Prevention, Fishing and Casing Repair - Ashraf Abdo

Prevention,

Fishing
and
Casing Repair

James A. "Jim" Short

pennwell Books
Copyright 1995 by
PcnnWel1 Publishing Company
1421 South Sheridan Road/P.O. Box 1260
Tulsa, Oklahoma 7410 I
Short, j.A.
Prevention, Fishing and Casing Repair/James A.
Short.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-87814-439-0
I. Oil well drilling - Accidents - Prevention. 2. Oil wells -
Maintenance and repair 3. Oil wells - Equipment and supplies -
Fishing.
TN871.2.S5373 1995 94-48577
622' ,338'0288 - dc20 CIP
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored In a

retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying and recording, without the prior
written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
I 2 3 4 5 6 - 95 96 97 98 99
iv
DEDICATION
This book should include a coauthor: my wife, Catherine "Miss
Kitty" Leona (Campbell) Short, a major contributor in almost too many
ways to mention. Therefore, we dedicate this book to our grandchil-
dren with hugs "000" and kisses "XXX."
Danny Lee Butler - "Danny Boy"

Catherine Christina Mann - "Christie"
Courtney Elizabeth Short - "Princess"
Erica Ashley Pratt - "Erka"
Rachel Mayra Pratt - "Ra Ra" ,.
Benjamin Joseph Mann - "Bengie But2h"
Bless each of you. We love you dearly for what you are, what you
mean to us, and what you have given of yourselves. Spread your
wings, take the future in your hands, and mold it to a bright and
glorious dream.
In some musing moment of reminiscence, please remember
Maw Ma and Paw Pa
Who Love You
James "Jim" Arthur Short
Catherine "Miss Kitty" Leona (Campbell) Short

CONTENTS
List of Exam pIes xix

Preface to the First Edition xxiii
Disclaim er xxv
In tro d ucti on xxvii
Chapter 1 - CAUSE AND PREVENTION

PREVENTION I
Human Error 2
Spud Conference 4
Cost and Severity 5
Fishing Cost Survey 6
OPERATIONS 7
Questionable Operations 8
Slip- and Tong-Area Failures 8
Connections 9
Bits and Cones 11
Tri pping Tubulars 14
Shutdo~n 15
Pulling Wet Drill pipe 16
Drilling Out Cement 16
Op en-Hole Testing 17
Other Precautions 19
Undergauge Holes 19
Strapping 19
Pi pe Wiper 21
Drill-Call ar CIamps 22
Summary Precautions n__23
MECHANICAL FAILURES 24
Rig Selection 24
Unmatched Rigs 25
Pump Failure 27
Hoisting Eq ui pmen t 29
Blo~ou t Preven ter 31
Testing 31
BOP Drills 32
Other Preca uti ons 32
Do~nhole Failures 33
vii
MUD 33
Changes 36
Aerated Mud 36
Losses 38
Hole Cleaning 39
Emusifier- Wetting Agents 41
Bari te , 42
Bri dgi ng 42
Barite Sag 43
Barite vs. Iron Ores mm m 43
LOST CIRCULATION 44
General Procedures and Actions 46
Point Of Loss m m__ 47
Dry Drilling m m m m___m__m 48
Remedial Actions 48
Low-Rate Lost Circulation m__ 49
Moderate-Rate Lost Circulation 49
High-Rate Lost Circulation m 51
Cementing Lost Circulation 52
FORMATIONS 57
Influence on Hole Problems 57
Problems 58
Surface Formations m 58
Shallow Gas u 58
Swelling Clays ___m m 59
FI uid -Sensitive Shales m 59
Geopressured Shales 60
Fractured Formations 61
High -Permeability Reefs u 63
Other Formations m u___m 64
Combination Formation Problems 64
Depleted Reservoirs 67
DEVIATION, DOGLEG,AND CROOKED HOLE 71
Cause and Correction 72
Recommended Deviation and Dogleg 73
REFERENCESAND SUGGESTED READING 76
Chapter 2 - GENERAL RULES AND

PROCEDURES
PERSONNEL 79
BE PREPARED BEFORE FISHING OCCURS 80
viii
WHEN A FISHING JOB OCCURS 81
Take Immediate Action 81
Learn All Details 85
Develop a Plan of Action 87
TIME SPENT FISHING 89
WHEN AND HOWTO QUIT 90
POST-ANALYSIS 96
GUIDES TO FISHING 97
Work on the Fish from the Top Down 97
u___m___
Select the Strongest Catch Tool m 98m__m
Pull the Fish out of the Hole without Delay mmm_ 98
Do Not Rotate When Pulling a Fish um_m__m m 98
Expedite Fishing Operations _m___mmmm m__98
Eliminate the Cause of Fishing if Necessary--mm-- 98
Don't Arbitrarily Assume the Fishing Job Is Easy -- 99
Priority of Operations mmmu m mum 99
Operations Recorders __m___mm m_uuumm 99
Stuck Condition of Fish m m m__ 99
Keep Top of Fish Clean umm-m-m m-m 100
Anticipate Mechanical Repairs _mm_m_m 100
Summary Guides to Fishing __m 100
Take Reasonable Risk - Improvise 101
PORE PRESSURESAND TRANSITION
ZONES 102
Pore Pressure 102
Pore- Pressure Plots 103
Transition Zones 106
KICKS 109
Detection 109
Control 110
REAMING 112
Operations 112
Assembly 112
String Reamer 114
DRAG AND TORQUE 118
WALL STICKING 121
KEYSEAT 126
Detection 128
Prevention 132
Removal 132
Wireline Keyseat 133
ix
Chapter 3 - TOOLS AND ASSEMBLIES
FISHING TOOL SELECTION 137
TUBULAR FISHING TOOLS 139
Overshot 139
Single Bowl l3 9
Double Bowl l44
Triple Bowl 144
Trap Door 145
Si de-door n 145
Continuous 145
Casing Bowl 145
Basket 145
Regular 145
Reverse Circulating 149
Poor Boy 14 9
B oot 150
Spear 153
Pipe 153
Wash pi pe 154
Packer Retriever 15 6
Screw-in Sub 158
Taper Tap 158
Die Collar 159
Mills 160
Junk Mills 164
Skirted Mills 165
Cement Mills 165
Pilot Mills 165
Reamer Mills 166
Tapered Mills 166
Pineapple Mills 166
Throated Mills 166
Mill Shoes 166
Pip e Cutters 168
Jars 170
Hydraulic Fishing 172
Hydraulic Drilling m m-m 17 3
Mechanical Fishing u n 173
Mechanical Drilling m m___ 173
Accelerator Jars _m m_mm m 173
Burn per Sub 176
Combination Hydraulic Jar and
Bum per Sub 176
x
Surface Bumper Sub 177
Wash pi p e 177
Safety Joint 177
Kn uckle Joint 180
Ben t Sub 181
Bent Joint 181
Wall Hook 182
Circulating Sub 183
Ported" Side-door" Back-off Sub 184
Shock Sub 184
Shear Rams 184
Tools Run Inside Casing 184
Pulling Tool 184
Reversing TooI 184
Roller 185
Whi pstock 186
TUBULAR OR WIRELlNE FISHING TOOLS 186
Casing Patch 186
Casing and Tubing Swage 186
Chemical Cutter 188
Grab 189
Jet Cutter 190
Junk Catcher 190
Junk Shot 191
Magnet 192
Socket 193
Wire line Spear 193
WIRELlNE FISHING TOOLS 195
Bailers 197
Bucket Bailer 198
Dart-Bottom Bailer u 198
Dump Bailer 198
Sand Pump 198
Chipping 199
Blind Box 199
Friction Sdcket 200
Cutters and Perforators u 201
Wireline Cutter 201
Wireline Tubular Cutt.er 201
Mechanical Wireline Pipe Perforator 204
1mpre ssi on Block 205
H Ydr auli c Jars 206
Mechanical Bumper Jars 206
xi
Sinker Bars 206
Casing and Tubing Swage 206
Explosives 208
Rope Socket 208
Overshot 208
ASSEMBLIESAND EQUIPMENT 208
Surface Equipment 209
Drill and Work Strings 209
Drill pipe n 21 0
Aluminum Drillpipe m___mm_m m 211
Tubing n n n n__- 211
Coil Tubing m m n__mnm 212
Assembly Equipment and Tools 212

Heavyweight Pipe mm__m m m 212
Drill Collars n_n_nn__nnnn 213
Keyseat Wiper _n_n__n nn__n___215
Reamer n n n n 216
Stabilizer n_n__nnnn___n_nn__n___216
Double-Drilling Bumper Jars m___mm__m 217
Assemblies 219
Drilling n n n n 220
Overpull n nn_nnnnnn 221
Handling and Inspection mmm__m m 222
Fish ing n n n n n n 224
Milling n n n n___n n nnn 225
Wash Over ___nn___nn___n_nnn nnnn__nnnnn__n__ 225
Reaming n nnn_n n__n_n nnn 225
Clean Out n n n nnn 226
Wire line Assemblies 227
Chapter 4 - FISHING PROCEDURES

MilLING, DRilLING AND WALLING OFF 229
Selecting the Mill 230
Milling Operations 230
Small Fish 234
Large Fish 236
Dressing Off the Top of the Fish 237
lEAKS 237
WORKING STUCK TOOLS 242
Free Pointing and Free Pipe 243
Pipe-Stretch Method __m___m___m_m_m
mmnm 244
xii
Electrical Free-Point Pipe Logs 245
Begin Working Immediately 247
How Hard to Work uu 247
How Long to Work u uuu uu__ 253
Procedures and Techniques 256
Working Results Indicate Working Method 256
Working Force Levels m m m 257
Initial Working Direction m mnm 257
Working to Establish Movement and Circulation - 258
Work Up n 263
Work Down 265
Final Working Procedure m nn_m m 266
Working Wirelines u__u_u 268
PARTINGTHE FISH 269
Where to Part 270
Backing Off 272
Regular Back-off _m_m__m m m 272
Outside Back-off m n 278
Blind Back-off _m m___mn m 2 78
Cutting u u 281
Chemical Cu Her m m 281
] et Cu Her n_n_n nn_nn__ 283
Mechani cal Cu Her m m m n m 283
Explosives ___nnm m m n_ 284

Shear Rams n n n__n 284
CATCHING THE FISH 284
Cleaning Inside the Fish u u u__ 287
Damaged Fish Top n__m m m_m_ 287
CI ean ing 287
Screw In 289
Swallowing 290
Outside Catch u u u 290
Inside Catch 296
Washing Over u___u 297
Op era ti ons n nn__ 298
Cased vs. Open Holes m m__mm 299
Wash Beside a Fish m_m 301
PLUG BACK AND SIDETRACK 302
PIugging Back n u___u 303
Dressing Off u u___u n 304
Sidetracking uu___u 305
MILLING CASING AND TUBULARS 306
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING 309
xiii
Chapter 5 - OPEN-HOLE FISHING
BIT CONES AND BITS 313
Cones 313
In Soft Formations m m___m m mn 317
In Hard Formations m 318
I3its ~ 321
Stuck Bi ts 322
Parted Bits and Large Junk mmm___m m__ 322
DRILL-COLLAR ASSEMBLIES 324
Without Drilling Jars and Bumber Sub 324
With Drilling Jars and Bumper Sub 325
Sticking the Drill-Collar Assembly 326
Working, Back Off, and Clean Out __mm__m m 326
Recovery in Multiple Sections-m m m m- 327
Fishing and Washing Over m m m___m___mm 327
Pum p ing Out Pipe 328
Inside Catch n nn_nnn_n_n 330
Fishing Neck 331
STUCK DRILLPIPE 333
Perforating for Circulation 333
Parted or Twisted Off 335
Out-of-Gauge Hole n___338
Accidental Sidetracking nn__nn_nnn 338
KEYSEATS 338
Where and How the Assembly Is Stuck 339
Pipe Free to Move Downward 340
Working and Rolling Out m__m__m341
Wearing Out the Keyseat _m m_m 341
Reaming Out the Keyseat m_m___mmmm__m 343
Set Pipe on Bottom mm mm_mmm n 343
Assembly Firmly Stuck 345
Keyseated at the Bit _m m_nmmnmnm__m 346
Stuck at the Top of the Bottomhole Assembly m__ 347
Back Off and Recover 347
_mmmnm_mmmm_mm__n
WALL STICKING 350

Working 351
Releasing Fluids n___n n 351
Usage n__nnnn nn n_ 353
For Oil Mud m m___m 3 58
Reducing Hydrostatic Head n_n__ 359
Ligh tweigh t FI ui d m__m m m___359
Nitrogen 360
Compression Packer 360
FISH ON A FISH 361
FORMATION PROBLEMS 362
MISCELLANEOUS 368
Dissolving Agents nn_nnn__n 371
Provisional Plugs n_nnn_nnnnnnn 372
Fishing Under Pressure 373 000000_0000_00__
Bridging n___n n n__n_n 373

Chapter 6 - CASED HOLE, WIRELINE, AND

SURFACE FAILURES
TESTTOOLS, PACKERS,AND PLUGS 377

Malfunctions and Prevention nn---nnn-n- 378
Wireline Packers and Plugs mn_nn 381
Test Tools 383
Pressure Below Packers and Plugs 00 381
Fishing with a Taper Tap nn_n_n 383
SMALL-DIAMETER TUBULARS 390
Fishing Operations n n_nnnm__n_ 391
Tubingless Completions 000000_00_00 391
Concentric and Parallel Configurations 00_0000 393
Very Small Tubulars 00 394
Coiled Tubing _00 00_00___000000_000000 395
SANDED-UP TUBULARS 399
TUBULAR FAILURES ATTHE SURFACE 403
Causes of Failures nn_nnn_nn_nn__ 403
Wellhead Security 00___00__00_00 404
Tubular Bent, Not Parted nn_nn_n__n 405
Handling Bent Tubulars 407
Moderate Bend 40 7
Severe Bend 408
Tubular Bent, Not Caught in Slips n_n_mn_n 409
Types of Catches n nnnnn_n_n_n_u___ 414
Transfer Pipe String Weight n_n_nmnnn 416
Special Situations nn_n_n_mn_n 417
WIRELlNE OPERATIONS 418
Fishing with Tubulars vs. Wirelines u 418
xv
Types of Wirelines 418
Operating Precautions 419
Running Close-Tolerance Tools n 420
Jumping the Sheave 421
Worn Wirelines ___n n 421
Flagging Wirelines n 421
Swabbing Precautions 422
Crippled Rope Socket n 424
Wireline Keyseats 426
Operating Problems 426
WIRELlNE FISHING 428
Fishing Assemblies 429
Fishing for Wirelines 429
Wire line Insid e Pipe 430
Grab and Spear n___43 0
Stripping Over Stuck Wireline 435
Parting Wirelines 440
Fishing for Wireline Tools 441
Chapter 7 - CASING AND LINER REPAIR

CASING PROGRAM 445
Program Considerations 446
Casing Sizes, Weights, and Grades 446
Operation Failures 447
Change in Scope 44 7
Casing Inspections 449
Running Casing 451
Is the Hole Ready to Run Casing? 451
Prec au ti 0 n s _n n n 455
End of the Tubing 456
FAILUREAND REPAIR 456
Types of Casing Failures 459
Leaks n ---_n -- n___45 9
Split or Burst n 460
P arted n 462
ColI apsed n 46 2
Factors Affecting Casing Repairs 464
Summary of Casing Repair Methods 465
xvi
CEMENTING CASING FAILURES 472
Cement Applications in Casing Repair 473
General Review 4 73
Squeezing Relation to Fracturing 474
Squeeze Cementing 477
Con ven tional 478
Staging --480
Cement Backed by Metal 481
Multiple Conseoutive Squeezes 483
DRIVE PIPEAND CONDUCTOR 489 .
Casing, Rotary, Mast, and Crown Alignment 490
Parted Conductor Casing 495
SURFACE CASING 497
Loose at the Surface 497
Leaking Around the Surface 498
Wear at or Near Bradenhead 499
Overall Wear 501
Buckl ing 507
INTERMEDIATE CASING 507
Parted Casing 508
While Running 508
In an Uncemented Section 510
In a Cemented Section 512
Alignment Tool 513
Loose Float and Shoe Joints 518
Releasing Casing from a Bradenhead or Hanger
Sp 001 523
Normal Tensional Pull 523
Casing Jacks 524
Release by Cutting 524
COMPLETION - PRODUCTION CASING 525
Split or Burst Casing 526
Colla p se d Casing 531
Liners 536
Failed Intermediate Casing above a Liner 536
Squeezing the Liner Top 538
OLD WELLS 542
INDEX 549
xvii
LIST OF EXAMPLES
Chapter 1 - CAUSE AND PREVENTION

Cat Line over the Crown n n__ 3
Spud Conference and Small Drill Tubing -n 4
Bit Run Excessively Long n n__ 13
Gas-Leaking Tool Joints While Testing -n 18
Drill-Collar Clamp on First Joints of Casing--- 22
Pum p Failure 27
Split Crown Sheave n n 30
Emulsifier-Wetting Agent Usage ___n n 42
Curing High-Rate Lost Circulation 54
Summaries of Cementing Lost Circulation 55
Spud In on Hillside n nn n 58
Shallow Gas nn_n n n__n__ 59
Pencil Cave Shale n nn nn__ 60
Fractured Shales n nn 62 nn
Combination Lost Circulation and Gas Kicks - 65

Depleted Reservoir n_n n nn 68
Geopressured Below Depleted n nnnn n 69
Crooked vs. Straight Hole _n__n nn_n__n 71
Chapter 2 - GENERAL RULES AND

PROCEDURES
Recovering a Hole Opener Shank n 82

Examples of Squeezing before Continuing
Fi shing n nn___ 90
Deep Completion over a Fish 91 n n
Catching a Fish with an Unmatched Pin 101

Deceptive Gas Shows in Oil Mud n_n_ 106
Reaming in an "S" Type Directional Hole _n 113
Removing a Keyseat with a String Reamer -- 116
Reducing Drag and Torque with Walnut
Hulls n n n n__n__n___ 121
Two- and Three-Arm Calipers Detect
Keysea ts __n nn_n n n 130
xix
Chapter 3 - TOOLS AND ASSEMBLIES
Drill Collar Pin Failure 223
Chapter 4 - FISHING PROCEDURES

Milling Up a Bit and Junk 232
Drillstring Leaks 240
Working Stuck Tubing 254
Working Heavy Stuck Drill Tools 255
Stuck Packer and Final Working Procedure - 267
Cutting Tubing with a Chemical Cutter 281
Cut Drillpipe with a Chemical Cutter 282
Hitting an Obstruction on a Trip 295
Washing Beside a Fish 301
Chapter 5 - OPEN-HOLE FISHING

Loosing and Recovering Bit Cones 315
Recovering Bit Cones in a Deep Well 319
Recovering a Bit and Sub 321
Recovering Dropped Stand of Drill Collars -- 325
Pum ping Out Stuck Drill Collars 329
Fishing with a Fishing Spear 331
Catching a Fish in an Out-of-Gauge Hole 337
Releasing a Keyseated Bit 346
Keyseated at the Top of the Drill Collars 349
Wall Sticking Combined with Keyseating 355
Wall-S ti cking Exam pie s 35 7
Fishing with Formation Problems 363
Miscellaneous Fishing Situations 368
Dissolving Carbonates to Release a Fish 371
Fishing under Pressure 373
Effect and Severity of Bridging 374
Chapter 6 - CASED HOLE, WIRELINE, AND

SURFACE FAILURES
Recovering a Plug by Removing Casing 378

Milling a Packer While Using a Packer
Retriever 383
xx
Milling Out a Stuck Squeeze Packer 384
Broken Packer Stinger and Seal Assembly -- 387
Fishing with a Taper Tap 388
Collapsed Casing in a Slim-Hole
Completion 392
Recovering Macaroni Tubing Inside Larger
Tubing 393
Recovering Tubing Sanded Up Iknside
Casing 401
Picking Up Drillpipe Bent above the
Rotary 408
Picking Up Bent Pipe Incorrectly 412
Welding a Lift Nipple on Drillpipe Parted
at the Surface 416
Drilling a Preset Packer 420
Wireline Operating Problems 426
Stripping Over a Stuck Wireline 437
Stripping Over a Keyseated Logging Tool 437
Fishing for Wireline Tools 443
Chapter 7 - CASING AND LINER REPAIR

Inspection Failures 450
Multiple Squeeze Split Casing 486
Misaligned Conductor 492
Conductor Casing Failure 496
Repairing a Leak at the Bradenhead 500
Recovering Worn, Parted Surface Casing 502
Casing Leak at 9,000 ft 505
Casing Leak at 13,000 ft 506
Parted, Uncemented Casing 510
Repair Parted Casing with an Alignment
Tool 513
Cementing Loose Shoe Joints 522
Opening Loose Shoe Joints with a String
Reamer 522
Repairing Split Tubing and Burst Casing 527
Packing Off Milled Collapsed Casing 533
Running a Liner Through Collapsed
Production Casing 535
Cementing a Dropped Liner 537
Reentering an Old Well 545
xxi
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Fishing and Casing Repair covers fishing and downhole reme-

dial operations encountered in drilling-casing-completion operations.
The reader should be familiar with standard operating practices and
procedures. Common terminology is used without special explana-
tions except where there may be some conflict due to local usage.
While researching the subject, I noted that most fishing- tool
equipment suppliers have good information about their product, but
otherwise there is very little published information on fishing and
casing repair. Therefore, the main sources of references are personal
experience and contact with others in the industry.
Failures are very costly - in some cases approaching 25 % of the
drilling budget. Competent, experienced personnel can prevent or
efficiently complete most fishing and downhole remedial operations,
especially in regular operations and special activities such as fish-
ing where there is a higher risk of incurring another fishing job.
The fishing job starts when a fish is left in the hole or stuck pipe
cannot be released. A plan of action with contingency plans is de-
veloped; general rules on fishing are used as guidelines. Action in-
cludes procedures such as soaking, milling, washing over, parting,
catching, and working the fish. Casing failures and remedial opera-
tions are treated similarly.
In this book, specific examples of operations are presented. Back-
ground conditions causing the problems are discussed, including
possible solutions, why specific alternatives were chosen, and their
results. Both common problems and those that occur less frequently
are included.
Operational practices and procedures that have been used and
their results are presented. These do not apply to all areas and differ-
ent conditions but may work in many cases. All procedures in drill-
ing, casing, completion, fishing, and remedial repair must be evalu-
ated individually. The operator must determine the proper course of
action.
This text is intended to disseminate information to help prevent
fishing and to improve remedial operations. If it succeeds, the in-
dustry will have benefited.
xxiii
Addendum
The preface for the book Fishing and Casing Repair is equally
applicable to this sequel. Prevention, Fishing and Casing Repair with
other significant additions. The word "Prevention" in the new title
represents an underlying theme that is repeated throughout the new
text whenever applicable. The importance of prevention has been
emphasized by additional years of experience and contacts with oth-
ers. The same is true of many related activities, such as working stuck
pipe. Work it longer and harder before taking other action. Remem-
ber that fishing does not start until there is actually a fish in the hole.
More people need to be involved in and have a clearer understand-
ing of the overall fishing process.
J.A. "Jim" Short

January 22,1995
xxiv
DISCLAIMER
This text contains descriptions, statements, procedures, meth-

odology, interpretations, reports, and other written matter and infor-
mation, hereinafter collectively called "contents," that have been care-
fully considered and prepared as a matter of general information.
The contents are believed to represent situations and conditions re-
liably that have or could occur but are not represented or guaranteed
as to their accuracy or application to other conditions or situations,
and the author has no knowledge or control of their interpretation.
Therefore, the contents and all interpretations and recommendations
made in connection therewith are presented solely as a guide for the
user's consideration, investigation, and verification. No warranties
of any kind, whether expressed or implied, are made in connection
therewith. The user is specifically cautioned, reminded, and advised
that any use or interpretation of the contents and resulting use or
application thereof are made at the sole risk of the user. In consider-
ation ofthese premises, any user of the contents agroes to indemnify
and save harmless the author from all claims and actions for loss,
damage, death, or injury to persons or property.
xxv
INTRODUCTION
Prevention, FisMng and Casing Repair is a sequel to Fishing and

Casing Repair. It follows the format of the original book, but other-
wise has been revised, expanded, and updated with new material.
In summary, this revised edition is a more detailed, in-depth study
of fishing
As noted in the original text, "Almost all, if not all fishing can be
prevented." Additional years of experience and contacts with expe-
rienced personnel have strengthened this conviction. Prevention is
strongly emphasized. The first chapter is devoted primarily to pre-
vention and the theme is followed throughout the text. Prevention
reduces fishing and also identifies weak points requiring emphasis
and attention. The responsibility for preventing fishing and success-
fully conducting a fishing job is shared by all connected with the
drilling operation, from the rig crew to the highest level of authority.
Some preventive measures described in the text may appear ob-
vious or elementary. Nevertheless, they all are necessary to avoid
fishing. Likewise, some of the text appears to be instructive and in
some cases it is. The astute reader will recognize that these "preven-
tive measures" focus on areas that are prone to accidents and fail-
ures and are major causes of fishing. These range from simple opera-
tions such as reaming and cleaning the hole to higher-risk opera-
tions such as detecting and controlling a kick. Also, it is all too com-
mon for fishing to lead to fishing, with one or more additional fish
in the hole. Preventing the first fish would also prevent the extra
fish.
The fishing tool section has been expanded to cover over 90 ver-
sions of 55 basic tools. Descriptions and illustrations of the tools
and their operation are included for those who are less experienced.
Additional examples have been included for a total of over 85
examples and various summaries that cover a broad range of stick-
ing and fishing situations. They are a quick reference, showing what
necessitated the fishing job, how it was conducted, and what others
have done. They also clarify many sticking situations and empha-
size the importance of prevention and being prepared.
Common problem areas are covered in more detail. These include
cleaning the hole, excess drag and torque, and formation problems
during fishing such as combination high pressure and lost circulation
zones. A new section covers drilling depleted formations, including
the use of pore pressure and fracture gradient predictive methods.
xxvii
Coverage of detecting transition zones, setting casing at the correct
point in a transition zone, and controlling kicks is expanded. Wall
sticking is covered in more detail, including additional methods of
releasing pipe stuck in this common sticking situation. Special
problems such as barite sag and fishing in high-angle directional and
horizontal holes are discussed. Cementing is covered in more detail
because ofits wide use in lost circulation, plugging back, and casing
repairs. Special attention is given to temporary plugging, plugging
back, and sidetracking.
There is an increasing awareness of the importance of prevent-
ing fishing and conducting fishing operations correctly. One indica-
tion of this is that there were very few, if any, references on the sub-
ject when the first book was written as compared to the relatively
large number of references included in this book. I believe Fishing
and Casing Repair contributed to this and optimistically hope that
Prevention, Fishing and Casing Repair will make an additional con-
tribution.
xxviii
Chapter 1
CAUSE AND
PREVENTION
Fishing is any operation or procedure to release, remove, or re-

cover a fish. The fish is any obstruction or equipment, usually tubu-
lar, in the wellbore that restricts or adversely affects current or fu-
ture drilling, casing, completion, or production operations. Fishing
occurs in straight, deviated, and horizontal holes, both open and
cased. Fish are removed with a wide variety of fishing tools and re-
lated services, such as logging and cementing. Casing and liners fail
for various reasons. They are repaired with various tools and by dif-
ferent procedures, including cementing.
Severity and cost of fishing ranges from removing bit cones in a
few hours of rig time to a blowout, loss of equipment, danger to per-
sonnel, and drilling kill wells requiring hundreds of rig days. Pre-
ventive procedures can eliminate these.
Drilling a straight, vertical hole is one of the best preventive ac-
tions and minimizes hole problems. The importance of a straight
hole increases with depth. Sometimes this kind of drilling is not
possible because of the well plan, formation conditions, or other rea-
sons. Use the best design and procedures for deviated, high angle,
and horizontal holes.
Fishing and casing failures cause drilling inefficiency and in-
creased costs. It may be necessary to perform a fishing job, but fish-
ing does not contribute directly to drilling, casing, or completion.
Prevention reduces cost and increases operating efficiency.
PREVENTION
Prevention is the process of recognizing the causes of fishing
and taking preventive measures. Prevention covers a broad range,
basically anything relating to the well from spud to abandonment.
Cause and Prevention 1

Almost any incorrect practice may cause fishing problems. Preven-
tion calls for preventive maintenance so exercise care and foresight
before problems arise.
Most, if not all, fishing is preventable. There are cases where it
may appear that the cause of fishing could not be anticipated, but
these are very few. A prime example is the well fire debacle in Ku-
wait. It can be said that these were not preventable. However, what if
the wells had been equipped with storm chokes, even modified for
the high flow rates normal to the area? Various shipwrecks with di-
sastrous oil spills, refinery fires, and pipeline blowouts do not im-
prove the industry's image. Although beyond the scope of this book,
all are preventable.
The subject of cause and prevention of fishing is so important
that it warrants a substantial part of all personnel time, including all
levels involved in drilling and completion operations. The severity
and cost of fishing is probably not recognized by the industry, since
much of it is "small jobs" such as recovering bit cones. However,
fishing is not a normal operation. Personnel are not familiar with it,
and as a result, FISHING OFTEN LEADS TO FISHING.
A concentrated, industrywide prevention program has not been
started for several reasons. Fishing is not a subject of general interest
except to a few people in the industry. Personnel injuries are rela-
tively uncommon. Blowouts or other newsworthy actions are sel-
dom associated with fishing. On the contrary, fishing is fairly rou-
tine. The only headlines it makes are on the red ink side of the ledger
column. The cost of fishing jobs is either unrecognized, overlooked,
or accepted as part of the cost of doing business.
A properly prepared drilling and casing program is an important
preventive measure. .Develop a program that prevents or alleviates
fishing problems. This includes giving full consideration to opera-
tions, providing adequate hole and casing sizes, and safety factors.
Give special consideration to potential formation problems, espe-
cially lost circulation. Provide for excess drag and torque in crooked,
highly deviated, extended reach, and horizontal holes. Be aware of
the special problems and requirements of high angle and horizontal
wells.
One of the first preventative steps is recognizing the actual cause
of fishing. For example, if a hole is lost during fishing, the loss is
attributed to the fishing job. Although this may be the direct cause,
the indirect and real cause may be due to a number of different fac-
tors.
Human Error
Many fishing jobs reportedly are caused by human error. This is
not recognized here as a valid cause for fishing. The actual cause is
2 Chapter 1
probably due either to lack of experience or poor judgment. Correct
the problem with improved supervision and good training under
experienced supervisors. Higher motivation to improve job perfor-
mance can be a major contribution. Hurrying and lack of time are
not valid reasons for the many problems that result in fishing jobs.
As an example, a wear bushing was positioned incorrectly while
nippling up the blowout preventers. This caused a major fishing job
involving over 10 days' rig time for a 20,00o-ft depth capacity rig. It
occurred with experienced crews and supervisors. Failure to mea-
sure "strap" drillpipe on the last trip before running casing or a liner
may cause errors in depths and other problems. Another example of
human error is included in the following example.
Cat Line over the Crown

A step-out well had 9%-in. casing set at 1,500 ft and was drilling an
83f4-in.hole at 4,000 ft with a conventional drilling assembly. The hole was
being drilled underbalanced to maximize the penetration rate. The area
had a history of shallow, moderately high-pressure, low-volume gas sands,
so as a precautionary measure a rotating head was used as a diverter.
While drilling at 4,000 ft, the pump pressure declined, indicating a leak.
The pipe was started out of the hole to locate the leak. After pulling ten
stands, and with the eleventh stand in the elevators, pulling operations
were shut down to remove the rotating head.
The cat line was used to pull the split master bushing so that the
rotating head could be picked up above the rotary. Either the pickup tool
was incorrectly hooked into the master bushing, or the cat line was incor-
rectly tied to the bushing pickup tool. One end of the cat line came free,
and the other end was removed immediately from the cat head. However,
the cat line was overbalanced and continued to run over the crown. The
driller and crew left the floor just as the traveling block and pipe dropped.
The elevators lodged in the rotary against the ring that retained the mas-
ter bushing, and the drilling line unspooled.
After the crew returned to the floor, they installed a safety valve in
the top of the drillpipe and closed the pipe rams. The hole had been mak-
ing a small amount of gas and was shut in to prevent the gas from displac-
ing the mud and exposing the preventers to a higher pressure than neces-
sary.This would also make it easier to kill the well in case the pipe parted
highin the hole. .
The rig was repaired in 36 hours. The safety valve was opened and did
not have any pressure. A drillpipe single was screwed into the drillpipe
and, after picking up some weight, the pipe rams were opened.The assem-
bly was free, but it had lost weight, indicating a fish in the hole. When the
assembly was pulled, three stands of drillpipe and the drill-collar assembly

were missing. The drillpipe had parted in the slip area, indicating a new
tension failure.
An overshot was run to catch the fish.At this time, the fish had been
on bottom without circulating for about 48 hours. It was caught and worked
free in about one hour. When the fish was recovered, the bit cones were
found sheared and the bit shanks split. A junk basket was run to recover
the cones but did not make any recovery, so the cones were milled.
The overall fishing job was conducted properly with satisfactory re-
sults. Although human error was the cause, this type of mistake is ex-
tremely difficult to prevent.
Common examples of human error include dropping a sledge

hammer, crowbar, tong jaw, stilson wrench, or other small tools into
the open hole. These cause fishing jobs that are relatively easy if
conducted correctly. However, it is not uncommon for these to lead
to an extended fishing job and in some cases even loss of the hole.
The original cause was dropping the tool into the hole. but the real
cause could probably be attributed to improper fishing operations.
Again, as hindsight. keeping the hole covered would have prevented
the problems.
Spud Conference
A good method of solving a problem is to discuss it with other
interested people. This may lead to an obvious solution. Another
method is to hold a "spud conference" to discuss potential prob-
lems. Include anyone familiar with the situation. such as operating
personnel and service company representatives. Limit the number
of people attending the meeting to create an effective group. and
confine the discussion to the subject.
Spud conferences are common on most critical wells and those
where special problems are expected. In one case a spud conference
was held prior to deepening a well and proved very beneficial. as
illustrated in the following example.
Spud Conference and Small Drill Tubing

A spud meeting was held on a deep, critical well. The purpose of the
meeting was to advise the personnel of the existence of hydrogen sulfide
(H2S).recommend safety procedures, and ~old a preliminary training ses-
sion. This was conducted in the normal manner.
The well was a deep. high-pressure oil well with a high gas/oil ratio. It
had 17-in. conductor at 50 ft, 9%-in. surface casing at 2500 ft. 7-in. inter-
mediate casing at 11,000 ft, and a 5-in. flush joint (FJ)liner at 15.000 ft. A
high productivity zone was found at 16.500 ft in subsequent field develop-
4 Chapter 1
ment. Sidetracking in the 7-in. casing was not a reasonable option because
of the producing zone's high productivity. The alternatives were to drill a
twin well, a very costly procedure, or to deepen the existing well.
A program was designed to deepen the well. It included shutting off
the existing productive zones by puddle cementing to minimize formation
damage during deepening. The drilling program included deepening with a
tapered drillstring of 3Y2-in.internal flush (IF) drillpipe inside of the 7-in.
casing, 2%-in. drill tubing inside the 5-in.liner, and drilling a 4-in. hole with
oil mud.The well was to be completed with a small flush joint liner. Other
completion equipment included a wireline packer with a mill-out exten-
sion and plug receptacle nipple seated in the bottom of the 5-in.liner.The
production string included 2%-in. tubing fitted with special couplings and
a compression packer with about a 1,500-ft extension. It was spaced to
latch the extension into the wir.eline packer with the compression packer
seated in the 7-in. above the existing producing zones in the 7-in. and 5-in.
liner.They would be produced through the sliding sleeve and commingled
with the deeper production.
Studies indicated five wells had tried this or a similar deepening pro-
cedure. Four were lost due to failures in the 2%-in. drillstring before
penetrating the deeper producing zone. One was partially successful,
deepened with water-base mud and completed through stUck 2%-in. drill
tubing.
Another purpose of the meeting was to discuss the well plan. The
contractor's operating personnel said that the main cause of failures was
overstressing the drill tubing while making connections, even with hydrau-
lic drill tongs.A driller suggested very careful drilling practices. A derrick
man suggested using a jerk line on the handle of small tubing tongs fitted
with a torque gauge and tightening the connections carefully with the cat
head to give maximum control. This would take more time but was indi-
cated as the safest procedure.The extra time was not too significant since
only two trips were expected with long running diamond bits.
The well was deepened successfully in an economical manner as a
high productivity well.
Cost and Severity

While anyone involved in drilling operations knows of several
fishing jobs, the industry as a whole probably is not fully aware of
the severity of the problem and total cost of fishing operations. The
severity of these losses emphasizes the need of prevention. A few
examples of fishing and associated losses are illustrated in the fol-
lowing incidents:
A development well was drilling an 8%-in. hole at 11,000

ft. The drill pipe pin on top of the drill collars failed, leav-

ing the drill collars in the hole. The first overshot slipped
off with a 50,000 lb. overpull. The drill collars were worked
loose and recovered with a second overshot run.
A bit and bit sub were left in the hole and could not be
recovered with an overshot. A joint of washpipe was run
to wash over the fish. The bumper jars failed, leaving the
lower half of the bumper jars and a joint of washpipe in
the hole. Th.e washpipe was recovered with an overshot,
and the bit and bit sub were recovered with a second over-
shot. The bit cones were removed by milling.
A tool joint on the bottom of the top drill collar failed,
leaving the drill collar assembly in the hole. Washpipe was
run after an unsuccessful overshot run. The washpipe
stuck, and the hole ultimately was sidetracked.

A tool joint washed out on a reamer located 69 ft above
the bit. The bit locked up, probably due to lack of circula-
tion. The drilling assembly was pulled. It had parted at
the reamer, leaving 60 ft of fish in the hole. While going in
the hole with a fishing assembly, the drillpipe parted in
the slip area 2%-ft below the tool joint and dropped the
14,000-ft fishing assembly. The fish was caught with an
overshot, worked free, and recovered.

A second fish was left in the hole when a tool joint in the
top of the bumper sub in the fishing string failed due to a
cracked drill-collar pin. The damaged fishing string was
laid down, and a new fishing string picked up. An over-
shot was run, and the skirt broke off, leaving a third fish
in the hole. All fish were recovered after extensive fish-
ing.
Washover pipe was run to wash over a fish but became
wall stuck after washing over a short distance. It was
soaked free and released. The hole was sidetracked after
extensive fishing operations.
Many fishing jobs occur in drilling and casing operations as de-

scribed throughout the text.
Fishing Cost Survey

An informal survey was conducted to learn how many rigs were
involved in fishing operations and appropriate monetary losses. The
survey included about 12% of the rigs operating in the continental
United States and covered all types of drilling operations at various
depths. This was in an active drilling area during a boom period.
6 Chapter 1
Over 16% of the rigs were conducting some type of fishing op-
eration during the two-month survey period. Total daily rig operat-
ing costs during fishing are about 75% higher than during normal
drilling operations. Therefore, almost 25% of the total drilling ex-
penditure was wasted during the survey period. The loss is consid-
erably higher when considering sidetracking, lost holes, and
redrilling.
Actual drilling costs were approximately 13% higher than the
original cost estimate during the same period. Therefore, after al-
lowing 10% for contingencies, the wells may have cost as much as
23% more than the original estimate. Such overexpenditure fre-
quently is blamed on increased costs. But most ofthe 13%, or 23%,
increase is attributed to fishing and related operations. The similar-
ity of 23% here and the previous 25% are significant.
OPERATIONS
Many problems occur during drilling and other operations. Fre-
quency of failure increases with increasing operational difficulty.
Successful and efficient operations have the least number of prob-
lems. When one does occur, a detailed review of the problem and
associated factors leads to the best solution. Always consider alter-
nate solutions. The best prevention is to conduct operations in a
prudent, orderly manner.
Competent, experienced personnel design and implement cor-
rect procedures. Successful operators conduct all operations in a
prudent manner with full consideration of potential fishing. Don't
overlook important items while trying to expedite the job. Consider
possible consequences before undertaking a course of action. Know
how to fish out any equipment before running it into the hole. Con-
sider other ways of doing the job if the tool cannot be fished out. If
there is no alternative available except possibly sidetracking, use
the tool as a calculated risk.
Handle equipment as smoothly as possible. Be aware of the prob-
lems caused by operations, such as running full-gauge bits into un-
der-gauge hole and unintentionally backing off or sidetracking.
Always use the minimum mud weight with allowance for a mar-
gin of safety. Hole problems frequently are associated with higher
mud weights. These include wall sticking, cuttings removal, and
control of mud properties. Problems often are more severe in soft to
medium formations. Higher mud weights also generally decrease
penetration rate. The importance of minimum weight mud often is
overlooked.

Questionable Operations
Questionable operations may be conducted as a calculated risk.
Evaluate the risk vs. the gain, and select the best course of action
based upon good judgment. Some common examples of this are:
. Laying down drill pipe before running casing.

. Running casing after logging without a cleanout trip.
. Dropping about 12,000 ft of 3Vz-in. drillpipe a short dis-
tance on the last bit run before logging and pulling the
crooked pipe out of the hole. After logging, a cleanout trip
was made with the same pipe before running casing. This
saved the time and transportation expense of picking up a
. new string of pipe for one cleanout trip.

Conducting logging operations for five days on a 13,000-ft
well without a cleanout trip because logging tool action
. did not indicate it was needed.

Running a bit for an extensive period may be justified in
special cases. A common example is drilling near total
depth with a worn bit. If the depth is not critical, the op-
erator may risk losing bit cones by running the bit longer,
rather than making the trip to change bits. Depending on
conditions, this may be justified for several reasons. If the
depth is not critical and bit cones are lost, then stop drill-
ing and leave the cones in the hole. Normally, removing
the cones is not difficult if it becomes necessary to drill
deeper. There is a higher risk of problems during tripping
than during drilling. Also, the bit may drill to total depth.
Therefore, the operator could save the cost of a new bit,
the time spent changing the bit, and reduce the amount of
higher risk operations required.
Slip- and Tong-Area Failures.

The slip area, located 2 to 4 ft below the tool joint, often is sub-
ject to a high failure rate. The area may be slip cut, caused by setting
the pipe down too hard, not setting the slips evenly, rotating the
pipe with the slips, or not using back-up tongs on trips when the
pipe weight is still too light. All these cause points of weakness.
The drillpipe may be bent slightly in or a short distance above
the slip area. Common causes include (1) setting the tool joint too
high in the rotary during connections, (2) making the tool joint ex-
cessively tight, requiring excess pipe tong torque to break the joint,
or (3) breaking out the tool joint in the rotary with one pipe tong.
8 Chapter 1
Avoid these practices and check the area frequently. Bent tool joints
can be detected easily when rotating the drillpipe on trips. In some
cases similar problems occur in the tong area. Some of these failures
are illustrated in the following.
A long, heavy string of C-135 drillpipe was dropped on a

trip in the hole using double elevators. It parted in the
slip area while the elevators were being set down. The fail-
ure and resulting fishing job were caused by setting the
elevators down too hard and/or using faulty pipe damaged
in the slip area.

While drilling at 13,000 ft, 4%-in. drillpipe parted 2 ft
above the tool joint in the tong area, leaving 30 stands of
drillpipe and the drill collar in the hole.

Most of the drill string had been pulled from a 12,000-ft
hole when the pipe parted about 1 in. below the top of the
slips while breaking out a stand of drillpipe.
Eliminate slip- and tong-area failures by using good operating

practices and handling the pipe correctly. Take the pipe out of ser-
vice when it is damaged.
Connections
. Making connections is a common operation, but bit plugging and
sticking are not. The drilling assembly usually sticks at one of two
points during a connection - while lifting the assembly off the slips
after making the connections, or while lowering the bit to resume
drilling. Severity may increase due to caving, which may occur in
recently drilled formations that have not stabilized. A less common
problem is breaking the kelly.
Circulatingand reamingdown 5-10timesbeforemakingthe con-
nection reduces the risk of sticking. However, this extends normal
connection time of 3-5 minutes to 10 minutes or more, depending
on depth. Often it is not necessary to make even one reaming pass
before the connection, although at least one pass is recommended.
However, the best approach is to have a competent drilling supervi-
sor and crew who recognize when it is necessary to ream before a
connection.
Bit plugging and sometimes sticking are most common when forc-
ing the bit into caving while setting the kelly drive bushing into the
rotary. The bit may be pushed into cuttings or caving material with
extra weight in order to insert the kelly drive bushing into the rotary.

This may plug the bit and cause sticking, especially if the pump is
not running. Reaming before making a connection helps ensure the
hole is full gauge and smooth. Move bit cuttings off bottom and a
sufficient distance uphole to help prevent settling and sticking the
bottom hole assembly while at rest. If cuttings or caving material on
bottom prevent lowering the kelly to the point where the kelly drive
bushings cannot be inserted into the rotary, then remove the joint of
drillpipe and clean out again before rerunning the single.
Figure I-I Long vs. short kelly
Short kelly Longkelly
Kelly
Kelly drive bUShings~

Rotary
Kelly thread saver sub
f---JU
~ -
..- Well bore --.--....
Drillpipe
-'L ...L L
.. L
.:::::!:::
Drillcollars --- -4- .!....-
Bit
Cavings
.. _m _._ ' __ _
..- ....
- - _. .- _. _.. _u.
10 Chapter 1
Depending upon the rig equipment, some procedural and equip-
ment changes may help prevent sticking during connections. A longer
kelly allows drilling the hole deeper before making the connection
(Fig. 1-1). Both holes have the same amount of fill or caving mate-
rial. The short kelly causes the bit to sit on the cavings before the
kelly drive bushings enter the rotary. The long kelly allows drilling a
relatively deeper hole, so the kelly drive bushings are in place in the
rotary while the bit is still ,some distance above the cuttings. This
reduces the risk of plugging or sticking when inserting the kelly bush-
ings into the rotary.
The operator frequently shuts the pump down as the bit is pulled
up off bottom. This dissipates pressure inside the drilling assembly
for a reasonably dry connection. It also increases the chance of cut-
tings accumulating at the bottom of the hole. A better procedure is to
shut the pump off after the kelly is midway out of the hole and then
use the mud box if necessary. Very little pumping is required be-
cause of the small annular space in the drill collar section.
Kellys may be bent in the upper two or three feet of the square.
Causes include excess weight on the kelly, and rough handling when
picking up, setting back, or making connections. A bent kelly and a
heavy swivel may vibrate or swing as the bent section enters the
drive bushing. This can cause the kelly to break while drilling, de-
pending on the severity of the bend and the rotary speed, The driller
usually prevents this by stopping drilling with the bent section of
the kelly out of the bushing. This reduces the distance between the
bit and the bottom of the hole on connections, thus increasing the
risk of plugging and sticking. Prevent this by using a long, straight,
heavy-duty kelly.
Start the pump immediately after making the connection and
before lifting the drillstring. This helps remove the cuttings or cavings
and distributes them uphole (Fig. 1-2). Then lift the drill string the
minimum amount and pull the slips.
Bits and Cones

Operate bits within design specifications; do not exceed manu-
facturer recommendations. Bit companies publish recommended
operating conditions based on formation types. However, predicting
the type of formation may be difficult. For this and other reasons,
such as running too long, lost bit cones are one of the more common
downhole equipment failures.
Roller bit cones are one of the most common causes of fishing.
They loosen due to wear, which is generally indicated by uneven,
erratic, low-level, fluctuating torque. This is harder to detect in deeper
holes and those with high drag and torque. Severity increases as the
cones loosen, with a substantial increase when they lock or drop off.

