Computer Science

Computer Science

Class 12

Notes & Study Material

1
CBSE Marks Distribution for Different Topics (Important Lessons)
SNo Unit Name Marks

1 UNIT 1 Programming in C++ 30
2 UNIT 2 Data Structures 14
3 UNIT 3 Database and SQL 08
4 UNIT 4 Boolean Logic 08
5 UNIT 5 Communication and Open source concepts 10
Total Marks 70
Weightage to different topics/content units

S No. Topic Marks
1 Review of C++ covered in Class XI 12
2 Object Oriented Programming in C++ 12
3 Data Structure & Pointers 14
4 Data File Handling in C++ 06
5 Databases and SQL 08
6 Boolean Algebra 08
7 Communication and Open Source Concepts 10
Total 70
Weightage to different forms of questions

S. Forms of Question Marks for No. of Total
No. each question Questions Marks
1 Very Short Answer Questions (VSA) 01 09 09
2 Short Answer Questions- Type 1 (SA1) 02 13 26
3 Short Answer Questions- Type II (SAII) 03 05 15
4 Long Answer Questions- (LA) 04 05 20
Total 32 70
Difficulty Level of Questions

S. N. Estimated Difficulty Level Percentage of questions
1 Easy 15%
2 Average 70%
3 Difficult 15%
4
SUPPORT MATERIAL
INDEX
Topics PAGE
S.No.
NO.
1 Overview of C++ 06
2 Basic Concepts of OOP & Classes and Objects 15
3 Data File Handling 39
4 Pointers 49
Data Structures 59
1. Arrays
5 2. Stacks
3. Queues
6 Database And SQL 87

7 Boolean Algebra 101
8 Communication And Open Source Concepts 113
9 Sample Question Paper (For practice) 129
5
UNIT 1 : PROGRAMMING IN C++
Introduction to C++
C++ programming language developed by AT&T Bell Laboratories in 1979 by
Bjarne Stroustrup. C++ is fully based on Object Oriented Technology i.e. C++ is
ultimate paradigm for the modeling of information.
C++ is the successor of C language.
It is a case sensitive language.
Character Set- Set of characters which are recognized by c++compiler i.e

Digits (0-9), Alphabets (A-Z & a-z) and special characters + - * , . < > = { ( ] ) space
etc i.e 256 ASCII characters.
Tokens- Smallest individual unit. Following are the tokens

Keyword-Reserve word having special meaning the language and cant be used as
identifier.
Identifiers-Names given to any variable, function, class, union etc. Naming convention
(rule) for writing identifier is as under:
i) First letter of identifier is always alphabet.
ii) Reserve word cannot be taken as identifier name.
iii) No special character in the name of identifier except under score sign _.
Literals-Value of specific data type assign to a variable or constant. Four type of Literals:
i) Integer Literal i.e int x =10
ii) Floating point Literal i.e float x=123.45
iii) Character Literal i.e char x= a, enclosed in single quotes and single character
only.
iv) String Literal i.e cout<< Welcome , anything enclosed in double quotes
Operator performs some action on data
o Arithmetic(+,-,*,/,%)
o Assignment operator (=)
o Increment / Decrement (++, --)
o Relational/comparison (<,>,<=,>=,==,!=).
o Logical(AND(&&),OR(||),NOT(!).
o Conditional (? :)
Precedence of operators:
++(post increment),--(post decrement) Highest
++(pre increment),--(pre decrement),sizeof !(not),-(unary),+unary plus)
*(multiply), / (divide), %(modulus)
+(add),-(subtract)
<(less than),<=(less than or equal),>(greater than), >=(greater than or equal to)
==(equal),!=(not equal)
&& (logical AND)
||(logical OR)
?:(conditional expression)
=(simple assignment) and other assignment operators(arithmetic assignment
operator)
, Comma operator Low
Punctuation used as separators in c++ e.g. [ { ( ) } ] , ; # = : etc
Data type- A specifier to create memory block of some specific size and type. C++offers two
types of data types:
1) Fundamental type : Which are not composed any other data type i.e. int, char, float and void
2) Derived data type : Which are made up of fundamental data type i.e array, function, class,
union etc
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Data type conversion- Conversion of one data type into another data type. Two type of
conversion i.e
i) Implicit Conversion It is automatically taken care by complier in the case of lower
range to higher range e.g. int x, char c=A then x=c is valid i.e character value in c
is automatically converted to integer.
ii) Explicit Conversion- It is user-defined that forces an expression to be of specific type.
e.g. double x1,x2 and int res then res=int(x1+x2)
Variable- Memory block of certain size where value can be stored and changed during program
execution. e.g. int x, float y, float amount, char c;
Constant- Memory block where value can be stored once but cant changed later on during
program execution.e.g. const int pi =3.14;
cout It is an object of ostream_withassign class defined in iostream.h header file and used to
display value on monitor.
cin It is an object of istream_withassign class defined in iostream.h header file and used to
read value from keyboard for specific variable.
comment- Used for better understanding of program statements and escaped by the compiler to
compile . e.g. single line (//) and multi- line(/*.*/)
Cascading Repeatedly use of input or output operators( >> or <<) in one statement with cin
or cout.
Control structure:
Sequence conditional Multiple Switch Statement loop control statement
control statement Choice (Alternate for if- (while ,do while, for)
statement(if (if else) Statement else- if) works for
) If else-if only exact match
Syntax Syntax Syntax Syntax Syntax
if(expressio If(expressio If (expression) switch(int / char while(expression)
n) n) { variable) {
{ { statements { statements;
statements; } case literal1: }
} statements; else [statements Entry control loop
} if(expression) break;] works for true condition.
else { case literal2:
{ statement [statements, do
} break;] {
statements; else default:statements; statements;
} { } } while(expression);
statement Exit Control Loop
} Break is execute at least once if
compulsory the condition is false at
statement with beginning.
every case because
if it is not included for loop
then the controls for(expression1;expressio
executes next case n2;expression3)
statement until next {
break encountered statement;}
or end of swtich Entry control loop
reached. works for true condition
Default is optional, and preferred for fixed
it gets executed no.of times.
when no match is
found
7
Note: any non-zero value of an expression is treated as true and exactly 0 (i.e. all bits contain
0) is treated as false.
Nested loop -loop within loop.
exit()- defined in process.h and used to terminate the program depending upon certain condition.
break- exit from the current loop depending upon certain condition.
continue- to skip the remaining statements of the current loop and passes control to the next loop
control statement.
goto- control is unconditionally transferred to the location of local label specified by
<identifier>.
For example
A1:
cout<<test;
goto A1;
Some Standard C++ libraries
Header Nome Purpose
iostream.h Defines stream classes for input/output streams
stdio.h Standard input and output
ctype.h Character tests
string.h String operations
math.h Mathematical functions such as sin() and cos()
stdlib.h Utility functions such as malloc() and rand()
Some functions
isalpha(c)-check whether the argument is alphabetic or not.
islower(c)- check whether the argument is lowecase or not.
isupper(c) - check whether the argument is upercase or not.
isdigit(c)- check whether the argument is digit or not.
isalnum(c)- check whether the argument is alphanumeric or not.
tolower()-converts argument in lowercase if its argument is a letter.
toupper(c)- converts argument in uppercase if its argument is a letter.
strcat()- concatenates two string.
strcmp-compare two string.
pow(x,y)-return x raised to power y.
sqrt(x)-return square root of x.
random(num)-return a random number between 0 and (num-1)
randomize- initializes the random number generator with a random value.
Array- Collection of element of same type that are referred by a common name.
One Dimensional array

An array is a continuous memory location holding similar type of data in single row or
single column. Declaration in c++ is as under:
const int size =20;
int a[size] or int a[20]. The elements of array accessed with the help of an index.
For example : for(i=0;i<20;i++) cout<<a[i];
String (Array of characters) Defined in c++ as one dimensional array of characters as
char s[80]= Object oriented programming;
Two dimensional array

A two diamensional array is a continuous memory location holding similar type of data
arranged in row and column format (like a matrix structure).
Declaration int a[3][4], means a is an array of integers are arranged in 3 rows & 4
columns.
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Function -Name given to group of statements that does some specific task and may return a
value. Function can be invoked(called) any no. of time and anywhere in the program.
Function prototypes-Function declaration that specifies the function name, return type and
parameter list of the function.
syntax: return_type function_name(type var1,type var2,.,type varn );
Actual Parameters
Variables associated with function name during function call statement.
Formal Parameters
Variables which contains copy of actual parameters inside the function definition.
Local variables
Declared inside the function only and its scope and lifetime is function only and hence
accessible only inside function.
Global variables
Declared outside the function and its scope and lifetime is whole program and hence
accessible to all function in the program from point declaration.
Example :
#include <iostream.h>
int a=20; // global
void main()
{
int b=10; // local
cout<<a<<b;
}
Passing value to function-
Passing by value- In this method separate memory created for formal arguments and if
any changes done on formal variables , it will not affect the actual variables.So actual
variables are preserved in this case
Passing by address/reference- In this method no separate memory created for formal
variables i.e formal variables share the same location of actual variables and hence any
change on formal variables automatically reflected back to actual variables.
Example :
void sample( int a, int &b)
{
a=a+100;
b=b+200;
cout<<a<<b;
}
void main()
{
int a=50, b=40;
cout<<a<<b; // output 50 40
sample(a,b) // output 150 240
cout<<a<<b; // output 50 240
}
Function overloading
Processing of two or more functions having same name but different list of parameters
Function recursion
Function that call itself either directly or indirectly.
Structure-Collection of logically related different data types (Primitive and Derived) referenced
under one name.
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e.g. struct employee
{
int empno;
char name[30];
char design[20];
char department[20];
}
Declaration: employee e;
Input /Output : cin>>e.empno; // members are accessed using dot(.) operator.
cout<<e.empno;
Nested structure
A Structure definition within another structure.
A structure containing object of another structure.
e.g. struct address
{ int houseno;
char city[20];
char area[20];
long int pincode;}
struct employee
{
int empno;
char name[30];
char design[20];
char department[20];
address ad; // nested structure
}
Declaration: employee e;
Input /Output : cin>>e.ad.houseno; // members are accessed using dot(.) operator.
cout<<e.ad.houseno;
typedef
Used to define new data type name.
e.g. typedef char Str80[80]; Str80 str;
#define Directives
Use to define a constant number or macro or to replace an instruction.
1 Marks questions
Which C++ header file(s) will be essentially required to be included to run /execute the
following C++ code:
void main()
{
char Msg[ ]="Sunset Gardens";
for (int I=5;I<strlen(Msg);I++)
puts(Msg);
}
Ans : stdio.h, string.h
Name the header files that shall be need for the following code: (CBSE 2012)
void main()
{
char text[] =Something
cout<<Remaining SMS chars: <<160-strlen(text)<<endl;
}
Ans: iostream.h/iomanip.h , string.h
10
2 Marks questions:
1) Rewrite the following program after removing the syntactical error(s) if any.
Underline each correction.
CBSE 2012
#include<iostream.h>
Class Item
{
long IId, Qty;
public:
void Purchase { cin>>IId>>Qty;}
void Sale()
{
cout<<setw(5)<<IId<<Old:<< Qty<<endl;
cout<< New :<<Qty<<endl;
}};
void main()
{
Item I;
Purchase();
I.Sale()
}
Ans : #include<iostream.h>
class Item // C capital
{ Either the statement is removed or
long IId, Qty; header file included as
public: #include<iomanip.h>
void Purchase ( ) { cin>>IId>>Qty;} // ( ) after function name
void Sale( )
{
cout<<setw(5)<<IId<<Old:<< Qty<<endl;
cout<< New :<<Qty<<endl;
}};
void main()
{
Item I;
I. Purchase(); // object missing
I.Sale() ; // ; is missing
}
2) Find the output of the following program: CBSE 2012
#include<ctype.h>
typedef char Str80[80];
void main()
{char *Notes;
Str80 str= vR2GooD;
int L=6;
Notes =Str;
while(L>=3)
{
Str[L]=(isupper(Str[L])? tolower(Str[L]) : toupper(Str[L]));
cout<<Notes<<endl;
L--;
Notes++;
}}
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Ans : vR2Good
R2GoOd
2GOOd
gOOd
3) Observe the following program and find out, which output(s) out id (i) to (iv) will not be
expected from program? What will be the minimum and maximum value assigned to the
variables Chance?
#include<iostream.h> CBSE 2012
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
randomize();
int Arr[] = {9,6};, N;
int Chance = random(2)+10;
for(int c=0;c<2;c++)
{
N= random(2);
cout<<Arr[N];
}}
i) 9#6#
ii) 19#17#
iii) 19#16#
iv) 20#16#
Ans: The output not expected from program are (i),(ii) and (iv)
Minimum value of Chance =10
Maximum value of Chance = 11
3 Marks questions:
4) Find the output of the following program: CBSE 2012
class METRO
{
int Mno, TripNo, PassengerCount;
public:
METRO(int Tmno=1) { Mno =Tmno; PassengerCount=0;}
void Trip(int PC=20) { TripNo++, PassengerCount+=PC};
void StatusShow()
{
cout<<Mno<< :<<TripNo<< :<<PassengerCount<<endl;}
};
void main()
{
METRO M(5), T;
M.Trip();
M.StatusShow();
T.StatusShow();
M.StatusShow();
}
Ans : 5: 1: 20
1: 1: 50
5: 2: 50
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2& 3 marks practice questions:
5) Rewrite the following program after removing the syntactical error(s) if any.
Underline each correction.
void main( )
{ F = 10, S = 20;
test(F;S);
test(S);
}
void test(int x, int y = 20)
{ x=x+y;
count<<x>>y;
}
6) Rewrite the following program after removing syntactical error(s) if any. Underline
each correction.
#include iostream.h
Class MEMBER
{ int Mno;
float Fees;
PUBLIC:
void Register ( ) {cin>>Mno>>Fees;}
void Display( ) {cout<<Mno<<" : "<<Fees<<endl;}
};
void main()
{ MEMBER delete;
Register();
delete.Display();
}
7) Find the output for the following program:
#include<ctype.h>
void Encript ( char T[ ])
{ for( int i=0 ; T[i] != \0 ; i += 2)
if( T[i] = = A || T[i] = = E )
T[i] = # ;
else if (islower (T[i] ))
T[i] = toupper(T[i]);
else
T[i] = @;}
void main()
{ char text [ ] = SaVE EArTh in 2012;
encrypt(text);
cout<<text<<endl;
}
8) Find the output of the following program:

void main( )
{ int U=10,V=20;
for(int I=1;I<=2;I++)
{ cout<<[1]<<U++<<&<<V 5 <<endl;
cout<<[2]<<++V<<&<<U + 2 <<endl; } }
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9) Rewrite the following C++ program after removing the syntax error(s) if any.
Underline each correction. [CBSE 2010]
include<iostream.h>
class FLIGHT
{ Long FlightCode;
Char Description[25];
public
void addInfo()
{ cin>>FlightCode; gets(Description);}
void showInfo()
{ cout<<FlightCode<<:<<Description<<endl;}
};
void main( )
{ FLIGHT F;
addInfo.F();
showInfo.F;
}
10) In the following program, find the correct possible output(s)from the options:
#include<stdlib.h>
void main( )
{ randomize( );
char City[ ][10]={DEL, CHN, KOL, BOM, BNG};
int Fly;
for(int I=0; I<3;I++)
{Fly=random(2) + 1;
cout<<City[Fly]<< :;
}}
Outputs:
(i) DEL : CHN : KOL: (ii) CHN: KOL : CHN:
(iii) KOL : BOM : BNG: (iv) KOL : CHN : KOL:
11) In the following C++ program what is the expected value of Myscore from options (i)
to (iv) given below. Justify your answer.
#include<stdlib.h>
void main( )
{ randomize( );
int Score[ ] = {25,20,34,56,72,63},Myscore;
cout<<Myscore<<endl;
}
i) 25 (ii) 34 (iii) 20 (iv) Garbage Value.
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Function overloading in C++
A function name having several definitions that are differentiable by the number or types
of their arguments is known as function overloading.
Example : A same function print() is being used to print different data types:
class printData
{
public:
void print(int i) {
cout << "Printing int: " << i << endl;
}
void print(double f) {
cout << "Printing float: " << f << endl;
}
void print(char* c) {
cout << "Printing character: " << c << endl;
}
};
int main(void)
{
printData pd;
// Call print to print integer

pd.print(5);
// Call print to print float
pd.print(500.263);
// Call print to print character
pd.print("Hello C++");
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:
Printing int: 5
Printing float: 500.263
Printing character: Hello C++
15
OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS
Object Oriented Programming follows bottom up approach in program design and emphasizes on
safety and security of data..
FEATURES OF OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING:
Inheritance:
Inheritance is the process of forming a new class from an existing class or base class. The
base class is also known as parent class or super class.
Derived class is also known as a child class or sub class. Inheritance helps in
reusability of code , thus reducing the overall size of the program
Data Abstraction:
It refers to the act of representing essential features without including the background
details .Example : For driving , only accelerator, clutch and brake controls need to be
learnt rather than working of engine and other details.
Data Encapsulation:
It means wrapping up data and associated functions into one single unit called class..
A class groups its members into three sections :public, private and protected, where
private and protected members remain hidden from outside world and thereby helps in
implementing data hiding.
Modularity :
The act of partitioning a complex program into simpler fragments called modules is
called as modularity.
It reduces the complexity to some degree and
It creates a number of well defined boundaries within the program .
Polymorphism:
Poly means many and morphs mean form, so polymorphism means one name multiple
forms.
It is the ability for a message or data to be processed in more than one form.
C++ implements Polymorhism through Function Overloading , Operator overloading and
Virtual functions .
. SHAPE
area()
RECTANGLE() TRIANGLE() CIRCLE()
area(rectangle) Area(triangle) Area(circle)
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Objects and Classes :
The major components of Object Oriented Programming are . Classes & Objects
A Class is a group of similar objects . Objects share two characteristics: They all have state and
behavior. For example : Dogs have state (name, color, breed, hungry) and behavior (barking,
fetching, wagging tail). Bicycles also have state (current gear, current pedal cadence, current
speed) and behavior (changing gear, applying brakes). Identifying the state and behavior for real-
world objects is a great way to begin thinking in terms of object-oriented programming. These
real-world observations all translate into the world of object-oriented programming.
Software objects are conceptually similar to real-world objects: they too consist of state and
related behavior. An object stores its state in fields (variables in some programming languages)
and exposes its behavior through functions
Classes in Programming :
It is a collection of variables, often of different types and its associated functions.

Class just binds data and its associated functions under one unit there by enforcing
encapsulation.
Classes define types of data structures and the functions that operate on those data
structures.
A class defines a blueprint for a data type.
Declaration/Definition :
A class definition starts with the keyword class followed by the class name; and the class body,
enclosed by a pair of curly braces. A class definition must be followed either by a semicolon or a
list of declarations.
class class_name {
access_specifier_1:
member1;
access_specifier_2:
member2;
...
} object_names;
Where class_name is a valid identifier for the class, object_names is an optional list of names for
objects of this class. The body of the declaration can contain members that can either be data or
function declarations, and optionally access specifiers.
[Note: the default access specifier is private.
Example : class Box { int a;
public:
double length; // Length of a box

double breadth; // Breadth of a box
double height; // Height of a box
};
17
Access specifiers in Classes:
Access specifiers are used to identify access rights for the data and member functions of the class.
There are three main types of access specifiers in C++ programming language:
private
public
protected
Member-Access Control
Type of Access Meaning
Private Class members declared as private can be used only by member

functions and friends (classes or functions) of the class.
Protected Class members declared as protected can be used by member functions

and friends (classes or functions) of the class. Additionally, they can be
used by classes derived from the class.
Public Class members declared as public can be used by any function.
Importance of Access Specifiers
Access control helps prevent you from using objects in ways they were not intended to be
used. Thus it helps in implementing data hiding and data abstraction.
OBJECTS in C++:
Objects represent instances of a class. Objects are basic run time entities in an object oriented
system.
Creating object / defining the object of a class:
The general syntax of defining the object of a class is:-
Class_name object_name;
In C++, a class variable is known as an object. The declaration of an object is similar to that of a
variable of any data type. The members of a class are accessed or referenced using object of a
class.
Box Box1; // Declare Box1 of type Box

Box Box2; // Declare Box2 of type Box
Both of the objects Box1 and Box2 will have their own copy of data members.
Accessing / calling members of a classAll member of a class are private by default.

Private member can be accessed only by the function of the class itself.Public member of a class
can be accessed through any object of the class. They are accessed or called using object of that
class with the help of dot operator (.).
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The general syntax for accessing data member of a class is:-
Object_name.Data_member=value;
The general syntax for accessing member function of a class is:-
Object_name. Function_name (actual arguments);
The dot ('. ') used above is called the dot operator or class member access operator. The dot
operator is used to connect the object and the member function. The private data of a class can be
accessed only through the member function of that class.
Class methods definitions (Defining the member functions)

Member functions can be defined in two places:-
Outside the class definition
The member functions of a class can be defined outside the class definitions. It is only declared
inside the class but defined outside the class. The general form of member function definition
outside the class definition is:
Return_type Class_name:: function_name (argument list)

{
Function body
}
Where symbol :: is a scope resolution operator.
The scope resolution operator (::) specifies the class to which the member being declared
belongs, granting exactly the same scope properties as if this function definition was directly
included within the class definition
class sum
{
int A, B, Total;
public:
void getdata ();
void display ();
};
void sum:: getdata () // Function definition outside class definition Use of :: operator
{
cout<< \n enter the value of A and B;
cin>>A>>B;
}
void sum:: display () // Function definition outside class definition Use of :: operator
{
Total =A+B;
cout<<\n the sum of A and B=<<Total;
}
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Inside the class definition
The member function of a class can be declared and defined inside the class definition.
class sum
{
int A, B, Total;
public:
void getdata ()
{
cout< \n enter the value of A and B;
cin>>A>>B;
}
void display ()
{
total = A+B;
cout<<\n the sum of A and B=<<total;
}
};
Differences between struct and classes in C++
In C++, a structure is a class defined with the struct keyword.Its members and base classes are
public by default. A class defined with the class keyword has private members and base classes
by default. This is the only difference between structs and classes in C++.
INLINE FUNCTIONS
Inline functions definition starts with keyword inline

The compiler replaces the function call statement with the function code
itself(expansion) and then compiles the entire code.
They run little faster than normal functions as function calling overheads are saved.
A function can be declared inline by placing the keyword inline before it.
Example
inline void Square (int a)
{ cout<<a*a;}
void main()
{. In place of function
call , function body is
Square(4); { cout <<4*4;} substituted because
Square () is inline
Square(8) ; { cout <<8*8; } function
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Pass Object As An Argument
/*C++ PROGRAM TO PASS OBJECT AS AN ARGUMEMT. The program Adds the two
heights given in feet and inches. */
#include< iostream.h>
#include< conio.h>
class height
{
int feet,inches;
public:
void getht(int f,int i)
{
feet=f;
inches=i;
}
void putheight()
{
cout< < "\nHeight is:"< < feet< < "feet\t"< < inches< < "inches"< < endl;
}
void sum(height a,height b)
{
height n;
n.feet = a.feet + b.feet;
n.inches = a.inches + b.inches;
if(n.inches ==12)
{
n.feet++;
n.inches = n.inches -12;
}
cout< < endl< < "Height is "< < n.feet< < " feet and "< < n.inches< < endl;
}};
void main()
{height h,d,a;
clrscr();
h.getht(6,5);
a.getht(2,7);
h.putheight();
a.putheight();
d.sum(h,a);
getch();
}
/**********OUTPUT***********
Height is:6feet 5inches
Height is:2feet 7inches
Height is 9 feet and 0
21
4 Marks Solved Problems :
Q 1) Define a class TAXPAYER in C++ with following description :

