear focus
Urinary tract infection of infection
Measles in the unimmunised child Signs of meningitis
Meningitis or encephalitis Child is drowsy, irritable or systemically
Hypoglycaemia unwell
Metabolic abnormality Recent or current treatment with
Poisoning antibiotics (partially treated meningitis
can be missed)
Complex convulsion, or delayed recovery
If there are concerns the child may not
be able to get back if deteriorates
If a child is being discharged home, make sure the parents

understand what has happened
know what treatment their child is on
understand the importance of keeping the childs temperature down
will bring the child back if there is a worsening in their condition
323
Section 16 Severe malnutrition in the child
Section 16 Severe Malnutrition in the Child
Clinical evaluation
Nutritional status is assessed according to weight for length/height; height for age; and the
presence of oedema. Children who are below 3S.D. or who have oedema of both feet, are
severely malnourished (see Table)
Mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) is a good way of identifying wasted children as it is
relatively constant between 1 and 5 years of age when a MUAC of less than 11.5cm
indicates malnutrition.
Features
Characterised by oedema or wasting (e.g. of the buttocks), anorexia and infection
Anaemia is frequently present
Biochemical abnormalities include : low protein, potassium, urea, magnesium and
glucose
Two overlapping clinical pictures are seen, marasmus and kwashiorkor.
Marasmus Kwashiorkor
Affects young children Acute illness, appears over a few days
Due to lack of calories over many Affects children < 4 yrs old
weeks May be precipitated by acute illness
Extreme thinness with loss of measles or diarrhoea
subcutaneous fat and muscle mass Involves sodium retention and pitting
Prominent bones and joints oedema of peripheries
Sunken eyes Causes dermatosis and desquamation
Often hungry and active Dry, brittle hair
Weight for length < 70% median Child is apathetic and feeds poorly
Associated with persistent anorexia,
diarrhoea and vomiting
Mortality from malnutrition can be reduced by correct early treatment. The common causes
of early death are
Hypoglycaemia
Hypothermia
Fluid and electrolyte imbalance particularly hypokalaemia
Infections and septic shock
Failure to correct vitamin and micronutrient deficiencies
Inappropriate IV fluid treatment, including blood transfusion
Harmful aspects of treatment for severe malnutrition

Too much energy and protein given during first phase of treatment
Diuretics given to treat oedema causing hypokalaemia
Anaemia treated with iron early leading to free radical damage and
infections
Vitamin A and measles vaccine not given
Albumin or amino acids infused
324
High sodium ORS and intravenous fluids administered
Routine antibiotics not given
Failure to monitor food intake
Lack of overnight feeding
Hypoglycaemia not monitored and treated
Hypothermia not monitored and treated
Inadequate staffing and poor organisation of care
Principles of Treatment
Stabilisation phase(up to7 Transition over 48 Catch up growth Phase

days) hours (usually 14-21 days)
Treat or prevent dehydration,
hypoglycaemia, hypothermia
Treat infection Treat worms
Correct electrolyte imbalance
Correct micro-nutrient deficiencies
Do not give iron Do not give iron Correct iron deficiency
DIET Maintenance intake Moderate intake High intake

Stimulate child Stimulate child Stimulate child
Provide physical activities
Prepare for discharge
Treat dehydration cautiously
Prevent hypoglycaemia and hypothermia
Treat infection, congestive heart failure and severe anaemia
Correct electrolyte and micronutrient deficiency
Provide standard maintenance nutrition within first few days of treatment
Remember potential for sodium overload and cardiac failure
Remember signs of coincidental sepsis may be hidden
General Treatment
Keep malnourished patients separate from patients with infections in a warm room
without draughts
wash minimally, with warm water and dry immediately
avoid IV cannulae / infusions (unless in shock)
o high risk of heart failure from fluid overload
o risk of infection
o give blood transfusion only when anaemia is life-threatening
o remove IV cannulae immediately after treatment
use a nasogastric tube for feeding if:
o anorexia with intake of <80% prescribed
o severe dehydration with inability to drink oral fluids
o painful or severe mouth lesions (herpes, cancrum oris, severe
oral/oesophageal thrush)
o recurrent, frequent vomiting
325
Principles of therapy
Hypoglycaemia (< 2.5 mmol/litre (45mg/dl)

Presume present if unable to test
Treat with 50ml of 10% glucose orally or 50 ml of drinking water with 10 g of sugar via
nasogastric tube or 5 ml/kg 10% glucose IV
Prevention by 2 hourly feeds day and night
Hypothermia
Check with low reading thermometer and keep T > 36.5
Treat with passive re-warming e.g skin to skin contact with carer
Prevent by keeping child warm, and dry and away from draughts
Avoid prolonged medical examinations and washing
Dehydration
Usually over estimated in malnutrition as reduced skin elasticity and sunken eyes are
features of malnutrition
Features suggestive of dehydration as well as malnutrition are
Frequent watery stools
Minimal urine output (no urine output for 12 hours or more)
Thirst
Weak pulse
Treat with oral re-hydration (only give IV if in shock)
Standard ORS has too much sodium and too little potassium use ReSoMal
Check for fluid overload
Liver enlargement; basal creps; raised JVP: rising pulse
respiratory rate: oedema
If overloaded, treat with fluid restriction NOT with diuretics
Electrolytes
Malnourished patients have low potassium and magnesium and high total body
sodium
Treat with oral replacement
Potassium 3-4 mmol/kg /day
Magnesium 0.5 mmol/kg / day
Infection
Clinical signs may be absent; suspect if hypoglycaemia or hypothermia
Treat all with broad spectrum antibiotics orally if tolerated. If very unwell give IV
(Amoxicillin 50 mg/Kg 6 hourly plus gentamicin 7.5 mg/Kg once daily OR ceftriaxone
100mg/Kg IM once daily). Note that doses based on actual body weight might be too
low increase by 10% in severe malnutrition
Give measles immunisation if not previously immunised
Treat specific infections always consider malaria, TB, worms and HIV
Acute severe anaemia

Transfuse at Hb < 4g/dl, or signs of heart failure and Hb 4-6 g/dl
Partial exchange transfusion is better than giving whole blood or packed cells
Withdraw 2.5ml/kg anaemic blood and replace with 5ml/kg whole blood or
packed cells
If not exchanging, give 10ml/kg packed cells over 3-4 hours, with frusemide 1mg/kg
Congestive heart failure
326
Serious and common; occurs several days after treatment started; due to
cardiomyopathy secondary to malnutrition
Often caused by over hydration, excess sodium, over transfusion, inadequate
correction of potassium deficit
Treat with fluid restriction and frusemide 1mg/kg. This is the only situation in which
diuretics should be used: diuretics should never be given to reduce oedema in
malnourished children.
Micronutrients
Single oral dose vitamin A on admission, plus daily supplements of zinc, potassium,
magnesium and copper.
Folic acid 5mg stat and 1mg/day
DO NOT GIVE IRON during first 14 days of treatment
If xeropthalmia or measles give 3 doses of vitamin A
Nutrition management
Start feeding as soon as possible
Give small frequent meals of low osmolality, low sodium, low lactose and low protein
Feed throughout the day and night
By careful attention to detail, and maintaining treatment throughout the day and night,
severely malnourished children have a better chance of survival.
327
Section 17 Serious injury in children and in pregnant mothers-structured approach
SECTION 17 Serious Injury in children and in pregnancy
The key principles of managing major trauma are to
and
AVOID hypoxia; hypercapnia,
Treat the greatest threat to life first hypovolaemia, hypoglycaemia
Do no further harm and hypothermia
The key steps are outlined in the primary assessment, which is intended to enable
identification and treatment of life threatening injuries. The secondary assessment
identifies potentially life and limb threatening injuries.
Structured Approach to the

Primary Assessment
management of Trauma
Airway and cervical spine control
Primary assessment
Breathing
Resuscitation and stabilisation
Circulation and haemorrhage control
Disability
Emergency treatment
Exposure avoiding hypothermia
Definitive care
Primary Assessment Airway plus cervical spine

control
The approach is similar to that
used for managing any airway, in that you must
LOOK LISTEN FEEL
Airway takes priority over cervical spine protection
Resuscitation:
Do only that which is needed to keep the patient safe
Open the airway: Jaw thrust always appropriate but avoid head tilt if there is
evidence of a cervical spine injury unless there is no other way to open the airway as
airway opening is always the priority
Suction / removal of blood, vomit or a foreign body
Oropharyngeal airway avoid nasopharyngeal airway if suspicion of base of skull
injury
Intubation or surgical airway might be needed
Identify the at risk airway
Altered level of consciousness, with failure to protect airway
Vomiting with risk of aspiration
Facial trauma including burns
Neck injuries are common in trauma therefore treat as a cervical injury until disproved.
Beware of significant incidence of Spinal Cord Injury Without Radiological Abnormalities
(SCIWORA) in children
Primary Assessment- Breathing
After management of the airway and securing of the cervical spine, the patients breathing
should be assessed. The same approach is adopted as for the patient suffering a serious
illness.
328
Assessment of breathing Unequal breath sounds or poor

Effort recession, rate, added noises, oxygenation?
accessory muscles, ala flaring
Efficacy breath sounds, chest expansion; Misplaced or blocked ETT
abdominal excursion; SaO2 Pneumo / haemothorax
Adequacy heart rate, skin colour, mental
status
In the primary survey it is important to actively look for life threatening injuries, and to
examine the back and the front of the chest (whilst fully supporting and protecting the
spinal cord)
GIVE HIGH FLOW OXYGEN TO ALL
PROVIDE ASSISTED VENTILATION IF NEEDED
Resuscitation:
Look for and treat

