ME LABORATORY 3

PERFORMANCE HEAT BALANCE AND

EFFICIENCY TEST OF A SIMPLE STEAM POWER
PLANT

1.1 The Simple Steam Power Plant

The Energy Conversion Processes

Electrical energy generation using steam turbines involves three energy conversions, extracting
thermal energy from the fuel and using it to raise steam, converting the thermal energy of the
steam into kinetic energy in the turbine and using a rotary generator to convert the turbine's
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

1
Raising steam (Thermal Sources) - Boiler
In fossil fuelled plants steam is raised by burning fuel, mostly coal but also oil and gas, in
a combustion chamber. Recently these fuels have been supplemented by limited amounts
of renewable biofuels and agricultural waste.
The chemical process of burning the fuel releases heat by the chemical transformation
(oxidation) of the fuel. This can never be perfect. There will be losses due to impurities in
the fuel, incomplete combustion and heat and pressure losses in the combustion chamber
and boiler. Typically these losses would amount to about 10% of the available energy in the
fuel.

The Steam Turbine (Prime Mover)

High pressure steam is fed to the turbine and passes along the machine axis through
multiple rows of alternately fixed and moving blades. From the steam inlet port of the
turbine towards the exhaust point, the blades and the turbine cavity are progressively larger
to allow for the expansion of the steam.
The stationary blades act as nozzles in which the steam expands and emerges at an
increased speed but lower pressure. (Bernoulli's conservation of energy principle - Kinetic
energy increases as pressure energy falls). As the steam impacts on the moving blades it
imparts some of its kinetic energy to the moving blades.

The Condenser
The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine is condensed to water in the
condenser which extracts the latent heat of vaporization from the steam. This causes the
volume of the steam to go to zero, reducing the pressure dramatically to near vacuum
conditions thus increasing the pressure drop across the turbine enabling the maximum
amount of energy to be extracted from the steam. The condensate is then pumped back
into the boiler as feed-water to be used again.
It goes without saying that condenser systems need a constant, ample supply of cooling
water and this is supplied in a separate circuit from the cooling tower which cools the
condenser cooling water by direct contact with the air and evaporation of a portion of the
cooling water in an open tower.

Electromechanical Energy Transfer (Generator)

The steam turbine drives a generator, to convert the mechanical energy into electrical
energy. Typically this will be a rotating field synchronous machine. These machines are
described more fully in the section on Generators.
The energy conversion efficiency of these high capacity generators can be as high as
98% or 99% for a very large machine.

Ancillary Systems
Apart from the basic steam raising and electricity generating plant, there are several
essential automatic control and ancillary systems which are necessary to keep the plant
operating safely at its optimum capacity. These include:
Matching the power output to the demand. Current controls
Maintaining the system voltage and frequency
Keeping the plant components within their operating pressure, temperature and speed
limits
Lubrication systems
Feeding the fuel to the combustion chamber and removing the ash
Pumps and fans for water and air flow
2
Pollution. control - Separating harmful products from the combustion exhaust emissions
Cooling the generator
Electricity transmission equipment. Transformers and high voltage switching
Overload protection, emergency shut down and load shedding

1.2 The Rankine Cycle

The Rankine cycle is a model that is used to predict the performance of steam turbine
systems. The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts
heat into mechanical work. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses
water as the working fluid. In this cycle the heating and cooling processes occur at constant
pressure. Figure 1 illustrates the Rankine cycle on a T-s diagram and the equipment used in the
cycle.

Following the cycle from state 4, the water enters the steam generator as a subcooled liquid
at pressure p. The energy supplied in the steam generator raises the state of the water from
that of a subcooled liquid to that of a saturated liquid and, further, to that of a saturated vapor
at state 1. The vapor leaves the steam generator at state 1 and enters a steam turbine, where it
expands isentropically to state 2. It enters the condenser at this point and is condensed at
constant pressure from state 2 to state 3. At state 3 the water is a saturated liquid at the
pressure in the condenser. The liquid cannot enter the steam generator, which is at a higher
pressure, until its pressure is raised to that of the steam generator. A pump performs this very
easily, in contrast to the compressor in the Carnot vapor cycle, and raises the pressure of the
liquid to p, the steam generator pressure. The liquid is now a subcooled liquid at state 4, and the
cycle is complete. Problems would still exist if the steam entered the turbine as a saturated
vapor, in that the moisture content of the steam would be too high as it passed through the
turbine, resulting in liquid impingement and erosion of the blading.
Since the Rankine cycle is characterized by constant-pressure heating, there is no reason to
stop heating the steam when it reaches the saturated vapor state. The customary practice is to
superheat the steam to a much higher temperature. Figure 2 illustrates how the superheating
shifts the isentropic expansion process to the right, thus preventing high moisture content of
the steam when it exits the turbine. A typical value for the temperature of the steam at a state 1
is 500 600 C. Metallurgical limitations prevent higher values. The pressure is not limited, and a
wide range of pressure will be found.

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

3
The steams expansion process in the ideal turbine is isentropic, and the changes in the
kinetic and potential energies are zero for the ideal cycle; hence the turbine work is
Wt m h1 h2 (1)
The turbine work is often written on a unit mass basis, found by dividing equation (1) by the
mass flow rate.
wt h1 h2 (2)
In the condenser the steam vapor condenser at constant temperature and pressure, where
the final state leaving the condenser is a saturated liquid. The changes in the kinetic and
potential energies of steam are zero, and no work is done. Hence the heat leaving the steam is
h3 h2
Q R m (3)
which on a unit mass basis is
qR h3 h2 (4)
The condensed steam enters a pump where the water is isentropically compressed to the
boiler pressure. Again, the changes in the kinetic and potential energies are zero. The first-law
equation reduces to
W p m h4 h3 (5)
On a unit mass basis this is
w p h4 h3 (6)
The change of enthalpy for isentropic processes is dh = vdp, and equation (5) becomes
1
W p m
vdp
4
(7)
If water is considered to be incompressible for the pressure range across the pump, the specific
volume is constant, and the pump work becomes
v3 p4 p3
W p m (8)
In the steam generator, heat is added to the water at constant pressure, the changes of
kinetic and potential energies are zero, the work is zero, and the first-law equation reduces to
h1 h4
Q A m (9)
and dividing by the mass flow rate yields the heat added per unit mass.
q A h1 h4 (10)
The thermal efficiency of the cycle is the net work divided by the heat added.
wnet wt w p (11)
wnet
e (12)
qA

4
This may also be written just in terms of heat, as the algebraic sum of the cycle heat flows is
equal to the net work for ideal and actual cycles, wnet = qA + qR, where qR is negative.

Example No. 1
A steam power plant operates on the ideal Rankine cycle. The steam enters the turbine at 7.0
MPa and 550 C. It discharges to the condenser at 20 kPa. Determine the cycle thermal efficiency.

Given:
Steam at 7.0 MPa and 550 C entering the turbine.
Condenser discharge at 20 kPa.
Required:
Cycle thermal efficiency
Solution:

At turbine inlet, state 1, 7.0 MPa, 550 C

h1 3529 .6 kJ kg
s1 6.9484 kJ kg K

The process from state 1 to state 2 is isentropic, hence s2 = s1.

At state 2, 20 kPa, s2 = s1.
h f 2 254.5 kJ kg
h fg2 2358 .4 kJ kg
s f 2 0.8321 kJ kg K
s fg2 7.0773 kJ kg K
5
v f 2 0.001017 m3 kg

s2 s1 s f 2 x2 s fg2
6.9484 0.8321 x2 7.0773
x2 0.8642

h2 h f 2 x2h fg2
h2 251.5 0.8642 2358 .4
h2 2289 .6 kJ kg

State 3 is saturated liquid at 20 kPa, so

h3 hf 2 254.5 kJ kg and v3 v f 2 0.001017 m3 kg
Then enthalpy at state 4 may be found
h4 h3 v 3 p4 p3
P4 = 7000 kPa, p3 = 20 kPa

h4 251 .5 0.001017 7000 20

h4 258.6 kJ kg

Find the energy terms per unit mass.

wt h1 h2 3529 .6 2289 .6 1240 .0 kJ kg
w p h4 h3 258.6 251.5 7.1 kJ kg
wnet wt w p 1240 .0 7.1 1232 .9 kJ kg
q A h1 h4 3529 .6 258.6 3271 .0 kJ kg
Cycle thermal efficiency
wnet 1232 .9
e 0.377 37.7% (answer)
qA 3271 .0