Figure 1-2 Cuttings on top of the drill collars or bit
Note: If the assembly is pulled up into the packed cuttings. it can
stick. The correct procedure is to start the pump slowly and then
move the assembly slowly downward.
Cuttings packed on top Cuttings distributed uphole

or drillcollars or bit by the circulating mud
Drillpipe
Keyseat wiper above

the drill collars may
help release the assembly
if it can be moved.
Drilling jars and
a bumper sub
are ineffeclive if
the pipe is stuck at
the lop of the collars.
Packed cuttings
...- - - Topof drillcollars - .-
. - - - 0"_'
. .-
... . ..
I ....
.:~
. -L
Drillingjars and a bumper
_ :::;,,:=.::::.::::-:
--"';":"'-:.,":.,".sub may help release the
pipe if it is stuck with
cuttings on top of the bit
.~f"''':''
.'
-.. .. -- -
..L
Packed cuttings
Bit
.__ - - u_
12 Chapter 1
Fluctuating torque may also be caused by increased bit weight and
drilling in fractured formations or those containing chert or pyrites.
Experienced operators detect loose or locked bit cones by the de-
scribed actions and pull the bit before losing the cones and causing a
fishing job.
Sometimes, excessive time is required to begin drilling because
a new roller or drag bit must first form a cutting pattern on the bot-
tom of the hole. The drilling action in this instance often is similar
to drilling in fractured formations or formations containing chert or
pyrites. If this is the case, select the smoothest running combination
of bit weight and rotary speed for roller bits and continue drilling.
Diamond or drag-type bits normally drill fractured formations satis-
factorily, although the running action may be rough. Otherwise, pull
them if drilling chert or pyrites or if there is suspected junk in the
hole.
A bit entering a harder formation may slow down or stop drill-
ing. It may be balled up, so spud and ream to remove the ball. If the
drilling rate reduces slowly when a tooth-type roller bit is in the
hole, this may indicate the teeth are becoming worn, so normally
you should pull the bit. Insert-type roller bits often are less affected
by formation changes. A drilling rate reduction associated with in-
creased torque indicates worn or locked rollers; again, you should
pull the bit. Sometimes the rollers torque briefly and lock while the
bit rotates relatively smoothly, although the drilling rate is negli-
gible and torque increases. The rollers are locked and sliding on the
bottom ofthe hole, so pull the bit before the journals wear and break,
dropping off the cones.
A partially worn diamond or drag-type bit may slow down, with
a relatively constant or slightly increasing torque, when it drills into
a harder formation or a formation for which the bit is not designed.
Torquing may also indicate either fractures or formations containing
chert or pyrites, which destroy the diamonds. One piece of chert
may wear out an entire row of diamonds, causing a ring out. The
diamonds may embed completely when entering a softer formation,
resulting in a slight pressure increase.
One of the main causes of fishing for bit cones is running the bit
excessively, as illustrated in the following example.
Bit Run Excessively Long

A hole was being drilled at 18,500 ft with an 81/2-in.hard formation
roller bit. The bit, which had a normal life of about 75 hours, had been
running about 50 hours with a relatively smooth, moderate level of torque.
The bit began to torque heavily for about 10 minutes, then smoothed out

to a torque level slightly higher than the torque during prior drilling. After
about 45 minutes, torque level again increased and began fluctuating. Prior
to initial torquing, the bit had been drilling at about 4 ft/hr. During the final
hour, it drilled about I ft. The bit was run at a moderately high level of
fluctuating torque for another 3 hours, during which it drilled I ft. When
the bit was pulled, the rollers had been lost in the hole and the bit shanks
were worn almost to the jets.
The bit action was indicated clearly on the depth recorder. During
the first period of the torque, the bit cones locked. The bit was rotated
with the cones in the locked position for about 45 minutes, at which time
the cones probably released from the body of the bit and created a heavy
torque for about 15 minutes. During the remainder of the time, the bit
body was rotating on the loose cones in the bottom of the hole. The bit
obviously was overrun and should have been pulled after the first strong
indication of torque, even if it had been in the hole only for about 50
hours. The operating personnel were negligent in not recognizing this.
Bit selection is beyond the scope of this text, but the following
contains general comments:
. Polycrystalline bits make exceptional runs under favorable

conditions. These bits should definitely be considered for
long shale sections, especially when drilling with oil mud
or mud with a high oil content.
. When running roller bits, allow for the higher speed of the
. mud motor in evaluating overall drilling time.

Generally, bits used in directional drilling have slightly
smaller jets because of the pressure drop used in the mud
motor and the reduced amount available for the bit. This
leads to bit plugging and requires special actions such as
. running a screen in the drillpipe.

Do not run a used bit except for minor operations such as
limited clean out. Ensure the bit is in good condition.
Tripping Tubulars
Many failures occur during tripping, not all directly associated
with tripping. Examples include dropping the blocks, running into
the crown or rotary, setting slips improperly, handling drill collars,
and making up the drill and other tools. Take all precautions, such
as running a pipe wiper while tripping in the hole.
Check the condition of drillpipe rubbers during the trip; replace
and/or add more as needed. Change drillpipe breaks and order of
stands periodically on trips to distribute wear and prevent excess
tightening of tool joints. Note the condition of all tool joints as they
14 Chapter 1
are disconnected. Replace pipe that has overly tight tool joints. Mud
in a fresh broken tool joint indicates a leak. The best practice is to
lay the two joints down and have them inspected and/or refaced.
Pin failures can cause severe fishing jobs. For example, the first
31f2-in. drillpipe pin above the drill collars parted while milling on
two 61f2-in.bit cones at 15,000 ft, causing a moderately severe fishing
job.
Periodically change 5 or 10 joints of pipe on top of drill collars
to an uphole position. Avoid running the same section of drillpipe
in deviated hole sections for extended periods - 200 to 500 drilling
hours for normal conditions; shorter intervals for rough, high torque
drilling, reaming, or drilling on junk. Remove and replace bent pipe.
DO NOT make special "hole wiper trips" during long bit runs
except as required by special' conditions.
Shutdown
Occasionally, the rig will shut down while drilling or tripping
due to mechanical problems. Repair these as soon as possible. The
main consideration is how to prevent the drillpipe from sticking
during the shutdown. One example is a leaking hydraulic line where
the rig could still be operated for a few minutes.
When a shutdown must occur and there is ample warning, the
best procedure is to pull the drillpipe up into the last string of cas-
i~g. Check the annulus periodically to ensure it remains full. It is
not necessary to circulate constantly, but if the drill pipe is very deep,
it is a good practice to circulate slowly at about 20-40% of the nor-
mal circulation rate.
If a shutdown occurs during drilling, pick up the kelly as high as
possible. Lower the drill pipe 6 in. to 1 ft at 10-30 minute intervals,
depending upon depth, the distance available for lowering, and the
amount of time the rig is expected to be shut down. Ensure that the
amount lowered each time is sufficient to move the entire drilling
assembly as shown by the weight indicator.
Do not lower the tool joint below the kelly into the rotary. This
allows the drill pipe rams to be closed if necessary and leaves a con-
nection at a convenient point if one is needed for additional opera-
tions. A high pump rate can be used for a short period of time, but
pumping at a high rate for an extended period of time with limited
drillpipe movement can cause undesirable well-bore erosion.
During tripping, install the kelly and pick up as high as possible.
Then lower periodically as described. Ifthe kelly cannot be installed,
install the drill pipe inside preventer and lower the drill pipe slowly
as described.
There have been cases where the drillpipe has been lowered in
this manner for over 24 hours and was still free when operations

were resumed. In some special cases, a Caterpillar type tractor has
been attached to the dead line to move the drillpipe when the pipe
load was not excessive.
Pulling Wet Drillpipe

Wet pipe on trips has many disadvantages. Normally it can be
prevented by slugging the pipe correctly. Mud may be lost, even with
a good collection pan and drain system. Mud also may cause the rig
floor and other working surfaces to be slippery, increasing the risk of
an accident. Mud often contains chemicals that are harmful to hu-
mans, so limit exposure for safety reasons. The drillpipe can be pulled
wet by using the mud bucket, but this takes longer, which increases
operating time, and still involves some risk.
Since it is more difficult to measure accurately the amount of fill
up required when pulling a wet string, the risk of a flow from the
well bore and possible development of a kick situation is increased.
Loosening excessive amounts of mud may increase the difficulty of
filling the hole completely and correctly. This increases the risk of
sloughing and possible kicks due to reduced hydrostatic head.
Drilling Out Cement

Drilling out cement is a common operation. Normally, you should
use a medium-long tooth bit or mill on a limber drill collar assem-
bly. However, running the bit and workstring into green (soft) or
contaminated cement and sticking while tripping into the hole is
preventable. The action probably also plugs the bit, another disad-
vantage since circulation is often a major aid in releasing stuck pipe.
It normally is not economical to wash over or mill over 200-400 ft of
cemented pipe, often much less in a cased hole. The problems are
similar to washing over sanded-up tubing.
The pipe can be inadvertently run into green cement for one or a
combination of reasons. The top of a cement plug often is contami-
nated with mud so it will not hardep regardless of the time spent
waiting on the cement. Hole diameters may be smaller than estimated
or calculated, so the top ofthe cement is at a correspondingly higher
level. Overdisplacement, or using excess cement and cement chan-
neling through the mud, causes a higher cement top than originally
projected. Squeeze jobs can flow back if not held by back pressure,
or if the cement was still soft due to the use of excess retarder. There
have been cases where the operator overlooked the amount of pipe
run into the hole.
Observe standard precautions while tripping into the hole to drill
cement. Know the length of pipe in the hole and the depth to the top
of the cement. Begin checking for drag about 500-1000 ft above the
calculated cement top. Watch the weight indicator closely when low-
16 Chapter 1
ering the bit, but do not rely upon it completely: It fluctuates rapidly
during tripping and may be too insensitive. Normally, it is not suffi-
ciently sensitive to indicate sticking in this situation before the pipe
is stuck.
When nearing the top of the cement, lower a stand about 30-50
ft and then pick it up a short distance to ensure that it is free. Repeat
this procedure until near the top of the cement. Circulate and ream
the last 200-400 ft above the predicted cement top. Usually there is
extra time available at this point while waiting on the cement to
harden. HURRYING AND LACK OF TIME are not valid reasons to
risk sticking the drill pipe.
Clean out completion casing with a casing scraper above the bit
or mill. This removes cement and debris adhering to the casing wall
and prevents sticking packer's and/or presetting plugs. Some prefer
running the bit and following with a second trip to run the scraper
because of the perceived high risk of sticking with the bit and scraper
combination. The recommended procedure is to run the scraper with
the bit or mill except in extenuating circumstances. Use all precau-
tions to ensure that the mill is not run too deeply into cement coat-
ing the walls of the casing. Ream periodically and circulate to clean
the bit and scraper.
It is common after primary cementing to drill cement, float col-
lar and float shoe, and about 10 ft of new hole with a bit and drill
collars. The purpose is to reduce casing wear and minimize the pos-
sibility of backing off the bottom casing joints. Stabilizers are not
used for similar reasons. This procedure often necessitates an extra
trip to run the correct bit and assembly for drilling below the casing.
The recommended procedure for most situations, excluding run-
ning diamond bits, is to run the assembly and bit that is the most
efficient for drilling below the casing. Drill the float and guide shoe
and then drill ahead with this assembly. Observe precautions such
as making up the joints with epoxy cement and cementing the shoe
joints correctly, as described in the section "Loose Float and Shoe
Joints" in Chapter 7. Otherwise, drill out with reduced rotary speed
and handle the drilling assembly smoothly until the top of the drill
collars are below the bottom of the casing. This procedure has been
used successfully in a variety of situations, including running stiff
assemblies and drilling out with insert and Polycrystalline Diamond
(NOT regular diamond) bits. It saves time by eliminating the extra
trip.
Open-Hole Testing
There is a higher risk of sticking and a resulting fishing job dur-
ing open-hole testing. There are areas where the test tool can be left
seated and the formation tested for a week without sticking the tool.

In other areas the test tool will stick if it is left seated for more than
10 minutes.
Test tools most commonly stick at the packer elements. Select a
hard formation as a packer seat. Soft formations tend to wash or erode
around the packer elements, especially when testing with high pres-
sure differentials.
Limit or minimize the pressure shock when opening the test tool.
If it is used, run a minimum water cushion but allow sufficient hy-
drostatic head to prevent collapsing the pipe. Allow sufficient clear-
ance between the rotary and surface manifold to lower the assembly
in case the tool moves downward in the final seating process. Use an
equalizer valve when running dual packer elements. Consider using
a nitrogen blanket when testing high-pressure zones, but provide for
the hydrostatic head if there is minimal fluid inflow to prevent col-
lapsing the pipe. Use a minimum water cushion or add water before
releasing the pressure.
Testing dry gas, especially at high pressure for an extended pe-
riod through drillpipe, may involve some risk. There is a tendency
for gas to escape through drillpipe tool joints. This can cause gas-cut
mud and, if not handled properly, may increase the difficulty of con-
trolling the well. Testing dry gas should normally be limited to a
very short time interval, as noted in the following example.
Gas-Leaking Tool Joints While Testing

A high-pressure gas well drilled with 15 Ib/gal mud had 7 in. casing set
at 13,000 ft. A thin sand stringer at 12,700 ft was to be tested before
completing the main prospective interval at 12,500 ft. The sand stringer
had questionable productivity and was possibly water bearing, so it was to
be tested using a retrievable test tool with a full column of water and 15
Ib/gal mud in the annulus.
The zone was perforated, the test tool was run on 31/2-in.drillpipe,
and seated, and the pipe was filled with a full cushion of saltwater. The
pipe and surface equipment were tested to 10,000 psi and the annulus
pressured to 2,500 psi. The test tool was opened and had an immediate
pressure of about 4,500 psi, which increased as the water flowed out of
the hole through a choke. The well was allowed to flow dry gas through
double chokes for 10 minutes and was then shut in for a 10-minute pres-
sure buildup. Surface pressure at the end of the buildup was about 8,500
psi.The tool was closed, and the drillpipe was loaded with mud and circu-
lated extensively through the circulating valve. Because the annulus was
loaded with gas, it was necessary to close the rams and circulate the well
through the choke manifold. It could not be reverse-circulated because of
the excess annular pressure that had to be released through the choke
manifold to prevent bursting the casing.
18 Chapter 1
In hindsight, the thin sand stringer should have been tested with tub-
ing. Because of an approaching deadline completion date, it was tested
with the drillpipe as the fastest method.
Other Precautions
There are many other details, sometimes apparently small ones,
that can prevent problems which in turn often lead to larger prob-
lems. For example, check for metal cuttings in the mud with a ditch
magnet. Clean the magnet periodically. Examine the metal fragments
for indications of casing and other metal wear. Check the drillpipe
rubbers and replace them as necessary. Otherwise, continued wear
can lead to a hole in the casing or a backed-off casing shoe. There are
many other similar examples.
Undergauge Holes
Undergauge holes may present risks of problems such as pinched
bits and sticking. The main cause of undergauge holes is drilling
with a worn, out-of-gauge bit. Another cause is the failure to run
stabilizers or reamers, especially near bit reamers when drilling hard
formations. Muds that form thick filter cakes and swelling forma-
tions also cause undergauge holes. Treat the mud and ream as neces-
sary.
Corrections for undergauge holes are indicated by the cause. Al-
ways run a near-bit stabilizer with fixed blade or diamond bits. In
harder formations, run bits with more gauge protection. Ensure that
all reamers and stabilizers are full gauge. Use roller reamers with
hard formation cutters for hard, abrasive formations.
Ream the last 60-90 ft before reaching bottom with a new bit.
This removes cuttings and caving material that may cause sticking.
It also helps prevent running a new, full-gauge bit into a tight,
undergauge hole. Although this prevents premature roller bit failure
by pinching the cones, it may also cause lost cones, requiring mill-
ing and fishing. An immediate fishing job may be required if the bit
is wedged in the tapered hole section (Fig. 1-3).
Strapping
It often is ADVISABLEto strap the pilot bit or bullet nose below
a hole opener, using light or heavy strapping depending on the ap-
plication (Fig. 1-4).
In one case a bullet nose on an 8% x 12IJ4-in.hole opener was not
strapped and backed off. It was recovered with a short-skirted over-
shot dressed with a basket grapple using a mill shoe heavily coated
with tungsten carbide.

Figure 1-3 Bit stuck in tapered hole
(a) (b) (c)
Vertical scale distorted

(a) New bit approaching the undergauge hole section: ream old hole frorn ttlis
point to total depth.
(b) New bit jammed or wedged into tapered old hole; could require backing off
and a fishing job. If drilling jars are run. the pipe probably can be mleasecl:
however, the cones probably are damaged.
(c) New bit strongly jammed or wedged into tapered old llOle. The cones (sometimes
wilh pari of the bit shank) have been sheared. requiring a fishing-milling Job.
In another case an 8%-in. hole was sidetracked in a hard, abra-

sive formation using a maximum kickoff angle with a small, shallow
penetration that was opened to 8% in. Prior attempts to sidetrack the
hole conventionally were unsuccessful, but this method was effec-
tive in the hard formation. The bullet nose on the hole opener was
heavily strapped to prevent it from backing off. The strapping wore
thin and had to be replaced due to the high angle and the abrasive
formation.
20 Chapter 1
Figure 1-4 Strapping a tool joint
Lightstrapping Heavy strapping

Straps
Welds
Melal straps
Welds
~- Tooljoinl-
Side view
Pipe Wiper
Small items such as nuts, bolts, tong dies, and hand tools are
sometimes lost in the hole. This usually occurs while pulling the
drill collars through the rotary, changing the bit or other tools on the
drill-collar assembly, or running the assembly in the hole. These items
are seldom lost in the hole while pulling the assembly because of the
pipe wiper. The pipe wiper is removed on the last stand of drillpipe
above the drill collars to keep the wiper from being split or damaged
when pulling out the larger diameter drill collars.
As an important preventive measure, a pipe wiper should be used
on the assembly at all times, especially when handling drill collars
in the rotary and tripping in the hole. (It may be omitted during drill-

ing if a rotating head or similar piece of equipment is used.) When
the good pipe wiper is removed from the assembly, install a worn
wiper. The drill collars and other large diameter tools can be stripped
through it. Anything dropped through the rotary will hit the wiper
and fall to the side, keeping it out of the hole. Use the same proce-
dure when running the assembly in the hole, especially when run-
ning diamond or other fixed blade bits. It only takes a very small
piece of metal, such as a tong die, to ruin a diamond bit.
Always close the blind rams when the drill pipe or drill collars
are out of the hole. In one case a small wrench was dropped in the
hole on top of double pipe rams. One ram section had to be opened
to recover the wrench. In another case a bit was hanging below the
bradenhead under a stand of drill collars. A slip segment dropped in
the hole and lodged in the bradenhead. The pipe was not picked up,
since the slip segment might have bypassed the bit and fallen
downhole. A joint of drillpipe was screwed into the top of the col-
lars and lowered below the slip segment to see if it could drag the
segment uphole, but it was unsuccessful. The blowout preventers
had to be disconnected and picked up to recover the slip segment.
Using a pipe wiper would have prevented the problem.
Drill-Collar Clamps
Another preventive action is to use drill-collar clamps on all
downhole tools that do not have a relatively large diameter differ-
ence between the area where the slips are set and the section above
the slips. Place drill-collar clamps on all drill collars, even bottle-
neck types. In special situations, bottleneck drill collars can vibrate
or jar and fall through regular slips if the clamp is not used.
In one case, jars were lowered through the rotary and the
bottlenecked drill collars were set in regular slips without the clamp.
The jars opened, causing a vibration, and the drill collars vibrated
and dropped through the slips, which created a fishing job.
When running casing, a drill-co lIar-type clamp should be used
for the first several joints. This is especially important when using
spring-loaded elevators and slips. Lock these down and/or use drill-
collar clamps on light loads as illustrated in the following example.
Drill-Collar Clamp on First Joints of Casing

Casing (I O%-in.,SFJ)was being run in a deep hole. The float shoe and
float collars had been made up on the shoe joint. The float-collar end of
the joint was picked up and latched in the slip-type, spring-loaded eleva-
tors and started in the hole.When the bottom of the joint was about 20 ft
below the rotary, the joint began to float. This released the weight on the
spring-loaded elevators, and the elevator slips jumped open. allowing the
22 Chapter 1
joint to drop. The float collar had a thread protector with a rim that ex-
tended abut I/Sin. over the edge of the semiflush tool joint.This rim caught
in the top of the rotary slips, closing them flush on the top of the joint.
A short bar was wedged into the top of the thread protector. The cat
line, or lifting line, was tied to this, and the joint was picked up about 2 ft
by dragging it through the closed rotary slips. A drill-collar clamp was
then placedon the joint.The drill-collar clamp should havebeen placedon
the joint before placing the joi!1t in the elevators.
Most operators use the drill-collar clamp for 20-30 joints of cas-
ing or until the casing weight is sufficient to ensure it will not let
spring-loaded slip-type elevators open. Automatic fill-up equipment
often does not function correctly until several joints have been run
and there is an adequate differential pressure. These light and possi-
bly alternating casing loads increase the risk of accidently dropping
the casing, especially with spring-loaded running equipment, so the
safety clamp should be used as a safety factor.
A few operators use the drill-collar clamp while running the entire
string of casing. This probably is unnecessary and takes extra time.
The best procedure is to use the drill-collar clamp until the pipe has
gained sufficient weight so it will keep the slips from springing open
and releasing. After the casing load becomes relatively high (over
50,000 Ib), the drill-collar clamps probably would not hold the cas-
ing if it were dropped. As prevention, though, the clamps should be
used on the first few joints of casing run.
Summary Precautions
Other precautionary items are summarized in the following list
and are included throughout the text.
Tie the blind-ram operating lever with a breakable wire to
prevent accidental use.

Obtain an analysis, or fingerprint, of the ions, cations, el-
ements, etc. of saltwater, usually used for workover.

Have a full-opening inside diameter on all drill tools where
possible.
Cut the correct bell or taper on the casing landed in a cas-
ing spool or head.

Always place drillpipe tongs on the tool joint.
Run diamond and PDC bits in a clean hole.
Never rerun a dropped roller bit.

Use work-string pipe instead of tubing when possible.
Cripple the rope socket in most cases.

Run gauge rings before running full-gauge wireline tools.

Use no-go restrictions on swab bars.
Do not set the casing above the bit cones if there are plans
to drill deeper.
Keep a full-opening inside preventer (in the open posi-
tion) available on the rig floor at all times.

Do not allow a backlash and unintentionally back off by
rapidly releasi,ng the high right-hand torque when operat-
ing under high drag.

Do not arbitrarily use check valves, kelly fluid saver, and
similar tools, even those with knock-out or pump-out fea-
tures, because of the risk of malfunction.

Ensure that the inside diameters of crossover subs and
other tools do not have internal restrictions, such as a re-
duced inside diameter, which may prevent the running of
string shots and similar tools.
MECHANICAL FAILURES
Mechanical failures frequently cause fishing jobs. Almost any
type of normal drilling problem, such as a hazardous formation, open-
hole testing, or the reaming out of keyseats, can become a fishing
operation if equipment fails. Therefore, mechanical problems cre-
ate, both directly and indirectly, a need for fishing. The solution is to
select the correct equipment, operate it correctly, and keep it in good
operating condition.
Rig Selection
Rig selection offers another opportunity for preventive measures.
Select a rig that has the proper specifications for drilling the well.
Normally these include the type of rig, power, hoisting equipment,
pumps and the depth capacity of the mast and substructure, floor
space for pipe set-back, mud-handling capacity, blow-out preventers
and choke manifold, and similar items.
Rig selection is important for preventing problems because of
the possibility of lack of power, mechanical failures, and generally
unreliable equipment. The best rigs for deeper and more critical holes
are usually equipped with a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) sys-
tem. Alternating-current (AC) generators, usually driven by diesel
engines, are very efficient. The bus bar provides variable power dis-
tribution to larger and efficient high-torque, direct-current (DC) mo-
tors. AC current is distributed to small motors (up to 10 Hp), and
most rigs have a smaller AC stand-by light generator.
24 Chapter 1
Diesel electric rigs are less flexible. Diesel engines drive DC gen-
erators that are less efficient. Power distribution is limited to indi-
vidual generator units. Smaller AC generators supply power for lights
and small motors.
Mechanical rigs are somewhat less flexible, but can be highly
efficient, especially in shallower, less demanding drilling. Diesel
engine power passes through torque converters into a compound drive
group. In most cases this power is distributed to the drawworks, the
pumps, and sometimes the rotary.
Check all available records before selecting a specific rig. Down-
time is very important. The operator usually pays for a specific
amount of downtime and the rest is at the expense of the contractor.
However, this does not help ~n the case of ongoing expenses such as
mud costs and ancillary services, including tool rental and third party
work. Other cases such as lost circulation, caving, and stuck pipe
almost invariably deteriorate with time. Review downtime on tour
sheets from prior operations. Note that many repairs made during
rig operation do not cause downtime and may not be noted on the
tour report. Checking the record of equipment repairs should indi-
cate if the rig has had excessive repairs or if some component has
failed repeatedly. The cut and slip and bit records, mud reports, and
similar records should also be checked. .
A less obvious cause of fishing jobs is using undersized, inade-

quate equipment. One example is drilling to 9,000 ft with a 6,000-ft
nominal depth capacity rig. Innovative drilling personnel can
extend the depth to which a rig can drill (not the nominal depth
capacity) by increasing the number of lines on the traveling block
(Fig. 1-5), running smaller drillpipe, or using smaller pump liners to
increase pump pressure. However, this either overstresses the equip-
ment or overburdens the rig capacity, and is not recommended ex-
cept in special cases.
A similar problem occurs when the depth objective is extended
appreciably after starting drilling operations. This also can overstress
the equipment and increase the risk of a fishing job. Additional risk
may be incurred with reduced hole sizes. This increases both the
risk of a fishing job being needed and the risk that it cannot be com-
. pleted successfully.
Unmatched Rigs
Unmatched rigs have one or more components that are either
under- or oversized for the nominal depth capacity. A common ex-
ample is oversized pumps, which can cause problems because

Figure 1-5 Pull decreases with more lines
6 lines 8 lines
Fast
line
Fast
line
240,000 Ib
Dead line Dead line
Single line pull ~ 40,000 Ib Sin9le-line pull . 30.000 10
normally they are run within specified limits based upon pressure,
volume, and strokes per minute. Sometimes the output volume may
be too high, causing excess pressure on the downhole equipment,
borehole erosion, especially around the bottom-hole assembly, and
difficulties using mud motors and turbines. These problems can oc-
cur even when running the minimum-size pump liner or plunger. In
many cases the pumps cannot be throttled down because ofthe mini-
mum SPM requirements based on the pump-operating specifications.
Throttling valves or adjustable- or fixed-vent chokes are seldom sat-
26 Chapter 1
isfactory. The problem can be prevented by knowing the volume and
pressure requirements of the hole during drilling and selecting a rig
with the correct pumping equipment.
Pump Failure
The most common mechanical problem is a pump failure. This
creates many problems if it occurs in a situation such as cleaning out
heaving shales or circulating out a kick. Normally, the rig is equipped
with a standby pump for use when the main pump fails. However,
the standby pump may also fail. A pump failure that almost caused a
fishing job is illustrated in the following example.
Pump Failure
A wildcat well was drilling a 9Y2-in.hole at 19,000 ft with 5,000 ft of
open hole below the last casing string. The very hard, abrasive sand shale
sequence was drilled with an insert bit in a dispersed polymer mud con-
taining 4% emulsified oil.The packed hole drilling assembly included 73/4_
in. drill collars, integral blade stabilizers, a shock sub, drilling jars. a keyseat
wiper above the drill-collar assembly, heavyweight pipe, and a combina-
tion 5 and 5'/2-in. drillstring.
A trip had just been made to change bits, and the mud viscosities and
gels were slightly high (funnel viscosity 63 see, PV 63, YP 13, gels %). The
calculated pore pressure was 17.5 Ib/gal, and the 16.8 Ib/gal mud had an
equivalent circulating density of 17.3 Ib/gal.The slightly underbalanced mud
system was being used to improve penetration rates, which averaged about
5 ftlhr.
The hole had been logged at 18,000 ft and was shut down for 48
hours, from the time drilling stopped until it resumed. Hole deviation had
begun increasing slowly from 2 at the casing shoe to 7 at 17,500 ft. At
that time, a packed pendulum assembly was run and the hole deviation
was reduced evenly to r.The average maximum absolute dogleg was less
than 1.5/I 00 ft.There was some minor keyseat formation in the interval
from 16,000 to 18,000 ft, indicated by the pipe drag of up to 30,000 Ib and
the difference between the two-arm and three-arm calipers' hole diam-
eters.
The hole diameter increased gradually from bit size atTD to about 13
in. diameter below the casing shoe. The normal increase in hole diameter
was caused by mud erosion. The hole was being circulated at 340 gpm and
2,800 psi.The lifting quality of the mud was satisfactory to slightly low for
cuttings removal in out-of-gauge hole sections, as indicated in Table I-I.

Table I-I Upward cuttings velocity
Hole diameter, in. 13 16 19 22

- - - -
Annular mud velocity, ft/min 67 36 25 18
Slip velocity, ft/min 8 7 6 5
True Cuttings velocity, ft/min 59 29 19 13
Time, min, to move cuttings
upward I000 ft. 17 35 53 77
In several places, though. the diameter was greater than the maximum
caliper reading of 16 in.
The on-line pump failed while drilling, and the second pump was placed
on line while the first was repaired. After drilling about I hour, the second
pump failed. Since the first pump was expected to be repaired shortly, the
driller decided to pick the pipe up and move it slowly (normal drag =
25,000 Ib) instead of pulling the entire drilling assembly up into the casing.
When circulation stopped, the 42-ft kelly was 30 ft down. The pipe was
moved by picking up about 60 ft off bottom (kelly and one single) and
lowering it about 5 ft every 5 minutes. After about 11/2hr, the pipe drag
began to increase.With the kelly about 5 ft into the rotary, the pipe could
not be moved upward with 50,000 Ib of overpull. The pipe was left hanging
about 25 ft off bottom with normal weight and without trying to pull the
pipe free. Pump repairs were completed in another hour.
The pump was started slowly.The pipe was worked to establish circu-
lation, which took about 20 minutes. By stopping the pipe above bottom,
it was possible to move it downward, which allowed some free movement
and helped establish circulation. If the drillpipe had been pulled harder
into the cuttings, it could have been stuck tighter, possibly necessitating a
fishing job. After working the pipe for another 30 minutes, the drilling
assembly was freed. The hole was circulated for another 30 minutes, while
working the pipe slowly. and drilling operations were resumed.
Another point regarding the example is whether the pipe should have
been pulled up into the casing.There was no apparent reason to pull the
pipe into the casing when the first pump failed since a second pump was
available. But when the second pump failed, the b.est course of action was
not as easy to determine.
The apparent safest procedure would have been to pull the pipe up
into the casing.This probably would have prevented a stuck pipe and the
need for a fishing job. However, the well was being drilled in a near-bal-
anced condition, so there could have been a kick while tripping - one of
the most dangerous times for a kick to occur. Since the pumps were inop-
erative, the pipe could not be slugged and would have to be pulled wet, a
slow, slightly dangerous procedure. The delay would increase the risk of a
kick.There would be no way to fillthe hole while pulling up into the casing
except with the mud-mixing pump. Mud lost from pulling a wet string and
28 Chapter 1
inability to add mud could lower the mud column.reduce the hydrostatic
head, and increase the risk of a kick.This probably was a major factor in
the operator's decision to leave the pipe near bottom. The risk of wall
sticking was minimal because of the near-balanced mud system. The obvi-
ous problem was sticking due to cuttings and slough material.
There are several preventive measures that could have been used had
the operator decided to pull the drilling assembly up into the casing. Pull-
ing slowly would have reduced'the risk of swabbing. This would also have
reduced the mud loss when the stands were disconnected. The annulus
could have been filled with water, which. though a less preferred fluid,
would have provided some hydrostatic head. Ifthe well had kicked, it would
have given a more positive indication compared to air and would have
helped prevnt fluid or gas entry into the borehole.
The primary problem was inadequate pumps. Preventive measures
should have included improved pump maintenance to ensure the pumps
were in good operating condition. If pumps require excessive repair. they
should be replaced. However, this may be difficult because of contractual
obligations and other considerations.
In summary. the operator selected a course of action in this situation
that involved some risk. but it was successful and saved time.
--..-----.----...--..-
Hoisting Equipment
One ofthe most serious mechanical problems is a hoisting-equip-
ment failure. The most severe problems are a broken drilling line, a
failed crown block or traveling block, drawworks drum, or brake.
There is a danger of dropping the drilling assembly, which could
result in a fishing job and a high risk of injury to personnel. There is
NO EXCUSE for dropping the blocks.
Ton-mile records and good cutoff procedures have almost elimi-
nated broken drilling lines. However, a prudent operator will check
the drilling contractor's records to ensure that good line slipping and
cutoff practices are used. These records should also be checked any
time an operation calls for the drilling assembly to be downhole for
an extended period. If the drilling line is approaching a cutoff point,
the line should be cut before starting the downhole operation.
Sometimes, it is necessary to stay in the hole longer than ex-
pected. This can cause severe line wear that could require either: (1)
shutting down to cut the line at a time when a fishing job almost
certainly would occur (such as for drilling and cleaning out a caving
formation); or (2) continuing operations (such as jarring) with an in-
creasing risk of a drilling-line failure. Frequently checking the con-
dition of the drilling line is an important preventive action.

Jarring and heavy pulling, especially with high hook loads, ac-
celerates drilling-line wear. Worn sheaves can further accelerate wear.
Working the fish for a long time without moving the downhole as-
sembly appreciably can cause concentrated line wear at one or more
points. The line often can be slipped to change the point of wear
with minimum downtime.
The major components ofthe hoisting system, such as the brakes,
sheaves, and bearings, normally are checked periodically and changed
when necessary. However, during long periods of operation such as
deep drilling, the equipment should be checked more frequently.
There have been instances in which the drilling assembly was
dropped due to brake failure. In one case during a trip to change bits,
the drilling assembly was run in the hole to the bottom of the casing
and set in the slips, the rams were closed, and preparations were
made to cut the drilling line. Either the line clamps slipped or the
traveling block was not hung correctly. The blocks dropped, causing
an extended, expensive fishing job. Therefore, it is important to take
the proper precautions when cutting or slipping the drilling line.
Split Crown Sheave

An on-structure wildcat well had 7-in. intermediate casing set at
12,000 ft.A 6Ys-in.hole was being drilled at 14,000 ft with a diamond bit
and 31/2-in.drillpipe. There were several kicks while drilling the interval
from 13,000 to 14,000 ft. The 14.5-lb/gal mud slightly overbalanced the
pore pressure.
A trip was to be made to change bits.The kelly was set back, an extra
single was pulled out and laid down, and the first stand was being pulled
out of the hole. When the elevators were about 30 ft above the rotary, a
crown sheave split, cutting the drilling line and dropping the traveling blocks
and drilling assembly. Eight lines were strung in the derrick, and as the
lines unstrung through the blocks the assembly dropped faster. When the
elevators hit the rotary, the bottom of the elevator ears broke. But the
elevators held, and the drilling assembly remained intact. The traveling
block fell to the floor on one side of the rotary.The unraveling drilling line
did some damage to the mast bracing and drawworks cover, but there
were no injuries to personnel. The drillpipe rams were closed and locked,
and a safety valve screwed into the top of the drillpipe.
The damaged equipment was repaired and replaced in about 48 hours.
The crown sheave had cracked near the base of the wireline groove, and a
piece of the crown-sheave flange broke off.This apparently let the drilling
line slip out of the crown sheave and cut or break as it dropped over the
main crown-shaft housing.
30 Chapter 1
After the repairs were completed, the kelly was connected to the
drilling assembly and circulation was established without difficulty.Shortly
thereafter, the drilling assembly was picked up and found to be free, and
was pulled and inspected.
Blowout Preventer
The blowout preventer (BOP) system, which includes the choke
manifold, accumulator, fill-up line, control stations, and accessory
equipment, is one of the most important equipment items on the rig.
Operators should ensure that preventers have an adequate pressure
rating. A general guide is that the working pressure rating should be
equivalent to the maximum pressure expected in the well. The most
common preventer stack has three pipe rams and a bag-type preventer.
Some wells may require shear rams, a rotating head, or a diverter. A
rotating head is commonly used when drilling long sections
underbalanced.
A variety of standard precautionary procedures should be ob-
served. Pipe rams should always be in the lowest preventer. Some
operators use an extra set of blind rams in the lowest position, espe-
cially on a four-ram stack. If an extra set of pipe rams is kept on
location, the upper blind ram can be replaced immediately when
required. Control stations must be conveniently positioned so they
can be safely operated under all possible conditions. The blind ram
control should frequently be fit with a breakable restraining device
to prevent accidental closing. Before running casing, one pipe ram
should be changed as a casing ram.
An inside blowout preventer should be on the rig floor at all
times, open and ready for use, including available crossover subs
(such as for running casing). Place the opening and closing tool in a
convenient, known place. Many operators hang it on the side of the
BOP control panel.
Good well head security is important when running casing. This
procedure normally includes changing pipe rams to fit the casing for
annular control. The preventers normally are tested after changing
rams, especially on critical wells. Have an inside preventer with a
changeover sub to fit the casing available on the rig floor.
Testing
A careful operator will maintain a complete testing and mainte-
nance program, and will record the tests on the tour report. Tests
should include: closing and opening pipe rams once per day; actuat-
ing the choke manifold controls and closing and opening all rams

once a week or on the next trip; and testing the complete BOP sys-
tem, including the accumulator, any time there is a question about
preventer integrity. Normally testing should be done after changing
rams, at 20-30 day intervals, or in compliance with regulatory agency
requirements. BOPs and the choke manifold should always be tested
after heavy usage. Use the correct test plug to prevent sticking the
plug in the seating receptacle. Also check BOP nuts and bolts for
tightness at weekly intervals.
BOP Drills
BOP training and drills should be conducted as required. Prac-
tice tests should be performed during drilling, while making a con-
nection, and while tripping.
Conduct a BOP drill a~2- to 3-day intervals for each crew while
drilling until time-to-close is satisfactory. Time-to-close is the time
period from the start of the drill (signaled with a horn or whistle)
until the well is shut in. Test intervals can then be extended to 3-7
days per crew. Satisfactory times are in the range of 1 minute while
drilling at 5,000 ft to about 2-3 minutes while drilling at 15,000 ft.
For tests during tripping, add about 2 minutes for time-to-close.
Other Precautions
Standard precautions, such as full-opening and double valves,
should be taken in most cases. On critical wells, install an extra kill
line to the edge of the location. Do not use the kill line for a fill-up
line. The choke manifold flow line should have double valves, in-
cluding a manual valve next to the preventer stack. To eliminate
bends, use piping that has full-opening lines and that is 3 in. or larger.
Take adequate precautions to prevent freezing during cold weather.
The choke manifold should be set as far from the rig as is conve-
nient. Bends should be minimized, with plugged "T's" used when
they occur. An adequate-capacity, well-designed mud gas separator
with a return line to the mud tank is essential. Install a pilot light at
the end of the blowdown or blooie line. Have the end of the line a
safe distance from the wellhead, usually downwind from prevailing
winds.
Most rigs have a safety device such as a siren to warn of low pit
levels and low flow-line flow rate. It is common to shut the siren off
during connections. In at least one case, this was unintentionally
left off after the connection, and a kick occurred shortly thereafter.
Fortunately, the kick was detected by other indicators. Failure to
turn the siren back on could have been catastrophic. One highly rec-
ommended solution is to install a blinking yellow or orange light
that turns on automatically when the siren is shut off.
32 Chapter 1
Downhole Failures
Downhole failures include lost bit cones, parted pipe, mechani-
cal failures in downhole tools, washed out tool joints, cracked pins,
and split boxes. All rig equipment should be maintained carefully,
inspected at correct intervals, and operated within design limits.
The fact that many severe fishing jobs are caused by downhole
conditions and the way the downhole assembly is operated points
up the importance of using good procedures and exercising extra
care when drilling in problem formations.
A twistoff is a relatively common failure that invariably causes
fishing. The main cause of a twistoff is torque in excess of the strength
of one or more components of the downhole tubulars. In many cases
it can be prevented by drill string maintenance and careful handling
procedures. Worn pipe and fatigued or damaged tool joints are major
causes of twistoffs. Prevention measures include inspection and re-
placement as necessary. Fine-threaded connections, such as those
on an overshot bowl, or test tool and some casing and tubing threads
are less strong and therefore susceptible to twistoff problems associ-
ated with over-torquing.
The risk of twisting off is higher when running combination work
strings. Common pipe combinations are 5 in. x 41/2in.. 3 IJ2in. x 2 7/8
in., and 27/8in. x 2%-in. Higher-risk combinations include 41,12 in. x
27/8in. x 3% in. x 2% in., and 27/8in. x 1% in. The larger, heavier pipe
at the top of the string has a relatively higher momentum during
rotation as compared to the smaller pipe in the lower part of the
assembly. If the bit or tool on the bottom of the assembly hangs up,
this higher momentum can twist offthe pipe body or tool joint of the
smaller, weaker pipe. Stopping the pipe rotation very quickly anhe
surface can cause a similar failure, especially when using large drill
collars relative to the size of the pipe.
Under normal conditions, combination assemblies generally can
be operated satisfactorily. The frequency of failure increases as the
difference between the two pipe sizes increases. Problems can be
prevented by minimizing the use of combination strings, especially
with large size differences. When these combinations must be used,
they should be operated carefully with minimum torque.
MUD
One ofthe most important preventive procedures is to select and
maintain a good mud system with good physical properties. Do not
overlook this, even while combating either lost circulation, slough-
ing, kicks, fishing, or any combination of these. Many of the follow-
ing precautions are self explanatory, but they warrant repeating here
because of their common occurrence.

Table 1-2 Mud property changes signal contamination
Contamination Funnel Plastic Yield Gel pH Fluid loss PI/MI
viscosity viscosity point strengths
High Slight Increase Slight Slight Same HTHP Same
Solids increase increase increase Could
Contamination increase
Contaminant Funnel Plastic Yield Gel pH Fluid loss P/MI
Cement Increase Slight Increase Increase Increase Could Increasw
contamination increase change
Contaminant Funnel Plastic Yield Gel pH Fluid loss PI/M.
Gypsum Increase Slight Increase Increase Decrease Increase Decrease
and/or increase
anhydrite
Contaminant Funnel Plastic Yield Gel pH Fluid loss PI/MI
Rock Salt Increase Slight Increase Increase Decrease Increase Decrease
increase
9
C
'"a
.....
Q)
'-s
.....
Contaminant Funnel Plastic Yield Gel Fluid 1055
Q
i::
pH P/M,
CI)
Q)
Q High Increase Slight Increase Increase Decrease Increase Decreas
:::! at
Q. Temperature increase
Gelation flow line
Q)
-::: Contaminant Funnel Plastic Yield Gel Fluid loss
Q) pH P/MI
:::! viscosity viscosity point strengths
.....
......
0
:::! Carbonate Increase Same Increase Increase Could Could Increas
especially change change
10 min.
Contaminant Funnel Plastic Yield Gel pH Fluid loss P/M,
Bicarbonate Increase Same Increase Increase Could Could Increas
especially change change in MI
in 10min.
Source: Roseland, courtesy OGJ
Legend: shaded areas show the most reliable indicator of a particular contaminant.
U,)
CJ1
Mud-handling procedures include all of the operations and equip-
ment used to work with the drilling fluid as it moves through the
surface and downhole circulating system. Use of good operational
procedures with correctly sized, well-maintained equipment will help
maximize the penetration rate, prevent fishing, and enhance fishing
operations.
Using a low mud weight and the minimum amount of low grav-
ity solids will increase penetration rates, reduce treating costs, pre-
vent sticking, and increase the chances of releasing stuck pipe or
completing a fishing job. Twin, double-deck shakers with small-sized
screen openings are almost standard equipment on larger rigs drill-
ing deeper holes.
The interface between mud and other fluids can cause chemical
contamination, dilution, and settling of weight material. All three of
these problems can increase the cost of mud treatment and the risk
of sticking the assembly. If barite settles out at the interface, it can
accumulate and stick the pipe. Interface problems can be solved by
using the correct volume and type of spacers.
Changes
Changes in mud properties are good indicators of conditions such
as contamination or increasing salinity from saltwater flows. These
conditions are listed in Table 1-2.
The recovery of drill cuttings usually depends on the drilling
rate, a figure that tends to be relatively constant. Recovery may be
reduced by a lack of cleaning or by accumulation in washed-out hole
sections. An increase in cuttings recovery may be due to caving, vis-
cous sweeps, or drilling into a higher pressure zone. The shape and
volume of cutting may indicate a possible kick situation, as described
in the section "Kicks" in Chapter 2.
Aerated Mud
Aerated mud has a frothy appearance somewhat similar to gas-
cut mud. If the mud appears to be gassy and yet no gas is detected by
the mud-gas analyzer, then the mud probably contains air. An opera-
tor should be careful to differentiate between air and gas in the mud,
because gas is an important indicator of a kick, while aerated mud
seldom is a problem. Severe cases may affect pump pressure and
operation. A common cause of aerated mud is a leaking suction or
mud-gun nozzle whipping or mixing air into the mud. Mud may
also be temporarily aerated by pumping it into empty drillpipe or
casing. Air trapped in mud can be removed with sub-surface mud
mixers and de-gassers.
36 Chapter 1
Pump pressure normally fluctuates in a range of about 2% or in
the order of 50-100 psi. To maintain a constant pump pressure, check
to see that the pump throttle setting has not changed and check the
pump output to ensure it is operating correctly. .
Decreasing pressure commonly indicates a leak. A surface leak
usually is easy to detect. However, ifthis is not the cause, stop pump-
ing and immediately pull the pipe to prevent parting, such as a
washed-out tool joint, and leaving a fish in the hole. Other causes of
pressure decreases are reduced mud weight, gassy or aerated mud
(in rare cases due to an air leak), and a partially plugged or starved
pump suction. A kick may also cause pump pressures to decrease
slightly.
Increasing pump pressures often are associated with a partially
plugged or balled bit or a worn diamond bit (usually due to a ring-
out). Other causes include increasing mud viscosity (which decreases
pump SPM), excessive formation caving or sloughing, cuttings accu-
mulation due to improper hole cleaning, and deteriorating mud prop-
erties, such as an increasing equivalent circulating density.
Since mud volume seldom fluctuates, any changes should be
investigated. Mud volume increases may be caused by a kick, or by
fluid, liquid, or gas flow into the mud system. Chlorides and mud
weight should be checked to detect a flow of saltwater or, less com-
monly, of fresh water. Water may enter the mud system at the surface
through a leaking valve or other means. The most common cause of
reduced mud volume is lost circulation, followed by surface losses.
A considerable amount of makeup mud is required to fill the new
hole for fast shallow drilling in large diameter holes.
The most common weight fluctuations are caused by an out-of-
balance system. These fluctuations can be corrected by increasing
mixing-action or water-back heavy streaks and adding weight mate-
rial to light streaks. Weight may fluctuate due to entrapped air or
gas. Barite sag causes fluctuating mud weight, especially in direc-
tional and horizontal wells, as described in the section "Barite Sag"
in Chapter 1. Weight fluctuations may cause mud to flow back, which
increases the difficulty of operations and can cause a plugged bit.
Increased solids and deteriorating mud properties may cause mud
weight increases. Pills or trip slugs due to frequent tripping also may
cause weight increases. These may be controlled by decreasing the
size of the slugs and increasing water additions. To ensure its accu-
racy, verify the mud balance.
Dilution causes decreases in mud weight, most commonly from
water added at the surface or water entry into the well bore. This can
cause weight material to settle out of the mud.