Private members :
Name of type string
PanNo of type string
Taxabincm (Taxable income) of type float
TotTax of type double
A function CompTax( ) to calculate tax according to the following slab:
Taxable Income Tax%
Up to 160000 0
>160000 and <=300000 5
>300000 and <=500000 10
>500000 15
Public members :
A parameterized constructor to initialize all the members
A function INTAX( ) to enter data for the tax payer and call function CompTax( )
to assign TotTax.
A function OUTAX( ) to allow user to view the content of all the data members.
Ans.
class TAXPAYER
{
char Name[30],PanNo[30];
float Taxabincm;
double TotTax;
void CompTax()
{ if(Taxabincm >500000)
TotTax= Taxabincm*0.15;
else if(Taxabincm>300000)
Else if(Taxabincm>160000)
else
TotTax=0.0; }
public:
TAXPAYER(char nm[], char pan[], float tax, double tax) //parameterized constructor
{ strcpy(Name,nm);
strcpy(PanNo,pan);
Taxabincm=tax;
TotTax=ttax; }
void INTAX()
{ gets(Name);
cin>>PanNo>>Taxabincm;
CompTax(); }
void OUTAX()
{ cout<<Name<<\n<<PanNo<<\n<<Taxabincm<<\n<<TotTax<<endl; }
};
22
Q 2 : Define a class HOTEL in C++ with the following description:
Private Members
Rno //Data Member to store Room No
Name //Data Member to store customer Name
Tariff //Data Member to store per day charge
NOD //Data Member to store Number of days
CALC //A function to calculate and return amount as NOD*Tariff
and if the value of NOD*Tariff is more than 10000 then as
1.05*NOD*Tariff
Public Members:
Checkin( ) //A function to enter the content RNo,Name, Tariff and
NOD
Checkout() //A function to display Rno, Name, Tariff, NOD
and Amount (Amount to be displayed by calling function CALC( )
Solution :
class HOTEL
{ unsigned int Rno;
char Name[25];
unsigned int Tariff;
unsigned int NOD;
int CALC()
{ int x;
x=NOD*Tariff;
if( x>10000)
return(1.05*NOD*Tariff);
else
return(NOD*Tariff);
}
public:
void Checkin()
{cin>>Rno>>Name>>Tariff>>NOD;}
void Checkout()
{cout<<Rno<<Name<<Tariff<<NOD<<CALC();}
};
Q 3 Define a class Applicant in C++ with following description:

Private Members
A data member ANo ( Admission Number) of type long
A data member Name of type string
A data member Agg(Aggregate Marks) of type float
A data member Grade of type char
A member function GradeMe( ) to find the Grade as per the Aggregate Marks
obtained by a student. Equivalent Aggregate marks range and the respective Grades
are shown as follows
Aggregate Marks Grade
> = 80 A
Less than 80 and > = 65 B
Less than 65 and > = 50 C
Less than 50 D
23
Public Members
A function Enter( ) to allow user to enter values for ANo, Name, Agg & call function
GradeMe( ) to find the Grade
A function Result ( ) to allow user to view the content of all the data members.
Ans:class Applicant
{long ANo;
char Name[25];
float Agg;
char Grade;
void GradeMe( )
{ if (Agg > = 80)
Grade = A;
else if (Agg >= 65 && Agg < 80 )
Grade = B;
else if (Agg >= 50 && Agg < 65 )
Grade = C;
else
Grade = D;
}
public:
void Enter ( )
{ cout <<\n Enter Admission No. ; cin>>ANo;
cout <<\n Enter Name of the Applicant ; cin.getline(Name,25);
cout <<\n Enter Aggregate Marks obtained by the Candidate :; cin>>Agg;
GradeMe( );
}
void Result( )
{ cout <<\n Admission No. <<ANo;
cout <<\n Name of the Applicant ;<<Name;
cout<<\n Aggregate Marks obtained by the Candidate. << Agg;
cout<<\n Grade Obtained is << Grade ;
}
};
Q 4 Define a class ITEM in C++ with following description:

Private members:
Icode of type integer (Item Code)
Item of type string (Item Name)
Price of type Float (Price of each item)
Qty of type integer (Quantity in stock)
Discount of type float (Discount percentage on the item)
A find function finddisc( ) to calculate discount as per the following rule:
If Qty <=50 discount is 0%
If 50 < Qty <=100 discount is 5%
If Qty>100 discount is 10%
Public members :
A function Buy( ) to allow user to enter values for Icode, Item,Price, Qty and call function
Finddisc ( ) to calculate the discount.
A function showall ( ) to allow user to view the content of all the data members.
24
Ans : class ITEM
{int Icode,Qty;
char item[20];
float price,discount;
void finddisc();
public:
void buy();
void showall();
};
void stock::finddisc()
{If (qty<=50)
Discount=0;
Else if (qty> 50 && qty <=100)
Discount=0.05*price;
Else if (qty>100)
Discount=0.10*price;
}
void stock::buy()
{cout<<"Item Code :";cin>>Icode;
cout<<"Name :";gets(Item);
cout<<"Price :";cin>>Price;
cout<<"Quantity :";cin>>Qty;
finddisc();
}
void TEST::DISPTEST()
{cout<<"Item Code :";cout<<Icode;
cout<<"Name :";cout<<Item;
cout<<"Price :";cout<<Price;
cout<<"Quantity :";cout<<Qty;
cout<<"Discount :";cout<<discount;
}
4 marks Practice Problems :
Q 1 Define a class employee with the following specifications : 4
Private members of class employee
empno integer
ename 20 characters
basic, hra, da float
netpay float
calculate() A function to calculate basic + hra + da with float return type
Public member function of class employee

havedata() function to accept values for empno, sname, basic, hra, da and invoke
calculate() to calculate netpay.
dispdata() function to display all the data members on the screen.
Q2 Define a class Student with the following specifications : 4

Private members :
roll_no integer
name 20 characters
class 8 characters
marks[5] integer
percentage float
25
Calculate() a function that calculates overall percentage of marks and return the
percentage of marks.
public members :
Readmarks() a function that reads marks and invoke the Calculate function.
Displaymarks() a function that prints the marks.
Q3 : Define a class report with the following specification : 4

Private members :
adno 4 digit admission number
name 20 characters
marks an array of 5 floating point values
average average marks obtained
getavg() to compute the average obtained in five subjects
Public members :
readinfo() function to accept values for adno, name, marks, and invoke the function
getavg().
displayinfo() function to display all data members on the screen you should give function
definitions.
Q4 Declare a class myfolder with the following specification : 4

Private members of the class
Filenames an array of strings of size[10][25]( to represent all the names of files inside
myfolder)
Availspace long ( to represent total number of bytes available in myfolder)
Usedspace long ( to represent total number of bytes used in myfolder)
public members of the class
Newfileentry() A function to accept values of Filenames, Availspace and Usedspace

fromuser
Retavailspace() A Fucntion that returns the value of total Kilobytes available
( 1 Kilobytes = 1024 bytes)
Showfiles() a function that displays the names of all the files in myfolder
2 Marks Practice Problems
1. What is relation between class and object?

2. What are inline functions? Give example
3. Difference between private & public access specifiers.
4. How class implements data-hiding & encapsulation?
5. What is the difference between structure and a class ?
6. How is inline function different from a normal function ?
26
CONSTRUCTORS AND DESTRUCTORS
CONSTRUCTORS :
A member function with the same as its class is called Constructor and it is used to initialize the
object of that class with a legal initial value.
Example :
class Student
{
int rollno;
float marks;
public:
student( ) //Constructor
{
rollno=0;
marks=0.0;
}
//other public members
};
TYPES OF CONSRUCTORS:
1. Default Constructor:
A constructor that accepts no parameter is called the Default Constructor. If you don't declare a
constructor or a destructor, the compiler makes one for you. The default constructor and
destructor take no arguments and do nothing.
2. Parameterized Constructors:
A constructor that accepts parameters for its invocation is known as parameterized Constructors ,
also called as Regular Constructors.
DESTRUCTORS:
A destructor is also a member function whose name is the same as the class name but is
preceded by tilde(~).It is automatically by the compiler when an object is destroyed.
Destructors are usually used to deallocate memory and do other cleanup for a class object
and its class members when the object is destroyed.
A destructor is called for a class object when that object passes out of scope or is explicitly
deleted.
Example :
class TEST
{ int Regno,Max,Min,Score;
Public:
TEST( ) // Default Constructor
{ }
TEST (int Pregno,int Pscore) // Parameterized Constructor
{
Regno = Pregno ;Max=100;Max=100;Min=40;Score=Pscore;
}
~ TEST ( ) // Destructor
{ Cout<<TEST Over<<endl;}
};
The following points apply to constructors and destructors:
Constructors and destructors do not have return type, not even void nor can they return
values.
References and pointers cannot be used on constructors and destructors because their
addresses cannot be taken.
27
Constructors cannot be declared with the keyword virtual.
Constructors and destructors cannot be declared static, const, or volatile.
Unions cannot contain class objects that have constructors or destructors.
The compiler automatically calls constructors when defining class objects and calls
destructors when class objects go out of scope.
Derived classes do not inherit constructors or destructors from their base classes, but they
do call the constructor and destructor of base classes.
The default destructor calls the destructors of the base class and members of the derived
class.
The destructors of base classes and members are called in the reverse order of the
completion of their constructor:
The destructor for a class object is called before destructors for members and bases are
called.
Copy Constructor
A copy constructor is a special constructor in the C++ programming language used

to create a new object as a copy of an existing object.
A copy constructor is a constructor of the form classname(classname &).The compiler
will use the copy constructors whenever you initialize an instance using values of another
instance of the same type.
Copying of objects is achieved by the use of a copy constructor and a assignment operator.
Example :
class Sample{ int i, j;}
public:
Sample(int a, int b) // constructor
{ i=a;j=b;}
Sample (Sample & s) //copy constructor
{ j=s.j ; i=s.j;
Cout <<\n Copy constructor working \n;
}
void print (void)
{cout <<i<< j<< \n;}
:
};
Note : The argument to a copy constructor is passed by reference, the reason being that when
an argument is passed by value, a copy of it is constructed. But the copy constructor is creating
a copy of the object for itself, thus ,it calls itself. Again the called copy constructor requires
another copy so again it is called.in fact it calls itself again and again until the compiler runs
out of the memory .so, in the copy constructor, the argument must be passed by reference.
The following cases may result in a call to a copy constructor:

When an object is passed by value to a function:
The pass by value method requires a copy of the passed argument to be created for the
function to operate upon .Thus to create the copy of the passed object, copy constructor is
invoked
If a function with the following prototype :
void cpyfunc(Sample ); // Sample is a class
then for the following function call
cpyfunc(obj1); // obj1 is an object of Sample type
the copy constructor would be invoked to create a copy of the obj1 object for use
by cpyfunc().
28
When a function returns an object :
When an object is returned by a function the copy constructor is invoked
Sample cpyfunc(); // Sample is a class and it is return type of cpyfunc()
If func cpyfunc() is called by the following statement
obj2 = cpyfunc();
Then the copy constructor would be invoked to create a copy of the value returned by
cpyfunc() and its value would be assigned to obj2. The copy constructor creates a
temporary object to hold the return value of a function returning an object.
1 & 2 Marks Solved Problems :

Q1 :- Answer the questions after going through the following class.
class Exam
{char Subject[20] ;
int Marks ;
public :
Exam() // Function 1
{strcpy(Subject, Computer ) ; Marks = 0 ;}
Exam(char P[ ]) // Function 2
{strcpy(Subject, P) ;
Marks=0 ;
}
Exam(int M) // Function 3
{strcpy(Subject, Computer) ; Marks = M ;}
Exam(char P[ ], int M) // Function 4
{strcpy(Subject, P) ; Marks = M ;}
};
a) Which feature of the Object Oriented Programming is demonstrated using Function 1,
Function2, Function 3 and Function 4 in the above class Exam?
Ans:- Function Overloading (Constructor overloading)
b) Write statements in C++ that would execute Function 3 and Function 4 of class Exam.
Ans:- Exam a(10); and Exam b(Comp, 10);
Q2 Consider the following declaration :

class welcome
{public:
welcome (int x, char ch); // constructor with parameter
welcome(); // constructor without parameter
void compute();
private:
int x; char ch;
};
which of the following are valid statements
welcome obj (33, a9);
welcome obj1(50, 9);
welcome obj3();
obj1= welcome (45, T);
obj3= welcome;
29
Ans. Valid and invalid statements are
welcome obj (33, a9); valid
welcome obj1(50, 9); valid
welcome obj3(); invalid
obj1= welcome (45, T); valid
obj3= welcome; invalid
2 Marks Practice Problems

Q1 What do you understand by constructor and destructor functions used in classes ? How are
these functions different from other member functions ? 2
Q2 What do you understand by default constructor and copy constructor functions used in classes
? How are these functions different from normal constructors ? 2
Q3 Given the following C++ code, answer the questions (i) & (ii). 2
class TestMeOut
{
public :
~TestMeOut() // Function 1
{ cout << "Leaving the examination hall " << endl; }
TestMeOut() // Function 2
{ cout << "Appearing for examination " << endl; }
void MyWork() // Function 3
{ cout << "Attempting Questions " << endl; }
};
(i) In Object Oriented Programming, what is Function 1 referred as and when does it get invoked
/ called ?
(ii) In Object Oriented Programming, what is Function 2 referred as and when does it get invoked
/ called ?
30
INHERITANCE
Inheritance is the process by which new classes called derived classes are created
from existing classes called base classes.
The derived classes have all the features of the base class and the programmer can choose
to add new features specific to the newly created derived class.
The idea of inheritance implements the is a relationship. For example, mammal IS-A
animal, dog IS-A mammal hence dog IS-A animal as well and so on.
Features or Advantages of Inheritance:
Reusability of Code
Saves Time and Effort
Faster development, easier maintenance and easy to extend
Capable of expressing the inheritance relationship and its transitive nature which
ensures closeness with real world problems .
Base & Derived Classes:
A class can be derived from more than one classes, which means it can inherit data and functions
from multiple base classes. A class derivation list names one or more base classes and has the
form:
class derived-class: access-specifier base-class
Where access is one of public, protected, or private.
For example, if the base class is MyClass and the derived class is sample it is specified as:
class sample: public MyClass

The above makes sample have access to both public and protected variables of base class
MyClass.
EXAMPLE OF SINGLE INHERITANCE
Consider a base class Shape and its derived class Rectangle as follows:
// Base class
class Shape
{
public:
void setWidth(int w)
{
width = w;
}
void setHeight(int h)
{
height = h;
}
protected:
int width;
int height;
};
31
// Derived class
class Rectangle: public Shape
{
public:
int getArea()
{
return (width * height);
}
};
int main(void)
{
Rectangle Rect;
Rect.setWidth(5);
Rect.setHeight(7);
// Print the area of the object.
cout << "Total area: " << Rect.getArea() << endl;
return 0;
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:
Total area: 35
Access Control and Inheritance:

A derived class can access all the non-private members of its base class. Thus base-class members
that should not be accessible to the member functions of derived classes should be declared
private in the base class.We can summarize the different access types according to who can access
them in the following way:
Access public protected private

Same class yes yes yes
Derived classes yes yes no
Outside classes yes no no
A derived class inherits all base class methods with the following exceptions:
Constructors, destructors and copy constructors of the base class.

Overloaded operators of the base class.
The friend functions of the base class.
When deriving a class from a base class, the base class may be inherited through public,
protected or private inheritance. We hardly use protected or private inheritance but public
inheritance is commonly used. While using different type of inheritance, following rules are
applied:
32
1. Public Inheritance: When deriving a class from a public base class, public members of
the base class become public members of the derived class and protected members of the
base class become protected members of the derived class. A base class's private
members are never accessible directly from a derived class, but can be accessed through
calls to the public and protected members of the base class.
2. Protected Inheritance: When deriving from a protected base class, public and
protected members of the base class become protected members of the derived class.
3. Private Inheritance: When deriving from a private base class, public and protected
members of the base class become private members of the derived Class.
TYPES OF INHERITANCE
1. Single class Inheritance:
Single inheritance is the one where you have a single base class and a single derived class.
Class A it is a Base class (super)
Class B it is a sub class (derived)
2. Multilevel Inheritance:
In Multi level inheritance, a subclass inherits from a class that itself inherits from another
class.
Class A
it is a Base class (super) of B
Class B it is a sub class (derived) of A

and base class of class C
Class C derived class(sub) of class B
3. Multiple Inheritance:
In Multiple inheritances, a derived class inherits from multiple base classes. It has
properties of both the base classes.
Base class
Class A Class B
Class C Derived class
33
4. Hierarchical Inheritance:
In hierarchial Inheritance, it's like an inverted tree. So multiple classes inherit from a
single base class.
Class A Base Class
Class B Class C
Sub Class( derived)
Class D
5. Hybrid Inheritance:
It combines two or more forms of inheritance .In this type of inheritance, we can have
mixture of number of inheritances but this can generate an error of using same name
function from no of classes, which will bother the compiler to how to use the functions.
Therefore, it will generate errors in the program. This has known as ambiguity or
duplicity.
Ambiguity problem can be solved by using virtual base classes
Class A
Class B Class C
Class D
4 marks Solved Problems :

Q1. Consider the following declarations and answer the questions given below :
class WORLD
{
int H;
protected :
int S;
public :
void INPUT(int);
void OUTPUT();
};
class COUNTRY : private WORLD
{
int T;
protected :
int U;
public :
void INDATA( int, int)
void OUTDATA();
};
class STATE : public COUNTRY
{
int M;
public :
void DISPLAY (void);};
34
(i) Name the base class and derived class of the class COUNTRY.
(ii) Name the data member(s) that can be accessed from function DISPLAY().
(iii) Name the member function(s), which can be accessed from the objects of class STATE.
(iv) Is the member function OUTPUT() accessible by the objects of the class COUNTRY ?
Ans (i) Base class : WORLD
Derived class : STATE
(ii) M.
(iii) DISPLAY(), INDATA() and OUTDATA()
(iv) No
Q2. Consider the following declarations and answer the questions given below :
class living_being {
char name[20];
protected:
int jaws;
public:
void inputdata(char, int);
void outputdata();
}
class animal : protected living_being {
int tail;
protected:
int legs;
public:
void readdata(int, int);
void writedata();
};
class cow : private animal {
char horn_size;
public:
void fetchdata(char);
void displaydata();
};
(i) Name the base class and derived class of the class animal.
(ii) Name the data member(s) that can be accessed from function displaydata.
(iii) Name the data member(s) that can be accessed by an object of cow class.
(iv) Is the member function outputdata accessible to the objects of animal class.
Ans (i) Base class : living_being
Derived class : cow
(ii) horn_size, legs, jaws
(iii) fetchdata() and displaydata()
(iv) No
Q3. Consider the following and answer the questions given below :
class MNC
{
char Cname[25]; // Company name
protected :
char Hoffice[25]; // Head office
public :
MNC( );
char Country[25];
void EnterDate( );
void DisplayData( );
};
35
class Branch : public MNC
{
long NOE; // Number of employees
char Ctry[25]; // Country
protected:
void Association( );
public :
Branch( );
void Add( );
void Show( );
};
class Outlet : public Branch
{
char State[25];
public :
Outlet();
void Enter();
void Output();};
(i) Which classs constructor will be called first at the time of declaration of an object of
class Outlet?
(ii) How many bytes an object belonging to class Outlet require ?
(iii) Name the member function(s), which are accessed from the object(s) of class Outlet.
(iv) Name the data member(s), which are accessible from the object(s) of class Branch.
Ans (i) class MNC
(ii) 129
(iii) void Enter(), void Output(), void Add(), void Show(), void EnterData(), void DisplayData().
(iv) char country[25]
Q4 Consider the following and answer the questions given below :

class CEO {
double Turnover;
protected :
int Noofcomp;
public :
CEO( );
void INPUT( );
void OUTPUT( );
};
class Director : public CEO {
int Noofemp;
public :
Director( );
void INDATA();
void OUTDATA( );
protected:
float Funda;
};
class Manager : public Director {
float Expense;
public :
Manager();
void DISPLAY(void);
};
36
(i) Which constructor will be called first at the time of declaration of an object of class
Manager?
(ii) How many bytes will an object belonging to class Manager require ?
(iii) Name the member function(s), which are directly accessible from the object(s) of class
Manager.
(iv) Is the member function OUTPUT() accessible by the objects of the class Director ?
Ans (i) CEO()
(ii) 16
(iii) DISPLAY(), INDATA(), OUTDATA(), INPUT(), OUTPUT()
(iv) Yes
4 marks Practice Problems:

Q1 :- Consider the following declarations and answer the questions given below:
class vehicle
{int wheels;
protected:
int passenger;
public:
void inputdata( int, int);
void outputdata();};
class heavyvehicle: protected vehicle
{int dieselpetrol;
protected:
int load;
public:
void readdata( int, int);
void writedata();};
class bus:private heavyvehicle
{char marks[20];
public:
void fetchdata(char);
void displaydata();};
(i) Name the class and derived class of the class heavyvehicle.
(ii) Name the data members that can be accessed from function displaydata()
(iii) Name the data members that can be accessed by an object of bus class
(iv) Is the member function outputdata() accessible to the objects of heavyvehicle
class.
Q2:- Consider the following declarations and answer the questions given below:
class book
{
char title[20];
char author[20];
int noof pages;
public:
void read();
void show();};
class textbook: private textbook
{int noofchapters, noofassignments;
protected:
int standard;
void readtextbook();
void showtextbook();};
class physicsbook: public textbook
{char topic[20];
37
public:
void readphysicsbook();
void showphysicsbook();}
(i) Name the members, which can be accessed from the member functions of class
physicsbook.
(ii) Name the members, which can be accessed by an object of Class textbook.
(iii) Name the members, which can be accessed by an object of Class physicsbook.
(iv) What will be the size of an object (in bytes) of class physicsbook.
Q3 : Answer the questions (i) to (iv) based on the following:

class CUSTOMER
{ int Cust_no;
char Cust_Name[20];
protected:
void Register();
public:
CUSTOMER( );
void Status( );};
class SALESMAN
{ int Salesman_no;
char Salesman_Name[20];
protected:
float Salary;
public:
SALESMAN( );
void Enter( );
void Show( );};
class SHOP : private CUSTOMER, public SALESMAN
{ char Voucher_No[10];
char Sales_Date[8;
public :
SHOP( );
void Sales_Entry( );
void Sales_Detail( );};
(i) Write the names of data members, which are accessible from object
belonging to class CUSTOMER.
(ii) Write the names of all the member functions which are accessible from
object belonging to class SALESMAN.
(iii) Write the names of all the members which are accessible from member
functions of class SHOP.
(iv) How many bytes will be required by an object belonging to class
SHOP?
2marks Practice Problems:
1. What is access specifier ? What is its role ?