1.3 Actual Cycle: Factors Contributing to Cycle Irreversibilities and Losses

Irreversibilities are associated with each of the cycle components and the piping connecting
the components to a system. Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the most
common causes of irreversibility.
In the turbine the ideal expansion process is isentropic, but as the steam flows through the
turbine blading, fluid friction occurs, increasing the steams entropy so it is greater at exit than
at inlet conditions. This is accounted for by the turbine internal, or isentropic, efficiency. This
value is determined experimentally by the manufacturer. Once it is known, the value may be
used in computing the actual work the steam indicates it did. The turbine isentropic efficiency is
defined as
h h
t 1 2 (13)
h1 h2
Fluid flow irreversibilities significantly reduce the turbine work, hence the net work from the
cycle. Heat loss from the turbine is negligible. The turbine isentropic efficiency is a
determination of how well the available energy is used. Once the isentropic efficiency of the
turbine is known, the actual enthalpy of the steam at the turbine exit may be calculated.
In the pump, frictional effects mean more work is required than the ideal to raise the
waters pressure to a higher value. Frictional effects in fluid flow through the pump and

6
between the pumps impeller and the water increase the entropy. Again, the pump may be
considered adiabatic, as heat loss negligible. The pump isentropic efficiency allows us to
determine the actual state of the water leaving the pump and to determine the entropy
increase across the pump. The isentropic efficiency is
h h
p 4 3 (14)
h4 h3

In actual condensers and steam generators there are also pressure drops. There is a
pressure gradient across the condenser. The discharge pressure from the pump must be greater
than the boiler pressure to overcome the pressure drops across valves and piping to the boiler.
A pressure drop within the steam generator is caused by fluid friction.

Example No. 2
A 100-MW steam power plant operates on the Rankine cycle but with turbine and pump
efficiencies of 85%. The steam enters the turbine at 7.0 MPa and 550 C. It discharges to the
condenser at 20 kPa. Determine the cycle thermal efficiency, the steam flow rate, and the
cooling-water flow rate in the condenser if cooling water enters at 20 C and leaves at 35 C.
Given:
100-MW
Turbine and pump efficiencies = 85%.
Steam enters turbine at 7.0 MPa and 550 C.
Condenser at 20 kPa.
Cooling water = 20 C to 35 C
Required:
Cycle thermal efficiency
Steam flow rate
Cooling water flow rate
Solution:

7
At turbine inlet, state 1, 7.0 MPa, 550 C
h1 3529 .6 kJ kg
s1 6.9484 kJ kg K

The process from state 1 to state 2 is isentropic, hence s2 = s1.

At state 2, 20 kPa, s2 = s1.
h f 2 254.5 kJ kg
h fg2 2358 .4 kJ kg
s f 2 0.8321 kJ kg K
s fg2 7.0773 kJ kg K
v f 2 0.001017 m3 kg

s2 s1 s f 2 x2 s fg2
6.9484 0.8321 x2 7.0773
x2 0.8642

h2 h f 2 x2h fg2
h2 251.5 0.8642 2358 .4
h2 2289 .6 kJ kg

For h2: t = 0.85

h1 h2
t
h1 h2
3529 .6 h2
0.85
3529 .6 2289 .6
h2 2475 .6 kJ kg

State 3 is saturated liquid at 20 kPa, so

h3 hf 2 254.5 kJ kg and v3 v f 2 0.001017 m3 kg
Then enthalpy at state 4 may be found
h4 h3 v 3 p4 p3

8
P4 = 7000 kPa, p3 = 20 kPa

h4 251 .5 0.001017 7000 20

h4 258.6 kJ kg

h4 h3
For h4: p
h4 h3
258.6 251.5
0.85
h4 251.5
h4 259 .9 kJ kg

The various work and heat terms per unit mass are found from the first-law analysis.
wt h1 h2 3529 .6 2475 .6 1054 .0 kJ kg
wp h4 h3 259.9 251.5 8.4 kJ kg
wt wp 1054 .0 8.4 1045 .6 kJ kg
wnet
qA h1 h4 3529 .6 259 .9 3269 .7 kJ kg

The cycle thermal efficiency is

w 1045 .6
e net 0.320 32.0% (answer)

qA 3269 .7

The flow rate of steam is found by dividing the total net power by the net work per unit mass.
W 100 ,000 kJ s
m net 95.6 kg s (answer)
A 1045 .6 kJ kg
wnet

Cooling water flow rate:

Performing a first-law analysis on the condenser yields
m h2 h3
m cw
hout hin
hin = hf at 20 C = 83.86 kJ/s
hout = hf at 35 C = 146.56 kJ/s
95.62475 .6 251.5
m cw
146.56 83.86
mcw 3391 kg water s (answer)

1.4 Combustion Chamber

Combustion chamber is the most important part of the boiler. The combustor in a boiler is
usually well insulated that causes heat dissipation to the surrounding almost zero. It also has no
involvement to do any kind of work (w=0). In addition, the kinetic and potential energies of the
fluid streams are usually negligible. Then only total energies of the incoming streams and the
outgoing mixture remained same for analysis. The conservation of energy principle requires that
these two equal each others that is shown in the Figure 3.

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1.5 Fuels
1.5.1 Fuels
Fossil fuels originate from the earth as a result of the slow decomposition and
chemical conversion of organic material. They come in three basic forms: solid (coal).
liquid (oil), and natural gas. Coal represents the largest fossil-fuel energy resource in the
world.
A fuel is composed of chemical elements which, in rapid chemical union with
oxygen, produce combustion. Combustion is that rapid chemical union with oxygen of
an element whose exothermic heat of reaction is sufficiently great and whose rate of
reaction is sufficiently fast that useful quantities of heat are liberated at elevated
temperatures.
1.5.2 Coal
Coal is a general term that encompasses a large number of solid organic minerals
with widely differing compositions and properties, although all are essentially rich in
amorous (without regular structure) elemental carbon. It is found in stratified deposits
at different and often great depths, although sometimes near the surface.
1.5.3 Proximate Analysis
A typical proximate analysis of coal determines the percentage of sulfur is also
obtained, but we shall consider the proximate analysis to include only the first four
items.
Moisture is determined by subjecting a 1-g sample of the coal to a temperature of
220 F to 230 F for a period of exactly 1 hr. The loss in weight of the sample during this
period, in percentage, is an indication of the moisture content of the coal.
Volatile matter consists of hydrogen and certain hydrogen-carbon compounds that
can be removed from the coal merely by heating it. Thus, a 1-g sample is placed in a
covered platinum crucible and heated to 1740 F for about 7 min to drive off the volatile
matter. The loss in weight during the heating period is due to the elimination of
moisture and volatile matter. The latter may be determined since moisture has been
calculated from the previous test.
The test for percentage of ash in the fuel is performed by heating the sample of coal
used in the moisture determination to a temperature of 1290 F to 1380 F in an
uncovered crucible, with good air circulation, until the coal is completed burned.
Complete combustion of the coal is determined by the repeated weighings of the
sample. A constant weight indicates that there is only ash remaining in the crucible.
Fixed carbon is the difference between 100% and the sum of the percentages of
moisture, ash, and volatile matter. However, that difference does not represent all the
carbon that was in the coal. Some of the carbon may have been in the form of
hydrocarbons which may have been distilled off during the determination of volatile
matter. Also, it is possible that some of the so-called fixed carbon may include
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen.
Observe that the tests for moisture and volatile matter are somewhat arbitrary in
that the duration of the test is fixed, i.e., there is no certainty that all the moisture or
10
volatile matter has been removed by the end of the prescribed period of heating. Also,
there is no assurance that some of the more volatile of the hydrocarbons were not
removed during the moisture test.
Example of proximate analysis from Table 5-1 of Power Plant Theory and Design by
Potter for Alabama State, Bibb County, Bituminous Rank is:
Moisture = 2.71%
Volatile Matter = 34.67%
Fixed Carbon = 57.43
Ash = 5.19%

1.5.4 Ultimate Analysis

An accurate proximate analysis can be made by anyone and the equipment is
simple. However, an ultimate analysis must be made by a chemist. The ash content of
the coal is independent of the type of analysis and is therefore the same for both. The
ultimate analysis divides all the remaining part of the coal into the elements carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen in percentages by weight. Note that moisture is
proportioned by weight into hydrogen and oxygen.
In most cases the percentage of carbon obtained from the ultimate analysis is
numerically larger than the percentage of fixed carbon reported by the proximate
analysis. The exceptions are explained by the theory that the fixed carbon may contain
elements other than pure carbon, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen.
Example of proximate analysis from Table 5-1 of Power Plant Theory and Design by
Potter for Alabama State, Bibb County, Bituminous Rank is:
Ash = 5.19%
Sulfur = 1.26%
Hydrogen = 5.29%
Carbon = 79.71%
Nitrogen = 1.42%
Oxygen = 7.13%

1.5.5 Basis of Reporting Analysis.

The Bureau of Mines reports coal analysis in the following manner:
(a) As Received or As Fired
(b) Dry or Moisture Free
(c) Moisture and Ash Free or Combustible

Another basis that has some use is

(d) Moisture, Ash, and Sulfur Free

The first three methods are applicable to either proximate or ultimate analysis.