Airway obstruction
Tension pneumothorax
Open pneumothorax
Haemothorax
Flail chest
Cardiac tamponade
Breathing problem Clinical signs Treatment
Tension pneumothorax Decreased air High flow oxygen

entry on side of
pneumothorax
Decreased chest
movement on side
of pneumothorax Chest drain insertion
Hyper-resonance
to percussion on
side of
pneumothorax
Tracheal deviation
away from side of
pneumothorax
Hypoxic, shocked
patient
Full neck veins
Open Pneumothorax Penetrating chest High flow oxygen
wound with signs
of pneumothorax
Chest drain
Sucking or
blowing chest
Wound occlusion on 3 sides
329
wound
Massive Haemothorax Decreased chest High flow oxygen

blood in pleural space movement
Decreased air Venous access and IV volume
entry replacement
Dullness to
percussion
Shock and Chest drain (A haemothorax of
hypoxia 5001500 ml that stops
Collapsed neck bleeding after insertion of
veins an intercostal catheter can
generally be treated by closed
drainage alone
A haemothorax of greater than
15002000 ml or with continued
bleeding of more than 200300
ml per hour may be an
indication for
further investigation, such as
thoracotomy.)
Flail chest paradoxical Rare in children Oxygen and pain relief

movement of a chest wall because they
segment associated with have elastic chest
May need
underlying lung contusion wall
intubation/ventilation transfer
Decreased if feasible
efficiency of
breathing
Cardiac tamponade Shock associated Oxygen
blood in pericardial sac with penetrating or
causing a decrease in blunt chest trauma
IV access/IV fluids
cardiac output Faint apex beat
and/or muffled
heart sounds Emergency needle
Distended neck pericardiocentesis may need
veins to be repeated
Consider transfer if feasible
330
Primary Assessment - Circulation
Circulatory assessment includes identification of actual and potential sources of blood loss.
Closed fractures and bleeding into the chest, abdomen or pelvis may make it difficult to
detect how much blood has been lost. The ability to estimate the percentage blood loss is
helpful in planning resuscitation. Remember that a childs circulating blood volume is only
80ml/kg so is easily compromised. Blood volume in pregnancy is 100ml/Kg or between 5
and 7 litres.
Note: blood pressure may be normal until up to 50% of a patients circulatory volume
has been lost. Management is focused around avoiding hypovolaemia and
controlling blood loss. The following steps should be taken:
Resuscitation: Stop obvious bleeding by direct pressure. Don't forget that the patient
may have a wound on the back that is bleeding into the bed. Remember log rolling if
indicated.
Concealed bleeding severe enough to cause shock can occur from chest, abdomen, pelvis,
femur. Forty percent of the circulating blood volume can be lost via an open femoral
fracture. Initial treatment should include pressure, splinting and analgesia.
Vascular access is essential in all seriously injured patients.
A minimum of 2 relatively large bore IV cannulae is essential.
Peripheral veins are preferable the inexperienced should not attempt central venous
cannulation.
Do not forget about the intraosseous route in a child if venous access is not possible. A cut
down onto the long saphenous vein can also be used.
IV fluid resuscitation
The goal is to restore oxygen delivery to the tissues. As the usual problem is loss of blood,
fluid resuscitation must be a priority.
Adequate vascular access must be obtained. This requires the insertion of at
least one, and ideally two, large-bore cannulae (14-16 G). Peripheral cut -down
or intraosseous infusion may be necessary.
Infusion fluids (crystalloids e.g. Ringer Lactate or Hartmanns solution: normal
(0.9%) saline can be used if the previous fluids are unavailable, but be aware
that especially in larger volumes, normal saline causes a hyperchloraemic
acidosis which is detrimental to sick or injured patients) should be warmed to
body temperature if possible (e.g. prewarm in bucket of warmed water).
Remember hypothermia can lead to abnormal blood clotting.
Avoid solutions containing glucose.
Take any specimens you need for laboratory and cross- matching urgently.
Not all cases of hypovolaemia require aggressive fluid therapy. In adults, withholding fluids
in penetrating trunk trauma before achieving surgical haemostasis has been associated
with improved outcome. The concept is to avoid pushing up the blood pressure, which
hinders clot formation and promotes further bleeding. Aggressive fluid replacement can
lead to increased fluid requirements, hypothermia, dilution of clotting factors, excessive
blood transfusion and its associated immunosuppression.
On the other hand, in severe head injury, cerebral perfusion is critically dependent on
maintaining blood pressure. If a patient has both a severe head injury and major trunk
bleeding, the apparently conflicting requirements are best managed by maintaining
331
priorities in ABC order and achieving prompt surgical haemostasis. Beyond this strategic
conflict, it should be remembered that the normal blood pressure is lower in children,
hypovolaemia mimics head injury and blood pressure itself is a poor indicator of organ
perfusion.
This has led to a much more cautious fluid regime, until the risk of uncontrolled bleeding
has been ruled out.
As outlined above, the concept of hypotensive resuscitation is important if the cause of

hypovolaemic shock is haemorrhage from penetrating injury. Here, the initial boluses of IV
crystalloids required to treat shock should only be given to keep the vital organs (especially
brain, heart and kidneys) perfused before emergency surgery and blood transfusion is
available. Fresh blood is particularly useful to combat the coagulopathy that occurs in
major blood loss if specific coagulation components such as platelets are unavailable.
Giving too much IV fluids can increase the blood pressure too far thus increasing bleeding
by disrupting early clot formation. IV crystalloid also dilutes the red cells in the circulation
but whether or not this could reduce oxygen carrying capacity requires further research.
Our suggestion is that when giving boluses of crystalloid or blood in shock due to bleeding
in major trauma, only the amount needed to keep the blood pressure at a level sufficient to
perfuse the vital organs should be given. There is no clear evidence to indicate the precise
blood pressure that should be achieved in a pregnant woman or child in shock due to
haemorrhage. Adequate perfusion of vital organs may best be indicated by the following: a
radial pulse which can be palpated and a conscious level of A or V on the AVPU scale (i.e.
the woman or child is either awake or will respond by opening his/her eyes when spoken
to). During pregnancy, the adequacy of the fetal heart rate may also be helpful.
In children under 2-3 years of age, the radial pulse may be difficult to feel and the presence
of a palpable brachial pulse may be the best available indicator at present.
Therefore to maintain a palpable radial pulse in pregnancy, start with IV boluses of 250 -
500 mL of crystalloid or ideally blood and reassess after each.
In children to maintain a radial or brachial pulse give 10mL/kg IV boluses of crystalloid or,
ideally, blood and reassess after each.
In the absence of further evidence, it is recommended that in children, start with 10 mL/kg
boluses (infusions given as rapidly as possible) of Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns or
plasma expander with frequent re-assessment, rather than the full 20 mL/kg recommended
in other life-threatening situations such as meningococcal sepsis or severe dehydration.
Fluid resuscitation in pregnancy starts with a 250-500 ml bolus of Ringer-Lactate or

Hartmanns or plasma expander.
After repeating boluses twice (that is 10 mL/kg x 2 in a child, or 500 mL x 2 in pregnancy),

the transfusion of packed red cells should be considered. The most important aspect of
fluid resuscitation is the patients response to the fluid challenge.
Improvement is indicated by:
decrease in heart rate
increased systolic blood pressure
increased skin temperature
quicker capillary refill
improving mental state
332
Failure to improve should prompt an urgent search for chest, abdominal, or pelvic
haemorrhage, with the immediate involvement of an experienced surgeon. Similar volumes
may be repeated if there is continuing evidence of haemorrhagic shock, after re-evaluating
the state of the circulation.
It is useful to delegate the initial fluid bolus to a member of the trauma team (if a team is
available), who attaches the warmed fluid bag to the intravenous cannula via a three-way
tap to which is attached a 20 or 50 mL syringe to give the boluses.
Early surgical involvement is essential.

Blood transfusion
There may be considerable difficulty in getting blood. Remember possible incompatibility,
hepatitis B and HIV risks, even amongst patients own family.
Blood transfusion must be considered when the patient has persistent haemodynamic
instability despite fluid (colloid/crystalloid) infusion. If the type-specific or cross-matched
blood is not available, type O negative packed red blood cells should be used. Transfusion
should, however, be seriously considered if the haemoglobin level is less than 7 g/dL and if
the patient is still bleeding. Blood transfusion is most important and requires blood to be
taken for urgent cross match.
As described above, early surgical involvement is essential.
Vascular access is essential in all seriously injured patients. A minimum of two relatively
large bore IV cannulae is essential.
Infusion IV line flow rates
Color Code Gauge crystalloid flow rates
(mL/min)
Brown 14 240
Gray 16 172
Yellow 17 130
Green 18 76
Pink 20 54
Blue 22 25
Lime 24 14
Peripheral veins are preferable the inexperienced should not attempt central venous
cannulation. The external jugular vein can be accessed even in shock but the cannula can
become easily displaced and must be very carefully taped in place. A cut -down onto the
long saphenous vein can also be used.
333
Management of circulation
Peripheral or IO access
Direct pressure on bleeding sites
External jugular or femoral venous access If possible take blood for
Saphenous or cephalic cut down Cross matching
Fluid resuscitation if any evidence of shock Hb and full blood count
Monitor response and only continue with Glucose
fluids if needed Electrolytes
Do not give excess fluids especially
to patients with head or chest injuries,
or malnutrition
Consider need for surgical intervention
The most important aspect of fluid
resuscitation is the response to a
fluid challenge. Fluid Resuscitation

Crystalloid / colloid 10 ml /Kg in child or 250
Improvement is indicated by 500 ml in pregnant woman or girl
Decreased heart rate
Increased skin temp Monitor response
Faster capillary refill If no change or worse
Repeat above bolus
Improved mental state
Increased systolic BP
Improved urinary output Monitor response: no change/ worse
If the patient fails to improve, look

for chest, abdominal or pelvic
blood loss and consider surgical Urgent surgery may be needed
intervention
Cardio-respiratory arrest despite secure airway and adequate

oxygenation:
o Tension pneumothorax needs emergency thoracocentesis
and insertion of intercostal drain(s)
Warnings o Exsanguination needs large fluid boluses and blood
transfusion
o Pericardial tamponade needs pericardiocentesis
Primary Assessment - Disability 334

Head Injury is the major cause of death in trauma

Rapid assessment of the CNS includes
Applying AVPU score
o Aim to intubate with a score of P or U as the airway is unprotected
o Remember to check for a pain response above the level of the clavicle as a
patient with a spinal injury may not be able to respond
Look for signs indicative of injury e. g., bruises, lacerations or haematoma in the head
and neck area
Examine the pupils for size, equality and reaction to light and look for other lateralizing
signs like weakness of a part of body and localised seizures etc
Resuscitation: the brain is best cared for by close attention to managing A B and C
and correcting any hypoglycaemia. If raised ICP, intubate, ventilate, (to maintain
oxygenation and aim for PCO2 of about 4kP) maintain systolic BP, give mannitol
0.5mg/kg, nurse the patient 30 head up and contact a neurosurgeon (if available).
Low blood glucose is common in child trauma victims and can cause brain injury.
Always check the blood glucose and if not possible - treat immediately any baby or
small child with 5ml/kg of 10% glucose IV.
Primary Assessment exposure avoid hypothermia
Undress patient fully and examine front and back, looking for evidence of injury.
Remember to use a log roll when examining the back. Always keep warm (especially
infants and small children). If hypothermia is suspected, check rectal temperature with low
reading thermometer.
The injured patient should have Life threatening injuries identified and treated
Clear airway and 100% oxygen for Injury Treatment

breathing
Cervical spine immobilisation Airway obstruction Jaw thrust, oropharyngeal
Adequate respiration, achieved by airway, intubation or surgical
manual or mechanical ventilation airway
and chest decompression when Tension Needle thoracocentesis and
indicated pneumothorax chest drain
Venous access and an initial fluid
challenge, if indicated on Open 3 sided dressing, then chest
circulatory assessment pneumothorax drain
Blood sent for typing and cross
matching Massive IV access, chest drain and
Identification of the need for life haemothorax blood transfusion
saving surgery and preparation
underway Flail chest Intubation if needed
Identification of any serious head
injury and attention paid to A B Cardiac tamponade Pericardiocentesis
and C Spinal needle ideal
UBL (Upwards, Backwards,
Left)
335
At the same time, or shortly after the primary assessment, resuscitation and stabilisation,
various adjuncts help with patient management.
Primary Assessment Adjuncts History

Monitoring ECG, SaO2 and BP Events before and after incident
Urinary and gastric catheters First aid given at scene
X-rays of chest, pelvis ( cervical Past medical history
spine) Medications and allergies
Ultrasound of abdomen if available Immunisation status
Adequate pain control (see below) Last food and drink
Base line blood tests (especially Hb,
cross match, biochemistry and
clotting
Analgesia (see section on pain control)

