PORTFOLIO

IN
TLE
Submitted By: Javines, Kevin
M.
Submitted To: Sir Salazar
10 Topics:
1. Electricity
is the presence and flow of electric charge. Its best-known form is the flow of
electrons through conductors such as copper wires. Electricity is a form of
energy that comes in positive and negative forms, that occur naturally (as in
lightning), or is produced (as in a generator).
TWO TYPES OF ELECTRICITY:
A. Static Electricity
- Static electricity is the buildup of an imbalanced electrical charge on the
surface of objects that causes objects to be attracted to each other.

B. Current Electricity
- Current electricity is the flow of electrons through a conductor. There
are two kinds of current electricity: alternating (AC) and direct (DC). Current electricity
can cause the heating of a conductor, such as the coil on an electric stove.

2. Circuit
A circuit is simply a closed loop through which charges can continuously move. To
demonstrate that charges are not only moving through the light bulb filament but
also through the wires connecting the battery pack and the light bulb, a variation on
the above activity is made.
A. Series Circuit
A series circuit is a circuit in which resistors are arranged in a chain, so the
current has only one path to take. The current is the same through each resistor.
The total resistance of the circuit is found by simply adding up the resistance
values of the individual resistors:
equivalent resistance of resistors in series : R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

B. Parallel Circuit
A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with their heads
connected together, and their tails connected together. The current in a parallel
circuit breaks up, with some flowing along each parallel branch and re-combining
when the branches meet again. The voltage across each resistor in parallel is the
same.

The total resistance of a set of resistors in parallel is found by adding up the reciprocals
of the resistance values, and then taking the reciprocal of the total:
equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel: 1 / R = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 +...

3. THE Ohms Law

For many conductors of electricity, the electric current which will flow through them is
directly proportional to the voltage applied to them. When amicroscopic view of Ohm's
law is taken, it is found to depend upon the fact that the drift velocity of charges through
the material is proportional to the electric field in the conductor. The ratio of voltage to
current is called the resistance, and if the ratio is constant over a wide range of
voltages, the material is said to be an "ohmic" material. If the material can be
characterized by such a resistance, then the current can be predicted from the
relationship:

Data can be entered into any of the boxes below. Specifying any two of the quantities
determines the third. After you have entered values for two, click on the text
representing to third in the active illustration above to calculate its value.

4. Electrical Symbols
Electrical symbols and electronic circuit symbols are used for drawing schematic
diagram.
The symbols represent electrical and electronic components.

Symbol Component name Meaning

Wire Symbols

Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections

Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open

Pushbutton Switch (N.C) Momentary switch - normally closed

DIP Switch DIP switch is used for onboard configuration

SPST Relay
Relay open / close connection by an
electromagnet
SPDT Relay

Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.

Solder Bridge Solder to close connection

Ground Symbols
Used for zero potential reference and electrical
Earth Ground
shock protection.

Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Digital / Common Ground

Resistor Symbols

Resistor (IEEE)

Resistor reduces the current flow.

Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)

Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.

Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.
Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEC)

Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor

Thermal resistor - change resistance when

Thermistor
temperature changes

Photoresistor / Light Photo-resistor - change resistance with light

dependent resistor (LDR) intensity change

Capacitor Symbols

Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It
Capacitor acts as short circuit with AC and open circuit
with DC.

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance

Inductor / Coil Symbols

Inductor Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field

Iron Core Inductor Includes iron

Variable Inductor

Power Supply Symbols

Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Current Source Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical

Generator
rotation of the generator
Battery Cell Generates constant voltage

Battery Generates constant voltage

Generates voltage as a function of voltage or

Controlled Voltage Source
current of other circuit element.

Generates current as a function of voltage or

Controlled Current Source
current of other circuit element.

Meter Symbols
Measures voltage. Has very high resistance.
Voltmeter
Connected in parallel.

Measures electric current. Has near zero

Ammeter
resistance. Connected serially.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power

Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols

Lamp / light bulb

Lamp / light bulb Generates light when current flows through

Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols

Diode allows current flow in one direction only -
Diode
left (anode) to right (cathode).