The first basis, as fired, is of most use to the power-plant operator because it shows
the constituents of the fuel in the same conditions as it was weighed and supplied to the
furnace. The remaining methods are used primarily for comparing coals from various
sources.
To transfer an analysis from as received to dry, it is only necessary to deduct the
weight of hydrogen and oxygen in the water from these terms and to divide each of the
remaining constituents by one minus the decimal equivalent of the moisture. A similar
procedure may be used for converting to any of the other methods.

11
Example No. 3
Convert the ultimate analysis of Cherokee Country, Kansas, coal given in Table 5-1 (PPTD by
Potter) to dry, to moisture and ash free, and to moisture, ash, and sulfur free bases.
Ultimate Analysis
Ash = 8.27%
Sulfur = 3.34%
Hydrogen = 5.23%
Carbon = 71.81%
Nitrogen = 1.20%
Oxygen = 10.15%
Moisture in Proximate Analysis = 5.09%

Given:
As listed above
Required:
Ultimate analysis to dry, to moisture and ash free, and to moisture, ash, and sulfur free bases.

Solution:

Since water is 8 parts oxygen and 1 part hydrogen by weight (2H2 + O2 = 2H2O), deduct 5.09 x
1/9 = 0.56% from hydrogen and 5.09 x 8/9 = 4.53% from oxygen, giving the as received analysis
as:
Sulfur 3.34% Nitrogen 1.20%
Hydrogen 4.67% Oxygen 5.62%
Carbon 71.81% Moisture 5.09%
Ash 8.27%

To obtain the dry ultimate analysis, divide each item by (1.0000 0.0509) = 0.9191
Sulfur 3.52% Nitrogen 1.26%
Hydrogen 4.92% Oxygen 5.92%
Carbon 75.67% Ash 8.71%

Divide each item except ash by (1.0000 0.0871) = 0.9129 to get the combustible basis:

Sulfur 3.86% Nitrogen 1.38%

Hydrogen 5.39% Oxygen 6.48%
Carbon 82.89%

Similarly divide all but sulfur by (1.000 0.0386) = 0.9614 for the moisture, ash, and sulfur free
analysis:

Hydrogen 5.61% Nitrogen 1.44%

Carbon 86.21% Oxygen 6.74%

1.5.6 Heating Values of Fuels

Certain empirical formulas have been developed from which the higher heating
value of coals may be estimated. One of the most popular of these formulas is Dulongs
equation, in which the higher heating value is calculated from the ultimate analysis by
multiplying the weight of each of the combustible elements in 1 lb of the coal by the
heating value of that element. Thus

12
O
HHV 14 ,600C 62,000 H2 2 4050 S (15)
8
where HHV = higher heating value, Btu per lb
C = carbon in 1 lb of fuel, lb
H2 = hydrogen in 1 lb of fuel, lb
O2 = oxygen in 1 lb of fuel, lb
S = sulfur in 1 lb of fuel, lb

In SI Units
O
HHV 33,964C 144 ,229 H2 2 9421 S (16)
8
where HHV = higher heating value, kJ per kg
C = carbon in 1 kg of fuel, kg
H2 = hydrogen in 1 kg of fuel, kg
O2 = oxygen in 1 kg of fuel, kg
S = sulfur in 1 kg of fuel, kg
Dulongs formula approximates the heating value of the fuel on the as received,
moisture free, or moisture and ash free basis in accordance with the basis used for
determining the weight fractions substituted into the equation. The disadvantage of this
formula is that an ultimate analysis is required. The term (H2 O2/8) assumes that all the
oxygen in the fuel has previously combined with the hydrogen in the fuel.
Similar formulas may be developed for any fuel by selecting the appropriate heating
values for each of the constituents or compounds in the fuel.

1.5.7 Classification of Coals

Peat is characterized by high moisture content with only small percentages of
volatile matter and fixed carbon. Peat is not used as a fuel for power plants because of
its high moisture content. However, it may be partially dried and compressed for use as
a fuel in other applications.
Lignite represents the next stage in the development of coal. Its heating value is
considerably higher than that for pear, and its fixed carbon and volatile matter are also
larger. This coal is often suitable for power generation. After drying, lignite slacks or
disintegrates into small flakes, making shipment difficult. Some lignite is brown in color.
Subbituminous is the next rank above lignite. Shipment and storage of this coal are
also hampered by slacking, a quality that serves to distinguish it from other grades of
bituminous. Subbituminous is black in color.
Bituminous coals are all characterized by low moisture content and nonslacking
properties. Also the heating values are much higher. Most bituminous coals are of the
caking type while others are noncaking or free-burning.
Semianthracite is a much harder coal than semibituminous. Because of its scarcity
the price of this fuel is usually too high for power generation.
Anthracite is also scarce. Because of its high cost, it is used primarily for domestic
purposes. The ash content is usually low and the coal is hard with a shiny surface.
Although the fixed-carbon content of anthracite is higher than that for any other coal, it
does not have the highest heating value. It burns with a short and bluish flame.
Superanthracite is very difficult to ignite and therefore has little significance in the
power field. It borders on graphite.

1.5.8 Oils

13
Petroleums are said to be the result of marine growths and vegetation that were
deposited during past ages when large areas of land were submerged by the sea. Like
coal, these deposits were covered by sediment. Later, shifting and movements of the
earths crust compressed and heated the deposits, causing them to decay and to form
hydrocarbons. Some of the hydrocarbons are light and either gaseous or very volatile,
while others are heavy liquids.
Note that most petroleums have about 85% carbon so that the ultimate analysis
cannot be used as the criterion in classifying and specifying this type of fuel.

1.5.9 Density
Density is usually expressed in the form of specific gravity as the ratio of the weight
of a volume of the oil to the weight of a volume of water at 60 F (15.6 C). When the
specific gravity is given for 60/60, the term means that the oil density was measured at
60 F (the upper figure) and the water density taken at 60 F (the lower figure). Two other
scales are used to specify the density of oil: the API scale (American Petroleum Institute)
and the Baum scale. The relationships of these three scales are as follows:
141.5

API 131.5 (17)
S.G. at 60 60
140

Be 130 (18)
S.G. at 60 60
If the measurement is made at some other temperature, a correction is in order.
The volumetric coefficient of expansion () of oil is 0.0007 per oC or 0.00039 per oF.
S.G. at 60 60
S.G. at t F in English units (19)
1 t 60 F
S.G. at 15.6 15.6
S.G. at t C in SI units (20)
1 t 15.6 C

Example No. 4
A 28 oAPI oil has a temperature of 4.4 oC. Its density in kg per liter will be calculated.

Given:
o
API = 28
Temperature = 4.4 oC
Required:
Density in kg per liter at 4.4 oC
Solution:
141.5

API 131.5
S.G. at 15.6 15.6
141.5
S.G. at 15.6 15.6
131.5 API
141.5
S.G. at 15.6 15.6 0.887
131.5 28
At 4.4 C
S.G. at 15.6 15.6
S.G. at t C
1 t 15.6 C
0.887
S.G. at 4.4 C
1 0.0007 4.4 15.6

14
S.G. at 4.4 C 0.894

Density at 4.4 C = (S.G. at 4/4 C)(Density of water)

Density at 4.4 C = (0.894)(1 kg/L)
Density at 4.4 C = 0.894 kg/L (answer)

1.5.10 Heating Value

Heating value should be determined by a bomb or Sargent calorimeter, but
empirical formulas may be used: (Sherman and Knopff formula for fuel oil)

HHV 18,250 40 Be 10 (21)
where HHV = higher heating value, Btu per lb.

HHV 42,455 93 Be 10 (22)
where HHV = higher heating value, kJ per kg.

Other empirical formulas expressing HHV as a function of density are successful.

(ASME Formula)
HHV 17,680 60 API (23)
where HHV = higher heating value, Btu per lb.
HHV 41,130 139.6 API (24)
where HHV = higher heating value, kJ per kg.

(Bureau of Standards Formula)

HHV 22,231 3780 S.G.2 (25)
where HHV = higher heating value, Btu per lb.
HHV 51,716 8793 .8S.G.2 (26)
where HHV = higher heating value, kJ per kg.