There is never any reason to withhold analgesia from a patient in pain
Morphine 100micrograms/kg IV or 5-10mg in the mother is the drug of choice in major
trauma
If conscious level falls, the effect can be reversed with naloxone
Secondary Assessment
336
On completion of the primary assessment and any necessary resuscitation including

emergency surgery a secondary assessment must be completed.
The aim is to identify all injuries in a systematic manner
If, at any time, the patients condition worsens, return to the Primary A
Summary of secondary assessment (* CT scan might be indicated if available)

Head * Look for lacerations, bleeding, bruising
Palpate for fractures or deformity
Perform a full Look for signs of # base of skull periorbital bruising; blood behind
neurological examination the eardrum; CSF leak or bleeding from the nose or ears
Consider need for Skull X-ray
Face Check orbits; maxilla, mouth and mandible
Check the teeth
Neck Remember that bradycardia and hypotension could be the signs of a
spinal injury
**Treat any spinal injury with 0.5mg/kg of dexamethasone
Careful examination front and back. C. spine X-ray if available, but be
aware of Spinal Cord Injury Without Radiological Abnormality
(SCIWORA)
Check for bony deformity or tenderness and any neurological deficit
Feel for surgical emphysema and look for penetrating wounds
Chest* Reassess as in primary survey. Look for penetrating injuries and think
about cardiac tamponade.
Make sure the posterior chest is properly examined for flail segments
Review CXR looking for evidence of aortic damage, lung contusion
and pneumothorax. Do ECG if available
Abdomen Look for signs of bruising and penetrating trauma
Palpate and percuss gently.
Listen for bowel sounds
Check renal angles and examine urine for blood
Ultrasound is useful if available
Pelvis Gentle palpation. If identify a fracture, immobilise the pelvis to contain
bleeding. Check perineum and urethral meatus for signs of bleeding
Palpate the bladder Review X-ray
Thoraco-lumbar spine Log roll for examination
Palpate for tenderness and deformity
Perform careful assessment of motor and sensory function in limbs
Limbs / extremities Examine musculoskeletal system, peripheral nerves, distal circulation
Assess for fractures and soft tissue injuries; immobilisation is a good
method of pain relief
Always consider the risk of compartment syndrome especially in the
lower leg and with injuries to the forearm.
Bleeding is best controlled with direct pressure, rather than with a
tourniquet. Involve orthopaedic surgeons early.
337
Emergency Radiology
The key X-rays in evaluating major trauma in the primary assessment / resuscitation
phase, are the AP chest X-ray, the pelvic X-ray and lateral cervical spine radiograph.
Other useful X-rays include the cervical spine, skull and limbs, as indicated during the
secondary assessment.
Chest X-ray (CXR)
There are many schemes for examining the CXR in trauma. It is important to remember
that, unlike with medical conditions, trauma is not usually confined to anatomically discrete
areas. This means that great care must be taken to ensure multiple pathology is not
missed. The childs chest wall is very elastic, so the energy from an impact may be
transmitted to the heart and lungs, without causing rib fractures. If rib fractures are seen,
this indicates a high energy impact.
Note that in a supine film, air/fluid levels will not be detected and a haemothorax may be
seen as a generalised greyness of the involved lung
System for examining the CXR in trauma
A Adequacy Correct patient. Apices, bases and edges of

lung visible on both sides
A Airways Trachea central. Examine lungs for increased or

decreased density, and lung markings to edge
of pleura;
B Bones Check all ribs for fractures look for flail
segment. Check spine alignment, clavicles and
shoulder
C Cardiac outline Look for pneumomediastinum; increased heart
& mediastinum size ( is wider on AP film); note the thymus in
children up to 6-8
D Diaphragm and Look for air above and below diaphragm (not
pleura seen if supine film). Note any fluid or air in the
pleural space
E Everything else Tubes check position of ETT, chest drain,
NGT, central line.
Foreign bodies on chest wall or in chest
Peripheral soft tissues for subcutaneous air
Pelvic X-rays
If there is disruption to the pelvis, it is very likely that the nerves and blood vessels running
close by will also be damaged. This can lead to life threatening blood loss.
Remember that there are three rings to inspect the pelvic brim, and both obturator
formina. If there is a break at one point, look very carefully for another disruption it is
almost impossible to break a ring in one place only
338
System for examining Pelvic Xray in Trauma
Adequacy Correct patient

A Check L5, sacrum, iliac crest and proximal
femurs present
A Alignment Symphysis pubis midline, normal width
Check 3 rings pelvic brim and both obturator
foramina
B Bones Look for damage to the outer edge of the
pelvis; the trabecular pattern of the bones
Inspect the femoral head and neck, and the
lumbar vertebrae for fractures
C Cartilage Inspect the sacro-iliac joints and compare the
and joints two sides
S Soft tissues Look for foreign bodies and the position of
obturator internus normally seen both sides
of the pelvis, but obliterated or displaced with
haemorrhage
Cervical Spine X-ray in Trauma

The lateral cervical spine X-ray will only identify about 80% of fractures, and is no
substitute for a good clinical examination. It may not always be available, and cannot be
used as the only reason for removing neck immobilisation.
Up to 60% of spinal cord injuries occur in children without any abnormality being seen on
the X-ray
SCIWORA = Spinal Cord Injury WithOut Radiological Abnormality
If in doubt about an x-ray, consider it to be abnormal and continue with immobilisation
System for examining Cervical Spine X-ray in Trauma

A Adequacy Correct patient. Check X-ray includes C1 top of T1, the base of
skull, top of shoulders, trachea and spinous processes
A Alignment Look for three smooth lines anterior and posterior to the bodies of
the vertebrae; and the posterior border of the vertebral canal. Look
carefully for mal-alignment but be aware that a degree of
subluxation may be normal
B Bones Check each bone carefully looking for breaks in the cortex, or loss
of height. Inspect the base of the odontoid peg
C Cartilage Compare the joints of each vertebra with the ones above and below
and joints looking for similarity of disc space, facet joints and inter-spinous
distance. Note the gap between C1 and C2 which should be < 5mm
S Soft tissue Look for swelling in the pre-vertebral space anything > 1/3 width
of C2 at that level, or > width of the vertebral body below C4
suggests presence of a haematoma and ligament damage
339
Skull X-ray in Trauma
The most useful investigation in trauma, is a CT scan. If this is not available, a good quality
skull X-ray and period of careful neurological observations, is a good alternative. The
indications for skull X-ray are below
Indications for Skull X-ray (in absence of CT scan)

P on AVPU score
Loss of consciousness or period of amnesia
Suspected base of skull fracture
Suspected penetrating injury or depressed fracture
Significant scalp bruising or swelling
Significant mechanism of injury
Persistent headache, vomiting or fitting
All non-mobile infants with head injury
Suspected non-accidental injury
Difficult to assess patient e.g. under influence drugs or
alcohol
Analgesia
There is no excuse for withholding pain relief from any patient who is in pain. If the patient
is aware enough to respond to pain, then they can experience pain and need to be helped.
Pain increases fear and distress, makes the patient less able to co-operate and raises
intracranial pressure.
Pain relief takes several different forms
Reassurance
Splinting of fractures
Covering wounds especially burns
Drugs
o There is no place for oral or IM medication in a major trauma situation
o The drug of choice is IV morphine 100 micrograms/kg titrated to response
o Entonox (50/50 O2/N2O) is useful, especially for limb injuries whilst splints are being
applied. Do not use if head, chest or abdominal trauma
A head injury is NOT a contra-indication for giving morphine
MAJOR TRAUMA IN PREGNANCY
Physiological changes of pregnancy which affect the management of trauma
Increased basal heart rate to 85-90 beats per minute

Fall in blood pressure 5 - 15 mm Hg
Blood volume increased by 40% to 100ml/Kg
Vena-caval compression as uterus increases in size
Upward displacement of diaphragm as uterus increases in size
Action plan
1. Call for the most senior help available
2. Take history and note mechanism of injury. Ask about direct impact, a
deceleration injury e.g. a car accident or fall, penetrating injury, stab wound,
340
Section 17 Serious injury in pregnancy
gunshot etc. Ask about symptoms and signs. Ask about any treatment already
given.
3. Consider any pre-injury condition which may affect management.
4. Perform primary assessment and resuscitation
Structured approach to the pregnant patient

Primary assessment - find threat to life
Resuscitation - deal with these threats to the life of the pregnant woman or girl
Assess fetal well-being and viability - deal with threats to life of the fetus
Secondary assessment - full examination
Definitive care - specific management
Primary Assessment
Airway and breathing
Airway plus cervical spine control
Supplemental oxygen via a tight fitting facemask and reservoir bag at a flow of
12 - 15 litres per minute
Protect airway if the patient is unconscious. Early endotracheal intubation using
a cuffed tube to protect the airway and control ventilation to ensure normal
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels can minimise brain injury.
Circulation
Circulation may be compromised by a pregnant uterus and aorto-caval
compression: prevent by a lateral tilt or manual displacement of the uterus with
spine immobilisation.
Aggressive volume replacement.
Recognise signs of hypovolaemia, which are delayed in pregnancy as the pregnant woman
or girl has a higher circulating volume (see shock). Hypovolaemia may compromise the
fetus before the pregnant woman or girl vital signs become abnormal.
Disability
Early assessment by AVPU:
Alert
Responding to Voice
Responding to Pain
Unresponsive
After completion of the primary assessment and performing any measures necessary for
immediate resuscitation, a full examination should be performed to identify any potentially
lethal or non lethal injuries sustained. If the woman has experienced major trauma, x-rays
of the chest, pelvis and cervical spine should be taken. A thorough assessment of fetal well
being should be performed. Previously undetected lethal chest injuries in the pregnant
woman or girl may be identified.
In cases of major trauma remember there are four areas for concealed blood loss: chest;
abdomen; pelvis; long bone fractures.
To avoid supine hypotension in the pregnant patient, the right hip should be
elevated with a towel, pillow or wedge and the uterus displaced manually (left lateral
tilt).
Commence intensive monitoring of:

Heart rate, capillary refill time, respiratory rate
Blood pressure
341
ECG
SaO2 and fetal heart
Head to toe examination including log roll to examine back, maintaining spine
protection if appropriate.
Abdominal examination
Consider:
Signs of blunt trauma which may cause placental separation up to 48 hours after
trauma, fetal distress or death
Abdominal haemorrhage from injury to intra-abdominal organs
Uterine rupture
Assess for:
fetal distress
vaginal examination to diagnose cause of bleeding or rupture of the membranes (be
very careful if there is a possibility of placenta praevia).
Further management
Correct hypoxia by high flow oxygen and intubation if available
Correct maternal hypovolaemia with warmed IV fluids/blood
Assess fetal wellbeing. Use ultrasound to detect fetal heart rate and to identify
any retro-placental or intra-abdominal bleeding.
Detect any abnormal position of the fetus suggesting rupture of the uterus
Make an early decision to perform Caesarean section for fetal or maternal
reasons
Indications for Caesarean section (if safely available):

Fetal distress with a viable fetus
Placental abruption (separation)
Uterine rupture
An unstable pelvic or lumbo-sacral fracture with the patient in labour
Inadequate exposure during laparotomy for other abdominal trauma
Cardiac arrest
Peri-mortem Caesarean section

Undertake this when cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) has been started. Left sided tilt
and CPR are continued throughout as there are reported cases of late maternal survival
following delivery of the baby.
Post mortem Caesarean section