Displacing mud is seldom a problem in cased holes except where
there is channeling and contamination. However, problems in the
open hole also include release of wall cake, mud losses, and con-
tamination, all of which may cause sticking. Channeling can be very
severe. In one case, 12-lb/gal water-base mud was displaced with
13-lb/gal oil mud inside of 9%-in. casing set at 8,500 ft. Oil mud
returns were first observed when the water-base mud lacked 150 bbls
for full displacement, indicating channeling in a 3,000-ft annular
section. Displacement can cause problems, such as three days' lost
work time due to severe bit plugging because the mud was not screen-
ed correctly. Therefore, conduct operations in a prudent manner.
Always consider salvaging mud behind casing and liners. How-
ever, remember that salvaging is secondary, and the primary objec-
tive is to cement the casing or liner correctly. Water is the most eco-
nomical displacement fluid for salvaging. Nevertheless, it may cause
an excessive reduction of the hydrostatic head, which could lead to
a blowout, cement contamination, etc. Other methods of salvaging
include using a diverting tool in the casing string above the calcu-
lated top of the cement, and displacing with a lower quality mud or
using scavenger cement.
Losses
Among the natural ways that mud is lost are as a coating on the
cuttings, as filtrate, and through equipment leaks and minimal evapo-
ration. Miscellaneous mud losses include pulling wet pipe, connec-
tion losses, not using a drain pan, accidental losses over shaker
screens, and flow surges due to fast reaming-down on connections.
Miscellaneous losses normally are a very small percentage of the
total volume. They are more common at shallower depths, usually
because of lower quality mud and higher make-up volume associ-
ated with a larger-sized hole. A special case of mud loss is covered
in the section "Lost Circulation."
Losses of mud cannot be readily calculated, but they can be esti-
mated from make-up volumes during normal drilling. Although it is
not a true loss, make-up volume is included here. A rough rule of
thumb for make-up volume is 5 bbls/100 ft drilled or 15 bbls/day for
a shallow to medium-depth 8%-in. hole in medium-drillable, nor-
mal-pressured formations.
Because the volume of mud in the circulating system is constantly
changing, the magnitude of mud losses are not always readily appar-
ent at the time they occur. A summary mud volume balance can be
calculated for a section or for the entire well, as listed in Table 1-3.
38 Chapter 1
Table 1-3 Drilling well mud volume balance
Liquid mud delivered to rig 1,450 bbls

Diesel additions 550
Water additions 170
Liquid equivalent of solid additions 50
Total volume of additions 2,220 bbls
Initial displacement losses 200 bbls

Casing shoe squeeze losses 290
Normal losses (15 bbls/day for 22 days) 330
Tripping losses 140
Calculated salvage loss 160
Salvage displacement loss 130
Salvaged (recovered) mud 970
Total losses and salvage 2,220 bbls
Normal losses include the make-up for a new hole. Calculated

salvage loss is mud left in the hole for operational reasons during
plugging. This and the normal losses and salvaged mud totaled 1,460
bbls, meaning that 65 % of the total volume was utilized efficiently.
The remaining losses of 760 bbls, or 34%, were theoretically wasted
- ie., they represent mud that could have been saved.
Hole Cleaning
A clean hole is important to efficient operations. This normally
is not a problem in cased holes, but may be a problem in open holes.
A clean hole helps prevent sticking and facilitates most fishing. Drill
cuttings and cavings should be flushed out of the hole convention-
ally with the circulating mud. Factors that strongly affect hole-clean-
ing efficiency include the type, physical condition, and chemical
condition of the mud; the circulation rate; and the hole condition.
Hole condition includes deviation and diameter, especially of
washed-out sections (Fig 1-6).

Figure 1-6 Viscous sweep mud action in a washed-out
section
Driilpipe
MOM M.....
-'~'-'-.'
----....
.-'
~
..~...
.-....
." "
--...........-
Low-viscosity mud High-viscosity pill or sweep
Flow rate in the washout section (possum belly) is distributed more evenly with the
high-viscosity sweep, washing oul the hole and removing accumulated cuttings.
Deviated holes are harder to clean compared to vertical holes.

Mud solids tend to remain on the low side of the inclined wellbore;
they roll and drag on the low side of the hole as they move upward.
There is less fluid movement on the side of the wellbore compared
to the center, so it takes longer to circulate and move the cuttings to
the surface. For example, it takes about three times the circulating
volume to clean a hole inclined at 45 compared to a vertical hole
and even larger volumes at higher drift angles.
40 Chapter 1
Figure 1-7 Drill cuttings slump
DrI cWtiIgI eetUe to Cuttingt.ccunlh.le and ,

the low oIde 01 the hole arOUld1001jointsand drI col....
(from Introduction to Directional and Horizontal Drilling

by J.A. "Jim" Short, Penn Well Books, 1993.)
As the cuttings move up the hole, the rolling, dragging action

reduces their size. The rotating and reciprocating action of the drill
tools grind and crush mud solids and drill cuttings against the wall
of the wellbore, further reducing their size. This reduction increases
the problem of solids separation and causes mud properties to dete-
riorate. Increased drilling time contributes to the problem. The ac-
tion is more pronounced in deviated holes.
Increased circulating time causes hole erosion. Mud moves
through enlarged hole sections or washouts at a slower rate, thereby
increasing cuttings accumulation. Accumulated particles slump or
slide downward due to gravity and can cause sticking or lost
circulation (Fig. 1-7). The problem is more severe in high-angle and
horizontal holes. Remove the cuttings with extended circulation,
viscous sweeps, or in some cases, increased gel strength or higher
density. Equivalent circulating density (ECD)aids in evaluating the
circulating conditions in the wellbore. The importance of good
circulation and large-capacity, efficient solids-removal equipment
cannot be overemphasized.
Emulsifier-Wetting Agents
Emulsifier-wetting agents are important additives in oil mud sys-
tems. They should be used with careful judgment: excess usage
increases mud costs, while restricted usage can lead to settling of
solids and barite and may cause bridging and, possibly, stuck pipe.
The general tendency is to add excess wetting agents because of the
severe consequences of under-treatment. The problem is difficult to
prove by definitive testing or data, as illustrated in the following
example.

Emulsifier-Wetting Agent Usage
Three wells were drilled in the same area with similar drilling, mud,
and casing programs and were drilled to about the same depth in the same
amount of time. Approximate emulsifier-wetting agent additions were as
follows:
Table 1-4 Emulsifier-wetting agent additions

Well Number A B C
gal/ton of barite 4.8 4.6 4.9
gal/ton of cuttings 5.4 8.2 11.5
Well A kicked and was killed with additions of barite and emulsifier
wetting agents. The well was brought under control and drilled ahead with-
out problems. Well B took a kick, and weight material was used to kill the
well. Drilling was resumed without problems. Emulsifier-wetting agents
were not added with the first part of the barite, but the mud had been
pretreated a few days prior to the kick.Well C also kicked and was con-
trolled with barite additions without the use of emulsifier-wetting agents.
The pipe was found stuck after the kick, and a fishing job had to be per-
formed. The mud reverted, requiring extra treatment and make-up. Wa-
ter-wet barite was recovered during cleanout.
...-..--..--.....---.......-.-..--..-.......----..-.....-.-.
Barite
Barite is the standard mud-weighting material used in the drill-
ing industry, usually supplied within American Petroleum Institute
specifications. In rare cases it may contain excess impurities such as
sand, calcite, or limestone. Sand is abrasive, and other impurities
may contaminate some mud systems. Probably the main disadvan-
tage of barite is using it in very high-weight mud systems, where it
tends to cause a high concentration of solids. It is also susceptible to
attrition, causing small-sized mud solids over long periods of time.
Other weight materials such as salt (NaCI), calcium chloride
(CaCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and, to a lesser extent, magnesium
chloride (MgCl)are used in special situations, such as with comple-
tion fluids. Dolomite, limestone, and iron ores have been used to a
limited extent as weighting material.
Bridging
Barite may settle out of the mud and form a plug or bridge. The
plug can be almost as hard and tough as cement. The action is simi-
42 Chapter 1
lar to bridging with sand, cavings, or drill cuttings. Common causes
are low mud viscosity and gel strength.
There also is a tendency for barite to settle out of mud at a mud/
water interface, causing bridging. This can stick the pipe and packer,
possibly resulting in a need for fishing. Water commonly is spear-
headed ahead of cement, so sometimes the cement and mud should
be separated with a spacer. A good spacer in many cases is gel, with
water containing 20 lb of bentonite/bbl in place of plain water.
Barite Sag
Barite sag occurs when dispersed barite particles in the mud sys-
tem settle and collect on the low side of the wellbore. It is not sig-
nificant in vertical and low-angle directional holes, but it is more
common in high-angle and horizontal holes where it may cause seri-
ous problems, especially with heavy-weight mud. Severity increases
with increasing angle and higher mud weights.
Under certain conditions the semifluid barite slumps or slides
down the well bore and accumulates in a manner similar to that of
cuttings. This increases or decreases the mud weight in localized
areas. The barite concentrations redistribute in the mud when circu-
lation resumes. The net result is areas of high and low mud density.
The most common problem is lost circulation, but the slumping bar-
ite may cause sticking.
Barite sag often is not recognized. It can be detected by mud-
weight variations while circulating after shutdowns when the mud
column has not been moved for some time. Common shutdown situ-
ations include tripping, after running casing, while recording mea-
surements, and similar operations. Variations in mud weight greater
than 4 lb/gal have been noted.
Measures to prevent barite sag include maintaining good mud
properties so the barite particles stay in suspension; minimizing
noncirculating time; stopping periodically while tripping into the
hole and circulating for short periods; stagging into the hole; and
circulating at shorter intervals and increasing circulation time for
more severe cases. Observe similar precautions when running cas-
ing.
Barite vs. Iron Ores

Iron ores are the only other materials that have been seriously
considered as an alternative to barite. Hematite and illmenite are
most commonly used. Some vendors supply a blend of iron ore and
barite, usually containing from 30 to 75% iron ore. The primary rea-
son for using iron ores is higher density and hardness as listed in
Table 1-5.

Table 1-5 Weight material specifications'
Material Principal Specific Hardness
Component Gravity (Moh's scale)
Hematite Fe203 4.9-6.5 5.5-6.5
Magnetite Fe304 5.0-5.2 5.6-6.5
Iron Oxide2 Fe203 4.7
IIImenite FeO.TiO 4.5-5.1 5.6
Barite BaS04 4.2-4.5 2.5-3.5
I. Source: Gray, George R., and Darley, H.G.H.. Composition and Properties of Oil Well
Drilling Fluids. Fourth Edition, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston. Texas, Table II-I, p. 529.
2. Manufactured
Iron ores are more abrasive than barite. Excluding all other fac-
tors, an abrasive fluid drills faster than a nonabrasive fluid. How-
ever, the increase in speed is questionable from a practical view-
point. Also, excessive abrasiveness definitely causes excessive wear
on the pumps and circulating equipment. The main objection to iron
ores is their abrasiveness, which has caused as much as a 20% in-
crease in pump repair costs. Other reported problems include excess
settling in mud tanks, a need for higher ultimate-yield mud to keep
the ores (hematite) in suspension, excess shaker screen plugging, mud
loss due to run over, difficulty in cleaning tool joints properly, and
possibly associated tool joint wear that is excessive.
Claims that iron oxides increase penetration rates have not been
substantiated in the field or in published literature. In most cases
the reduced volume of solids in the mud is given as the main reason
that penetration rates are increased. However, it is uncertain whether
the reduction in solids overcomes the other objections.
LOST CIRCULATION
Lost circulation, a major problem in many drilling operations, is
the loss of fluid from the borehole. The severity of lost circulation
ranges from extra operating time to a blowout, or lost hole. It also
can occur in combination with other conditions, causing additional
problems. Lost circulation is divided into two broad classifications:
the more common natural lost circulation and the less common(?)
induced lost circulation. .
Induced lost circulation is caused by operations. It is commonly

caused by excessive mud we!ght and pressure surges fr;acturing or
breaking down the formation. After initiating, a fracture propagates
at a lower pressure, as described in the section "Cementing Casing
Failures" in Chapter'7. Pressure may inadvertently be applied with
the mud pump. Poor mud is probably a more common cause than
expected, which emphasizes the importance of good rheology.
44 Chapter 1
Other causes of induced lost circulation include starting the mud
pump against closed pipe rams after a BOP safety drill, circulating
out a kick incorrectly, and spudding the ball off a balled-up bit. Cut-
tings caving into the hole or bridging around the drilling assembly
can cause a similar problem. Surging and swabbing, due to slacking
off or picking up the drillpipe too fast, may cause alternating fluid
movement in and out of the formation, thus reducing its stability,
especially in fluid-sensitive shales. This action can also loosen lost
circulation material (LCM) l'odged in mud flow path(s), causing a
reoccurrence of lost circulation, Equivalent circulating densities
(ECD) and surge pressures usually reach a maximum effective value
at or below the drill collars. The net result is that the entire open-
hole section is subject to induced lost circulation. These problems
emphasize the importance of having experienced, alert personnel
who observe proper precautions. . .
Natural lost circulation occurs in formations that take fluid natu-
rally under normal drilling conditions. The most common cause is
that the hydrostatic head exceeds the pore pressure. Operational pro-
cedures can cause or increase the severity of this problem. For ex-
ample, drilling soft formations at ~ high rate of penetration increases
the volume of cuttings suspended in the mud, which in turn increases
the apparent weight of the mud and also the hydrostatic head. A
similar problem occurs when cleaning out cuttings rapidly.
Natural lost circulation occurs in almost all formations and at all
depths, especially with heavyweight mud. It is most common at shal-
lower depths' in sand, gravel, and other unconsolidated formations.)
The loss rate often is relatively constant, sometimes decreasing with
time and with filter-cake buildup. Except for natural fracturing, these
losses are often fairly easy to restore.
Lost circulation may depend upon the depth to the water table
and the surface relief. Lost returns in the formations above the water
table are relatively common. In some areas it is common to obtain
mud returns to the surface around the rig} as described in the section
"Leaking around the Surface" in Chapter 7. Mud returns may also
occur at lower elevations. In one extreme case, when a well was
drilled near the edge of a canyon, mud flow was observed in the
talus slope at the base of the cliff, about 800 ft below the rig eleva-
tion.
Natural fractures and voids can be one of the most difficult losses
to cure. They are more common in the older, harder, more consoli-
dated rock, usually found at deeper depths and near faults and areas
subjected to tectonic forces. Voids may occur as vugs in limestones
and some dolomites. Fractures and voids frequently can be detected
by torque and bit action.
Fracturing often is characterized by high rates of mud loss -
sometimes reported as "the bottom fell out." The rate of loss may

increase with continued drilling, sometimes after establishing circu-
lation, indicating an exposure to additional fractures. Closed frac-
ture systems may cause a quick mud loss of a few to several hundred
barrels, followed by full returns.
General Procedures and Actions

Lost circulation is a 'main cause of fishing. While some lost cir-
culation can be prevented, in many cases it can only be controlled.
Nevertheless, good preventive actions and complete understanding
of the causes of lost circulation can prevent or reduce most prob-
lems. Some general precautions are included in Table 1-6.
Table 1-6 Lost circulation considerations
. Allow for lost circulation in the drilling and casing program when
, . information indicates it may occur.

Drill the lost circulation zone, and below, with a minimum-weight
. mud with optimum flow properties.

Drill lost circulation sections with gas, air, foam, aerated mud, or,
if hole conditions permit, dry drilling. Be aware of the cuttings-
lifting capacity of the different fluids and their inability to control
pressure.
Drill lost circulation zones and lower sections with a maximum-
clearance drilling assembly to minimize the pressure on the for-
mation.
. Lost circulation may result in the need for a fishing job, so drill
with assemblies using the minimum number of tools such as ream-
ers, stabilizers, and drillpipe rubbers to facilitate possible fishing.
. Run a drilling jar and bumper sub.
Running an extra string of casing is expensive, but in some cases
it is the most economical way to operate. At the least, an extra
string of casing should be provided for if severe lost circulation is
expected.
Provide for extra storage to ensure a sufficient mud supply. Have
an extra solids-settling pit when lost circulation material must be
carried in the mud system for an extended period. Maintain an
ample supply of water, mud-mixing material, and lost circulation
material. Consider setting up a mud-mixing plant to reduce the
time required by rig equipment. Do not overlook the need for
sufficient supervisory personnel, including reliefs.
. Prevent plugging by removing the jets from the bit or run a core
head type bit with a large opening. Open-ended drillpipe may be
used, but the core head is better in case cleaning out is necessary.
46 Chapter 1
Well bores frequently are very sensitive to pressure changes after
establishing circulation and may start losing mud again. Minimize
pressure surges and increase mud weight slowly if necessary.

Lost circulation is more common at the bit, but induced lost cir-
culation may occur at any weak point in the borehole.
In general, treat lost circulation, and most other formation prob-
lems, from the top down. Work with the assembly lower in the
hole when kicks and water flows occur with lost circulation. The
location of the assembly with respect to kicks and the safety of
the hole take precedence over other problems. Otherwise, work
on lost circulation with the drilling assembly either higher in the
hole or with the bit near the point of lost circulation, depending
upon well and loss conditions.

Allow the hole to cure by resting without circulation if applicable.
Do not overlook this important action.
Severe lost circulation may require cementing. Select a mud sys-
tem that resists contamination and can be treated satisfactorily.
Report lost circulation material (LCM) additions in Iblbbl of mud
in the system.
Report LCM concentration in the mud in percent by volume.
Measure by catching 1,000 cc of mud and straining out the LCM,
damp dry it, and return it to the cup. Read the percentage from
the calibration on the cup. For example, 50 cc of material in the
cup is 5% by volume of LCM in the mud.A rough conversion is 1%
by volume equals 2.5 Iblbbl based on LCM density of 45 Iblcu ft.
Point Of Loss
Lost circulation frequently occurs at the bit. Otherwise, the point
where the loss occurs in the borehole may not be known. This infor-
mation may be needed in order to seal the point efficiently, such as
spotting LCM pills. The point of loss may be located with regular
and differential temperature surveys, which are most commonly run
inside of drillpipe. This is a safety procedure both to prevent stick-
ing the small tools and to control the well better if high-pressure
zones are exposed in the wellbore.
Spinner surveys are less common and may require large volumes
of mud. In some cases, the survey instruments can be run through
and out the drill pipe, with the end of the pipe near the estimated
point of loss. Some tools, such as spinner surveys, may be affected
by the amount of LCM in the mud system.

Dry Drilling
Dry or blind drilling is the procedure of drilling ahead without
mud returns at the surface. There is a moderate to high risk depend-
ing upon the situation. The drilling assembly should remain free to
prevent sticking. Cases in which 50-100 ft of new hole have been
dry drilled are relatively common, and dry drilling of over 1,000 ft
has been reported.
Fluid should be pumped down the drillpipe at 20-50% of the
normal rate while drilling ahead slowly. The fluid passes through
the bit, picks up the cuttings, and carries them into the lost circula-
tion zone. The cuttings either pass into the lost circulation zone or
stack up in the borehole, depending upon relative sizes and flow
rates. In the latter case, there is a high risk of sticking the drilling
assembly.. This can be prevented by drilling ahead about 5 to 20 ft,
picking up to ensure the assembly is free, then lowering the bit, check-
ing for fill-up, and resuming drilling or redrilling the cuttings.
Redrilling the cuttings reduces their size so that they enter the lost
circulation zone easier. The cuttings often seal the lost circulation
zone efficiently.
It is not uncommon to regain circulation while dry drilling. To
ensure that the drilling assembly is free, continue alternately drill-
ing and picking up. Observe other guides to sticking such as pipe
weight, drag, and rotary torque. Normally dry drilling should be done
with water. It may be necessary to build mud volume in case of par-
tial circulation.
Dry drilling can be highly efficient for high-rate loss situations.
It may also allow continued drilling through the entire lost circula-
tion zone so the complete interval can be treated. In severe cases it
may eliminate the need of setting an extra string of casing.
Remedial Actions
When lost circulation first occurs, the problem should be ana-
lyzed in order to determine a course of action The first action may
be readily apparent; if so, initiate it immediately. In most cases the
pump rate should be reduced to reduce the loss. Prudent operators
drill with a minimum-weight mud but reduce it if conditions per-
mit. There is a high risk of caving and sticking during lost circula-
tion so, as the first step, prevent sticking by pulling the bit up at least
50 ft or preferably above any formations that caused problems in the
past. This allows the drilling assembly to be worked both up and
down if sticking occurs and it also improves the chance of releasing
pipe stuck on bottom. Then work the pipe down the hole, reaming
and cleaning out as needed, after the hole stabilizes. If conditions
permit, pull the bit inside the last string of casing.
Reducing either actual or apparent mud weight can have a strong
effect on lost circulation. Consider a well that is losing 11lb/gal mud
48 Chapter 1
at a constant rate in a zone at 10,000 ft with a pore pressure gradient
of 0.46 psi/ft and a differential pressure of 1,120 psi. Lowering the
mud weight 9% to 10 Ib/gal decreases the differential pressure 46%
to 600 psi and reduces the rate of fluid loss by a similar amount.
Therefore, the circulation loss can be reduced substantially with a
small weight reduction, even with a relatively low mud weight.
In some cases, increasing viscosity a small amount may help re-
duce lost circulation. Flow rate is approximately inversely propor-
tional to viscosity. A fluid with' a viscosity of 2 cp flows at about one-
half the rate of a mud with a viscosity of 1 cp under the same condi-
tions. Higher viscosity mud may help regain circulation in a few
cases if it does not cause an increase of apparent mud weight.
Low-Rate Lost Circulation

Low-rate lost circulation is defined as a mud loss of 10-15bbl/
hr or less. It often occurs while drilling and often declines with time.
Low rate lost circulation generally is easy to cure, and often can be
corrected while conducting operations.
To determine if the loss occurs without drilling, first pick up the
bit 10-20 ft and shut down the pump. Reduced loss or no loss while
circulating indicates the new hole should be sealed off. Assuming
no hole problems, drilling and circulating should be continued while
observing the rate ofloss. Continue drilling ifthe loss is sustainable.
Frequently it is better to build more mud in inexpensive mud sys-
tems than to use LCM. Drill cuttings and mud solids are moderately
efficient sealing agents under many conditions.
If the loss is too high or is increasing, add small volumes of smaller
particle size LCM, in the range of 2-3 Ib/bbl and of fine or medium
size - frequently half and half, or mica, paper, or fibrous material.
This treatment normally cures minor cases of lost circulation. For
higher losses, LCM additions should be increased. A total concen-
tration of 6-8 Ib/bbl with a wider range of particle sizes, including
coarse material, normally seals offmost low-rate lost circulation. LCM
may affect some measuring instruments, such as Measurement While
Drilling (MWD) equipment in directional and horizontal holes, but
most tools will tolerate a limited amount of LCM.
Moderate-Rate Lost Circulation

Moderate-rate lost circulation is defined as a loss in excess of
about 15 bbl/hr but not a complete loss of circulation. There is a
moderate risk of sticking the drilling assembly due to caving forma-
tions, so operators should pick it up a safe distance and check the
loss as described earlier. If necessary the hole should be filled.
First, LCM should be added, as described for low-rate lost circu-
lation. Use higher concentrations of up to about 10 Ib/bbl, with a
higher percentage of larger particle sizes for higher rates of loss. There

is a high risk of plugging the jet bit nozzles at LCM concentrations
above about 15 lb/bbl. It may be necessary to make a trip and change
the bit for one with larger ports, or to remove the jets or run a core-
head-type bit.
Sometimes adding LCM should be combined with healing, espe-
cially if the mud contains fresh bentonite. The hole may heal or stop
losing mud if circulation is stopped or reduced to a very low rate.
This allows mud in the lost circulation zone to be stationary so it
gains additional gel strength. This healing process increases the re-
sistance to flow and helps reduce the loss into the formation. Nor-
mal healing times range from 3-8 hours, depending upon the mud
properties. Healing the hole takes time and requires patience. Rotate
or move the pipe periodically to prevent sticking - possibly picking
it up into the last string of casing.
If the foregoing is unsuccessful, LCM pills should be spotted.
The best procedure is to spot the slurry through a core head or open
drillpipe. If the pipe cannot be pulled because of hole conditions,
then the jets should be blown out of the bit with a string shot. They
are not difficult to drill out later with a short-tooth insert bit. Set the
bottom of the pipe opposite the point of loss, after first cleaning it
out if necessary. Use a low circulation rate to prevent additional mud
loss. Pick the pipe up periodically to ensure that cuttings are not
accumulating and bridging around it. If conditions permit, consider
drilling a small amount of hole to ensure that the entire lost circula-
tion zone has been penetrated. For very severe lost circulation where
there is danger of the hole caving, spot the LCM pill with the pipe at
a safe distance above the lost circulation zone. Generally, the LCM
pill will fall down the hole into the lost circulation zone.
An LCM pill containing about 40 lb/bbl of LCM material should
be mixed and pumped in 50-100 bbl of mud. The average pill con-
tains about 20% fine, 40% medium, and 40% large-particle-size LCM.
Larger sizes act as a bridge and smaller particles act as a sealer. The
pill should weigh a few pounds less than the mud. Add bentonite
just before pumping the pill. Spot the pill rapidly so the bentonite
will seep into the lost circulation zone before it complEites hydrat-
ing. This can be very helpful when used with healing.
Commonly the pill should be spotted using the balanced col-
umns technique, displacing about half of the pill into the formation
or annulus and an equal height column into the drillpipe. If there is
any question on displacement volumes, the pill should be
underdisplaced. Then pull the pipe up a safe distance, shut down,
and wait for the hole to heal. Pumping small volumes of clean mud
into the casing annulus places a low pressure on the LCM pill and
possibly moves it a short distance into the formation. Water may be
used, but it is better to add about 20 lb/bbl of bentonite to the water.
50 Chapter 1
Wait about two more hours and if the hole is not full, fill it slowly.
Then begin pumping slowly down the drillpipe. If the hole circulates,
then add LCM to the mud as necessary and continue circulating until
there is full circulation. Resume operations, generally cleaning out
to the bottom first. Take all precautions to prevent the lost circulation
from reoccurring.
If the hole does not circulate but stands full, wait for additional
healing. If it still does not circulate, another LCM pill should be spot-
ted. The second LCM pill is mixed with higher concentrations of
LCM to as much as 75 Ib/bbl for very severe lost circulation and a
larger or smaller volume pill depending upon the rate of loss and
how successful the first pill was. Rig mud pumps usually begin miss-
ing at concentrations of 50-60 Ib/bbl, due to plugging screens and
sticking valves. Pump and displace the pill in a manner similar to
that for the first pill and wait for the hole to heal. Procedures can be
modified as indicated by results of the first pill.
It frequently takes two or more pills to regain circulation. Once
it is regained, the hole should be allowed to heal for a few more
hours to help ensure that lost circulation does not occur again after
operations are resumed. The lost circulation material should usu-
ally be left in the mud system for at least 12-24 hours after regaining
circulation. This allows time to determine whether the lost circula-
tion has healed and may also help prevent losses in lower zones
after starting drilling. One recommended procedure is to leave the
LCM in the mud for about 8-12 hours, then screen out half of it by
alternately flowing over and bypassing the shaker at even time inter-
vals for one circulation. Screen out the remainder several hours later.
If circulation has not been reestablished after spotting about three
LCM pills, then the procedures described for high-rate lost circula-
tion should be considered.
High-Rate Lost Circulation

High-rate lost circulation is defined as a complete loss of returns.
The hole may stand full or the mud level may drop out of sight. Lost
circulation rates at well over 500 bbl/hr have been recorded.
Under these conditions there is a moderately high risk of an
aboveground or underground blowout from even moderate pressure
formations as fluid levels in the hole drop. There is also a high risk
of sticking, so all precautions should be taken to prevent it. The best
method of doing this is to pull the pipe into the casing or, if possible,
at least above any zones that may cave.
If the fluid level drops, it is important to know how far it is
downhole. Under some conditions, the weight indicator may give
the depth to the top of the fluid. For example, consider drilling at
10,000 ft with 900 ft of 6% x 21f4-in.1091b/ft drill collars and 9,100 ft

,
of 41f2-in.16.60 Ib/ft drillpipe. The weight of the drilling assembly in
air is 249,000 Ib, and 208,000 Ib in 111b/gal mud, with a buoyancy
factor of 0.8350. If reservoir pore pressure were 0.434 psi/ft, and com-
plete loss of returns balanced this pressure, the fluid level would
drop to 2,413 ft below the surface. At this depth, the drilling assem-
bly would give a hook load of 214,000 Ib, compared to 208,000 Ib in
a hole full of mud. The difference in the two drilling assembly weights
is the lack of buoyancy acting on 2,413 ft of pipe. Unfortunately most
weight indicators are not sufficiently sensitive to be reliable in this
case.
The most common method is to load the annulus with water.
Calculate the length of the water column based upon the volume of
water pumped and assuming that none of the water is lost. The top
of the mud helps determine how severe the lost circulation is and
what procedures are necessary to regain circulation. Having the hole
full of water, or mud, also serves as a safety precaution because it
will show if the formations are starting to flow and will aid in con-
trolling a possible kick situation should one develop.
Try regaining circulation by dry drilling if possible. Another
method is to use LCM pills with larger-particle-size LCM. Field ex-
perience indicates that large fractures may absorb extremely large
volumes of fluid and be very difficult to seal with LCM. Ultimately,
large fractures may be sealed by filling them either with a solid ma-
terial or with a material having an extremely high gel strength so it
will not continue to flow through the fracture. A note of caution:
There may be some claims about the effectiveness of certain LCM
materials that are difficult to support.
Materials that can be used for sealing lost circulation include
cement, polymers, gels, and diesel oil containing cement or bento-
nite. They all serve the same purpose, and placement techniques
generally are similar. Polymer and gels usually are mixed as a thin
slurry that thickens after displacement into the lost circulation zone.
Diesel oil slurries of cement or bentonite (called gunk squeeze) keep
the additives inert until the slurry is in the formation. When the
cement or bentonite contacts water in the formation, the dry cement
forms a slurry that hardens, and the bentonite hydrates to form a
highly viscous mud.
The use ofthese materials involves some risk of sticking the drill-
ing assembly. In all cases, it is important to ensure that the material
does not circulate around the drill collars and drillpipe. Always pull
the pipe out of the mixture before it begins to harden or set up.
Cementing Lost Circulation

Cementing is a positive approach to curing lost circulation. Nor-
mally, it is a last resort procedure. Cementing is widely applicable;
52 Chapter 1
lost circulation zones have been successfully cemented at depths of
18,000 ft with mud weights in excess of 15 Ib/gal and bottomhole
temperatures around 3000 F.
Some operators hesitate to cement lost circulation, probably be-
cause of unfamiliarity and because it is a time-consuming, higher-
risk operation. The risk can be minimized by cementing in a prudent
manner with the correct assembly. Cement contaminates some muds,
but this can be handled by pretreatment, dilution, replacement, or
discarding.
The tendency of some to underestimate the effectiveness of ce-
menting to seal off lost circulation is unfortunate, since cementing
frequently is the most convenient and efficient solution. The next
reasonable alternative usually is to run a liner or casing. This is sel-
dom a good solution because of the risk, higher cost, and the need
for changing the well plan (such as reducing the hole size), which
may restrict deeper drilling. Also, casing may not run to the bottom,
so lost circulation still occurs. However, casing may eliminate uphole
problems so that deeper zones can be cemented.
Cement with a good slurry of Class A cement. Various other ce-
ments, such as thixiotropic cements, have been used in special situ-
ations. Generally, use the procedures for mixing and displacing the
slurry described in the section "Squeeze Cementing" in Chapter 7.
Always consider using accelerators, but do not use retarders unless
absolutely necessary. Design the slurry for a minimum thickening
time, and add about 10 Ib/bbl of LCM. Use normal to minimum slurry
weight and possibly lighter weight bentonite slurry for longer ce-
ment columns.
Normally cementing should be done through open-ended pipe,
a core-head-type bit, or a washover shoe with the end of the pipe at
or below the lost circulation zone. Mix the slurry and pump it into
the pipe. About half of the slurry should be displaced out the bit
with mud, or in severe cases, gel water. The pipe should be picked
up a safe distance, allowing the rest of the slurry to fall out of the
pipe. For very severe lost circulation and if there is a risk of sticking,
set the end ofthe pipe a safe distance above the lost circulation zone.
Displace the slurry with a sufficient volume to ensure clearing the
pipe.
If the hole stands full or begins circulating while displacing the
cement plug, then pick up the drill pipe and wait a short time before
adding LCM and beginning to clean out. Sometimes close the pipe
rams and apply a small amount of pressure - usually an equivalent
mud weight increase of about 1/4-lb/gal. Gradually increase the pres-
sure at 10-20 minute intervals until the pressure is the equivalent of
the normal mud weight.
If the hole does not stand full, wait for the equivalent of 1% thick-
ening times and begin loading the annulus slowly. If it holds, add
LCM to the mud system and start circulating slowly, increasing the
rate slowly as the hole stabilizes. Then drill out the cement care-
fully. DO NOT RUN THE BIT INTO GREEN CEMENT. If the lost cir-
culation is cured, drill ahead. Otherwise cement again, adjusting the
procedures and slurry volumes as indicated by prior cementing re-
sults.
It is not uncommon to cement very severe lost circulation sev-
eral times, especially wide fractures. All fractures and other large
voids or conduits should'be cemented at or below the fracture propa-
gation pressure or else the fracture will continue to grow. Cement
these by staging. In one case lost circulation was so severe that stag-
ing was actually started during displacement by adding small incre-
ments of displacing fluid down the pipe behind the slurry.
Placing slurry in large fractures and vugs and in the wellbore
one time, then drilling out will theoretically stop lost circulation.
However, from a practical viewpoint, this is seldom the case. Field
experience indicates that complete sealing in one stage is highly un-
likely. One procedure is multi-stage cementing. A modification is to
spot the slurry, pick up and wait until it reaches an initial set, then
apply moderate pressure, either by filling the hole or closing the
pipe rams, which usually restores the lost circulation. The cement-
ing procedure should be repeated until a satisfactory pressure is ob-
tained. In one case, a 4-ft mine shaft was cemented successfully in
this manner.
Cementing lost circulation often is effective, as described in the
following example.
Curing High-Rate Lost Circulation

A 6,OOO-ftdevelopment well was drilled in an area where there was a
high risk of lost circulation. Surface casing was set at 1,500 ft and an 8%-
in. hole was drilled below it with native mud weighing 9.5 lb/gal.
A fracture was drilled at 2,487 ft, which caused a partial loss of re-
turns. It was sealed with a 100-bbl pill, containing about 15-lb/bbl of LCM.
A small fracture at 2,508 ft caused partial loss returns, and complete re-
turns were lost at 2,5 14 ft.The hole was dry drilled to 2,63 I ft and a 250-
bbl,20-lb/bbl LCM pill was mixed and spotted. The drillpipe was picked up
into the surface casing during a 4-hour wait for the hole to heal.The hole
could not be filled, so pipe was run back to the bottom and the hole was
cleaned out by dry drilling to 2,615 ft. A second 250-bbl LCM pill was
ineffective.
A ISO-sack cement plug was spotted at 2,615 ft, the pipe was pulled
up to 1,960 ft, and a 100-sack plug spotted. Both used Class G cement
with 4% gel and 2% CaCI.After a wait on the cement, the hole was cleaned
out to total depth with full circulation.
54 Chapter 1
Circulation was lost at 2,640 ft and regained with LCM. It was lost
again at 2,710 ft, regained with LCM, and lost again at 2,730 ft. The hole
was dry drilled to 2,800 ft. A ISO-sack cement plug (no. 3) was set at
2,800 ft, the pipe was picked up, and a 100-sack cement plug (no. 4) was
spotted at 2,150 ft.
After a wait on the cement, the hole was cleaned out with good re-
turns until it was drilled to 2,740 ft, where all circulation was again lost.
The hole was cleaned out to total depth and dry drilled to 2,856 ft. A
100-sack plug was set at 2,850 'ft (no.5), the pipe was picked up, and a 75-
sack plug (no. 6) was set to 2,470 ft.About 10 bbl of mud were pumped in
the hole 20 minutes after spotting the last plug.
After a 6-hour wait on the cement, the hole was loaded with mud.
The first cement bridge was found at 2,490 ft.Various bridges and string-
ers were cleaned out to 2,760 ft, at which point circulation was lost again.
The hole was cleaned out to 2,805 ft by dry drilling. A 50-sack plug (no. 7)
of thixiotropic cement with 3% CaCl, 10 Ib of Gilsonite/sack, and Y4Ib of
cellophane flakes/sack was spotted at 2,800 ft. The pipe was picked up to
2,520 ft, and a I25-sack cement plug (no. 8) was spotted. The hole was
loaded from the top and held fluid.
After another wait on the cement, the hole was cleaned out to total
depth with full circulation. It was circulated and conditioned while adding
lost circulation material, then drilled ahead with full circulation. No add i-
tionallost circulation problems were encountered and the well was com-
pleted satisfactorily.
Overall, this was a good operation to plug off a severe, long lost cir-
culation section. Lost circulation pills were tried until they were found
unsuccessful. At that time, the method was changed from plugging to ce-
menting, and later to cementing with double plugs.The cement plugs were
squeezed by dumping water on the top of the hole, and later were tested
by loading the hole from the top - a good procedure.
A number of wells were drilled in the area by various operators. Dif-
ferent procedures were tried, including using an extra string of casing.
However, the most economical procedure was to use lost circulation pills,
which were frequently successful, or otherwise followed by cementing.
Summaries of Cementing Lost Circulation

A summary of several examples of curing lost circulation is justified
because of the severity of lost circulation.
A well was designed for an extra string of casing. It lost circula-
tion at 3,600 ft. About 100 ft were drilled in 10 days because of
water and gas flows and caving.The 8%-in. hole was opened to

9%-in. in 10 days and dry drilled 3,950 ft in another 3 days. in-
cluding waiting on water. Intermediate 8Ye-in.flush-joint casing
was run, was stopped at 2,500 ft, and was washed down to 3,850
ft in 48 hours. It was cemented without returns, using lightweight
cement followed by regular cement. After drilling out, there was
about 10ft of cement below the casing shoe, showing there were
no lost circulation zones in the lower open hole. Then the hole
was drilled and completed in a normal manner.
A well had 7-in. casing set at 7,800 ft and was drilling a 6'/,,-in.
hole at 9,000 ft with 10.5-lb/gal mud through a massive limestone
section. The bit drilled into a cavern or fissure and dropped 9 ft
before taking weight, and all circulation was lost. A minor weight
loss indicates a relatively high fluid level.
Mud weight was reduced until about 25% of returns and a very
small amount of drill cuttings recovery were obtained with about
9.3 Ib/gal.After about 100 ft was drilled with partial returns, mud
weight was reduced to 8.9 Ib/gal without increasing returns. A
zone about 100 ft below the first zone also was suspected of
taking fluid.A higher mud weight was needed to control a deeper
productive zone.
Two single-stage cement plugs of 200 and 250 sacks were set,
followed by two gunk squeezes and three single-stage cement plugs
in about 12 days without shutting off the lost circulation. Mul-
tiple-stage cementing was used to place one 250-sack plug. three
600-sack plugs, and three 300-sack plugs in three days. A final
plug of 300 sacks sealed the lost circulation. The well was drilled
to 14.000 ft with 12-lb/gal mud and completed as a gas well with-
out further problems.