1.5.11 Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels have all the advantages of petroleum except the ease of storage.
Power plants located near natural gas fields or industries manufacturing gas as a by-
product have found this type of fuel economical.
Natural gas is formed in a manner similar to that of oil. In fact, natural gas is usually
found in a dome just above crude petroleum. Its advantage is its convenience in use,
stemming from ease of control, smokeless combustion, and absence of ash. The cost is a
deterrent to any considerable use of it for producing steam. Methane (CH4) is the major
constituent of natural gas. In addition, this gas sometimes contains ethane, nitrogen,
and carbon monoxide. Most samples of natural gas averages about 1000 Btu/ cu ft
measured at standard conditions of 29.92 in. Hg and 60 F. It is generally sold by
volumetric measurement with the actual gas flow corrected to standard conditions by
use of temperature and pressure measurements.

1.6 Combustion
Air is a mechanical mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor, argon, neon, helium, krypton,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. For most engineering problems it is sufficient to assume that air
is composed of 23.1% oxygen and 76.9% nitrogen (N2) by weight. Application of the
characteristic gas equation for conversion to the volumetric basis shows that air is then 21.0%
oxygen and 79.0% nitrogen. The molecular weight of air may be taken as 28.9 based on the
volume percentages of oxygen and nitrogen used above.
15
If we consider that methane is burned with oxygen supplied from air, our chemical equation
will be
79.0
CH4 2O2 2 N2 CO2 2H2O 7.52N2 (27)
21.0
1 vol methane + 2 vols oxygen + 7.52 vols nitrogen = 1 vol carbon dioxide + 2 vols water vapor +
7.52 vols nitrogen
1 mol methane + 2 mols oxygen + 7.52 mols nitrogen = 1 mol carbon dioxide + 2 mols water
vapor + 7.52 mols nitrogen
16 lb methane + 64 lb oxygen + 210.5 lb nitrogen = 44 lb carbon dioxide + 36 lb water vapor +
210.5 lb nitrogen

Then CH 4 9.52 air CO2 2H2O 7.52N2 (28)

16 lb methane + 274.5 lb air = 44 lb carbon dioxide + 36 lb water vapor + 210.5 lb nitrogen

Thus far the chemical equations have been written on the assumption that each molecule of
fuel will come in contact with the proper amount of oxygen to support combustion. Such perfect
mixing of the fuel and oxygen cannot be realized in a practical combustion chamber. An excess
of air must be supplied to the boiler to assure that all molecules of fuel will find the necessary
oxygen for complete combustion. An appreciable quantity of carbon monoxide or soot in the
flue as indicates that insufficient oxygen is being supplied to the furnace.
The amount of excess air that is required by a boiler depends on many factors, including the
type of burner, fuel, and combustion chamber. Well-designed pulverized-coal boilers may
operate with complete combustion on slightly less than 15% excess air; i.e., 15% more than the
theoretical air calculated from the chemical equations. Other boilers may require 50% or even
100% excess air.
Consider that methane is to be burned with 25% excess air. Our combustion equation will
then be
79.0 79.0
CH4 1.252O2 1.252 N2 CO2 2H2O 0.252O2 1.252 N2
21.0 21.0
This equation indicates that 344 lb of air are supplied to burn 16 lb of methane at 25%
excess air.
The volume of flue gases at any temperature may be calculated from the combustion
equation and the characteristic gas equation.

Example No. 5
Determine (a) the theoretical air required for combustion of Cherokee County, Kansas, coal, (b)
the volume of wet flue gases at 20% excess air and 540 F, and (c) the percentage of CO2 by
volume in dry flue gases from 0% excess air to 100% excess air.
From Power Plant Theory and Design by Potter. Table 5-1.
C = 0.7181, H2 = 0.0523, O2 = 0.1015, S = 0.0334, N2 = 0.0120, Ash = 0.0827

Given:
C = 0.7181, H2 = 0.0523, O2 = 0.1015, S = 0.0334, N2 = 0.0120, Ash = 0.0827
20% excess air, 540 F

Required:
(a) Theoretical air required for combustion of Cherokee County, Kansas, coal.
(b) Volume of wet flue gases at 20% excess air and 540 F.
(c) The percentage of CO2 by volume in dry flue gases from 0% excess air to 100% excess air.

16
Solution:
(a)
Ultimate Analysis Oxygen
(12 lb C + 32 lb O2 = 44 lb CO2) C = 0.7181 lb x 32/12 = 1.9149 lb
(1 lb H2 + 8 lb O2 = 9 lb H2O) H2 = 0.0523 x 8/1 = 0.4184 lb
O2 = 0.1015 = -0.1015 lb
(1 lb S + 1 lb O2 = 1 lb SO2) S = 0.0334 x 1/1 = 0.0334 lb
N2 = 0.0120
Ash = 0.0827
Total = 1.0000 lb = 2.2652 lb
Theoretical air = 2.2652 0.231 = 9.8061 lb per lb of coal. (answer)

(b) Wet products of combustion (including water vapor) at 0% excess air: (T = 540+460 = 1000 R)

RT
Weight Volume
P
35 1000
CO2 = 0.7181 + 1.9149 = 2.6330 lb = 43.54 cu ft
144 14.7
85.7 1000
H2O = 0.0523 + 0.4184 = 0.4707 lb = 19.06 cu ft
144 14.7
24.1 1000
SO2 = 0.0334 + 0.0334 = 0.0668 lb = 0.76 cu ft
144 14.7
55 1000
N2 = 0.0120 + (0.769)(9.8061) = 7.5529 lb = 196.24 cu ft
144 14.7
259.60 cu ft
Each 10% of excess of air supplied to the combustion chamber is an addition of
0.10 x 9.8061 x 0.231 = 0.2265 lb of oxygen
0.10 x 9.8061 x 0.769 = 0.7541 lb of nitrogen
At a temperature of `1000 R, the volumes of these gases are
0.2265 48.3 1000
= 5.17 cu ft of oxygen
144 14.7
0.7541 55 1000
= 19.59 cu ft of nitrogen
144 14.7
Therefore, the total volume of wet gas with 20% excess air will be
CO2 = 43.54 cu ft
H2O = 19.06 cu ft
SO2 = 0.76 cu ft
N2 = 196.24 + 2 x 19.59 = 235.42 cu ft
O2 = 2 x 5.17 = 10.34 cu ft
Total 309.12 cu ft per lb of fuel
(d) Since percentage volumetric analysis is independent of temperature, we may use the
volumes that have already been calculated for 1000 R to determine the percentage of CO 2
required in part (c). Deduct the volume of the water to reduce the gases to the dry basis. For
each 10% increase in excess air the volume of gases will increase 5.17 + 19.59 = 24.76 cu ft
per lb of fuel.

Excess Air, % Total Volume of Dry Gases, CO2 in Dry Gases, %

Cu Ft per Lb Fuel
0 240.54 18.10
17
20 290.06 15.01
40 339.58 12.82
60 389.10 11.19
80 438.62 9.93
100 488.14 8.92

Calculation:
At 0%:
Total Volume of Dry Gases, Cu Ft per Lb Fuel
= 43.54 + 0.76 + 196.24 + 0 x 19.59 + 0 x 5.17 = 240.54 cu ft per lb of fuel
CO2 in Dry Gases = (43.54 / 240.54)(100%) = 18.10%

At 20%:
Total Volume of Dry Gases, Cu Ft per Lb Fuel
= 43.54 + 0.76 + 196.24 + 2 x 19.59 + 2 x 5.17 = 290.06 cu ft per lb of fuel
CO2 in Dry Gases = (43.54 / 290.06)(100%) = 15.01%

At 40%:
Total Volume of Dry Gases, Cu Ft per Lb Fuel
= 43.54 + 0.76 + 196.24 + 4 x 19.59 + 4 x 5.17 = 339.58 cu ft per lb of fuel
CO2 in Dry Gases = (43.54 / 339.58)(100%) = 12.82%

At 60%:
Total Volume of Dry Gases, Cu Ft per Lb Fuel
= 43.54 + 0.76 + 196.24 + 6 x 19.59 + 6 x 5.17 = 389.10 cu ft per lb of fuel
CO2 in Dry Gases = (43.54 / 389.10)(100%) = 11.19%

At 80%:
Total Volume of Dry Gases, Cu Ft per Lb Fuel
= 43.54 + 0.76 + 196.24 + 8 x 19.59 + 8 x 5.17 = 438.38 cu ft per lb of fuel
CO2 in Dry Gases = (43.54 / 438.38)(100%) = 9.93%