2. What are the types of inheritance ?
3. What is the significance of inheritance ?
4. What is the difference between private and public visibility modes?
38
DATA FILE HANDLING IN C++
File
A file is a stream of bytes stored on some secondary storage devices.
Text file: A text file stores information in readable and printable form. Each line of text is
terminated with an EOL (End of Line) character.
Binary file: A binary file contains information in the non-readable form i.e. in the same
format in which it is held in memory.
File Stream
Stream: A stream is a general term used to name flow of data. Different streams are used
to represent different kinds of data flow.
There are three file I/O classes used for file read / write operations.
o ifstream - can be used for read operations.
o ofstream - can be used for write operations.
o fstream - can be used for both read & write operations.
fstream.h:
This header file includes the definitions for the stream classes ifstream, ofstream and
fstream. In C++ file input output facilities implemented through fstream.h header file.
It contain predefines set of operation for handling file related input and output, fstream
class ties a file to the program for input and output operation.
A file can be opened using:
o By the constructor method. This will use default streams for file input or output.
This method is preferred when file is opened in input or output mode only.
Example : ofstream file(student.dat); or ifstream file(student.dat);
o By the open() member function of the stream. It will preferred when file is
opened in various modes i.e ios::in, ios::out, ios::app, ios::ate etc.
e.g fstream file;
file.open(book.dat, ios::in | ios::out | ios::binary);
File modes:
ios::out It open file in output mode (i.e write mode) and place the file
pointer in beginning, if file already exist it will overwrite the file.
ios::in It open file in input mode(read mode) and permit reading from the file.
ios::app It open the file in write mode, and place file pointer at the end of file i.e to
add new contents and retains previous contents. If file does not
exist it will create a new file.
ios::ate It open the file in write or read mode, and place file pointer at the end of
file i.e input/ output operations can performed anywhere in the file.
ios::trunc It truncates the existing file (empties the file).
ios::nocreate If file does not exist this file mode ensures that no file is
created and open() fails.
ios::noreplace If file does not exist, a new file gets created but if the file
already exists, the open() fails.
ios::binary Opens a file in binary mode.
eof(): This function determines the end-of-file by returning true(non-zero) for end of file
otherwise returning false(zero).
close(): This function terminates the connection between the file and stream associated with it.
Stream_object.close(); e.g file.close();
Text File functions:
Char I/O :
get() read a single character from text file and store in a buffer.
e.g file.get(ch);
put() - writing a single character in textfile e.g. file.put(ch);
getline() - read a line of text from text file store in a buffer.
e.g file.getline(s,80);
39
We can also use file>>ch for reading and file<<ch writing in text file. But >> operator
does not accept white spaces.
Binary file functions:

read()- read a block of binary data or reads a fixed number of bytes from the specified
stream and store in a buffer.
Syntax : Stream_object.read((char *)& Object, sizeof(Object));
e.g file.read((char *)&s, sizeof(s));
write() write a block of binary data or writes fixed number of bytes from a specific
memory location to the specified stream.
Syntax : Stream_object.write((char *)& Object, sizeof(Object));
e.g file.write((char *)&s, sizeof(s));
Note:
Both functions take two arguments.
The first is the address of variable, and the second is the length of that variable in bytes. The
address of variable must be type cast to type char*(pointer to character type)
The data written to a file using write( ) can only be read accurately using read( ).
File Pointer: The file pointer indicates the position in the file at which the next input/output is to
occur.
Moving the file pointer in a file for various operations viz modification, deletion , searching
etc. Following functions are used:
seekg(): It places the file pointer to the specified position in input mode of file.
e.g file.seekg(p,ios::beg); or file.seekg(-p,ios::end), or file.seekg(p,ios::cur)
i.e to move to p byte position from beginning, end or current position.
seekp(): It places the file pointer to the specified position in output mode of file.
e.g file.seekp(p,ios::beg); or file.seekp(-p,ios::end), or file.seekp(p,ios::cur)
i.e to move to p byte position from beginning, end or current position.
tellg(): This function returns the current working position of the file pointer in the input mode.
e.g int p=file.tellg();
tellp(): This function returns the current working position of the file pointer in the output mode.
e.f int p=file.tellp();
Steps To Create A File
Declare an object of the desired file stream class(ifstream, ofstream, or fstream)
Open the required file to be processed using constructor or open function.
Process the file.
Close the file stream using the object of file stream.
General program structure used for creating a Text File
To create a text file using strings I/O

#include<fstream.h> //header file for file operations
void main()
{
char s[80], ch;
ofstream file(myfile.txt); //open myfile.txt in default output mode
do
{
cout<<\n enter line of text;
gets(s); //standard input
file<<s; // write in a file myfile.txt
cout<<\n more input y/n;
40
cin>>ch;
}while(ch!=n||ch!=N);
file.close();
} //end of main
To create a text file using characters I/O

void main()
{
char ch;
ofstream file(myfile.txt); //open myfile.txt in default output mode
do{
ch=getche();
if (ch==13) //check if character is enter key
cout<<\n;
else
file<<ch; // write a character in text file myfile.txt
} while(ch!=27); // check for escape key
file.close();
} //end of main
Text files in input mode:

To read content of myfile.txt and display it on monitor.
void main()
{
char ch;
ifstream file(myfile.txt); //open myfile.txt in default input mode
while(file)
{
file.get(ch) // read a character from text file myfile.txt
cout<<ch; // write a character in text file myfile.txt
}
file.close();
} //end of main
2 Marks Questions:
Write a function in a C++ to read the content of a text file DELHI.TXT and display all
those lines on screen, which are either starting with D or starting with M. [CBSE 2012]
void DispDorM()
{
ifstream File(DELHI.TXT)
char str[80];
while(File.getline(str,80))
{
if(str[0] = =D || str[0] = =M)
cout<<str<<endl;
}
File.close(); //Ignore
}
Write a function in a C++ to count the number of lowercase alphabets present in a text file
BOOK.txt.
int countalpha()
{ ifstream Fin(BOOK.txt);
char ch;
int count=0;
while(!Fin.eof())
{Fin.get(ch);
41
if (islower(ch))
count++;
}
Fin.close();
return count;
}
Function to calculate the average word size of a text file.

void calculate()
{ fstream File;
File.open(book.txt,ios::in);
char a[20];
char ch;
int i=0,sum=0,n=0;
while(File)
{ File.get(ch);
a[i]=ch;
i++;
if((ch== ) || ch(== .)||(char==,)(ch==\t)||(ch==\n)
{i --; sum=sum +i;
i=0; N++;
}
}
cout<<average word size is <<(sum/n);
}
Assume a text file coordinate.txt is already created. Using this file create a C++ function
to count the number of words having first character capital.
int countword()
char ch[25];
int count=0;
while(!Fin.eof())
{Fin>>ch;
if (isupper(ch[0]))
count++;
}
Fin.close();
return count;
}
Function to count number of lines from a text files (a line can have maximum 70 characters
or ends at .)
int countword()
char ch[70];
int count=0;
if (!Fin)
{ cout<<Error opening file! ;
exit(0);
}
42
while(1)
{Fin.getline(ch,70,.);
if (Fin.eof())
break;
count++;
}
Fin.close();
return count;
}
2/3 Marks Practice Questions

1. Write a function in C++ to count the number of uppercase alphabets present in a text file
BOOK.txt
2. Write a function in C++ to count the number of alphabets present in a text file
BOOK.txt
3. Write a function in C++ to count the number of digits present in a text file BOOK.txt
4. Write a function in C++ to count the number of white spaces present in a text file
BOOK.txt
5. Write a function in C++ to count the number of vowels present in a text file BOOK.txt
6. Assume a text file Test.txt is already created. Using this file, write a function to create
three files LOWER.TXT which contains all the lowercase vowels and UPPER.TXT
which contains all the uppercase vowels and DIGIT.TXT which contains all digits.
General program structure used for operating a Binary File

Program to create a binary file student.dat using structure.
#include<fstream.h>
struct student
{
char name[15];
float percent;
};
void main()
{
ofstream fout;
char ch;
fout.open(student.dat, ios::out | ios:: binary);
clrscr();
student s;
if(!fout)
{
cout<<File cant be opened;
break;
}
do
{
cout<<\n enter name of student;
gets(s);
cout<<\n enter persentage;
cin>>percent;
fout.write((char *)&s,sizeof(s)); // writing a record in a student.dat file
cout<<\n more record y/n;
cin>>ch;
}while(ch!=n || ch!=N);
fout.close();
}
43
Program to read a binary file student.dat display records on monitor.
#include<fstream.h>
struct student
{
char name[15];
float percent;
};
void main()
{
ifstream fin;
student s;
fin.open(student.dat,ios::in | ios:: binary);
fin.read((char *) &s, sizeof(student)); //read a record from file student.dat
while(file)
{
cout<<s.name;
cout<<\n has the percent: <<s.percent;
fin.read((char *) &s, sizeof(student));
}
fin.close();
}
Binary file using Objects and other file operations:
Consider the following class declaration then write c++ function for following file operations
viz create_file, read_file, add new records, modify record, delete a record, search for a
record.
class student
{
int rno;
char name[30];
int age;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<\n enter roll no;
cin>>rno;
cout<<\n enter name ;
gets(name);
cout<<\n enter age;
cin>>age;
}
void output()
{
cout<< \n roll no:<<rno;
cout<< \n name :<<name;
cout<< \n age:<<age;
}
int getrno() { return rno;}
};
void create_file()
{
ofstream fout;
char ch;
fout.open(student, ios::out | ios:: binary);
44
clrscr();
student s;
if(!fout)
{cout<<File cant be opened;
break;
}
do
{
s.input();
cout<<\n more record y/n;
cin>>ch;
}while(ch!=n || ch!=N);
fout.close();
}
void read_file()
{
ifstream fin;
student s;
fin.open(student.dat,ios::in | ios:: binary);
fin.read((char *) &s,sizeof(student));
while(file)
{
s.output();
cout<< \n;
fin.read((char *) & s,sizeof(student));
}
fin.close();
}
void modify_record()
{ student s;
fstream file;
file.open(student.dat,ios::in|ios::out|ios::ate|ios::binary);
int r,pos=-1;
cout<<\n enter the rollo no of student whom data to be modified;
cin>>r;
file.read((char *)&s,sizeof(s));
while(file)
{
if (r==s.getrno())
{
cout<<\n record is ;
s.output();
pos =file.tellg()-size(s);
break;
}
}
if(pos>-1)
{
cout<< \n enter new record;
s.input();
file.seekp(pos,ios::beg);
file.write((char *)&s,sizeof(s));
cout<< \n record modified successfully;
}
else
cout<< \n record not exist;
}
45
void delete_record()
{
fstream file(student.dat, ios::in|ios::binary);
fstream newfile(newstu.dat,ios::out|ios::binary);
student s;
cout<<\n enter the rollno no of student whom record to be deleted;
cin>>r;
while(file)
{
if (r!=s.getrno())
{
newfile.write((char *)&s,sizeof(s));
}
}
file.close();
newfile.close();
}
void search_record()
{
student s;
fstream file;
file.open(student.dat,ios::in|os::binary);
int r,flag=-1;
cout<<\n enter the rollo no of student whom record to be searched;
cin>>r;
while(file)
{
if (r==s.getrno())
{
cout<<\n record is ;
s.output();
flag=1;
break;
}
}
if(flag==1)
cout<< \n search successfull;
else
cout<< \n search unsuccessfull;
file.close();
}
1 Mark Questions
1. Observe the program segment carefully and answer the question that follows:
class stock
{
int Ino, Qty; Char Item[20];
public:
void Enter() { cin>>Ino; gets(Item); cin>>Qty;}
void issue(int Q) { Qty+=0;}
void Purchase(int Q) {Qty-=Q;}
int GetIno() { return Ino;}
};
void PurchaseItem(int Pino, int PQty)
{ fstream File;
46
File.open(stock.dat, ios::binary|ios::in|ios::out);
Stock s;
int success=0;
while(success= = 0 && File.read((char *)&s,sizeof(s)))
{
If(Pino= = ss.GetIno())
{
s.Purchase(PQty);
_______________________ // statement 1
_______________________ // statement 2
Success++;
}
}
if (success = =1)
cout<< Purchase Updated<<endl;
else
cout<< Wrong Item No<<endl;
File.close() ;
}
Ans.1. i) Statement 1 to position the file pointer to the appropriate place so that the data
updation is done for the required item.
File.seekp(File.tellg()-sizeof(stock);
OR
File.seekp(-sizeof(stock),ios::cur);
ii) Staement 2 to perform write operation so that the updation is done in the binary
file.
File.write((char *)&s, sizeof(s)); OR File.write((char *)&s, sizeof(stock));
3 Marks Question
2. Write a function in c++ to search for details (Phoneno and Calls) of those Phones
which have more than 800 calls from binary file phones.dat. Assuming that this
binary file contains records/ objects of class Phone, which is defined below.
class Phone CBSE 2012
{
Char Phoneno[10]; int Calls;
public:
void Get() {gets(Phoneno); cin>>Calls;}
void Billing() { cout<<Phoneno<< #<<Calls<<endl;}
int GetCalls() {return Calls;}
};
Ans 2 : void Search()
{
Phone P;
fstream fin;
fin.open( Phone.dat, ios::binary| ios::in);
while(fin.read((char *)&P, sizeof(P)))
{
if(p.GetCalls() >800)
p.Billing();
}
Fin.close(); //ignore
}};
47
3. Write a function in C++ to add new objects at the bottom of a binary file
STUDENT.DAT, assuming the binary file is containing the objects of the following
class.
class STUD
{int Rno;
char Name[20];
public:
void Enter()
{cin>>Rno;gets(Name);}
void Display(){cout<<Rno<<Name<<endl;}
};
Ans.3. void searchbook(int bookno)
{ifstream ifile(BOOK.DAT,ios::in|ios::binary);
if(!ifile)
{cout<<could not open BOOK.DAT file; exit(-1);}
else
{BOOK b; int found=0;
while(ifile.read((char *)&b, sizeof(b)))

{if(b.RBno()==bookno)
{b.Display(); found=1; break;}
}
if(! found)
cout<<record is not found ;
ifile.close();
}
}
4. Given a binary file PHONE.DAT, containing records of the following class type
class Phonlist
{
char name[20];
char address[30];
char areacode[5];
char Phoneno[15];
public:
void Register()
void Show();
void CheckCode(char AC[])
{return(strcmp(areacode,AC);
}};
Write a function TRANSFER( ) in C++, that would copy all those records which are having
areacode as DEL from PHONE.DAT to PHONBACK.DAT.
Ans 4. void TRANSFER()
{
fstream File1,File2;
Phonelist P;
File1.open(PHONE.DAT, ios::binary|ios::in);
File2.open(PHONEBACK.DAT, ios::binary|ios::OUT)
while(File1.read((char *)&P, sizeof(P)))
{ if( p.CheckCode( DEL))
File2.write((char *)&P,sizeof(P)); }
File1.close();
File2.close();
}
48
POINTERS
- Pointer is a variable that holds a memory address of another variable of same type.
- It supports dynamic allocation routines.
- It can improve the efficiency of certain routines.
C++ Memory Map :
- Program Code : It holds the compiled code of the program.
- Global Variables : They remain in the memory as long as program continues.
- Stack : It is used for holding return addresses at function calls, arguments passed to
the functions, local variables for functions. It also stores the current state of the CPU.
- Heap : It is a region of free memory from which chunks of memory are allocated via
DMA functions.
Static Memory Allocation : The amount of memory to be allocated is known in advance and
it allocated during compilation, it is referred to as Static Memory Allocation.
e.g. int a; // This will allocate 2 bytes for a during compilation.
Dynamic Memory Allocation : The amount of memory to be allocated is not known

beforehand rather it is required to allocated as and when required during runtime, it is
referred to as dynamic memory allocation.
C++ offers two operator for DMA new and delete.
e.g int x =new int; float y= new float; // dynamic allocation
delete x; delete y; //dynamic deallocation
Free Store : It is a pool of unallocated heap memory given to a program that is used by the
program for dynamic memory allocation during execution.
Declaration and Initialization of Pointers :
Datatype *variable_name;
Syntax : Datatype *variable_name;

Int *p; float *p1; char *c;
Eg. Int *p; float *p1; char *c;

Two special unary operator * and & are used with pointers. The & is a unary operator that
returns the memory address of its operand.
Eg. Int a = 10; int *p; p = &a;
Pointer arithmetic:
Two arithmetic operations, addition and subtraction, may be performed on pointers.
When you add 1 to a pointer, you are actually adding the size of whatever the pointer is
pointing at. That is, each time a pointer is incremented by 1, it points to the memory location
of the next element of its base type.
e.g. i nt *p; P++;
If current address of p is 1000, then p++ statement will increase p to 1002, not 1001.
If *c is char pointer and *p is integer pointer then
Char pointer C c+1 c+2 c+3 c+4 c+5 c+6 c+7

Address 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Int pointer p p+1 p+2 p+3
Adding 1 to a pointer actually adds the size of pointers base type.
Base address : A pointer holds the address of the very first byte of the memory location
where it is pointing to. The address of the first byte is known as BASE ADDRESS.
49
Dynamic Allocation Operators :
C++ dynamic allocation allocate memory from the free store/heap/pool, the pool of
unallocated heap memory provided to the program. C++ defines two unary operators new and
delete that perform the task of allocating and freeing memory during runtime.
Creating Dynamic Array :
Syntax : pointer-variable = new data-type [size];
e.g. int * array = new int[10];
Not array[0] will refer to the first element of array, array[1] will refer to the second element.
No initializes can be specified for arrays.
All array sizes must be supplied when new is used for array creation.
Two dimensional array :

int *arr, r, c;
r = 5; c = 5;
arr = new int [r * c];
Now to read the element of array, you can use the following loops :
For (int i = 0; i < r; i++)
{
cout << \n Enter element in row << i + 1 << : ;
For (int j=0; j < c; j++)
cin >> arr [ i * c + j];
}
Memory released with delete as below:
Syntax for simple variable : For array :

delete pointer-variable; delete [size] pointer variable;
eg. delete p; Eg. delete [ ] arr;
Pointers and Arrays :

C++ treats the name of an array as constant pointer which contains base address i.e address of
first location of array. Therefore Pointer variables are efficiently used with arrays for declaration
as well as accessing elements of arrays, because array is continuous block of same memory
locations and therefore pointer arithmetic help to traverse in the array easily.
void main()
{
int *m;
int marks[10] ={ 50,60,70,80,90,80,80,85,75,95};
m = marks; // address of first location of array or we can write it as m=&marks[0]
for(int i=0;i<10;i++)
cout<< *m++;
// or
m = marks; // address of first location of array or we can write it as m=&marks[0]
for(int i=0;i<10;i++)
cout<< *(m+i);
}
50
Array of Pointers :
To declare an array holding 10 int pointers
int * ip[10];
That would be allocated for 10 pointers that can point to integers.
Now each of the pointers, the elements of pointer array, may be initialized. To assign the address of
an integer variable phy to the forth element of the pointer array, we have to write ip[3] = & phy;
Now with *ip[3], we can find the value of phy. int *ip[5];
Index 0 1 2 3 4
address 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008
int a = 12, b = 23, c = 34, d = 45, e = 56;
Variable a b c d e
Value 12 23 34 45 56
address 1050 1065 2001 2450 2725
ip[0] = &a; ip[1] = &b; ip[2] = &c; ip[3] = &d; ip[4] = &e;
Index ip[0] ip[1] ip[2] ip[3] ip[4]

Array ip
1050 1065 2001 2450 2725
value
address 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008
ip is now a pointer pointing to its first element of ip. Thus ip is
equal to address of ip[0], i.e. 1000
*ip (the value of ip[0]) = 1050
* (* ip) = the value of *ip = 12
* * (ip+3) = * * (1006) = * (2450) = 45
Pointers and Strings :
Pointer is very useful to handle the character array also. E.g :
void main()
{ char str[] = computer;
char *cp;
cp=str;
cout<<str ; //display string
cout<<cp; // display string
for (cp =str; *cp != \0; cp++) // display character by character by character
cout << --<<*cp;
// arithmetic
str++; // not allowed because str is an array and array name is constant pointer
cp++; // allowed because pointer is a variable
cout<<cp;}
Output :
Computer
Computer
--c--o--m--p--u--t--er
omputer
51
An array of char pointers is very useful for storing strings in memory. Char
*subject[] = { Chemistry, Phycics, Maths, CS, English };
In the above given declaration subject[] is an array of char pointers whose element pointers contain
base addresses of respective names. That is, the element pointer subject[0] stores the base address of
string Chemistry, the element pointer subject[1] stores the above address of string Physics and so
forth.
An array of pointers makes more efficient use of available memory by consuming lesser number
of bytes to store the string.
An array of pointers makes the manipulation of the strings much easier. One can easily exchange
the positions of strings in the array using pointers without actually touching their
memory locations.
Pointers and CONST :

A constant pointer means that the pointer in consideration will always point to the same
address. Its address can not be modified.
A pointer to a constant refers to a pointer which is pointing to a symbolic constant. Look the
following example :
int m = 20; // integer m declaration

int *p = &m; // pointer p to an integer m
++ (*p); // ok : increments int pointer p
int * const c = &n; // a const pointer c to an intger n
++ (* c); // ok : increments int pointer c i.e. its contents
++ c; // wrong : pointer c is const address cant be modified
const int cn = 10; // a const integer cn
const int *pc = &cn; // a pointer to a const int
++ (* pc); // wrong : int * pc is const contents cant be modified
++ pc; // ok : increments pointer pc
const int * const cc = *k; // a const pointer to a const integer
++ (* cc); // wrong : int *cc is const
++ cc; // wrong : pointer cc is const
Pointers and Functions :
A function may be invoked in one of two ways :
1. call by value 2. call by reference
The second method call by reference can be used in two ways :
1. by passing the references 2. by passing the pointers
Reference is an alias name for a variable. For ex : int m =
23;
int &n = m;
int *p;
p = &m;
Then the value of m i.e. 23 is printed in the following ways : cout <<
m; // using variable name
cout << n; // using reference name
cout << *p; // using the pointer
Invoking Function by Passing the References :

When parameters are passed to the functions by reference, then the formal parameters become
52
references (or aliases) to the actual parameters to the calling function.
That means the called function does not create its own copy of original values, rather, it refers to the
original values by different names i.e. their references.
For example the program of swapping two variables with reference method :
void main()
{
void swap(int &, int &);
int a = 5, b = 6;
cout << \n Value of a : << a << and b : << b;
swap(a, b);
cout << \n After swapping value of a : << a << and b : << b;
}
void swap(int &m, int &n)
{
int temp; temp = m;
m = n;
n = temp;
}
output :
Value of a : 5 and b : 6
After swapping value of a : 6 and b : 5
Invoking Function by Passing the Pointers:

When the pointers are passed to the function, the addresses of actual arguments in the calling function
are copied into formal arguments of the called function.
That means using the formal arguments (the addresses of original values) in the called function,
we can make changing the actual arguments of the calling function.
For example the program of swapping two variables with Pointers :
void main()
{
void swap(int *m, int *n);
int a = 5, b = 6;
cout << \n Value of a : << a << and b : << b;
swap(&a, &b);
cout << \n After swapping value of a : << a << and b : << b;
}
void swap(int *m, int *n)
{
int temp;
temp = *m;
*m = *n;
*n = temp;
}
Input :
Value of a : 5 and b : 6
After swapping value of a : 6 and b : 5
53
Function returning Pointers :
The way a function can returns an int, an float, it also returns a pointer. The general form of prototype
of a function returning a pointer would be
Type * function-name (argument list);
#include <iostream.h> int

*min(int &, int &); void main()
{
int a, b, *c;
cout << \nEnter a :; cin >> a;
cout << \nEnter b :; cint >> b;
c = min(a, b);
cout << \n The minimum no is : << *c;
}
int *min(int &x, int &y)
{
if (x < y )
return (&x);
else
return (&y)
}
Dynamic structures :
The new operator can be used to create dynamic structures also i.e. the structures for which the
memory is dynamically allocated.
struct-pointer = new struct-type;
student *stu;
stu = new Student;
A dynamic structure can be released using the deallocation operator delete as shown below :
delete stu;
Objects as Function arguments :

Objects are passed to functions in the same way as any other type of variable is passed.
When it is said that objects are passed through the call-by-value, it means that the called function
creates a copy of the passed object.
A called function receiving an object as a parameter creates the copy of the object without invoking
the constructor. However, when the function terminates, it destroys this copy of the
object by invoking its destructor function.
If you want the called function to work with the original object so that there is no need to
create and destroy the copy of it, you may pass the reference of the object. Then the called function
refers to the original object using its reference or alias.
Also the object pointers are declared by placing in front of a object pointers name. Class-
name * object-pointer;
Eg. Student *stu;

The member of a class is accessed by the arrow operator (->) in object pointer method.
Eg :
class Point
54
{
int x, y;
public :
Point()
{x = y = 0;}
void getPoint(int x1, int y1)
{x = x1; y = y1; }
void putPoint()
{
cout << \n Point : ( << x << , << y << );
}};
void main()
{
Point p1, *p2;
cout << \n Set point at 3, 5 with object;
p1.getPoint(3,5);
cout << \n The point is :;
p1.putPoint();
p2 = &p1;
cout << \n Print point using object pointer :;
p2->putPoint();
cout << \n Set point at 6,7 with object pointer;
p2->getPoint(6,7);
cout<< \n The point is :;
p2->putPoint();
cout << \n Print point using object :;
p1.getPoint();}
If you make an object pointer point to the first object in an array of objects, incrementing the pointer
would make it point to the next object in sequence.
student stud[5], *sp;
---
sp = stud; // sp points to the first element (stud[0])of stud
sp++; // sp points to the second element (stud[1]) of stud sp + = 2;
// sp points to the fourth element (stud[3]) of stud sp--; // sp
points to the third element (stud[2]) of stud
You can even make a pointer point to a data member of an object. Two points should be
considered :
1. A Pointer can point to only public members of a class.
2. The data type of the pointer must be the same as that of the data member it points to.
this Pointer :
In class, the member functions are created and placed in the memory space only once. That is
only one copy of functions is used by all objects of the class.
Therefore if only one instance of a member function exists, how does it come to know which objects
data member is to be manipulated?
55
Member Function1 Member Function2 Member Function3
Object 1 Object 2 Object 3
Data Member1 Data Member1 Data Member1