A 6,OOO-ftdevelopment well had 9%-in. casing set at 340 ft. Lost
circulation at 865 ft was cured with LCM.At 1,770 ft complete
lost circulation occurred in a IO-ftfractured interval. Past experi-
ence indicated that LCM would not be effective. Eight cement
plugs of 50-100 sacks each were set. While cleaning out at 1,720
ft. circulation was lost again.Two pills of LCM were not effective.
Five more plugs of 100 sacks each were set, including some with
thixiotropic cement. The well was dry drilled to 1,770 ft and four
additional cement plugs were spotted, which cured most of the
lost circulation. About 20-lb/bbl of LCM were added and the well
was drilled to TD with only minor lost circulation.
Intermediate 7 in casing was not set because of the strong pos-
sibility of deeper lost circulation. The 50-sack plugs were prob-
ably too small.AII plugs except the last were mixed with Class G
cement, with 12%Calcium. 3% CaCl, and a IO-Ib/sack of Gilsonite.
Apparently. accelerated common cement would have been as ef-
fective.
56 Chapter 1
FORMATIONS
One of the most important preventive measures is understand-
ing formations and how they affect drilling, fishing, and other
operations. The most common formations are shales, sand, sandstone,
limestone, dolomite, salt, and various miscellaneous formations. They
range from thin stringers to massive sections and often occur in
combination, such as sandy shale, shaley lime, or limy sand. Problems
caused by or related to one formation may occur in another.
Shales are especially important because they comprise over 50%
of the formations drilled and probably cause a correspondingly higher
percentage of hole problems and fishing jobs. Shale chemistry is com-
plex and physical states vary, including massive, laminated, frac-
tured, and unconsolidated with varying degrees of hardness.
Various formation conditions can affect the mud. High tem-
perature formations usually occur at deeper depths due to the normal
temperature gradient. A few areas have higher gradients so high
temperatures occur at shallower depths. Some mud-treatment chem-
icals break down at higher temperatures, so those which are least
affected should be chosen. High temperatures can affect the electrical
components in electric logs and directional measuring instruments.
Insulating tools are available for logging under high-temperature
conditions.
Most formations contain oil, gas, saltwater, or a mixture ofthese.
Some contain carbon' dioxide (C02) or hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which
corrode tubulars and drilling tools. C02 may cause suffocation. H2S
causes both corrosion and embrittlement, and IS EXTREMELY POI-
SONOUS. even in very low concentrations. Precautions for working
with H2S should include warning systems, masks, portable air packs,
and good training.
Influence on Hole Direction

Formations may influence hole direction. Massive, flat, soft-drill-
ability formations have little effect; gravity is the controlling factor.
Formation influence on hole direction increases with increasing hard-
ness or drill ability - Le., the number of fractures, striations, lami-
nations and bedding planes, and alternate layering of hard and soft
formations.
In relatively flat formations, a bit tends to drill in a slow right-
hand spiral, clockwise looking downward. This turns the hole about
5-20 horizontal degrees per thousand vertical feet drilled in medium-
drillability formations. In dipping formations, the bit tends to drill
in the up-dip direction. The effect increases with increasing forma-
tion dip up to about 45 relative to the axes ofthe wellbore. There is
some evidence that the effect reaches a maximum at about 20. The
Cause and PrevenHon 57

bit tends to drill down-dip at relative angles over 45. It drills in a
curved direction if the hole direction is parallel to the strike of the
formation. Less bit weight and higher rotary speed will reduce the
formation effect. Otherwise, there is little if any evidence that the
type of bit strongly changes general formation effects.
Problems
Formations directly or indirectly cause many problems, which
lead to fishing jobs and further problems during fishing. To prevent
sticking and/or adverse effects on fishing, drill and control them prop-
erly, using correct procedures. A straight hole eliminates most
crooked-hole problems. It may be necessary to run casing. Take spe-
cial precautions in deviated holes.
Surface Formations
Surface formation problems include lost circulation, caving,
sloughing, and cleaning out gravel. These problems can be corrected
by using heavier mud, higher viscosity, dry drilling, and/or setting
large conductor. Drilling on boulders may cause a crooked hole. Drill
the conductor hole with a rat-hole digger, or dig it with a backhoe
and set a large-diameter conductor as described. This also allows
additional drilling weight to drill deeper boulders more efficiently.
Very hard surface formations are difficult to drill because of the
lack of bit weight. Drilling a pilot hole may be applicable. Some-
times, an operator can take advantage of the surface terrain, as illus-
trated in the following example.
Spud In on Hillside
Part of the Appalachian Basin has a layer of well-cemented sandstone
exposed on the valley bottoms. Spudding into the sandstone frequently
requires extra time drilling the first 50-100 ft. due to the lack of drilling
weight. When possible. the location should be built on the hillside several
hundred feet above the valley bottom. These softer formations drill rela-
tively fast with a minimum bit weight. When the bit reaches the hard sand-
stone layer.there is enough drill-collar length and weight to drill the harder
sandstone layer efficiently.The cost of the extra hole and the extra cost to
build the location on the hillside is more than offset by the savings in rig
time.
Shallow Gas
Gas under normal to moderately high pressure may occur at shal-
low depths. Therefore, there may be very little warning or reaction
58 Chapter 1
time when a kick occurs. The normal flow line increase or pit gain
usually is followed immediately by a gas flow. Always use a diverter
in these situations.
The danger is illustrated in the following example.
Shallow Gas
A development well was being drilled in an area known to have shal-
low gas. The drilling program included 9%-in. conductor at 60 ft, 7-in.
surface casing in an 8%-in. hole at 2,500 ft, and a 6'14-in.hole to 9,500 ft.
Gas normally occurred in the interval from 900-1,600 ft.The worst prob-
lem encountered in about 25 wells drilled in the area was a small kick that
flowed mud about 5 ft above the derrick floor before depleting.
The conductor was set and the flow line welded to the top of the
conductor in the normal manner. The well blew out while drilling at 1,400
ft with 9-lb/gal native mud. All of the mud was blown from the hole and
the gas column ignited. The heat weakened the legs of the mast and it
collapsed. The gas flow subsided, the fire went out, and the hole filled with
water from shallow water sands in an elapsed time of about 25 minutes.
No injuries occurred, but the mast was a complete loss and the remainder
of the rig required extensive repairs.
The problem could have been eliminated with a diverter, such as a
rotating head. A conventional preventer could not have been used effi-
ciently, except possibly with an open blooie line connected below the
preventer. Otherwise, a closed preventer would probably have been blown
out of the hole, since there was an insufficient length of conductor to
anchor it.
Swelling Clays
Swelling clays are unconsolidated clay-type formations that fre-
quently occur near shorelines such as the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast.
Most swelling clays are drilled rapidly. The drill cuttings have
rounded edges and are soft, often dispersing easily into the mud sys-
tem causing extra treatment. Balled bits are common. Cuttings may
overload the mud system and cause an apparent mud-weight increase.
Maximize the circulation rate and reduce the drilling rate if neces-
sary to keep the hole clean. Inert mud systems such as saltwater or
oil mud have been very successful in removing the clays.
Fluid-Sensitive Shales
Fluid-sensitive, swelling, disintegrating, bentonitic, and mud-
making formations with a high montmorillonite content are all simi-
lar classifications. Most shales are sensitive to water-base fluids to

some extent, but fluid-sensitive shales can be highly reactive. Cut-
tings range from small and well rounded to harder shales with frac-
ture and cleavage planes and more pronounced edges.
Fluid-sensitive shales cause deteriorating mud properties and
increased treating costs. In severe cases use low fluid loss, inhibited,
or isolating polymer-type mud systems. Drilling problems can in-
cluding hole cleaning, lost circulation, sticking due to sloughing and
caving, out-of-gauge holes, and bridging. Use standard preventive
actions and careful operations.
Selecting the correct mud is critical. Severe problems with mas-
sive sections along the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast using common
mud systems have been reduced or eliminated by using oil emulsion
mud with super-saturated saltwater in the water phase.
Fluid-sensitive shale problems may be time related, as illustrated
in the following example.
Pencil Cave Shale

The Pencil Cave shale overlying the BigLime (Mississippi limestone) is
widespread in the Appalachian Basin. It commonly causes problems about
24 hours after drillingwith water-base fluid and continues caving and slough-
ing for several days thereafter.
In earlier drilling, the Pencil Cave shale was dump cemented. Later it
was drilled with air with less difficulty. but it did cave due to natural frac-
turing. Logging tools set down on bridges in the open. air-filled hole. This
was corrected by running a tapered rubber extension on the logging tool,
which helped move the bottom of the tool off the ledge. Casing caused
problems that were eliminated by running the casing in the air-filled hole.
The hole was loaded with mud and cemented. minimizing the time the
formation was exposed to drilling fluid.
The poker chip shale in Oklahoma acts similarly.
0__._
Geopressured Shales
Geopressured shales, or popping shales, are formations with a
combination of pore pressure and physical characteristics that cause
fragments to spall or pop off into the wellbore. It is most common in
shales, but limited field evidence indicates that it may occur in very
fine-grained, well-cemented sands and other formations with very
low permeability.
With geopressured shales, penetration rates frequently increase
and the mud may be gas cut. Drill cuttings vary in size, but they have
a distinctive long, tabular shape with relatively sharp edges and oc-
casional concoidal fracture faces. Often there is a pronounced in-
60 Chapter 1
crease in cuttings volume. Note of caution: These cutting are similar
to those recovered while drilling pressure transition zones, so al-
ways be aware of the potential of a deeper, high-pressure zone.
The spalling action normally is attributed to a pore pressure that
is greater than the combined structural strength holding the frag-
ment in place and the differential pressure between the hydrostatic
mud pressure and the pore pressure acting on the equivalent of the
cross-sectional area of the fragment. Shale has very low permeabil-
ity, so pressures cannot equalize through the fragment and are con-
tained by the surface of the particle and the contact surfaces between
the particles. The particle is released and moves into the' wellbore
with an assumed popping action - hence the term "popping shales."
Excluding natural fracturing, this explanation leaves some ques-
tion, since many formations support higher-pressure differentials into
the wellbore without spalling. Air-drilled holes through normally
pressured shales at 10,000 ft have a pressure differential into the
wellbore of over 4,000 psi without appreciable spalling. A gas-drilled
hole through a geopressured (0.55psi/ft) sand shale sequence at 9,000
ft had a differential pressure into the wellbore of 4,500 psi without
any spalling.
Preventive procedures include recognizing the problem early, and
taking precautions to prevent sticking while continuing drilling.
Spalling generally decreases with time. For more severe cases, an
operator should clean out, pick up and wait for the shales to spall,
then clean out again. Repeat the procedure until the spalling slows.
Increase the mud weight in small increments of 0.2-0.3 lb/gal if con-
tinued spalling prevents drilling, then circulate and clean out to de-
termine if the weight increase is effective. Theoretically, the only
way to cure the problem without casing is to increase the mud weight
until it approaches the pore pressure; however, it seldom is neces-
sary to increase the mud weight this high. The final alternative is to
run casing.
Fractured Formations
Fractured formations are naturally fractured. Calcite and other
evaporates commonly occur in the fractures and may be found free
in the cuttings or adhering to the fracture face. Fracture widths range
from micro fractures to very large fractures that can cause stuck bits.
Fracture orientation ranges from well ordered to random.
Fractured formation drill cuttings sizes range from very small
(similar to drill cuttings) to large blocks or tabular pieces, with sharp,
angular edges and corners. Some are so large that they must be bro-
ken up by drilling before they can be circulated out of the hole.
Problems associated with fractured formations include caving
and potential sticking, out-of-gauge holes, ledges and bridges, and

high fluctuating torque with the risk of twisting off or sidetracking.
Treat these problems similarly to those with geopressured shales.
Other, less common procedures include increasing the mud
weight, dumping cement, and running casing as a last resort. Pen-
etrating severe fractured formations is illustrated in the following
example.
Fractured Shales
A 2I,OOO-ftwildcat well was drilling an 81/2-in.hole at 18,500 ft with a
packed-hole drilling assembly and a premium-grade, sealed-bearing button
bit that had an average life of 40 hours at 2.5 ft/hr. Hole deviation was 4
at the last casing shoe at 14,000 ft. Formation dip was 20 and expected to
be 30 at total depth. The formation was a naturally fractured, extremely
hard and abrasive sandstone, containing chert and pyrites. Hole sections
from 15,000 to 20,000 ft and from 16,500 to 17,000 ft had severe caving
problems and required lengthy cleanout before stabilizing. It was common
to clean out 200-300 ft after a trip.
The hole was sidetracked while cleaning out a bridge at 16,600 ft.
Repeated efforts to enter the old hole were unsuccessful. This hole was
drilled to 16,750 ft, where a survey showed a 5 deviation, further verify-
ing the new hole. The old hole had an 8 deviation at this depth. While
running back in the hole. a bridge was encountered at 16.600 ft. While
cleaning this out, the bit entered the original hole, going to J7,800 ft with
some reaming. Entering the old hole after aCcidentally sidetracking is an
infrequent problem caused by incorrect operations.
It was decided that in subsequent trips the bit would most likely reen-
ter the new hole,The new hole had a lower angle of deviation. probably by
sidetracking the original hole on the low side; therefore the original hole
needed cementing, even if in this case the cement actually was softer than
the formation. This procedure required abandoning over 1,000 ft of origi-
nal hole, but it represented the least risk of running the 7-in. intermediate
drilling liner into the wrong hole.
The hole was cemented after cleaning out caving and bridges several
times. A packed-hole assembly with the bottom two reamers as stabiliz-
ers was run and the cement was cleaned out with a high rotary speed and
low bit weight. This further increased the stiffness of the assembly. helping
to ensure that it entered the new hole. After cleaning out. the assembly
was picked up, and it encountered caving and a minor bridge running back
to bottom. The sidetrack section was reamed to straighten the new hole
as much as possible, reduce the dogleg. and ensure entry and continued
operations in the new hole. The hole was cemented again and cleaned out
with the same procedure used earlier, including reaming with a stiffer as-
sembly. Running this assembly represented some risks, especially in view
62 Chapter 1
of the caving formations. However, at this point it was necessary to en-
sure that one hole was open to run the pipe through and that the hole
would stay open for running casing or a liner.
The hole was drilled ahead, maintaining the deviation at 4-6. Frac-
ture zones were drilled, including some bridging. At 20,000 ft, a 7-in.
intermediate liner was run without difficulty.
High-Permeability Reefs
Reefs with high permeability generally also feature vugular po-
rosity or other large voids. Pinnacle reefs, such as those in Michigan,
are similar to high-permeability. reefs and characteristically have thick
sections. Some of over 500 ft have been reported, often with a small
areal extent.
Reefs often cause either lost circulation, high pressure flows, or
a combination of the two. Difficulty increases with increasing per-
meability and higher pressures. Drilling into the reef usually results
in a kick or lost circulation. Lost circulation may be followed by
kicking after reducing the hydrostatic head. Reefs filled with oil gen-
erally cause less problems than those filled with gas. In one case,
while drilling a long pinnacle reef section, over ten kicks occurred
and it was necessary to close the well in and circulate it dead. An-
other pinnacle reef with a gas cap caused so many problems that
serious consideration was given to plugging back and sidetracking
to try and enter the oil column.
The method of drilling a reef depends upon the specific condi-
tions. One solution seldom applies to all cases. Generally, the casing
should be set near the top of the reef, especially if overlying shales
are fluid sensitive. Otherwise the lost-circulation-and-kick sequence
of problems decreases the stability of the shales, causing additional
problems and higher risk of sticking. Lost circulation material sel-
dom is effective except in lower-permeability reefs.
Drilling very high permeability reefs with a floating mud col-
umn has had varying degrees of success. They should be dry drilled,
with precautions taken to prevent sticking by cutting accumulations.
Control the annulus by maintaining a lightweight mud cap, adding
mud periodically. Run a back pressure valve for pressure control
while making connections and tripping. Use a retrievable-type valve
to allow wire-line work and place it near the bit so the drill pipe can
be pulled out of the hole to a point where the annular mud column
controls the pressure. Mud should be added to the annulus while
tripping. Log through a lubricator while continuing mud additions
in the annulus as needed. The blow-out preventer should be fitted
with blind rams and rams to fit the drillpipe and drill collars.

Other Formations
Various other formations or situations can also cause problems.
. Salt formations dissolve in freshwater muds, creating the

problems associated with cavities and washed-out sections.
Salt contaminates freshwater muds, so salt formations
should be drilled with a saturated salt or inert mud. Some
salt sections flow or move with time and may cause tight
hole while drilling, along with associated problems. This
movement may collapse casing; therefore, an operator
. should design for stronger casing through salt formations.

Earthquake zones may cause ruptured or collapsed cas-
ing, a condition that is difficult to prepare for. Precautions
may include stronger or larger casing, with smaller casing
to absorb part of the movement. Safety shutoff valves might
. also prove useful. See what other operators do in this area.

Coal beds, especially those over a few feet thick, usually
are highly fractured and slough into the wellbore. Lost cir-
culation in coal beds is relatively common. Treat them as
fractured formations.
. Fracture zones, or zones that are highly fractured, differ
from fractured formations in that they are generally thin-
ner, have larger fractures, and frequently exhibit high pres-
sures, often with lost circulation. It is not uncommon for
the bit to slip into a fracture and become stuck, so use
standard cleanout procedures, repeating them until the
formation stabilizes. Take precautions to prevent sticking
the drill string.
. Anhydride or gypsum formations frequently cause mud
contamination, which is similar to cement contamination
but with a reduced pH. For thin sections, pretreat the mud
with barium carbonate to precipitate out the calcium, phos-
phates, or soda ash. It usually is best to drill thick sec-
tions with a gypsum lignosulfonate or inert mud.
. Saltwater flows deteriorate the mud by increasing the chlo-
rides, causing sloughing and swelling of fluid-sensitive
shales. Signs for detecting them include increased chlo-
rides; increased pit volume, continuing flow at the flow
line after the pump has been shut off, and deteriorating
mud properties. The mud should be treated to restore good
properties. Increase the mud weight to shut off the flow,
but be aware of potential lost circulation.
Combination Formation Problems

. Combination
formation problems are those with two or more
problem formations. The most common include any combination of
64 Chapter 1
fluid-sensitive and geopressured shales, fractured formations, high-
pressure zones, and lost circulation. Sometimes they are considered
as a single problem, since they may be difficult to distinguish from
single formation problems. Recognizing the differences is important
for treating purposes. Combination formation problems often are more
complicated and involve a higher degree of risk than single forma-
tion problems.
Correcting a problem in one formation may cause a problem in
another. The most common occurrence is related to lost circulation.
Raising mud weight to control a high-pressure zone may cause lost
circulation in another zone. Lost circulation may cause a kick from a
higher-pressure zone or may decrease wellbore stability, causing cav-
ing and sloughing.
Treat combination formation problems based upon specific con-
ditions. The most severe individual formation problem should gen-
erally be treated first, with additional treatment for the secondary
formation problem. Use the procedures described for the individual
formation. Always consider how the treatment of one formation will
affect the other.
The combination of lost circulation and gas kicks is one of the
more severe formation problems. This problem, with the associated
pore pressures, is explained in Fig. 1-8. The problems with this com-
bination is illustrated in the following example.
Combination Lost Circulation and Gas Kicks

A 17,500-ft wildcat well had 13%-in. surface casing at 1,450 ft, 95fs-in.
intermediate casing at 8,000 ft, and was drilling an 8%-in. hole at 14,700 ft.
Sands with pore pressures of 18-lb/gal were expected in the gross interval
from 15,000 ft to TD. Pore pressures had increased from about 12.5-to
13.8-lb/gal over the previous 500 ft, indicating a long pressure-transition
zone. Circulation loss was minor, except for a 400 bbl loss, probably in
the shallow formations. Caving shale problems were increasing.
Intermediate 7-in. casing was run even though it was recognized that
lost circulation might occur below it while drilling the deeper 18-lb/gal
zones. However, the upper hole was already causing problems, and setting
casing would protect the upper hole.
The 7-in. casing ran freely, but with limited mud retUrns while running
it into the lower hole, and about 500 bbl of mud were lost. The hole could
not be circulated and was cemented without returns. Later, cement bond
logs indicated good cement in the lower section. The casing was cleaned
out and tested, and 15 ft of new hole was drilled and tested to a leak-off of
16-lb/gal.
Several gas shows were encountered while drilling and all returns were
lost at 15,000 ft.Three LCM pills were unsuccessful and about 1,000 bbl of

Figure 1-8 Combination high-pressure and lost-circula-
tion zones
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Surfacepressure Surfacepressure Surface pressure
1.952 psi
i 800 p~i -~ 4,000 psi ~

-
~I "01
.0 'rJ
f& ii.
~
,
,
Casing 1"-:;-
at 5.950 f1'
.-.
6.000 It
- - - -I..'ip ,,'I-pare-pressure
___
I'..'iP~I_____
1.600psi ~p" 1.083 pSI
/___/_ 3000
circulation
Lost 800 psi 0.5 psi/It 9 Ib/ga___
3~e_.
_
_ _ psi_ at_ 6:.90Q.It

'
~
~ - - -
2.000-11
column 01
40" API oil
712 psi
8.000 It
--- -- --- ---
High- Pore pressure --
Gas 011
pressure 0.6 psi/It 11.5 Ib/gall
(40' API)
--gas zone- " 4.800 psi at 8 000 It
-"- -- - ---- --
Case 1---Drillinto zone at 8.000 It with 9.6-lb/gal mud. Surface pressure ~ 800 pSI.
differential pressure into lost zone (6.000 It) 800 psi.
Case 2-Assume all mud has migrated into the lost-circulation lOnfJ:
surface pressure " 4.000 psi: dilferential Into lost zone
., - 4.600 3.000" 1.600 psi.
Case 3-Assume allrnud has migrated into the lost-circulation zone:

surface pressure - 1.952psi: differentialpressure intothe lOne 1.083psi.
mud were lost. The pipe was pulled into the casing and the mud weight
was reduced to regain circulation. The well kicked when the mud weight
was reduced to 13.6-lb/gal. It was shut in with 1,100 psi on the drillpipe
and 2,450 psi on the casings. It was circulated on a choke.The mud weight
was increased to 14.8-lb/gal mud with about 30% returns when all returns
were again lost.
The well was squeezed with a diesel oil bentonite (gunk) and circula-
tion was established. The drillpipe was pulled and rerun open-ended. Cir-
culation was lost whilewashingout within 4 ft of the bottom. The forma-
tion was squeezed with 250 sacks of cement, full returns were established,
and drilling operations were resumed.
66 Chapter 1
During the next several months. the welLwas drilled to about 16,500
ft. Less than 20% of the work time was spent drilling. The major part of
the time was spent mixing and spotting lost circulation pills,squeezing the
formation with cement (and once with a diesel oil bentonite squeeze).
circulating out gas on the choke. and mixing mud. About 15.1-lb/gal mud
would hold the pressures. but mud losses ranged from 100-800 bbl/day.
The well was deepened about 120 ft in a month. with increasing lost
circulation and kicks. until operations were effectively at a standstill. Af-
ter a considerable delay. which included several cement jobs, circulation
was established at total depth. A 5-in. Fj liner was run and cemented with
limited returns.The top of the liner tested satisfactorily. and the well sub-
sequently was completed as a commercial producer.
This combination of lost-circulation and gas kicks is probably one of
the most difficult. risky. and expensive drilling operations that can be at-
tempted. Before setting the loin. casing. the last 3.000 ft of hole was drilled
at an average of about 90 feet per day.The lower hole below casing was
drilled at an overall average rate of 20 feet per day.The lower formations
were slightly harder, but the extra time was caused primarily by combat-
ing lost circulation, circulating out gas kicks, and mixing mud.
That operations were surprisingly free of stuck pipe and similar prob-
lems is attributed to setting the loin. casing and employing experienced,
qualified operating personnel. The obvious problem here was the
underdesigned casing program. As a note of interest, subsequent wells
were drilled in the area by extending the casing depths, although they did
allow the option of an extra string of casing.
Depleted Reservoirs
The term "depleted reservoirs," as used here, refers to those res-
ervoirs where the pressure is less than the original, often substan-
tially so. Depleted reservoirs are becoming an increasingly common
and important consideration for deeper drilling operations in older
fields. Associated problems include sidetracking and redrilling
junked production wells, and drilling infield wells, disposal wells,
and wells for secondary and tertiary recovery.
There is very little information in the literature about detecting
depleted formations from pore-pressure plots. Operators intuitively
expect conventional pore-pressure plots to predict the original pres- .
sure condition. Based on limited evidence, this expectation is valid.
For example, a geopressured gas reservoir was produced, so pres-
sures declined from 30% to 60% of original pressure. Wells drilled
later had pore-pressure characteristics through the overlying transi-
tion and geopressured zones similar to the original wells.
Lost circulation is the main problem when drilling into and
through depleted formations. It may be necessary to protect the de-

pleted zone. Problems are minimal if the zone is cased before drill-
ing deeper; however, drilling deeper without setting casing frequently
causes various combination problems, generally including lost cir-
culation.
Main considerations are the original and current pressure of the
depleted reservoir, the pressure ofthe objective zone, and the nature
of the formations. The required mud weights should be determined
based on formation pressures. Fracture prediction helps determine
if the depleted formation will sustain the mud weight. Otherwise,
the problems should generally be handled in a conventional man-
ner. It may be necessary to set casing through the depleted zone be-
fore drilling deeper, usually because of high pressure differentials
between the depleted and objective zones. Casing off the depleted
zone before drilling deeper solves most problems.
Theoretically, mud flows into the formation whenever the hy-
drostatic head causes a pressure differential in the formation, even
by a small amount. Excluding cases of fracturing, this seldom occurs
because of viscosity and the barrier formed by entrained solids and
gels. This type of seepage lost circulation normally can be controlled
and is not a major detriment to drilling depleted formations, even
with a relatively high pressure differential into the formation.
Generally, fracturing is the controlling factor. Calculate fracture
initiation and propagating pressure in the depleted zone and the
maximum pressure expected while drilling deeper formations with
a high pressure differential. These determine the criteria for mud
weights and for the drilling and casing program.
An interesting method of handling lost circulation while pro-
tecting the formation is illustrated in the following example.
Depleted Reservoir
A shallow, high-volume gas well was drilled and completed in a nor-
mal-pressured. high-permeability sand at 2,200 ft. After an extended pro-
ducing life, the well was effectively junked when a packer and some tubing
were lost in the hole during a workover. Bottomhole pressure was 17Spsi
(I.S3-lb/gal. 0.079S-psi/ft) and the formation had sufficient remaining re-
coverable reserves to justify drilling a replacement well, providing the for-
mations were not damaged.
Replacement well plans included setting SI/2-in. casing on top of the
sand, drilling a 4Y2-in. hole through the sand with clear water containing
potassium chloride (KCI) (8.8-lb/gal. 0.4S76 psi/ft). hanging a slotted liner
hung on a pack-off-type hanger, and completing the well through 2%-in.
open ended tubing. Only a minimum amount of water would be lost to the
68 Chapter 1
formation - part of it would be recovered by swabbing and the remain-
der would dissipate into the formation without causing appreciable dam-
age.
The well was drilled and completed according to the plan.There was
intermittent, partial circulation while drilling through and below the sand,
recovering some cuttings. After drilling to total depth and picking up, the
crew checked the hole for cuttings and had negligible fill-up after one
hour. The slotted liner was run a':ld seated without difficulty.The well was
swabbed in through tubing, and flowed intermittent heads of water, gas,
and finally, dry gas. An estimated 20% of the water lost in the hole was
recovered.The well was placed on production and produced satisfactorily
without stimulation.
The depleted formation had a pore-pressure equivalent of 1.53-lb/gal
and was drilled with 8.8-lb/gal m'ud, a considerable difference. However,
the fracture pressure of the depleted formation was calculated at 11.39-
Ib/gal by Eaton's method. This indicated the well could be drilled with nor-
mal mud weight without lost circulation due to fracturing. Therefore, the
only apparent risk was seepage-type lost circulation, which was shown
earlier to be of minor concern.
Rigorous fracture-pressure formulas use a combination of the pore

pressure and rock stress, usually the horizontal stress. In most cases
of depleted reservoirs, the rock stress is not reduced to the point
where it would cause a substantial reduction in the fracture pressure
below the normal pressure gradient.
Predicting fracture pressures may also permit substantial sav-
ings in drilling costs, as illustrated in the following example.
Geopressured Below Depleted

The Gulf Coast Vicksburgoften is geopressured and has a number of
producing horizons. One area had two main sands at about 9,SOOft and
11,000ft through a depth interval of increasingpore pressure. Thegross
sand sections were relatively consistent over the area, but actually con-
sisted of a series of sand shale sequences.The normal completion in the
area had 13%-in.surface casing in a IS-in.hole at 1,200 ft, 95fs-in.inter-
mediate casing in a 121/4-in.hole in the upper part of the transition zone
at about 6,500 ft, a 7%-in. flush joint drilling liner in an 83/4-in.hole below
the upper sand, and S'/2-in.completion casingat a total depth of 12,000-
14,000 ft.The field had been developed on a somewhat random basis over
a period of years due to completions in different intervals under different
operators and ownership.

A location was selected that was partially drained in the lower sand at
11,000 ft but was believed to have substantial recoverable reserves that
would not be economically recovered by the offsetting wells. The upper
sand at 9,500 ft had high pressure but relatively low permeability, so it was
a questionable producer. However, the pressure had to be considered for
purposes of drilling deeper with possible lost circulation in the lower sand.
A conventional casing program was designed that included setting a drill-
ing liner through the upper sand and completion casing at 12,000 ft (TD).
Omitting the drilling liner was evaluated as an option since it would
reduce costs by about 25%, a substantial savings. The upper sand had a
pore pressure of at least 15.5-lb/gal,and possibly 15.8-lb/gal.These figures
defined the minimum mud weight for omitting the liner. Calculating the
fracture gradient of the lower sand at 11,000 ft was more difficult because
the stage of depletion was unknown, offsetting wells were not evenly spaced,
and different permeabilities, production rates, and original and current
bottom-hole-pressure data was questionable or not available. Fracture
pressures were calculated with the best available data and compared to
hydraulic-sand-fracturing data to give the estimated correct value listed in
Table 1-7.
Table 1-7 Calculated fracture gradients
BHP, psi Fracture gradient, Ib/gal.

7,630 17.00 (Original)
6,000 16.34
4,000 15.53
The best estimated current bottom hole pressure was about 5,000
psi. which indicated that the well could be drilled without the liner. How-
ever, mud weights were critical, so equivalent circulating densities were
calculated at different yield points and circulating rates at 10,000 ft, as
listed in Table 1-8.
Table 1-8 Equivalent circulating density, at 10,000 ft
Circulation 1<. Yield Points >1

Rate, GPM 5 10 15
100 15.76 15.78 15.81
200 15.82 15.85 15.89
300 15.87 15.91 15.96
400 15.98 15.98 16.03
70 Chapter 1
Because of the wide margin of error, it was decided to use the con-
ventional program and make the final decision to set the liner after drilling
to the liner-setting depth.
The well was spudded and drilled in the normal manner. While drill-
ing the upper sand, a minimum mud weight was maintained primarily by
monitoring the gas in the mud and carefully considering drill gas, which at
times may be confused with gas that flows into the well bore due to an
underbalanced mud system.
The upper sand was drilled' with a maximum mud weight of 15.6 Ib/
gal. About 50 bbls. of mud were lost almost immediately after drilling
about 50 ft into the lower sand. Circulation was regained after a short
time and the hole was drilled to total depth with 15.7-lb/gal mud. Casing
was run and cemented and the well completed in the normal manner.The
lost circulation in the lower sa'nd was attributed to either a depleted,
high-permeability sand stringer or loss into a fracture.
DEVIATION, DOGLEG, AND

CROOKED HOLE
The severity of problems caused by deviation, dogleg, and crooked
hole during drilling increases with increasing angle, higher changes
of angle, and deeper depths. Problems may include keyseats, wall
sticking, increased drag and torque, excess wear on the drilling as-
sembly, accidental sidetracking, hole cleaning, hole stability, diffi-
culty running and cementing casing, and casing wear while drilling
deeper. Problems may also occur during the producing life of the
well, including casing, tubing, and rod wear, difficulty with artifi-
ciallift, and future remedial work.
The main preventive measure is recognizing the problem. Mea-
surements should be recorded at shallow depths and repeated at in-
tervals short enough to recognize trends and know the hole condi-
tion. Preventive action should be taken as necessary before the hole
condition becomes a problem. The importance of drilling a straight
vertical hole in a careful, prudent manner is illustrated in the fol-
lowing example.
Crooked V5. Straight Hole

Two deep wildcat wells were drilled as vertical holes in the same gen-
eral area. Both used similar drilling fluids, penetrated similar formations,
and had similar drilling programs. Both programs included surface casing

at 5,000 ft, 9%-in. intermediate casing in a 12Y4-in.hole at 15,000 ft, and a
projected total depth of 18,500 ft.
In the first well, intermediate casing stuck at about I2,000 ft (3,000 ft
off bottom) and was subsequently cemented. The open interval caused
problems in deeper drilling, requiring another string of casing to be set.
Drilling operations were suspended before reaching the projected total
depth because of reduced hole size and increasing formation problems.
Overall well costs were higher than projected, and some prospective ho-
rizons were untested.
The second well was drilled to the projected total depth without dif-
ficulty and within projected costs.
The first well had several absolute doglegs with a maximum angle over
3, compared to a maximum of 1.5 in the second hole. The first hole also
had a higher average deviation. There may have been other contributing
factors, but successfully running intermediate casing string and completing
the second hole is attributed, to a great extent, to the straight hole.
Dogleg angles here may not be considered significant. However, smaller
angles at shallower depths can be very important when drilling deep holes
with long open-hole sections over long periods of drilling.This illustrates
the severity of the drilling problems that can occur in highly deviated and
crooked holes.
Cause and Correction

A common cause of excess dogleg and deviation is crooked hole
formations. These are most commonly layered formations, frequently
in which the layers are alternating hard and soft. Other crooked hole
formations are areas of high or increasing dip and changes of dip,
such as those that cross a fault.
Drilling practices contribute to or cause a dogleg. To some ex-
tent, all of the causes of doglegs can be attributed to poor drilling
practices and related actions. These include failure to run the cor-
rect bottomhole assembly, rotating off bottom excessively, working
the pipe without passing tool joints, and otherwise not operating the
assembly correctly. Limber assemblies can build angle rapidly or are
strongly affected by formation influence, especially while operating
at a low RPM and high bit weight. Highly efficient pendulums can
cause doglegs by dropping angle too fast. Deviation and sidetracking
can cause doglegs by changing direction too sharply.
One of the first corrective actions is early recognition and the
taking of remedial steps accordingly. The problem seldom goes away
72 Chapter 1
on its own. The obvious preventive measure is "drill a straight hole,"
but this is not always possible. Maintaining an excessively low de-
viation may cause increased cost. If there is a natural tendency for
the hole to deviate and it does not adversely offset operations, allow
it to deviate. Control the deviation only if it is excessive. Formation
conditions may increase the cost of maintaining deviation and dogleg
within acceptable limits. However, this additional cost often is justi-
fied in view of potential hole problems and the possibility of a lost
hole, especially in deeper holes. The main point is to be aware ofthe
risk, evaluate the problem, and take action accordingly.
Use the correct assembly and operate it correctly. Do not wait
too long to take the positive preventive action. First, try reducing bit
weight and increasing rotary speed. Otherwise, run a packed hole
assembly, which tends to drill a straight hole in the same direction
as the prior hole. This reduces crooked hole but may not help devia-
tion. The stiffness of the assembly should be adjusted based upon
formation and hole conditions. Deviation can be reduced or main-
tained by drilling with a regular packed-hole or forced pendulum.
Use an angle-building assembly if hole angle drops excessively. Re-
move or reduce excessive crooked hole by reaming.
Running a deviation assembly can correct the hole direction if
horizontal control is needed or if other procedures are ineffective or
cause excessive drilling time. DO NOT overcorrect with an exces-
sive change of angle that may cause a dogleg. Ream after deviating to
remove sharp bends and smooth the curvature. Eliminate sidetrack-
ing or deviating whenever possible. Deviate on the low side of the
hole instead of blind sidetracking to minimize the sidetracking angle.
Set casing at or very near bottom to eliminate long sections of larger-
diameter hole.
Highly deviated, extended-reach and horizontal holes create spe-
cial problems. Evaluate the risk before drilling and then take all pre-
cautions. Otherwise, eliminate crooked holes whenever possible.
Permissible dogleg severity varies for different areas of opera-
tion. The acceptable deviation and dogleg limits should be defined
in the drilling program.
Recommended Deviation and Dogleg

Allowable dogleg cannot be predicted accurately. However, the
forces acting on a dogleg can be approximated, as illustrated in Table
1-9. Combining these data on torque and drag with experience and
results in the area helps determine the maximum allowable dogleg.

Table 1-9 Lateral force exerted by drillpipe tool joints
Depth Pipe Wt Angle Of Deviation, degrees

Below Below I 2 3 4 5 6
Keyseat, Keyseat, 1 c .1
ft. 1,000 lb. 1< Lateral Force, 1,000 Ibs. .1
2,000 75 0.041 0.82 1.23 1.63 2.04 2.045

4,000 87 0.047 0.95 1.42 1.90 2.37 2.84
6,000 113 0.62 1.23 1.85 2.046 3.08 3.69
8,000 140 0.76 1.53 2.29 3.05 3.81 4.57
10,000 167 0.91 1.82 2.73 3.64 4.55 5.046
12,000 194 1.06 2.12 3.17 4.23 5.28 6.34
14,000 220 1.20 2.040 3.60 4.80 5.99 7.19
16,000 274 1.49 2.99 4.048 5.97 7.046 8.95
The table is based on 16.6-lb/ft, range 2 drill pipe in 16-lb/gal

mud and 800 ft of drill collars with a buoyant weight of 60,000 lb.
The table assumes the hole above the dogleg is vertical. This is suffi-
ciently accurate for vertical holes, but should not be used for highly
deviated or crooked holes, since accuracy decreases with increasing
deviation. The table further assumes static conditions with the pipe
hanging free below the dogleg, and does not allow for drag or drillpipe
rigidity. It also assumes all lateral forces are exerted by the tool joints
as a single force. The table gives minimum values, since it is based
upon changes of angle in the single plane. The forces could be cal-
culated for a wide variety of conditions, but this is not justified
because of the many unknown factors. The table is not precise; nev-
ertheless it is included to show the order of magnitude of the forces
exerted by the pipe against the wall of the hole.
Table 1-9 illustrates several points, such as the digging force of
the tool joints during tripping. It is easy to visualize two or more
deviated or crooked-hole sections and how the additional force to
pull the drillpipe through a lower section is amplified in an upper
section. This also accounts for the high tendency to develop keyseats
by the wearing, dragging, and gorging action of the tool joints and
the increased drag and torque.
Table 1-9 indicates the lateral tool joint force is in the range of
1,000-1,500 Ib for angles of2-3. Field experience has indicated that
few problems are encountered with dogleg angles in this range. The
selection of a lateral force of 1,000-1,500 lb depends upon experi-
ence in the area and drilling and formation conditions.
74 Chapter 1
Table 1-10 Recommended maximum deviation and
dogleg angles
Total Depth Maximum Maximum

Depth, Interval, Deviation Dogleg
ft ft Angle, Angle
deg/lOO ft deg/l 00 ft
5,000 0 - 100 I 4
100 - 1,000 2 4
1000 - 5,000 4 4
10,000 0 - 100 1/2 3
100 - 1,000 I 3
1,000 - 5,000 2 4
5,000 - 10,000 5 4
15,000 0 - 100 '/ 3
100 - 1,000 1/2 3
1,000 - 5,000 I 4
5,000 - I0,000 3 3
10,000 - 15,000 8 3
20,000 0 - 100 <I/ 3
100 - 1,000 1/4 3
1,000 - 5,000 '/2 4
5,000 - 10,000 3 2
10,000 - 15,000 5 3
15,000 - 20,000 8 3
Table 1-10 is a general guide to maximum dogleg and deviation

angles. Select the maximum dogleg angle based on experience and
knowledge about the formations in an area and the hole being drilled.
The table gives full weight to deviation and dogleg in the surface
hole. This important factor is too often overlooked. Since tension in
the pipe is critical, a shallow dogleg in a deep hole is a frequent
source of trouble. To illustrate, the table indicates the hole could be
drilled about 10,000 ft below a 10 dogleg and 4,000 ft below a 20
dogleg based upon a lateral force limit of 1,000 lb. For the 1,500 lb
lateral force limit, the hole could be drilled 16,000 ft below a 10 dogleg
and 7,000 ft below a 20 dogleg.
It will be recognized that the limiting angles listed in the table
are restrictive in some cases. There is no reason that higher limits
cannot be used if the operator is aware of the risk and experience in
the area justifies higher angles. Many holes are deviated at much
higher angles than those listed.

REFERENCESAND SUGGESTED
READING
Adams, N., and Kuhlman, L.G., "How to Prevent or Minimize
Shallow Gas Blowouts," World Oil: Part 1, May 1991: 51-58;
Part 2 (June 1991): 66.
Blattel, Steve R, and Rupert, J. Paul, "The Effect Of Weight Material
Type on Rate of Penetration Using Dispersed and Non-
Dispersed Water-Base Muds," SPE 10961, Presented at the
annual Fall Technical Conference of the Society Of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME in New Orleans, LA, Sept. 26-29, 1982.
Blomberg, Nits R, and Nelberg, Berit, "Evaluation of Ilmenite as
Weight Material in Drilling Fluids," SPE 11085, Presented at
the annual Fall Technical Conference of the Society Of
Petroleum Engineers of AIME in New Orleans, LA, Sept. 26-
29, 1982.
Bradley, W.B., Jarman, K., Auflick, RA., Plott, RS., Wood, RD.,
Schofield, T.R, and Cocking, D., "Task Force Reduces Stuck-
pipe Costs," Oil and Gas Journal, May 27,1991: 84-85.
Eaton, Ben A., "Fracture Gradient Prediction Techniques and Their
Application in Drilling, Stimulation, and Secondary Recovery
Operations," SPE No. 2163, American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., Presented at the
43rd Annual Fall Meeting in Houston, TX, Sept. 29-0ct. 2,
1968.
Hanson, P.M., Trigg Jr., T.K., Rachal, G., and Zamora, M.,
"Investigation of Barite 'Sag' in Weighted Drilling Fluids in
Highly Deviated Wells," SPE 20423, Society of Petroleum
Engineers in New Orleans, LA, Sept. 23-26, 1990.
Hansford, J.E., and Lubinski, A., "Cumulative Fatigue Damage of
Drillpipe in Dog Legs," Transactions AI ME, 1966, 237: 1-359.
Harvey, Floyd, "Horizontal Wells 4 - Fluid program built around
hole cleaning, protecting formation," Oil and Gas Journal, Nov.
5, 1990: 37-41.
Hubbert, M. King, and Willis, D.G., "Mechanics of Hydraulic
Fracturing," Journal of Petroleum Technology, 1957: 153-168.
Lubinski, A., "Maximum Permissible Dog-Legs in Rotary
Boreholes," Transactions AIME, 1961,222: 1-175.
76 Chapter 1
Mathews, W.R., and Kelly, Dr. John, "How to Predict Formation
Pressure and Fracture Gradients," Oil and Gas Journal, Feb.
20,1967.
Nederveld, L.S., and Vleaux, G.J., "A Barite Alternative," Drilling-
DCW, April 1980: 80-84.
Saasen, Arild, Marken, Craig, Sterri, Njal, and Jacobsen, Jon,
"Monitoring of Barite Sag Important in Deviated Drilling," Oil
and Gas Journal Aug. 26, 1991: 43-50.
Short, J.A., "Jim," DrjJ]ing and Casing Operations, PennWell
Publishing Company, Tulsa, OK, 1981.
Short, J.A. "Jim," Introduction to Directional Drilling, PennWell
Publishing Company, Tulsa, OK, 1993.
Stein, N., "Resistivity and Density Logs Key to Fluid Pressure
Estimates," Oil and Gas Journal, April 8, 1985: 81-86.
Tomren, P.H., Iyoho, A.W., Azar, J.J., "Experimental Study of
Cuttings Transport in Directional Wells," SPE Drilling
Engineering, Feb. 1986.
Walker, C.O., "Alternate Weighting Material" SPE 1116, Presented
at the annual Fall Technical Conference of the Society Of
Petroleum Engineers of AIME in New Orleans, LA, Sept. 26-
29, 1982.
Wilson, G.J., "Dog-Leg Control in Directionally Drilled Wells,"
Transactions AIME, 1967,240: 1-107.
Zamora, Mario, and Hanson, Paul, "Rules of Thumb to Improve
High-Angle Hole Cleaning," Petroleum Engineer International,
Jan. 1991:44-51;Feb. 1991:22-27.

Chapter 2
GENERAL RULES AND

PROCEDURES
Various general rules and procedures apply to most fishing situ-

ations. Operations, equipment and formations cause fishing and can
restrict or prevent completion of fishing. All related factors are im-
portant but some warrant emphasis. Competent, experienced per-
sonnel are of prime importance. They prevent fishing and perform
most fishing operations, including selecting and supervising a fish-
ing specialist, if required. Always be prepared, since fishing often
occurs when least expected. Know what actions to take, learn all
details about the situation, and take immediate action. Do not over-
look the importance of working stuck assemblies. Expedite opera-
tions and know when to quit or take an alternate action, such as
sidetracking, redrilling, or abandonment. Perform a post-analysis to
prevent a future occurrence or to learn how to handle it more effi-
ciently. Observe the general guides to fishing and the common drill-
ing operations that frequently cause fishing.
PERSONNEL
Competent personnel with experience in both drilling and fish-
ing operations and with good communications skills are absolute
necessities to prevent fishing and to conduct operations successfully
when fishing occurs. A good understanding of fishing tools and their
application aids in successfully completing fishing operations.
Fishing is not a normal drilling operation, but specialized, analo-
gous to casing and cementing. Most personnel are less familiar with
these procedures. Take extra precautions because unfamiliarity leads
to mistakes which, in turn, may cause additional fishing or a second
fish and the risk of losing the hole. The importance of experienced,
conscientious personnel and good communications cannot be over-
emphasized. A well-qualified specialist in preventing fishing jobs
would be of great value. There will always be occasions where high
General Rules and Procedures 79

risk situations occur that may result in a fishing job. Moreover, most
if not all of these can be prevented with proper planning and by
conducting operations in a prudent, workmanlike manner.
Fishing as a non-routine operation places additional responsi-
bility on supervisory personnel. An experienced team, including an
on-site supervisor and an office manager, is vital to efficient drilling,
and the preventing or completing of fishing jobs. Fishing frequently
requires decisions that affect the status ofthe overall drilling project.
These decisions often are needed on short notice. Accomplish this
with a good channel of communication and established line of au-
thority.
A fishing tool operator or a fishing specialist commonly is em-
ployed. Experienced operators have a list of available fishing tool
personnel they have used in the past. An operator new to an area
should investigate the available personnel, check references care-
fully, and compile a list of qualified fishing specialists.
Fishing specialists should have at least five years of widespread
experience in fishing operations, including experience in the area
where the job occurs. Also, they should be experienced in general
drilling, completion, and rework operations. These are stringent re-
quirements but justified by the importance and complexity of fish-
ing.
BE PREPARED BEFORE FISHING

OCCURS
Being prepared requires a good understanding of all conditions
and general problems related to drilling in an area, including what
caused prior fishing jobs and how they were handled. Other items
are rig availability, specifications, capabilities, and condition. Equally
important are the qualifications of the rig personnel, including su-
pervision, experience, and proficiency. These requirements also ap-
ply to third party services such as logging, tool supply, cementing,
and mud.
Study local drilling operations. Stay abreast of current activities
through reports and discussions with other operators and service
company personnel. A key part of being prepared is having quali-
fied, experienced personnel.
Become familiar with area fishing jobs. Review daily drilling re-
ports and mud and bit records. If the reports do not have sufficient
detail, contact someone directly involved, such as the operator, well-
site supervisor, engineers, or fishing tool operator.
Learn what caused the problem, how it was handled, and more
important, how it could have been prevented. Note how the fish was
stuck and recovered, and related conditions such as type of mud and
properties. Other important information includes the fish and fish-
80 Chapter 2
ing string and details such as hole and drill collar sizes, jars, bumper
subs, catches, safety joints, washpipe, and clearance. Also note for-
mation conditions such as sensitivity to fluids, hole inclination and
deviation, caving, tight hole, and wall sticking.
It often is a good practice to keep some fishing equipment on
location during normal operations. Immediate availability may ex-
pedite fishing operations. It can increase the success of the fishing
job in cases where caving, lost circulation, and similar 'problems oc-
cur. It is especially applicable in open-hole operations.
The amount and kind of equipment depends upon many factors.
These include complexity of the drilling operation, frequency offish-
ing jobs, distance (in time) to a source of fishing tools and equip-
ment, and its availability at the supply point.
There is a practical limit to the amount of equipment kept on the
rig in this case. Bit cones are the most common fishing job, so con-
sider a basket and one or more mills and junk subs. Other tools may
include additional drill collars for the fishing assembly, bumper jars
and bumper subs, and possibly overshots to fit the more common
tubular diameters in the hole.
Following is a suggested equipment list.
Mill - lost bit cones are a common
Junk basket - bit cones and small junk
cause of fishing
Junk sub - run on mill or basket

Overshot - OD's to work in current hole, change as hole
size changes. Catch sizes include drillpipe body, tool joints,
and top drill collar
Back-off sub, bumper sub, jars
All equipment is sized to the equipment used in the well.
Sometimes fishing tool rental companies leave tools on location

and charge only if the tool is used, with the understanding that the
tool can be picked up for use in other areas if needed. Evaluate
whether some fishing equipment should be maintained on the well-
site and what kind.
WHEN A FISHING JOB OCCURS

Experienced operators know what to do when fishing or sticking
occurs. Generally take immediate action. Then learn all details and
develop a plan of action, as well as an alternate plan.
Take Immediate Action

Take immediate action when a sticking situation or fishing job
occurs. For example, when a downhole assembly first sticks, it often

can be released with immediate, instead of delayed attention. The
direction and type of work should be readily apparent. Otherwise,
the risk of a fishing job grows as the time increases that the assembly
remains stuck.
Taking immediate action is important, but always consider the
safety of the hole. For example, if there is a well control problem,
then consider it first. En~ure, as much as possible, that immediate
action does not increase the risk. High angle directional and hori-
zontal holes often create special problems.
One question may occur under certain circumstances, "Is there
really a fishing job?" If an object is reported to have fallen in the
hole, make sure it is not in the cellar or lodged in the BOPs. If the
object is small, such as a bit cone, hammer, etc., often it can be walled
off with a bit.
The operator should be sufficiently experienced to determine
the immediate plan of action. Therefore, normally take action within
5 to 15 minutes or less after the problem occurs. The action required
depends upon the specific conditions, but the course of action is
often clear. Begin working stuck pipe or wireline tools shortly after
sticking. Soon after work is begun, order the fishing tools and equip-
ment needed to try and release or fish the stuck assembly, assuming
the initial working procedure(s) is unsuccessful.
Limit taking a freepoint immediately. Usually take it after work-
ing the stuck assembly to tension levels needed for normal
freepointing. This procedure is applicable to most vertical and low-
angle directional wells. It may not be practical in high-angle direc-
tional and horizontal holes because of the increased risk of keys eating
and wall sticking. However, consider it, even in these cases. Slug the
pipe and start out ofthe hole ifbit cones are lost, a leak develops, or
the pipe string parts. It may be necessary to delay for some period of
time such as pulling the drillpipe up into the last string of casing
and waiting for the fishing tools. Try reconnecting a drillstring that
accidentally backs off. Make five to ten attempts, if you are sure that
the drill tool is backed off, before slugging and pulling out of the
hole.
Taking action immediately is demonstrated in the following ex-
ample.
Recovering a Hole Opener Shank

A wildcat well was drilling in an isolated area where 24-36 hours
were required to obtain parts and tools. The program included I33/8-in.
82 Chapter 2
Figure 2-1 Hole opener cutter and shank recovered in a
junk basket
-- ~---~
"
---J
" "',--'"
r.... Junk basket

I
~~
$ m \\~
~ II! /]J III \\\%~
Roller cutter
/11I!Jill ill ~ ~ ~--i...........
\_) c ~.......... Shank
~ l
'1
'I
--- ------------
surface casingat 2,500 ft in a 17-in.hole, 9 %-in. intermediate casing in a

12Y~-in.hole at 8,000 ft where a geopressured zone was expected, and
completion in 5'/2-in.or 7-in. casing at 12,000 feet. There was no usable
offset well data and only a limited amount of seismic information to pre-
dict pore pressure and formation tops. The large-size casing program al-
lowed for an extra string of casing (7 inches) if needed.
The steeply dipping, highly fractured formations were very hard, and
some were fluid sensitive.An 8%-in. intermediate hole was drilled and
opened to 121/~-in. Reasonsfor this included:(I) open-hole drillstem tests
were expected and could be run more efficiently in the smaller hole;
(2) the procedure allowed better control of hole deviation problems; and
(3) the procedure allowed an overall higher penetration rate.