There is a poor success rate for fetal survival but it has been reported.
Specific types of trauma
Blunt trauma
The three commonest causes are motor vehicle accident, falls and domestic violence.
A pregnant uterus is a resilient organ and uterine rupture is rare. There is a high chance of
haemorrhage from the fetus into the mother which can be detected by Kleihauer testing if
available. There is a significant danger of placental separation with blunt trauma to the
abdominal wall. Detection of intra abdominal haemorrhage may be difficult so early
laparotomy is recommended. Remember the pregnant woman or girl may lose a third of
her blood volume before the vital signs become abnormal.
342
Penetrating Abdominal Wounds
Knife and gunshot wounds are the most common. Penetrating injuries can cause uterine
injury at any stage of pregnancy. The uterus, fetus and amniotic fluid reduce injury to the
pregnant woman or girl by absorbing energy and displacing bowel upwards and to the side.
Penetrating injuries above the uterus tend to cause extensive gastrointestinal and vascular
damage. Early exploratory laparotomy should be performed to assess and treat injury.
Penetrating wounds carry a high risk of major bowel or organ damage so exploratory
laparotomy is therefore virtually mandatory.
Thoracic trauma
Chest trauma in pregnancy provides a combination of injury to major thoracic structures
and the disadvantage of a large gravid uterus that can easily impair venous return and
compromise respiration. Most injuries can be identified by careful assessment and
managed with simple measures including the avoidance of aorta caval compression.
343
Section 17 Practical procedures major trauma-cervical spine immobilisation
Pathway of Care: Trauma in Pregnancy
Ensure anti-tetanus measures

X rays as needed
On discharge to report abdominal pain, decreased fetal movements,
vaginal bleeding or fluid leakage
Primary Assessment Airway: increased risk aspiration early gastric tube

and Emergency Breathing: chest drains if needed place at higher level 3-4 ics
Care Circulation: left lateral tilt
Abnormalities in pulse rate, BP, capillary refill
are late because of hypervolaemia of pregnancy
Significant hypovolaemia compromises fetus
therefore aggressive treatment with 0.9% saline
and then blood (if haemorrhage), avoid
hypotension
Disability: convulsions may be due to eclampsia as well as
head injury
Secondary Assessment Additionally look for
placental separation after blunt trauma to abdomen (uterine

tenderness, vaginal bleeding, shock)
premature rupture of membranes
ruptured uterus (eg seat belt injury) shock, dead fetus,
easy palpation of fetal parts, abdominal fluid
Assess for fetal distress

Assess uterus for contractions, abruptio placenta or rupture
Cervix and vagina examined by speculum for amniotic fluid and source of any vaginal
bleeding
Consider bowel injury (compressed by uterus and therefore more vulnerable to blunt
trauma or penetrating injuries)
344
Section 17 Practical procedures major trauma-cervical spine immobilisation
Practical Procedures related to trauma
Cervical spine immobilization

All patients with major trauma should have full spinal stabilisation and be treated as if they
have a cervical spine injury until proven otherwise. Immobilisation can be achieved
either by holding the head still and in line (manual in-line immobilisation)
or by applying
o a semi-rigid collar, which has been correctly fitted
o sandbags on either side of the head,
o and tape across the forehead and the chin piece of the collar to
prevent the heads being lifted off the bed.
Head-blocks and straps
Exceptions Two groups of patients may prove to be difficult

the frightened, uncooperative child (most common)
the hypoxic, combative patient
In both these cases over enthusiastic efforts to immobilise the neck may increase the risk
of spinal injury as the patient fights to escape. The area of greatest mobility in the cervical
spine is the C7/T1 junction and this is at increased risk in the combative patient.
It is best to try and apply just a collar and address the patients other clinical needs.
Log roll
When examining the back of the patient, it is important to minimise the risk associated with
unrecognised spinal injury. It is essential to examine the back of the patient at the end of
the primary assessment (or even during it if there is suspicion of serious injury to the back
of the chest or abdomen)
The aim of the log roll is to maintain the orientation of the spine during turning of the
patient. It requires four people for a pregnant woman or girl or child and three for an infant.
In addition one person is required for the examination of injuries.
Position of staff for log roll
Staff number Infant or small child Larger child or pregnant

woman or girl
1 Examination of back Examination of back

2 Stabilisation of head and Stabilisation of head and
neck in charge of the neck in charge of the
procedure procedure
345
Section 17 Practical procedures major trauma-log roll
3 Chest Chest
4 Pelvis and legs Pelvis

5 Legs
Logrolling a child
Logrolling an infant
Pericardiocentesis
Indication in the trauma situation this is performed when cardiac tamponade is

suspected. This is usually, but not always caused by a penetrating injury between the
nipple line, or the shoulder blades. The clinical findings are shock, muffled heart sounds
(although this is a difficult sign to elicit with confidence) and distended neck veins. It is
important to differentiate between this and tension pneumothorax, in which the trachea is
deviated and air entry reduced on the affected side.
Ideally this procedure should be carried out under ECG control, but if that is not available,
extra care must be taken.
346
Section 17 Practical procedures major trauma-pericardiocentesis
Procedure
Lie child on the back and attach ECG
Prepare yourself and patient; this is a sterile procedure
If conscious, infiltrate local anaesthetic at the costal margin just
below the xiphisternum
Attach cannula to syringe and insert cannula just below and left of
the xiphisternum
Angle at 45 and advance towards the tip of the scapula
Aspirate continuously whilst advancing and watch the ECG
Blood will flow into the syringe when the pericardial sac is entered
Watch the ECG for arrhythmias, ectopic beats or injury pattern
all signs that the myocardium has been touched
If bright red blood flows in large amounts, the heart has been
entered, and the cannula should be withdrawn
If successful, cardiac function should improve immediately
Withdraw needle and leave cannula in place with a 3-way tap for
further use
Tg5rb Pericardiocentesi]hgbvnc /]~ is a temporary procedure. If repeat aspiration is

needed, it is likely that a pericardio
tomy will be needed. Discuss the case with a cardiothoracic surgeon if available.#
For pregnant woman or girl need longer needle eg. Lumbar puncture needle
347
Section 18 Severe burns in the child
Section 18 Burns, electrical injuries, envenomation and poisoning
Follow a structured approach

Primary assessment
Remember other injuries may exist. Follow a structured approach
Emergency treatment
Follow a structured approach
Other injuries may occur from a blast, falling objects, or while trying to escape. Follow a
structured approach
The commonest cause of death within the first hour after burns is smoke inhalation. Thus
attention to the airway and breathing is of prime importance.
Primary assessment and resuscitation ABC. If signs of developing or actual

airway obstruction, call for anaesthetist, open the airway and consider early
intubation before swelling and total respiratory obstruction occurs. Observe
closely for shock.
Take a very brief history: could there be other injuries or medical conditions?
Make a rapid assessment of the burn area, care with clothing removal and
cooling.
If clearly more than 10%, establish an intravenous cannula and give intravenous
analgesia (morphine 100 micrograms/kg as a loading dose).
Commence either Ringer Lactate or Hartmann's solution in the following
amounts:
Burn (%) x Weight (kg) x 4 per day
Fluid is given over the first 24 hours, backdated to the time of the burn. Half of
the fluid should be given (in hourly divided doses) during the first 8 hours, and
the second half in the next 16 hours, again in hourly doses. This is in addition to
maintenance fluids which can be given later and orally if the child is able to take
these (see below). Any fluid boluses given IV to treat shock should be included
in the additional fluid for the burn and subtracted from that calculated as above.
Note: normal (0.9%) saline can be used if the Ringer Lactate or Hartmanns solution
are unavailable, but be aware that especially in larger volumes, normal saline causes
a hyperchloraemic acidosis which is detrimental to sick or injured patients.
Even if less than 10%, consider intravenous opiate analgesia if the child is
clearly distressed.
Do not give oral fluids immediately.
Make an accurate assessment of the area of the burn and draw its position on a
chart
Estimate the depth of the burn.
Establish, and if necessary update, the anti-tetanus status of the child.
Consider and decide whether an escharotomy is necessary.
Dress the burned areas, or treat any area which is going to be kept exposed.
Consider and decide whether the child needs admission (with parent).
Commence oral fluids if the child can drink. If the child cannot drink, add the
maintenance fluids to those given for the burn as calculated above. In burns
>8% divide the calculated daily maintenance requirement by 24 and give it on an
hourly basis either orally or IV.
348
Decide if the child requires urinary catheterisation (>30% burns, or with
complications).
Surface area
o estimate using burns charts
o or with the patient's palm and adducted fingers (1% body surface area)
o do not use rule of nines <14 years old, but acceptable for pregnant women or
girls
Depth
o superficial - injury only to the epidermis; skin is red with no blister formation
o partial thickness - some damage to the dermis; blistering is usually seen and the
skin is pink or mottled
o full thickness - damage to epidermis, dermis and below; the skin looks white or
charred, and is painless and leathery to touch.
Special areas
o face and mouth - risk of inhalational injury
o hand - can cause severe functional loss if scarring occurs
o perineal burns - prone to infection and are difficult to manage
Surface area (%) at
Area indicated 0 1 year 5 years 10 years 15 years
A 9.5 8.5 6.5 5.5 4.5
B 2.75 3.25 4.0 4.5 4.5
C 2.5 2.5 2.75 3.0 3.25
349
Pathway of Care: burns in a child
Primary Assessment:
Airway look for inhalation injury deposits round mouth
- carbon in sputum
- burns to face
Breathing look for lung injury
circumferential burns to chest
Carbon monoxide poisoning?

Circulation shock is late in burns
Disability AVPU, pupils, posture
Exposure
Emergency treatment: Airway - protect

Breathing - high flow oxygen
Circulation - IV access, bloods for FBC, X match
Disability - if PU on AVPU support airway and breathing
Secondary assessment: Exclude other injuries

Assess burn - surface area
depth superficial, partial thickness, full thickness?
Special areas involved? mouth, hands, perineum
Treatment: Analgesia oral codeine, entonox, IV morphine, ketamine