Data Member 2 Data Member 2 Data Member 2
For the above figure, if Member Function2 is capable of changing the value of Data Member3
and we want to change the value of Data Member3 of Object3. How would the Member Function2
come to know which Objects Data Member3 is to be changed?
To overcome this problem this pointer is used.
When a member function is called, it is automatically passed an implicit argument that is a pointer to
the object that invoked the function. This pointer is called This.
That is if ojbect3 is invoking member function2, then an implicit argument is passed to member
function2 that points to object3 i.e. this pointer now points to object3.
The friend functions are not members of a class and, therefore, are not passed a this pointer. The static
member functions do not have a this pointer.
Solved Questions
Q. 1 How is *p different from **p ?
Ans : *p means, it is a pointer pointing to a memory location storing a value in it. But **p means, it
is a pointer pointing to another pointer which in turn points to a memory
location storing a value in it.
Q. 2 How is &p different from *p ?
Ans : &p gives us the address of variable p and *p. dereferences p and gives us the value
stored in memory location pointed to by p.
Q. 3 Find the error in following code segment :
Float **p1, p2;
P2 = &p1;
Ans : In code segment, p1 is pointer to pointer, it means it can store the address of another pointer
variable, whereas p2 is a simple pointer that can store the address of a normal variable. So here
the statement p2 = &p1 has error.
Q. 4 What will be the output of the following code segment ?
char C1 = A;
char C2 = D;
char *i, *j;
i = &C1;
j = &C2;
*i = j;
cout << C1;
Ans : It will print A.
Q. 5 How does C++ organize memory when a program is run ?
Ans : Once a program is compiled, C++ creates four logically distinct regions of memory :
(i) area to hold the compiled program code
(ii) area to hold global variables
(iii) the stack area to hold the return addresses of function calls, arguments passed to the
functions, local variables for functions, and the current state of the CPU.
(iv) The heap area from which the memory is dynamically allocated to the program.
56
Q. 6 Identify and explain the error(s) in the following code segment :
float a[] = { 11.02, 12.13, 19.11, 17.41};
float *j, *k;
j = a;
k = a + 4;
j = j * 2;
k = k / 2;
cout << *j = << *j << , *k = << *k << \n;
Ans : The erroneous statements in the code are :
j = j * 2;
k = k / 2;
Because multiplication and division operations cannot be performed on pointer and j
and k are pointers.
Q. 13 How does the functioning of a function differ when
(i) an object is passed by value ? (ii) an object is passed by reference ?
Ans : (i) When an object is passed by value, the called function creates its own copy of
theobject by just copying the contents of the passed object. It invokes the
objects copy constructor to create its copy of the object. However, the called
function destroys its copy of the object by calling the destructor function of
the object upon its termination.
(i) When an object is passed by reference, the called function does not create its own copy
of the passed object. Rather it refers to the original object using its
reference or alias name. Therefore, neither constructor nor destructor function of the
object is invoked in such a case.
2 MARKS PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between static and dynamic allocation of memory.
2. Identify and explain the error in the following program :

int main()
{int x[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
{
cout << *x;
x++;
}
return 0;
}
3. Give the output of the following :

char *s = computer;
for (int x = strlen(s) 1; x >= 0; x--)
{
for(int y =0; y <= x; y++) cout << s[y];
cout << endl;
}
57
4. Identify the syntax error(s), if any, in the following program. Also give reason for errors.
void main()
{const int i = 20;
const int * const ptr = &i;
(*ptr++; int j= 15; ptr
= &j; }
5. What is this pointer ? What is its significance ?
6. What will be the output of following program ?
void main()
{
char name1[] = ankur; char
name2[] = ankur; if (name1 !=
name2)
cout << \n both the strings are not equal;
else
cout << \n the strings are equal; }
7. Give and explain the output of the following code :
void junk (int, int *);
int main() {
int i = 6, j = -4;
junk (i, &j);
cout << i = << i << , j = << j << \n;
return 0; }
void junk(int a, int *b)
{
a = a* a;
*b = *b * *b; }
58
UNIT-2 DATA STRUCTURES
In Computer Science, a data structure is a particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so
that it can be used efficiently. Different kinds of data structures are suited to different kinds of
applications, and some are highly specialized to specific tasks. For example, Stacks are used in function
call during execution of a program, while B-trees are particularly well-suited for implementation of
databases. The data structure can be classified into following two types:
Simple Data Structure: These data structures are normally built from primitive data types like integers,
floats, characters. For example arrays and structure.
Compound Data Structure: simple data structures can be combined in various ways to form more
complex structure called compound structures. Linked Lists, Stack, Queues and Trees are examples of
compound data structure.
Data Structure Arrays

Data structure array is defined as linear sequence of finite number of objects of same type with following
set of operation:
Creating : defining an array of required size
Insertion: addition of a new data element in the in the array
Deletion: removal of a data element from the array
Searching: searching for the specified data from the array
Traversing: processing all the data elements of the array
Sorting : arranging data elements of the array in increasing or decreasing order
Merging : combining elements of two similar types of arrays to form a new array of same type
In C++ an array can be defined as
Datatype arrayname[size];
Where size defines the maximum number of elements can be hold in the array. For example
float b[10];//b is an array which can store maximum 10 float values
int c[5];
Array initialization
void main()
{
int b[10]={3,5,7,8,9};//
cout<<b[4]<<endl;
cout<<b[5]<<endl;
}
Output is
9
0
In the above example the statement int b[10]={3,5,7,8,9} assigns first 5 elements with the given values
and the rest elements are initialized with 0. Since in C++ index of an array starts from 0 to size-1 so the
expression b[4] denotes the 5th element of the array which is 9 and b[5] denotes 6th element which is
initialized with 0.
3 5 7 8 9 0 0 0 0 0
b[0] b[1] b[2] b[3] b[4] b[5] b[6] b[7] b[8] b[9]
Searching
We can use two different search algorithms for searching a specific data from an array
Linear search algorithm
Binary search algorithm
59
Linear search algorithm
In Linear search, each element of the array is compared with the given item to be searched for. This
method continues until the searched item is found or the last item is compared.
int linear_search(int a[], int size, int item)
{
int i=0;
while(i<size&& a[i]!=item)
i++;
if(i<size)
return i;//returns the index number of the item in the array
else
return -1;//given item is not present in the array so it returns -1 since -1 is not a legal index number
}
void main()
{
int b[8]={2,4,5,7,8,9,12,15},size=8;
int item;
cout<<enter a number to be searched for;
cin>>item;
int p=linear_search(b, size, item); //search item in the array b
if(p==-1)
cout<<item<< is not present in the array<<endl;
else
cout<<item << is present in the array at index no <<p;
}
In linear search algorithm, if the searched item is the first elements of the array then the loop terminates
after the first comparison (best case), if the searched item is the last element of the array then the loop
terminates after size time comparison (worst case) and if the searched item is middle element of the array
then the loop terminates after size/2 time comparisons (average case). For large size array linear search not
an efficient algorithm but it can be used for unsorted array also.
Binary search algorithm

Binary search algorithm is applicable for already sorted array only. In this algorithm, to search for the
given item from the sorted array (in ascending order), the item is compared with the middle element of the
array. If the middle element is equal to the item then index of the middle element is returned, otherwise, if
item is less than the middle item then the item is present in first half segment of the array (i.e. between 0
to middle-1), so the next iteration will continue for first half only, if the item is larger than the middle
element then the item is present in second half of the array (i.e. between middle+1 to size-1), so the next
iteration will continue for second half segment of the array only. The same process continues until either
the item is found (search successful) or the segment is reduced to the single element and still the item is
not found (search unsuccessful).
int binary_search(int a[ ], int size, int item)
{
int first=0,last=size-1,middle;
while(first<=last)
{
middle=(first+last)/2;
60
if(item==a[middle])
return middle; // item is found
else if(item< a[middle])
last=middle-1; //item is present in left side of the middle element
else
first=middle+1; // item is present in right side of the middle element
}
return -1; //given item is not present in the array, here, -1 indicates unsuccessful search
}
void main()
{
int b[8]={2,4,5,7,8,9,12,15},size=8;
int item;
cout<<enter a number to be searched for;
cin>>item;
int p=binary_search(b, size, item); //search item in the array b
if(p==-1)
cout<<item<< is not present in the array<<endl;
else
cout<<item << is present in the array at index no <<p;
}
Let us see how this algorithm work for item=12
Initializing first =0 ; last=size-1; where size=8
Iteration 1
A[0] a[1] [2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7]
2 4 5 7 8 9 12 15
first middle last
First=0, last=7
middle=(first+last)/2=(0+7)/2=3 // note integer division 3.5 becomes 3
value of a[middle] i.e. a[3] is 7
7<12 then first= middle+1 i.e. 3 + 1 =4
iteration 2
A[4] a[5] a[6] a[7]
8 9 12 15
first middle last

first=4, last=7
middle=(first+last)/2=(4+7)/2=5
value of a[middle] i.e. a[5] is 9
9<12 then first=middle+1;5+1=6
iteration 3
a[6] a[7]
12 15
first middle last

first=6,last=7
61
middle=(first+last)/2 = (6+7)/2=6
value of a[middle] i.e. a[6] is 12 which is equal to the value of item being search i.e.12
As a successful search the function binary_search() will return to the main function with value 6 as
index of 12 in the given array. In main function p hold the return index number.
Note that each iteration of the algorithm divides the given array in to two equal segments and the only one
segment is compared for the search of the given item in the next iteration. For a given array of size N= 2 n
elements, maximum n number of iterations are required to make sure whether the given item is present in
the given array or not, where as the linear requires maximum 2n number of iteration. For example, the
number of iteration required to search an item in the given array of 1000 elements, binary search requires
maximum 10 (as 1000210) iterations where as linear search requires maximum 1000 iterations.
Inserting a new element in an array

We can insert a new element in an array in two ways
If the array is unordered, the new element is inserted at the end of the array
If the array is sorted then the new element is added at appropriate position without altering the
order. To achieve this, all elements greater than the new element are shifted. For example, to add
10 in the given array below:
a[0] a[1] [2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7] a[8]
2 4 5 7 8 11 12 15
Original array
a[0] a[1] [2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7] a[8]
2 4 5 7 8 11 12 15
Elements greater than 10 shifted to create free place to insert 10
a[0] a[1] [2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7] a[8]
2 4 5 7 8 10 11 12 15
Array after insertion
Following program implement insertion operation for sorted array
void insert(int a[ ], int &n, int item) //n is the number of elements already present in the array
{
int i=n-1;
while (i>=0 && a[i]>item)
{
a[i+1]=a[i]; // shift the ith element one position towards right
i--;
}
a[i+1]=item; //insertion of item at appropriate place
n++; //after insertion, number of elements present in the array is increased by 1
}
void main()
{int a[10]={2,4,5,7,8,11,12,15},n=8;
int i=0;
cout<<Original array is:\n;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<a[i]<<, ;
insert(a,n,10);
cout<<\nArray after inserting 10 is:\n;
62
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
cout<<a[i]<<, ;
}
Output is
Original array is:
2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15
Array after inserting 10 is:
2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15
Deletion of an item from a sorted array

In this algorithm the item to be deleted from the sorted array is searched and if the item is found in the
array then the element is removed and the rest of the elements are shifted one position toward left in the
array to keep the ordered array undisturbed. Deletion operation reduces the number of elements present in
the array by1. For example, to remove 11 from the given array below:
a[0] a[1] [2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7]
2 4 5 7 8 11 12 15
Original array
a[0] a[1] [2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7]
2 4 5 7 8 12 15
Element removed
a[0] a[1] [2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7]
2 4 5 7 8 12 15
Array after shifting the rest element
Following program implement deletion operation for sorted array
void delete_item(int a[ ], int &n, int item) //n is the number of elements already present in the array
{int i=0;
while(i<n && a[i]<item)
i++;
if (a[i]==item) // given item is found
{while (i<n)
{a[i]=a[i+1]; // shift the (i+1)th element one position towards left
i++;
}
cout<<\n Given item is successfully deleted;
}
else
cout<<\n Given item is not found in the array;
n--;
}
void main()
{int a[10]={2,4,5,7,8,11,12,15},n=8;
int i=0;
cout<<Original array is :\n;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<a[i]<<, ;
delete_item(a,n,11);
cout<<\nArray after deleting 11 is:\n;
63
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
cout<<a[i]<<, ;
}
Output is
Original array is:
2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15
Given item is successfully deleted
Array after deleting 11 is:
2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 12, 15
Traversal
Processing of all elements (i.e. from first element to the last element) present in one-dimensional array is
called traversal. For example, printing all elements of an array, finding sum of all elements present in an
array.
void print_array(int a[ ], int n) //n is the number of elements present in the array
{int i;
cout<<\n Given array is :\n;
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
cout<<a[i]<<, ;
}
int sum(int a[ ], int n)
{int i,s=0;
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
s=s+a[i];
return s;
}
void main()
{int b[10]={3,5,6,2,8,4,1,12,25,13},n=10;
int i, s;
print_array(b,n);
s=sum(b,n);
cout<<\n Sum of all elements of the given array is : <<s;
}
Output is
Given array is
3, 5, 6, 2, 8, 4, 1, 12, 25, 13
Sum of all elements of the given array is : 79
Sorting
The process of arranging the array elements in increasing (ascending) or decreasing (descending) order is
known as sorting. There are several sorting techniques are available e.g. selection sort, insertion sort,
bubble sort, quick sort, heap short etc. But in CBSE syllabus only selection sort, insertion sort, bubble sort
are specified.
Selection Sort
The basic idea of a selection sort is to repeatedly select the smallest element in the remaining unsorted
array and exchange the selected smallest element with the first element of the unsorted array. For
example, consider the following unsorted array to be sorted using selection sort
64
Original array
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 5 9 3 16 4 7
iteration 1 : Select the smallest element from unsorted array which is 3 and exchange 3 with the first
element of the unsorted array i.e. exchange 3 with 8. After iteration 1 the element 3 is at its
final position in the array.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 5 9 8 16 4 7
Iteration 2: The second pass identify 4 as the smallest element and then exchange 4 with 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 9 8 16 5 7
Iteration 3: The third pass identify 5 as the smallest element and then exchange 5 with 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 8 16 9 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 7 16 9 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 7 8 9 16
Iteration 6: The third pass identify 9 as the smallest element and then exchange 9 with 9 which makes
no effect.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 7 8 9 16
The unsorted array with only one element i.e. 16 is already at its appropriate position so no more iteration
is required. Hence to sort n numbers, the number of iterations required is n-1, where in each next iteration,
the number of comparison required to find the smallest element is decreases by 1 as in each pass one
element is selected from the unsorted part of the array and moved at the end of sorted part of the array .
For n=7 the total number of comparison required is calculated as
Pass1: 6 comparisons i.e. (n-1)
Pass6: 1 comparison i.e. (n-6)=(n-(n-1))
Total comparison for n=(n-1)+(n-2)+(n-3)+ .+(n-(n-1))= n(n-1)/2
7=6+5+4+3+2+1=7*6/2=21;
Note: For given array of n elements, selection sort always executes n(n-1)/2 comparison statements
irrespective of whether the input array is already sorted(best case), partially sorted(average case) or
totally unsorted(i.e. in reverse order)(worst case).
void select_sort(int a[ ], int n) //n is the number of elements present in the array
{int i, j, p, small;
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{small=a[i]; // initialize small with the first element of unsorted part of the array
p=i; // keep index of the smallest number of unsorted part of the array in p
65
for(j=i+1; j<n; j++) //loop for selecting the smallest element form unsorted array
{if(a[j]<small)
{small=a[j];
p=j;
}
}// end of inner loop----------
//----------exchange the smallest element with ith element-------------
a[p]=a[i];
a[i]=small;
//-----------end of exchange-------------
}
}//end of function
void main( )
{int a[7]={8,5,9,3,16,4,7},n=7,i;
cout<<\n Original array is :\n;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<a[i]<<, ;
select_sort(a,n);
cout<<\nThe sorted array is:\n;
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
cout<<a[i]<<, ;
}
Output is
Original array is
8, 5, 9, 3, 16, 4, 7
The sorted array is
3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 16
Insertion Sort
Insertion sort algorithm divides the array of n elements in to two subparts, the first subpart contain a[0] to
a[k] elements in sorted order and the second subpart contain a[k+1] to a[n] which are to be sorted. The
algorithm starts with only first element in the sorted subpart because array of one element is itself in
sorted order. In each pass, the first element of the unsorted subpart is removed and is inserted at the
appropriate position in the sorted array so that the sorted array remain in sorted order and hence in each
pass the size of the sorted subpart is increased by 1 and size of unsorted subpart is decreased by 1. This
process continues until all n-1 elements of the unsorted arrays are inserted at their appropriate position in
the sorted array.
For example, consider the following unsorted array to be sorted using selection sort
Original array
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 5 9 3 16 4 7
Sorted unsorted
Initially the sorted subpart contains only one element i.e. 8 and the unsorted subpart contains n-1 elements
where n is the number of elements in the given array.
Iteration1: To insert first element of the unsorted subpart i.e. 5 into the sorted subpart, 5 is compared
with all elements of the sorted subpart starting from rightmost element to the leftmost
element whose value is greater than 5, shift all elements of the sorted subpart whose value
is greater than 5 one position towards right to create an empty place at the appropriate
66
position in the sorted array, store 5 at the created empty place, here 8 will move from
position a[0] to a[1] and a[0] is filled by 5. After first pass the status of the array is:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 9 3 16 4 7
Sorted unsorted
Iteration2: In second pass 9 is the first element of the unsorted subpart, 9 is compared with 8, since 8
is less than 9 so no shifting takes place and the comparing loop terminates. So the element
9 is added at the rightmost end of the sorted subpart. After second pass the status of the
array is:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 9 3 16 4 7
Sorted unsorted
Iteration3: in third pass 3 is compared with 9, 8 and 5 and shift them one position towards right and
insert 3 at position a[0]. After third pass the status of the array is:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 5 8 9 16 4 7
Sorted unsorted
Iteration4: in forth pass 16 is greater than the largest number of the sorted subpart so it remains at the
same position in the array. After fourth pass the status of the array is:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 5 8 9 16 4 7
Sorted unsorted
Iteration5: in fifth pass 4 is inserted after 3. After third pass the status of the array is:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 8 9 16 7
Sorted unsorted
Iteration6: in sixth pass 7 is inserted after 5. After fifth pass the status of the array is:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 7 8 9 16
Sorted
Insertion sort take advantage of sorted(best case) or partially sorted(average case) array because if all
elements are at their right place then in each pass only one comparison is required to make sure that the
element is at its right position. So for n=7 only 6 (i.e. n-1) iterations are required and in each iteration only
one comparison is required i.e. total number of comparisons required= (n-1)=6 which is better than the
selection sort (for sorted array selection sort required n(n-1)/2 comparisons). Therefore insertion sort is
best suited for sorted or partially sorted arrays.
void insert_sort(int a[ ],int n) //n is the no of elements present in the array
{int i, j,p;
for (i=1; i<n; i++)
{p=a[i];
j=i-1;
//inner loop to shift all elements of sorted subpart one position towards right
67
while(j>=0&&a[j]>p)
{
a[j+1]=a[j];
j--;
}
//---------end of inner loop
a[j+1]=p; //insert p in the sorted subpart
}
}
void main( )
{
int a[7]={8,5,9,3,16,4,7},n=7,i;
cout<<\n Original array is :\n;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<a[i]<<, ;
insert_sort(a,n);
cout<<\nThe sorted array is:\n;
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
cout<<a[i]<<, ;
}
Output is
Original array is
8, 5, 9, 3, 16, 4, 7
The sorted array is
3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 16
Bubble Sort
Bubble sort compares a[i] with a[i+1] for all i=0..n-2, if a[i] and a[i+1] are not in ascending order then
exchange a[i] with a[i+1] immediately. After each iteration all elements which are not at their proper
position move at least one position towards their right place in the array. The process continues until all
elements get their proper place in the array (i.e. algorithm terminates if no exchange occurs in the last
iteration)
For example, consider the following unsorted array to be sorted using selection sort
Original array
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 5 9 3 16 4 7
Iteration1: The element a[0] i.e. 8 is compared with a[1] i.e. 5, since 8>5 therefore exchange 8 with 5.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 9 3 16 4 7
The element a[1] i.e. 8 and a[2] i.e. 9 are already in ascending order so no exchange required
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 9 3 16 4 7
The element a[2] i.e. 9 and a[3] i.e. 3 are not in ascending order so exchange a[2] with a[3]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 3 9 16 4 7
The element a[3] i.e. 9 and a[4] i.e. 16 are in ascending order so no exchange required
68
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 3 9 16 4 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 9 3 4 16 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 9 3 4 7 16
Since in iteration1 some elements were exchanged with each other which shows that array
was not sorted yet, next iteration continues. The algorithm will terminate only if the last
iteration do not process any exchange operation which assure that all elements of the array
are in proper order.
Iteration2: only exchange operations are shown in each pass
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 9 3 4 7 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 3 9 4 7 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 3 4 9 7 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 3 4 7 9 16
In iteration 2 some exchange operations were processed, so, at least one more iteration is
required to assure that array is in sorted order.
Iteration3:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 8 3 4 7 9 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 3 8 4 7 9 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 3 4 8 7 9 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 3 4 7 8 9 16
Iteration4:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 3 4 7 8 9 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 5 4 7 8 9 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 7 8 9 16
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Iteration5:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 7 8 9 16
In iteration 5 no exchange operation executed because all elements are already in proper
order therefore the algorithm will terminate after 5th iteration.
Merging of two sorted arrays into third array in sorted order
Algorithm to merge arrays a[m](sorted in ascending order) and b[n](sorted in descending order) into third
array C[n+m] in ascending order.
Merge(int a[ ], int m, int b[n], int c[ ])// m is size of array a and n is the size of array b
{int i=0; // i points to the smallest element of the array a which is at index 0
int j=n-1;// j points to the smallest element of the array b which is at the index m-1 since b is
// sortet in descending order
int k=0; //k points to the first element of the array c
while(i<m&&j>=0)
{if(a[i]<b[j])
c[k++]=a[i++]; // copy from array a into array c and then increment i and k
else
c[k++]=b[j--]; // copy from array b into array c and then decrement j and increment k
}
while(i<m) //copy all remaining elements of array a
c[k++]=a[i++];
while(j>=0) //copy all remaining elements of array b
c[k++]=b[j--];
}
void main()
{int a[5]={2,4,5,6,7},m=5; //a is in ascending order
int b[6]={15,12,4,3,2,1},n=6; //b is in descending order
int c[11];
merge(a, m, b, n, c);
cout<<The merged array is :\n;
for(int i=0; i<m+n; i++)
cout<<c[i]<, ;
}
Output is
The merged array is:
1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 15
Two dimensional arrays

In computing, row-major order and column-major order describe methods for storing multidimensional
arrays in linear memory. Following standard matrix notation, rows are identified by the first index of a
two-dimensional array and columns by the second index. Array layout is critical for correctly passing
arrays between programs written in different languages. Row-major order is used in C, C++; column-
major order is used in Fortran and MATLAB.
Row-major order
In row-major storage, a multidimensional array in linear memory is accessed such that rows are stored one
after the other. When using row-major order, the difference between addresses of array cells in increasing
rows is larger than addresses of cells in increasing columns. For example, consider this 23 array:
70
An array declared in C as
int A[2][3] = { {1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6} };
would be laid out contiguously in linear memory as:
1 2 3 4 5 6
To traverse this array in the order in which it is laid out in memory, one would use the following nested
loop:
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++)
for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)
cout<<A[i][j];
The difference in offset from one column to the next is 1*sizeof(type) and from one row to the next is
3*sizeof(type). The linear offset from the beginning of the array to any given element A[row][column]
can then be computed as:
offset = row*NUMCOLS + column
Address of element A[row][column] can be computed as:
Address of A[row][column]=base address of A + (row*NUMCOLS + column)* sizeof (type)
Where NUMCOLS is the number of columns in the array.
The above formula only works when using the C, C++ convention of labeling the first element 0. In other
words, row 1, column 2 in matrix A, would be represented as A[0][1]
Note that this technique generalizes, so a 222 array looks like:
int A[2][2][2] = {{{1,2}, {3,4}}, {{5,6}, {7,8}}};
and the array would be laid out in linear memory as:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example 1.
For a given array A[10][20] is stored in the memory along the row with each of its elements occupying 4
bytes. Calculate address of A[3][5] if the base address of array A is 5000.
Solution:
For given array A[M][N] where M=Number of rows, N =Number of Columns present in the array
address of A[I][J]= base address+(I * N + J)*sizeof(type)
here M=10, N=20, I=3, J=5, sizeof(type)=4 bytes
address of A[3][5] = 5000 + (3 * 20 + 5) * 4

= 5000 + 65*4=5000+260=5260
71
Example 2.
An array A[50][20] is stored in the memory along the row with each of its elements occupying 8 bytes.
Find out the location of A[5][10], if A[4][5] is stored at 4000.
Solution:
Calculate base address of A i.e. address of A[0][0]

address of A[I][J]= base address+(I * N + J)*sizeof(type)
here M=50, N=20, sizeof(type)=8, I=4, J=5
address of A[4][5] = base address + (4*20 +5)*8
4000 = base address + 85*8
Base address= 4000-85*8= 4000-680=3320
Now to find address of A[5][10]
Address of A[5][10] = base address +(5*20 + 10)*8
=3320 + 110*8 = 3320+880 = 4200
As C, C++ supports n dimensional arrays along the row, the address calculation formula can be
generalized for n dimensional array as:
For 3 dimentional array A[m][n][p], find address of a[i][j][k]:
Address of a[i][j][k] = base address + ( (I * n + j ) * p + k ) * sizeof(type)
For 4 dimentional array A[m][n][p][q], find address of a[i][j][k][l]:

Address of a[i][j][k][l] = base address + ( ( (I * n + j ) * p + k ) * p + l ) * sizeof(type)
Column-major order is a similar method of flattening arrays onto linear memory, but the columns are
listed in sequence. The programming languages Fortran, MATLAB, use column-major ordering. The
array
if stored contiguously in linear memory with column-major order would look like the following:
1 4 2 5 3 6
The memory offset could then be computed as:

offset = row + column*NUMROWS
Address of element A[row][column] can be computed as:
Address of A[row][column]=base address of A + (column*NUMROWS +rows)* sizeof (type)
Where NUMROWS represents the number of rows in the array in this case, 2.
Treating a row-major array as a column-major array is the same as transposing it. Because performing a
transpose requires data movement, and is quite difficult to do in-place for non-square matrices, such
transpositions are rarely performed explicitly. For example, software libraries for linear algebra, such as
the BLAS, typically provide options to specify that certain matrices are to be interpreted in transposed
order to avoid the necessity of data movement
72
Example1.
For a given array A[10][20] is stored in the memory along the column with each of its elements occupying
4 bytes. Calculate address of A[3][5] if the base address of array A is 5000.
Solution:
Address of A[I][J]= base address + (J * M + I)*sizeof(type)
here M=10, N=20, I=3, J=5, sizeof(type)=4 bytes
Address of A[3][5] = 5000 + (5 * 10 + 3) * 4

= 5000 + 53*4 = 5000+215 =5215
Example2.
An array A[50][20] is stored in the memory along the column with each of its elements occupying 8 bytes.
Find out the location of A[5][10], if A[4][5] is stored at 4000.
Solution:
Calculate base address of A i.e. address of A[0][0]
address of A[I][J]= base address+(J * M + I)*sizeof(type)
address of A[4][5] = base address + (5 * 50 +4)*8
4000 = base address + 254*8
Base address= 4000-55*8= 4000-2032=1968
Now to find address of A[5][10]
here M=50, N=20, sizeof(type)=8, I =5, J=10
Address of A[5][10] = base address +(10*50 + 10)*8
=1968 + 510*8 = 1968+4080 = 6048
4 Marks Questions
1. Write a function in C++ which accepts an integer array and its size as arguments and replaces elements
having even values with its half and elements having odd values with twice its value
2. Write a function in C++ which accepts an integer array and its size as argument and exchanges the
value of first half side elements with the second half side elements of the array.
Example: If an array of eight elements has initial content as 2,4,1,6,7,9,23,10. The function should
rearrange the array as 7,9,23,10,2,4,1,6.
3. Write a function in c++ to find and display the sum of each row and each column of 2 dimensional
array. Use the array and its size as parameters with int as the data type of the array.
4. Write a function in C++, which accepts an integer array and its size as parameters and rearrange the
array in reverse. Example if an array of five members initially contains the elements as 6,7,8,13,9,19
Then the function should rearrange the array as 19,9,13,8,7,6
5. Write a function in C++, which accept an integer array and its size as arguments and swap the elements
of every even location with its following odd location. Example : if an array of nine elements initially
contains the elements as 2,4,1,6,5,7,9,23,10 Then the function should rearrange the array as
4,2,6,1,7,5,23,9,10
6. Write a function in C++ which accepts an integer array and its size as arguments and replaces elements
having odd values with thrice and elements having even values with twice its value. Example: If an array
of five elements initially contains the elements 3,4,5,16,9
Then the function should rearrange the content of the array as 9,8,15,32,27
73
STACKS, QUEUES AND LINKED LIST
Stack
In computer science, a stack is a last in, first out (LIFO) data structure. A stack can is characterized by
only two fundamental operations: push and pop. The push operation adds an item to the top of the stack.
The pop operation removes an item from the top of the stack, and returns this value to the caller.
A stack is a restricted data structure, because only a small number of operations are performed on it. The
nature of the pop and push operations also mean that stack elements have a natural order. Elements are
removed from the stack in the reverse order to the order of their addition: therefore, the lower elements are
those that have been on the stack the longest. One of the common uses of stack is in function call.
Stack using array

const int size=5
class stack
{int a[size]; //array a can store maximum 5 item of type int of the stack
int top; //top will point to the last item pushed onto the stack
public:
stack(){top=-1;} //constructor to create an empty stack, top=-1 indicate that no item is //present in the
array
void push(int item)
{If(top==size-1)
cout<<stack is full, given item cannot be added;
else
a[++top]=item; //increment top by 1 then item at new position of the top in the array a
}
int pop()
{If (top==-1)
{out<<Stack is empty ;
return -1; //-1 indicates empty stack
}
else
return a[top--];//return the item present at the top of the stack then decrement top by 1
}
void main()
{ stack s1;
s1.push(3);
s1.push(5);
cout<<s1.pop()<<endl;
cout<<s1.pop();
}
74
Output is
5
3
Stack is empty -1
In the above program the statement stack s1 creates s1 as an empty stack and the constructor initialize top
by -1.
Initially stack is empty stack after s1.push(3) stack after s1.push(5)
4
4
3 4
3 3
2
2 2
1
1 top 1 5
0
top 0 3 0 3
top -1
After first s1.pop() statement, the item 5 is removed from the stack and top moves from 1 to 0
4
3
2
1
top 0 3
After second s1.pop() statement, the item 3 is removed from stack and top moves from 0 to -1 which
indicates that now stack is empty.
4
3
2
1
0
top -1
After third s1.pop() statement the pop function display error message stack is empty and returns -1 to
indicating that stack is empty and do not change the position of top of the stack.
Linked list
In Computer Science, a linked list (or more clearly, "singly-linked list") is a data structure that consists of
a sequence of nodes each of which contains data and a pointer which points (i.e., a link) to the next node
in the sequence.
A linked list whose nodes contain two fields: an integer value and a link to the next node
The main benefit of a linked list over a conventional array is that the list elements can easily be added or
removed without reallocation or reorganization of the entire structure because the data items need not be
stored contiguously in memory or on disk .Stack using linked lists allow insertion and removal of nodes
only at the position where the pointer top is pointing to.
Stack implementation using linked list

struct node
75
{
int item; //data that will be stored in each node
node * next; //pointer which contains address of another node
}; //node is a self referential structure which contains reference of another object type node
class stack
{node *top;
public:
stack() //constructor to create an empty stack by initializing top with NULL
{ top=NULL; }
void push(int item);
int pop();
~stack();
};
void stack::push(int item) //to insert a new node at the top of the stack
{node *t=new node; //dynamic memory allocation for a new object of node type
if(t==NULL)
cout<<Memory not available, stack is full;
else
{t->item=item;
t->next=top; //newly created node will point to the last inserted node or NULL if
//stack is empty
top=t; //top will point to the newly created node
}
}
int stack::pop()//to delete the last inserted node(which is currently pointed by the top)
{if(top==NULL)
{cout<<Stack is empty \n;
return 0; // 0 indicating that stack is empty
}
else
{node *t=top; //save the address of top in t
int r=top->item; //store item of the node currently pointed by top
top=top->next; // move top from last node to the second last node
delete t; //remove last node of the stack from memory
return r;
}
}
stack::~stack() //de-allocated all undeleted nodes of the stack when stack goes out of scope
{node *t;
while(top!=NULL)
{t=top;
top=top->next;
delete t;
}
};
void main()
{
76
stack s1;
s1.push(3);
s1.push(5);
s1.push(7);
}
Output is
7
5
3
Stack is empty 0
In the above program the statement stack s1; invokes the constructor stack() which create an empty stack
object s1 and initialize top with NULL.
top NULL
After statement s1.push(3) the stack become
top 3 NULL
top 5 3 NULL
top 7 5 3 NULL
After the first s1.pop() statement the node currently pointed by top (i.e. node containing 7) is deleted from
the stack, after deletion the status of stack is
top 5 3 NULL
After the second s1.pop() statement the node currently pointed by top (i.e. node containing 5) is deleted
from the stack, after deletion the status of stack is
top 3 NULL
After the third s1.pop() statement the node currently pointed by top (i.e. node containing 3) is deleted from
the stack, after deletion the stack become empty i.e.
Top NULL
After the fourth s1.pop() statement, the error message stack is empty displayed and the pop() function
return 0 to indicate that stack is empty.
77
Application of stacks in infix expression to postfix expression conversion
Infix expression operand1 operator operand2 for example a+b
Postfix expression operand1 operand2 operator for example ab+
Prefix expression operator operand1 operand2 for example +ab
Some example of infix expression and their corresponding postfix expression
Infix expression postfix expression
a*(b-c)/e abc-*e/
(a+b)*(c-d)/e ab+cd-*e/
(a+b*c)/(d-e)+f abc*+de-/f+
Algorithm to convert infix expression to postfix expression using stack

Let the infix expression INEXP is to be converted in to equivalent postfix expression POSTEXP. The
postfix expression POSTEXP will be constructed from left to right using the operands and operators
(except (, and )) from INEXP. The algorithm begins by pushing a left parenthesis onto the empty
stack, adding a right parenthesis at the end of INEXP, and initializing POSTEXP with null. The algorithm
terminates when stack become empty.
The algorithm contains following steps
1. Initialize POSTEXP with null

2. Add ) at the end of INEXP
3. Create an empty stack and push ( on to the stack
4. Initialize i=0,j=0
5. Do while stack is not empty
6. If INEXP[i] is an operand then
POSTEXP[j]=INEXP[i]
I=i+1
j=j+1
Goto step 5
7. If INEXP[i] is ( then
push (INEXP[i])
i=i+1
Goto step 5
8. If INEXP[i] is an operator then
While precedence of the operator at the top of the stack > precedence of operator
POSTEXP[j]=pop()
J=j+1
End of while
Push (INEXP[i])
I=i+1
Goto step 5
9. If INEXP[i] is ) then
While the operator at the top of the stack is not (
POSTEXP[j]=pop()
J=j+1
End while
Pop()
10. End of step 5
11. End algorithm
For example convert the infix expression (A+B)*(C-D)/E into postfix expression showing stack status
after every step.
78
Symbol scanned from infix Stack status ( bold letter Postfix expression
shows the top of the stack)
(
( ((
A (( A
+ ((+ A
B ((+ AB
) ( AB+
* (* AB+
( (*( AB+
C (*( AB+C
- (*(- AB+C
D (*(- AB+CD
) (* AB+CD-
/ (/ AB+CD-*
E (/ AB+CD-*E
) AB+CD-*E/
Answer: Postfix expression of (A+B)*(C-D)/E is AB+CD-*E/
Evaluation of Postfix expression using Stack
Algorithm to evaluate a postfix expression P.

1. Create an empty stack
2. i=0
3. while P[i] != NULL
if P[i] is operand then
Push(P[i])
I=i+1
Else if P[i] is a operator then
Operand2=pop()
Operand1=pop()
Push (Operand1 operator Operator2)
End if
4. End of while
5. return pop() // return the calculated value which available in the stack.
End of algorithm
Example: Evaluate the following postfix expression showing stack status after every step
8, 2, +, 5, 3, -, *, 4 /
79
token scanned from Stack status ( bold letter shows the top of the Operation performed
postfix expression stack) after processing the scanned token
8 8 Push 8
2 8, 2 Push 2
+ 10 Op2=pop() i.e 2
Op1=pop() i.e 8
Push(op1+op2) i.e. 8+2
5 10, 5 Push(5)
3 10, 5, 3 Push(3)
- 10, 2 Op2=pop() i.e. 3
Op1=pop() i.e. 5
Push(op1-op2) i.e. 5-3
* 20 Op2=pop() i.e. 2
Op1=pop() i.e. 10
Push(op1-op2) i.e. 10*2
4 20, 4 Push 4
/ 5 Op2=pop() i.e. 4
Op1=pop() i.e. 20
Push(op1/op2) i.e. 20/4
NULL Final result 5 Pop 5 and return 5
Evaluate the following Boolean postfix expression showing stack status after every step
True, False, True, AND, OR, False, NOT, AND
token scanned Stack status ( bold letter Operation performed

from postfix shows the top of the
expression stack) after processing
the scanned token
True True Push True
False True, False Push False
True True, False, True Push True
AND True, False Op2=pop() i.e. True
Op1=pop() i.e. False
Push(Op2 AND Op1) i.e. False AND
True=False
OR True Op2=pop() i.e. False
Op1=pop() i.e. True
Push(Op2 OR Op1) i.e. True OR False=True
False True, False Push False
NOT True, True Op1=pop() i.e. False
Push(NOT False) i.e. NOT False=True
AND True Op2=pop() i.e. True
Op1=pop() i.e. True
Push(Op2 AND Op1) i.e. True AND
True=True
NULL Final result True Pop True and Return True
80
QUEUE
Queue is a linear data structure which follows First In First Out (FIFO) rule in which a new item is added
at the rear end and deletion of item is from the front end of the queue. In a FIFO data structure, the first
element added to the queue will be the first one to be removed.
Linear Queue implementation using Array
const int size=5;
class queue
{int front , rear;
int a[size];
public:
queue(){front=0;rear=0;} //Constructor to create an empty queue
void addQ()
{ if(rear==size)
cout<<queue is full<<endl;
else
a[rear++]=item;
}
int delQ()
{if(front==rear)
{cout<<queue is empty<<endl; return 0;}
else
return a[front++];
}}
void main()
{queue q1;
q1.addQ(3);
q1.addQ(5) ;
q1.addQ(7) ;
cout<<q1.delQ()<<endl ;
cout<<q1.delQ()<<endl;
}
Output is
3
5
7
Queue is empty 0
In the above program the statement queue q1 creates an empty queue q1.
Front
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]
Rear
81
After execution of the statement q1.addQ(3), status of queue is
Front
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]
3
Rear
Front
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

3 5
Rear
Front
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

3 5 7
Rear
After execution of the first cout<<q1.delQ() statement, 3 is deleted from queue status of queue is
Front
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

3 5 7
Rear
After execution of the second cout<<q1.delQ() statement, 5 is deleted from the queue status of queue is
Front
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

3 5 7
Rear
After execution of the third cout<<q1.delQ() statement, 7 is deleted from the queue. The status of queue is
empty Front
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] A[4]

3 5 7
Rear
After execution of the fourth cout<<q1.delQ() statement, the message queue is empty displayed and
status of queue is Front
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

3 5 7
Rear
Note that since rear and front moves only in one direction therefore once the rear cross the last element of
the array(i.e. rear==size) then even after deleting some element of queue the free spaces available in queue
cannot be allocated again and the function delQ() display error message queue is full.
82
Queue using linked list
struct node{
int item;
node *next;};
class queue
{node *front, *rear;
public:
queue() {front=NULL; rear=NULL;}//constructor to create empty queue
void addQ(int item);
int delQ();};
void queue::addQ(int item)
{node * t=new node;
if(t==NULL)
cout<<memory not available, queue is full<<endl;
else
{t->item=item;
t->next=NULL;
if (rear==NULL) //if the queue is empty
{rear=t; front=t; //rear and front both will point to the first node
}
else
{rear->next=t;
rear=t;
} }}
int queue::delQ()
{
if(front==NULL)
cout<<queue is empty<<return 0;
else
{node *t=front;
int r=t->item;
front=front->next; //move front to the next node of the queue
if(front==NULL)
rear==NULL;
delete t;
return r;
}
}
void main(){
queue q1;
q1.addQ(3);
q1.addQ(5) ;
q1.addQ(7) ;
}
83
Output is
3
5
7
Queue is empty 0
In the above program the statement queue q1; invokes the constructor queue() which create an empty
queue object q1 and initialize front and rear with NULL.
front
NULL
rear
After statement q1.addQ(3) the stack become
front
3 NULL
rear
front
3 5 NULL
rear
front
3 5 7 NULL
rear
After the first q1.delQ() statement the node currently pointed by front (i.e. node containing 3) is deleted
from the queue, after deletion the status of queue is
front
5 7 NULL
rear
After the second q1.delQ() statement the node currently pointed by front (i.e. node containing 5) is deleted
from the queue, after deletion the status of queue is
front
NULL
7
rear
After the third q1.delQ() statement the node currently pointed by front (i.e. node containing 7) is deleted
from the queue, after deletion the queue become empty therefore NULL is a assigned to both rear and
front
Front=rear= NULL ;
After the fourth q1.delQ() statement, the error message queue is empty displayed and the pop() function
return 0 to indicate that queue is empty.
84
Circular queue using array
Circular queues overcome the problem of unutilised space in linear queues implemented as array. In
circular queue using array the rear and front moves in a circle from 0,1,2size-1,0, and so on.
const int size=4;
class Cqueue
{int a[size];
int front,rear,anyitem;
public:
void Cqueue(){front=0;rear=0;anyitem=0;}
void addCQ(int item);
int delCQ();
};
void Cqueue::addCQ(int item){
if(front==rear && anyitem>0)
cout<<Cqueue is full<<endl;
else
{a[rear]=item;
rear=(rear+1)%size; //rear will move in circular order
anyitem++; //value of the anyitem contains no of items present in the queue
}}
int Cqueue::delCQ(){
if(front==rear&& anyitem==0)
cout<<Cqueue is empty<<endl; return 0; //0 indicate that Cqueue is empty
else
{int r=a[front];
front=(front+1)/size;
anyitem--;
}}
void main()
{Cqueue q1;
q1.addCQ(3);
q1.addCQ(5) ;
cout<<q1.delCQ()<<endl ;
q1.addCQ(7) ;
cout<<q1.delCQ()<<endl ;
q1.addCQ(8) ;
q1.addCQ(9) ;
cout<<q1.delCQ()<<endl;
cout<<q1.delCQ()<<endl;
}
Output is
3
5
7
8
85
2,3 & 4 Marks Practice Questions
1. Convert the following infix expressions to postfix expressions using stack 2
1. A + (B * C) ^ D (E / F G)
2. A * B / C * D ^ E * G / H
3. ((A*B)-((C_D)*E/F)*G
2. Evaluate the following postfix expression E given below; show the contents of the stack during the
evaluation
1. E= 5,9,+2,/,4,1,1,3,_,*,+ 2
2. E= 80,35,20,-,25,5,+,-,*
3. E= 30,5,2,^,12,6,/,+,-
4. E=15, 3, 2, +, /, 7, + 2, *
3. An array A[40][10] is stored in the memory along the column with each element occupying 4 bytes.
Find out the address of the location A[3][6] if the location A[30][10] is stored at the address 9000. 3
4 Define functions in C++ to perform a PUSH and POP operation in a dynamically allocated stack
considering the following : 4
struct Node
{ int X,Y;
Node *Link; };
class STACK
{ Node * Top;
public:
STACK( ) { TOP=NULL;}
void PUSH( );
void POP( );
~STACK( );
};
5. Write a function in C++ to perform a Add and Delete operation in a dynamically allocated Queue
considering the following: 4
struct node
{ int empno ;char name[20] ;float sal ;
Node *Link;
};
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UNIT-3 DATABASE AND SQL
Data :- Raw facts and figures which are useful to an organization. We cannot take decisions on
the basis of data.
Information:- Well processed data is called information. We can take decisions on the basis of
information
Field: Set of characters that represents specific data element.
Record: Collection of fields is called a record. A record can have fields of different data
types.
File: Collection of similar types of records is called a file.
Table: Collection of rows and columns that contains useful data/information is called a
table. A table generally refers to the passive entity which is kept in secondary
storage device.
Relation: Relation (collection of rows and columns) generally refers to an active entity on
which we can perform various operations.
Database: Collection of logically related data along with its description is termed as database.
Tuple: A row in a relation is called a tuple.
Attribute: A column in a relation is called an attribute. It is also termed as field or data item.
Degree: Number of attributes in a relation is called degree of a relation.
Cardinality: Number of tuples in a relation is called cardinality of a relation.
Primary Key: Primary key is a key that can uniquely identifies the records/tuples in a relation.
This key can never be duplicated and NULL.
Foreign Key: Foreign Key is a key that is defined as a primary key in some other relation. This
key is used to enforce referential integrity in RDBMS.
Candidate Key: Set of all attributes which can serve as a primary key in a relation.
Alternate Key: All the candidate keys other than the primary keys of a relation are alternate
keys for a relation.
DBA: Data Base Administrator is a person (manager) that is responsible for defining the data base
schema, setting security features in database, ensuring proper functioning of the data bases etc.
Relational Algebra: Relation algebra is a set operation such as select, project, union, &
Cartesian product etc.
Select operation : Yields set of set of rows depending upon certain condition. Mathematically it
is denoted as
e.g (student) -means show those rows of student table whose roll no.s
are >10.
Project Operation : yields set of columns as result which are specified. Mathematically it is
denoted as .
e.g. (student) - means show only rollno and name column only.
Union Operation : Two relation are said to be union compatible if their degree and column are
same.
e.g Relation A
Relation A Relation B
Resultant Relation A B=
x3 y3 z3
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Cartesian product: Cartesian Product of two relation A and B gives resultant relation whose no. of
column are sum of degrees of two relation and no. of rows are product of cardinality of two relations.
e.g Relation A
Relation A Relation B
Resultant Relation AB =
Structured Query Language

SQL is a non procedural language that is used to create, manipulate and process the databases(relations).
Characteristics of SQL
1. It is very easy to learn and use.
2. Large volume of databases can be handled quite easily.
3. It is non procedural language. It means that we do not need to specify the procedures to
accomplish a task but just to give a command to perform the activity.
4. SQL can be linked to most of other high level languages that makes it first choice for the database
programmers.
Processing Capabilities of SQL
The following are the processing capabilities of SQL
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL contains commands that are used to create the tables, databases, indexes, views, sequences and
synonyms etc.
e.g:Create table, create view, create index, alter table etc.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
DML contains command that can be used to manipulate the data base objects and to query the
databases for information retrieval.
e.g Select, Insert, Delete, Update etc.
3. Data Control Language:
This language is used for controlling the access to the data. Various commands like GRANT,
REVOKE etc are available in DCL.
4. Transaction Control Language (TCL)
TCL include commands to control the transactions in a data base system. The commonly used
commands in TCL are COMMIT, ROLLBACK etc.
Data types of SQL

Just like any other programming language, the facility of defining data of various types is available in
SQL also. Following are the most common data types of SQL.
1) NUMBER
2) CHAR
3) VARCHAR / VARCHAR2
4) DATE
5) LONG
6) RAW/LONG RAW
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1. NUMBER
Used to store a numeric value in a field/column. It may be decimal, integer or a real value. General syntax
is
Number(n,d)
Where n specifies the number of digits and d specifies the number of digits to the right of the decimal
point.
e.g marks number(3) declares marks to be of type number with maximum value 999.
pct number(5,2) declares pct to be of type number of 5 digits with two digits to the right of
decimal point.
2. CHAR
Used to store character type data in a column. General syntax is
Char (size)
where size represents the maximum number of characters in a column. The CHAR type data can hold at
most 255 characters.
e.g name char(25) declares a data item name of type character of upto 25 size long.
3. VARCHAR/VARCHAR2
This data type is used to store variable length alphanumeric data. General syntax is
varchar(size) / varchar2(size)
where size represents the maximum number of characters in a column. The maximum allowed size in this
data type is 2000 characters.
e.g address varchar(50); address is of type varchar of upto 50 characters long.
4. DATE
Date data type is used to store dates in columns. SQL supports the various date formats other that the
standard DD-MON-YY.
e.g dob date; declares dob to be of type date.
5. LONG
This data type is used to store variable length strings of upto 2 GB size.
e.g description long;
6. RAW/LONG RAW
To store binary data (images/pictures/animation/clips etc.) RAW or LONG RAW data type is used. A
column LONG RAW type can hold upto 2 GB of binary data.
e.g image raw(2000);
SQL Commands
CREATE TABLE Command:
Create table command is used to create a table in SQL. It is a DDL type of command.
Syntax :
CREATE TABLE <table name>
( <column name> <data types>[(size)] [,<column name> <data types>[(size)].);
e.g.
Create table student
(rollno number(2), name
varchar2(20), dob date);
Constraints:
Constraints are the conditions that can be enforced on the attributes of a relation. The constraints come in
play when ever we try to insert, delete or update a record in a relation.They are used to ensure integrity of
a relation, hence named as integrity constraints.
1. NOT NULL
2. UNIQUE
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3. PRIMARY KEY
4. FOREIGN KEY
5. CHECK
6. DEFAULT
i. Not Null constraint : It ensures that the column cannot contain a NULL value.
ii. Unique constraint : A candidate key is a combination of one or more columns, the value of
which uniquely identifies each row of a table.
iii. Primary Key : It ensures two things : (i) Unique identification of each row in the table. (ii)
No column that is part of the Primary Key constraint can contain a NULL value.
iv. Foreign Key : The foreign key designates a column or combination of columns as a foreign
key and establishes its relationship with a primary key in different table.
Create table Fee

(RollNo number(2) Foreign key (Rollno) references Student (Rollno),
Name varchar2(20) Not null, Amount
number(4), Fee_Date date);
v. Check Constraint : Sometimes we may require that values in some of the
columns of our table are to be within a certain range or they must satisfy
certain
conditions.
Example:
Create table Employee
(EmpNo number(4) Primary Key,
Name varchar2(20) Not Null,
Salary number(6,2) check (salary > 0),
DeptNo number(3)
);
Data Manipulation in SQL