Figure 2-2 Sidetracking a hole while reaming
(a) (b) (e) (d)

-"'r
--. ..;: ;.'1
:-:...:~.'""'1.II_
'." -~..~-.._- :.:.c'.
- .-"
In (a), sidetrack started as a ledge: a light application of wt on the bit should crush the
ledge, forcing the bit into the original hole. In (b) and (c), the ledge is increasing but
probably can be eliminated. In (d), the hole is sidelracked; probably will be very difficult
to reenter the original hole. The sequence Irom (a) through Ie) can occur in a few
minutes.
The 8'l'~-in,hole was being opened to 121/~-in.at 6.000 ft with a hole

opener with roller cutters and an 8%-in. pilot bit. The hard formations
caused extremely high torque, and the hole opener failed. When it was
pulled. one cutter had broken off at the body of the hole opener. leaving
the roller cutter and shank in the hole.
Fishing tools were ordered and were expected to arrive within 18 to
24 hours.A bit was run to ensure that the cutter and shank had dropped
to the bottom and were not hung on the ledge at the bottom of the 121/~-
in. hole and to circulate the hole until the fishing tools arrived. A 7%-in.
junk basket was available and was run to see if anything could be recov-
ered. since there was a possibility that the cutter had broken from the
shank. Otherwise. the entire piece of junk would be too large to enter the
basket.
The junk basket was run. When it was set on bottom. the assemblies
rotated freely, even with extra weight. This indicated the junk basket shoe
was sitting down over the cutter and rotating. Additional weight was set
on the junk basket to try jamming the cone into the junk basket. The pipe
was pulled carefully.chaining out of the hole.The roller cutter was jammed
into the bottom of the junk basket. exactly as envisioned. and the cutter
and shank were recovered intact (Fig.2-1).
84 Chapter 2
This was a lucky(?) fishing job. Normally, the basket would not have
caught the cone shank combination, or the fish would have been dragged
out of the basket by the protruding edge of the shank as it rubbed on the
wall while being pulled. Nevertheless, it was recovered, and considerable
rig time was saved by taking immediate action.
Learn All Details

Learn all the details when a fishing job occurs, including what
happened and what caused it. This information usually leads to the
required remedial procedure. In the meantime continue with the
immediate action. Be aware of complicating the fishing job, such as
sidetracking while reaming (Fig. 2-2).
There are many different investigative procedures, most of which
depend upon the situation and its related conditions. One ofthe first
investigative steps is learning what is in the hole or what the fish is.
Most of this information is known, but placing it on a schematic is
helpful (Fig. 2-3). Make additional detailed sketches of special equip-
ment. Update and revise these as required. It often is helpful to make
a rough schematic of the downhole tools on a large scale electric log
with the tools and pertinent comments located at their respective
depth.
. List the drill pipe, drill tubing, or work string being used.
Include the weight, grade, and condition. Note the tool
joint type and OD. List other details such as hard banding,
wear groove, etc. Repeat this for other pipe strings in com-
. bination assemblies.
List detailed information about the drill-collar assembly,
including overall length, type of connector, and ID. List
the length of each collar and OD at each end and in the
middle of the collar. Record the length and diameter of
. any recessed or enlarged sections.

Make a detailed record of all other tools. Include type and
size of tool joints, lengths, inside and outside diameters,
length of individual pieces and overall length. Note all spe-
cial tools such as keyseat wipers, drilling jars and bumper
subs. Manufacturers' brochures often are very helpful and
give detailed measurements, internal connections, and
overall tool strength. Always verify part model or serial
number.
The foregoing assumes recording accurate measurements before

running the tools in the hole, which is a good standard procedure.
Conventional measurement accuracy is either % in. or 0.01 ft for

Figure 2-3 Record of a fish
---........--.--.............-..-.-..-....................................-.--...
001I(-- Top of fish at 8,493 II
T ,I, 3-1/8 in. 00 mandrel shock sub
300' 1 6-1/8 in. 00
Tool joint
tt
1.25It
Fixed-blade stabilizer
3.05' + 8.5/8 in. overbJades
1{1t
0.75 fl
t
1.43 ft
6-1/8
6-3/16
in. 00 tool joint
in. 00
-t Junk sub
4.'" t'
1.85It
6-1/8 in. 00
Tool joint
4- 6-1/8 in. 00
Near bit stabilizer
11-1t
0.95 It 8-5/8 in. overblades
3.201t + ~ 6-3/8 in 00
+
1.30It
'1"
1- ,}/::s?:(?r{:~;!~y::::/~!i.j Bottom of fish, 8.508 It
Note record 105where applicable
..........-...-.-............................................-.............---
86 Chapter 2
length measurements and %2 in. for diameters. Measure diameters
so there is no allowance for wear. Accurate measurements are very
important because they help determine the type and size of the catch
tool.
Then verify the overpull based upon the allowable strength of
the weakest member in the complete assembly. Normally allow for
buoyancy and calculate as provided for in the section "Overpull" in
Chapter 3. This is a very important consideration for working a stuck
fish. The overpull should be known, but verify it.
Next, learn all about the wellbore, formations, and related con-
ditions. Normally the operating personnel will know these, but a
review is warranted. Hole conditions include inclination, crooked
hole, dogleg, keyseating, wall sticking, high torque and drag, etc.
Formation conditions and characteristics include the type of forma-
tion, caving, fluid sensitivity, lost circulation, drillability, tendency
to cause a crooked hole, increasing severity with time, and other
items that adversely affect operations. Review the mud properties.
If the cause of the failure and the method ofrecovering the fish is
not readily apparent, check all other sources of information includ-
ing discussions with personnel. Records include drilling reports, well
logs, mud and bit records, lithology logs, geolograph charts, etc.
Geolograph charts (current and prior) are a good source of informa-
tion on pipe weight, excess drag and torque, and keyseat develop-
ment. They also help detect leaks in the drillstring. A mud report
may show minor contamination that has recently become more se-
vere.
This procedure is time well spent. A complete study of all infor-
mation almost invariably leads to a plan of action and indicates the
correct fishing procedure. It also provides information for the post-
analysis.
Develop a Plan of Action

Develop a plan of action for the fishing job, including short, in-
termediate, long term and alternate plans as necessary. The plan will
range from a partial plan to be supplemented later to a complete,
detailed procedure. A fishing expert may be called in, depending
upon the complexity of the fishing job and personnel experience.
Base the plan of action on information obtained while learning
all the details. Commonly discuss it with others in meetings, confer-
ence calls, etc. Lower-level operating personnel frequently have good
information and input. Prepare to submit the plan to supervisors if
approval is required. Put it in writing. The plan is a continuing pro-

cedure that may be revised as necessary. Provide for flexibility,
including all reasonable alternates, and modify as necessary. Im-
plement it subject to the success of the original plan or changing
conditions.
The immediate plan of action includes the work being conducted
now and the next step. For example, assume that the lower part of
the drilling assembly has been left in the hole and the remainder of
the drill-collar assembly is being pulled. The immediate plan of ac-
tion is to go back with a fishing assembly and either screw into the
fish or catch it with an overshot. The tool used depends on the con-
figuration of the top of the fish, ie., a failed drill collar connector or
a backed-off connection. Normally, if the connection backed off, this
may have been determined by sitting back down carefully on the
fish and carefully rotating to the right. Therefore, the most probable
immediate plan would be to go in with an overshot below a fishing
assembly. An alternative might be a cleanout trip first if needed.
Always have an alternate plan, which would be the next prob-
able action to be taken, assuming the present action is either unsuc-
cessful or that continued operations require additional fishing. For
example, a back-off is made near the bottom of the bottomhole as-
sembly. This may occur in one of several types of connectors, de-
pending upon the tools in the BHA. Plan ahead; do not wait until
part of the fish is out of the hole. Have the necessary fishing tools to
catch or screw into the different connectors. The proper tool usually
will be only one of a few choices.
Several alternate plans may be required. If the first overshot did
not recover the fish, one alternative would be to run a second over-
shot, to possibly catch the fish at a different place. If the second
overshot is not successful, a subsequent alternative would be to run
washpipe and wash over the fish. Always try to prevent waiting on
fishing tools; have tools available for alternate plans. Normally the
cost of these tools on a "stand by" basis is very small compared to
the cost of the rig time while waiting for the tools to be delivered.
The long-range plan of action includes the courses of action fol-
lowing the immediate and alternative plans. If initial plans were suc-
cessful, the long-range plan of action would be to continue drilling
operations. If the alternatives were unsuccessful, the long-range plan
would be to sidetrack the fish, redrill the hole, or complete the hole
at the present depth. Also, the plan should include a reasonable es-
timate of how long current operations will be conducted.
The plan of action is a continuing procedure throughout the fish-
ing operation. All plans must be flexible, allowing for various prob-
lems and changing conditions. Put the plan in writing as a guide and
provide the information to others.
88 Chapter 2
Always record complete dimensions of all equipment run in the
hole. This is noted several times in the text and repeated here for
emphasis. The initial equipment may be obvious. If so, arrange for
delivery as early as possible, even before completing the plan of ac-
tion if necessary. Provide for reserve equipment and subsequent
equipment deliveries. Anticipate requirements and make arrange-
ments accordingly. DO NOT WAIT ON FISHING EQUIPMENT ex-
cept in extraordinary cases. DO NOT modify fishing plans because
of equipment availability. This normally is not an acceptable prac-
tice, except as a last alternative, so use good judgment.
TIME SPENT FISHING

Carefully consider all operations during fishing before taking
action. This is not a time to hurry. However, remember that recover-
ing the fish quickly often reduces problems. Do not be over-cautious;
this may be almost as undesirable as taking unnecessary risks. There
is a higher risk of problems with longer operating time. Furthermore,
fishing operations are hazardous, further increasing the risk of prob-
lems such as a fish on top of a fish. The old oil field truism, "Don't
rush but hurry every chance you get," is especially applicable.
As an example, while fishing was being conducted through a
long open-hole section, operations were hampered by alternating lost
circulation and gas kicks and excessive time was lost while mixing
mud. A mud-mixing plant was moved to the rig site. This provided
adequate mud-mixing capacity while conducting operations, and the
fish was recovered successfully without additional lost time.
Cementing off severe lost circulation is a commonly accepted
procedure. Sometimes there is a tendency to continue combating lost
circulation while conducting fishing operations. If there is a valid
reason, then the approach is correct. Otherwise, cure the lost circu-
lation by cementing if conditions are favorable. Some hesitate to ce-
ment above a fish because they believe that the cement will fall a
long distance and effectively cement the fish. Normally cement will
not fall more than 10 ft from the point of placement in a static fluid
column, even if the column is clear water. Verify this by reviewing
the bottom of the cement after squeezing perforations. Obviously
cement will move downward if there is lost circulation and the fluid
column is not static. If there is any question about the cement drop-
ping down around the fish, spot a barite plug or a pill of high gel
mud above the fish. Other situations that hinder fishing operations
are described in the following example.

Examples of Squeezing before Continuing Fishing
A well had 7-in. completion casing set at 10,000 feet. Perforations at
9,000 feet were squeezed through 2%-in. tubing set in a squeeze packer.
Cement channeled up behind the packer, cementing it and the lower part
of the tubing in the hole. Fishing was started for the cemented tubing at
8,000 feet using a 12-hour workover rig.The well had several high-pres-
sure zones. The well was $hut in each night.The next morning it would be
pressured up, requiring 2-6 hours to circulate and kill it before resuming
fishing operations. Frequent high-pressure, low-volume gas kicks were com-
mon. The combination caused excessive delays.
It was obvious that there was a casing leak. It was verified by pressure
testing above a packer. The packer was alternately moved and reseated
until the leak was found in an area where there had been considerable
milling during earlier fishing, evidently wearing a hole in the casing. Gas
~hanneled up behind the casing from the lower, high-pressure zone and
entered the wellbore through the leak. The hole was squeezed, success-
fully shutting off the casing leak. Fishing operations resumed, recovering
the fish in a normal period of time.
In another case, a well had surface casing at 1,500 feet to shut off
shallow gas sands and water flows. During deeper drilling, the drill collars
stuck and subsequently were backed off, leaving the drill-collar assembly
and about 1,000 feet of drillpipe in the hole. While conducting fishing op-
erations, there were constant problems with lost circulation. The casing
was tested and a leak was located at 400 feet. A retrievable bridge plug
was set in the bottom of the casing, and the leak was squeezed off by
bullheading cement down the casing.The casing was cleaned out, the bridge
plug was recovered, fishing operations resumed, and the fish was recov-
ered.
At times there is a tendency to repeat an unsuccessful operation.

If the same procedure has been tried several times unsuccessfully,
try another procedure. Always look for better, faster, safer ways to
conduct operations.
WHEN AND HOW TO QUIT

An important part of fishing is knowing when to quit. Often there
is a tendency to spend an excessive amount of time fishing. Part of
this is the natural reluctance to leave a job unfinished. The decision
of when to quit should be made early in the fishing job as part of the
90 Chapter 2
long-range plan. It may be based upon various actions. The most
common are after a certain type of action or operation is unsuccess-
ful, a fixed time limit, or a fixed expenditure limit. This plan does
not necessarily have to be made as soon as fishing starts, but it should
be developed early in the job. Like all plans, it must be flexible, yet
followed rigorously unless new developments warrant a change.
Recognize that some fishing jobs are unsuccessful and must be ter-
minated before completion. .
Consult with geologists, reservoir engineers, and others respon-
sible for a well before starting an extensive fishing job. This may
help determine whether fishing is warranted and provide guidance
concerning the course of action. For example, the geological infor-
mation found in the well may indicate that reserves above the fish
may be sufficient to justify completion without fishing. The same
information may also indicate that deeper reserves do not warrant
fishing or justify drilling at a different surface location that has more
potential.
Determine when to stop fishing early in the life of the job. Often
there will be several more procedures or operations to try when the
time to abandon a fishing job approaches. But unless the fishing job
has been progressing satisfactorily and is near completion, these last-
minute efforts are frequently unsuccessful. If there has been enough
time to try all reasonable, practical methods, it is time to try another
approach.
In some cases, fishing results may change the course of action,
and the operator must select an alternate plan. Assume a drilling
assembly stuck below prospective producing horizons. The plan
could be to continue fishing for a period of time and, if results are
unsuccessful. either complete through the stuck assembly or back
off and run casing. If an additional fish were lost in the hole above
the prospective producing horizon and plugged on the inside, this
would eliminate the available alternative and require selecting a dif-
ferent, and often less favorable, long-range plan.
It is difficult to determine when a fishing job should be termi-
nated, but the decision must be made and may lead to completion
problems as illustrated in the following example.
Deep Completion over a Fish

A development well had 13JI8-in.conductor casing at 800 ft, IOJ/4-in.
surface casing at 6,000 ft, and 7%-in. intermediate casing at I3,500 ft.The
well was drilled to 16,000 ft. There were severe lost circulation and gas

kick problems while drillingthe last 1,500ft of 9Y2-in.intermediate hole
and the lower 6Y2-in.hofe.A fish was left in the hole, bottom at 16,000 ft.
An extensive fishing job recovered all of the fish down to about 15,000 ft.
The fishing operations were hampered severely by the same problems
that had restricted drilling operations.
There were a number of potential producing zones in the 61/2-in.open-
hole section below 13,500 ft and others behind the bottom 1,000 ft of
7%-in. intermediate casing;The operator decided to run a 5-in. FJ produc-
tion liner, set immediately above the fish, and complete first in the lower
prospective zones through or around the fish.The lower formations were
very hard and probably would stay open, permitting production from the
zones opposite the fish.
The liner was run and cemented, the top was cleaned out and tested,
and the float collar and shoe were drilled out with mills. There was no
cement below the float shoe, and the hole was washed out down to the
top of the fish at 15,000 ft with 15 Ib/gal mud, which gave a small overbal-
ance.
A wireline packer was run, but would not enter the liner, and was
pulled. The liner was cleaned out again. A permanent packer with a
pump-out plug below the mill-out extension was run and set about 50 ft
above the bottom of the liner. The packer seated satisfactorily, but the
setting tool would not release, so the running line was pulled out of the
rope socket. The setting tool was recovered with an overshot.
A tapered 2 %-in. by 2%-in. production tubing string was run with a
sliding sleeve and stinger on bottom. The hole was displaced with 12 Ib/gal
packer fluid, and the tubing stung into the packer in the bottom of the
liner. Either the packer, the sliding sleeve, or the seals on the pump-out
plug leaked because both the casing and tubing had pressure. A blanking
plug was run but stuck, and the wireline pulled out of the rope socket.
Other completion problems were encountered, and finally the liner was
cleaned out, including milling out the packer.A second completion assem-
bly was run. It failed because of leaking and was pulled, including a wireline
fish.
The well finally was completed by running completion tubing into the
hole with a polished bore receptacle (PBR) seal assembly. The hole was
circulated with completion fluid under pressure, the tubing was latched
into the PBR on top of the 5-in. liner, a plug was set in the tubing, the
blowout preventers nippled down, and a Christmas tree nippled up. The
plug was removed and the well flowed to clean up. Drilling mud, formation
debris, and some junk were recovered. The well almost died several times
while flowing heavier mud, then cleaned up and produced clean gas. The
whole operation required over two months to complete.
92 Chapter 2
One main criterion for determining when to stop fishing or what
other action to take often is controlled by economics. Calculate these
in a regular manner. For example, sidetracking economics includes
the cost to sidetrack and redrill, compared to the estimated cost to
recover the fish. Sidetracking includes the cost to set a cement plug,
dress off and sidetrack the hole and drill to the point where the hole
was lost. Base the redrilling cost on the actual cost from the original
well. Allow for problems if appropriate. However, economics may
be less important in some situations. For example, if a wildcat well
drilling a large favorable prospect is lost, then this may be taken as
the risk loss of doing business and the prospect redrilled.
Prudent operations or obligatory considerations may override
economics. It may even be mandatory to continue fishing. Some-
times the fish left in the hole allows communication between oil and
gas zones so reservoir energy is lost, thus reducing recoverable re-
serves. The fish may provide an undesirable channel for fresh or
saltwater into productive zones.
The fish may include a radioactive tool such as a neutron source.
Regulatory agency rules normally require a diligent effort to recover
the tool or isolate it with cement. Otherwise future operations must
be conducted so they are a safe minimum distance from the radioac-
tive tool. Normally regulatory agency approval is required prior to
abandoning the hole.
Many other factors affect the decision to quit fishing. Some of
these include length and depth of the open hole, the type of forma-
tion, hole sizes and depths. The overall effect of all factors must be
considered when deciding whether to quit fishing. If it is determined
that fishing will be unsuccessful, four alternatives are available: (1)
plug back and sidetrack; (2)plug and redrill; (3)complete in, through.
or above the stuck assembly; or (4) plug and abandon the hole.
Sidetracking often is an obvious alternative to continued fish-
ing. Normally it is a relatively easy procedure, but it may be compli-
cated by hole and formation conditions. Vertical, directional, and
horizontal wells may be sidetracked in open or cased holes. There
may be more problems sidetracking in high-angle directional and
horizontal holes, especially in horizontal holes. Sidetracking in cased
holes often is more difficult because of the need to mill part of the
casing.
If sidetracking is a reasonable option, consider whether the cas-
ing was used to eliminate a formation problem, since the same for-
mations may be exposed in the sidetracked hole. Sidetracking in or
near pore pressure transition zones can be especially difficult, espe-
cially for casing set into the transition zone. This casing normally
prevents lost circulation in the higher zones with lower pressure
because of the heavier mud required to drill the higher pressured

zone. Sidetracking here may repeat the problems of drilling transi-
tion zones. The option of setting another string of casing is costly
and may not be reasonably possible because of reduced hole and
casing sizes. Do not overlook these sidetracking problems. They are
realistic and can be severe. Otherwise, problems and risks associ-
ated with sidetracking can range from hole problems due to doglegs
to drilling back into the original casing.
Shallow oil wells less than 6,000-8,000 ft are seldom sidetracked.
These wells will probably be placed on an artificial lift at a later
date. The most common artificial lift is rod pumping and there are
rod problems in sidetracked holes. Normally the most economical
procedure is to plug the hole, move, and redrill. Gas wells may be
sidetracked. Consider suspending fishing operations for holes in this
depth range when the total cost of the fishing operations is approxi-
mately one-half the total cost of drilling to the point where fishing
operations began.
There is a tendency to conduct more extensive fishing opera-
tions at shallow depths for holes projected to deeper depths (more
than 15,000 ft). These normally have large casing strings at shallow
depths, representing an appreciable investment so that additional
fishing costs are justified. They may be sidetracked, but the operator
should ensure that this will not affect deeper operations. There is
less hesitancy to fish extensively or sidetrack these holes at deeper
depths because of the large costs that have already been expended.
In special cases there may be an alternative to fishing: complet-
ing the well above, inside, or through the stuck assembly (Fig. 2-4).
This depends on the location of the prospective producing horizons
relative to the stuck assembly, the strength and size of the assembly,
the relative severity ofthe fishing job expected, the type and volume
of production expected, and other factors.
One objection to these types of completions is the cost of drillpipe
and collar fish lost in the hole. Except for very easy fishing jobs, the
cost of continued fishing operations will often offset the cost of the
lost downhole assembly in a short time, especially after derating it
to a used condition.
Completing through stuck drill pipe normally is not recom-
mended. The completion and future operations are almost invari-
ably hampered by the small hole because of the small diameter of
the completion string and the necessary smaller diameter ofthe tools
used to work inside this string. Other common problems include
inadequate zone isolation, possible formation damage when cement-
ing, and difficulty during stimulation. Installing pumping equipment
for oil wells at a later date often is a problem.
94 Chapter 2
Figure 2-4 Completing in or above a fish
--.--.--....---.-..--.......-...........................-........-..-...---.
Fish in hole Complete in fish Complete above fish
~.
... -- .
... Cement
--
-
n.
....
... ......
..'-
--
-
- - -..
......
.. ... ...
...,
-.
. Bit

These completions normally are restricted to shallow oil and gas
wells, medium-depth gas wells, and special circumstances. If the
drilling assembly is stuck below the prospective producing horizon
and cannot be recovered efficiently, then completion in the upper
zone definitely should be considered, especially on a wildcat. Often
it is possible to recover a sufficient amount of the downhole assem-
bly so that casing can be run through the upper zone.
Single-zone gas weils at shallow to moderate depths are most
commonly considered for completion through stuck drillpipe. The
zone can be block squeezed and perforated if the fish cannot be cir-
culated for cementing. Perforating guns are adequate with sufficient
penetration, even for most drill-collar assemblies. Another alterna-
tive may be to part the drillpipe above the stuck point and run a
tieback casing string.
POS1=-ANALYSIS
Post-analysis of a fishing job basically includes a report of what
happened, how it was corrected, and what action will prevent it from
happening in the future. The report is not intended to and should
not be used to place blame. Any criticism should be constructive.
Prepare the report a relatively short time after finishing the fishing
job. The person directly in charge of the fishing job normally prepares
the report. Also have it reviewed by the various personnel involved.
Much of the information for the report is found in the earlier
investigations to learn all details, the fishing plan of action, and when
to quit. Often there is a tendency to forget all about the fishing job
when it is over. This is somewhat natural. But something should be
learned from almost any fishing job.
Learning what happened may prevent a future occurrence. For
example, a fishing job may be caused by a pin failure in the lower
drill-collar assembly. Check the remaining drill collar tool joints. If
one c.onnector failed, the other connections were exposed to the same
conditions and also subject to failure. The connectors could have
failed from excess torque. This means restricting future operations
to decrease torque or increasing the frequency of inspections to de-
tect damaged connectors.
The Post Fishing Report is not "hindsight," but an attempt to
learn the facts and make logical deductions. The following questions
are examples of what should be considered.
.. What circumstances led to the fishing job?

What rig operation was being conducted? Where were the
. rig personnel, and what were they doing?

Did the drillstring part, and if so where? Was it caused by
an equipment failure or operational or formation problems?
96 Chapter 2
. Was the drill- or work string stuck differentially, with drill
cuttings or caving, an object dropped down the hole, or in
. a tapered hole or fracture, etc.?

Have similar failures occurred or almost happened in the
. recent past?
Was the mud weight being increased or decreased? Were
the mud properties being changed, or did the mud contain
. dissolved gas?
What are the formation characteristics (sands, washouts,
. doglegs, etc.)?
Give a complete description of the fish with all measure-
ments, where it was stuck or positioned, and other perti-
nent details.
. Was immediate action initiated? What was done and how
effective was it? What other actions should have been
. taken?
What equipment or materials were on location to aid in
immediately freeing stuck pipe or initiating the fishing
operations? Should additional equipment or materials be
considered?
. Was a fishing job required? Were there obligatory reasons
. for fishing? Why was fishing terminated?

Was a plan of action prepared and documented? Did it need
revision?
GUIDES TO FISHING
Guides to fishing generally apply to all fishing or sticking situa-
tions. General guides are more detailed with a broad application.
Summary guides generally are short, explicit, and to the point. These
are similar to general preventive actions. Many guides are included
in various places in the text. Some are summarized here as remind-
ers, not necessarily listed in the order of importance.
Work on the Fish from the Top Down

Work on fishing and related situations from the top down and
keep the downhole assembly above problem areas. For example, if a
keyseat is developing in the open hole above the fish, consider it as
part of the fishing job and remove it before continuing fishing. Run
an assembly through a hazardous hole section to catch a fish only as
a calculated risk.
One exception is when high-pressure zones are exposed in the
wellbore, especially with lost circulation. It often is best in these
situations to work with the assembly deeper in the hole so that
weighted fluids control high-pressure zones more efficiently. This is
especially important when a lost circulation zone occurs above the

high-pressure zone or if there is a long interval between the two zones.
The assembly may stick, but this is more acceptable than the risk of
a blowout.
Select the Strongest Catch Tool

Select the fishing tool that makes the strongest connection, usu-
ally a screw-in connection. A second choice is an overshot connec-
tion. Normally use a die collar or taper tap as a last resort. They do
not have a strong hold, are less strong, and are more likely to break.
Future fishing operations can be severely restricted if the tools break,
leaving the bottom part in the top of the fish.
Pull the Fish out of the Hole without Delay

Pull the fish carefully out of the hole immediately after catching
it, subject to extenuating circumstances. The connection to the fish
usually is weaker than other connections in the assembly. Most catch
tools are stronger in tension than in compression. Also some catch
tools such as the slip-type overshot are released by slacking off. There-
fore maintain the catch in tension and pull it immediately to avoid
the risk of losing the fish.
This is especially important in the case of a kick or other blow-
out situation. It often is difficult to control these situations with a
fish on the bottom of the work string, so pull it as soon as possible.
Pulling the fish immediately also applies to any assembly with ques-
tionable integrity. These include those with leaks, dropped work
strings that may be bent, and similar situations.
Do Not Rotate When Pulling a Fish

DO NOT rotate the fishing string when pulling a fish. There is a
risk of losing the fish by rotation, or shaking or vibrating it off. Dis-
connect the pipe as it is pulled with hydraulic drillpipe tongs or
chain out.
Do not pull the fishing string high above the rotary, only high
enough to set the slips. There is a risk of loosening the catch on the
fish with a long slack-off.
Expedite Fishing Operations

Fishing is a high-risk operation, and the risk increases with time.
This applies to actual fishing and regular operations. Don't rush to
the point of endangering the operation, but speed up the work to
finish the job in a prudent manner.
Eliminate the Cause of Fishing if Necessary

Often the cause of the fish may severely hamper fishing opera-
tions. For example, caving may cause a fishing job. Additional fish
may be lost if the cause of the first fish is not eliminated. It is not
98 Chapter 2
uncommon in these conditions to lose a second or even third fish in
the hole while fishing.
Don't Arbitrarily Assume the Fishing Job Is Easy

Many fishing jobs are not difficult and are completed with a min-
imum of difficulty. However, complications can develop quickly, of-
ten leading to extensive problems. It is not uncommon to have a
second fish or "fish on top of a fish." Be aware of complicating factors.
Priority of Operations
Remember, the main objective is to recover the fish. Other opera-
tions may be required as a secondary objective. It may be necessary
to complete the secondary objective, such as removing a keyseat by
reaming, before returning to the .primary objective of fishing.
Do not continuously repeat unsuccessful operations or proce-
dures. A procedure may be indicated as the best way, but if it does
not work after several attempts, then try something else.
Operations Recorders
There are various types of recorders used in drilling operations.
Various parameters are recorded, such as drill string movement and
weight, rotary torque, pump pressure and strokes, pit volume, mud
properties, and others, depending upon type and number of
instruments.
These tools help both during drilling and in sticking and fishing
situations, serving many useful purposes. They aid in checking for
and verifying problems, and possibly in determining procedures for
solving them. A close check of the mud pressure and volume and
pump strokes helps detect leaks before they cause a fishing job. Mud
gas detectOl:s show the amount of gas in the mud, serving as an early
warning of a kick. Pit volume and flow-line recorders help detect
kick situations in time to control them with only minor difficulty
and risk. Pit volume totalizers determine very small volumes of lost
circulation and whether the hole is filling properly when pulling the
pipe. The pipe depth and weight recorders help to determine whether
keyseats are forming and the amount of pipe drag. Torque recorders
indicate hole condition. Other parameters can be recorded depend-
ing upon need.
Stuck Condition of Fish

Don't worry unnecessarily about the stuck condition of the fish.
It is already stuck and its condition normally will not deteriorate.
Possible exceptions are differential pressure or wall sticking; mov-
ing or plastic or fluid sensitive, unstable formations; and excess cir-
culation and work string movement immediately above the fish.

Keep Top of Fish Clean
Don't tag or otherwise touch the top of the fish with the work
string too often; it isn't going anywhere. Tagging may damage the
catch area, increasing the difficulty of catching the fish. Tagging the
fish too hard or too often may cause it to fall to bottom if it is not on
bottom already. One ofthe best examples of this is a fish caught in a
keyseat.
Don't circulate excessively immediately on top of a fish in the
open hole - only 5-10 minutes, then pull up 20-30 feet and con-
tinue circulating for regular hole cleaning. Otherwise, drill cuttings
may settle around the top of the fish, sticking it tighter, and may
possibly require washing over, a higher risk procedure. Circulating
can wash out around the top of the fish, increasing the difficulty of
catching it. Cuttings and formation debris may fall inside the top of
the fish, creating a bridge. This may require cleaning out, a higher
risk procedure. It restricts running tools such as a freepoint log or
back-off shot inside the fish.
Anticipate Mechanical Repairs

Maintain the rig and mechanical equipment in good condition
as a standard procedure. However, try to anticipate the mechanical
condition of the equipment and make inspections and repairs as
needed, especially before extended downhole operations. Check the
blowout preventers, closing unit, and choke manifolds. Cut or slip
the drilling line and make brake adjustments. Ensure that the pumps
are in good condition. Check the surface circulating system, repack
the swivel or top drive, and check all valves and surface lines.
Always consider the condition of the fishing string. Inspect it if
its condition is questionable. Inspect all fishing tools, especially on
deep, more critical fishing jobs.
Summary Guides to Fishing

Observe the following summary guides.
. Do not run anything in the hole that you are not prepared
to fish out.
. Keep the fishing assembly in a clean hole.
. Do not underestimate the importance of working to release
the fish.
. Always have good accurate measurements, including an
accurate description of the fish with precise measurements.
. Minimize torque and drag to prevent obscuring surface in-
dications of downhole fishing tool action.
. Always try to recover the fish in one piece.
. Do not wash over as the first fishing operation.
100 Chapter 2
.. Do not wait on fishing tools.
. Do not run unnecessary leak-off tests.

Use close tolerance outside diameter skirts or "no-go" tools
.. while fishing for wirelines.

Use milling as a last resort.
Maintain an accurate count of all tubulars on location and
record in the drilling report.
. Do not shock the hole by surging and swabbing.
. Always maintain good, consistent, high-quality mud.
. Monitor all surface and downhole indications while
fishing.
Take Reasonable Risk - Improvise

There may be a tendency to' become overcautious while fishing.
This is partially due to unfamiliarity. Caution is advised but in some
cases may be almost as undesirable as taking unnecessary risks. Take
reasonable risks based on good judgment.
For example there are times when drilling or milling an object,
such as a plug, when the object will rotate under the bit so it cannot
be cleaned out efficiently. Setting extra weight or spudding vigor-
ously may break or stick the object so it can be drilled efficiently. In
some fishing or sticking situations, it may be necessary to pull above
the minimum yield too near the ultimate strength of the work string
to release the fish. Another example is cementing or plugging lost
circulation. If bit cones are known to be lost while drilling. then run
on the bit shanks for 10-20 minutes. This breaks up the cones into
rubble so they can more easily be caught with a basket. USE WITH
CAUTION.
Situations may occur that should not happen. such as dropping
the drilling assembly, running the wrong tool, etc. In these cases the
main objective is to correct the problem. Sometimes the only way to
do this is to improvise and look for better, faster, and safer ways to
conduct operations.
Catching a Fish with an Unmatched Pin

A shallow 4,500 feet on-structure wildcat had loin. casing at 1,400 ft.
Hard, abrasive formations were drilled in a 6'/4-in. hole to TD.An attempt
to log failed due to a fluid sensitive, caving shale near TD. A cleanout trip
was made with the 31/2-in.drillpipe, 10 stands of 5 X 21/e-in.drill collars,
and a hard-formation insert bit. The shale caved and stuck the drilling
assembly while circulating with air on bottom.
The drillpipe was worked for about 6 hours without releasing it. Stretch
data indicated sticking at or below the top of the drill collars. The hole

was loaded with lightweight mud. circulated. and the pipe worked another
6 hours without releasing it while waiting on fishing tools.
A free-point showed the bottom six drill collars 100% stuck and the
seventh 25% stuck. The drill collars were backed off. leaving a fish of seven
drill collars and a bit, with a 4'12-in.regular box looking up. A fishing as-
sembly was made up and run in the hole with a pin down to screw into the
fish. After circulating, an attempt was made to screw into the fish. The
pipe would torque and then jump free with an overpull of about 10.000
pounds. Checking surface tools indicated that a 41/2-in.full-hole pin was
run on the bottom of the fishing assembly by mistake.
Maximum torque was applied to the fish, including bumping back to
jam the pin into the box. This could have damaged the box, but probably
not severely because of the relatively low weights involved.Another con-
sideration was that the location was isolated. and obtaining other tools
would take 12 hours.The fishing assembly was torqued tightly with limited
vertical bumping to help jam the pin into the box. The fish began to rotate
slowly with the relatively high torque. The fish was released and recov-
ered. Using the mismatched connection was successful.
The error in running the wrong pin was obvious. However, the IN-
NOVATIVEprocedure to recover the fish saved over 12 hours of rig time
since waiting on the correct tools could have meant more time for the
formation to cave. The procedure was a calculated risk, but successful.
There was another. less obvious error. The full string of drill collars should
not have been run on the cleanout trip. This is a common error in this
situation but it is not recommended, based on the rule, "Don't run any-
thing in the hole that is not needed."
PORE PRESSURES AND

TRANSITION ZONES
Blowouts are one of the most severe problems encountered in
drilling, the least serious result of which usually is fishing. Prevent
blowouts with a good understanding of pore pressures, transition
zones, and detecting and controlling kicks.
Pore Pressure
Pore pressure is the pressure of the fluid within the pore space
of the formation. Normally it is equivalent to the hydrostatic pres-
102 Chapter 2
sure exerted by a column of water with a vertical height equal to the
depth to the point of measurement. Normal pressure gradients de-
pend upon the salinity ofthe water in the pore spaces. Salinity ranges
from a freshwater gradient of 0.433 psi/ft or 8.33 Ib/gal to more com-
mon saltwater, which has 20,000 ppm Cl, equivalent to 0.442 psi/ft
or 8.5 Ib/gal. Higher gradients of saltwater with 80,000 ppm Cl equiva-
lent to 0.468 psi/ft or 9.0 Ib/gal occur.
Abnormal pore pressures are those above or below the normal
range. They commonly have a'limited areal extent. The common or-
der is increasing pressure with depth, but pressure reversals occur
with a lower pressure below a zone of higher pressure.
The most common causes of abnormal pressures are geological
conditions such as tectonic forces, depth of burial, rate of sedimen-
tation, matrix strength, and varying degrees of repressured or de-
pleted formations. They commonly occur in basins and areas con-
taining sediments, such as shale beds over several hundred feet thick,
that serve as a pressure seal. Sand sections within these geopres-
sured shales frequently are over-pressured.
High-pressure formations have pore pressures in the range of 0.62
psi/ft or 121b/gal to 0.78 psi/ft or 151b/gal, but some exceed 1.10
psi/ft or 21.21b/gal. Subnormal or low pore pressure formations have
pressures as low as 0.25 psi/ft or 4.8 Ib/gal.
Abnormal pressure formations with high permeability cause
problems ranging from blowouts to lost circulation. Otherwise they
are not dangerous to drill as long as the formation has a very low
permeability so fluids cannot move into or out of the wellbore at
dangerously high rates. High-pressure formations containing gas are
potentially more dangerous than those containing oil or water be-
cause of the greater compressibility and reduced density of gas com-
pared to a liquid.
Pore-Pressure Plots
Pore-pressure plots help detect and predict pore pressure. They
are a major aid in locating and evaluating transition zones and the
magnitude of increasing or decreasing pore pressure. They help se-
lect the optimum mud weight to maximize penetration rates and
maintain a margin of safety to prevent kicks. The plots are based
primarily upon drilling and geological information as listed in Table
2-1.

Table 2-1 Source data for pore-pressure plots
Drilling and Well Logs and

MWD Data Other Measurements
Penetration Rate Well Logs
Mud Temperature Resistivity
Shale Density Gamma
Gas in the Mud Density
General Lithology Sonic
Cuttings Seismic
Shale Density Shale Density
Chlorides SP Log
Paleontology Neutron Log
Induction Electric Log
Lateral Log
The data listed in Table 2-1 are used to develop the plots listed in
Table 2-2.
Table 2-2 Pore-pressure plots and observations

Plots Plots or Observations
Penetration Rate Mud Rheological
-
D Exponent (Modified) Flow Line Temperature
Shale Density Cuttings Lithology
Drill Cuttings Measurement Mud Pit Volume
Neutron Logs Mud Flowback
Sonic Logs Bit Records
SP (Spontaneous Potential) Drill Cuttings
Resistivity Lithology
Mud Gas Content Size and Shape
Background Gas Volume
Drilled Gas Torque and Drag
Connection Gas Sloughing and Caving
Trip Gas Tight Hole
Chlorides
There are two general types of pore-pressure plots. each con-

structed in a similar manner. The construction and evaluation of these
plots is well documented in the literature and summarized here. Gen-
eral pore-pressure plots are based on seismic and logging data, pore-
104 Chapter 2
pressure plots on wells in the area, and similar data. They serve as a
guide for preparing the drilling and casing program and as a general
reference to help interpret pore-pressure plots constructed while
drilling. Often these are less accurate and definitive compared to
drilling pore-pressure plots.
Drilling pore-pressure plots are prepared primarily from data and
meassurements recorded during drilling. Measurement-while-drill-
ing instruments can be very heJpful because they record electric log-
type data that is immediately available.Having immediate data is a
major advantage over waiting until a section is drilled and logged.
Data recorded after logging is normally too late to help with drilling
the well.
Gather and plot data in a c:;onventional manner. Plot at the cor-
rect depth by correcting for lag, usually on two- or three-cycle log
paper. Common plotting scales include l-in.ll00 ft for detecting
trends and l-in.ll0 ft for finer definition. Recognize that a base-line
shift may be required at major geological boundaries.
Normally use the general area pore-pressure gradient as a base
line. Plotted points give the pore pressure above or below this. Ref-
erence these from the base line with standard scales. However, there
is always a question about the accuracy of these standard scales in
each specific well because every well seems to be exceptional. Also,
standard scales may not be available for wildcat wells. Calibrate and
correct the standard scales by determining the pore pressure when-
ever possible.
Obtain a starting pore pressure with a leak-off test in the open
hole immediately below the casing shoe. Conducting the test cor-
rectly will not hamper operations. Leak-off tests at greater depths
may be unreliable because the point of leakage may be indetermi-
nate due to longer openhole sections. An openhole drillstem test
often provides pore pressure at a specific depth.
Various types of gas include gas shows, swabbed gas, connection
gas, drill gas, trip gas, drill cuttings gas and background gas. Relate
the depth of gas entry by lag time. Some of these are more accurate
and others, such as swab gas, may give a false show. Connection and
trip gas and some gas shows may indicate the pore pressure subject
to the mud weight. Do not confuse connection gas with drill gas.
Sand stringers in massive shale sections can be very good indicators
of pore pressure, especially when drilling near balance. Use gas-cut
mud data with caution because of the tendency of gas to migrate into
the mud, especially oil mud. Check the effect of background gas due
to the natural gas content in oil mud by measuring the amount of gas
in weathered diesel.

Deceptive Gas Shows in Oil Mud
A well drilling with oil mud maintained an overbalance of 0.2 Ib/gal
using standard indicators such as trip and connection gas and several pore-
pressure plots. A sand at 10,000 ft with a pore pressure of 13.8 Ib/gal
gave a small gas show while drilling with 14-lb/gal mud. This gas show
continued to be identified as a false connection gas spike while drilling
several thousand feet deeper with a mud weight of 16.3 Ib/gal, an overbal-
ance of 2.5 Ib/gal at 10,000 ft, and verified by pore-pressure plots. The
only reasonable explanation for the continued show of gas from the sand
at 10,000 ft was some type of osmotic or solubility action, since the gas
could not have flowed into the mud by normal pressure differential action.
Extrapolate pore-pressure plot trends to help predict pore pres-

sures in the underlying formations. The reliability of tho projection
decreases with distance. There are no set rules on the distance that
can be reliably projected. However it normally is at least 50 ft and
can be several hundred or more.
Transition Zones
Transition zones are the depth interval in which the pressure
gradient changes from the gradient in the upper zone to an abnormal
pressure in the lower zone. They usually also represent the changing
geological environment between the two pressure regimes. They are
based on pressures but defined in terms of pressure gradients.
Prevent kicks and possible blowouts while drilling by detecting
transition zones. Predict the extent oftransition zones to select exact
casing points, especially in situations requiring precise mud weight
control. Wells have been either lost or abandoned before reaching
total depth because of setting one or more casing strings too high, a
costly, preventable mistake.
Pressure gradient changes across transition zones are relatively
constant but variations occur. Several transition zones may occur in
a wellbore but one is most common. Most zones have increasing gra-
dients but decreasing gradients occur. Small gradient changes may
not be significant, but larger changes can be very important.
Detect transition zones by their special properties, mainly using
pore pressure plots (Fig. 2-5) and indicators described in the section
on kick detection. Verify the transition zone by correlation with
nearby wells if data are available. The nearest well may be a long
distance away but pore-pressure plots tend to be similar over large
areas. Detection in exploratory wells may be more difficult but nor-
mally should not be a major problem with the volume of potential
information and the reliability of drilling indicators.
106 Chapter 2
Figure 2-5 Pore-pressure plot
-.....-------.-----
.---.--
20-in. ,!if 500 It
2 13 3/B-in.
@ 2,000 It
:I:
:5
--
0
8
\ \
\
x
.<:: \ \
\
-
0.
-
OJ \
0
\
10f- \\ \ I I 9 5/8-in. at 10,000tt
\ \
\
12 f-
\ \
\
I
\ } I
I
I I
14 / /
-/
-- I I - 7.in.liner @ 14.800 II
161- I I / .- - 5-11).
FJ line' at 16.000 tt
18 .....-....-.......--.-.....-..
The comment has been made too often to the effect that a well
was drilling ahead in a normal manner when "all of a sudden it drilled
off into a high pressure zone and kicked!" The most probable hap-
pening in this case was failure to observe drilling indicators and
pore-pressure plots. This should and can be prevented, Transition
and high-pressure zones, like keys eats, warn the observant operator.