Consider ranitidine for stress ulceration (refer to paediatric formulary
for dosage at different ages)
100% O2 if CO poisoning
IV Fluid therapy - burns >10%
Fluid (crystalloids) additional to maintenance ml/day = % burn x wt (Kg) x 4
Give half of additional fluid in first 8 hours colloids may be better but are not calculated according
to this formula
Keep urine output >1ml/kg/hr
Wound care - cover burns with sterile dressings
leave blisters
prevent contractures
High protein diet + multivitamins
Monitor Hb
Mobilise
Splint joints in position of function
350
Specific treatment
Analgesia
o IV morphine 100 micrograms/kg early in burn if severe pain is present: later use
WHO ladder
o Ketamine 5 to 10mg/Kg in a child can be given orally, PR or IM for dressing
changes. If given IV, use lower dose of 500 micrograms to 1mg/Kg. Person
administering this drug must be able to maintain the airway and breathing.
In children give atropine 20 micrograms/Kg IM before the ketamine.
o Consider ranitidine oral or IV (refer to paediatric formulary for dosage) twice daily
to reduce stress ulceration
Inhalation of toxic fumes
o toxic gases include carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide
o give 100% oxygen
Fluid therapy
with burns of >10% give IV fluids additional to maintenance.
calculate as fluid (ml of crystalloid) / day = percentage burn (%) x weight (kg) x 4
give half this in the first 8 hours (calculate from the actual time of burn) after the
burn - (Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns)
Assessment of the size and extent of the burn is difficult. This formula is only a rough guide
and it is essential to reassess the fluid state of the patient regularly.
o keep urine output at >1ml/kg/hour
o consider bladder catheterisation if shocked
Wound care
Started early, this will reduce infection and provide analgesia
o Cover burns with sterile towels / cling film (not circumferentially)
o Leave blisters intact
o Avoid unnecessary examination
o Prevent contractures: escharotomies if burn constricts limb blood supply.
351
Section 18 Severe burns in pregnancy
The pregnant woman or girl with burns
Any burn affecting more than 20% total body surface area (TBSA) is a serious risk to the
pregnant woman or girl and fetus. In a pregnant woman or girl with a burn > 70-80% of the
TBSA mortality is 50-90%. If the burn affects < 30% TBSA the prognosis is good for both
fetus and pregnant woman or girl and depends on the management of complications such
as hypoxia, hypotension and sepsis. If the pregnancy has reached more than 36 weeks,
delivery maybe advisable before complications set in.
Immediate first aid involves extinguishing the flames by wrapping the patient in a blanket or
equivalent. Small burns can be cooled with clean cold water but if the burns are extensive,
cold water may cause hypothermia.
Fluid loss is greatest in the first 12 hours, causing disturbances in fluid and electrolyte
composition.
Primary Assessment
Airway and breathing

Airway burns may cause immediate or delayed airway compromise so consider early
intubation as severe swelling of the airway can lead to obstruction. Chemical damage may
occur from highly irritant gases, which can lead to progressive respiratory failure. Many
plastics and modern materials give off cyanide, which may be absorbed into the blood
stream. Many plastics and modern materials give off cyanide, which may be absorbed into
the blood stream. Carbon monoxide is the most common poison produced in fires.
Circulation
Assess the amount of body surface area burned
The rule of nines is used to assess the body surface area burned:
Head and neck 9%
Each upper limb 9%
Front of trunk 18% (the pregnant abdomen would represent a larger proportion of
the total body surface area)
Back of trunk 18%
Each lower limb 18%
Perineum 1%
The area of the patient's palm represents about 1% of the body surface area
Assess the depth of the burn
In partial thickness burns sensation to pinprick and pain, sweat glands and hair
follicles are preserved.
In full thickness burns the area is insensitive to pain and may appear dirty
or white (the eschar).
A simple test to distinguish between partial and full thickness burns is to pull a
hair out: if it comes out easily the burn is full thickness
Assess the circulatory status.
Secure IV access and replace fluids with warmed Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns each
containing 5 or 10% glucose (see appendix). A pregnant woman or girl requires 2 to 4mls
per kg per % of body surface area burnt to be given over the first 24 hours in addition to
baseline maintenance fluids. Half of this volume is given in the first 8 hours, half in the next
16hours
Monitor urinary output (should be > 30 ml per hour)
Assess the need to deliver the fetus. Fetal survival is poor in burns affecting > 50% TBSA.
In view of the high perinatal mortality in pregnant women or girls with extensive burns,
352
Section 18 Envenomation
those who are extensively burned and more than 32 weeks gestation should be delivered
soon after admission. Abortion is common in patients with burns > 33% TBSA, especially
during the second trimester. Fetal loss during the third trimester can be expected with
extensive burns unless delivery occurs within 5days. If the pregnancy has reached more
than 36 weeks, delivery maybe advisable before complications set in.
Consider the need for escharotomy, as burnt tissue may constrict the blood supply to the
limbs.
The pregnant woman or girl or child with Electrical injuries

Call for help and disconnect the electricity in a safe manner
Be aware that high voltage sources can discharge through several centimetres of air.
Airway
The upper airway should be opened and secured especially if this is compromised by facial
or other injuries. The cervical spine should be immobilised if there is a strong possibility of
an unstable fracture.
Breathing
If the patient is not breathing give rescue breaths using a mouth to mouth technique if no
equipment is available (e.g. in the home) and, if available, a bag and mask with high flow
oxygen through an attached reservoir. If breathing but cyanosed or low oxygen saturation
is present give inspired oxygen to keep SaO2 if pulse oximeter is available between 94 and
98%
Circulation
If the patient appears lifeless despite the rescue breaths, commence chest compressions
and continue CPR as described in chapter 1.12 until help arrives. In the resuscitated or
non-arrested patient brought to hospital, after ABC assessment and management, the
entry and exit point of the current should be sought in order to determine a picture of the
sort of possible internal injuries that could have occurred. Children with significant internal
injuries have a greater fluid requirement than one would suspect on the basis of the area of
the external electric burn.
Secondary assessment and emergency treatment

Other injuries should be treated in an appropriate and structured manner.
Associated injuries are common in electrocution. Almost all possible injuries can occur as a
result of falls or being thrown from the source. Burns are particularly common and are
caused either by the current itself or by burning clothing. Tetanic contraction of muscles
can cause fractures, subluxations or muscle tearing.
Other problems
Burns cause oedema and fluid loss. Myoglobinuria occurs after significant muscle damage
and acute renal failure is a possibility. In this case, it is important to maintain a urine
production of more than 2 mL/kg/hour in a child or 60mL/kg/hour in pregnancy with the
judicious use of diuretics such as mannitol and appropriate fluid loading. Alkalisation of the
urine with sodium bicarbonate ( 1 mmol/kg in a child (1 mL/kg of 8.4% or 2 mL/kg of 4.2%
solution) or 50 mmol in pregnancy increases the excretion of myoglobin.
Arrhythmias can occur up to a considerable time after the electrocution, and continuous
ECG monitoring is helpful, if available.
353
Drowning in the pregnant woman or girl or child
Emergency treatment
o assess ABC and cervical spine
o assume neck injury in all cases, especially after diving
o ensure adequate oxygenation
o remove all wet clothes
o external re-warming if core temperature > 32 degrees C (radiant heaters,
warmed dry blankets)
o core re-warming if core temperature < 32 degree C (warmed IV fluid (39 degree
C) or gastric/lavage with warmed crystalloid at 42 degree C and heated
humidified oxygen at 42 degree C)
o assume the stomach is full of water
o aim for early nasogastric drainage and intubation (if possible)
o anticipate and treat hypothermia (measure with low reading thermometer in
rectum)
o beware of shock after warming from vasodilatation (prevent core temperature
exceeding 37 degree C). Treat with IV fluids.
o check for electrolyte abnormalities especially hyponatraemia - this will increase
the risk of cerebral oedema
o keep blood glucose normal
Prophylactic antibiotics are often given after immersion in severely contaminated water.
Fever is common during the first 24 hours but is not necessarily a sign of infection. Gram-
negative organisms, especially Pseudomonas aeruginosa, are common and Aspergillus
species have been reported. When an infection is suspected broad-spectrum intravenous
antibiotic therapy (such as cefotaxime) should be started after blood and sputum cultures
(when possible).
Do not discontinue resuscitation until core temperature is at least 32 degree C or

cannot be raised.
Failure to restore an adequate circulation after 30 minutes of resuscitation after re-warming

to 32-35 degree C makes further efforts unlikely to be successful.
354
The pregnant woman or girl or child suffering envenomation
Diagnosis and Initial Assessment
o assess ABCD: shock is common in viper bites
o endotracheal intubation and assisted ventilation if available and sustainable are
indicated for bulbar palsy and paralysis of intercostal muscles and diaphragm
(alternatively prolonged bag/mask ventilation possibly in rotation by family
members)
o look for signs of bleeding
o look for early signs of neurotoxicity: ptosis, limb weakness, or difficulties in talking,
swallowing or breathing
o check for muscle tenderness and myoglobinuria in sea-snake bites
o take blood for Hb, WCC and platelet count; prothrombin time, APTT and fibrinogen
levels (if available); urea and creatinine; creatine phosphokinase (if available)
o if sophisticated clotting studies are unavailable, perform the 20 minute whole blood
clotting test (WBCT20):
- place a few ml of freshly sampled blood in a new, clean, dry glass tube or bottle
- leave undisturbed for 20 minutes at ambient temperature
- tip vessel once
- If blood is still liquid (unclotted) and runs out, patient has hypofibrinogenaemia
('incoagulable blood') as a result of venom-induced consumption coagulopathy
- perform on admission and repeat 6 hours later
Further Management
o observe in hospital for at least 24 hours - envenoming can develop rapidly after latent
period
o give antivenom if there are signs of envenoming; ideally type specific and have
adrenaline available for possible anaphylaxis. Children require exactly the same dose
as adults (dose is dependent upon amount of venom injected, not bodyweight). Dilute
antivenom in two to three volumes of 5% glucose or Ringer Lactate or Hartmanns
solution or 0.9% saline and infuse over 45 min to an hour. Infusion rate should be
slow initially and gradually increased. Note: doses of antivenom vary considerably,
follow instructions enclosed with the antivenom.
o fasciotomy is needed if there is clinical evidence of raised intra-compartmental
pressure
o correct any coagulopathy as soon as possible using fresh blood if available and
vitamin K 300 micrograms/kg IV
o if venom has been spat in the eyes, eg cobras, irrigate rapidly with water; adrenaline
0.5% drops may help reduce pain and inflammation
o avoid IM injections and invasive procedures in patients with incoagulable blood
o give tetanus prophylaxis
o excise any necrotic tissue
In scorpion stings
Control pain with infiltration of 1% lignocaine around wound or systemic morphine.
Prazosin is effective for treating hypertension and cardiac failure (5-15 micrograms/kg two
to four times a day increasing to control blood pressure to a maximum of 500
micrograms/kg/day for under 12 years and 20 mg/kg/day over 12 years). The patient
should be lying down for the first four to six hours of treatment in case of a sudden fall in
blood pressure.
355
The pregnant woman or girl or child who has ingested drugs or poisons
Introduction
o in poor countries the most commonly ingested poisons are Kerosene and caustic
solutions
o self-harm is a major cause in adolescents and in pregnant women or girls
o most accidental ingestions are non-toxic and deaths are uncommon
o accidental poisoning is most common aged 18-36 months: ask specifically about
access to prescribed drugs, household substances etc.
o many die from inhalation of carbon monoxide and other gases in household fires
o traditional remedies can sometimes be highly toxic
o alcohol and solvent abuse are common
o occasionally an adult will deliberately poison a child. It is necessary to have a
high index of suspicion in such cases as the history of poisoning will not be given
o some drugs are particularly dangerous in overdose e.g. quinine, diphenoxylate
with atropine and tricyclic anti-depressants
Pathway of Care Poisoning in a child
Safe approach remove from inhaled poison