DML Commands are as under:
SELECT - Used for making queries
INSERT - Used for adding new row or record into table
UPDATE- used for modification in existing data in a table
DELETE used for deletion of records.
INSERT Statement
To insert a new tuple into a table is to use the insert statement
insert into <table> [(<column i, . . . , column j>)] values (<value i, . . . , value j>);
INSERT INTO student VALUES(101,'Rohan','XI',400,'Jammu');
While inserting the record it should be checked that the values passed are of same data types as the one
which is specified for that particular column.
For inserting a row interactively (from keyboard) & operator can be used.
e.g INSERT INTO student VALUES(&Roll_no,&Name,&Class,&Marks,&City);
In the above command the values for all the columns are read from keyboard and inserted into the table
student.
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NOTE:- In SQL we can repeat or re-execute the last command typed at SQL prompt by typing / key
and pressing enter.
Roll_no Name Class Marks City
101 Rohan XI 400 Jammu
102 Aneeta Chopra XII 390 Udhampur
103 Pawan Kumar IX 298 Amritsar
104 Rohan IX 376 Jammu
105 Sanjay VII 240 Gurdaspur
113 Anju Mahajan VIII 432 Pathankot
Operators in SQL:
The following are the commonly used operators in SQL
1. Arithmetic Operators +, -, *, /
2. Relational Operators =, <, >, <=, >=, <>
3. Logical Operators OR, AND, NOT
Arithmetic operators are used to perform simple arithmetic operations.
Relational Operators are used when two values are to be compared and
Logical operators are used to connect search conditions in the WHERE Clause in SQL.
Other operators :
4. Range check between low and high
5. List check in
6. Pattern check like , not like ( % and _ under score is used)
Queries:
To retrieve information from a database we can query the databases. SQL SELECT statement is used to
select rows and columns from a database/relation.
SELECT Command
This command can perform selection as well as projection.
Selection: This capability of SQL can return you the tuples form a relation with all the attributes.
e.g. SELECT name, class FROM student;
The above command displays only name and class attributes from student table.
Projection: This is the capability of SQL to return only specific attributes in the relation. Use of where
clause is required when specific tuples are to be fetched or manipulated.
e.g SELECT * FROM student; command will display all the tuples in the relation student SELECT
* FROM student WHERE Roll_no <=102;
The above command display only those records whose Roll_no less than or equal to 102.
Select command can also display specific attributes from a relation.
* SELECT count(*) AS Total Number of Records FROM student;
Display the total number of records with title as Total Number of Records i.e an alias
We can also use arithmetic operators in select statement, like
* SELECT Roll_no, name, marks+20 FROM student;
* SELECT name, (marks/500)*100 FROM student WHERE Roll_no > 103;
Eliminating Duplicate/Redundant data
DISTINCT keyword is used to restrict the duplicate rows from the results of a SELECT statement.
e.g. SELECT DISTINCT name FROM student;
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The above command returns
Name
Rohan
Aneeta Chopra
Pawan Kumar
Conditions based on a range
SQL provides a BETWEEN operator that defines a range of values that the column value must fall for the
condition to become true.
e.g. SELECT Roll_no, name FROM student WHERE Roll_no BETWENN 100 AND 103;
The above command displays Roll_no and name of those students whose Roll_no lies in the range 100 to
103 (both 100 and 103 are included in the range).
Conditions based on a list

To specify a list of values, IN operator is used. This operator select values that match any value in the
given list.
e.g. SELECT * FROM student WHERE city IN (Jammu,Amritsar,Gurdaspur);
The above command displays all those records whose city is either Jammu or Amritsar or Gurdaspur.
Conditions based on Pattern

SQL provides two wild card characters that are used while comparing the strings with LIKE operator.
a. percent(%) Matches any string
b. Underscore(_) Matches any one character
e.g SELECT Roll_no, name, city FROM student WHERE Roll_no LIKE %3;
displays those records where last digit of Roll_no is 3 and may have any number of characters in front.
e.g SELECT Roll_no, name, city FROM student WHERE Roll_no LIKE 1_3;
displays those records whose Roll_no starts with 1 and second letter may be any letter but ends with digit
3.
ORDER BY Clause
ORDER BY clause is used to display the result of a query in a specific order(sorted order).
The sorting can be done in ascending or in descending order. It should be kept in mind that the actual data
in the database is not sorted but only the results of the query are displayed in sorted order.
e.g. SELECT name, city FROM student ORDER BY name;
The above query returns name and city columns of table student sorted by name in increasing/ascending
order.
e.g. SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY city DESC;
It displays all the records of table student ordered by city in descending order.
Note:- If order is not specifies that by default the sorting will be performed in ascending order.
SQL Functions :
SQL supports functions which can be used to compute and select numeric, character and date
columns of a relations. These functions can be applied on a group of rows. The rows are grouped on a
common value of a column in the table. These functions return only one value for a group and
therefore, they are called aggregate or group functions.
1. SUM() :
It returns the sum of values of numeric type of a column.
Eg. Select sum(salary) from employee;
2. AVG() :
It returns the average of values of numeric type of a column.
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Eg. Select avg(salary) from employee;
3. MIN() :
It returns the minimum of the values of a column of a given relation.
Eg. Select min(salary) from employee;
4. MAX() :
It returns the maximum of the values of a column of a given relation.
Eg. Select max(salary) from employee;
5. COUNT():
It returns the number of rows in a relation.
Eg. Select count(*) from employee;
Group By Clause :
The rows of a table can be grouped together based on a common value by using the Group By clause of
SQL in a select statement.
Syntax :
SELECT <attribute name>, <attribute name> ---- [functions]
FROM <relation name>
GROUP BY <group by column>;
Eg. Select age, count (rollno)
From students Group by age;
Output :Age Count(rollno)
15 2
14.5 2
14 5
Group-By-Having Clause :
It is used to apply some condition to the Group By clause.
Eg.
Select class
From students Group by class
Having count(*) > 5;
DELETE Command
To delete the record fro a table SQL provides a delete statement. General syntax is:-
DELETE FROM <table_name> [WHERE <condition>];

e.g. DELETE FROM student WHERE city = Jammu;
This command deletes all those records whose city is Jammu.
NOTE: It should be kept in mind that while comparing with the string type values
lowercase and uppercase letters are treated as different. That is Jammu and jammu is different
while comparing.
UPDATE Command
To update the data stored in the data base, UPDATE command is used.
e. g. UPDATE student SET marks = marks + 100;

Increase marks of all the students by 100.
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e. g. UPDATE student SET City = Udhampur WHERE city = Jammu;
changes the city of those students to Udhampur whose city is Jammu.
We can also update multiple columns with update command, like

e. g. UPDATE student set marks = marks + 20, city = Jalandhar
WHERE city NOT IN (Jammu,Udhampur);
CREATE VIEW Command
In SQL we can create a view of the already existing table that contains specific attributes of the table.
e. g. the table student that we created contains following fields:
Student (Roll_no, Name, Marks, Class, City)
Suppose we need to create a view v_student that contains Roll_no,name and class of student table, then
Create View command can be used:
CREATE VIEW v_student AS SELECT Roll_no, Name, Class FROM student;
The above command create a virtual table (view) named v_student that has three attributes as mentioned
and all the rows under those attributes as in student table.
We can also create a view from an existing table based on some specific conditions, like
CREATE VIEW v_student AS SELECT Roll_no, Name, Class FROM student WHERE City <>Jammu;
The main difference between a Table and view is that
A Table is a repository of data. The table resides physically in the database.

A View is not a part of the database's physical representation. It is created on a table or another view. It is
precompiled, so that data retrieval behaves faster, and also provides a secure accessibility mechanism.
ALTER TABLE Command

In SQL if we ever need to change the structure of the database then ALTER TABLE command is used. By
using this command we can add a column in the existing table, delete a column from a table or modify
columns in a table.
Adding a column : The syntax to add a column is:-
ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype;
e.g ALTER TABLE student ADD(Address varchar(30));
The above command add a column Address to the table atudent.
If we give command
SELECT * FROM student;
The following data gets displayed on screen:
Roll_no Name Class Marks City Address
101 Rohan XI 400 Jammu
102 Aneeta Chopra XII 390 Udhampur
103 Pawan Kumar IX 298 Amritsar
104 Rohan IX 376 Jammu
105 Sanjay VII 240 Gurdaspur
113 Anju MAhajan VIII 432 Pathankot
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Note that we have just added a column and there will be no data under this attribute. UPDATE
command can be used to supply values / data to this column.
Removing a column
ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name;
e.g ALTER TABLE Student

DROP COLUMN Address;
The column Address will be removed from the table student.
DROP TABLE Command

Sometimes you may need to drop a table which is not in use. DROP TABLE command is used to
Delete / drop a table permanently. It should be kept in mind that we can not drop a table if it contains
records. That is first all the rows of the table have to be deleted and only then the table can be
dropped. The general syntax of this command is:-
DROP TABLE <table_name>;
e.g DROP TABLE student;
This command will remove the table student
1&2 mark questions
Q2. Define the terms:

i. Database Abstraction
ii. Data inconsistency
iii. Conceptual level of database implementation/abstraction
iv. Primary Key
v. Candidate Key
vi. Relational Algebra
vii. Domain
Ans:. Define the terms:

i. Database Abstraction
Ans: Database system provides the users only that much information that is required
by them, and hides certain details like, how the data is stored and maintained in
database at hardware level. This concept/process is Database abstraction.
ii. Data inconsistency
Ans: When two or more entries about the same data do not agree i.e. when one of
them stores the updated information and the other does not, it results in data
inconsistency in the database.
iii. Conceptual level of database implementation/abstraction
Ans: It describes what data are actually stored in the database. It also describes the
relationships existing among data. At this level the database is described logically in
terms of simple data-structures.
iv. Primary Key
Ans : It is a key/attribute or a set of attributes that can uniquely identify tuples within the relation.
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v. Candidate Key
Ans : All attributes combinations inside a relation that can serve as primary key are candidate key
as they are candidates for being as a primary key or a part of it.
vi. Relational Algebra
Ans : It is the collections of rules and operations on relations(tables). The various operations are
selection, projection, Cartesian product, union, set difference and intersection, and joining of
relations.
vii. Domain
Ans : it is the pool or collection of data from which the actual values appearing in a given column
are drawn.
2 marks Practice questions

1. What is relation? What is the difference between a tuple and an attribute?
2. Define the following terminologies used in Relational Algebra:
(i) selection (ii) projection (iii) union (iv) Cartesian product
3. What are DDL and DML?
4. Differentiate between primary key and candidate key in a relation?
5. What do you understand by the terms Cardinality and Degree of a relation in relational database?
6. Differentiate between DDL and DML. Mention the 2 commands for each category.
Database and SQL : 6 marks questions

1. Write SQL Command for (a) to (d) and output of (g)
TABLE : GRADUATE
S.NO NAME STIPEND SUBJECT AVERAGE DIV
1 KARAN 400 PHYSICS 68 I
2 DIWAKAR 450 COMP. Sc. 68 I
3 DIVYA 300 CHEMISTRY 62 I
4 REKHA 350 PHYSICS 63 I
5 ARJUN 500 MATHS 70 I
6 SABINA 400 CEHMISTRY 55 II
7 JOHN 250 PHYSICS 64 I
8 ROBERT 450 MATHS 68 I
9 RUBINA 500 COMP. Sc. 62 I
10 VIKAS 400 MATHS 57 II
(a) List the names of those students who have obtained DIV I sorted by NAME.
(b) Display a report, listing NAME, STIPEND, SUBJECT and amount of stipend received in a year
assuming that the STIPEND is paid every month.
(c) To count the number of students who are either PHYSICS or COMPUTER SC graduates.
(d) To insert a new row in the GRADUATE table: 11,KAJOL, 300, computer sc, 75, 1
(e) Give the output of following sql statement based on table GRADUATE:
(i) Select MIN(AVERAGE) from GRADUATE where SUBJECT=PHYSICS;
(ii) Select SUM(STIPEND) from GRADUATE WHERE div=2;
(iii) Select AVG(STIPEND) from GRADUATE where AVERAGE>=65;
(iv) Select COUNT(distinct SUBJECT) from GRADUATE;
Sol :
(b) SELECT NAME from GRADUATE where DIV = I order by NAME;
(c) SELECT NAME,STIPEND,SUBJECT, STIPEND*12 from GRADUATE;
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(d) SELECT SUBJECT,COUNT(*) from GRADUATE group by SUBJECT
having SUBJECT=PHYISCS or SUBJECT=COMPUTER SC;
(e) INSERT INTO GRADUATE values(11,KAJOL,300,COMPUTER SC,75,1);
(f) i) 63
ii) 800
iii) 475
iv) 4
2. Consider the following tables Sender and Recipient. Write SQL commands for the statements (i) to
(iv) and give the outputs for SQL queries (v) to (viii).
(i) To display the names of all Senders from Mumbai

Ans. SELECT sendername from Sender where sendercity=Mumbai;
(ii) To display the RecIC, Sendername, SenderAddress, RecName, RecAddress for every
Recipient.
Ans. Select R.RecIC, S.Sendername, S.SenderAddress, R.RecName,
R.RecAddress from Sender S, Recepient R
where S.SenderID=R.SenderID;
(iii) To display Recipient details in ascending order of RecName
Ans. SELECT * from Recipent ORDER By RecName;
(iv) To display number of Recipients from each city

Ans. SELECT COUNT( *) from Recipient Group By RecCity;
(v) SELECT DISTINCT SenderCity from Sender; Ans.
SenderCity
Mumbai
New Delhi
(vi) SELECT A.SenderName, B.RecName
From Sender A, Recipient B
Where A.SenderID = B.SenderID AND B.RecCity =Mumbai;
Ans. A.SenderName B.RecName
R Jain H Singh
S Jha P K Swamy
(vii) SELECT RecName, RecAddress
From Recipient Where RecCity NOT IN (Mumbai, Kolkata);
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Ans. RecName RecAddress
S Mahajan 116, A Vihar
S Tripathi 13, BID, Mayur Vihar
(viii) SELECT RecID, RecName

FROM Recipent Where SenderID=MU02 or SenderID=ND50;
Ans. RecID RecName ND08

S Mahajan ND48 S
Tripathi
3. Write SQL command for (i) to (vii) on the basis of the table SPORTS
Table: SPORTS
Student Class Name Game1 Grade Game2 Grade2
NO
10 7 Sammer Cricket B Swimming A
11 8 Sujit Tennis A Skating C
12 7 Kamal Swimming B Football B
13 7 Venna Tennis C Tennis A
14 9 Archana Basketball A Cricket A
15 10 Arpit Cricket A Atheletics C
(a) Display the names of the students who have grade C in either Game1 or Game2 or both.
(b) Display the number of students getting grade A in Cricket.
(c) Display the names of the students who have same game for both Game1 and Game2.
(d) Display the games taken up by the students, whose name starts with A.
(e) Add a new column named Marks.
(f) Assign a value 200 for Marks for all those who are getting grade B or grade A in both Game1
and Game2.
Ans : a) SELECT Name from SPORTS where grade=C or Grade2=C;
b) SELECT Count(*) from SPORTS where grade=A;
c) SELECT name from SPORTS where game1 = game2;
d) SELECT game,game2 from SPORTS where name like A%;
e) ALTER TABLE SPORTS add (marks int(4));
f) UPDATE SPORTS set marks=200 where grade=A;
4. Consider the following tables Stationary and Consumer. Write SQL commands for the statement (i) to
(iv) and output for SQL queries (v) to (viii):
Table: Stationary
S_ID StationaryName Company Price
DP01 Dot Pen ABC 10
PL02 Pencil XYZ 6
ER05 Eraser XYZ 7
PL01 Pencil CAM 5
GP02 Gel Pen ABC 15
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Table: Consumer
C_ID ConsumerName Address S_ID
01 Good Learner Delhi PL01
06 Write Well Mumbai GP02
12 Topper Delhi DP01
15 Write & Draw Delhi PL02
16 Motivation Banglore PL01
(i) To display the details of those consumers whose Address is Delhi.

(ii) To display the details of Stationary whose Price is in the range of 8 to 15. (Both Value
included)
(iii) To display the ConsumerName, Address from Table Consumer, and Company and Price from
table Stationary, with their corresponding matching S_ID.
(iv) To increase the Price of all stationary by 2.
(v) SELECT DISTINCT Address FROM Consumer;
(vi) SELECT Company, MAX(Price), MIN(Price), COUNT(*) from Stationary GROUP BY
Company;
(vii) SELECT Consumer.ConsumerName, Stationary.StationaryName, Stationary.Price FROM
Strionary, Consumer WHERE Consumer.S_ID=Stationary.S_ID;
(viii) Select StationaryName, Price*3 From Stationary;
5. Consider the following tables GARMENT and FABRIC. Write SQL commands for the statements (i) to
(iv) and give outputs for SQL queries (v) to (viii).
Table : GARMENT
GCODE DESCRIPTION PRICE FCODE READYDATE
10023 PENCIL SKIRT 1150 F03 19DEC08
10001 FORMAL SHIRT 1250 F01 12JAN08
10012 INFORMAL SHIRT 1550 F02 06JUN08
10024 BABY TOP 750 F03 07APR07
10090 TULIP SKIRT 850 F02 31MAR07
10019 EVENING GOWN 850 F03 06JUN08
10009 INFORMAL PANT 1500 F02 20OCT08
10007 FORMAL PANT 1350 F01 09MAR08
10020 FROCK 850 F04 09SEP07
10089 SLACKS 750 F03 20OCT08
Table : FABRIC
FCODE TYPE
F04 POLYSTER
F02 COTTON
F03 SILK
F01 TERELENE
(i) To display GCODE and DESCRIPTION of a each dress in descending order of GCODE.
(ii) To display the details of all the GARMENTs, which have READYDATE in between 08
DEC07 and 16JUN08 (inclusive of both the dates).
(iii) To display the average PRICE of all the GARMENTs, which are made up of FABRIC with
FCODE as F03.
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(iv) To display FABRIC wise highest and lowest price of GARMENTs from DRESS table.
(Display FCODE of each GARMENT along with highest and lowest price)
(v) SELECT SUM (PRICE) FROM GARMENT WHERE FCODE= F01;
(vi) SELECT DESCRIPTION, TYPE FROM GARMENT, FABRIC WHERE
GARMENT.FCODE = FABRIC. FCODE AND GARMENT. PRICE>=1260;
(vii) SELECT MAX (FCODE) FROM FABRIC;
(viii) SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT PRICE) FROM FABRIC;
6. Consider the following WORKERS and DESIG. Write SQL commands for the statements (i)
to (iv) and give outputs for SQL queries (v) to (vi)
WORKERS
W_ID FIRSTNAME LASTNAME ADDRESS CITY
102 Sam Tones 33 Elm St. Paris
105 Sarah Ackerman 440 U.S. 110 New York
144 Manila Sengupta 24 Friends Street New Delhi
210 George Smith 83 First Street Howard
255 Mary Jones 842 Vine Ave. Losantiville
300 Robert Samuel 9 Fifth Cross Washington
335 Henry Williams 12Moore Street Boston
403 Ronny Lee 121 Harrison St. New York
451 Pat Thompson 11 Red Road Paris
DESIG
W_ID SALARY BENEFITS DESIGNATI
ON
102 75000 15000 Manager
105 85000 25000 Director
144 70000 15000 Manager
210 75000 12500 Manager
255 50000 12000 Clerk
300 45000 10000 Clerk
335 40000 10000 Clerk
403 32000 7500 Salesman
451 28000 7500 Salesman
(i) To display the content of workers table in ascending order of first name.
(ii) To display the FIRSTNAME, CITY and TOTAL SALARY of all Clerks from the tables workers
and design, where TOTAL SALARY = SALARY + BENEFITS.
(iii) To display the minimum SALARY among Managers and Clerks from the table DESIG.
(iv) Increase the BENEFITS of all Salesmen by 10% in table DESIG.
(v) SELECT FIRSTNAME, SALARY FROM WORKERS, DESIG WHERE DESIGNATION =
Manager AND WORKERS.W_ID = DESIG.W_ID;
(vi) SELECT DESIGNATION, SUM(SALARY) FROM DESIG
GROUP BY DESIGNATION HAVING COUNT(*)>=2 ;
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UNIT-4 BOOLEAN LOGIC
Boolean algebra is an algebra that deals with Boolean values((TRUE and FALSE) . Everyday
we have to make logic decisions: Should I carry the book or not? , Should I watch TV or not? etc.
Each question will have two answers yes or no, true or false. In Boolean Algebra we use 1
for true and 0 for false which are known as truth values.
Truth table:
A truth table is composed of one column for each input variable (for example, A and B), and one
final column for all of the possible results of the logical operation that the table is meant to represent (for
example, A XOR B). Each row of the truth table therefore contains one possible configuration of the input
variables (for instance, A = true B = false), and the result of the operation for those values.
Logical Operators:
In Algebraic function e use +,-,*,/ operator but in case of Logical Function or Compound statement we
use AND,OR & NOT operator.
Example: He prefers Computer Science NOT IP.
There are three Basic Logical Operator:

1. NOT
2. OR
3. AND
NOT OperatorOperates on single variable. It gives the complement value of

variable.
X X
0 1
1 0
OR Operator -It is a binary operator and denotes logical Addition operation and is represented by
+ symbol
0+ 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 =1
X Y X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
AND Operator AND Operator performs logical multiplications and symbol is (.) dot.
0.0=0
0.1=0
1.0=0
1.1=1
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Truth table:
X Y X.Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Basic Logic Gates
A logic gate is an physical device implementing a Boolean function, that is, it performs a logical operation
on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Gates also called logic circuits.
Or
A gate is simply an electronic circuit which operates on one or more signals to produce an output signal.
NOT gate (inverter):The output Q is true when the input A is NOT true, the output is the inverse of the
input:
Q = NOT A
A NOT gate can only have one input. A NOT gate
is also called an inverter.
AND gate
The output Q is true if input A AND input B are both
true: Q = A AND B An AND gate can have two or
more inputs, its output is true if all inputs are true.
OR gate
The output Q is true if input A OR input B is true (or
both of them are true): Q = A OR B
An OR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is
true if at least one input is true.
Basic postulates of Boolean Algebra:
Boolean algebra consists of fundamental laws that are based on theorem of Boolean algebra. These
fundamental laws are known as basic postulates of Boolean algebra. These postulates states basic relations
in boolean algebra, that follow:
0 + 0 = 0
I If X != 0 then x=1 and If X!=1 then x=0 0 + 1 = 1
II OR relations(logical addition) 1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 1
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0.0 = 0
III AND relations (logical multiplication) 0.1 = 0
1.0 = 0
1.1 = 1
IV Complement Rules 0 1, 1 0
Principal of Duality
This principal states that we can derive a Boolean relation from another Boolean relation by
performing simple steps. The steps are:-
1. Change each AND(.) with an OR(+) sign
2. Change each OR(+) with an AND(.) sign
3. Replace each 0 with 1 and each 1 with 0
e.g
0+0=0 then dual is 1.1=1
1+0=1 then dual is 0.1=0
Basic theorem of Boolean algebra

Basic postulates of Boolean algebra are used to define basic theorems of Boolean algebra that
provides all the tools necessary for manipulating Boolean expression.
1. Properties of 0 and 1
(a) 0+X=X
(b) 1+X=1
(c) 0.X=0
(d) 1.X=X
2. Indempotence Law
(a) X+X=X
(b) X.X=X
3. Involution Law
(X) = X
4. Complementarity Law
(a) X + X=1
(b) X. X=0
5. Commutative Law
(a) X+Y=Y+X
(b) X.Y=Y.X
6. Associative Law
(a) X+(Y+Z)=(X+Y)+Z
(b) X(YZ)=(XY)Z
7. Distributive Law
(a) X(Y+Z)=XY_XZ
(b) X=YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)
8. Absorption Law
(a) X+XY= X
(b) X(X+Y)=X
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Some other rules of Boolean algebra
X+XY=X+Y
Demorgans Theorem
A mathematician named DeMorgan developed a pair of important rules regarding group complementation
in Boolean algebra.
Demorgans First Theorem
Demorgans Second Theorem
Derivation of Boolean expression:-
Minterm :
minterm is a Product of all the literals within the logic System.
Step involved in minterm expansion of Expression
1. First convert the given expression in sum of product form.
2. In each term is any variable is missing(e.g. in the following example Y is missing in first term and X is
missing in second term), multiply that term with (missing term +complement( missing term) )factor e.g. if
Y is missing multiply with Y+Y )
3. Expand the expression .
4. Remove all duplicate terms and we will have minterm form of an expression.
Example: Convert X + Y
X + Y = X.1 + Y.1
=X.(Y+Y) + Y(X+X)
=XY + XY+XY+XY
=XY+XY+XY
Other procedure for expansion could be