Table 2-3 illustrates pressure gradients and their length in tran-
sition zones. There should be sufficient time to recognize pore pres-
sures and take action accordingly in most drilling situations. There
could be a problem in a few cases of fast drilling and deeper wells
with longer circulating and related lag time. Alternate actions in these
cases might include reducing the drilling rate, circulating, and using
a slightly higher mud weight as a safety factor.
Table 2-3 Transition zones - change of pore-pressu re

vs. depth
Top of Bottom of Pressure Gradient
Transition Zone Transition Zone
Mud @ Depth, Mud @ Depth,
Wt., ft Wt., ft ft/ psi/ Ib/gal/
Ib/gal Ib/gal psi 100 ft 100 ft
Beaufort Sea
9.0 @ 4,000 -to- 13.0 @ 5.800 450 0.44 0.22
10.0 @ 8,000 -to- 15.0 @ 9,200 140 0.42 0.42
Louisiana
13.1 @ 7,600 -to- 17.0 @ 11,000 872 0.17 0.12
12.2 @ 8,700 -to- 15.3 @ 10,000 419 0.24 0.24
9.0 @ 12,200 -to- 14.0 @ 12,800 120 0.83 0.83
9.0 @ 12,300 -to- 15.0 @ 13,500 200 0.50 0.50
12.2 @ 13,000 -to- 17.0 @ 15,000 417 0.24 0.19
9.0 @ 11,200 -to- 11.0 @ 12,500 650 0.15 0.15
11.0 @ 12,500 -to- 15.0 @ 12,800 75 1.33 1.33
15.0 @ 12,800 -to- 17.5 @ 14,000 480 0.21 0.21
9.0 @ 11,300 -to- 16.3 @ 12,600 178 0.56 0.56
Tuscaloosa Trend (several states)
9.0 @ 16,500 -to- 12.5 @ 18,000 428 0.23 0.23
12.5 @ 18,000 -to- 16.0 @ 18,700 200 0.50 0.50
16.0 @ 18,700 -to- 13.0 @ 20,000 -314 -0.30 -0.23
8.0 @ 13,000 -to- 12.0 @ 14,800 450 0.22 0.22
12.0 @ 14,800 -to- 15.0 @ 17,800 1,000 0.10 0.10
15.0 @ 17,800 -to- 9.0 @ 18,300 -83 -1.20 -1.20
9.5 @ 10,000 -to- 13.0 @ 11,800 514 0.19 0.19
13.0 @ 11,800 -to-16.0 @ 12,700 300 0.33 0.33
16.0 @ 13,200 -to- 10.0 @ 14,000 133 0.75 -0.75
Texas
9.0 @ 9,000 -to- 13.0 @ 10,200 300 0.33 0.33
9.0 @ 5,200 -to- 14.2 @ 8,700 673 0.15 0.15
Utah
9.0 @ 14,700 -to- 14.0 @ 15,400 140 0.71 0.71
Unidentified
13.5 @ 12,500 -to- 17.2 @ 13,500 270 0.27 0.37
9.0 @ 9,100 -to- 16.0 @ 12,800 529 0.19 0.19
12.0 @ 17,000 -to- 16.5 @ 18,200 267 0.38 0.38
108 Chapter 2
The data in Table 2-3 illustrate general pore-pressure changes in
transition zones. DO NOT USE for a specific well.
Blowout detection and prevention procedures are well estab-
lished. As an important note of warning, maintain the blowout con-
trol equipment to keep it in good operating condition and adequately
tested. The crews should be well trained with blowout drills.
KICKS
A kick occurs when formation fluids, usually gas,.oil, saltwater
(kick fluids) or a combination ofthese over-balance the mud column
and begin flowing into the wellbore and toward the surface. They
always create a high-risk condjtion. Most are preventable. However,
they can be detected in sufficient time to control them, minimizing
any serious problems. Otherwise they endanger personnel and can
cause situations ranging from stuck pipe to a blowout and loss of the
hole. In any drilling situation, and especially during kicks or blow-
outs, be aware of gas and oil, which are highly inflammable. Satis-
factorily predicting transition zones and detecting and controlling
kicks has been verified by extensive, reliable field experience.
Detection
Kick detection is the procedure of identifying a kick, the precur-
sor of a blowout. It includes monitoring various indicators and
recognizing when to take action. The most successful detection rec-
ognizes the kick very shortly after it occurs and in time to control it
before a blowout develops. In the optimum case, it may not be nec-
essary to shut the well in.
Detect kicks by monitoring various indicators. Prepare pore-pres-
sure plots, update and review as necessary to detect transition zones
and determine the correct, safe mud weight. Increased penetration
rate, flowline increases and continued flow during connections have
consistently been the best and earliest indicators of a kick, followed
closely by flowline and pit volume increases, gas in the mud, and
the shape and increased volume of cuttings and caving. Look for
tabular, splintery-shaped cuttings with sharp edges, and sometimes
conchoidal-shaped sides. Gas in the mud includes background, con-
nection gas, trip gas, and cuttings gas. Gas analysis for the individual
components gives a good indication of the type of kick fluids. Check
micro-fossils or their environmental indicators if they are known to
be associated with the transition zone. Increasing mud chlorides may
indicate a pending saltwater flow.
Generally drill with a near-balanced mud system. Contrary to
popular opinion, this is probably the safest and most economical
procedure. Drilling generally is faster with fewer problems, and kick

indicators are more reliable and easier to detect. Improve indicator
accuracy by maintaining constant parameters such as bit weight, ro-
tary speed. and mud properties. Ensure that the rig crews have had
adequate BOP and kill procedure training and are proficient at BOP
drills.
Control
Controlling a kick is the procedure of circulating and removing
kick fluids while maintaining full control of the well and restoring it
to a safe operating condition. The following kill procedure is a brief
summary.
Slow pump rates are used to help kill a kick. Normally two are
recorded at about one-third and two-thirds of the normal pump rate
while drilling. Record the pressure and pump strokes per minute
(SPM) on the daily report. Kill procedures depend upon the situa-
tion when a kick occurs. A very minor kick may be circulated out
without closing the pipe rams.
In most cases, stop drilling. shut down the mud pump. pick up
the pipe until the bottom of the kelly is above the rotary, shut the
well in by closing the UPPER drillpipe rams and record the shut-in
pressures. ALWAYS close the UPPER pipe rams, leaving the lower
pipe rams as a safety shut-off or as a replacement for the top pipe
rams if they are damaged or become worn.
The shut-in drill pipe pressure determines the pressure and mud
weight needed to kill the well. The initial pit volume increase indi-
cates the volume of kick fluids entering the wellbore at the pressure
conditions where the fluid enters the wellbore. Normally increase
the mud weight and circulate the well with the correct mud weight
to kill it, preferably in one circulation. Circulate through the drill pipe
and out the choke manifold at one of the slow pump rates based
upon the SPM. Control the flow rate through the choke manifold to
obtain the same drillpipe pump-in pressure for the slow pump rate
SPM being used. Two or more circulations may be required for high
volume kicks or those in which there is a high gas content in the kick
fluids.
Gas solubility in oil mud can increase the risk in some kick situ-
ations. Normal free gas expands due to the decreasing pressure as it
moves up the hole. The increased gas volume is released through the
BOP choke manifold as noted. However, additional gas may be solu-
bilized in oil mud. Pressure reduces as the mud moves uphole and
dissolved gas in the oil phase "flashes" out of solution. This gas in-
creases both the amount of gas available for expansion and the ex-
110 Chapter 2

panded volume. Gas dissolved in the mud is released at an increas-

ing rate as the pressure decreases. The released gas tends to lighten
the fluid column which further reduces the hydrostatic pressure and
releases more gas in a "chain reaction" that is self-accelerating. This
requires handling a larger vol ume of gas at a faster rate when circu-
lating out a kick with oil mud that contains gas in solution.
It may be necessary to flow through the choke manifold at a higher
rate for a strong kick, usually because of a higher pressure differen-
tial or larger volumes of kick fluids entering the wellbore. This pre-
vents a pressure buildup in the annulus and the risk of bursting the
surface casing or causing lost circulation or an underground blow-
out. Either creates a severe situation. In this case it may be necessary
to control the pump in volume based on judgment and experience,
and aided by pressures and pit volumes. This situation increases the
difficulty of circulating out the kick because of lighter wellbore flu-
ids and reduced surface pressures may allow more kick fluids to
enter the wellbore:
There is a risk of sticking while circulating out a kick, but this is
preferable to a blowout. In some cases it may be possible to move the
drillpipe if surface pressures are not excessive, Gas in oil mud may
increase the problem. After circulating the well dead, circulate to
ensure stabilized mud weight and wellbore conditions before resum-
ing operations.
The period of time that a well can be shut in before starting to
circulate out a kick often is the subject of considerable controversy,
Many believe that kick fluids will migrate up-hole very rapidly if the
well is left shut-in for any appreciable time. This is not supported by
field evidence, even with a high gas content in the kick fluids. How-
ever, it is preferable to circulate the kick out as soon as possible be-
cause it represents a dangerous situation.
The length of time the well can be left shut in before circulating
the kick out safely depends upon the type of kick fluids, mud weight,
depth of the kick and related factors. However, experience has incli-
cated that the well can be left shut-in for an extended period of time
if surface pressurns stabilize. Average kicks at about 10,000 ft have
been left shut-in for over eight hours and then circulated out with-
out difficulty. In one case, gaseous kick fluids may have migrated
uphole about 2,000 ft in eight hours.
The volume of kick fluids entering the wcllbore is a measure of
kick severity. An average kick contains 10-15 bbls of kick fluids
measured at reservoir conditions. Severity increases with increasing
volume of kick fluids and gas content. This is an important reason
for monitoring the pit volume closely.
General Rules and Procedures

REAMING
Reaming is the procedure of opening or smoothing the walls of
the hole. It serves as a preventive action by reaming a tight or crooked
hole. Reaming is a common fishing operation. such as opening the
hole to the top of the fish. Reaming often is the only method of cor-
recting a crooked hole, enlarging short bends and turns, smoothing
the 'Nalls of the hole, and removing keyseats. Reaming does not di-
rectly reduce the change of angle. It tends to enlarge the hole to some
extent, especially in smaller gauge sections and near the start and
end of curved hole sections. The net result is an apparently larger
hole with reduced curvature.
Operations
Reaming can be a high-risk operation. Reaming is probably the
most common cause of unintentional sidetracking. Other risks while
reaming incl ude sticking the assembly and twisting off. The severity
ofreaming problems probably approaches that of keys eating and "vall
sticking. Ream only when absolutely necessary. ALWAYS ream with
the correct type of assembly and operate it carefully.
Normally ream with the recommended assembly, usually a drill
collar reaming, wiping assembly, or string reamers. Reaming with a
regular assembly and bit is seldom effective except when reaming a
newly drilled hole.
Assembly
The drill collar reaming assembly is the most common reaming
tool. It is most commonl y used for reaming near bottom, but is also
used for reaming higher in the hole.
The assembly is similar to a packed-hole or stiff assembly. It has
two stabilizers separated by two drill collars, with a reamer located
between them. The reamer may be a vertical or spiral-blade type or
three- or six-point roller reamer. Use full-gauge tools and larg(~ d iarn-
eter drill collars to increase.
The two end stabilizers act as fulcrums or contact points. The
drill collars act like a leaf spring, forcing the reamer(s) to cut into the
inner wall. This helps straighten a crooked hole section or remove a
keyseat. In severe cases it may be necessary to run a more limber
assembly with smaller drill collars and possibly an extra collar be-
tween the stabilizers. A more aggressive tool may have two reamers
separated by a drill collar, all between the two stabilizers. Usually
drilling jars and a bumper sub are run on top of the drill-collar
assembly.
112 Chapter 2
There is a high risk of sidetracking when reaming off bottom
with this assembly. Eliminate this with careful operations and by
running a pilot bit or bull-nose type hole opener. These virtually
eliminate the risk of sidetracking. DO NOT use an under-gauge or
worn bit for severe reaming.
Normally ream with a slightly faster rotary. Do not ream too long
at anyone point. Several moderately fast, light reaming passes are
much better than one slow pass. Try to smooth or open the hole over
several runs, reaming completely through the crooked, deviated, or
dogleg section. This reduces the risk of sidetracking and leaves a
smoother wall.
Do not force the reaming assembly into a very tight hole with
excessive weight because of the risk of sticking. If the reaming as-
sembly is too aggressive and causes "very hard running," then pull it
and run one that is less aggressive. After reaming, run the next as-
sembly into the hole carefully. There may still be a risk of sticking.
It is very important to keep the pipe moving downward, picking
up as necessary, while reaming with a reaming assembly or even a
regular assembly. Otherwise there is a high risk of sidetracking, es-
pecially with a bit on bottom. The bit may form a ledge if the pipe
begins to take weight and the reaming rate slows. This leads to side-
tracking. Often a developing ledge can be eliminated by increasing
the weight and reducing the rotary speed so the bit slips off the ledge
and back into the original hole. Usually, the best practice is to ream
with the heaviest weight possible, depending upon torque and col-
lar weight. Use the combination of weight and rotary speed that gives
the highest reaming rate. Reaming problems are illustrated in the
following example.
Reaming in an "S" Type Directional Hole

A well was intentionally sidetracked at 7,000 ft and built angle at
21/21100ft to 30. This angle was maintained to about 4,000 ft and then
dropped with a pendulum in a conventional manner. Torque and drag be-
gan increasing when the top of the drill collars were below the second
bend and continued increasing while drilling deeper. There also was some
evidence of keyseat development in both bends. Replacing part of the drill-
collar assembly with heavy drillpipe helped reduce the torque and drag
problem.
The first remedial step was to ream the keyseat sections with the bit
and stabilizers on the pendulum assembly when tripping to change bits.
The tools were operated in a careful manner to prevent sidetracking or
twisting off. This helped, but the keyseat continued to develop.

A keyseat wiping assembly was run. It had stabilizers at positions 30
and 90 ft. a spiral reamer at position 60 and a bullet-nose hole opener on
bottom. The section was reamed but continued to have a heavy reaming
action after the upper stabilizer passed below the upper curved section.
The assembly should have moved freely downhole. This was continued
until the top stabilizer was over 500 ft into the straight inclined hole sec-
tion. The lower section had not caused problems and should not have
required reaming.
The possibility of sidetracking was rejected because: (I) the bullet-
nose hole opener could not sidetrack under any normal condition in a
medium hard formation. (2) the hole was reamed at about 20 ft/hr with a
moderate reamer weight. whereas the original hole was drilled at about
10 ft/hr with a heavier weight and slightly higher rotary speed. and (3)
deviation surveys indicated that the hole had the correct course and angle.
The assembly was pulled and found to be in good condition except for
worn rollers on the hole opener. Apparently the bottom stabilizer acted
as a fulcrum and the lower drill collar served as a pendulum. and the hole
opener was cutting and maintaining a ledge and drilling a small half-moon
section on the low side of the hole. This had been considered during the
latter part of the reaming run but light spudding and heavier weight would
not break through.The assembly was rerun and the lower section reamed
with heavier weight and spudding. A small amount of hole was reamed and
the assembly was then run to bottom without difficulty.
String Reamer
String reamers are conventionally run in the drillstring. They
ream while drilling or with the bit off-bottom to remove keyseats
and, less commonly. to remove a crooked hole. One reamer is most
common but two may be used. sometimes separated by a joint of
pipe.
The string reamer is moderately efficient, but there is a high risk
of twisting or backing off, or of tool joint failure, often due to metal
fatigue. Run them only when the keyseat cannot be wiped out with a
drill collar keyseat wiping assembly or even a regular keys eat wiper.
String reamers are somewhat of a last resort tool because of the dan-
ger of failure while running.
A full-gauge, 3600 contact, spiral-type reamer or a six-point reamer
minimizes the fatiguing action on the reamer tool joints compared to
a vertical blade reamer. In soft to medium-hard formations, a spiral
blade stabilizer may provide sufficient cutting action. Use a three- or
six-point roller reamer dressed with cutters designed for the forma-
tion hardness or for reaming in harder and or abrasive formations,
114 Chapter 2
Figure 2-6 Removing a keyseat with a string reamer
--------..-.--.....-....-..-..............---..-.-.-.......................................-....................-...-.................................--.......
a b c
...
-J;
:
I
[:
~
\
(a) The drill collars are caught on a keyseal

(b) A string reamer is run if the distance from the keyse,il
to TD is more than the depth to the keyseat
(c) The keyseal IS removed and the assembly is pulled

For reaming while drilling, position the reamer in the drill string
so it is above the section to be reamed when the bit is on bottom.
This reams the hole while the bit is drilling. Various reaming runs
may be required. There is no risk of sidetracking in this case, but
there is a risk of fatigue failure in the tool joints at the ends of the
reamer or of hanging up the reamer and twisting off.
For reaming off-bottom, position the reamer in the drillstring,
usually about 10 joints above the top of the drill collars. Then ream
through the section carefully since the drilling assembly cannot be
handled as efficiently with a string reamer. The risk of tool joint dam-
age or hanging up and twisting off can be reduced with careful
operations and minimum drill collar weight. Eliminate the risk of
sidetracking with the procedures noted.
There is one special hole condition where keyseats can be re-
moved effectively only with a string reamer. In this case the keys eat
is located on the top side of a low-angle dogleg section of a highly
deviated hole. The drill collar keyseat wiping assembly may not have
sufficient stiffness to remove the keyseat. The natural sway of the
drill-collar assembly may be more than the dogleg angle. Therefore
remove the keyseat with a string reamer.
A string reamer may be used if the pipe is free to move down-
ward but will not pull up past the keyseat, providing that the dis-
tance from the keyseat to total depth is greater than the depth to the
keys eat (Fig. 2-6). If conditions are favorable, connect a string reamer,
lower the pipe, and ream the keyseat section until it is open. If the
string reamer wears out, pull it. Work the drilling assembly at this
time to see if it can be pulled past the keyseat. If not, run another
string reamer. Several reaming trips may be required.
Problems with a string reamer are illustrated in the following
example.
Removing a Keyseat with a String Reamer

A 13.000-ft wildcat was drilled in an area with very limited drilling
information. Formations were known to be hard and abrasive with ex-
pected crooked hole conditions. The original plan included 13%-in. con-
ductor in a 171/2-in.hole at 500 ft. 9%-in. surface casing in a 12Y4-in.hole
at 4,000 ft. and completion with 5Y2-in.casing in an 8%-in. hole. This al-
lowed for 7-in. intermediate casing string with completion in as-in. FJ
liner. if necessary.
The conductor was set at 300 ft because of caving, unconsolidated
surface formation. and shallow water flows. The surface hole deviated
strongly to about Irat 3,500 ft when a fishing job occurred. The 1.500-ft
fish could not be recovered and was sidetracked at 1,600 ft. At 2,800 ft
the 9%-in. surface casing was run because of caving and deviation prob-
116 Chapter 2
lems.lt stuck at 2.500 ft. 300 ft off bottom. and was cemented. An unsuc-
cessful fishing job occurred at 5.000 ft and the hole was sidetracked at
4.000 ft. Drilling continued to 12.000 ft. with numerous problems due to
caving formations. lost circulation. high hole deviation. doglegs, and high
drag and torque.
The hole was logged and data indicated the well would have to be
drilled to 14.000 or 15.000 ft to test the objective horizons. Deviation
increased to 15 at the total depth. and the hole was in bad condition.
Four hole sections had an absolute dogleg over 4/1 00 ft. Drill collar ream-
ing assemblies and string reamers were used extensively for the crooked
hole and to ream out keyseats. Pipe drag was excessive. and caving and
lost circulation problems were becoming more severe.
A recommendation to set 7-in. casing was rejected, and the well was
drilled ahead with increasing problems. including severe pipe drag. String
reamers were run most of the time, and in one case two string reamers
were run in different sections of the hole. Three days were spent working
on the keyseat sections with a drill collar keyseat wiping assembly. A ta-
pered drillstring (41/2-4 in.) was run. and the number of drill collars re-
duced to the minimumto reduce overall pipe weight.
On a bit trip at 14.300 ft. the drill collars. were worked up through
several lower keyseats but could not be worked through one at 4,000 ft.
After about 4 hours of work. it was decided to try to drill up through the
keyseat with the wiper on top of the drill collars. This appeared to be
cutting too deeply into the formation. and the pipe was trying to stick.
A string reamer was connected and the pipe was run in the hole. The
keyseat section was reamed for about six hours, passing through the sec-
tion at various times. While picking up, the reamer stuck in the keyseat
where the top of the drill collars originally stuck. It was decided to try to
drill upward and rotate the reamer through the section for a period of
time before working the pipe down and backing off.The pipe was worked
for about two hours when it parted about 6 in. above the top of the first
tool joint above the reamer. A later examination of the break indicated a
fatigue failure.
The fish did not drop as indicated by an impression block, which also
showed the top of the fish forced into the wall of the hole. Various types
of fishing tools were run but could not get over the top of the fish. Most
of these tools had marks on the sides showing that they were passing the
top and hitting the side of the fish. After about 10 days of fishing. the
well was plugged and abandoned.
The direct cause of losing the hole was due to keyseats caused by a
crooked hole.This could have been prevented by using better drilling tech-
niques. including packed-hole assemblies. However, their limited use is
somewhat justified by the excessive formation problems, and they caused
or contributed to one of the fishing jobs and the sidetracking operations.
Not running 7-in. casing was an obvious mistake.

DRAG AND TORQUE
Drag and torque is caused by friction as drill tools move, rub,
and slide against the walls of the wellbore. Excess drag and torque
causes problems in all drilling operations. These generally are more
severe in deeper holes and in directional and horizontal drilling.
Prevention starts with designing the well plan to minimize drag and
torque. This includes casing programs, drillstring, tools, and opera-
tions. When possible, a straight hole is an important preventive mea-
sure.
Factors that increase drag and torque include a rough, irregular,
uneven wellbore wall, crooked hole, changes of hole direction,
doglegs, reduced clearance between the walls of the hole and down-
hole tool OD, tool weight, and poor mud properties. Severity increases
at higher angles and with a high number of bends and turns. The
dragging and plowing effect of drill string projections such as tool
joints and stabilizers contributes to the problem.
Drag and torque increases with heavier drillstring weight while
drilling deeper. They appear to approach maximum sustainable val-
ues in high-angle extended-reach holes at measured depths in the
range of 15,000 ft below a shallow kick-off point and subject to spe-
cific well conditions, including some cases where the deviated hole
is cased. Deeper bends and turns cause amplified drag and torque in
more shallow bends and turns. The greater drag and torque in lower
bends and turns acts against upper bends and turns, causing an over-
all increased drag and torque.
Severe drag and torque may cause parting or twisting off. It con-
tributes to or causes keyseats and increases the risk of differential
pressure sticking. Excess drag and torque reduces effective overpull
during fishing and may distort surface indications of downhole fish-
ing tool action.
A torque field measurement is "rounds of torque," sometimes
called "back torque." To illustrate, consider a 41fz-in. drill string in a
vertical 8%-in. hole 12,000 ft deep with less than 1%/100 ft change
of deviation, and a maximum drift of 2. The drill string normally
has about 2 rounds of back torque, increasing to about 4 rounds while
drilling with about 25,000 Ibs of bit weight. Drag is about 10,000 Ibs.
Consider the same hole deviated at 6,000 ft at 2/100 ft, the angle
built to 45 and a straight, inclined hole to total depth. Free hanging
torque is 4-5 rounds, rotating torque is 5-6 rounds, and drag is about
25,000 Ibs under good conditions.
The best preventive action in operations is to recognize excess
drag and torque before it causes problems. As a general guide, take
action when drag exceeds about 15% of the hook weight of the work
118 Chapter 2
string, or when back torque exceeds about % to Yzturns per 1,000 ft
of open, straight, hole. These are approximate depending upon depth,
length of open hole, deviation, dogleg and related factors.
Generally drag and torque can be reduced by correcting the fac-
tors causing them. Often this requires correction while drilling since
some are difficult to correct later. Drill tool weight reductions can be
effective, especially in the lower hole and for high directional and
horizontal drilling. Split bottomhole assemblies with part ofthe drill
collars in the vertical hole section are very effective in horizontal
holes. Tapered drillstrings and replacement of some drill collars with
heavyweight drill pipe may be helpful. Aluminum drillpipe reduces
weight substantially but causes severe operating problems.
Good mud is essential. Increase water-base mud lubricity eco-
nomically by adding 4-7% diesel oil and mixing well with emulsi-
fying agents. This small amount of oil does not appreciably increase
the lubricity of the drilling mud as measured by common tests. How-
ever, it has been field-proven to help reduce excess drag and torque
and is strongly recommended. It also helps prevent sticking and aids
in releasing stuck assemblies. Oil muds have good lubricating quali-
ties and should always be considered for more demanding situations.
Other additives used to increase mud lubricity include asphalt, al-
cohol-base lubricants, and graphite. However, field practice has in-
dicated questionable results with these additives.
Granulated material such as glass, plastic beads, and ground
walnut hulls have been effective in many cases for reducing excess
drag and torque. Ground walnut hulls can be especially effective in
this case. They also may prevent wall sticking and help reduce mi-
nor, leaking-type lost circulation.
The method(s) by which granulated materials reduce drag and
torque is not well understood. One opinion is that granulated mate-
rials embed into the wall of the formation leaving numerous small
points to hold the drill string off the wall of the hole, thus reducing
torque and drag and the risk of wall sticking. This appears to have
the most merit, based on field experience.
Another opinion is that they act as miniature ball bearings, re-
ducing the friction between the drill string and the walls of the hole.
Therefore they should be most effective in a cased hole. However,
there are fewer problems in cased holes, and field experience does
not support the use of granulated material in this case.
Granulated materials are applicable to most muds but must be
retained in the system to be effective. This generally requires by-
passing the shale shaker since particles are larger than efficiently-

sized shaker screens, and sometimes other solids-separating equip-
ment. This causes solids build-up and generally is not acceptable.
High concentrations may cause bit plugging in a few cases or possi-
bly interfere with the operation of fishing tools and some course-
and angle-measuring instruments. Measurement-While-Drilling
equipment cannot tolerate high concentrations of solids such as lost
circulation material. Therefore, maintaining the material in the mud
system and bypassing the solids-separating equipment is not a rea-
sonable solution except for a short period of time.
Glass beads are the most expensive, especially in the volumes
normally required. Expense can lead to limited use, so they are not
as effective. Plastic beads are less expensive but subject to plastic
distortion under heavy loads. They may soften and lose structural
strength at elevated temperatures. Ground walnut hulls are the most
e~onomical, even with substantially larger additions, as compared
to glass and plastic beads. They can be highly effective, but it is im-
portant to know how to use them correctly.
For moderate drag and torque, use periodic batch treatments of
walnut hulls. Treat with 50% coarse grade and 50% medium grade
in soft-to-medium drillability formations. Add 25% coarse grade, 50%
medium grade, and 25% fine grade in medium-to-hard drillability
formations. Always use at least 25% coarse grade. Common batch
treatments use 0.5-2.0 lb/bbl and higher concentrations for more
severe conditions. Distribute the additions over two or three circula-
tions. Normally continue operations such as drilling, and bypass the
shale shaker and other solids-separation equipment for a short pe-
riod of time.
For moderately severe drag and torque, and after trying batch
treatments, make continuous additions of walnut hulls while drill-
ing or circulating, using the combination of particle sizes as described.
A generalized treatment is 0.2-0.5 Ib/bbl distributed over 24 hours.
Leave the solids separation operating, even though the hulls are
screened out and lost. An appreciable part of the hulls apparently
embed in the formation, and the treatment has been very successful,
substantially reducing drag and torque in many cases. For more se-
vere drag and torque, it may be necessary to shut off the solids sepa-
ration equipment for a period of time. Circulating through an extra
solids- or sand-settling pit may help in this case.
Field evidence strongly supports the beneficial effects, as illus-
trated in the following example.
120 Chapter 2
Reducing Drag and Torque with Walnut Hulls
An on-structure wildcat had 9%-in. casing set at 5.000 ft and was
drilling an 83/~-in.hole at 12,000 ft in medium drillability formations with a
standard 41/2-in.drillstring with 7-in collars. Inclination ranged up to 5
with a maximum dogleg of less than r. Pickup drag increased to 25% over
hook load and slack-off drag to 20% below hook load while making con-
nections and working on bottom. Torque gradually increased to 7 rounds
of back torque. The mud was treated with walnut hulls, first using a batch
treatment followed by a continuous treatment. This reduced drag to 10%
of hook load and torque to 2Y2 rounds of back torque.
NOTE:This is only one of many examples of the effectiveness of wal-
nut hulls when used correctly.
Running casing is one of the final actions for correcting severe

drag and torque. In some cases it will not cause a big reduction. How-
ever, it will save the hole drilled to this point. It eliminates problems
of keys eating, differential pressure sticking. and the "plowing effect."
Drillpipe rubbers are not used in open holes. They are of question-
able value in reducing drag and torque in cased holes, but they do
reduce casing wear.
WALL STICKING
Wall sticking, or differential pressure sticking. occurs when a
section ofthe downhole assembly. usually the drill collars, lies next
to and literally sticks to the wall of the wellbore. It can be one of the
more difficult. and least understood. sticking problems. Consequently,
there probably is a higher incidence of wall sticking than is gener-
ally recognized by the industry. One reason for this is the failure to
recognize the type of sticking and to take preventive actions (Fig.
2-7).
Also, wall sticking is not consistent. As an example, conditions
are frequently favorable for wall sticking when running casing, one
ofthe main reasons for keeping the casing moving until it is cemented.
HoWever, there are instances where casing was run and left sitting
for a relatively long time without sticking. In one case, 7-in. casing
was run to 9,500 ft in an 8%-in. hole, below 1,500 ft of 9%-in. surface

Figure 2-7 Wall sticking
-.--.-.-................-.......-.........-.................-......--......-....-....-
Drill coilar
*Hesultant pressure: actlJal pressure

acts against drilling assembly wall.
..-.----.-.--..-.-........--...............................................-.........................................................................................................
casing, left sitting on the slips for 1 hour and 40 minutes without
circulating, and the.n picked up, rotated, and cemented without any
problem. However, this is the exception. A similar situation often
occurs in open-hole drillstem testing.
The primary indication of wall sticking is stuck pipe, often rap-
idly and completely, but with full circulation. General indications of
wall sticking are similar to keys eating so it is important to distin-
guish between the two. Circulation is almost always unrestricted,
similar to keys eating. Wall sticking often occurs after the drill tools
122 Chapter 2
remain motionless for a period of time, whereas keys eating gener-
ally occurs when the pipe is moving upward. Wall sticking is more
common when the assembly is at or near bottom. Keyseating tends
to occur on trips and when the pipe is an appreciable distance above
total depth. Casing may become wall stuck, but it seldom, if ever,
keyseats.
Wall sticking very commonly occurs after a drill string keyseats.
Most keyseating occurs at the top of the drill collars. The lower col-
lars press against the side of the wellbore and remain there without
movement, often for an extended period, so there is a high risk of
wall sticking.
Wall sticking occurs when the side of the drill collars comes into
contact with the wall of the open wellbore, when the pipe is at rest.
There have been few, if any, documented cases of wall sticking in
the drillpipe section. Generally, the hydrostatic head of the mud col-
umn exerts a differential pressure into the formation, a main cause
of wall sticking. This differential first seals the perimeter of the con-
tact area with wall cake, cuttings, and other mud solids. Then the
differential pressure acts against the entire contact area to push the
collars against the wall- hence the name of "differential pressure
sticking. "
The forces involved in wall sticking can be estimated. Assume a
pressure differential of O.llb/gal, 0.0052 psi/ft or 520 psi at 10,000
ft. Further assume a contact area 3-in. wide and 25 ft long. Then the
contact area is (25 ft long x 12-in.lft x 6-in. wide) 900 square inches.
The lateral force on pipe under ideal conditions is (900 in.2 x 520
psi/in.2) 468,000 lbs. It is not uncommon to see overbalanced mud in
excess of lIb/gal, which would represent an equivalent lateral force
well into the millions of pounds. The vertical shearing and releasing
forces would be less but still very high, depending upon the coeffi-
cient of friction. This illustrates one of the most important preven-
tive measures: USE MINIMUM MUD WEIGHT.
The effect of a thick wall cake is demonstrated in Fig. 2-8. If
a 4%-in. OD drill collar is pressed through a 1/16-in.wall cake in a
6Y4-in. hole, it could leave a minimum width of about 2 in. subject to
wall sticking. Under the same conditions with a !fa-in. wall cake, the
width increases to over 3 in. This emphasizes the importance of a
thin wall cake to help reduce the risk of wall sticking, so use good
mud.
There is no convenient way to measure directly or predict these
forces during operations except by field results, but they can be very
large. Field instruments are available for measuring the sticking
coefficient of mud filter cake. These can be helpful but are seldom
used because of the many unknown forces, areas, and other related
factors.

Figure 2-8 Wall sticking
6 '14-1".hole with 1/16.

to liB-in. wall cake
6 1/8-in. 10 hole
with 1/16-in.
wall cake
Assume 4 3/4-in. 00 drill collars flush against the side of a 6 \'..in. 10 ~lole with two
mud-cake thicknesses. Further assume the mud cake is mover! from tJ"tween the
4 3/4-i". drili coliar and the wall of the hole to form a pressure seal al the langential
point where the drill collar 00 intersects the 10 of the hole al the wall cake jO.
With a 1/16-ln. mud cake. circurnferenllallength IS about 2 in. With i1 1:8-01"1.mud
cake, length IS about 3.1S in.. almosl a 60% increase.
6 1/8-in. 10 hole with

6 '/4.in. 10 hole (Not to scale)I/16-in. mud cake 6-ln. ID holr
:Ith 1/8-in
~ :::