care with chemicals such as organophosphates (external decontamination)
Airway - if consciousness depressed GCS <8 or P or U (AVPU) assume compromised
protect airway by recovery position and intubation if possible
Breathing - consider high concentration of oxygen (especially CO poisoning even if pink)
give rescue breaths if necessary
Circulation - treat shock and arrhythmias
Disability - check blood glucose/give IV/NG glucose (5ml/Kg 10% glucose)
check pupils dilated suggests amphetamines, atropine, tricyclic
antidepressants, constricted suggests opiates or organophosphates
Posture - hypertonia suggests amphetamines, ecstasy or tricyclic antidepressant
poisoining
Convulsions - suggests hypoglycaemia (alcohol), tricyclic antidepressants or some
insecticides
Exposure -look for injection sites
core temperature
Emergency treatment
drink milk or water urgently after caustic substances
- naloxone if opiate suspected (10micrograms/Kg IV repeated every 2-3 minutes to maximum
dose of 2mg)
- consider phenytoin if tricyclic antidepressant poisoning (15-20mg/Kg IV infusion over 30
minutes then 2.5 to 7.5mg/Kg 12 hourly
- consider sodium bicarbonate 1 mmol/kg in tricyclic poisoning
Drug elimination
- activated charcoal 1g/Kg urgent (not useful alcohol or iron) and repeat after 4 hours
-gastric lavage (for high lethality ingestions) 10 20 ml/kg 0.9% saline aliquots
NOT after corrosives or petroleum products
If charcoal is not available and a potentially life-threatening dose of poison has been taken
(particularly of iron), give paediatric ipecacuanha (10 mL for those aged six months to two years and
15 mL for over two years plus a glass of water) to induce vomiting. Do not give ipecacuanha
356 if the
child has a decreasing level of, or impaired, consciousness. Do NOT give if corrosive solutions have
been ingested or if kerosene, turpentine or petrol have been ingested as they could be inhaled
following vomiting resulting in lipoid pneumonia.
Section 18 Poisoning
Pathway of Care Poisoning in pregnancy
Assess: Safe approach remove from inhaled poison

care with chemicals such as organophosphates (external decontamination)
Airway - if consciousness depressed GCS <8 or P or U (AVPU) assume compromised
protect airway by recovery position and intubation if available
Breathing - consider high concentration of oxygen (especially CO poisoning even if pink)
give rescue breaths if necessary
Circulation - treat shock and arrhythmias
Disability - check blood glucose/give IV/NG glucose (5ml 50% glucose)
check pupils dilated suggests amphetamines, atropine, tricyclic
antidepressants, constricted suggests opiates or organophosphates
Posture - hypertonia suggests amphetamines, ecstasy or tricyclic antidepressant
poisoining
Convulsions - suggests hypoglycaemia (alcohol), tricyclic antidepressants or some
insecticides
Exposure - look for injection sites
-measure core temperature
Emergency treatment
drink milk or water urgently after caustic substances
- naloxone if opiate suspected (0.8-2mg IV repeated every 2-3 minutes to maximum
dose of 10mg)
- consider phenytoin if tricyclic antidepressant poisoning (15-20mg/Kg IV infusion over
30 minutes-not exceeding a dose rate of 50mg/minute then 2.5 to 7.5mg/Kg 12 hourly
Drug elimination activated charcoal 50 grams urgent (not useful in alcohol or iron
poisoning) repeat after 4 hours
OR
Gastric lavage (for high lethality ingestions such as iron ) 250ml 0.9% Saline aliquots
NOT after corrosives or petroleum products
Airway protection essential if impaired consciousness
357
Section 19 Post operative care
Post operative care for pregnant women or girls undergoing surgery for obstetric
emergencies
Basic nursing issues

The patient should be discharged to the ward or recovery area with clear orders for the
following:
Monitor ABC
If unconscious (P or U on AVPU scale), the patient should not be left alone until
responding to voice, recovery position and airway opening as required
Vital signs (T,P,Respiratory rate and BP and capillary refill time every 15
minutes for first one hour, hourly for 4 hours and then 2 hourly. Observations
should be more often if there is a change in observation from a normal to
abnormal value. )
Monitor SaO2 (normal > 93 %) after a general anesthetic. Give oxygen as
required until Sa02 is >93% in air or patients colour normal. Remember
cyanosis may not be present if severely anaemic.
Observe the pregnant woman or girl closely until the effect of the anaesthetic
has worn off.
Control pain: if severe need IV morphine
Rate and type of intravenous fluid (if ketosis ensure adequate amount of glucose
in drip)
Urine output, and surgical/NG drainage/vomiting
Record Input versus Output and calculate difference every 12 hours
Other medications
Laboratory investigations
The patients progress should be monitored and should include at least:

A comment on medical and nursing observations
A specific comment on the wound or operation site
Any complications
Any changes made in treatment.
Prevention of complications
Provide adequate pain control
Encourage early mobilization:
Deep breathing and coughing
Active daily exercise
Joint range of motion
Muscular strengthening
Make walking aids such as canes, crutches and walkers available and provide
instructions for their use
Ensure adequate nutrition
Prevent skin breakdown and pressure sores:
Turn the patient frequently
Keep urine and faeces off skin
Pain management (see section 4)
Manage pain wherever you see patients (emergency, operating room and on the ward)
and anticipate their needs for pain management after surgery and discharge. Do not
unnecessarily delay the treatment of pain.
358
In the first 12-24 hours after a major surgical procedure, such as Caesarean Section, there
will be need for powerful opiate analgesia (usually morphine IV-see section 4 for details).
Thereafter, the pain should be less severe and regular codeine, non-steroidals, aspirin or
paracetamol should be sufficient.
Monitoring
All patients should be assessed at a frequency determined by how ill they are, and even
those who are not seriously ill must be regularly assessed.
Vital signs (temperature, pulse and respiratory rate, BP, urine output and fluid inputs,
should be recorded on a standard form or graph at least 4 hourly for 24 hours after the
immediate post-operative recovery phase.
Do not forget anti-tetanus coverage when appropriate.
Progress notes need not be long, but must comment on the patients condition and note
any changes in the management plan. They should be signed by the person writing the
note.
Notes can be organized in the SOAP format:

Subjective: how the patient feels
Objective: findings on physical examination, vital signs and laboratory results
Assessment: what the health worker thinks
Plan: management plan; this may also include directives which can be written in a specific
location as orders.
Specific post-operative issues
Post salpingectomy for ruptured ectopic pregnancy

Counsel not to use IUCD.
Early ultrasound as soon as new pregnancy suspected.
If pregnancy is interstitial and cavity is opened, subsequent pregnancies at risk
of uterine rupture.
Offer child spacing/family planning advice
Post Caesarean Section

Palpate the uterine fundus to ensure that the uterus remains contracted.
Check for excessive PV loss
Bowel function should be normal after 12 hours
If uncomplicated, give liquids after 4 hours and solids when passing gas per rectum
If infected, obstructed labour or uterine rupture, wait until bowel sounds before giving
oral fluids
Keep dressing on wound for 24 hours to ensure re-epithelialisation.
If blood is leaking, reinforce dressing or replace with new one if more than half
soaked
If bleeding occurs:
- Massage the uterus to expel blood and blood clots. Presence of blood clots will
inhibit effective uterine contractions;
359
- Give oxytocin 5 units IV and then infuse 40 units in 500ml IV fluids (normal
saline or Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns) over 4 hours. If bleeding is heavy give
misoprostol rectally 4 x 200 microgram tablets
If there are signs of infection or the mother currently has fever, give a
combination of antibiotics until she is fever-free for 48 hours: - ampicillin 2 g IV every
6 hours; - PLUS gentamicin 5 mg/kg body weight IV every 24 hours; - PLUS
metronidazole 500 mg IV every 8 hours. If fever is still present 72 hours after
initiating antibiotics, re-evaluate and revise diagnosis.
Infection of the uterus is a major cause of maternal death. Delayed or inadequate
treatment of metritis may result in pelvic abscess, peritonitis, septic shock, deep vein
thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, chronic pelvic infection with recurrent pelvic pain
and dyspareunia, tubal blockage and infertility.
If retained placental fragments are suspected, perform a digital exploration of the
uterus to remove clots and large pieces. Use ovum forceps or a large curette if
required.
If there is no improvement with conservative measures and there are signs of
general peritonitis (fever, rebound tenderness, abdominal pain), perform a
Laparotomy to drain the pus.
If the uterus is necrotic and septic, perform subtotal hysterectomy.
If the pregnant woman or girl is significantly anaemic, Hb < 6- 7g/dl, then
transfusion may help recovery from the operation. If possible, consider 500ml of
fresh cross matched blood from a relative.
Remove catheter after 8 hours if urine is clear; if not wait until it is.
Wait 48 hours before removing catheter if: uterine rupture, prolonged or obstructed
labour, massive perineal oedema, puerperal sepsis with pelvic peritionitis
If bladder was damaged leave it in for 7 days and until urine is clear. If not receiving
antibiotics: give nitrofurantoin 100mg orally once daily until catheter removed.
Wound abscess
If there is pus or fluid, open and drain the wound. Remove infected skin or
subcutaneous sutures and debride the wound. Do not remove fascial sutures.
If there is an abscess without cellulitis, antibiotics are not required.
Place a damp sterile normal saline dressing in the wound and change the
dressing every 24 hours.
Advise on good hygiene and to wear clean pads or cloths that are changed
frequently.
If infection is superficial and does not involve deep tissues, monitor for
development of an abscess and give antibiotics:
ampicillin 500 mg by mouth four times per day for 5 days; - PLUS metronidazole 400
mg by mouth three times per day for 5 days.
If the infection is deep, involves muscles and is causing necrosis
(necrotizing fasciitis), give antibiotics until necrotic tissue has been
removed and fever-free for 48 hours:
penicillin G 2 million units IV every 6 hours; - PLUS gentamicin 5 mg/kg body weight
IV every 24 hours; - PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV every 8 hours;
Once fever-free for 48 hours, give:
ampicillin 500 mg by mouth four times per day for 5 days; - PLUS metronidazole 400
mg by mouth three times per day for 5 days.
360
Note: Necrotizing fasciitis requires wide surgical debridement. Perform
secondary closure 24 weeks later, depending on resolution of infection.
Next pregnancy Inform mother on discharge that she is at risk of uterine rupture during
next pregnancy. Offer child spacing/family planning advice
Post uterine inversion
Once the inversion is corrected, infuse IV oxytocin 40 units in 500 ml normal saline or
Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns over 4 hours:
- If the uterus does not contract after oxytocin, give misoprostol rectally 4 x 200
microgram tablets
Give a single dose of prophylactic antibiotics after correcting the inverted uterus:
- ampicillin 2 g IV PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV; - OR cefazolin 1 g IV PLUS
metronidazole 500 mg IV.
If there are signs of infection or the mother currently has fever, give a combination of
antibiotics until she is fever-free for 48 hours: - ampicillin 2 g IV every 6 hours; - PLUS
gentamicin 5 mg/kg body weight IV every 24 hours; - PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV
every 8 hours.
Post symphisiotomy
If there are signs of infection or the mother currently has fever, give a
combination of antibiotics until she is fever-free for 48 hours: - ampicillin 2 g IV
every 6 hours; - PLUS gentamicin 5 mg/kg body weight IV every 24 hours; -
PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV every 8 hours.
Apply elastic strapping across the front of the pelvis from one iliac crest to the
other to stabilize the symphysis and reduce pain.
Leave the catheter in the bladder for a minimum of 5 days.
Encourage the mother to drink plenty of fluids to ensure a good urinary output.
Encourage bed rest for 7 days after discharge from hospital.
Encourage the mother to begin to walk with assistance when she is ready to do
so.
If long-term walking difficulties and pain are reported (occur in 2% of cases),
treat with physical therapy.
Post manual removal placenta