At 100%:
Total Volume of Dry Gases, Cu Ft per Lb Fuel
= 43.54 + 0.76 + 196.24 + 10 x 19.59 + 10 x 5.17 = 488.14 cu ft per lb of fuel
CO2 in Dry Gases = (43.54 / 488.14)(100%) = 8.92%

18
1.6.1 Theoretical Air
The theoretical air required for complete combustion of a fuel containing oxygen
and the combustible elements carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur may be calculated from a
summation of the proper combustion equations:
O
8 H2 2
32 C

8 S
Wta
12 0.231 0.231 0.231
O
Wta 11.53C 34.36 H2 2 4.32S (28)
8
where Wta = theoretical air, lb per lb fuel
C = carbon, lb per fuel
H2 = hydrogen, lb per lb fuel
O2 = oxygen, lb per lb fuel
S = sulfur, lb per lb fuel
Nitrogen and ash are inert and therefore do not enter into the combustion of the
fuel. Oxygen in the fuel is assumed to be combined with hydrogen in the form of water
as in Dulongs formula. Equation (28) may be used for any fuel containing the three
combustible elements listed, provided the ultimate analysis of the fuel is known.
Calculations of theoretical air requirements for many coals and oils have shown that
there is an approximate relationship between the theoretical air and the higher heating
value of the fuel. This relationship,
7.65HHV
Wta (29)
10 ,000
may be used for rough estimates. The constant in this equation will vary for different
coals and may be slightly different for oil. The value given is an average for typical coals.

Example No. 6
Determine the theoretical air required for combustion of Cherokee County, Kansas, coal,
From Power Plant Theory and Design by Potter. Table 5-1.
C = 0.7181, H2 = 0.0523, O2 = 0.1015, S = 0.0334, N2 = 0.0120, Ash = 0.0827

Given:
C = 0.7181, H2 = 0.0523, O2 = 0.1015, S = 0.0334, N2 = 0.0120, Ash = 0.0827

19
Required:
Theoretical air required for combustion of Cherokee County, Kansas, coal.

Solution:
O
Wta 11.53C 34.36 H2 2 4.32S
8
0.1015
Wta 11.530.7181 34.36 0.0522 4.320.0334
8
Wta 9.78 lb per lb of coal. (answer)

1.6.2 Dry Flue Gases from Actual Combustion

The results of an Orsat analysis of flue gases may be used to calculate the weight of
dry flue gases produced by the combustion of a pound of fuel. The Orsat analysis may
be expressed as
CO2 O2 CO N2 100 (30)
where the chemical symbols represents the volumetric percentage of each constituent.
Also
weight of dry gases lb carbon burned
Wdg (31)
lb carbon burned lb fuel
in which Wdg is the weight of dry flue gases per pound of fuel burned. When coal is put
into the boiler, the carbon available for combustion per pound of fuel is the amount
given by the ultimate analysis. However, some of the coal will fall through the grate and
will not be completely burned. Oil, gas, and pulverized coal do not have a loss from fuel
falling through the grate, but the refuse from a pulverized coal steam generator may
contain some unburned combustible. There is also some unburned combustible in the
fly-ash and soot, regardless of the type of fuel. This unburned combustible associated
with the flue gas is normally neglected.
The 1946 ASME Test Code for Steam Generating Units permits the determination of
the weight of dry refuse from the coal analysis when it is impractical to weigh the total
refuse. Since the
lb refuse lb ash lb ash

lb coal lb refuse lb coal
and since (1 Cr) is the pounds of ash per pound of refuse,
A
Wr (32)
1 Cr
in which Wr = dry refuse per lb coal as fired, lb
A = ash in coal, lb
Cr = combustible in 1 lb of refuse, lb
Combustible in refuse will be determined in the same manner as the ash content of a
coal.
The carbon actually burned per pound of as fired coal may be calculated either from
the heating value of the refuse or by assuming that all the combustible in the refuse is
carbon. The carbon actually burned will be the carbon in the coal minus the unburned
carbon. Since the unburned carbon is (Wr A), then
C ab C Wr A (33)
where Cab = carbon actually burned per lb of fuel, lb
C = carbon in 1 lb of fuel, lb
20
and other symbols are as in Equation (32); or
HVr
C ab C Wr (34)
14 ,600
by the refuse heating value method, where HVr is heating value of the dry refuse, Btu
per lb.
In order to develop an expression for the weight of dry gases per pounds of carbon
actually burned, the Orsat analysis must be converted into a weight analysis. Per cent
volume may be considered the same as per cent mols, since all gases have the same
volume (359 cu ft at 32 F and 14.7 psia) per mol. To convert from mols to weight in
pounds, multiply mols of a constituent by the molecular weight:
CO2 44CO2 (35)
O2 32O2 (36)

CO 28CO (37)
N2 28N2 (38)
in which the prime represents gravimetric percentages and other symbols are as in
Equation (30). Then
Weight of dry gas CO2 O2 CO N2
Weight of dry gas 44CO2 32O2 28CO N2 (39)
All the carbon burned must form CO2, CO, or hydrocarbons. But since hydrocarbons
cannot be determined by the standard Orsat apparatus, all the carbon burned must be
assumed to leave the boiler in the form of CO2 and CO, of which 12/44 of the weight of
carbon dioxide is carbon and 12/28 of the carbon monoxide is carbon. Thus
12 12
Poundsof carbon burned CO2 CO
44 28
12 12
Poundsof carbon burned 44CO2 28CO (40)
44 28
Then
44CO2 32O2 28CO N2
Wdg C ab
12CO2 CO
11CO2 8O2 7CO N2
Wdg Cab (41)
3CO2 CO
From Equation (30), CO N2 100 CO2 O2
4CO2 O2 700
Wdg C ab (42)
3CO2 CO
The gas analysis used in Equation (41) and (42) must be volumetric. Either decimals or
percentages may be used for the volumetric analysis in Equation (41), but only
percentages can be used in Equation (42).
The boiler test code uses these formulas but corrects to account for the SO2:
11CO2 8O2 7CO N2 S S
Wdg C ab (43)
3CO2 CO 267 160
The value for sulfur must be expressed as a percentage in Equation (43).

Example No. 7
A flue-gas analysis from the combustion of Cherokee County, Kansas, coal shows 14.2%
CO2, 0.3% CO, 4.3% O2. There was 0.115 lb of refuse collected for each pound of coal
fired. Calculate the weight of dry gas per pound of coal.
From Power Plant Theory and Design by Potter. Table 5-1.
C = 0.7181, H2 = 0.0523, O2 = 0.1015, S = 0.0334, N2 = 0.0120, Ash = 0.0827
21
Given:
C = 0.7181, H2 = 0.0523, O2 = 0.1015, S = 0.0334, N2 = 0.0120, Ash = 0.0827:
Flue gas: 14.2% CO2, 0.3% CO, 4.3% O2.
Refuse: 0.115 lb of refuse / lb of coal.
Required:
Weight of dry gas per pound of coal..

Solution:
11CO2 8O2 7CO N2 S S
Wdg C ab 267 160
3CO2 CO
C ab C Wr A
C = 0.7181, A = 0.0827, Wr = 0.115 and S = 0.0334
C ab C Wr A 0.7181 0.115 0.0827 0.6858

11CO2 8O2 7CO N2 S S

Wdg C ab
3CO2 CO 267 160
1114.2 84.3 70.3 81.2 3.34 3.34
Wdg 0.6858
314.2 0.3 267 160
Wdg 12.04 lb dry gas lb fuel (answer)

1.6.3 Incomplete Combustion

Any part of the flue gas that will burn represents incomplete combustion. More
energy could have been released by mixing the partially burned substances with oxygen
and continuing the combustion process. The only flue-gas constituent measured by the
Orsat apparatus that would support further combustion is carbon monoxide.
A formula for the pounds of carbon supplied to the boiler that formed carbon
monoxide may be derived in a manner similar to that used for the weight of dry flue
gases per pound of fuel:
weight of carbon in CO lb carbon burned
Ci (44)
lb carbon burned lb fuel
12
28 CO
Ci 28 C ab
12
44 CO2 12 28 CO
44 28
CO
Ci C ab (45)
CO2 CO

In which Ci is the pounds of carbon in the CO per pound of fuel burned and other
symbols are as in Equation (30).