~
/"
-<,/)~;;> /,/
.,::.,./"
/_./.-:::
Cross. sectional width with 1/16-in. mud cake

~~~.._"",
"" ,',
~
~~l~~ cake
~"''''~'',
,
...
Z:ddm,o" ",,,-,,,,,'",, wid<"

wit""6-io.mod,,," - - - - --
4 3/4'ln. 00 drill collar
124 Chapter 2
The severity and speed of wall sticking depends upon the size of
the contact area, the magnitude of the differential pressure, and re-
lated factors. The area of contact depends upon the relative differ-
ence in the diameter of the drill collars and the diameter of the hole,
the length of the section, and the wall cake thickness. Sticking can
occur very rapidly, in some cases within a few minutes. Wall stick-
ing is more common in freshly drilled holes, especially while mak-
ing connections and using a low-quality mud. The formations are
apparently not completely sealed at this time, so the pressure differ-
ential is more active. Mud loss is relatively uncommon.
Wall sticking can be prevented in many cases by eliminating the
causes listed in Table 2-4.
Table 2-4 Factors conducive to wall sticking
Overbalanced mud system that increases the differential

pressure.
Increasing the contact area due to large-diameter collars in a
small-diameter hole.
Porous formations that permit the pressure differential to be
effective.
Soft, thick mud cake that effectively increases the contact area
and helps provide material for sealing around the contact area.
Immobile drilling assembly that allows time for sealing and
pressure differentials to act.
Monitor and control mud properties with emphasis on a
minimum mud weight.
Wall sticking in oil mud is less common but does occur.
Drilling in deviated and crooked holes where the collars lie
against the wall with some force.
Drilling in depleted reservoirs or formations with subnormal
pore pressure.
Excess drag and torque.
Keyseating conditions are highly conducive to wall sticking.
All of the factors in Table 2-4 are important, but the ones that
should be emphasized are using good quality, minimum mud weight;
keeping the drill tools moving as much as possible; and taking spe-
cial precautions in crooked, deviated, and horizontal holes, espe-
cially under keyseating conditions. Prevent or alleviate sticking by
setting down a maximum safe weight on the drilling assembly im-
mediately after the assembly wall-sticks, or keyseats.

Add walnut hulls as described in the section "Drag and Torque."
Mud additives, such as graphite, to increase mud lubricity are of
questionable value. Spiral or fluted-type collars have recessed areas
with less contact area, which reduces the risk of sticking. Heavy
drillpipe serves the same purpose and also helps reduce drag. Stabi-
lizers help hold drill collar bodies away from the wall of the hole,
but are seldom used because they can cause other sticking problems.
Release wall stuck assemblies by working, soaking and other
actions, as described in the section "Wall Sticking" in Chapter 5.
KEYSEAT
A keys eat is a slotted or recessed section in the wall of the
wellbore, cut by the movement of the downhole assembly (Fig. 2-9),
or less commonly by a wireline. A section of the downhole assembly
with a larger diameter can wedge into the keyseat, sticking the tools.
Keyseats are a major cause of fishing. The severity of keyseats is
emphasized by the fact that an estimated 20% of all severe fishing
jobs in softer formations and about 40% in harder formations are
related to or caused by keyseats. Almost all keyseats can be detected
and either eliminated or reduced in severity to permit continued
operations.
Keyseats occur in almost all formations and at all depths. They
are more common in crooked and deviated holes, especially at higher
angles of inclination. The simplest keyseat usually is near the point
where the wellbore first deviates appreciably from vertical. They often
occur in pairs such as on opposite sides of an S-shaped crooked hole
section. Keyseats may occur in deviated sections either as bottom or
top side keys eats when the hole angle changes in the upward direc-
tion. Keyseats are described in the vertical plane but occur in any
orientation.
Keyseats develop at varying rates, normally related to factors that
cause them and affect their severity (Fig 2-10). They continue devel-
oping until they are deep enough to stick the drilling assembly. They
develop slower in hard formations but are more difficult to wipe out
and often cause problems for a longer time. The opposite holds true
for softer formations. Layers of alternating hard and soft rocks are
similar. The combination of hard formations and crooked hole, such
as severe doglegs, causes most keyseat problems.
Keyseat growth rate and severity generally increases with time
unless remedial action is taken. Drilling deeper increases the weight
hanging below the keyseat. This allows more time for growth and
126 Chapter 2
Figure 2-9 Keyseats in layered formations

Figure 2-10 Keyseat growth
~
I '
""t\
9 -
'
_
-'~9- -
Early stage Middle stage Late stage
~ .'..
Amount 01 material to remove
L-.j
.
to wipe out keyseat completely
increases the magnitude of the forces applied to the keys eat area.
The types, sizes, and differences in diameters of component parts of
the drilling assembly and how it is handled also affect the growth of
keyseats. The actual rate of growth after a keyseat starts to develop is
unknown. It is believed to develop at a reducing rate with time be-
cause of the increasing area that must be cut and tho decreased force
available per unit area.
Detection
In most cases, keyseats can be detected in time to take preven-
tive action before sticking the pipe. It has been well established that
experienced, conscientious personnel often will detect these prob-
lems by careful observations. Proper prevention includes observing
signs of keyseat development and taking action.
Detect keyseats by observing drill tool action as indicated by
torque and weight, including fluctuations, while drilling, making
connections, and tripping. Begin trying to determine the exact loca-
tion and possible severity of the keyseat when it is first detected or
128 Chapter 2
suspected. Review deviation and directional surveys and informa-
tion on crooked-hole sections. Note hole conditions and informa-
tion on keys eats on the drilling reports and pass them on verbally to
the next crew.
Early detection reduces the risk of sticking. Also it is easier to
ream out a growing keyseat compared to a mature one. If the keyseat
is cleaned out at an early stage, less material must be removed; there-
fore it takes less time and the keyseat can be removed faster and
easier. There is less risk of fatiguing, or possibly having a failure in
the drilling assembly, and the risk of sticking is reduced.
All holes have a natural level of drag and torque. This is rela-
tively low for a straight hole and higher for crooked, deviated, and
horizontal holes. Drag should be reduced at a constant rate as the
pipe is pulled out of the hole. Keyseats may be detected by a peri-
odic increase in drag or pull while moving the assembly upward. If
the weight indicator shows a slight drag or extra pull at 31-ft inter-
vals (assuming schedule 2 drillpipe), this is an indication that the
tool joints are forming a keyseat. When the drill collars reach this
point on the trip out of the hole, there should be an additional pull,
even though it may not be excessive.
The top of the drill collars may ride over a developing keyseat
and show only a moderate pull. This may occur as a higher drag or
pull at the point where the top of the drill collars, stabilizers, ream-
ers, or bit moves upward through the keyseat.
It often is difficult to detect which point on the drilling assembly
is hanging up in the keyseat. If the weight indicator shows extra drag
at 31-ft intervals, and a heavy drag or pull or actual keys eating oc-
curs immediately after the periodic (31 ft) increases in drag, then
there is a high probability that the keyseat is at the top of the drill
collars. This can give a relatively accurate depth measurement to the
bottom of the keyseat. If the periodic increases in drag stop and the
pipe is pulled out of the hole a distance equal to the length of the
drill collars before a heavy drag or possible keyseat occun!, this indi-
cates that the bit is hanging up and again provides a definite depth
to the keyseat.
A similar drag effect in the reverse order may be observed while
running the pipe in the hole. However, this usually is less common
and more difficult to detect. Reamers and stabilizers may cause ad-
ditional drag and torque and mayor may not obscure drag and torque
indicators. Spiral-type. stabilizers frequently cause a torquing effect
on the drill pipe when they pass through a tight section.
It is not uncommon to detect minor indications of a keyseat on
one pipe trip and make a trip later without any problems. Then the
drilling assembly might stick in a keyseat on the next trip, causing a
fishing job. Normally, the second trip after a keys eat is detected will

give a more accurate indication of keyseat formation, but this is not
always the case.
Detection of the keyseat location can be complicated by reamers
and stabilizers in the drill-collar assembly, as well as the existence
of two or more keyseats. Also, the periodic increases in drag may be
wiping out a rough place in the hole and not indicating an actual
keys eat. Take all of these into account and use with available data to
locate the keyseat(s). .
If pipe is rotated out with the rotary on trips out of the hole, then
the relative free movement of the rotary can be an indication of hole
condition. When the drill-collar assembly is in potential keys eat sec-
tions, the rotary movement may be restricted more than when the
drill-collar assembly is hanging free. Observing backlash helps lo-
cate sections where keys eats are forming. Reamers and stabilizers
can also cause extra torque when they pass through a tight section.
Comparison of caliper logs from two- and three-arm tools may
indicate a keyseat or hole section subject to keyseating. Most pad-
type logging tools have two arms. The two-arm caliper can run with
one arm in a keyseat section, thus reading a larger hole diameter
than a three-arm caliper tool, as illustrated in the following example.
Two- and Three-arm Calipers Detect Keyseats

A 91/2-in.hole was being drilled at 17.000 ft below I03/~-in.casing set
at 12.000 ft in a 30 hole. After drilling out, a packed hole assembly was
used, and the hole deviation continued to increase at a gradual rate to
61J2at 14,000 ft. A pendulum was run at this point. and the hole angle
dropped at 10/100 ft to 3'/20 at 14.600 ft. This angle was maintained to
17.000 ft. Some keyseat drag action was observed in the interval from
14.000 to 14.500 ft while drilling deeper.
After drilling to 17.000 ft the hole was logged and the two- and three-
arm calipers compared. The intervals from 12.000 to 14,000 ft and from
14.500 to 17,000 ft had an average diameter of 13 in. with the three-arm
caliper and an average diameter of 15 in. with the two-arm tool. The sec-
tion where keyseating was suspected. from 14,000 to 14.500 ft. had a
diameter of 12 in. with the three-arm caliper and the two-arm caliper
read off scale, greater than 20 in. During subsequent drilling operations. it
was necessary to ream this section several times. Similar caliper log re-
sults have been observed in keyseat sections on other wells.
130 Chapter 2
Figure 2-11 Limit dogleg angle to prevent keyseats
Note: If hole sections a and b are not in the same plane. check
tables of absolute angles to find the absolute dogleg.
Ground level
I
I
I
\
I Maximum deviation. "/100 It
/ <t
/
Dogleg, 0/100 It
-
;)b\
I <t.
f
__ -t--I--m__---.
\
\
,,
Target area

Tools normally stick in a keyseat while being moved upward
and can be circulated freely. In some cases, tools stuck in a keyseat
may be moved downward but cannot be moved upward past the point
of sticking. Except for this and the direction of movement during
sticking, sticking in a keyseat is very similar to wall sticking. Pipe
stuck in a keys eat is highly susceptible to wall sticking.
Prevention
Prevention basically includes countering the actions that cause
keyseats. It is equally important to recognize the occurrence of
keyseats and take action accordingly. One of the best preventive ac-
tions is to drill a straight. vertical hole, especially with minimum
dogleg (Fig. 2-11). However, sometimes the higher cost of drilling a
straight hole through crooked-hole formations is not justified com-
pared to the cost and risk of preventing keys eats. Other holes are
drilled directionally and some horizontally for economic and other
reasons. Handle these by minimizing the conditions that cause
keyseats, such as drilling smooth curved and straight sections. Oth-
erwise watch for keyseat developments and remove them as neces-
sary. However, the straighter and the more vertical the hole is. the
less trouble will occur because of keyseats.
The most common point subject to keyseating is at the top of the
drill collars. Reduce severity by placing the correct type of keys eat
wiper on top of the drill collars. The recommended wiper is the float-
ing, tapered-sleeve type described in the section "Keyseat Wipers"
in Chapter 3. It serves a dual purpose. It is moderately effective in
wiping out keyseats. especially developing keyscats. More impor-
tant, it is very effective in releasing an assembly kcyseatcd at the top
of the drill collars. Ensure that the keyseat wiper selected has the
proper design and adequate strength to perform the intended opera-
tions.
Drilling jars and bumper subs do not aid in releasing a key seated
pipe if the top of the drill collars are stuck in a keys eat and these
tools are below the sticking point. However, they often are very ef-
fective if the assembly is stuck below them, such as at the bit.
Removal
Take action immediately when the keyseat is first detected, or
even suspected. The type of action to take ranges from watching the
keyseat for added development to removing it by reaming. It depends
upon various factors. What is the type and weight of the downhole
assembly and does it have a keyseat wiper? What type of formations
are being drilled? Is the hole in good condition? Is it crooked or devi-
ated? How severe is the keyseat?
132 Chapter 2
Keyseats can be removed. However, this seldom removes the
cause, and the keyseat usually begins to form again when drilling
resumes. Remove or partially remove keyseats based upon severity.
Remove very minor keyseats by reaming with the assembly in use,
especially a stiff assembly, or a keys eat wiper run on top of the drill
collars. Otherwise, remove the keyseat by reaming with a keyseat
wiping assembly or string reamer as described in the section "Ream-
ing."
The decision of when to clean out a keyseat is based on experi-
ence and knowledge of the particular well conditions. It is not an
easy decision to shut down drilling and spend one or two days wip-
ing out a keyseat, especially when the operations are relatively haz-
ardous. Unfortunately, in field practice there may be a tendency to
wait too long before making the decision.
Releasing keyseated tools is described in the section "Wall Stick-
ing" in Chapter 5.
Wireline Keyseat
Wireline keyseats form when the wire line wears a groove or slot
into the side of the open-hole wellbore. Like tubular-type keyseats,
they most commonly occur in crooked and deviated holes. In a few
cases the wireline may wear a keys eat in a metal obstruction, such as
the bottom of the casing. These are less common but can be very
severe.
Drilling a straight hole is the main preventive procedure but is
not always practical. Otherwise, observe the drag on the tool and
ream out the hole if a keys eat begins to develop.
Open-hole logging tools are most commonly keyseated in wireline
keys eats. Like tubulars, if the tool is pulled too tightly into the keyseat,
it will stick and is difficult to remove. In a few cases it can be worked
out of the hole. Otherwise it must be removed by fishing, as described
in the section "Wireline Fishing" in Chapter 6.
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

READING
Abel, Wilson L., "Blowout Risks Cut with Contingency Plan," Oil
&' Gas Journal, June 7, 1993: 30-36.
Adams, Neal, and Joe D. Thompson, "How a Geothermal Blowout
Was Controlled," World Oil, June 1989: 38-40.

Eric, Erick, and Case Jansen, "A Method for Handling Gas Kicks
Safely in High Pressure Wells," Journal of Petroleum
Technology, June 1993: 570-576.
Flack, Larry, "How Well Control Techniques Were Refined in
Kuwait," World Oil, May 1992.
Flack, Larry H., and W.C. Goins, Jr., "New Relief Well Technology
Is Improving Blow~)Ut Control," World Oil, Dec 1983: 57-61.
Flack, Larry H., John W. Wright, and John W. Ely, "Blowout Control:
Response, Intervention and Management," World Oil, Part 1
Nov 1993: 71, Part 2 Dec. 1993: 55-61.
Framnes, Einar, and Joseph R. Roche, "Shear Rams Hold 10,000
Psi After Cutting Pipe," Oil &' Gas Journal, May 6,1991: 56-
62.
Grace, Robert D., and Bob Cudd, "Fluid Dynamics Used to Kill
South Louisiana Blowout," World Oil, April 1989: 47-50.
Grace, R.D., A.F. Kuckes, and J. Branton, "Operations at a Deep
Relief Well," World Oil, May 1990: 44-54.
Gross, Richard, "Apache Blowout Successfully Killed," Drilling,
March, 1984.
Holbert, Don, "Conventional Tubulars Can Cut Cost of Drilling in
Horizontal Holes," Oil &' Gas Journal, June 3,1985: 68-73.
Javanmardi, Kazan, and Debbie Gaspard, "Soft Torque Rotary
System Reduces Drillstring Failures," Oil &'Gas Journal, Oct.
12,1992: 68-70.
Johancsik, C.A., D.B. Friesen, and Rapier Dawson, "Torque and
Drag in Directional Wells - Prediction and Measurement,"
Journal of Petroleum Technology, June 1984: 987-992.
Kempt, Gore, Oilwell Fishing Operations: Tools and Techniques,
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX, 1986.
"Kuwait: The Mother of All Blowouts," World Oil, May 1991: 38-
41.
Leraand, F., J.W. Wright, M. Zachery, and B. Thompson, "Relief
Well Planning and Drilling for a North Sea Underground
Blowout," SPE 20420, New Orleans, LA, Sept. 23-26, 1990.
Lester, C.B., "The Basics of Drag Reduction," Oil &' Gas Journal,
Feb. 4, 1985: 51-56.
Montgomery, Michael E., "Testing Improves Surface BOP
Equipment Reliability," Oil &'Gas Journal, June 14, 1993: 44-
46.
134 Chapter 2
Moore, Preston L., DrjJljng Practices Manual, PennWell Publishing
Company, Tulsa, OK, 1974: 269-296.
Sayers, Bob, "Capping Blowouts from Iran's Eight-Year War," World
Oil, Part 1, May 1991: 45-48; Part 2, July 1991: 81-82.
Sonnemann, Paul, "Circulate-and-Weight Well Control Method Has
Several Advantages," Oil ErGas Journal, Jan. 31, 1994: 96-97.
Uzcategul, Humberto, Darrell Hewitt, and Reinaldo Golindano,
"Precise Guidance Puts Record-Depth Relief Well On Target,"
World Oil, June 1991: 39.
Varcoe, Brian E., "Shear Ram Use Affected by Accumulator Size,"
Oil ErGas Journal, Aug. 5, 1991: 34-37.
Watson, Davie W., and Preston Moore, "Momentum Kill Procedure
Can Quickly Control Blowouts," Oil Er Gas Journal, Aug. 20,
1993: 74-77.
Wikie, D.l., and W.F. Bernard, "Detecting and Controlling
Abnormal Pressure," World Oil, July 1981: 129-144.
Williamson, Joseph Stephen, "Casing Wear: The Effect of Contact
Pressure," SPE 10236, Society of Petroleum Engineers, San
Antonio, TX, Oct 5-7,1981.

Chapter 3
TOOLS AND
ASSEMBLIES
Fishing is a critical operation. Knowing how to select and use

fishing tools is almost as important as preventing fishing. The im-
portance of selecting the best, most applicable tool and operating it
correctly cannot be overemphasized. Successful operators are famil-
iar with the various tools and how they are operated.
Some fishing tools can be used in either a cased or open hole.
Others are designed in such a way that they are more efficient and
safer to use in one type of hole. Fishing tools can be run on tubulars,
wirelines, or both, depending on the tool. This is a natural division
and is commonly accepted method of classification.
Thbular fishing tools are operated by rotation, reciproca-

tion, or a combination of both motions. They are more com-
mon because most fishing occurs with tubulars and they
are more efficient.
Wireline tools are operated by reciprocation only and can
be less efficient than tubulars.
Combination fishing tools are run on either tubulars or
wirelines. They operate by rotation and reciprocation when
run on tubulars and by reciprocation only when run on
wirelines. They generally serve the same purpose in ei-
ther case, but are modified to function differently, depend-
ing on the way in which the tool is to be run and operated.

Auxiliary tools are not always classified directly as fish-
ing tools, but they are used to aid fishing operations or to
help prevent a fishing job.
Fishing assemblies are used on all fishing operations.
FISHING TOOL SELECTION

The wide variety of fishing operations necessitates an extensive
assortment of fishing tools. A larger selection of heavy-duty tools is
Tools and Assemblies 137
available in medium and large sizes. Availability of tools diminishes
with decreasing hole size. Tools for smaller diameter holes have re-
duced strengths and selection may be limited.
Fishing tools fall into various categories. Catch tools are the larg-
est group and most used of all fishing tools. They are subdivided
into several broad groups.
. The more common outside catch tools are slipped over

the fish to catch it on the outside.
. Inside catch tools fit into the fish to catch it on the inside.
. A swallowing tool slips over and encloses the entire fish.
In a few cases, one tool may catch a fish by a combination of two

methods. Each operates somewhat differently, either in the manner
in which the fish is caught or released or in the way a fish is con-
trolled or manipulated. Some tools operate on the same general prin-
ciples and could fit into other groups but their importance justifies
separate classifications. Cutting, parting, and milling tools part the
fish and serve various milling functions.
The type of operation or the condition of a fish normally dictates
which fishing tool should be used. Frequently there is only one ob-
vious selection. However, occasions do arise where one of several
tools can be used. In such a case, always select the strongest tool. As
a secondary consideration, select the tool with the strongest catch if
there is an option. Tool strength is an overriding consideration. Some-
times the choice of a less functional tool is fully justified when the
tool is appreciably stronger than other available tools. This is espe-
cially important when conditions of severe jarring and tension pull
exist.
For example, an overshot is selected to catch a 41J2-in. drillpipe
inside an 8%-in. hole. A larger overshot with a thin wall in the bowl
section can be dressed to catch the drillpipe tool joint and may have
the satisfactory strength characteristics. However, a smaller OD over-
shot with a thicker and stronger wall in the bowl section dressed to
catch the drillpipe body may have a higher safety factor in handling
tension under the severe conditions of jarring and pulling that are
frequently encountered. This extra margin of safety may be the dif-
ference between a successful fishing job and the creation of a second
fish. Using the smaller tool also reduces the risk of sticking.
A number of tools usually not considered fishing tools can di-
rectly aid in fishing or prevention. Standard rig equipment used in a
drilling operation normally is suitable for fishing. Pumps keep the
hole clean and may help pull stuck drillpipe out of the hole. Coiled
or other small-sized tubing can clean inside the fish to allow run-
ning back-off tools. Cement plugs can isolate lost circulation or high-
138 Chapter 3
pressure zones that may affect fishing operations. Fracture sand or
barite plugs may block lost circulation zones or bridge around pipe
in an annular space as a way of holding pressure or preventing the
pipe from dropping. Pipe with left-hand connectors can back out
conventional right-hand connected pipe. Perforating tools help es-
tablish circulation. Logging tools may be used to locate the top ofthe
fish, to determine the extent of sticking, or to obtain pipe stretch
data in order to locate the free point. Other wireline tools run and
detonate a back-off shot or part the pipe by different methods.
When considering the use of a special fishing tool, either be-
come thoroughly familiar with the tool and its operation, or obtain
information about the tool from the supplier. Two fishing tools may
appear similar; usually there are differences. The supplier of each
tool should be considered the final authority on the use and opera-
tion of the equipment. Knowing the tool's appropriate use and op-
eration may also help in selecting between two similar pieces of equip-
ment. If this is insufficient, contact a knowledgeable third party for
help.
TUBULAR FISHING TOOLS

Th.bular fishing tools are run on tubular work strings, such as
drillpipe and tubing. In most cases they are run on a fishing assem-
bly that is equipped with a jar and bumper sub. These tools are actu-
ated by rotating and reciprocating the work string.
All references to rotational movement are described as if looking
downward in a vertical line. For example, right-hand rotations means
turning the tubular clockwise, or in the right-hand direction, as seen
from above the tool while looking downward.
Overshot
An overshot is the most important and widely used fishing tool.
There are many variations of this outside catch tool. Overshots make
a strong catch and are efficient, versatile, and reliable. They prob-
ably have caught over 90% of all fish recovered. Sometimes it is
difficult to disengage the overshot from the fish. Otherwise, the most
common failures are a split shoe, split body, or body connection fail-
ure. Always use the strongest bodied overshot possible (Fig. 3-1).
Single Bowl
The single bowl overshot is the most common overshot and is
widely used. Its basic parts are a top sub, bowl with taper, slip de-
vice, guide, packoff if desired, and various types of shoes. The top
sub connects the drill string with the overshot bowl and also serves
as a stop when engaging the fish. Stops can be inserted to shorten

Figure 3-1 Overshots and accessories (courtesy Bowen)
....----.---.----.--.-.-....-....-
Top sub
Bowl
Basket grapple
Basket
grapple
Mill control
packer
Guide
Basket grapple
with long catch stop
Circulating Overshot Circulating Overshot

with Basket Grapple wilh Spiral Grapple
,.:~..,
Outer seal
Spiral grapple control

c ~
Type R control packer
,
Spiral grapple
WallHook
Guide
the clearance length of the bowl if it is too long, or as extension joints

to increase bowl length. The inside diameter (ID) of the bowl deter-
mines the maximum and, to some extent, the minimum diameter of
a fish that the overshot will catch.
The overshot is connected to the bottom of the bumper sub on
the fishing assembly and is run into the hole. It is rotated and low-
140 Chapter 3
Figure 3-1 Overshots and accessories (continued)
--.---............---.-..---..--.-.......-......-
TOpsub
Top sub -....
Bowl-.... Bowl
Bowl
Grapple
_ Grapple control
Grapple
Control
Grapplel
':
.Control
guide
Overshot with Overshot with Short Catch
Basket Grapple Spiral Grapple Releasing Overshot
Basket grapple
mill control packer Mill Extension MillGuide Oversize Guide
--
ered over the fish so that the top of the fish passes through the guide
shoe, slip, or grapple section, and fits up into the bowl of the over-
shot. Do not rotate the overshot excessively since this can damage
the wickers and may prevent catching the fish. When the fishing
assembly is picked up, slips or grapples catch and hold the fish firmly.
The fish is worked as necessary until it is free, and then pulled.
Ordinarily, bumping down during a job is limited because this is a
releasing procedure. Tools such as a stuck pipe log or back-off string
shot can be run through the overshot into the fish if the top of the
fish is open.
The overshot's inner tapered bowl section can be fitted with ei-
ther slips or basket spiral grapples to catch a fish. These tools have
tapered exteriors to conform with bowl tapers. They normally catch
a fish with an outside diameter of about 1/16in. over or under the
nominal catch size of the grapple.
The spiral grapple, or long catch, is a left-hand helix with inte-
rior ridges or wickers. A basket grapple is an expandable split cylin-
der that is helically tapered to conform to the tapered bowl section.
The interior has left-hand wickers. The grapple is equipped with a
key or spine that allows the grapple to move up and down a short
distance inside the bowl and that provides a means of transmitting
torque from the bowl to the grapple. The basket grapple can be a
short catch tool since it has an upper lip that prevents the fish from
traveling up into the bowl. When the basket grapple is used, the fish
must have a clean top and be full-gauge since the basket grapple
only catches the upper few inches of the fish.
The overshot is released if the fish cannot be recovered or if it is
necessary to pull the fishing string. Release the overshot by bumping
down and rotating to the right while slowly lifting the fishing string.
This releases the slips on the conventional right-hand releasing over-
shot so the fishing assembly can be pulled. Sometimes the slips or
grapples may stick when the overshot is subjected to heavy working
loads. The release may then require heavier bumping down and the
application of stronger right-hand torque, often with considerable
effort. If this does not release the fish, then a string shot may be run
and detonated opposite the slips or grapples to jar the fish loose.
When the overshot hangs above the fish, the normal circulating
pattern is down the drillpipe and overshot, around the guide shoe,
and up the annulus. After taking hold of the fish, use the same circu-
lating pattern to remove it. Do not circulate excessively or with high
pressure in this configuration since the mud can erode the catch tool,
causing it to release the fish.
Most overshots can be fitted with packoff elements. These seal
the annular space between the outside top of a fish and the inside of
the lower part of an overshot. This fitting diverts the fluid flow down
into the fish. If circulation can be established through the fish, it
normally is easier to release and recover the fish (Fig. 3-2). Packoffs
usually are not high-pressure devices but will often withstand suffi-
cient pressure to establish circulation through the fish.
142 Chapter 3
Figure 3-2 Overshot circulating patterns
-.-..-..----..-
Both the grapples or slips and the circulating packoff can be eas-
ily damaged if the top of a fish is ragged, contains splinters of steel,
or is out of round, bent, or otherwise damaged. For protection, some
overshots can be fitted with a mill control in the lower sub. The mill
control removes burrs and repairs minor damage to the fish's top as
it guides the fish into the overshot. A guide or mill guide retains the
grapple and serves the same purpose. To a limited extent, either may
be dressed with tungsten carbide so the tool can serve as a milling
shoe. The mill may be run below a mill extension guide that has
been fitted to the bottom of an overshot. DO NOT mill excessively
with the mill shoe. There is a risk of breaking the mill shoe or dam-
aging the grapple. Use a regular mill if the top of the fish is severely
damaged.
It may be best to catch a lower tool joint if it is near the top of the
fish, especially if the condition of the top of the fish is questionable.
Dress the overshot with slips or grapples to catch the tool joint. Se-
lect the bowl length and use bowl extensions so that the grapple,

and packoff if run, is placed at the correct position on the fish. This
larger diameter tool allows the overshot to pass over the damaged
fish top and catch the tool joint.
Various types of shoes are available, including guide, mill, ro-
tary, mule, and cut lip guide or wall hook. Use the muleshoe or cut
lip guide if the fish is difficult to catch because it is crooked or slightly
out of gauge. Use a wall hook if the top of the fish is laid over in a
washout. Rotate the wan hook slowly and carefully to prevent break-
ing it off. If the wall hook is unsuccessful in guiding the top of the
fish into the overshot, run a knuckle joint, bent sub, or bent joint to
help engage the fish.
Overshots have many operating advantages but some precau-
tions apply. The fish can be torqued to the right or left when the
grapples are under tension. Fine thread bowl connections are the
weakest "back-off" point, so use lock rings to help prevent backing
off. The control finger and grapple tong are subject to failure. Re-
duced pump pressure while engaging the fish will help prevent hy-
drostatic lift. Use a minimum circulating rate while the fish is en-
gaged to prevent fluid erosion of the overshot and grapples. A single
bowl normally is preferred over a double bowl. A longer catch with
spiral grapple is preferred to a short catch with basket grapple.
If there is an option to catch either the drillpipe body or the tool
joint, carefully evaluate which type of catch to use. Determining the
size of worn tool joints may be difficult but is not usually a problem.
There is a higher risk of splitting the slip body by catching the tool
joint if a fish must be worked very hard. There is less risk of damag-
ing the tool joint and a higher risk of damaging the pipe body during
heavy working, but there is also less risk of damaging the fishing
tool. For cases involving similarly sized holes, an overshot to catch
the small diameter fish (pipe body) usually is stronger than a tool
used to catch a larger diameter fish (tool joint).
Double Bowl
A double bowl or combination overshot is essentially two single
bowl overshots run one above the other. Dress the upper bowl with
the smaller size catch. For example, dress the upper bowl to catch
the pipe and the lower bowl to catch a tool joint. A mill guide can
only be used on the lower bowl. A combination tool may be slightly
more risky to run because of the longer length and increased number
of fine thread connections. Otherwise, a double bowl is operated
similarly to the single bowl overshot.
Triple Bowl
The triple bowl is similar to three single bowl overshots run one
above the other. It contains three catches. The smallest catch is in
the top ofthe bowl and the largest is in the bottom. It is seldom used
144 Chapter 3
because of the increased problems when compared to those of a single
or double bowl tool. Otherwise, the triple bowl is operated similarly
to the single bowl overshot.
Trap Door
The trap door overshot has a slip block that travels on an in-
clined carrier. It catches long, small-diameter fish, such as coil tub-
ing or partially collapsed tubing that may not be completely circular
in its cross section. The trap door is lowered over a fish, which passes
up into the tool and into the drillpipe. The slip block closes against
the fish and holds it for recovery when the overshot is picked up.
Side-door
A side-door overshot is used to recover wireline as described in
the section "Fishing for Wirelines" in Chapter 6.
Continuous
The continuous overshot, sometimes known as a full-opening
overshot, is modified for different uses. One type has a full opening
into the running assembly to allow the overshot to slip over a long
fish that then passes up into the fishing string. This type is used
primarily to fish for small diameter tubing strings and coiled tubing
by swallowing long sections.
Casing Bowl
A casing bowl is an outside catch tool sometimes called a casing
patch, external patch, or casing overshot. It is similar to a slim-hole
type, full opening single bowl overshot (Fig. 3-3) and operated in a
similar manner, except it is not designed to be released. It is used to
connect or reconnect casing strings and other large-size tubulars.
Normally a casing bowl is run into a hole on casing to connect to
a casing fish. It is latched onto the top of the casing fish, tension is
applied, and the casing is landed in the casing head and nippled up.
A seal type can be used, or the repair can be cemented. This tool and
its procedures make a good, full-gauge casing repair.
Basket
Baskets catch small junk such as bit cones, sidewall cores, bul-
lets, tong dies, and remnants from milling by swallowing them. Vari-
ous types are available.
Regular
A regular basket or junk basket has an upper body, a bowl (or
basket), a sub to hold the retainer ring and fingers, and a shoe (Fig.
3-4). The fishing assembly connects to the upper body. The bowl

Figure 3-3 Casing bowl (courtesy Homco)
--.-.-..--..-.....-.....-.-.........-..-...---..--....-....---.
Upp!)r sub \
Slip ~
Upper slip bowl
Slip
Slip bowl
Packing adapter
ring top
Packing rings
Packing adapter
ring bottom
Body
Double Slip
----.-.-------.-..------.-.-.--.-.-..-.....---...-.....-.-.-..-.-.--.....-.........-.
holds junk caught in the basket. Spring-loaded fingers mount on a

ring that is free to rotate inside the sub. The fingers normally are
horizontal and swivel upward to let junk pass up into the bowl of
the basket. Then the fingers return to the horizontal position to pre-
vent the junk from falling out of the basket.
A magnet insert, usually with a flush guide. may be placed in
either the junk basket or the reverse circulating basket in lieu of the
146 Chapter 3
Figure 3-4 Junk baskets (courtesy Bowen)
"1opsub
Finger Shoe
Valve cup
Sleel ball
Valve seat
Barrel
Junk Basket Magnet Insert
Junk catcher
Shoe
Circulation Junk Basket Mill Shoe

------.-----.--..-.-.....................................-.._...............................................................................
catchers. Several types of shoes are available, although normally some

type of drag tooth shoe is used.
The junk basket is durable and strong. It can recover any metal
object left in the hole that can pass up through the shoe and into the
bowl. Such objects include bit cones, bow springs from logging tools,
slip fragments, dropped hand tools, backup pads, and short pieces
of wireline.

Run the junk basket into the hole on the bottom of the fishing
assembly. After circulating, rotate the basket down over the pieces of
junk, which pass up through the shoe and fingers into the bowl. The
fingers retain the junk while the basket is pulled out of the hole.
One disadvantage of a junk basket is that the fingers are inher-
ently weak because they are small. They can break, allowing the junk
to fall out of the basket. The fingers are located between 6 inches and
1 foot from the shoe's bottom, so the basket must be drilled down
over the fish. They often break, especially when drilling lasts over
30 minutes and when the junk is relatively large. To alleviate break-
age, some junk baskets are fitted with double catchers (Fig. 3-5).
Figure 3-5 Junk basket (double catcher) (courtesy of

Homco)
tJustung
Barrel
1't1rLJst bearin~J
Pin & sprin9
Flipper dog
148 Chapter 3
Double catchers partially account for increased tool efficiency
in softer formations. To avoid the problem of broken fingers, the tool
sometimes is drilled down until the bottom is literally plugged with
a core of formation. If the core remains in place while pulling the
tool, it normally will recover any junk left in the bottom of the origi-
nal hole.
To drill a core and keep it in place, start drilling in a normal
manner but with a reduced pump rate. After drilling about 1% ft of
formation, slow the pump rate again, increase the drilling weight,
and reduce the rotary speed. The net effect ofthis action is to jam the
core into the bottom of the junk basket. This is very effective in soft
formations but less so in harder formations.
Reverse Circulating
One popular modification is the reverse-circulating junk basket.
It is similar to a regular basket except that it has a reverse circulating
action to help sweep or wash junk, especially smaller junk, into the
basket. Channels and ports located in or near the shoe direct the
fluid flow from the periphery of the shoe toward the center of the
basket. As the junk sweeps into the basket, the mud passes through a
second set of ports into the annulus.
In operations, run the tool into the hole and circulate normally
down through the junk basket, around the shoe, and up the annulus.
Then drop a ball to divert the mud flow and help sweep the junk
into the basket. For all other steps, the tool is operated convention-
ally.
Poor Boy
Effectively, a poor-boy basket is a piece of casing strongly welded
to a bit sub or tool joint to allow connecting to the bottom of the drill
tools (Fig. 3-6). Saw-tooth-type teeth are cut in the bottom of the
casing. Each is about as long as half the casing diameter. Various
tooth designs are used, and sometimes the outer part of the teeth are
tapered to help them bend inward during drilling. Vertical slots may
be cut in the top of the basket to let fluids pass while running in the
hole.
A poor-boy basket is operated similarly to a regular basket. Run
it to the top of the fish, circulate it, and then reduce the circulation
and drill over the fish until the basket stops moving downward. In
an ideal case, the junk passes up into the basket and the drilling
motion, combined with the frictional heat caused by reduced circu-
lation, bends the teeth inward to close the bottom of the basket. Then
pull the tool and cut it open to recover the junk.
In one modification of the tool, short fingers of cable are welded
on the inside of the bowl in order to help retain the junk. This tool

Figure 3-6 Poor-boy junk basket
---.......--.--.--..........-.......................................-...-.-.--....-..........................
:.T::~..:.:;..
Ir/t~~~~;
II
r ;...... ;J::::~~::::J:::;::~]::~,;::::;::::.T::::::~:.:.~~~:; A....._..
Going in the hole Drilling over junk Pulling out of the holt~
to recover junk with the Junk inside
(thme bit cones) the junk basket.
Note the curlee! teeth.
works well in soft formations but is less efficient in harder forma-

tions because of the difficulty in drilling and the danger of teeth
breaking off.
Boot
The boot basket, often called a junk sub, is a highly efficient tool
for catching and recovering large fragments of cement, metal, and
other materials in the mud flow stream near the bit, most commonly
150 Chapter 3
Figure 3-7 Junk sub (courtesy Homco)
~ ~
Body
Sleeve
.-----.-----.---------.---.-...-.--..-.............-............-..........-................................................
caught while milling. This tool eliminates the need for redrilling the
fragments, allows more ofthem to be carried out of the hole with the
circulating mud, reduces drilling time. and extends the life ofthe bit
or mill (Fig. 3-7).
The junk sub has an inner barrel or body with tool joints on both
ends. An outer body or bowl is fixed to the lower tool joint and ex-
tends upward approximately two-thirds to three-fourths of the dis-
tance between the two tool joints. The space between the outer body
and the inner body forms a bowl or basket used to collect junk and
debris.
During an operation, run the junk sub immediately above a mill
or bit. Metal cuttings and cement fragments are milled or drilled into
smaller pieces and then carried up the annular space beside the junk
sub by the circulating mud (Fig. 3-8). When the mud passes the space
between the upper lip of the bowl and the lower part of the upper
tool joint, the mud's velocity reduces slightly because of the increased

Figure 3-8 Junk sub circulating pattern
-------..-..-.-
Drill collar
Area of reduced
flow rate
Accumulated junk
in basket
152 Chapter 3
cross-sectional area. The mud flow also rolls or creates eddy cur-
rents as it passes by the lip of the bowl into the larger cross- sec-
tional area. These actions allow the heavier junk and debris to drop
into the bowl of the junk sub, where it is trapped. The junk remains
in the basket until the junk sub is pulled from the hole.
Junk subs should always be run with mills and bits when drill-
ing metal, such as using a bit to break up bit cones. These subs com-
monly are run when drilling cement, cement diverting tools, float
collars, and cementing shoes. Junk subs are especially effective in
recovering metal fragments when milling or drilling on bit cones
and other metal objects.
Junk subs frequently are run in tandem, one above the other. In
one case, when three junk subs were run, the first (lower) junk sub
collected 15 lb of junk while about 5 lb were in each of the upper
junk subs.
Junk subs are available in various configurations, including long
and short barrels, side-door types, and basket top cut on a slant to
provide a larger opening on one side. Junk subs are one of the most
trouble-free tools that can be run. They are highly efficient and should
always be used whenever applicable.
Spear
Spears are probably the second most common type of catch tool.
They catch tubular fish with an inside catch. Tool strength normally
is less than that for an outside catch used on smaller diameter fish,
such as tubing, but often stronger for catching larger fish, such as
casing. Otherwise, spears are an efficient tool. There are a wide vari-
ety; some have different activating mechanisms for catching differ-
ent types of fish, such as casing, drillpipe, tubing, and wirelines.
Pipe
The pipe spear, commonly called a drillpipe spear, is the most
common spear. Pipe spears generally catch casing and large tubulars,
not drillpipe or tubing, although they may be used for these items in
special situations. To enter smaller diameter tubulars a spear must
also be relatively small, so it may not have the necessary strength to
release the small tubular that is stuck. Sometimes, it may be difficult
to run the spear into the drill pipe or tubing in larger diameter holes.
In these cases an overshot is a better choice. The inside top of a fish
must be clean and not out of round for a successful catch.

The conventional spear has an upper body that connects the tool
to the running string. It may have a stop or no-go to prevent running
the spear too deeply inside the fish. The body contains a tapered
section and a cage to hold the slips in a recessed position. The inner
face of the slips has a recessed, cone-shaped taper, while the outer
face is serrated to catch the inner wall of the fish. The cage is fitted
with a "]" slot and drag springs, or friction blocks, that contact the
inner wall of a fish (Fig. 3-9). The spear is similar to a tension packer.
In fact, in a few cases either tension packers or inverted regular hook-
wall packers have been used as spears. .
During an operation, connect the pipe spear to the bottom of the
fishing assembly, run this into the hole, and position it inside the
fish. The slips are released by rotating the fishing string to the left
and picking it up slowly. The drag springs or friction blocks resist
this movement slightly, so the slips are released to move downward,
relative to the fishing string. Then the fishing string is picked up
slowly. This moves a taper on the body of the spear up and under the
slips. The slips move outward to engage the inner wall of the fish.
The fish is then pulled or worked. If the fish cannot be released, the
pipe spear can be released by holding right-hand torque and bump-
ing downward.
Large pipe spears are strong and can withstand relatively high
forces, but they have disadvantages. A fish cannot be bumped or
jarred downward since this motion releases the spear. Like all tools
that have upside-down slips, the slips must be released before pull-
ing the tool. Sometimes high working forces cause the slips to stick,
making it difficult to release the spear. When the spear cannot be
released by bumping down, apply weight, run a string shot posi-
tioned opposite the slips, and detonate it. This jarring action often
releases the slips. It may not be possible to use a string shot on smaller
spears because of their restricted ID.
The no-go may cause a problem. If the fish cannot be released, it
is necessary to release the spear by bumping down a short distance
as noted. If the tool has been run into the drillpipe and is seated in or
near the no-go, there may not be enough distance to move the spear
down in order to release it.
There are various modifications of the basic spear. It can be
equipped with a packoff, which allows circulation through the fish
similar to that of a circulating overshot. In another modification, the
spear is operated hydraulically and does not require rotation to set
or release.
Washpipe
The washpipe spear, sometimes called a Lebus spear, is a special
application. The tool is similar to a regular spear with some modifi-
cations. An inverted spear is run inside the washpipe and held in-
154 Chapter 3
Figure 3-9 Circulating and releasing spear (courtesy
Homco)
Slipcage
\
. \ Retainer plate & screw
Wiper retainer & screw
Wiper block
Wiper spring
~.- Lower sub
Nose ~JlIirJe
~......_-_.__..............--........................-..........-.......-....................-..........--.........
side by a retainer on the bottom of the washpipe. The slips on the

spear catch the washpipe and are controlled by restriction rings. A
catch tool is run on the bottom of the spear to catch the fish.
A spear is run inside the washpipe so that a fish can be washed
over and recovered in one fishing trip. This is much faster than the
conventional procedure of washing over the fish with washpipe, and
then tripping to catch and recover the fish. The relatively long time

period between washing over and catching the fish often allows part
or all of the fish to stick again. For example, a fish may be washed
over for 350 ft, but by the time it is caught and equipment is in-
stalled, only 100-200 ft of the fish may still be free.
During an operation, run the spear inside the washpipe assem-
bly. ALWAYSrun a back-off or unlatching tool above the washpipe.
Run the spear and washpipe into the hole and connect or catch the
fish with the spear. Wash over the fish while the washpipe slides
over the stationary spear.
If the washover shoe becomes worn, normally the operator can
back off and recover the released section of fish. Otherwise, release
the spear from the fish, and pull the washpipe and spear. Replace
the shoe and rerun it to continue washing over.
If the spear takes excess weight, this indicates the fish is free, so
pull it and the washpipe out of the hole. If only a section of a fish is
free, back offthe free section and recover it. Ifthe entire fish is stuck,
disengage the catch on the bottom of the spear and then pull the
spear and washpipe. Otherwise, it is necessary to unlatch or back off
in the drillpipe above the washpipe.
A washpipe and spear combination frequently is used to recover
a keyseated fish. Washing over the fish without a catch allows it to
drop, frequently damaging the dropped tools and causing another
fishing job. Often the preferred procedure is to back off above the
keyseat and use the washpipe and spear combination. Usually, when
an assembly is keyseated, only a relatively short length must be
washed over so there is less risk of danger.
Running a washpipe and spear combination is a moderate- to
high-risk operation. The described operations are straightforward but
often difficult to perform. Using the combination involves running
long sections of large diameter tools with minimum clearance, so
there is a high risk of sticking, even under favorable conditions. Close
tolerances cause high torque with a risk of twisting off. It may be
necessary to work torque down to the fish to release the inverted
spear. This may be very difficult because ofthe large diameter wash-
pipe. The same difficulty applies to releasing stuck washpipe con-
nected to the fish by a spear, so there is a high risk that the fishing
job will not be completed successfully. The washpipe and spear com-
bination is commonly considered as a "last resort" tool. If it is stuck,
there is little chance of milling it out of the hole, and the main alter-
native is to sidetrack.
Packer Retriever
The packer retrieving spear, sometimes called a packer plucker,
recovers packers during milling. This tool is similar to a regular spear
with modifications. The spear connects to an extension below the
bottom ofthe shoe-type mill. After running it into the hole, the spear
156 Chapter 3
passes through packer bore, and catches inside of the mill-out exten-
sion below the packer. The top slips are milled off the packer and
the spear engages the mill-out extension in order to pull the packer
out of the hole (Fig. 3-10).
Conventionally, mill packers by cutting one or both sets of slips,
chasing the packer to the bottom of the hole, and then milling it
completely. Using a packer retrieving spear often is a faster way of
removing a packer. This tool eliminates drilling the lower slips, the
extra trip to recover the packer after milling off the slips, and the
slow drilling on a loose packer.
Figure 3-10 Packer retriever (courtesy Fishing Tools, A

Petro lane Co.)
Bushing
.
1'!; Extension
i
I
i'i
I
;
i
I! 1- Millshoe
I
i
Expanded view of I
packer retriever i
bottom in 1001 I
I
I I
1-_ __ __J
Screw-in Sub
The screw-in sub sometimes is called a screw-in pin or pin sub.
It is one of the strongest catches and is commonly used in catching a
backed-off fish if the fish has a good connection on top. Screwing
into the fish is not difficult if the hole is clean and vertical. Other-
wise the tool joint pin (or box) may sit on the edge of the mating tool
joint on top of the fish .and spin without engaging the fish. This oc-
curs most often in an inclined hole where either the top of the fish or
the bottom ofthe fishing assembly is slightly above the lower side of
the hole.
The screw-in sub has a small notch in the bottom of the pin or
box shoulder to eliminate the problem of spinning. If the fishing pin
or box spins on the fish, the notch will either catch and kick the
fishing pin or box over the fish to catch it, or it will slip off to one
side. Normally, it takes only a few attempts to catch the fish.
Taper Tap
The taper tap is an inside catch tool. It has an upper connection
and a tapered body that are constructed of hardened tool-type steel
(Fig. 3-11). The long, tapered body has machine-type threads that
cut and or thread the tap into the inside of the fish. This tool is used
when an outside catch cannot be made or the inside of the top of the
fish is either too small or irregularly shaped so that a spear cannot be
used.
Connect a taper tap to the bottom of the fishing assembly, run it
into the hole, and screw it into the fish. It is more difficult to screw
in the tap if the fish is loose. The fish is pulled after careful working
as necessary.
The taper tap is used mainly in special applications because it
has several weaknesses and disadvantages. It is relatively strong in a
straight pull. However, it cannot withstand any appreciable jarring
or bumping. It effectively cuts a thread in the bore of the fish, but
these threads are relatively weak so it is easy to jar the tap loose. A
tap with a longer taper cuts a stronger thread than one with a shorter
taper. However, the tap with a longer taper breaks more easily. The
tool steel is relatively easy to break because of its brittleness and
rigidity.
The taper tap does not have a releasing mechanism. Normally, it
cannot be backed out since the upper fishing string would probably
back off first. If the tool must be released from the fish, try pulling
and jarring the tap. Usually, this is successful, but there is a risk of
breaking the tap and leaving a piece in the hole. If pulling and jar-
ring does not release the tap, back offthe assembly above the tap and
use a more efficient fishing assembly.
158 Chapter 3
Figure 3-11 Taper taps (courtesy Hendershot)
.-......................-............................................................................--.
Taper tap with skirl an(j oversize guide Planl taper lap
1
Die Collar
The die collar is similar to a heavy-duty collar with a standard
top thread for connecting to a fishing assembly. The bottom has ma-
chine-type tool steel threads that cut and/or thread over the outside
top of the fish. It is an outside catch tool used to catch a fish that has
an irregular top (Fig. 3-12).
A die collar is used primarily to catch smaller or lighter weight
fish when the top of a fish is rough and cannot be milled off easily in
order to accept an overshot. This tool also is used when the top of a
fish is uneven or out ofround, such as a slightly flattened tubing top.
One disadvantage of the die collar, and the taper tap. is that it is
difficult to determine how much torque to apply during a catch. If
the tool is not rotated enough. the threads that are cut on the fish
will be too shallow and the die collar may strip off the fish at a rela-
tively low tensional pulling force. If the die collar is rotated too much,
the threads will strip and the die collar will not take hold.

Figure 3-12 Die collars (courtesy Gotco)
Die Collar Regular Ole Collar wilh Lipped Guide
The die collar is a strong tool with a strong body. Like the taper
tap, it cannot be worked and jarred too heavily because the hold may
break. However, there is little risk of breaking the collar. Except for
this tendency and the outside catch feature, the die collar generally
is similar to the taper tap and operated in a similar manner.
Mills
Mills are widely used, efficient tools that are safe to use when
operated correctly. They do not have moving parts so there is little
risk of leaving junk in the hole as the mill wears.
Mills are constructed from tubulars, generally with thick walls.
Bottom cutting mills have a tool joint connection on the top, nor-
mally in standard sizes similar to bit pins, that connect to the bottom
of the drill collars. Pilot-type mills have a similar connection on the
upper end and a smaller connection, usually a pin on the lower end.
160 Chapter 3
String reamer mills normally have a box-type tool joint on the upper
end and a pin-type tool joint on the lower end, cut to standard sizes
to run in a drill-collar or drillpipe assembly.
The bottom or cutting face of a mill is designed for its intended
use. Flat bottom mills have a flat cutting face with fluid channels so
that the fluid cleans the bottom of the hole and removes pieces of
metal cuttings. Reamer mills have ribbed surfaces where the face of
the ribs serves as the cutting surface and the channels between the
ribs as mud courses.
The mill cutting face is coated with a hard facing, usually par-
ticles of tungsten carbide, embedded in a matrix material and ap-
plied by acetylene welding. Use larger particle sizes for milling larger
objects, such as a bit. Coarse particles are often characterized by rough
running and high torque. Smaller particle sizes mill a smoother sur-
face for such operations as dressing off the top of a fish. Particle size,
particle density in the matrix, and thickness of the combined par-
ticle matrix are designed for optimum cutting action.
Since mills wear out, one might ask, "Why not put extra cutting
material on the cutting face so the mill can run longer?" If it takes
two concave mills, each dressed with a %-in. thick layer of cutting
material, to drill or mill three bit cones, then why not use one mill
with a %-in. layer of cutting material? The tungsten carbide and matrix
material combination is tough, wear-resistant, and extremely durable.
However, it is not as structurally strong as high-strength steels. Cut-
ting material deposited in an overly thick layer can break off a mill
in chunks or pieces, thus reducing the overall efficiency of the tool.
Mills use torque to drill. The amount of torque depends on the
size of the mill, the material being milled or drilled, the rate ofrota-
tion, and the milling weight. Amounts can vary from light and rela-
tively constant torques to very high, widely fluctuating ones. Exces-
sive torque can damage the running assembly, especially tool joints
or connections, and pose a risk oftwisting off because of over-torqu-
ing or fatigue failure.
Normally, run a mill on an assembly with butt-shouldered, tool-
joint-type connections. A mill may be used on tubing but remember
care must be taken to prevent damaging the tubing, especially the
connectors that can be ruined by over-torquing. In all cases, control
the milling rate and resulting torque in order to minimize the risk of
work string failure.
Mills serve many purposes, such as drilling (milling) cement,
packers, and plugs, and dressing off a damaged fish top. They drill
metal junk ranging in size from small tong dies to large drill collars
and casing. Mills are commonly used to ream collapsed casing, to
remove sections of casing, or to cut casing windows for sidetracking
(Fig. 3-13).

Figure 3-13 Mills (courtesy Servco)
.-..-----......-....---.-.-...--...
Siring Taper Mill
-''!I.'".\'''
Taper Mills
Pilot Mill
3-PIHce Skirted Junk Mill
.--..-..-.....................--...........-..-...................................................................-..-............................
162 Chapter 3
Figure 3-13 Mills (continued)
--..-.-..-..-.............-...................................................................................
Conventional Conc.t)uster Super
Junk Mill
".-
Tools and AssembJjes 163

Take special precautions when milling inside of casing. Do not
dress the outer edge of a mill with hard facing material since there is
a high risk of cutting the casing. It is better to remove about 1;16in. of
cutting material from the outer edge on the mill's bottom as an addi-
tional precaution. Milling at one place in casing may also wear or
damage the casing because of mill cuttings wear, even after taking
the precautions noted.
Mills are broadly classified according to their uses. Sometimes
two different types of mills may serve the same purpose and, fre-
quently, the same mill can be used for different purposes.
Junk Mills
Junk mills are constructed in three basic bottom configurations:
flat, concave, and ribbed. These mills expose a maximum amount of
cutting surface to the junk to be drilled. Some of the mills have
"smooth-type" hard facing material on the lower peripheral edges to
allow some side cutting action. Junk mills generally are massive and
can drill almost any type of junk. They are also used for other pur-
poses, such as cleaning out cement. It is necessary to run junk subs,
or boot baskets, above most junk mills.
Use concave mills when pieces of junk are small. Small pieces of
junk often tend to wall off or to be suspended above the edge of a
mill because of fluid movement. The concave face helps retain smaller
pieces in the center ofthe hole where they can be rolled, broken up,
and milled until they are small enough to circulate out or to recover
in a junk basket.
Flat-bottomed mills, especially ribbed types, are dressed on bot-
tom with additional cutting material because of their construction.
They may also have additional strength, although this probably is
not a significant factor since the bottoms of the other mills are equall y
strong. These mills are preferred when drilling large pieces of junk.
When milling in casing, it is common to have a clearance of about
% to % in. between the mill and the inside of the casing and no
cutting material on the outside of the mill. This clearance reduces
the risk of milling the casing and allows the mill to trip in and out of
the hole without difficulty. It also creates a sufficient cutting surface
in order to drill most junk encountered.
In milling operations, small pieces of junk often bypass or work
up around the edge of the mill but are too large to circulate out. If the
mill is raised while milling inside casing, these pieces can wedge
the tool. With a slightly larger clearance between the mill and the
inside ofthe casing, it is normally possible to work the mill up above
the cuttings or junk so that it can be moved back under the mill and
milled to a smaller size. About the same tolerances are used when
164 Chapter 3