Allows current flow in one direction, but also

Zener Diode can flow in the reverse direction when above
breakdown voltage

Schottky Diode Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage drop

Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

Light Emitting Diode (LED) LED emits light when current flows through

Photodiode allows current flow when exposed

Photodiode
to light

5. Resistor Color Coding

6. Electrical Charge
Electricity is the movement of electrons. Electrons create charge, which we can harness
to do work. Your lightbulb, your stereo, your phone, etc., are all harnessing the
movement of the electrons in order to do work. They all operate using the same basic
power source: the movement of electrons.
The three basic principles for this tutorial can be explained using electrons, or more
specifically, the charge they create:

Voltage is the difference in charge between two points.

Current is the rate at which charge is flowing.
Resistance is a materials tendency to resist the flow of charge (current).

So, when we talk about these values, were really describing the movement of charge,
and thus, the behavior of electrons. A circuit is a closed loop that allows charge to move
from one place to another. Components in the circuit allow us to control this charge and
use it to do work.
Georg Ohm was a Bavarian scientist who studied electricity. Ohm starts by describing a
unit of resistance that is defined by current and voltage. So, lets start with voltage and
go from there.
We define voltage as the amount of potential energy between two points on a circuit.
One point has more charge than another. This difference in charge between the two
points is called voltage. It is measured in volts, which, technically, is the potential energy
difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge
that passes through it (dont panic if this makes no sense, all will be explained). The unit
volt is named after the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta who invented what is
considered the first chemical battery. Voltage is represented in equations and
schematics by the letter V.
Current is measured in Amperes (usually just referred to as Amps). An ampere is
defined as 6.241*1018electrons (1 Coulomb) per second passing through a point in a
circuit. Amps are represented in equations by the letter I.

7. Electric Current
If the two requirements of an electric circuit are met, then charge will flow through the
external circuit. It is said that there is a current - a flow of charge. Using the
word current in this context is to simply use it to say that something is happening in the
wires - charge is moving. Yet current is a physical quantity that can be measured and
expressed numerically. As a physical quantity, current is the rate at which charge flows
past a point on a circuit. As depicted in the diagram below, the current in a circuit can be
determined if the quantity of charge Q passing through a cross section of a wire in a
time t can be measured. The current is simply the ratio of the quantity of charge and
time.

Current is a rate quantity. There are several rate quantities in physics. For
instance, velocity is a rate quantity - the rate at which an object changes its position.
Mathematically, velocity is the position change per time ratio. Acceleration is a rate
quantity - the rate at which an object changes its velocity. Mathematically, acceleration
is the velocity change per time ratio. And power is a rate quantity - the rate at which
work is done on an object. Mathematically, power is the work per time ratio. In every
case of a rate quantity, the mathematical equation involves some quantity over time.
Thus, current as a rate quantity would be expressed mathematically as

Note that the equation above uses the symbol I to represent the quantity current.
As is the usual case, when a quantity is introduced in The Physics Classroom, the
standard metric unit used to express that quantity is introduced as well. The standard
metric unit for current is the ampere. Ampere is often shortened to Amp and is
abbreviated by the unit symbol A. A current of 1 ampere means that there is 1 coulomb
of charge passing through a cross section of a wire every 1 second.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb / 1 second
Conventional Current Direction
The particles that carry charge through wires in a circuit are mobile electrons. The
electric field direction within a circuit is by definition the direction that positive test
charges are pushed. Thus, these negatively charged electrons move in the direction
opposite the electric field.

8. What is Multitester
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A
typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current
and resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuitsanalog multimeters
(AMM) and digital multimeters (DMM). Analog instruments are usually based on a
microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different
measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may
display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service
work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They
can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and
household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances,
power supplies, and
A multimeter is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC voltmeter,
multirange ammeter, and multirange ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog multimeter
combines a meter movement, range resistors and switches.
For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor
connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test. For analog current
ranges, low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the meter movement to
divert most of the current around the coil.
Digital Multimeter
A digital multimeter is a tool that can measure amps, volts, and ohms. It is different from
an analog meter,which has a needle and a gauge, in that it has a digital light-emitting
diode (LED) display. Digital multimeters are typically more accurate than their old analog
counterparts. A digital multimeter can also have other functions; obviously, the more
expensive meters will have more features, but all of them measure the three basic
currents.