Observe the mother every 15 minutes until the effect of IV sedation or anaesthetic
has worn off.
Monitor the vital signs (pulse, blood pressure, respiration) every 30 minutes for
the next 6 hours or until stable.
Palpate the uterine fundus to ensure that the uterus remains contracted.
Check for excessive lochia.
Continue infusion of IV fluids.
Transfuse as necessary.
Peritonitis
Provide nasogastric suction.
Infuse IV fluids.
361
Give antibiotics until fever-free for 48 hours: - ampicillin 2 g IV every 6 hours; - PLUS
gentamicin 5 mg/kg body weight IV every 24 hours; - PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV
every 8 hours.
If necessary, perform laparotomy.
Pelvic abscess
Give antibiotics before draining the abscess and continue until fever-free for 48 hours: -
ampicillin 2 g IV every 6 hours; - PLUS gentamicin 5 mg/kg body weight IV every 24
hours; - PLUS metronidazole 500 mg IV every 8 hours.
If the abscess is fluctuant in the cul-de-sac, drain the pus through the cul-de-sac-
culdocentesis. If the spiking fever continues, perform a laparotomy.
Care of the patient after Spinal Anaesthesia

Observations
Standard post anaesthetic observations
Sensation should return within 4 hours. If after 4 hours the patient remains numb and/or
cannot move their legs, contact the anaesthetist urgently.
Analgesia
Severe pain may return suddenly when the spinal block has worn off. Give analgesia when
patient first has pain.
Fasting
Fasting is not needed unless it is a surgical requirement eg after abdominal operations
Posture
The patient does not have to lie flat. Allow to sit up as soon as they are abl e
Mobilising
If not contraindicated by the surgery, the patient can get out of bed 2 hours after the
return of normal sensation, ONLY WITH ASSISTANCE. Before getting the patient out of
bed sit her up slowly. If the patient feels faint, dizzy or sick then lie the patient down, take
the blood pressure and inform anaesthetist.
Potential complications
Postural hypotension
Lie the patient on the bed, give or increase IV fluids and inform anaesthetist.
Urinary Retention
Encourage patient to pass urine when sensation returns. If the patient has not passed
urine and she has a palpable bladder, she may need a catheter.
362
Section 20 Appendix
Appendix
Normal values for vital clinical signs
Symptoms and signs for evaluating a patient in hospital
Is the patient alert, sleepy, irritable?
Is there an increased breathing rate?
Is there a rapid/ slow heart rate is the pulse weak? Is it bounding?
Examine depth of breathing is it shallow?
Is breathing noisy? stridor, wheezing, grunting?
Is there nasal flaring (nares moving in and out with breathing)?
Is there tracheal tug (marked inward movement at trachea when breathing) or the use of
accessory muscles to help breathe or intercostal/subcostal recession?
Is the skin mottled?
Look at colour of skin, lips, nail beds for cyanosis
Check for capillary refill time
Check O2 saturations if possible
For patients with possible anaemia

Is there tiredness/lethargy?
Is there pallor of the skin, mucous membranes, gums, insides of eyelids, fingernails?
Is there shortness of breath?
Are the stools black? Blood or on iron supplements?
For patients with blood clotting disorders

Are there bleeding gums when eating/brushing teeth?
Are there nose bleeds?
Is there excessive bruising?
Is there bruising in unexpected places (consider non accidental injury)?
Are there petechiae? (tiny, flat, red or purple spots on skin or mucous membranes caused
by local haemorrhage)
Estimating the weight of a child

Infant = up to 12 months old
Birth weight - doubles by five months
- triples by one year
- quadruples by two years
363
Section 20 Appendix
After 12 months, the formula below can be applied, but may need to be modified
according to whether the child is small or large compared with the average
Weight (kg) = 2 (age in years + 4)
Normal vital signs

Normal vital signs by age in a child and pregnant woman or girl
Age (years) Heart rate (bpm) Systolic BP (mmHg) Respiratory rate
(bpm)
<1 110-160 70-90 30-40
1-2 100-150 80-95 25-35
2-5 95-145 80-100 25-30
5-12 80-120 90-110 20-25
>12 60-100 100-120 15-20
Pregnancy 65-115 90-120 10-29
Awake and asleep heart rates

Normal heart rates at age: awake asleep
Newborn 3 month 90 190 80 - 160
3 month to 2 yr 80 150 70 120
2 to 10 yr 70 120 60 - 90
10 yr adult 55 90 50 90
Systolic and diastolic blood pressures

Normal blood pressure at age: Systolic Diastolic
Birth (12 hr, 3kg) 50-70 25-45
Neonate (96 hr) 60-90 20-60
Infant 87-105 53-66
2-4 years 95-105 53-66
7 years 97-112 57-71
15 years 112-128 66-80
364
Section 20 Appendix
Blood pressure is difficult to measure and interpret in infants and children under five
years of age. Do not base decisions to treat hypertension on the results of electronic
sphygmomanometers, they can be inaccurate. Always check with a hand pumped machine.
A quick formula for calculating normal systolic pressure in children is:
Normal systolic blood pressure in children = 80 + (2 x age in yrs)

Capillary refill time
The normal capillary refill time (CRT) is up to three (3) seconds. Be aware that in colder
environments peripheral CRT is not a reliable test for perfusion.
Urine output
Infants 2 mL / kg / hr
Child 1 mL / kg /hr
Pregnant adult >30 mL/hour or >100 mL every 4 hours (WHO)
Normal core (oral) body temperatures

Infant: 36.5 37.5 deg C 97.7 99.5 deg F
Child: 36.0 37.2 deg C 96.8 98.6 deg F
Circulating blood volume

100 ml / kg at birth
80 ml / kg at 1 year
70 ml / kg at 12 years
100 ml / kg in pregnancy
Disability
A - ALERT
V - Responds to VOICE
P - Responds to PAIN = Glasgow Coma score 8 or less
U - UNRESPONSIVE
Blood glucose conversion 1 mmol/litre =19 mg/dl
365
Section 20 Appendix
Drop factor for IV infusions
Fluids can be calculated in drops/minute as follows. First identify from the IV giving set
what the drop factor is (standard giving sets vary between 10, 15 and 20 drops = 1ml).
For micro-drop systems, which often accompany giving sets with burettes, 1ml = 60 drops.
When setting the infusion rate with the flow controller on the giving set below the chamber
where the drops occur, always set and count the rate over a full 1 minute.
Calculating drip rates for a standard giving set with a drop factor of 20 drops/mL
1 ml = 20 drops in standard giving set
drops / min = ml / hr divided by 3
Normal values for laboratory measurements

Haematology: normal laboratory values
Haemoglobin
Age Haemoglobin in g/dL
1 3 days 14.5 22.5 g/dL
2 weeks 14.5 18.0 g/dL
6 months 10.0 12.5 g/dL
1 5 yr 10.5 13.0 g/dL
6 12 yr 11.5 15.0 g/dL
12 18 yr male 13.0 16.0 g/dL
female 12.0 16.0 g/dL
Platelets
Newborn 84 478 109/L
Child 150 400 109/L
White blood cells (WBC) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

Age Values
ESR All ages 0-10 mm/hour
WBC 1-2 days 9.0 - 34.0 x 109/L
Neonate 6.0 19.5 x 109/L
1 3 yr 6.0 17.5 x 109/L
4 7 yr 5.5 15.5 x 109/L
8 13 yr 4.5 13.5 x 109/L
13 yr + 4.5 11.0 x 109/L
366
Section 20 Appendix
Lymphocytes over one year Median 4.1 6.0 x 109/L
Chemistry: normal laboratory values
Substance Age Value range
Albumin Preterm 18 30 g/L

Full term to 7 days 25-34 g/L
< 5 years 39 50 g/L
5 19 years 40 53 g/L
Amylase All ages 30 100 units/L
ASO titre 2 5 years 120 160 Todd units

6 9 years 240 Todd units
10 12 years 320 Todd units
Bicarbonate All ages Arterial: 21 28 mmol/L

Venous: 22 29 mmol/L
Bilirubin
(conjugated) > 1 year 0 3.4 micromol/L
Calcium 0-24 hours 2.3 2.65 mmol/L (1.07 1.27 ionised)

24 hours to 4 days 1.75 3.00 mmol/L (1.00 1.17 ionised)
4 7 days 2.25 2.73 mmol/L (1.12 1.23 ionised)
child 2.15 - 2.70 mmol//L (1.12 1.23 ionised)
Chloride Neonate 97 110 mmol/L
Child 98 106 mmol/L
Creatinine neonate 27- 88 micromol/L
infant 18 35 micromol/L
child 27 62 micromol/L
367
Section 20 Appendix
Glucose preterm neonate 1.4 3.3 mmol/L

0 24 hours 2.2 3.3 mmol/L
infant 2.8 5.0 mmol/L
child 3.3 5.5 mmol/L
Magnesium 0 7 days 0.48 1.05 mmol/L

7 days 2 years 0.65 1.05 mmol/L
2 14 years 0.60 0.95 mmol/L
Osmolarity child 276 295 mosmol/L (serum)
Potassium <2 months 3.0 7.0 mmol/L

2-12 months 3.6 6.0 mmol/L
child 3.5 5.0 mmol/L
Sodium neonate 136 146 mmol/L

Infant 139 146 mmol/L
child 138 146 mmol/L
Urea neonate 1.0 5.0 mmol/L

infant 2.5 8.0 mmol/L
child: 2.5 6.6 mmol/L
Oxygen saturation SpO2

95% - 100% (depends on altitude and corrections will be needed for those living > 1000
metres above sea level. The following table gives saturation levels in a number of differing
geographical locations above sea level.)
368
Section 20 Appendix
SpO2 levels at different altitudes

Altitude Location N Age SpO2 (%) Author Year
(m) studied
Sea level UK 70 2-16 years Range 95.8- Poets et 1993

Mean 8 yrs 100 al
Median 99.5
Sea level Peru 189 2 m-5yrs Range 96-100 Reuland 1991
Mean 98.7 Et al
1610 colorado 150 <48hrs 95% Cl 88-97 Thilo et 1991
Mean 93 al
3 months 95% Cl 86-97
Mean 92.2
1670 nairobi 87 7days-3 Range 89.3- Onyango 1993
yrs 99.3 Et al
Mean 95.7
2640 bogota 189 5 days-2 Range 84- Lozano 1992
yrs 100 et
Mean 93.3 al
2800 colorado 72 3-670 days Range 88-97 Nicholas 1993
Mean 91.7 Et al
3100 colorado 14 6hrs-4 Range 81-91 Niemeyer 1993
months Mean 80.6 Et al
1 week +/- 5.3
4 months Mean
86.1+/- 4.6
3658 Tibet* 15 6hrs 4 Immigrant 76-90 Niemeyer 1995
Months Indigenous 86- Et al
94
3750 peru 153 2 -60 Range 81-97 Reuland 1991
months Mean 88.9 Et al
Notes: Values given are those in quiet sleep.
*ranges born to immigrant Chinese mothers and for those indigenous babies whose
families have lived at that altitude for innumerable generations
Blood gases (normal arterial range)

pH 7.35 7.45
PCO2 4.5 6 kPa (35 -45 mmHg)
PO2 10 13 kPa (75 98 mmHg)
Airway equipment values