1. Write down all the terms
2. Put Xs where letters much be inserted to convert the term to a product term
3. Use all combination of Xs in each term to generate minterms
4. Drop out duplicate terms
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Shorthand Minterm notation:
Since all the letters must appear in every product, a shorthand notation has been developed that saves
actually writing down the letters themselves. To form this notation, following steps are to be followed:
1. First of all, Copy original terms
2. Substitute 0s for barred letters and 1s for nonbarred letters
3. Express the decimal equivalent of binary word as a subscript of m.
Rule1. Find Binary equivalent of decimal subscript e.g.,for m6 subscript is 6, binary equivalent of 6 is
110.
Rule 2. For every 1s write the variable as it is and for 0s write variables complemented form i.e., for 110 t
is XYZ. XYZ is the required minterm for m6.
maxterm:
A maxterm is a sum of all the literals (with or without the bar) within the logic system. Boolean
Expression composed entirely either of Minterms or Maxterms is referred to as Canonical Expression.
Canonical Form:
Canonical expression can be represented is derived from
(i) Sum-of-Products(SOP) form
(ii) Product-of-sums(POS) form
Sum of Product (SOP)
1. Various possible input values
2. The desired output values for each of the input combinations
Product of Sum (POS)

When a Boolean expression is represented purely as product of Maxterms, it is said to be in Canonical
Product-of-Sum from of expression.
Minimization of Boolean expressions:-

After obtaining SOP and POS expressions, the next step is to simplify the Boolean expression.
There are two methods of simplification of Boolean expressions.
1. Algebraic Method
2. Karnaugh Map :
1.Algebraic method:This method makes use of Boolean postulates, rules and theorems to simplify the
expression.
Example No. 1: Reduce the expression XY X XY .
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Example No. 2: Minimise AB AC ABC ( AB C ).
2. Using Karnaugh Map :
Karnaugh Maps:
Karnaugh map or K Map is a graphical display of the fundamental product in a truth table.
For example:
Put a 1 in the box for any minterm that appears in the SOP expansion.
Basic idea is to cover the largest adjacent blocks you can whose side length is some power of 2.
Blocks can wrap around the edges.
For example, the first K-map here represents x y x y x ( y y ) x . (since y+y=1)
The second K-map, similarly, shows x y x y ( x x ) y y
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Remember, group together adjacent cells of 1s, to form largest possible rectangles of sizes that are
powers of 2. Notice that you can overlap the blocks if necessary.
Sum Of Products Reduction using K- Map
For reducing the expression first mark Octet, Quad, Pair then single.
Pair: Two adjacent 1s makes a pair.
Quad: Four adjacent 1s makes a quad.
Octet: Eight adjacent 1s makes an Octet.
Pair removes one variable.
Quad removes two variables.
Octet removes three variables.
Reduction of expression: When moving vertically or horizontally in pair or a quad or an octet it can be
observed that only one variable gets changed that can be eliminated directly in the expression.
For Example
In the above Ex
Step 1 : In K Map while moving from m7 to m15 the variable A is changing its state Hence it can be
removed directly, the solution becomes B.CD = BCD. This can be continued for all the pairs, Quads, and
Octets.
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Step 2 : In K map while moving from m0 to m8 and m2 to m10 the variable A is changing its state. Hence
B can be taken similarly while moving from m0 to m2 and m8 to m10 the variable C is changing its state.
Hence D can be taken; the solution becomes B.D
The solution for above expression using K map is BCD + BD.
Example1: Reduce the following Boolean expression using K-Map:
F(P,Q,R,S)=(0,3,5,6,7,11,12,15)
Soln:
This is 1 quad, 2pairs & 2 lock
Quad(m3+m7+m15+m11) reduces to RS
Pair(m5+m7) reduces to PQS
Pair (m7+m6) reduces to PQR
Block m0=PQRS
M12=PQRS
hence the final expressions is F=RS + PQS + PQR + PQRS + PQRS
Example2: Reduce the following Boolean expression using K-Map:
F(A,B,C,D)=(0,1,3,5,6,7,10,14,15)
Soln:
Reduced expressions are as follows:
For pair 1, (A+B+C)
For pair 2, (A+C+D)
For Quad 1, (A+D)
For Quad 2, (B+C)
Hence final POS expression will be
More about Gates:

NAND gate (NAND = Not AND)
This is an AND gate with the output inverted, as shown
by the 'o' on the output. The output is true if input A
AND input B are NOT both true: Q = NOT (A AND
B) A NAND gate can have two or more inputs, its
output is true if NOT all inputs are true.
NOR gate (NOR = Not OR)
This is an OR gate with the output inverted, as shown by
the 'o' on the output. The output Q is true if NOT inputs
A OR B are true: Q = NOT (A OR B) A NOR gate can
have two or more inputs, its output is true if no inputs
are true.
EX-OR (EXclusive-OR) gate

The output Q is true if either input A is true OR input B
is true, but not when both of them are true: Q = (A
AND NOT B) OR (B AND NOT A) This is like an OR
gate but excluding both inputs being true. The output is true if inputs A and B are DIFFERENT. EX-OR
gates can only have 2 inputs.
EX-NOR (EXclusive-NOR) gate
This is an EX-OR gate with the output inverted, as
shown by the 'o' on the output. The output Q is true if
inputs A and B are the SAME (both true or both
false):
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Q = (A AND B) OR (NOT A AND NOT B) EX-NOR gates can only have 2 inputs.
Summary truth tables
The summary truth tables below show the output states for all types of 2-input and 3-input gates.
NAND gate equivalents

The table below shows the NAND gate equivalents of NOT, AND, OR and NOR gates:
Low Order Thinking Questions: (Boolean Algebra)

a) State and verify absorption law in Boolean algebra.
Ans. Absorption Law states that :
a) X+XY=X b) X(X+Y)=X
b) Verify X.Y+X.Y=(X+Y).(X+Y) algebraically.
Ans. LHS= XY + XY
= (X+X) (X+Y) (Y+X) (Y+Y)
= 1.(X+Y) (X+Y).1
= (X+Y) (X+Y)
= RHS, hence proved
c) Write the equivalent Boolean Expression F for the following circuit diagram :
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Ans.: AB+AB+BC
d) If F(P,Q,R,S) = (3,4,5,6,7,13,15) , obtain the simplified form using K-Map.
Ans.:
.
Reduction of groups following the reduction rule :
Quad1 = M4.M5.M6.M7
= P+Q
Quad2 = M5.M7.M13.M15
= Q+S
Pair = M3.M7
= P+R+S
Therefore POS of F(P,Q,R,S) = (P+Q)(Q+S)(P+R+S)
e) F(a,b,c,d)=(0,2,4,5,7,8,10,12,13,15)
F(a,b,c,d)=B1+B2+B3
B1=m0+m4+m12+m8==cd
B2=m5+m7+m13+m15=bd
B3=m0+m2+m8+m10=bd
F(a,b,c,d)=cd+bd+bd
f) Write the equivalent Boolean expression for the following logic circuit:
X Y Z F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
Express in the product of sums form, the Boolean function F(X,Y,Z), the truth table for which is
given below:
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1/2 Marks Practice Questions:
1.State and Prove DeMorgan Law using Truth Table

2. State and prove Absorption Law algebraically.
3. State and Prove Distributive Law algebraically.
4. Write the equivalent Boolean Expression for the following Logic Circuit 2
5. Write the equivalent Boolean Expression F for the following circuit diagram : 2
6 Write the equivalent Boolean Expression F for the following circuit diagram : 2
7. Convert the following Boolean expression into its equivalent Canonical Sum of Product
Form((SOP)
(X+Y+Z).(X+Y+Z).(X+Y+Z).(X+Y+Z) 1
8. Convert the following Boolean expression into its equivalent Canonical Product of Sum form (POS):
A.B.C + A.B.C +A.B.C 1
9. Draw a Logical Circuit Diagram for the following Boolean expression:
A.(B+C) 2
10. Write the equivalent Boolean Expression F for the following circuit diagram: 2
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11. Prove that XY+YZ+YZ=Y algebraically 2
12. Design (A+B).(C+D) using NOR Gate. 2
3 Marks Practice Questions

13. If F(a,b,c,d)=(0,2,4,5,7,8,10,12,13,15), obtain the simplified form using K-Map.
14. If F(a,b,c,d) =(0,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,12,13,15), obtain the simplified form using KMap
15 Obtain a simplified form for a boolean expression
F(U,V,W,Z)= (0,1,3,5,6,7,10,14,15)
16 . Reduce the following boolean expression using K-Map
F(A,B,C,D) = (5,6,7,8,9,12,13,14,15)
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UNIT 5 : COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK CONCEPTS
Network
The collection of interconnected computers is called a
computer network.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are
capable of sharing and exchanging information.
Need
Resource Sharing
Reliability
Cost Factor
Communication Medium
Resource Sharing means to make all programs, data and peripherals available to anyone on the network
irrespective of the physical location of the resources and the user.
Reliability means to keep the copy of a file on two or more different machines, so if one of them is
unavailable (due to some hardware crash or any other) them its other copy can be used.
Cost factor means it greatly reduces the cost since the resources can be shared
Communication Medium means one can send messages and whatever the changes at one end are done
can be immediately noticed at another.
Evolution of Networking
1. ARPANET:In 1969, The US govt. formed an agency named ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency NETwork) to connect computers at various universities and defense agencies. The main objective
of ARPANET was to develop a network that could continue to function efficiently even in the event of a
nuclear attack.
2. Internet (INTERconnection NETwork): The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks.
It is not owned by anybody.
3. Interspace:InterSpace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate
online with real time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.
SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks.
Different types are :
1. Circuit Switching: In the Circuit Switching technique, first, the complete end-to-end transmission path
between the source and the destination computers is established and then the message is transmitted
through the path. The main advantage of this technique is guaranteed delivery of the message. Mostly
used for voice communication.
2. Message Switching: In the Message switching technique, no physical path is established between
sender and receiver in advance. This technique follows the store and forward mechanism.
3. Packet Switching: In this switching technique fixed size of packet can be transmitted across the
network.
Comparison between the Various Circuit Message Packet
Switching Techniques: Criteria Switching Switching Switching
Path established in advance Yes No No
Store and forward technique No Yes Yes
Message follows multiple routes No Yes Yes
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DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES
Data channel :- The information / data carry from one end to another in the network by
channel.
Baud & bits per second (bps) :- Its used to measurement for the information carry of a
communication channel.
Measurement Units :- bit
1 Byte= 8 bits
1 KBPS ( Kilo Byte Per Second)= 1024 Bytes
1 Kbps (kilobits Per Second) = 1024 bits
1 Mbps ( Mega bits Per Second )=1024 Kbps
Bandwidth :- It is amount of information transmitted or receives per unit time.
Transmission media:
1. Twisted pair cable: - It consists of two identical 1 mm thick copper wires
insulated and twisted together. The twisted pair cables are twisted in order to
reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction.
Advantages:
(i) It is easy to install and maintain.
(ii) It is very inexpensive
Disadvantages:
(i) It is incapable to carry a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters.
(ii) Due to low bandwidth, these are unsuitable for broadband applications.
2. Co-axial Cables: It consists of a solid wire core surrounded by
one or more foil or braided wire shields, each separated from the
other by some kind of plastic insulator. It is mostly used in the
cable wires.
Advantages:
(i) Data transmission rate is better than twisted pair cables.
(ii) It provides a cheap means of transporting multi-channel
television signals around metropolitan areas.
Disadvantages:
(i) Expensive than twisted pair cables.
(ii) Difficult to manage and reconfigure.
3. Optical fiber: - An optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can
carry information in the form of visible light.
Advantages:
(i) Transmit data over long distance with high security.
(ii) Data transmission speed is high
(iii) Provide better noise immunity
(iv) Bandwidth is up to 10 Gbps.
Disadvantages:
(i) Expensive as compared to other guided media.
(ii) Need special care while installation?
4. Infrared: - The infrared light transmits data through the air and can
propagate throughout a room, but will not penetrate walls. It is a secure medium of signal transmission.
The infrared transmission has become common in TV remotes, automotive garage doors, wireless
speakers etc.
114
5. Radio Wave: - Radio Wave an electromagnetic wave
with a wavelength between 0.5 cm and 30,000m. The
transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as
radio-wave transmission
Advantages:
(i) Radio wave transmission offers mobility.
(ii) It is cheaper than laying cables and fibers.
(iii) It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
Disadvantages:
(i) Radio wave communication is insecure communication.
(ii) Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms etc.
6. Microwave Wave: - The Microwave transmission is a line of sight transmission. Microwave signals
travel at a higher frequency than radio waves and are popularly used for transmitting data over long
distances.
Advantages:
(i) It is cheaper than laying cable or fiber.
(ii) It has the ability to communicate over oceans.
Disadvantages:
(i) Microwave communication is an insecure communication.
(ii) Signals from antenna may split up and transmitted in different way to different antenna which leads to
reduce to signal strength.
(iii) Microwave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms etc.
(iv) Bandwidth allocation is extremely limited in case of microwaves.
7. Satellite link: - The satellite transmission is also a kind of line of sight transmission that is used to
transmit signals throughout the world.
Advantages:
(i) Area covered is quite large.
(ii) No line of sight restrictions such as natural mountains, tall building, towers etc.
(iii) Earth station which receives the signals can be fixed position or relatively mobile.
Disadvantages:-
(i) Very expensive as compared to other transmission mediums.
(ii) Installation is extremely complex.
(iii) Signals sent to the stations can be tampered by external interference.
Network devices:
Modem: A MODEM (MOdulator DEModulator) is an electronic device that enables a computer to
transmit data over telephone lines. There are two types of modems, namely, internal modem and external
modem.
RJ45 connector: - The RJ-45(Registered Jack) connectors are the plug-in devices used in the networking
and telecommunications applications. They are used primarily for connecting LANs, particularly Ethernet.
Ethernet Card: - It is a hardware device that helps in connection of nodes within a network.
Hub: A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers together. Hubs can be either active or
passive. Hubs usually can support 8, 12 or 24 RJ45 ports.
Switch: A switch (switching hub) is a network device which is used to interconnect computers or devices
on a network. It filters and forwards data packets across a network. The main difference between hub and
switch is that hub replicates what it receives on one port onto all the other ports while switch keeps a
record of the MAC addresses of the devices attached to it.
Gateway: A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.
Repeater: A repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long distance
transmission.
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Network topologies and types
Topology :
Topology refers to the way in which the workstations attached to the network are interconnected.
The BUS Topology: - The bus topology uses a common single cable to connect all the workstations. Each
computer performs its task of sending messages without the help of the central server. However, only one
workstation can transmit a message at a particular time in the bus topology.
Advantages:
(i) Easy to connect and install.
(ii) Involves a low cost of installation time.
(iii) Can be easily extended.
Disadvantages:-
(i) The entire network shuts down if there is a failure in the central cable.
(ii) Only a single message can travel at a particular time.
(iii) Difficult to troubleshoot an error.
The STAR Topology: - A STAR topology is based on a central node which acts as a hub. A STAR
topology is common in homes networks where all the computers connect to the single central computer
using it as a hub.
Advantages:
(i) Easy to troubleshoot
(ii) A single node failure does not affect the entire network.
(iii) Fault detection and removal of faulty parts is easier.
(iv) In case a workstation fails, the network is not affected.
Disadvantages:-
(i) Difficult to expand.
(ii) Longer cable is required.
(iii) The cost of the hub and the longer cables makes it expensive over others.
(iv) In case hub fails, the entire network fails.
The TREE Topology: - The tree topology combines the characteristics of the linear bus and the star
topologies. It consists of groups of star configured workstations connected to a bus backbone cable.
Advantages:
(i) Eliminates network congestion.
(ii) The network can be easily extended.
(iii) Faulty nodes can easily be isolated from the rest of the network.
Disadvantages:
(i) Uses large cable length.
(ii) Requires a large amount of hardware components and hence is expensive.
(iii) Installation and reconfiguration is very difficult.
Types of Networks:
LAN (Local Area Network): A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively
small area. It is generally limited to a geographic area such as writing lab, school or building. It is
generally privately owned networks over a distance not more than 5 Km.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): MAN is the networks cover a group of nearby corporate offices or
a city and might be either private or public.
WAN (Wide Area Network): These are the networks spread over large distances, say across countries or
even continents through cabling or satellite uplinks are called WAN.
116
PAN (Personal Area Network): A Personal Area Network is computer network organized around an
individual person. It generally covers a range of less than 10 meters. Personal Area Networks can be
constructed with cables or wirelessly.
Network protocol
A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network.
It defines the standardized format for data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting errors
and so on.
A protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules that two or more machines
must follow to exchange those messages.
E.g. using library books.
Types of protocols are:
1. HTTP
2. FTP
3. TCP/IP
4. SLIP/PPP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a communications protocol for the transfer of
information on the intranet and the World Wide Web. HTTP is a request/response standard
between a client and a server. A client is the end-user; the server is the web site.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is the simplest and most secure way to exchange files over the
Internet. The objectives of FTP are:
To promote sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).
To encourage indirect or implicit use of remote computers.
To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among different hosts.
To transfer data reliably, and efficiently.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
TCP - is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data from client to server. Data can be lost in
the intermediate network. TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission
until the data is correctly and completely received.
IP - is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node. IP forwards each packet based on a
four byte destination address (the IP number). The Internet authorities assign ranges of numbers to
different organizations. The organizations assign groups of their numbers to departments. IP operates
on gateway machines that move data from department to organization to region and then around the
world.
Telnet-
It is an older internet utility that lets us log on to remote computer system. It also facilitates for terminal
emulation purpose. Terminal emulation means using a pc like a mainframe computer through networking.
Wireless/Mobile Computing
Wireless communication is simply data communication without the use of landlines. Mobile
computing means that the computing device is not continuously connected to the base or central
network.
1. GSM(Global System for Mobile communication): it is leading digital cellular system. In covered
areas, cell phone users can buy one phone that will work any where the standard is supported. It uses
narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency.
2. CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access): it is a digital cellular technology that uses spread-
spectrum techniques. CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead ,every channel
uses the full available spectrum.
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3. WLL(Wireless in Local Loop) : WLL is a system that connects subscribers to the public switched
telephone network using radio signals as a substitute for other connecting media.
4. Email(Electronic Mail): Email is sending and receiving messages by computer.
5. Chat: Online textual talk in real time , is called Chatting.
6. Video Conferencing: a two way videophone conversation among multiple participants is called
video conferencing.
7. SMS(Short Message Service): SMS is the transmission of short text messages to and from a
mobile pone, fax machine and or IP address.
8. 3G and EDGE: 3G is a specification for the third generation of mobile communication of mobile
communication technology. 3G promises increased bandwidth, up to 384 Kbps when a device is
stationary.
EDGE(Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution ) is a radio based high speed mobile data
standard.
Network Security Concepts:
Viruses: Viruses are programs which replicate and attach to other programs in order to corrupt the
executable codes. Virus enters the computer system through an external source and become destructive.
Worms: Worms are also self- replicating programs that do not create multiple copies of itself on one
computer but propagate through the computer network. Worms log on to computer systems using the
username and passwords and exploit the system.
Trojan horse: - Though it is a useful program, however, a cracker can use it to intrude the computer
system in order to exploit the resources. Such a program can also enter into the computer through an e-
mail or free programs downloaded through the Internet.
Spams: Unwanted e-mail (usually of a commercial nature sent out in bulk)
Cookies: Cookies are the text messages sent by a web server to the web browser primarily for identifying
the user.
Firewall: A firewall is used to control the traffic between computer networks. It intercepts the packets
between the computer networks and allows only authorized packets to pass.
Cyber Law: Cyber law refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of Internet and the World Wide Web.
Cyber Crimes: Cyber crime involves the usage of the computer system and the computer network for
criminal activity.
Hacking: Hacking is an unauthorized access to computer in order to exploit the resources.
Web Services:
WWW: The World Wide Web or W3 or simply the Web is a collection of linked documents or pages,
stored on millions of computers and distributed across the Internet.
HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language):- HTML is a computer language that describes the structure
and behavior of a web page. This language is used to create web pages.
XML (eXtensible Markup Language):- Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a meta language that
helps to describe the markup language.
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):- A protocol to transfer hypertext requests and information
between servers and browsers.
Domain Names: A domain name is a unique name that identifies a particular website and represents the
name of the server where the web pages reside.
URL:- The Uniform Resource Locator is a means to locate resources such as web pages on the Internet.
URL is also a method to address the web pages on the Internet. There are two types of URL, namely,
absolute URL and relative URL.
Website: A collection of related web pages stored on a web server is known as a website.
Web browser: A software application that enables to browse, search and collect information from the
Web is known as Web browser.
Web Servers: The web pages on the Internet are stored on the computers that are connected to the
Internet. These computers are known as web servers.
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Web Hosting: - Web Hosting or website hosting is the service to host, store and maintain the websites on
the World Wide Web.
Web Scripting: - The process of creating and embedding scripts in a web page is known as Web
Scripting. Types of Scripts:-
(i) Client Side Scripts: - Client side scripts supports interaction within a webpage. E.g. VB Script, Java
Script, PHP (PHPS Hypertext Preprocessor).
(ii) Server Side Scripts: - Server side scripting supports execution at server end. E.g. ASP, JSP, PHP
OPEN SOURCE TERMINOLOGIES

Free Software: The S/Ws is freely accessible and can be freely used changed improved copied
and distributed by all and payments are needed to make for free S/W.
Open Source Software: S/w whose source code is available to the customer and it can be
modified and redistributed without any limitation .OSS may come free of cost but nominal charges
has to pay nominal charges (Support of S/W and development of S/W).
FLOSS (Free Libre and Open Source Software) : S/w which is free as well as open source S/W.
( Free S/W + Open Source S/W).
GNU (GNUs Not Unix) : GNU project emphasize on the freedom and its objective is to create a
system compatible to UNIX but not identical with it.
FSF (Free Software Foundation) : FSF is a non profit organization created for the purpose of
the free s/w movement. Organization funded many s/w developers to write free software.
OSI (Open Source Initiative) : Open source software organization dedicated to cause of
promoting open source software it specified the criteria of OSS and its source code is not freely
available.
W3C(World Wide Web Consortium) : W3C is responsible for producing the software standards
for World Wide Web.
Proprietary Software: Proprietary Software is the s/w that is neither open nor freely available,
normally the source code of the Proprietary Software is not available but further distribution and
modification is possible by special permission by the supplier.
Freeware: Freeware are the software freely available , which permit redistribution but not
modification (and their source code is not available). Freeware is distributed in Binary Form
(ready to run) without any licensing fees.
Shareware: Software for which license fee is payable after some time limit, its source code is not
available and modification to the software are not allowed.
Localization: localization refers to the adaptation of language, content and design to reflect local
cultural sensitivities .e.g. Software Localization: where messages that a program presents to the
user need to be translated into various languages.
Internationalization: Opposite of localization.
OPEN SOURCE / FREE SOFTWARE

Linux : Linux is a famous computer operating system . popular Linux server set of program
LAMP(Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP)
Mozilla : Mozilla is a free internet software that includes
a web browser
an email client
an HTML editor
IRC client
Apache server: Apache web server is an open source web server available for many platforms
such as BSD, Linux, and Microsoft Windows etc.
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Apache Web server is maintained by open community of developers of Apache software
foundation.
MYSQL : MYSQL is one of the most popular open source database system. Features of MYSQl :
Multithreading
Multi User
SQl Relational Database Server
Works in many different platform
PostgreSQL : Postgres SQL is a free software object relational database server . PostgresSQL can
be downloaded from www.postgressql.org.
Pango : Pango project is to provide an open source framework for the layout and rendering of
internationalized text into GTK + GNOME environment.Pango using Unicode for all of its
encoding ,and will eventually support output in all the worlds major languages.
OpenOffice : OpenOffice is an office applications suite. It is intended to compatible and directly
complete with Microsoft office.
OOo Version 1.1 includes:
Writer (word processor)
Calc(spreadsheet)
Draw(graphics program)etc
Tomcat : Tomcat functions as a servlet container. Tomcat implements the servlet and the
JavaServer Pages .Tomcat comes with the jasper compiler that complies JSPs into servlets.
PHP(Hypertext Preprocessor) : PHP is a widely used open source programming language for
server side application and developing web content.
Python: Python is an interactive programming language originally as scripting language for
Amoeba OS capable of making system calls.
Tips to solve Questions based on Networking

1. Where Server should be placed: Server should be placed in the building where the number of
computers is maximum.
2. Suggest a suitable cable layout of connection: A suitable cable layout can be suggested in the
following two ways:-
(i) On the Basis of Server: First the location of the Server is found out. Server is placed in that building
where the number of computers are maximum (According to 80 20 rule). After finding the server
position, each building distance is compared with the Server building directly or indirectly (taking other
building in between). The shortest distance is counted whether it is through directly or indirectly.
(ii) On the Basis of Distance from each building: The distance between the each building is compared to
all other buildings either directly or indirectly. The shortest distance is counted whether it is directly or
through some other building.
3. Where the following devices be placed:

(i) MODEM:-
(ii) HUB / SWITCH:- In all the wings
(iii) BRIDGE:
(iv) REPEATER: It is used if the distances higher than 70 m. It regenerates data and voice signals.
(v) ROUTER: When one LAN will be connected to the other LAN.
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4 Marks Questions (Communication and Network Concepts)
1. Knowledge Supplement Organisation has set up its new center at Mangalore for its office and web
based activities. It has 4 blocks of buildings as shown in the diagram below:
Center to center distances between various blocks

Block A to Block B 50 m
Block B to Block C 150 m
Block C to Block D 25 m
Block A to Block D 170 m
Block B to Block D 125 m
Block A to Block C 90 m
Number of Computers
Black A 25
Block B 50
Block C 125
Block D 10
Suggest a cable layout of connections between the blocks.
Suggest the most suitable place (i.e. block) to house the server of organisation with a suitable reason.
Suggest the placement of the following devices with justification
Repeater
Hub/Switch
The organization is planning to link its front office situated in the city in a hilly region where cable
connection is not feasible, suggest an economic way to connect it with reasonably high speed?
2. Ravya Industries has set up its new center at Kaka Nagar for its office and web based activities.
The company compound has 4 buildings as shown in the diagram below:
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Center to center distances between various buildings is as follows:
Harsh Building to Raj Building 50 m
Raz Building to Fazz Building 60 m
Fazz Building to Jazz Building 25 m
Jazz Building to Harsh Building 170 m
Harsh Building to Fazz Building 125 m
Raj Building to Jazz Building 90 m
Number of Computers in each of the buildings is follows:
Harsh Building 15
Raj Building 150
Fazz Building 15
Jazz Bulding 25
e1) Suggest a cable layout of connections between the buildings.
e2) Suggest the most suitable place (i.e. building) to house the server of this organisation with a suitable
reason.
e3) Suggest the placement of the following devices with justification:
(i) Internet Connecting Device/Modem
(ii) Switch
e4) The organisation is planning to link its sale counter situated in various parts of the same city, which
type of network out of LAN, MAN or WAN will be formed? Justify your answer.
3. China Middleton Fashion is planning to expand their network in India, starting with two cities in
India to provide infrastructure for distribution of their product. The company has planned to set up
their main office units in Chennai at three locations and have named their offices as Production Unit,
Finance Unit and Media Unit. The company has its corporate unit in New Delhi.
A rough layout of the same is as follows:
Approximate distances between these Units is as follows:

From To Distance
Production Unit Finance Unit 70 Mtr
Production Unit Media Unit 15 KM
Production Unit Corporate Unit 2112 KM
Finance Unit Media Unit 15 KM
In continuation of the above, the company experts have planned to install the following number of
computers in each of their office units:
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Production Unit 150
Finance Unit 35
Media Unit 10
Corporate Unit 30
i) Suggest the kind of network required (out of LAN,MAN,WAN) for connecting each of the following
office units:
Production Unit and Media Unit
Production Unit and Finance Unit
ii) Which one of the following devices will you suggest for connecting all the computers within each of
their office units?
Switch/Hub
Modem
Telephone
iii) Which of the following communication media, will you suggest to be procured by the company for
connecting their local offices in Chennai for very effective (High Speed) communication?
Ethernet cable
Optical fiber
Telephone cable
(iv) Suggest a cable/wiring layout for connecting the companys local office units located in Chennai.
Also, suggest an effective method/technology for connecting the companys office unit located in Delhi.
Answers: 4 Marks (Communication and Network Concepts)

1. (e1) (Any of the following option)
Layout Option 1
Layout Option 2
(e2) The most suitable place / block to house the server of this organisation would be Block C, as this
block contains the maximum number of computers, thus decreasing the cabling cost for most of the
computers as well as increasing the efficiency of the maximum computers in the network.
(e3) (i) For Layout 1, since the cabling distance between Blocks A and C, and that between B and C are
quite large, so a repeater each, would ideally be needed along their path to avoid loss of signals during the
course of data flow in these routes. For layout 2, since the distance between Blocks A and C is large so a
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repeater would ideally be placed in between this path.
(ii) In both the layouts, a hub/switch each would be needed in all the blocks, to interconnect the group of
cables from the different computers in each block.
(e4) The most economic way to connect it with a reasonable high speed would be to use radio wave
transmission, as they are easy to install, can travel long distances, and penetrate buildings easily, so they
are widely used for communication, both indoors and outdoors. Radio waves also have the advantage of
being omni directional, which is they can travel in all the directions from the source, so that the transmitter
and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically.
2. (e1) Any one layout
Layout option1
Layout option 2
(e2) The most suitable place / block to house the server of this organisation would be Raj Building, as this
block contains the maximum number of computers, thus decreasing the cabling cost for most of the
computers as well as increasing the efficiency of the maximum computers in the network.
(e3)(i) Raj Building
(ii) In both the layouts, a hub/switch each would be needed in all the buildings, to interconnect the group
of cables from the different computers in each block e4) MAN, because MAN (Metropolitan Area
Networks) are the networks that link computer facilities within a city.
3. (i)(a) Production Unit and Media Unit :MAN
(b)Production Unit and Finance Unit:LAN
(ii) Switch/Hub
(iii) Optical fiber
(iv) Optical Fiber/Star Topology Wireless/Satellite Link/Leased Line
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1 and 2 Marks Questions
Q(1) What do you mean by a computer network?
Ans:- Computer network is an interconnection of autonomous computers connected together using
transmission media.
Q(2) What is the need for networking the computers?
Ans:- 1. Sharing of Information, 2. Reliability, 3. Reduces cost
4. Time saving
Q(3) What is the full form of ARPANET?
Ans:- Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
Q(4) What are various data transmission modes?
Ans:- There are three modes of data transmission
Simplex
Half-duplex
Full-duplex
Q(5) What is the difference between Simplex and half duplex transmission?
Ans:- In simples transmission mode, the data can be transferred in only one direction where as in half
duplex transmission mode, the data can be transmitted in both directions but one at a time.
Q(6) What do you mean by MODEM?
Ans:- MODEM stands for MODulatorDEModuator. It is a device that can convert an analog signal into
digital signal and vice versa.
Q(7) Define the terms Bandwidth.
Ans:- Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that is available for the transmission of data. Wider the
bandwidth of a communication channel, the more data it can transmit in a given period of time.
Q(8) What are various types of transmission media?
Ans:- There are two broad categories of transmission media
Guided media
Unguided Media
Q(9) Explain in brief the advantages and disadvantages of Twisted pair Cable.
Ans:- Advantages
Inexpensive
Often available in existing phone system
Well tested and east to get
Disadvantages
Susceptible to noise (sound, energy etc.)
Not as durable as coaxial cable
Does not support high speed
Q(10) What do you mean by communication protocol?
Ans:- A protocol is a set of rules to enable computers to connect with one another and to exchange
information with minimum possible error.
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Q(11) List various functions of Communication protocol.
Ans:- Data sequencing, Data Formatting, Flow control, Error Control,Connection Establishment and
termination,Data Security
Q(12) List commonly used protocols.
Ans:- HTTP, TCT/IP, FTP, SLIP, PPP, SMTP, POP, ICMP
Q(13) What are the main functions of TCP
Ans:- The TCP does the following activities
It breaks the data into packets that the network
Verifies that all the packets arrived at the destination
Reassembles the data
Q(14) What do you mean by network topology?
Ans:- Topology is how the nodes/computers are interconnected together.
Q(15) List various types of Networks.
Ans:- LAN, MAN, WAN
Q(16) Give names of various networking topologies in LAN.
Ans:- 1.Star Topology, 2.Ring topology, 3.Bus topology 4.Mesh Topology
Q(17) Write two advantages and two disadvantages of STAR topology.
Ans:- Advantages of STAR topology
It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star network without disturbing the rest of the
network.
Troubleshooting a star topology network is easy
Disadvantages
All the nodes are dependent on the central system. Hub. Failure of hub result in shutting down
of whole of the system
Long cable length is required
Q(18) What is NFS?
Ans:- NFS stands for Network File System. NFS is a protocol that allows a set of computers to access
each others files.
HIGHER ORDER THINKING QUESTIONS
Q.1 What is protocol? How many types of protocols are there?

Ans. When computers communicate each other, there needs to be a common set of rules and
instructions that each computer follows. A specific set of communication rules is called a protocol. Some
protocol: PPP, HTTP, SLIP, FTP, TCP/IP
Q.2 What is the difference between Networking and Remote Networking?

Ans. The main difference between Networking and Remote Networking, is the network which we use
in offices or other places locally such LAN or INTERNET and remote networking is one which we use
TERMINAL Services to communicate with the remote users such WAN.
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Q.3 What is point-to-point protocol?
Ans. A communication protocol used to connect computer to remote networking services include
Internet Service Providers. In networking, the Point-to-Point protocol is commonly used to establish a
direct connection between two nodes. Its primary use has been to connect computers using a phone line.
Q.4 How gateway is different from router?
Ans. A gateway operates at the upper levels of the OSI model and translates information between two
completely different network architectures. Routers allow different networks to communicate with each
other. They forward packets from one network to another based on network layer information. A gateway
can interpret and translate the different protocols that are used on two distinct networks. Unlike routers
that successfully connect networks with protocols that are similar, a gateway perform an application layer
conversion of information from one protocol stack to another.
Q.5 What is the role of network administrator?
Ans. Basic tasks for which a network administrator may be responsible:
Setting up and configuring network hardware and software.
Installing and configuring network media and connections.
Connecting user nodes and peripherals of all kinds to the network.
Adding users to and removing users from the network.
Managing user account.
Ensuring the security of the network.
Provide training to the users to utilize the networks resources.
Q.6 What is the difference between baseband and broadband transmission?
Ans. Baseband is a bi-directional transmission while broadband is a unidirectional transmission.
No Frequency division multiplexing possible in base band but possible in broadband.
SNo Baseband Broadband
1 Entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed broadband transmission, signals are sent on
by a signal multiple frequencies, allowing multiple
signals to be sent simultaneously.
2 Digital signals Analog signals
3 bi-directional transmission unidirectional transmission
4 No Frequency division multiplexing possible Frequency division multiplexing possible
5 Uses for short distance Uses for long distance
Q.7 What are the difference between domain and workgroup?

Ans.
SNo Domain Workgroup
1. One or more computers are servers All Computers are peers.
2. If you have a user account on the domain, you Each computer has a set of accounts.
can logon to any computer on the domain.
3. There can be 100+ computers Typically not more then 20-30 computers
4. The computers can be on different local All computers must be on the same local
network netork.
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Q.8 What is the differences between POP3 and IMAP Mail Server?
Ans. IMAP is a standard protocol for accessing e-mail from a local server. A simpler e-mail protocol is
Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), which download mail to the computer and does not maintain the mail on
the server. IMAP, e-mails are stored on the server, while in POP3, the messages are transferred to the
clients computer when they are read.
Q.9 Name different layer of the ISO OSI Model.

Ans. International Standard Orrganisation Open Systems Interconnection has seven layers;
Physical Layer,Data Link Layer,Network Layer,Transport Layer,Session Layer,Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Q.10 What is client server architecture?

Ans. To designated a particular node which is well known and fixed address, to provide a service to the
network as a whole. The node providing the service is known as the server and the nodes that use that
services are called clients of that server. This type of network is called Client-Server Architecture.
Q.11 What is FDM? Give example.

Ans. FDM-Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in analog transmission. It is often used in short
distance. It is code transparent and any terminal of the same speed can use the same sub-channel after the
sub-channel is established. The best example if FDM is the way we receive various stations in a radio.
Q.12 Describe the following in brief:

i) MOSAIC ii) USENET iii) WAIS
Ans. i) MOSAIC: is the program for cruising the internet. The National centre wrote this program for
Super Computer application at the university of Illinois. It has a simple window interface, which creates
useful hypertext links that automatically perform some of the menu bar and button functions.
ii) USENET: is the way to meet people and share information. Usenet newsgroup is a special group set up
by people who want to share common interests ranging from current topic to cultural heritages.
iii) WAIS: is a WIDE AREA INFORMATION SERVER.
**********************
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SAMPLE PAPER
Class- XII
Computer Science(083)
Max Marks: 70 Time: 3 Hrs
______________________________________________________
General Instructions:
Programming Language used is C++.
All questions are compulsory.
Q1 a)What is the difference between Call by Value and call by Reference ? Explain with code. 2
b) Write the names of header files to which the following belong : 1

setw() ii) sqrt()
c) Rewrite the following program after removing the syntactical error(s) if any 2
Underline each correction:
#include<stdio.h>
class MyStudent
{
int StudentId = 101;
char Name[20];
public:
MyStudent (){}
void Register(){cin>> StudentId;
gets name
}
void Display(){ cout << StudentId<<,<<name<<endl;
};
void main()
{MyStudent MS
Register.MS;
MS.display();
}
d) Find the output of the following program:
#include<iostream.h> (3)
void main ( )
{int N [ ] = { 10 , 15 , 20 , 25 , 30}
int *z = N;
while (*z<30)
{
if(*z % 3 !=0 )
*z = *z + 2;
else
*z = *z + 1;
z++;
}
for (int R = 0 ; R <=4 ; R++ )
129
{
cout<<N[R]<< $ ;
If (R % 3 = = 0)
cout<<endl;
}
cout<<N[4] * 3 <<endl;
}
e) Give the output of the following program: 2
#include<ctype.h>
void ReCode ( char Text[ ], int Num );
void main ( )
{
char Note [ ] = GooDLUck;
Recode (Note, 2);
cout << Note <<endl;
}
void ReCode (char Text [ ], int Num)
{
for ( int K = 0 ; Text [K] !=\0 ; K++)
if ( K % 2 == 0)
Text [K] = Text [K] Num;
else if ( islower (Text[K] ))
Text [K] = toupper ( Text [K] )
else
Text[K] = Text[K] + Num;
}
f) Study the following program and select the possible output from it : 2
#include<stlib.h>
const int MAX = 3;
void main()
{
randomize();
int Number;
Number = 50 + random (MAX);
for (int p = Number; P>=50; P--)
cout <<p<<#;
cout <<endl;
}
Q2 : a) What is Function overloading ? Give an example to illustrate it. 2

bAnswer the questions (i) and (ii) after going through the following class : 2
class Seminar
{
130
int Time;
public:
Seminar() //Function 1
{
Time=30;cout<<"Seminar starts now"<<end1;
}
void Lecture() //Function 2
{
cout<<"Lectures in the seminar on"<<end1;
}
Seminar(int Duration) //Function 3
{
Time=Duration;cout<<"Seminar starts now"<<end1;
}
~Seminar() //Function 4
{
cout<<"Thanks"<<end1;
}
};
i) In Object Oriented Programming, what is Function 4 referred as and when does it get invoked/called?
ii) In Object Oriented Programming, which concept is illustrated by Function 1 and Function 3 together?
Write an example illustrating the calls for these functions.
c)Define a class HOTEL in C++ with the following description : private members : 4
Rno Room No of int type
Name Customer name of char type
Tarrif stores per day charges of float type
NOD no of days integer
CALC() A function to calculate and return Amount as NOD*Tarrif and if the value of NOD*Tarrif is
more than 10000 then as 1.05*NOD*Tarrif
Public Members:
Checkin // A function to enter the Rno, Name , Tarrif and NOD
Checkout // A function to display Rno, Name, Tarrif, NOD and Amount by calling CALC()
d)Answer the question (i) to (iv) based on the following

class Book
{
char Title[20];
char Author[20];
int noofpages;
public:
void read();
void show(); };
class TextBook: private Book

{ int noofchap, noofassignments;
protected:
int standard;
public:
131
void readtextbook();
void showtextbook();
}
class Physicsbook:public Textbook
{
char Topic[20];
public :
void readphysicsbook();
void showphysicsbook();
};
(i) Names the members , which are accessible from the member functions of class Physicsbook.
(ii) Write the names of members , which are accessible by an object of class Textbook.
(iii) Write the names of all members , which are accessible by an object of class Physicsbook.
(iv) How many bytes will be required by an object belonging to class Physicsbook. (4)
Q3 a) Write a function CHANGE () in C++ , which accepts an array of integer and its size as parameters
and divide all those array elements by 7 which are divisible by 7 and multiply other elements by 3. (3)
b) An array T[50][20] is stored in the memory along the column with each of the elements occupying
4 bytes , find out the base address and address of elements T[30][15],if an element T[25][10] is
stored at the memory location 9800. (3)
c) Write function in C++ to perform Insert operation in a dynamically allocated Queue containing
names of employees . (4)
(d) Write a function in SWARARR() in C++ to swap(interchange) the first row elements with the last
row elements for a two dimensional array passed as the argument of the function. (2)
(e) Evaluate the following postfix notation of expression. (2)
FALSE, TRUE, NOT, OR, TRUE, FALSE, AND , OR
Q4: a) Observe the program segment given below carefully, and answer the question that follows(1)
class Candidate
{
long CId ; //Candidates Id
char CName[20]; // Candidates Name
float Marks; //Candidates Marks
public :
void Enter( ) ;
void Display( ) ;
void MarksChange ( ); // Function to change marks
long R_CId( ) { return CId ; }
};
void MarksUpdate ( long ID)
{ fstream File ;
File.open ( CANDIDATE.DAT, ios : : binary | ios : : in | ios : : out ) ;
Candidate C ;
int Record = 0 , Found = 0;
132
while ( ! Found && File . read ( ( char *) & C , sizeof ( C) ) )
if ( Id == C.R_CId ( ) )
{ cout << Enter new marks ;
C. MarkChange ( );
_________________ // Statement 1
_________________ // Statement 2
Found = 1 ;
}
Record ++ ;
}
if ( found == 1 ) cout << Record Updated ;
File. close ( );
}
Write the Statement 1 to position the File pointer at the beginning of the Record for which the
candidates Id matches with the argument passed, and Statement 2 to write the updated Record at that
position.
b) Write a function in C++ to count the number of uppercase alphabets present in a text file
ARTICLE.TXT. (2)
c) Given a binary file TELEPHON.DAT, containing records of the following class Directory :
class Directory (3)
{
char Name [20] ;
char Address [30] ;
char AreaCode[5] ;
char Phone_No[15] ;
public :
void Register ( ) ;
void Show ( ) ;
int CheckCode (char AC [ ] )
{
return strcmp ( AreaCode , AC ) ;
}
};
Write a function COPYABC ( ) in C++ , that would copy all those records having AreaCode as 123
from TELEPHON.DAT to TELEBACK.DAT.
Q 5 a) What do you mean by DDL and DML commands?Give an example of each (2)
b)Consider the following table Organisation and Grossincome and answer (I) and (II) part of the
question:
133
Table: ORGANISATION
ECODE NAME POST SGRAD DOJ DOB

E
2001 AJAY GENERAL MANAGER D003 23-Mar-2003 13-Jan-1980
2002 VIJAY EXECUTIVE MANAGER D002 12-Feb-2010 22-Jul-1987
2003 RAM DEPUTY MANAGER D003 24-Jan-2009 24-Feb-1983
2004 RAHIM PROD. INCHARGE D002 11-Aug-2006 03-Mar-1984
2005 ABBA ADD.GENERAL D001 29-Dec-2004 19-Jan-1982
S MANAGER
Table:GROSSINCOME
SGRADE SALARY HRA
D001 56000 18000
D002 32000 12000
D003 24000 8000
(I) Write SQL commands for the following statements: (4)
(i) To display the details of all MEMBERS OF ORGANISATION in descending order of DOJ.
(ii) To display NAME and POST of those MEMBERS whose SGRADE is either D002 or D003.
(iii) To display the content of all the ORGANISATION table, whose DOJ is in between 09-Feb-2006
and 08-Aug-2009.
(iv) To add a new row with the following
2007, RUDRA, SALES INCHARGE, D002,26-Sep-2011, 26-Sept-1983
(II) Give the output of the following SQL queries : (2)
(i) SELECT COUNT(SGRADE), SGRADE FROM ORGANISATION GROUP BY SGRADE;
(ii) SELECT MIN(DOB), MAX(DOJ) FROM ORGANISATION;
(iii) SELECT NAME,SALARY FROM ORGANISATION O, GROSSINCOME G
WHERE O.SGRADE=G.SGRADE AND O.ECODE<2003;
(iv) SELECT SGRADE, SALARY+HRA FROM GROSSINCOME WHERE SGRADE=D002
Q 6 : a) State and Verify Distributive Law. Verify using Truth Table. 2
b) Represent the Boolean expression yz+xz with the help of NAND gates only. 1
c)Obtain simplified form for a Boolean expression
F(x,y,z,w) = (1,3,4,5,7,9,11,12,13,15) using K Map 3
d) Write SOP form of Function F(x,y,z) whose truth table representation is given below:2
x y z F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Q7a) Compare any two Switching techniques. 1
b) Which of the following is not a Client Side script: 1
(i) VB Script (ii) Java Script
(iii) ASP (iv) PHP
c) If someone has hacked your Website, to whom you lodge the Complain? 1
d) What do you mean by IP Address? How is it useful in Computer Security? 1
134
e) ABC Systems Organisation has set up its new center at Jabalpur for its office and web based activities. It
has 4 blocks of buildings as shown in the diagram below: 4
BLOCK D BLOCK C
BLOCK A BLOCK B
Center to center distances between various blocks

Block A to Block B 80 m
Block B to Block C 250 m
Block C to Block D 50 m
Block A to Block D 190 m
Block B to Block D 125 m
Block A to Block C 90 m
Number of Computers
Block A 25
Block B 50
Block C 150
Block D 10
i) Suggest a cable layout of connections between the blocks.
ii) Suggest the most suitable place (i.e. block) to house the server of this organization with a suitable
reason.
iii) Suggest the placement of the following devices with justification
(i) Repeater (ii) Hub/Switch
iv) The organization is planning to link its International Office situated in Mumbai , which wired
communication link , you will suggest for a very high speed connectivity?
f) What is meant by Trojan Horse and Virus in terms of computers? 1
g) What was the role of ARPANET in the communication network ? 1
135

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Notes & Study Material

SNo Unit Name Marks

Weightage to different topics/content units

Weightage to different forms of questions

Difficulty Level of Questions

6 Database And SQL 87

Character Set- Set of characters which are recognized by c++compiler i.e

Tokens- Smallest individual unit. Following are the tokens

One Dimensional array

Two dimensional array

8) Find the output of the following program:

// Call print to print integer

FEATURES OF OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING:

RECTANGLE() TRIANGLE() CIRCLE()

area(rectangle) Area(triangle) Area(circle)

It is a collection of variables, often of different types and its associated functions.

[Note: the default access specifier is private.

Example : class Box { int a;

double length; // Length of a box

Private Class members declared as private can be used only by member

Protected Class members declared as protected can be used by member functions

Public Class members declared as public can be used by any function.

Importance of Access Specifiers

Creating object / defining the object of a class:

The general syntax of defining the object of a class is:-

Box Box1; // Declare Box1 of type Box

Accessing / calling members of a classAll member of a class are private by default.

The general syntax for accessing member function of a class is:-

Object_name. Function_name (actual arguments);

Class methods definitions (Defining the member functions)

Outside the class definition

Return_type Class_name:: function_name (argument list)

Where symbol :: is a scope resolution operator.

Inline functions definition starts with keyword inline

inline void Square (int a)

Q 1) Define a class TAXPAYER in C++ with following description :

Q 3 Define a class Applicant in C++ with following description:

Q 4 Define a class ITEM in C++ with following description:

Public member function of class employee

Q2 Define a class Student with the following specifications : 4

Q3 : Define a class report with the following specification : 4

Q4 Declare a class myfolder with the following specification : 4

Newfileentry() A function to accept values of Filenames, Availspace and Usedspace

2 Marks Practice Problems

1. What is relation between class and object?

A copy constructor is a special constructor in the C++ programming language used

The following cases may result in a call to a copy constructor:

Sample cpyfunc(); // Sample is a class and it is return type of cpyfunc()

If func cpyfunc() is called by the following statement

1 & 2 Marks Solved Problems :

Q2 Consider the following declaration :

2 Marks Practice Problems

Features or Advantages of Inheritance:

Base & Derived Classes:

class derived-class: access-specifier base-class

Where access is one of public, protected, or private.

class sample: public MyClass

EXAMPLE OF SINGLE INHERITANCE

Eg. Int p; float p1; char *c;

Address of A[row][column]=base address of A + (rowNUMCOLS + column) sizeof (type)

Address of A[row][column]=base address of A + (columnNUMROWS +rows) sizeof (type)