1.6.4 Air Actually Used During Combustion

The weight of dry gases (Wdg) leaving the boiler includes the following: (1) all the
carbon actually burned, (2) nitrogen in the fuel, (3) sulfur in the fuel, (4) excess oxygen
from air, (5) oxygen used to burn the carbon and sulfur, (6) oxygen supplied with the
fuel, (7) nitrogen in the air supply. The quantity Wdg does not include the oxygen used to

22
burn the hydrogen in the fuel, 8H2. Subtracting items (1), (2), (3), and (6) from Wdg and
adding 8H2 will give the actual weight of air supplied for combustion.
O
Waa Wdg 8 H2 2 C ab S N2 (45)
8
Values of H2, O2, S, and N2 are obtained from the ultimate analysis of the fuel and all
values are expressed as decimals. Any moisture that entered with the fuel or air does
not enter into the equation because the Orsat gives a dry analysis.

1.7 Boiler Heat Balance

To make a heat balance from one boiler comparable to one from another boiler, the energy
terms are converted into percentages where 100% is the heating value of the fuel. The items in
the boiler heat balance may be computed per pound of coal on the as fired or dry basis, but the
energy values will be different for each. However, when transferred to percentages, there will
be no difference for the two cases.
Energy supplied to the boiler by 1 lb of fuel is distributed among the following items in the
ASME short-form heat balance, all expressed in units of Btu per pound of fuel:
Q1 = energy absorbed by boiler fluid
Q2 = energy loss due to dry flue gases
Q3 = energy loss due to moisture in fuel
Q4 = energy loss due to evaporating and superheating moisture formed by combustion of
hydrogen
Q5 = energy loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon to CO
Q6 = energy loss due to combustible in refuse
Q7 = energy loss due to radiation and unaccounted for

An explanation of each of these items follows:

Energy Absorbed by Boiler Fluid.

The useful output of the steam generator is the heat transferred to the fluid. Sometimes it is
advantageous to divide this item into the heat transferred to the fluid by the boiler proper, the
air preheater, the economizer, and the superheater. For our purposes, combine all these
subdivisions into
W h h
Q1 w 2 1 (46)
Wf
in which Ww = weight of fluid flowing through the boiler during the test, lb
h1 and h2 =fluid enthalpies entering and leaving the boiler, respectively, Btu per lb
Wf = weight of fuel burned during test
It is preferable to operate the boiler without blowdown during the test. However, if the test
is of such long duration that blowdown is necessary, Equation (46) should be altered
appropriately.
Q1 expressed as percentage of the higher heating value of the fuel is the boiler efficiency.

Energy Loss Due to Dry Flue Gas.

This loss is the greatest of any of the boiler losses for a properly operated unit. Thus,
Q2 0.24Wdg tg ta (47)
in which 0.24 = specific heat of the flue gas at constant pressure, Btu per lb per deg F
tg = temperature of the gas leaving the boiler, F
ta = temperature of the air entering the boiler, F

23
Energy Loss Due to Evaporating and Superheating Moisture in Fuel
Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as superheated vapor in the same way as
does the moisture from the combustion of hydrogen. Therefore the formula for calculating this
loss may be derived in the same way as that for Q4:
Q3 M f 1089 0.46tg t f , when tg < 575 F (48)
Q3 M f 1066 0.5tg t f , when tg > 575 F (49)
where Mf = moisture in fuel, lb per lb of fuel
tf = temperature of fuel, F

Energy Loss Due to Evaporating and Superheating Moisture Formed by Combustion of

Hydrogen.
Water formed by burning hydrogen leaves the boiler in the form of superheated vapor, and
its energy cannot be released to the boiler fluid until the vapor can be condensed. With flue-gas
temperatures of 300 F or more and the vapor at a partial pressure less than atmospheric,
condensation is impossible within the boiler. Q4 represents the loss of energy due to the inability
of the boiler to condense this superheated vapor to a liquid at a temperature corresponding to
the temperature of the incoming air. Thus
Q4 9H2 h h ff (50)
in which H2 = weight of hydrogen in the fuel, lb per lb fuel
h = enthalpy of superheated vapor, Btu per lb
hff = enthalpy of liquid at the incoming fuel temperature, Btu per lb
Since the partial pressure of the superheated vapor would be difficult to determine, and since
this loss of energy is usually small, Equation (50) may be simplified by assuming that the vapor
pressure corresponding to a saturation temperature of 150 F.
Q4 9H2 1089 0.46tg t f , when tg < 575 F (51)
Q4 9H2 1066 0.5tg t f , when tg > 575 F (52)
The proper value of H2 to be used in the equation for Q4 is the amount of hydrogen in the
fuel that is available for combustion. Ultimate analyses list all the hydrogen in the fuel, including
hydrogen present in the fuel in the form of moisture. To obtain the value of H2 for Equations
(51) and (52), deduct one-ninth of the weight of moisture from the hydrogen listed. The weight
of moisture may be found from the proximate analysis.

Energy Loss Due to Incomplete Combustion.

Products formed by incomplete combustion may be mixed with oxygen and burned again
with a further release of energy. Such products of incomplete combustion that are present in
flue gas are CO, H2, and various hydrocarbons. Carbon monoxide is the only one of these gases
that can be determined conveniently in the power-plant test. Therefore, the loss due to
incomplete combustion refers specifically to the incomplete combustion of carbon to carbon
monoxide. The difference in the energy release due to burning carbon to carbon monoxide
rather than to carbon dioxide is given as 10,160 Btu per lb of carbon.
Q5 10 ,160C i
CO
Q5 10 ,160C ab (53)
CO2 CO

Energy Loss Due to Unconsumed Carbon.

24
All combustible in the refuse may be assumed to be carbon, since the other combustible parts of
coal would probably be distilled out of the fuel before live embers would drop into the ashpit.
Any unburned carbon in the flue gas (fly ash) or in the ashpit refuse is included.
Q6 14 ,600 C C ab (54)
If the unburned combustible is determined from the heating value of all the refuse, then
Q6 Wr HVr (55)

Unaccounted-for and Radiation Loss.

This loss is due to radiation, incomplete combustion resulting in hydrogen and hydrocarbons in
the flue gas, and unaccounted-for losses. Under the ASME code, the radiation loss may be
estimated separately and not combined with the unaccounted-for loss. However, when they are
combined,
Q7 HHV Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 (56)

Example No. 8
Calculate the boiler heat balance on the as fixed basis for the following data:
Fuel: Cherokee, County, Kansas, Coal
Ultimate Analysis: C = 0.7181, H2 = 0.0523, O2 = 0.1015, S = 0.0334, N2 = 0.0120, Ash = 0.0827
Proximate Analysis: M = 0.0509, VM = 0.3447, FC = 52.17, Ash = 0.0827
HHV = 13,082 Btu/lb
Gas Analysis: 14.2% CO2, 0.3% CO, 4.3% O2
Coal fired: 22,260 lb per hr
Refuse: 2,560 lb per hr
Water: 202,030 lb per hr
Water entering: 324.7 F
Steam leaving: 476 psig, 743 F
Fuel and room temperature: 82 F
Gas temperature: 463 F

Given:
As listed above.
Gas Analysis: 14.2% CO2, 0.3% CO, 4.3% O2
N2 = 100 14.2 0.3 4.3 = 81.2%
Required:
Boiler Heat Balance

Solution:

Refuse
Refuse
Wr
Coal fired
2,560
Wr 0.1150 lb lb fuel
22 ,260
Carbon actually burned
C ab C Wr A
C ab 0.7181 0.1150 0.0827
C ab 0.6858 lb lb fuel
Weight of Dry Gas

25
11CO2 8O2 7CO N2 S S
Wdg C ab
3CO2 CO 267 160
1114.2 84.3 70.3 81.2 3.34 3.34
Wdg 0.6858
314.2 0.3 267 160
Wdg 12.04 lb dry gas lb fuel

Carbon burned to CO.