9. Parts of Incandescent Bulb

What are they?
The incandescent light bulb or lamp is a source of electric light that works by
incandescence, which is the emission of light caused by heating the filament. They are
made in an extremely wide range of sizes, wattages, and voltages.

Where did they come from?

Incandescent bulbs are the original form of electric lighting and have been in use for over
100 years. While Thomas Edison is widely considered to be the inventor of the
incandescent bulb, there are a number of people who invented components and
prototypes of the light bulb well before Edison did.

One of those people was British physicist Joseph Wilson Swan, who actually received the
first patent for a complete incandescent light bulb with a carbon filament in 1879. Swans
house was the first in the world to be lit by a light bulb. Edison and Swan merged their
companies and together they were the first to design a bulb that was commercially viable.

How do they work?

An incandescent bulb typically consists of a glass enclosure containing a tungsten
filament. An electric current passes through the filament, heating it to a temperature that
produces light.

Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount attached to the bulb's
base which allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without gas/air
leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem support the filament and/or its lead wires.

The enclosing glass enclosure contains either a vacuum or an inert gas to preserve and
protect the filament from evaporating.

Diagram showing the major parts of a modern incandescent light bulb.

1. Glass bulb
2. Inert gas
3. Tungsten filament
4. Contact wire (goes to foot)
5. Contact wire (goes to base)
6. Support wires
7. Glass mount/support
8. Base contact wire
9. Screw threads
10. Insulation
11. Electrical foot contact

10. Resistance
An electron traveling through the wires and loads of the external circuit encounters
resistance. Resistance is the hindrance to the flow of charge.
For an electron, the journey from terminal to terminal is not a
direct route. Rather, it is a zigzag path that results from
countless collisions with fixed atoms within the conducting
material. The electrons encounter resistance - a hindrance to
their movement. While the electric potential difference established between the two
terminals encourages the movement of charge, it is resistance that discourages it. The
rate at which charge flows from terminal to terminal is the result of the combined effect
of these two quantities.

Variables Affecting Electrical Resistance

The flow of charge through wires is often compared to the flow of water through pipes.
The resistance to the flow of charge in an electric circuit is analogous to the frictional
effects between water and the pipe surfaces as well as the resistance offered by
obstacles that are present in its path. It is this resistance that hinders the water flow and
reduces both its flow rate and its drift speed. Like the resistance to water flow, the total
amount of resistance to charge flow within a wire of an electric circuit is affected by
some clearly identifiable variables.
First, the total length of the wires will affect the amount of resistance. The longer the
wire, the more resistance that there will be. There is a direct relationship between the
amount of resistance encountered by charge and the length of wire it must traverse.
After all, if resistance occurs as the result of collisions between charge carriers and the
atoms of the wire, then there is likely to be more collisions in a longer wire. More
collisions mean more resistance.
Second, the cross-sectional area of the wires will affect the amount of resistance. Wider
wires have a greater cross-sectional area. Water will flow through a wider pipe at a
higher rate than it will flow through a narrow pipe. This can be attributed to the lower
amount of resistance that is present in the wider pipe. In the same manner, the wider
the wire, the less resistance that there will be to the flow of electric charge. When all
other variables are the same, charge will flow at higher rates through wider wires with
greater cross-sectional areas than through thinner wires.
A third variable that is known to affect the resistance to charge flow is the material that a
wire is made of. Not all materials are created equal in terms of their conductive ability.
Some materials are better conductors than others and offer less resistance to the flow
of charge. Silver is one of the best conductors but is never used in wires of household
circuits due to its cost. Copper and aluminum are among the least expensive materials
with suitable conducting ability to permit their use in wires of household circuits. The
conducting ability of a material is often indicated by its resistivity. The resistivity of a
material is dependent upon the material's electronic structure and its temperature.