Un-cuffed tubes in children < 25 kg weight (aged six to seven years)
Endotracheal tubes (internal diameter mm)
Full term baby size 3.0 3.5
369
Section 20 Appendix
Infant (< 1year) size 4.0 4.5
Over 1 year size of tube = Age / 4 + 4
Length of endotracheal tube

Age DIVIDED BY 2 + 12 cm (oral tube)
+ 14 cm (nasal tube)
Fluid and electrolyte management

a) Normal requirements for fluid
Blood volume is about 100 mL/kg at birth falling to about 80 mL/kg at one year. Total
body water varies from 800 mL/kg in the neonate to 600 mL/kg at one year and
thereafter. Of this about two thirds (400 mL/kg) is intracellular fluid, the rest being extra
cellular fluid. Thus initial expansion of vascular volume in a state of shock can be achieved
with relatively small volumes of fluid: 20 mL/kg (a quarter of the blood volume) will usually
suffice. However, this volume is only a fraction of that required to correct dehydration as
the fluid has been lost from all body compartments in this condition. Clinically, dehydration
is not detectable until above 3 to 5% (30-50mL/kg) of the body fluid has been lost.
It is important to remember that while fluid must be given quickly to correct loss of
circulating fluid from the blood compartment (shock except in malnutrition where it must
be given slowly in dehydration.
Note: Fluids in neonates after the first three days of life are often prescribed upon the
basis of 150 mL/kg/day but this is not related to fluid needs but is merely the volume of
standard formula milk required to give an adequate protein and calorie intake.
Fluid requirement can be divided into four types:
1. For replacement of insensible losses through sweat, respiration, gastrointestinal loss etc.
2. For replacement of essential urine output, the minimal urine output to allow excretion of
the products of metabolism etc.
3. Extra fluid to maintain a modest state of diuresis.
4. Fluid to replace abnormal losses such as blood loss, severe diarrhoea, diabetic polyuria
losses etc.
A formula for calculating normal fluid requirement is given in table below. It is useful
because it is simple, can be applied to all age ranges and is easily subdivided. The formula
gives total fluid requirements, that is, types 1 + 2 + 3 above.
370
Section 20 Appendix
Body weight Fluid Fluid/hr Na K Energy Protein
/24 hrs mmol/24 hours/kg kcal/24hrs g/24hrs
First 10 kg 100 mL 4 mL 2-4 1.5-2.5 110 3

Second 10 kg 50 mL 2 mL 1-2 0.5-1.5 75 1
Subsequent kg 20 mL 1 mL 0.5-1 0.2-0.7 30 0.75
For examples: 6 kg infant would require 600 mL per day

14 kg child would require 1000 + 200 = 1200 mL per day
25 kg child would require 1000 + 500 + 100 = 1600 mL per day
Or the following table can be used.

Weight of child Fluid in mL/day
<10 kg 100/kg
10-19 kg 50/kg
>20 kg 20/ kg
For example mL/day
2 kg 220
4 kg 440
6 kg 660
8 kg 900
10 kg 1100
12 kg 1300
14 kg 1400
16 kg 1600
18 kg 1700
20 kg 1800
22 kg 1900
24 kg 2000
In practice, the well child just drinks when thirsty, but it is useful to have an idea of how
much fluid a child should be expected to need. Of course, if there are excess losses as in
diarrhoea or fever or the ambient temperature is especially high leading to high insensible
losses, then more fluid is required. Except in cardiac or renal disease, a good check on
whether a child is having enough fluid is to see if they have a satisfactory urine output of
at least 2 mL/kg/hour.
Average fluid requirements in pregnancy are: 1500 to 2500 mL/day. This depends on
levels of activity, ambient temperature and whether or not there is a fever. Up to 6000
mL/day may be required.
Rehydration
Fluid deficit + normal fluid requirements + additional losses (sweat, diarrhoea, vomit etc)
371
Section 20 Appendix
Fluid deficit (mL) = % dehydration x weight (kg) x 10
On-going losses
After each loose stool
age < 2 yrs; 50m 100 ml
age 2 yrs ; 100-200 ml
After each vomit 2ml / kg body weight
Some useful information regarding biochemical measurements
1. Percentage solution = grams in 100 mL e.g. 10% dextrose = 10g in 100 mL
2. One millimole = molecular weight in milligrams
3. Some atomic weights: hydrogen 1.0

carbon 12.0
nitrogen 14.0
oxygen 16.0
sodium 23.0
phosphorus 31.0
chlorine 35.5
potassium 39.1
calcium 40.1
therefore for example: 1mmol NaCl = 58.5 mg

1mmol NaHCO3 = 84 mg
1mmol KCl = 74.6 mg
4. The equivalent weight of an electrolyte = molecular weight/valency e.g. Ca = 40/2
5. Useful figures to know:

30% NaCl = 5 mmol/mL each of Na and Cl
0.9% NaCl = 0.154 mmol/mL each of Na and Cl
372
Section 20 Appendix
15% KCl (15g/100mL) = 2 mmol/mL each of K and Cl (also
called concentrated or strong KCl)
10% Ca Gluconate (10g/100mL) = 0.225 mmol/mL
(note 1mL of CaCl 10% is equivalent to 3mL of Ca gluconate 10%)
8.4% NaHCO3 = 1 mmol Na and 1mmol HCO3 /mL

1 mL/h N saline = 3.7 mmol Na in 24h
6 Serum osmolarity= 2(Na + K) + glucose + urea (normally 285 295 mosmols/L)
Normal requirements for electrolytes (unless excessive losses)
There are obligatory losses of electrolytes in stools, urine, and sweat, and these require
replacement. Any excess is simply excreted in the urine.
Electrolyte contents of body fluids
Fluid Na (mmol/L K (mmol/L) Cl (mmol/L HCO3 mmol/L
Plasma 135-141 3.5-5.5 100-105 24-28
Gastric 20-80 5-20 100-150 0
Intestinal 100-140 5-15 90-130 13-65
Diarrhea 7-96 34-150 17-164 0-75
Sweat <40 6-15 <40 0-10
Normal daily water, electrolyte, energy and protein requirements in children

Body weight Water Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Energy Protein
mL/kg/day mmol/kg/day mmol/kg/day kcals/day g/day
First 10 kg 100 2-4 1.5-2.5 110 3.00
Second 10kg 50 1-2 0.5-1.5 75 1.50
Subsequent kg 20 0.5-1 0.2-0.7 30 0.75
373
Section 20 Appendix
Normal water and electrolyte requirements in pregnancy
Maintenance Fluid/day Sodium Potassium

requirements/24 hours (mmol/day) (mmol/day)
1500-2500mL 150 100
Commonly available crystalloid fluids
Fluid Na+ K+ Cl- Energy (kcal/L)

(mmol/L) (mmol/L) (mmol/L)
Isotonic crystalloid fluids
Saline 0.9% (normal) 150 0 150 0
Glucose 5% (50mg/mL) 0 0 0 200
Hartmanns solution or Ringers 131 5 111 0
lactate **
Hypertonic crystalloid fluids
Saline 0.45% glucose 5% 75 0 75 200
Glucose 10% (100mg/mL) 0 0 0 400
Glucose 50% 0 0 0 2000
** Hartmanns or Ringers lactate also has HCO3- as lactate 29mmol/L and calcium 2
mmol/L
Commonly available colloid fluids

Colloid Na+ K+ Ca++ Duration of Comments
(mmol/l) (mmol/l) (mmol/l) action
(hours)
Albumin 4.5% 150 1 0 6 Protein buffers
Gelofusin 154 <1 <1 3 Gelatine
Haemaccel 145 5 12.5 3 Gelatine
Pentastarch 154 0 0 7 Hydroxyethyl
starch
374
Section 20 Appendix
Table weight to body surface area (Boyds calculation)
Weight SA m2 Weight SA m2 Weight SA m2

Kg Kg Kg
0.7 0.07 12 0.56 38 1.23
1.0 0.10 13 0.59 40 1.27
1.6 0.14 14 0.62 42 1.32
2.0 0.16 15 0.65 44 1.36
2.6 0.19 16 0.68 46 1.40
3.0 0.21 17 0.71 48 1.44
3.6 0.24 18 0.74 50 1.48
4.0 0.26 19 0.77 52 1.52
4.5 0.28 20 0.79 54 1.56
5.0 0.30 22 0.85 56 1.60
5.5 0.33 24 0.90 58 1.63
6.0 0.35 26 0.95 60 1.67
7.0 0.38 28 1.00 65 1.76
8.0 0.42 30 1.05 70 1.85
9.0 0.46 32 1.09 75 1.94
10.0 0.49 34 1.14 80 2.03
11.0 0.53 36 1.19 90 2.19
375
Section 20 Appendix
376
Section 20 Appendix
377
378

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POCKET BOOK OF

Maternal & Childhealth Advanced Life Support

Tel/Fax +44 (0) 1445 Tel: +44 (0)161 794

Updated October 2013

MCAI UK and ALSG: all rights reserved

Initiative for maternal mortality programme assessment. IMMPACT

2 Drug And Fluid Administration

4 Pain Management and Sedation

5 Transport of Ill Patients

6 Basic Life Support

7 Choking in the child

8 Advanced Life Support

9 Management of cardiac arrest

10 Structured approach to the seriously ill

11 Management of Medical Emergencies in the Pregnant Mother

Ruptured ectopic pregnancy

12 Complications of labour and delivery

13 Care of the Newborn at Birth

14 Common emergencies in the first month of life

15 Management of emergencies in the child

16 Severe malnutrition in children

17 Serious Injuries in pregnancy and childhood

18 Burns, envenomation and poisoning in the child and in pregnancy

19 Post operative Management for mothers undergoing surgery for

Section 1 Managing emergencies and triage

Triage Seeing the sickest first

Airway and LOOK FOR: severe asthma

Circulation EXAMINE: Haemorrhage-revealed or

Vaginal bleeding ASK IF: abortion

uterus: atony retained placenta

Dangerous fever ASK IF: Septicaemia

Emergency Triage Assessment and Treatment (ETAT)

Always assess in the following order

If any emergency signs present:

TABLE 3 Rapid initial assessment of a child

Assess Emergency signs Treatment

If not lethargic or unconscious

DISABILITY Convulsing (now) IF CONVULSING

Give IV 5ml/Kg 10% glucose

PRIORITY SIGNS - these children need prompt assessment and treatment

NON-URGENT CASES proceed with assessment and further treatment according

Oral rehydration solutions used in gastro-enteritis to maintain electrolyte balance.

Importance of enteral fluids:

Best method of maintaining caloric intake is through enteral feeding

Always specify concentrations of dextrose and Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns

Maintenance requirement of electrolytes:

Record fluid intake/hour on a fluid balance chart.

Ensure that site is kept clean

Flush cannula with 0.9% saline or Ringer-Lactate or Hartmanns 4-hourly if continuous

Prescribing practice and minimising drug errors

Safe IV infusions where no burettes are available

Minimising Errors with IV infusions

Who needs blood?

woman or girl with obstetric emergencies eg APH, PPH

Eg a 10kg child require 10 x 20ml blood for transfusion = 200ml

Rhesus positive donors can only give to rhesus +ve patients

Blood Transfusion Reactions

Visual inspection of centrifuged plasma - pink-

Febrile non-haemolytic Visual inspection of recipient's plasma and urine is