CO
Ci C ab
CO2 CO
0.3
Ci 0.6858
14.2 0.3
C i 0.01419 lb lb fuel

5.09
H2 burned to H2O in boiler = 5.23 4.67%
9
8
O2 burned to H2O in boiler = 10.15 5.09 5.62%
9

Weight in Actual Air

O
Waa Wdg 8 H2 2 C ab S N2
8
0.0562
Waa 12.04 8 0.0467 0.6858 0.0334 0.0120
8
Waa 11.63 lb lb fuel

Theoretical Air
O
Wta 11.53C 34.36 H2 2 4.32S
8
C C ab
0.1015
Wta 11.530.6858 34.36 0.0528 4.320.0334
8
Wta 9.412 lb lb fuel

Excess Air
Waa 11.63
1 1 0.2357 23.57%
Wta 9.412

Boiler Heat Balance

Energy Absorbed by Boiler Fluid
W h h
Q1 w 2 1
Wf

Ww = 202,030 lb/hr
Wf = 22,260 lb/hr
h2 = h at 476 psig, 743 F = 1382.1 Btu/lb
h1 = hf at 324.7 F = 295.3 Btu/lb
26
202 ,030 1382 .1 295 .3
Q1 9864 Btu lb
22,260

Energy Loss Due to Dry Flue Gas

Q2 0.24Wdg tg ta
tg = 463 F
ta = 82 F
Wdg = 12.04 lb/lb fuel

Q2 0.24 12.04 463 82 1101 Btu lb

Energy Loss Due to Evaporating and Superheating Moisture in Fuel. tg < 575 F
Q3 M f 1089 0.46tg t f
tg = 463 F
tf = 82 F
Mf = 0.0509

Q3 0.0509 1089 0.46463 82 62 Btu lb

Energy Loss Due to Evaporating and Superheating Moisture Formed by Combustion of

Hydrogen. tg < 575 F
Q4 9H2 1089 0.46tg t f
tg = 463 F
tf = 82 F
H2 = 0.0467

Q4 90.0467 1089 0.46463 82 513 Btu lb

Energy Loss Due to Incomplete Combustion

Q5 10 ,160C i
Q5 10 ,160 0.01419 144 Btu lb

Energy Loss Due to Unconsumed Carbon

Q6 14 ,600 C C ab
Q6 14 ,600 0.7181 0.6858 472 Btu lb

Unaccounted-for and Radiation Loss

Q7 HHV Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6

Q7 13,082 9864 1101 62 513 144 472

Q7 926 Btu lb

BOILER HEAT BALANCE

Item Description Energy, Btu/lb Percentage
Q1 Energy Absorbed by 9864 75.40
Boiler Fluid
27
Q2 Energy Loss Due to Dry 1101 8.42
Flue Gas
Q3 Energy Loss Due to 62 0.47
Evaporating and
Superheating
Moisture in Fuel
Q4 Energy Loss Due to 513 3.92
Evaporating and
Superheating
Moisture Formed by
Combustion of
Hydrogen.
Q5 Energy Loss Due to 144 1.10
Incomplete
Combustion
Q6 Energy Loss Due to 472 3.61
Unconsumed Carbon
Q7 Unaccounted-for and 926 7.08
Radiation Loss
HHV Total 13,082 100.00

1.8 Boiler Rating and Performance

A term used for many years, and still used to some extent for small boilers, is boiler
horsepower. Originally, this term was intended to relate the output of the steam generator to
the steam requirements of a prime mover. Improvements in the design of both the prime mover
and the boilers have made his misnomer obsolete. One boiler horsepower is equivalent to the
generation of 34.5 lb of steam per hr from water at 212 F to saturated steam also at 212 F, i.e.,
from and at 212 F. The energy of evaporation for steam at 212 F was taken at 970.3 Btu/lb
making the product equal to 34.5 x 970.3 = 33,475 Btu per hr. Usually, this figure is
approximated at 33,500 Btu per hr. Thus
W h2 h1
Boiler hp (57)
33,500
in which W = steam generated by boiler tubes, economizer, and superheater, lb per hr
h1 = enthalpy of water entering economizer, Btu/lb
h2 = enthalpy of steam leaving boiler or superheater, Btu/lb

Because power boilers do not generate steam at 212 F, the actual energy change of the
water in passing through the boiler compared with the latent energy of evaporation at 212 F is
the factor of evaporation. Thus,
h h
Factor of evaporation f 2 1 (58)
970.3
and Equivalent evaporation f W (59)

f W equivalent evaporation
and Boiler hp (60)
34.5 34.5
At the time these terms were standardized, boilers could develop 1 boiler hp with 10 sq ft of
boiler heating surface. Therefore, the manufacturers boiler horsepower is defined as 10 sq ft of
boiler heating surface. Surface areas for superheaters, economizers, or air heaters are not
included as boiler heating surfaces, Therefore, the terms of boiler horsepower, etc., are

28
meaningless for large, modern, steam generators. Consequently this surface (12 sq ft for fire
tube boilers) was adopted as a rating for boiler horsepower.
It is common for even small, modern boilers to generate more than 1 boiler hp with 10 sq ft
of heating surface. Most boilers can develop 150% of rating 200% is common and some units
have exceeded 400% - when percentage of boiler rating is defined as:
boiler horsepower 10
Boiler rating (61)
boiler heating surface

Example No. 9
Determine the factor of evaporation, equivalent evaporation, boiler horsepower, and the boiler
rating (percentage) for the following:
Steam output, lb per hr --------------------------------------- 8000
Steam: pressure, psia ------------------------------------------ 135
Moisture, % -------------------------------------------- 1
Feedwater temperature, F ----------------------------------- 120
Surface (boiler and waterwall, if any) sq ft --------------- 1330
Given:
Steam output = W = 8000 lb/hr
Pressure, p = 135 psia
Moisture, y = 0.01
Feedwater temperature, tf = 120 F
Surface area = 1330 sq ft
Required:
a. Factor of evaporation
b. Equivalent evaporation
c. Boiler horsepower
d. Boiler rating
Solution: steam quality, x = 1 y = 1 0.01 = 0.99
At 135 psia
hfg = 870.4 Btu per lb
hf = 322 Btu per lb
h2 h f xhfg 322 0.99870.4 1183 .7 Btu lb
At 120 F
h1 h f 87.97 Btu lb
h2 h1 1183 .7 87.97
a. Factor of evaporation = f = 1.1293
970.3 970.3
b. Equivalent evaporation = f W 1.1293 8000 9034 .4 lb hr
f W 9034 .4
c. Boiler horsepower = 261.87
34.5 34.5
boiler horsepower 10 261.87 10
d. Boiler rating = 1.969 or 196.9%.
boiler heating surface 1330

1.9 Turbine
A curved line drawn through points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8, indicating the condition of the
steam throughout the turbine at points where it is possible to extract and measure the steam
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properties, is known as the condition curve. The condition curve does not represent the path of
the steam on the Mollier diagram during its flow through any particular stage of the turbine but
indicates only the properties of the steam entering and leaving the stages of the turbine.

Stage efficiency has been defined as the ratio of the actual enthalpy drop across the stage to
the isentropic enthalpy drop for the same pressure differential. When this ratio is applied to a
group of blades or to the entire turbine, it is referred to as the Rankine Cycle Ratio (RCR), or the
internal efficiency of the turbine. This expression does not include such mechanical losses as
bearing losses, oil pump power, etc.
h h
RCR 1 8 (62)
h1 h9
Engine efficiency RCR mg
in which mg equals mechanical and generator efficiency; or
h h
Engine efficiency mg 1 8 (63)
h1 h9
Theoretical steam rate is
3413
TSR (64)
h1 h9
The actual steam rate is
3413
SR (65)
h1 h9 mg RCR
TSR TSR
SR (66)
mg RCR engine efficiency
These efficiencies have been developed to conform to the generally accepted usage in
practice and to include the generator losses. If the turbine is of the mechanical-drive type, then
the generator efficiency will have no significance; the expressions would then be based on

30
horsepower and the thermal equivalent of a horsepower (2545 Btu per hr) would be substituted
for 3413.

Example No. 10
A 3600-rpm, 60,000-kw unit receives steam at 385 psig and 800 F with a back pressure of 1.5 in.
Hg. Abs. Engine efficiency is 78% and the combined mechanical and electrical efficiency is 95%.
Find: (a) RCR, (b) theoretical steam rate, (c) actual steam rate, (d) the steam flow, and (e) the
exhaust enthalpy.

Given:
3600 rpm, 60,000 kw
385 psig, 800 F
1.5 in. Hg. Abs.
Engine efficiency = 78%
Combined mechanical and electrical efficiency is 95% = mg

Required:
(a) RCR
(b) Theoretical steam rate (TSR)
(c) Actual steam rate (SR)
(d) Steam flow
(e) Exhaust enthalpy (h8)

Solution:
At state 1, 385 psig, 800 F
h1 = 1417.1 Btu/lb
s1 = 1.68504 Btu/lb-F
At state 9, 1.5 in. Hg, s2 = s1
H9 = 925.6 Bru/lb

Engine efficiency
(a) RCR
mg
78%
RCR 82.1%
0.95
3413
(b) TSR
h1 h9
3413
TSR 6.95 lb kw hr
1417 .1 925.6
TSR
(c) SR
engine efficiency
6.95
SR 8.91 lb kw hr
0.78
(d) Steam flow = SR x kw Output
Steam flow = (8.91)(60,000) = 534,600 lb/hr

h1 h8
(e) RCR
h1 h9
1417 .1 h8
0.821
1417 .1 925.6
31
h8 1013 .6 Btu lb

The total steam required by the turbine, of course, can be found from the product of load
and steam rate, and when plotted against the load, becomes a Willans line, Figure 21. The three
cases of governing that were shown for steam rates are used for this figure, and the same
reasoning can be applied to the Willans lines.

Note that the Willans line for throttle governing and for an infinite number of governor
valves is a straight line and will conform to the general equation
y = a + bx (67)

where y = throttle steam flow, lb per hr

a = no-load steam consumption, lb per hr
b = slope of the curve, lb per kwhr
x = load, kw

Example No. 11
A 7000-kw turbine, 435 psia, 720 F, and 1 in. Hg abs, has the following steam rates: 7000 kw,
10.88 lb per kwhr; 6400 kw, 10.86 lb per kwhr; 5800 kw, 10.50 lb per kwhr; 1920 kw, 14.03 lb
per kwhr. Estimate the no-load steam flow by drawing the Willans line and projecting to zero
load. (Use large scales.)
Solution:
Willans line: y a bx
Tabulation:
x, kw y, lb per hr
7000 (7000)(10.88) = 76,160
6400 (6400)(10.86) = 69,504
5800 (5800)(10.50) = 60,900
1920 (1920)(14.03) = 26,938

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Curve-fit: y 8163 .8 9.5098 x
At no-load, steam flow
y 8163 .8 9.5098 0 8163 .8 lb hr

1.10 Condenser
Some published test results on a large condenser will be given in the next example to
illustrate the testing of these units for heat transfer.

Example No. 12
On a certain 5110 sq m condenser, the averages of periodic readings taken during a 2-hr test at
steady load are as here reported. The over-all coefficient of heat transfer is to be computed.
Barometric pressure (corrected to 15.6 C) = 770.9 mm Hg
Metered steam flow to throttle = 42,226 kg/hr
Vacuum at neck of condenser (corrected to 15.6 C) = 751.3 mm Hg
Condensing water in at 8.94 C, out at 15.33 C
Condensing water quantity = 335,400 liters/min
Given:
A = 5110 sq m
ms = 42,226 kg/hr
Barometric pressure (corrected to 15.6 C) = 770.9 mm Hg
Vacuum at neck of condenser (corrected to 15.6 C) = 751.3 mm Hg
Condensing water quantity = 335,400 liters/min
tw1 = 8.94 C, tw2 = 15.33 C

Required:
U = over-all coefficient of heat transfer

Solution:
Heat Transferred
Q mw c pw tw2 tw1
33
1 min
mw 335,400 L min1 kg L 5590 kg s

60 sec
cpw 4.187 kJ kg s
Q 5590 4.187 15.33 8.94 149 ,560 kW

Steam pressure = 770.9 751.3 = 19.6 mm Hg at 15.6 C = 19.6 mm Hg at 0 C.

Saturation temperature = ts = 21.82 C (from steam table)
t t
m w2 w1
t t
ln s w 1
t s tw 2
15.33 8.94
m 9.32 C
21.82 8.94
ln
21.82 15.33

Q UA m
Q
U
A m
149 ,560
U 3.140 kW m2 K (answer)
5110 9.32

1.11 Feed Pump

The purpose of pump is to move a quantity of water against a pressure. Essential to any
quantitative discussion of performance, capacity, etc., are the following terms and definitions.
Q = pump discharge, gpm
H = head, ft of water of specified density. At ordinary temperature, density = 62.4 lb/ft3.
w = water density, lb/ft3. Reciprocal of vf from steam tables.

Static head is the height (usually in feet) of the surface of the water above the gage point.
Pressure head is the static head plus gauge pressure on the water surface plus friction head.
Velocity head is the head required to produce a flow of the water.
Dynamic head is the pressure head plus the velocity head.
Total (Discharge/Suction) Head is the reading of a true gauge at the pump (discharge/suction)
converted to feet of liquid and referred to datum, plus the velocity head at the point of gauge
attachment. If the suction head is less than atmospheric it is negative. This is because the
existence of a suction lift causes the gauge to read vacuum, i.e., a negative gauge pressure.
Pump operating head is the algebraic difference of discharge and suction heads. This can also be
called total dynamic head and abbreviated TDH.
Net positive suction head, abbreviated NPSH, is defined as the dynamic pressure of the liquid at
pump suction, psia, less the saturation pressure corresponding to its temperature at the same
point, converted to feet head of the liquid.
Specific speed of a centrifugal pump impeller is the rotative speed at which a geometrically
similar impeller would run if it were of such size as to raise 1 gpm against 1 ft head.
N Q
N s 3 4 rpm (68)
H
N is pump shaft speed, rpm, and H is the TDH in feet per stage, Q is the discharge in gpm.
The specific speed is useful in defining the suction limitation of impellers of different
designs.

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Water horsepower or Hydraulic horsepower
wH
whp
33,000
Q H sp gr 8.33
whp
33,000
Q H sp gr
whp
3960
For water, sp. gr. = 1.0
QH
whp (69)
3960

where:
w = weight flowing, lb/min
H = developed head, ft
8.33 = weight of 60 F water, lb/gal
sp. gr. = specific gravity of the fluid referred to water at 60 F.
Q = gpm or gal/min

Pump efficiency:
whp
p (70)
bhp

Example No. 13
The drive requirements of the pumping installation diagrammed in Figure shown are analyzed.
Data: Velocity in suction line, 2 m/s; discharge line, 3 m/s. Friction estimate in suction line,
including foot valve and entrance loss, 0.65 m; in discharge line, 0.75 m. Flow is to be 3800
L/min cold water. p = 0.65. Using center-line of pump as datum, total head is calculated.
Assume gauge attachments 300 mm below datum:

Given:
Velocity in suction line, 2 m/s;
discharge line, 3 m/s.
Friction estimate in suction line, including foot valve and entrance loss, 0.65 m;
35
in discharge line, 0.75 m.
Flow is to be 3800 L/min cold water.
p = 0.65.
Assume gauge attachments 300 mm below datum

Required:
Drive requirements, bhp

Solution:
Vs = 2 m/s
Vd = 3 m/s
hfs = hf (foot valve and entrance loss) = 0.65 m
hfd = hf (discharge line) = 0.75 m
Q = 3800 L/min
p = 0.65
Zd = 4.5 + 0.3 = 4.8 m
Zs = - (2.5 0.3) = - 2.2 m

Vd2 32
Discharge head = Z d h fd = 4.8 0.75 6.01 m
2g 29.81
Vs2 22
Suction head = Z s h fs = 2.2 0.65 2.65 m
2g 29.81
Pump operating head (difference) = 6.01 m (-2.65 m) = 8.66 m

Calculating power.
Convert to English Units
3 3
1 m3 3.281 ft 12 in 1 gal
Q 3800 L min






231 in 3 1004 gpm
1000 L 1 m 1 ft
3.281 ft
H 8.66 m 28.4 ft

1m
Then:
QH 1004 28.4
whp 7.2 hp
3960 3960
whp 7.2
bhp 11.1 hp (answer)
p 0.65

The discharge capacity of positive displacement equipment is the piston displacement

multiplied by volumetric efficiency, where the latter includes the effects of slip and piston rod
displacement.
PD
Q v L min
1000
where v = volumetric efficiency. Should be more than 0.90 for pumps in good order, not
overspeeded.
PD = piston displacement, cm3 per min per pump.

Commercial pump speeds are approximately:

VP 1.38 L m min of piston speed

36
where L = stroke in mm.

This is for use with cold water and should be reduced by a multiplier factor if hot water is
pumped. This factor is 0.85 for 32.2 C water, 0.71 at 65.5 C and 0.46 at 204.4 C. It can be
considered to vary linearly with temperature.

Example No. 14
The discharge capacity of a duplex steam boiler feed pump 228.6 x 133.5 x 254 mm, operating at
normal, will be found. Water temperature, 93.3 C. These dimensions represent Ds x Dw x L, mm.
Assume v = 0.90.

Given:
Duplex steam boiler feed pump
Ds x Dw x L = 228.6 x 133.5 x 254 mm
Water temperature, 93.3 C
v = 0.90

Required:
Discharge capacity, Q

Solution:
Multiplier factor
At 65.5 C = 0.71
At 204.4 C = 0.46
Then at 93.3 C
93.3 65.5
Factor 0.46 0.71 0.71 0.66
204.4 65.5
Pump Speed
VP 0.661.38 L 0.661.38 254 14.5 m min
Piston Displacement
2Dw2 2 13.35 cm 2
PD VP 14.5 m min 100 cm
4 4 1m
PD 405,929 cm3 min
Discharge Capacity
PD
Q v L min
1000
0.90 405,929
Q 365 L min (answer)
1000

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