milling in an open hole, although some operators prefer a full-gauge
tool, especially in softer formations.
Skirted Mills
Skirted mills are like junk mills except for a short sleeve con-
nected to the lower outer edge of the mill. This shirt or mill guide
centers the mill over the fish. For example, when dressing off a small
fish, the top may wobble. A regular junk mill could mill down be-
side the fish, but a skirted mill will stay centered over the fish. The
design of a skirted mill is similar to a throated mill. However, the
skirt is not covered with cutting material and is used only as a guide.
Cement Mills
Cement mills are similar to junk mills and are often interchange-
able with them. Fuller gauge cement mills provide an increased
amount of cutting surface. Cement is usually somewhat friable, so
there is less risk of sticking a cement mill if a small piece works up
past the edge and lodges.
Cement mills normally are not as efficient as roller bits for drill-
ing cement, especially when cement is to be drilled inside larger
casing. However, a correspondingly smaller bit must be used in
smaller sized casing. The rollers on small bits have a limited life
because of their smaller bearings. As a result, there can be a higher
frequency of lost cones when drilling cement in small holes; there-
fore, a mill generally is recommended in these cases.
Pilot Mills
Pilot mills are regular flat-bottom mills with an added central-
ized bottom extension that guides the mill. A smaller mill or pilot
bit extension may be run below some larger pilot mills. The exten-
sion enters the tubular to be milled and holds the mill in a centered
position. The extension slides inside the object to be milled while
the cutting action takes place at the face of the mill.
Pilot mills are designed for milling tubulars such as drill collars,
drillpipe, or casing liners and for cleaning the top or upper inside of
some fish. These mills can be highly efficient and have a relatively
long milling life. Some mills, with cutting material on the exten-
sions, cut and mill the inside of the tubular. This action cleans in-
side the top of a fish, and in other cases may reduce the amount of
material that must be cut by the face of the mill. Pilot mills also
recover packers, as described in the section "Packer Retriever." In
special cases, a pilot mill can enlarge the ID of a large fish so it can
be caught with an inside catch tool.

Reamer Mills
Reamer mills are run on the drill tools, similarly to regular ream-
ers, but are used for cutting metal, usually casing. They enlarge a
hole to or near the original diameter, or ream the inside walls of the
casing or other tubulars.
String-reamer-type mills have tool joints on both ends and are
run in the drilling assembly. Full-gauge vertical or spiral blades taper
at each end to the diameter of the body of the reamer. The cutting
material is laid on the outer surface of these blades.
Bottom-reaming mills are similar to regular flat or ribbed-bottom
junk mills except that they have a longer, full-gauge guide section
near the bottom. Cutting material is placed on the bottom and may
be placed in vertical rows or ribs on the side depending upon the
use of the mill.
Tapered Mills
Tapered mills have spiral or vertical blades on the reamer body.
The blades' outer surface tapers from the diameter of the body at the
bottom to full gauge at the top. Cutting material is laid over the outer
surfaces, and the channels between the blades act as fluid passages.
A tapered mill is run on or near the bottom of the drill-collar
assembly. It reams out tight places in casing, severely collapsed cas-
ing, casing shoes, liner tops, and the windows used for sidetracking.
Pineapple Mills
The pineapple mill is a variation of the tapered mill but with a
sharp point on the bottom. This mill can remove most casing ob-
structions, even when the entry is very small.
Throated Mills
Throated mills have a long, heavily constructed, tubular body
with cutting material on the bottom and inside or throat of the mill.
Cutting material may be used on the outer part of the mill, depend-
ing upon the conditions under which the mill is used. One main use
of a throated mill is cutting a fishing neck. Less frequently, it is used
to wash over the top of a fish for a short distance so that there is
clearance for a catch-type fishing tool.
Mill Shoes
Mill shoes, sometimes called washovers or rotary or burning
shoes, are run on the bottom of overshots, junk baskets, and wash over
pipe. They wash or mill over a fish. The term "rotary shoe" generally
implies a tool used in drilling formation material with a toothed mill
(Fig. 3-14). Similarly, mill shoes are dressed with cutting material
for cutting metal and, less commonly, cement.
166 Chapter 3
Figure 3-14 Rotary shoes (courtesy Homco)
r:-Body O.D.~ ..~ .,~..
I !-SOdY I.D'-1 I
. : .,,-,..-:1.
~~
I I-Klust/lte 1.01 I
~Klustflle OD i
(.
.....
i
I
r/' .'"
i j
~: .'" : ,,~'!r.:
,1-

Mill shoes have different bottom designs. A flat to scalloped bot-
tom is more efficient for cutting metal and some very hard forma-
tions. Tooth-shaped shoes cut formations. Tooth designs vary from
longer teeth on wider spacings for soft formations to shorter teeth
with closer spacings for harder formations. Drag-tooth designs have
reversed-type teeth that point backward. Teeth may be coated with
cutting material for very hard formations and when metal may be
encountered.
Mill shoes are dressed in one of four different ways:
1. Bottom only - cuts vertically downward relative to the

axis of the bore hole. It is used where no side cutting ac-
tion is needed.
2. Bottom and inside - frequently run inside casing. There
is no cutting material on the outside to damage the casing
and all cutting action is on the bottom and inside. This
type of mill shoe is commonly used to cut a fishing neck.
3. Bottom and outside - often used when inside cutting ac-
tion is not needed to cut over a fish.
4. Bottom, inside, and outside - often used for washing over
in the open hole. This type of mill is commonly run on
tools such as junk baskets when the fish may require cut-
ting before it can be swallowed.
When additional cutting action is needed. the lower part of the

shoe may be built up outward or inward and cutting material may be
laid over the built-up sections. For example, if overshot slips break
while milling over junk. the inside of the mill shoe can be built up,
reducing the inside diameter. During the wash over operation, the
mill shoe cuts part of the outside of the fish, reducing its outside
diameter so that it will pass through the overshot slips with less risk
of damaging them.
Pipe Cutters
Pipe cutters are sometimes called casing cutters or section mills.
They cut tubulars and generally are subdivided into two types. In-
side pipe cutters run inside larger pipe and cut from the inside out-
ward. Their use is limited to tubulars with larger inside diameters.
Outside pipe cutters run over smaller pipe and cut from the outside
inward (Fig. 3-15). First, casing cutters cut through the pipe and
then begin cutting and removing the pipe. Inside-type cutters are
commonly used to remove a section of casing for sidetracking in cased
holes.
168 Chapter 3
Figure 3-15 Pipe cutters (courtesy Homco)
.-.Upper sub
, / Upper body
Top sub Flipper dog
Upper Bearing
body assembly
} Pusher sleeve
Spring dog
For Bottleneck joints
Bearing assembly
Flipper dog
, Flipper dog pin
Pusher sleeve,
Flipper dog
torsion spring
overshot
Detail of Flipper Dog Assembly
... Main spring
_mBody
Knife wedge ring

Knile wedge ring shear pin
Inside Cutler Outside Cutter
---....---.--................-.......................-.-.............-.......................-...........-.-.-

There are various types of cutter blades or knives. A common
version has two or three knives dressed on the bottom with tungsten
carbide to perform the cutting. One preferred type has two, or prefer-
ably three, blades. each with two or three leaves per blade. Each leaf
has circular inserts oftungsten carbide. Twoor three leaves are bonded
together with the tungsten carbide inserts in a staggered configura-
tion. As the leaves cut and the leaf metal wears, there is always cut-
ting material exposed on the cutting edge. These can be highly effi-
cient blades. For example, in one case a tool was cutting a 7-in., 26-
Ib/ft casing at the rate of 15 ft/hr. This high rate caused a problem
with the removal of metal cuttings.
Both mechanical and hydraulically actuated tools are available.
There are inside cutters for small tubulars, but they are seldom used
because of their reduced strengths. Small tubulars are most often cut
with a chemical cutter because this tool is easier to run and there is
less risk of problems. Sometimes, a chemical cutter cannot be used.
such as when a damaged fish top is encountered, so an outside cut-
ter probably would be used. This cutter will also probably carry the
cut section out of the hole on top of the cutter blades.
Jars
Jars are important fishing tools and responsible for releasing most
stuck tools. Two main types are the more common hydraulic jar and
the less used mechanical jar. They are further subdivided into drill-
ing and fishing jars and may be supplemented with accelerator jars.
Understanding when to use jars and their operation, strengths, and
weaknesses is an important preventive procedure (Fig. 3-16).
Jars are available in a wide range of sizes. They normally are full
opening, allowing for mud circulation and passing small diameter
tools, such as a back-off string shot. They are run above any tool that
may stick. They deliver a high, upward-impact blow on the tools
connected beneath them. Torque can be transmitted through the jar
for regular drilling or torquing a fish. They can be used immediately,
which is often a major advantage. The chances of releasing stuck
tools are improved by starting jarring immediately after sticking;
therefore, jars help prevent and also expedite fishing.
Jars are widely flexible in the strength and frequency of the jar-
ring stroke. The force of the jarring blow is determined by various
factors, including stroke length, internal construction, weight con-
centration (usually with drill collars) immediately above the jars,
and the amount of overpull when the jars trip. Adjust the jarring
frequency by manipulating the speed and distance of upward and
downward movement of the work string.
170 Chapter 3
Figure 3-16 Drilling jars (courtesy Dailey Oil Tool Inc.)
- Downdriving
hammer
Polished stem -....-
bown - Stabilized
drivinganvil system -
Self-adjusting
-
packing
Up driving anvil
Lock nut up _...........
driving hammer
Jay sockets -
Splined rotary
drive mandrel _....
- Drive rollers
- Splined
torque mandrel
I Self-adjusting
Botlom
"
'
- packing
wash
.IJ- pipe Flex-

10lnt .1
~I J
I
~ system ~I
Up Stroke Position Cocked Position Down stroke position

-..------.....---.--....-.-.-.-.-....-.........-...--.---....-.---...--

Jars are constructed in different ways. The most common hy-
draulic jar has an annular-type piston inside an annular-shaped cyl-
inder. The "top" of the piston may be above or below the cylinder-
above for this description. Spines prevent internal rotation. The up-
ward-moving work string pushes the piston upward and increases
tension on a fish. Then the piston enters an enlarged or grooved sec-
tion, or a fluid choke bypass, which allows a rapid release of fluid.
This causes the drill collars above the jar to deliver a strong upward
blow that is transmitted to the tools below the jar. Lowering the fish-
ing assembly lowers the piston, and fluid bypasses rapidly to cock
or reload the jar in readiness for the next blow.
During an operation, run regular jars below the drill collars and
above the fishing tool that is used to engage the fish. Catch the fish
and work it conventionally. If this is unsuccessful, begin jarring the
fish. In some cases, start jarring immediately. Drilling jars are similar
to regular jars and are operated in a similar manner.
When a stuck assembly is jarred, the forces are dynamic and much
larger than average static loads. Consider a stuck assembly that is
jarred by tripping the jars at an overpull of 40,000 Ib over the free
point weight. The static load on the pipe at the stuck point is 40,000
lb.
Much higher forces are obtained by jarring. Picking up or stretch-
ing a downhole assembly stores energy in the assembly. The energy
is released when the jars trip. The upper section of the jars and the
work string move upward rapidly a distance about equal to the stroke
length ofthe jars (drill collar stretch is negligible) and are then stopped
abruptly. This dynamic force, which can be very large, is transmit-
ted directly to the top ofthe stuck tools and indirectly to the point of
sticking. The effectiveness of the jars can be increased by adding
concentrated weight, such as drill collars, in the work string imme-
diately above the jars. This extra weight provides additional momen-
tum and a higher impact. Caution: Heavy-duty jars can be worked to
the point that the force is very high and may be capable of parting
some drillpipe and tool joints. Always work the jars within the
manufacturer's specifications.
Hydraulic Fishing
The hydraulic fishing jar, sometimes called an oil jar, is the basic
tool described earlier in this section. Hydraulic fishing jars are highly
reliable and simpler to operate than other jars. They have a relative-
ly short stroke length of about 4-6 in. Depending on hole depth and
other factors, hydraulic jars can be tripped at a rate of one to four
jarring blows per minute. These jars are generally preferred over me-
chanical jars because of their reliability and faster, easier operation.
172 Chapter 3
Hydraulic Drilling
The hydraulic drilling jar generally is operated similarly to a hy-
draulic fishing jar and serves the same purpose, with minor modifi-
cations to comply with drilling action. It has a longer stroke of about
12-15in. and it is run while drilling for immediate use if sticking
occurs.
Mechanical Fishing
The mechanical fishing jar is one of the first rotary jars. It is gen-
erally less efficient than other hydraulic jars, may not last as long
without failure, and cannot be stroked as fast. Otherwise, this jar
serves the same purpose as the hydraulic fishing jar and has a simi-
lar stroke length, but it is operated in a slightly different manner.
Some mechanical jars require placing about one-half turn of
torque in the assembly, picking up to the required tension, and then
releasing the torque in order to release the jars for the stroke. De-
pending on operating factors, mechanical jars can be torqued to de-
liver one to two blows-per-minute. Normally, the torque is placed
with a rotary. If the assembly sticks firmly so that the kelly cannot be
installed, then place the torque with the slips or tongs, which is more
time consuming than using the kelly. The speed of the jarring action
is reduced correspondingly, usually to one blow-per-minute or less.
Mechanical Drilling
The mechanical drilling jar is generally similar to the mechani-
cal fishing jar. It has a heavier construction and a stroke length of
about 12-15in. and generally is operated in a similar manner. How-
ever, it is not used as often as the hydraulic tool for reasons similar
to those for the mechanical fishing jar.
Accelerator Jars
Accelerator jars, sometimes called intensifier jars, may be run
along in the fishing string with regular jars. An accelerator jar nor-
mally is full opening to the inside diameter of conventional drill
collars. Torque can be transmitted through the jar for torquing the
fish. It is not used as a drilling tool.
An accelerator jar acts as an air cushion or fluid spring, serving
as energy storage and release for regular jars, thereby increasing their
efficiency. The cushioning action also lessens the strong jarring and
impact forces on the remainder of the downhole assembly as the
regular jars are tripped.

Figure 3-17 Bumper subs and jars (courtesy Bowen)
Mandrel seal non-extrusion ring

V Mandrelring Mandrel seal protector ring
'! -' O-Ring Main mandrel seal
Seal protector ring
Mandrel body Fill plug
Non-extrusion ring
Fill plug seal
Fill plug
Mandrel body
Mandrel
t- Mandrel body
Middle body
Middle body seal (small)

,/ O.Hing
!i ,Non-extrusion ring
Back-up ring Knocker
O-Ring
Middle boot
Knocker Washpipe seal
O-Ring seal Middle boot fillplug seal
Protector ring Main washpipe seal
Non-extrusion ring Seal protection rin~J
Washpipe
Piston rings Non-extrusion rine:)
Piston '-. Middle body seal (large)
Fill plug
O-Ring
Seal protector nng
~
~'\ O-Ring
,,\
. Non-extrUSionnng
Washpipe
~ Washpipe body
)
( -' Washpipe
Oil Jar Fishing Bumper Subs
-.-.-.-....-.....-......---..-......-.-..-.-........-..-......---..-.-.-..--.--..---.--.----.--.--.....--
174 Chapter 3
Top sub
Mandrel
Non-extrusion ring
Seal protector ring
Mandrel body insert seal - Knocker sub
Mandrel body insert ,.
Middle body seal (large)
Non-extrusion ring
Backup ring
Mandrel body
- Bowl extfmsion
Non-extrusion ring
Mandrel
Seal protector ring
Seal
Middle body Seal insert
Knockl'r Control ring

Upper adaptor
Wash pipe
Chevronpacktn9 _0.. Control ring piug
L tJwer ,waplc,
MldcH(!body 1111p1uq Friction slip
0- H,ngs
Non.(!~lru:)I')" nni~ Bowl
$i~.:J1prot(:CIO:n:19
\I\/;:H.JIPI;)I~
~,U,li(:;fn.illj
Friction slip space
O-Ring
Wash pipe
Wash pipe body

Bottom sub
Jar Intensifier
----.------ ~-_.-

Bumper Sub
The bumper sub sometimes is called a mechanical slip joint (Fig.
3-17). It strikes a sharp downward blow directly to the tools below
the sub and indirectly to the point whare the tools are stuck. Its ac-
tion complements that of the jars in the fishing assembly. Bumper
subs also help to release slip-type tools when slips are stuck on the
taper, such as in bumping down to release overshots, and less fre-
quently, to apply a constant weight on lower tools. The bumper sub
normally is full opening to the inside diameter of conventional drill
collars. Torque is transmitted through the sub for torquing the fish
and also for regular drilling. Bumper subs are available in different
sizes.
When the fish cannot be released with an upward blow from the
jars, it may be necessary to drive the fish down. The bumper sub is
designed for this purpose. It has a free-traveling mandrel that pro-
vides the stroke length of the stroke. At the end of the stroke, the
fishing assembly imparts a sharp blow to the tools located below the
bumper sub. Drill collars above the jars increase the force ofthe blow.
During an operation, the bumper sub normally is located between
the jars and the fishing tool. If the bumper sub were located above
the jars, especially hydraulic jars, blows would be struck against the
jars. This could cushion the blow and lessen its effect.
Bumper subs, like jars, are designed with different stroke lengths
for different purposes. They also can be obtained with built-in safety
joints. In addition, some types combine the functions of both a bumper
sub and a jar in one tool. One type of tool operates as a mechanical
jar but also can bump downward by using a similar rotating action
with weight set on the tool. When the tool is set in a second position,
it can be used as a conventional bumper sub to bump down or bump
upward through the free travel of the stroke length.
Combination Hydraulic Jar and Bumper Sub

The combination hydraulic jar and bumper sub sometimes is
called a jar bumper. It combines a bumper sub and hydraulic jar in
one tool and is available in different sizes. Each part operates similar
to and has the same use as the individual tools already described.
This tool is very efficient when working with the alternate ac-
tions of a hard pull to jar upward and an immediate slack-off or drop-
off bump down with maximum force. A slight hesitancy as the jar
closes increases the efficiency of the bumping down stroke.
176 Chapter 3
Surface Bumper Sub
The surface bumper sub sometimes is called a surface jar. It is
run at the surface, above the rotary, and delivers a downward blow.
Various sizes are available.
In operation this tool is positioned at the surface and connected
to the stuck tools. It is stretched with an upward pull and the trip-
ping mechanism releases at preset loading. The released energy causes
downward momentum, delivering a downward blow at the bottom
of the assembly. This tool is not commonly used.
Wash pipe
Wash pipe or washover pipe is used to wash over fish and stuck
tools. It is made from high-strength casing and fitted with flush-joint,
butt-shouldered connectors. These connectors resist continued tight-
ening and possible damage caused by the high torque conditions
under which washpipe often is operated. The washpipe is sized to
obtain the optimum clearance possible between the fish and the in-
side diameter of the washpipe, and in the annulus between the out-
side wall ofthe washpipe and the inside wall of the hole (Fig. 3-18).
During an operation, run a wash over shoe on the bottom of the
washpipe. Make up and run the required amount of washpipe, and
then connect it to the bottom of the fishing assembly. Run this mecha-
nism to the top ofthe fish and begin circulating and drilling, or wash-
ing over the fish. Up to 500 ft of washpipe is used in big holes that
have adequate clearances and lesser lengths in smaller holes.
After washing over, pull the washpipe and run a fishing assem-
bly to catch and recover the fish. As an alternate procedure, run a
spear inside the washpipe to catch and recover a section of the fish
after it has been washed over. There is a high risk of sticking the
washpipe in this process, especially wall sticking, because of the
close tolerances. Recovering stuck washpipe is very difficult at best,
because of the required sidetracking and/or the increased risk oflos-
ing the hole.
Safety Joint
The safety or back-off joint is a disengaging tool. Run it on the
bottom ofthe fishing assembly for a screw-in connection; otherwise,
run it above the catch tool. This tool allows backing off and leaving
a fish or stuck tools in the hole without using a string shot or cutting

Figure 3-18 Washover pipe (courtesy Gotco)
....i .', . ;!
.
---..--.--.-...-.....-..-.-.-----.-.....--..-..............................................................................................
the fishing string (Fig. 3-19). Pull the fishing string for repairs or
changes, then run it back into the hole, reengage the fish with the
upper part of the safety joint, and resume fishing. The safety joint is
widely used and relatively safe to run.
One common use of safety joints is to replace jars that fail, usu-
ally because of heavy working, Similarly, if the hole begins to cave
178 Chapter 3
Figure 3-19 Safety joints (courtesy Homco)
Stem Stem
Shear pin
"'T"- Packoff ring
Box
Pack
off ring Clutch ring
Set screw
Stern
Packotf ring
Box
Drillpipe Tubing Shear Pin Washover
around the fishing string, it may be best to disengage from the fish
and pull the assembly above the point where caing has occurred or
to allow for a clean out trip. If the operator must wait for a string shot
to back off the fishing asembly, the fishing assembly could stick. With
a safety joint, the fishing assembly can be released almost immedi-
ately and pulled, or other action taken.
There are various back-off joints; most are full opening for circu-
lation and for running tools such as string shots. One type has a
coarse-threaded connection in the middle of the safety joint. This
connection requires less torque than the regular tool joint connec-
tion. The tool is backed off by rotating the assembly in the left-hand
direction. The amount of back-off torque is less than that normally
required to back off regular tool joints. However, sometimes apply-
ing sufficient torque at the tool may be limited because of drag that
increases with depth, higher angle of hole inclination, and dogleg
severity. All of these may cause problems in working the torque down
to the tool in order to back it off.

Another type of safety joint is backed off and released by a com-
bination of short, reciprocating movements and right-hand torque.
Others are released by different manipulations of the fishing assem-
bly. Normally, a safety joint is reconnected by reversing the motions
required to back it off.For example, the coarse-thread, left-hand, back-
off safety joint is reconnected by reciprocating and rotating to the
right. Select a safety joint based on the motions required to connect
and disconnect it, and that are compatible with the working motions
of the other tools and the way the fish is worked.
Knuckle Joint
Knuckle joints connect fishing tools to the bottom of the fishing
assembly and change the direction of the tools suspended below it.
The axis of a center line through the fishing tool string changes a few
degrees at the knuckle joint so the tools below the knuckle joint will
point in a slightly different direction (Fig. 3-20). The knuckle joint
serves the same purpose as a bent sub, bent pin, or bent joint.
Figure 3-20 Knuckle joint (courtesy Bowen)

....-.............-.........-....-...........--.....-.--.........................-......-.-...-.........................................................................................................................................
Head connection
Packer
i Restriction plug
,..- Main body
Conlrol piston
. Control lever cage
rl'-. Control lever

...!
Connecting hushing
Retaining ring
1"
!'\
Drive or rOlaling pms
"-, '\ Packing rinf.; o-rinq

1": ". \ '\ Pivot loinl seat
~,_, '" Pivot body

-,,'" Bottom sub
". Spacer wastlers
'
180 Chapter 3
The knuckle joint allows the fishing catch tool to take hold of a
fish top that is out of alignment (usually laying to the side in an out-
of-gauge hole section). A fish top in this position may be difficult or
impossible to catch with a regular fishing assembly, because the tools
tend to run down beside the fish.
There are various types of knuckle joints, including both me-
chanical and hydraulic. A common hydraulic tool aligns with the
axis of the work string during running. The lower part of the tool
deflects out of alignment, extending to one side when it is actuated
by mud pressure. Depending on its size, the knuckle joint may not
be as strong as some of the other tools used to deflect the fishing
assembly.
Bent Sub
The bent sub, or kick sub, changes the direction of the axis of
tools connected below it from the direction of the axis of the running
assembly above it (Fig. 3-21). A bent sub normally is constructed
from a regular sub. The most common bent sub is a bent pin sub. The
pin on the bottom of the sub is cut in the normal manner but is kept
out of alignment with the sub body and upper box connection. The
angle of misalignment is about 2-5 from the center line of the sub.
The sub normally is named by the amount of misalignment, such as
a 3 bent pin sub that has pin cut with a 3 misalignment.
A bent box sub is less common. It has the box thread in the top of
the sub cut a few degrees off center and the pin is aligned with the
body of the sub. Otherwise, this tool is similar to and used in the
same way as the bent pin sub.
Bent subs serve the same purpose as, and (other than the fixed
angle) operate similarly to, the knuckle joint and bent joint.
Bent Joint
A bent joint is a joint of drillpipe, tubing, or in some cases, a
small drill collar that is bent so the lower pin is out of alignment
with the upper box connection. This tool is used for the same pur-
pose and generally operated in the same manner as a knuckle joint
or bent sub. However, a bent joint usually can move the bottom of
the fishing tools a further lateral distance from the center line of the
wellbore than the bent sub or knuckle joint. The bent joint, espe-
cially a bent drill collar, is stronger than a knuckle joint or a bent
sub.
Normally, an overshot with a cut lip guide is run with a bent
joint. Ensure that it is connected to the bottom of the bent joint so
the open side or lip of the guide is on the right-hand side (looking
down) relative to the bend in the bent joint. As the bent joint is ro-

Figure 3-21 Bent sub
I- '
~
('
!...
I
I ')
':..---t---~
I
I
I
<t
I
I
I \
I '\
! \
! \
j ",\ Angle 01 deflection
tated slowly down over the fish, the open side of the cut lip guide
can contact the fish and guide it into the overshot. The joint can be
bent at the rig site, but make sure that the overshot and cut lip guide
are correctly positioned.
Wall Hook
The wall hook is a hook-shaped tool constructed as part of a
washover shoe. It helps catch the fish when the top is off center or
out of alignment with the axis of the wellbore, such as when a top is
laid over in a washed-out section. This tool also can be used when
the overshot is run under a bent joint, knuckle joint, or bent sub.
During an operation, connect the wall hook to the bottom of the
overshot. Run the fishing assembly into the hole until the bottom of
the wall hook is immediately above the top of the fish, and then
rotate and lower it slowly. The rotating wall hook contacts the top of
182 Chapter 3
the fish, and hooks it toward the center of the hole and into the shoe
of the overshot. The fish enters the overshot, is caught by the slips,
worked, and recovered.
The action of the wall hook is like that of a muleshoe or cut lip
guide. However, it increases the lateral extension and helps engage a
fish that is deeper in a washed-out area and further from the axis of
the hole. Handle a wall hook carefully since the long extension makes
this tool easy to break.
Circulating Sub
A circulating sub, run near the bottom of the fishing string, al-
lows the option of circulating through the fish or out a circulating
port in the side ofthe sub. Various types of circulating subs are avail-
able. One has a circulating port on the side of the sub that can be
opened or closed by manipulating the drilling assembly.
Another circulating sub has a ported nipple, allowing circula-
tion though the perforation. A perforation ball sealer is dropped to
seal off the perforation, which allows circulation through the fish. If
circulation is not established through the fish, release pressure, al-
low the perforation ball sealer to drop off, and circulate again through
the perforation. A main disadvantage ofthis procedure is that it leaves
the perforation ball sealer inside the fish, which could restrict
downhole operations inside the fish. In a few cases the ball may be
recovered by reverse circulation, but usually there is a high risk of
plugging the perforation.
Another sub has side circulating ports closed by rupture discs.
When these are used, the first operation is an attempt to establish
circulation down through the fish. If this cannot be done, increase
the pressure until the discs rupture, then circulate around the fish-
ing assembly.
A circulating sub may not be used when fishing with an over-
shot without a packoff because it allows circulating around the fish-
ing string. However, other methods, such as screwing in, do not al-
low this option, so a circulating sub may be needed.
Circulating through a stuck fish whenever possible is a major aid
in releasing the fish or preventing additional sticking. It is always a
good practice to circulate around the fishing assembly to prevent
sticking, especially when fishing through hazardous formations, to
keep the hole clean, and to control high-pressure zones. The drillpipe
can be perforated near the fishing tool to establish circulation around
the fishing assembly. However, the circulating sub often is a better
selection because of the time delay and cost of perforating.

Ported "Side-Door" Back-off Sub
The ported side-door back-off sub allows tools, usually wireline
tools, to run through the fishing assembly, and out into the annulus
through the sub. Normally, the sub is connected immediately above
the catch tool. Some tools, such as a string shot, pass through the
work string, while the tapered inner section guides the wireline tool
through the side-door choke so that it passes down the annular space
outside of the fish. .
Shock Sub
Shock subs dampen shock loads and vibrations when drilling in
high torque and in rough drilling situations. Normally, run these tools
immediately above a bit or mill. They can extend the lives of bits
. and mills, minimize drill string vibrations, and reduce the risk of fa-
tigue failure.
Shear Rams
Shear rams fit in the blowout preventer. They have a knife-blade-
type cutting face. They serve as an outside cutter designed to cut
drill pipe and seal the wellbore in severe emergency conditions.
Tools Run Inside Casing

Two tools are run only inside casing because they catch the in-
side casing wall. In some cases, these tools are set inside casing but
extend below the casing. There is a risk of damaging the casing with
either tool, and retracting the anchor to release the tool may also
cause problems.
Pulling Tool
The pulling tool is used inside casing to exert a very high ten-
sion force on a fish. It is a highly efficient tool when applicable.
Connect the pulling tool between the bottom of the fishing assembly
and the catch tool. Catch the fish. Then slips on the pulling tool will
engage the casing wall, anchoring the tool. The tool is rotated, exert-
ing a strong upward tensile force to the fish.
Mechanical pulling tools are actuated by rotating the work string,
which acts through a screw mechanism, creating a high lifting force.
Mud pressure acts against a piston in the hydraulic pulling tool to
exert a strong upward force.
Reversing Tool
The reversing tool is used inside casing to exert left-hand torque
in order to unscrew a fish. Like the pulling tool, it is run above the
catch tool. Tools below the bottom of the reversing tool have left-
184 Chapter 3
hand connectors. After engaging the fish, the reversing tool anchors
against the casing wall. Apply right-hand torque and rotation with
the work string. The tool converts this force to a higher level of left-
hand torque and rotation below the tool as a way of backing off part
of the fish.
One problem with the reversing tool is that often only a short
section of a fish is recovered. The fish can be backed off at any con-
nection, but the uppermost connection is the most likely one to back
off. Additional trips are required to recover the fish.
Roller
Casing rollers open the collapsed casing in place, restoring it to
or near the original ID. The casing roller has a tapered metal body
with a tool joint connection on top that connects to the drill-collar
assembly (Fig. 3-22). Cylindrical rollers are positioned longitudi-
nally around the tapered body section of the tool. Ports provide for
mud circulation.
Figure 3-22 Casing roller (courtesy Eastman Whipstock and

FishingTools)

The casing roller connects to the drill-collar assembly below a
bumper sub and jars. Run this tool into the hole, set it on top of the
collapsed casing, and rotate. A combination of weight and rotation
restores casing diameter. Depending on the severity of the collapse,
several rollers may be used in consecutively larger sizes to open the
damaged casing.
Whipstock
The whipstock is used for sidetracking in cased holes. A tapered
lower edge directs the drill tools away from the original center line
of the wellbore.
TUBULAR OR WIRELINE
FISHING TOOLS
Some tools are designed to be run either on tubulars or wirelines.
In most cases, these tools are more efficient when run on tubulars.
Casing Patch
The casing patch repairs holes in casing without the need for
cementing or pulling the casing. A common patch has a corrugated
steel sleeve that is run on a swaging device. When this tool is run
'and positioned, a swage is pulled though the sleeve, expanding it
and pressing the sleeve firmly against the inner wall of the casing.
The casing patch restricts the casing ID slightly and is more com-
monly used in production operations. A similar type internal casing
patch tool run on a wireline can seal holes in small tubulars (Fig. 3-
23).
Casing and Tubing Swage

The casing or tubing swage restores flattened or partially col-
lapsed casing and tubing in place to or near its original inside diam-
eter. A swage is more commonly used in tubing and a casing roller in
casing. Normally, a swage is run on tubulars for swaging casing and
on a wireline for swaging tubing.
The swage has a cylindrical body with a tapered lower end and a
tool joint connection on the upper end for connecting to the work
string (Fig. 3-24). It has ports for circulating and grooves for mud
channels. Tubing swages are smaller sized tools of similar design.
Connect a casing swage to the bottom of a bumper sub and jars
with drill collars for added weight. Run this tool into the hole down
to the point where the inside diameter is restricted. Bump the swage
into the collapsed section until it is lightly stuck, and then jar it free.
186 Chapter 3
Figure 3-23 Tubing liner (courtesy J.e. Kinley Co.)
10 ft. Steel liner
before installation
Starting mandrel
'r'
I
I
i I
j ,,
i,
Liner ,
,,
,I ,,
:~""\:
du./ Liner guide . ...
. .,
.n Pittedtubing,. , Wire line jar action
expands liner

Telescoping support
Adhesive coating
bonds liner to I.D
01 tubing
Seals oH holes.
Spacer
leaves tubing open
'''-:.:. ~.
f~/ Stop
Tool Applicatkm
--------.-..- ---.---.....-..--..-.-...--....-............................................................................
Repeat this procedure until the casing has been swaged out to the
diameter of the swage.
The amount of force used to jar down is determined by the force
of upward jarring required to release the tool. The outside diameter

Figure 3-24 Swages
Run on wire line

Run on pipe
-------..--------.--- -----.-....-.-.....-.---.--...............-...-..
of the swage will be slmost that of the inside diameter of the casing
for lightly damaged or flattened casing. For more severely collapsed
casing, a smaller diameter tool may be used first, followed by suc-
cessively larger sized tools. Swaging is repeated until the casing is
restored to or near the original ID.Wireline operations are completed
similarly, but generally with smaller tools and wire line jars and a
bumper sub.
Chemical Cutter
The chemical cutter cuts tubing, drill pipe , and small diameter
casing from the inside. It may be used to partially cut through the
wall of thicker walled tubulars that are then jarred apart.
Run a chemical cutter inside the tubular and position it at the
point to be cut. Chemicals are forced under high pressure out of jets
in the cutting tool, cutting the tubular. Standoff distance is impor-
tant for efficient operation.
188 Chapter 3
Grab
The grab, frequently called a wireline grab, recovers wireline fish
(Fig. 3-25). This tool consists of a tool joint with 2 or 3 prongs that
have pointed ends extending downward from the bottom periphery
of the tool joint. The inner sides of the prongs are fitted with barbs.
Barbs are spaced alternately on the prongs so there is one barb every
4-10 in. from the base of the tool joint to the bottom of the prongs.
Normally, select a grab with a 'barb diameter that is slightly larger
than the diameter of the wireline fish.
The grab is structurally weaker when compared to the spear, but
it is used in a similar manner. Generally, the same precautions ap-
ply. There is less risk of bypassing a wireline fish when using a grab,
Figure 3-25 Grab

Note: Larger, heavy-duty tools run on drillpipe and tubing; lighter
duty tools (illustrated) run on rods and wirelines.
Bottom view
Three prong

but it can happen. There is a higher risk of bypassing in an open,
out-of-gauge hole. A stiff-pronged or sprung wireline grab may work
better in this case.
A sprung grab is used in cased and open holes, especially in out-
of-gauge open holes below casing. This tool is the same as a regular
grab except that the prongs are modified slightly. The prongs are
bent radially outward so the equivalent fixed, unsprung diameter of
the bottom of the prongs is about 25% to 50% greater than the casing
ID. They are sprung together at the bottom of the grab to a smaller,
sprung diameter and tied with strands of soft rope or soft wire. This
allows the prongs to pass through the preventers and other surface
equipment and to enter the casing. The retaining wire wears and
falls off as the spear runs through the upper casing. The the prongs
slide against the wall of the casing or open hole. Any wireline fish
are gathered inside of the prongs and caught with the barbs. This
reduces the risk of bypassing the fish and increases the chance of a
successful catch.
Jet Cutter
Jet cutters cut tubing, drillpipe, and small diameter casing with
a specially shaped, explosive jet charge. They cut tubulars from the
inside and are operated like a chemical cutter.
Junk Catcher
The junk catcher screens the mud to remove small floating de-
bris, such as pieces of packer and pump piston rubbers, perforation
ball sealers, and other small particles. This junk collects in the bowl
of the catcher or is pushed to the bottom of the hole. Otherwise,
close-tolerance tools, especially those run on wirelines such as gauge
rings and packers, can stick next to this debris by wedging against
the side of the hole.
The junk catcher has a tool joint or other screw-type connection
on top for connecting to the work string or wireline. It has an in-
verted basket with perforated or slotted sides. The diameter at the
bottom of the basket approaches the casing ID. The slots or perforac
tions are sized to catch large pieces of suspended debris as mud passes
through them. Debris that passes through the slots usually is small
enough so that it can pass around close-tolerance tools without stick-
ing them.
Run the junk catcher on a wireline or work string to screen mud.
It also may be run below a packer or other close-tolerance tools. It
screens mud efficiently so other tools can operate in clean fluid and
minimizes the risk of sticking.
190 ChaDter 3
Junk Shot
Junk shots break up large junk into smaller pieces so they can be
easily drilled, milled, walled off, or caught in a junk basket (Fig. 3-
26). The junk shot is a large, shaped jet charge that fires vertically
downward.
Figure 3-26 Wireline junk shot ....-.--.........-........................................................................-......
Hope socket
Detonator
Primer charge
Explosive
Liner

'Junk shots must be very close to or almost in contact with the
junk to be effective. If the fish is in the open hole, it frequently is
covered with a small amount of cuttings or other fill material. This
prevents the junk shot from being detonated close enough to the fish
to be effective. Because of this, junk shots are less effective when run
in the open hole on a wireline shielded conduit. An effective junk
shot run on tubulars has circulating ports to clean off the top of the
fish. Then the shot can be positioned correctly for effective detonation.
Magnet
A strong permanent magnet recovers small junk. In the common
configuration the magnet is encased and attached to a tool joint. It is
a close-contact tool. The magnetic insert must touch or be very close
to the fish to be effective (Fig. 3-27). Magnets run on wirelines are
seldom effective in open holes because of the small amount of cut-
Figure 3-27 Fishing magnets (courtesy Gotco)

Note: Similar type, smaller tools run on wirelines.
F"i1
I I~
JI
.. :
I I
: I
I I
I I
I I I
I
I I I ."
J ~ )
/
/ "-
" ""
/
" "
,
/
"-
/
I
I I
I
I
l I'
Maqnet ring .'
.I :
"
I
~~
!i~
leeve type with clean OU! shoe

~ :
Plug lyP(~
-..-....-......................................-.................................................................................................................................................................................-...........
192 Chapter 3
tings or other fill material that commonly cover the junk. Magnets
can be more effective in a cased hole if it is clean.
A magnet designed to wash and clean the bottom of the hole can
be run on tubulars so the magnet can contact the junk. A magnet may
be fitted with a skirt to keep the junk from being knocked off during
tripping. Toothed skirts may be used for minor drilling and cleaning
out in order to better expose the junk to the magnet. In most cases it
is better to take such positive actions as running a junk basket or
short mill-tooth bit to break up the junk and catch it in a boot basket
or circulate it out of the hole.
Socket
The socket or rod socket is. like an overshot, except that it is
smaller so that it can catch smaller fish. It has slip teeth aligned
horizontally on slip-type inserts. The socket usually is run on a
wireline or pump rods. It is highly efficient for engaging and recov-
ering broken pump rods, weight bars, and fishing necks on rope sock-
ets. If run on tubulars and if a fish cannot be recovered, then the
slips generally can be either released or broken and released by jar-
ring and bumping.
The wireline version of the socket usually has a shear-pin re-
lease. If the fish cannot be released and recovered, bump down and
shear the releasing pin, which then releases the slips from the fish.
The shear-pin release may also be used when the socket is run on
pump rods, but this is less common.
Wireline Spear
Wireline spears recover lost wirelines. A wire line spear has a
slender, elongated metal body or prong with a tool joint connection
on the upper end (Fig. 3-28). The average tool has three to six barbs
connected to the prong and oriented to cover 3600. The diameter of
the prong should be approximately two times the diameter of the
barb. Select a spear with a barb diameter slightly larger than the di-
ameter of the wireline fish. Run larger spears on tubing or drillpipe
and smaller spears under sinker bars on wirelines.
Generally, run a guide above the spear. This prevents the wire line
from getting above the tool and causing it to stick. The guide also
pushes or bunches the wire line below the spear so the barbs can
engage it. To prevent sticking, it is important to use a guide when
running this tool in casing in order to ensure that the clearance be-
tween the guide and the ID of the casing is less than the diameter of
the wireline fish.

Figure 3-28 Wireline spears
Drillpipe or tubing spear Wire line or rod spear
-.-"
"
---
~
[
'r-'
.......
3I
: I
i J
(
~~
Prong
Bottom view
" -.. \
E
,
/ , '.
" --- " ,
~~ O ~-":'
;~:;i ,
\,
;
'" -,,' :\( ..\:
1BO phasing 120' phasin9
'
194 Chapter 3
For operation with tubulars, connect a wireline spear below a
bumper sub and jars. Run this tool to engage the fish with minimum
weight. It is best to recover the fish without bumping or jarring since
the fish can break where it is entangled in the barbs. The tool is run
in a similar manner on a wireline. The same precautions apply to
tubular and wireline operation. Handle the wireline spear carefully
to prevent breaking, especially when fishing for large lines with large
tubulars. The spear is a stronger tool when compared to a similar
sized grab. In most cases a u&prung grab" is preferred, at least to
bunch up the line. Then use the stronger spear to catch and pull the
bunched line out of the hole.
As a very rough rule of thumb, the top of a wireline fish will be
at a distance from the bottom of the hole equal to about 112to % of the
stretched length of the wirelin,e fish. Run the spear on tubulars in
the open hole with care. Use slick tools as much as possible. When
tagging the top of the fish, DO NOT rely on the weight indicator's
set-down weight. That indication may come too late, and the tool
may already be stuck. Take special precautions, such as double pull-
ing stands, and pull an extra stand if there is any question about the
fish being caught.
When pulling a fish in the open hole, there is a high risk of stick-
ing as it is pulled into the bottom of casing. If the fish sticks, do not
pull too hard. Work down and back up to wear out the bunched wire
fish, or birdnest, so it can enter the casing. Use minimal jarring and
bumping action (Fig. 3-29).
WIRELINE FISHING TOOLS

Wireline fishing tools are run on wirelines and are primarily
operated by reciprocating motion. In most cases, this limits their ef-
ficiency as compared to other types of fishing tools. Wireline operat-
ing efficiency decreases with depth because of line stretch caused by
increased weight. It then becomes more difficult to determine spe-
cific tool action. This adversely affects the operation and increases
the risk of additional fishing jobs.
To illustrate this point, the jarring action is crisp and well-de-
fined when jarring on a fish with wireline tools at 5,000-8,000 ft.
Tool action is less distinct at 14,000-16,000 ft and more difficult to
determine. If the line is slacked off too much on the downward jar-
ring stroke, excessive line flexing at the top of the rope socket will
result in line failure. When a tool is stuck and the wire line cannot be
cut or broken, it can be worked in this mannor to break it near the
rope socket.
Most suppliers of wireline equipment also supply fishing tools
specially designed to recover their own equipment.

Figure 3-29 Balled wireline below a casing shoe
Cement
Casing
Wire line
Rope socket
Sinker bars
Casing shoe
Balled wire line
Wire-line spear
196 Chapter 3
Bailers
Bailers remove fluids from the hole. They also may drill or clean
out the hole to a limited extent and be used to dump sand or cement
slurry on plugs or at the bottom of the hole. Bailers are most com-
monly run on wirelines (Fig. 3-30).
Figure 3-30 Bailers (courtesy Hendershot Tool Co.)

-......--.-.--.-.-.-.------......-........-......-.........................-..............................................................................................................................................
0
..
~
...
.
III Sectional
Single barrel
Ct1ipping, pumpIng sand. etc. Regular
..
I j . ",
"
:;, 61 ~'"
,
"
Bailer bottoms
--..--.--.---.-.------.--.--....----.----..-..........--..........---..................--.............-.......................--....

Bucket Bailer
The bucket bailer removes fluids from the hole. It is a long tube
with a sealed bottom and a threaded connection at the top so it can
be attached to the wireline rope socket. Older versions had the
wireline attached to a bail connected to the open top.
In operation. the bailer is run into the hole below the fluid level.
Fluid runs into the bailer through the upper ports. After pulling, the
bailer is emptied at the surface by inverting it and pouring the fluid
out.
Dart-Bottom Bailer
An improved version of the bucket bailer has a check valve in
the bottom. The check extends out the bottom of the valve in a dart
shape. Fluid enters the bailer through the upper ports and through
the check valve in the bottom. After the bailer is pulled, the fluid
can be dumped through the dart bottom more conveniently than by
inverting the bailer.
When the hole has a fluid column, the dart-bottom bailer picks
up fluid from its lowest point. Fluid passes through the bailer as it is
lowered. When the tool is stopped, it contains fluid from that point.
This can be used to locate a water-oil interface.
Dump Bailer
The dump bailer carries sand or cement slurry to the point in the
hole where it is to be deposited or dumped. One of the most com-
mon applications is dumping cement slurry or sand on top of plugs.
The mechanical type has a modified dart on the bottom of the bailer
that remains closed until the dart touches the bottom of the hole.
The bailer is filled with sand, cement slurry, etc., and run slowly to
the bottom of the hole. When the bailer is set on bottom, the dart
valve locks open and the material in the bailer is dumped out by a
combination of gravity and the upward movement of the bailer.
Another modification of the dump bailer is run on a shielded
electric line. It is filled with material and run to the bottom of the.
hole, where the material inside the bailer is dumped by an electri-
cally actuated mechanism. These bailers are more commonly run in
smaller tubulars, such as when cement is dumped on top of a plug
set in tubing.
Sand Pump
The sand pump has a piston that travels the entire length of the
bailer. It is connected to the bottom of a rod that extends out through
the top of the bailer and has a connection to attach it to the running
assembly. The lower part of the piston and the bottom of the bailer
are each fitted with a check valve.
198 Chapter 3
Run the sand pump to the bottom ofthe hole. Work the piston by
listing and lowering the running line a distance approximately equal
to the length of the bailer. As the plunger moves upward, it creates a
suction action that helps pull sand and fluid into the bailer barrel.
On the downstroke, fluid passes through a check valve and into the
plunger. As the plunger is lifted again, the suction stroke moves more
fluid, with sand and other debris, into the bailer barrel. When the
bailer is full, it is pulled to the ,surface, emptied, and rerun.
Chipping
The chipping or cleanout bailer is a modification of the sand
pump in which the bottom of the bailer is replaced with a cutting
face. Various designs of cuttiI;lg structures are available. On the
upstroke, the entire bailer is lifted off the bottom. It is lowered rap-
idly and the cutting structure on the bottom of the bailer cuts and
loosens debris at the bottom of the hole. On tho upstroke, the debris
cut loose by the downstroke is pulled into the bailer barrel. Depend-
ing on the skill of the operator and the running equipment, a chip-
ping bailer can be an efficient tool. For example, a 41f2-in. drillable
bridge plug was drilled with a chipping bailer until it released and
was then pushed to bottom in about 6 hours.
Blind Box
The blind box cleans the top of a fish by removing metal burrs
that prevent the fishing tool from making a solid catch. It also cuts
off short strands of wireline remaining in a rope socket after the line
parts (Fig. 3-31). If the top of the fish is burred or swelled, such as a
swelled sinker bar tool joint shoulder, the blind box may cut the
swelled section off so the fish can be caught.
The blind box has a screw-top connection on top of a steel cylin-
der with a sharp, lower inner edge. The inside diameter is very close
to the outside diameter of the top of the fish. The socket is set on top
of the fish and driven down over it with jars. This cuts and smooths
the side of the top of the fish so it can be caught with a socket or
other type of catch tool.
For example, one of the most common wireline fishing jobs is
fishing for rope sockets lost when the wireline parts, usually at the
top of the socket. Frequently, several short strands of wireline re-
main on the rope socket. These prevent the rod socket from going
over and taking hold ofthe rope socket fishing neck. In this case, run
a blind box below the jars. Jar the tool down over the rope socket to
cut the wire strands. Then pull the blind box and recover the fish
with a rod socket.

Figure 3-31 Blind box
Note: a, cut long strands off rope socket, trim swelled joints, etc.;
b, cut short wires off rope socket, burrs on the edge of a box or
pin, etc.
Deep cuI Shallow cut
-----
Multiple-sized blind boxes are similar but have one or more cut-
ting recesses set in steps. The lower part of the tool has the largest
inside diameter with stepwise decreases higher inside the tool. These
tools are used in the same manner as a regular blind box and serve
the same purpose, except in cutting over one or more diameters on
the top of the fish.
Friction Socket
The friction socket uses a friction hold to catch small fish that
are not stuck too tightly. It cannot be jarred or worked very hard
200 Chapter 3
without losing the friction hold. It has a screw-top connection on
top of a steel cylinder. The inside of the cylinder is cone-shaped,
apex upward, with a relatively long taper.
Run the friction socket on a wireline. Set it on top of the fish and
drive it down over the fish with the link jars. This forces the fish into
the taper, where it is caught by a friction hold and then pulled out of
the hole.
Cutters and Perforators

There are various wireline tools used to cut wirelines, tubing,
and casing. A few perforate tubing.
Wireline Cutter
The wireline cutter cuts a wireline inside the hole, usually as
near the bottom as possible (Fig. 3-32). When a wireline tool be-
comes stuck downhole and cannot be released, one alternative is to
pull the line apart. If the rope socket has not been crippled, the line
often will part near the surface, usually at the crown running sheave
where the maximum tension in the line occurs or at a shallow weak
point. Then both the wireline and tools must be recovered. Elimi-
nate fishing for the wireline by cutting the wireline near the rope
socket and pulling it out of the hole. Recover the remaining tools by
fishing.
Various types of wireline cutting tools are available. One of the
most efficient is fitted over a taut wireline and dropped in the hole.
When the cutter reaches bottom, a charge detonates and activates a
wedge. This in turn activates a knife edge that cuts the wireline. The
cutter is recovered as the wireline is pulled. The tool also has a fish-
ing neck so it can be recovered by fishing if necessary. Mechanical
tools that operate similarly are also available.
Some downhole wireline cutters are run on a second wireline
and activated electrically from the surface. The tool operates satis-
factorily and cuts the line efficiently. However, after the line is cut,
there is a strong tendency for the two wirelines to become twisted
and tangled, often causing a problem recovering the cut line.
Wireline Tubular Cutter
The wireline tubular cutter, sometimes called a casing ripper, is
used to part casing. It now is used only for special situations.
The inside pipe cutter has an upper connection and a carrier
body containing spring-loaded cutter blades or knives. The knives
swivel from a vertical upward-running position to horizontal for
cutting and are stopped by a backing device. The length of the knives
is adjusted so they can extend horizontally outward inside a pipe
collar (Fig. 3-33).

Figure 3-32 Wireline cutter (courtesy J. C. Kinley Co.)
Firing pin
Sand line
11111 ~I Drop weight

!
i
~I.
Firing pin
Powder
Drive wedge
,,"
"
/
"
Knife
II.I '-, , ,
.......
Groove for
sandline
Stop wedge
Stop wedge pin
Run the cutter into the hole with the spring-loaded knives riding
against the edge of the casing. When the tool reaches the point where
the pipe will be cut, raise the cutter slowly until the knives enter a
casing collar and stop on the bottom end ofthe pin of the joint. Then
202 Chapter 3
Figure 3-33 Wireline pipe cutter (ripper)
Cutaway view
"*-- Running position
---
Cutting position I
-..----.--.-.-.-......-.......--................-
jar the cutter upward. Each knife makes a slit in the threaded portion
of the pipe pin. If this does not release the pipe, which normally is
held in tension, lower the cutter and raise it again to make another
cut at a different point. Usually, a second cut will part the pipe. The
knives are released by a tripping action, the cutter is pulled, and
then the pipe is cut. Short lengths of casing may be recovered on the
knife blades.

Normally, rotary methods of cutting the pipe, such as with regu-
lar rotary pipe cutters and chemical cutters, are more efficient. The
pipe cutter is used primarily in cable tool operations.
Mechanical Wireline Pipe Perforator

The mechanical wireline pipe perforator perforates holes in tub-
ing. It is somewhat similar to the wireline cutter except that the wedge
actuates a punch to puncture the tubing wall (Fig. 3-34).
Figure 3-34 Mechanical wireline perforator (courtesy J. C.

Kinley Co.)
Shearing washer
Safety body
Safety tripper
~'.'
Powder
Wedge
"
Orifice insert
Piston
Circulating
button
Latch
Tripper
:W4 Chapter 3
Impression Block
Impression blocks obtain an imprint of the top of the fish (Fig.
3-35). This information may help determine what type of fishing
tool to run or how to conduct the fishing operation.
The impression block has a short sub, open at the bottom, with a
tool joint on top. The bottom of the sub has welded pins on the in-
side or recesses. These pins help retain lead or babbit that is melted
and poured into the recess. This, or other means of ensuring the lead
is retained in the impression block, is extremely important. If the
lead is lost, it is very difficult to drill out. The bottom part ofthe sub
is filled with several inches of lead, which is smooth on the bottom.
Figure 3-35 Impression block

Note: Various types of circulation ports (side, bottom. none, etc.)
are used on impression blocks run on pipe.
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Wire line adaptor
/
) ,
,
/
/
" "-
( I
I I
-- .- ..- - -1
1= -_ ---:"1-
::- ""i- ...:-.:_-:.-J
f~:=j'j~~r~':::"~~~ Circulating point
~=~-:~=.~=I=.~=~-~~~
j::..:::",::~':...::-:t.:.:..t~.: ::- ..
!'..- - - :-1.:-- .- =I
mm Hetainer ledge
.~~~~~~~jf.~.SS~.~ .....
.~...: ::...:::...:::.~t..: ::...:::..: ::..: ::..: ::-:...::
.m._. Lead
...~~-::-~~:~=~f~t=-::::::~:~~~
-----.------

Some impression blocks have a small port through the center of the
lead for circulation. Others have circulation ports in the walls of the
subs above the lead.
Connect the impression block to the downhole assembly or a
wireline and run it into the hole. Usually, set it on top of the fish
with a sharp, relatively light force. Some operators prefer striking
the fish twice. Then pull the block and examine the indentation on
the face. Interpret the impression by visualizing the configuration
on the top of the fish that will give the impression obtained on the
impression block.
Fair to good impressions often are obtained inside casing. Re-
sults may be less favorable in the open hole because the impression
frequently is obscured by cuttings that accumulate on top of the fish.
Hydraulic Jars
Wireline hydraulic jars serve the same purpose as tubular jars
and operate similarly. Weight bars are used to increase their effi-
ciency.
Mechanical Bumper Jars

Wireline mechanical bumper jars deliver a jarring blow in the
upward direction and a bumping blow in the downward direction to
the top of the fish. These jars have an upper connection for attach-
ment to the running assembly, while the catch tool connects to the
bottom connection. Sinker bars provide weight and increase effi-
ciency. Either link or mandrel (cylindrical) jars are used. The links
provide travel for the jarring or bumping action. The plunger tool
has a free-moving mandrel with a stop to provide the travel neces-
sary for jarring and bumping (Fig. 3-36).
Sinker Bars
Sinker or weight bars pull the wireline into the hole and provide
rigidity for the tools below the bars and additional weight to increase
jar efficiency. One sinker bar normally is sufficient for catching a
fish but two or more may be needed to provide tool rigidity and weight
for working tools. Conventionally, sinker bars are made of steel rods
with connectors on each end. Special heavyweight or leaded sinker
bars are steel tubes filled with lead.
Casing and Tubing Swage

The wireline casing and tubing swage is similar to the one run
on tubulars, but it has a lighter construction and is used on smaller
206 Chapter 3
Figure 3-36 Wireline mechanical jars (courtesy Cameo)
Tubular Jar StrokHJar
........................................................................-...--...--......

tubulars. It is also operated in a similar manner but is less effective
because of the limitations of running on a wireline.
Explosives
Primer cord or dynamite are the two main explosives used in
fishing, excluding jet charges. Primer cord is used in string shots.
Dynamite is used for cutting and recovering casing for abandonment.
Explosives such as nitroglycerine and ammonium nitrate, usually
pelletized and mixed with 5-8% diesel oil, AMFO, were originally
used for stimulation but are seldom used now. Large-shaped charges
may be used to cut off wellheads and casing of blowout wells. Nitro-
glycerine or plastic explosives are used to blowout well fires.
Rope Socket
Rope sockets provide a connection between wireline tools and
the wireline itself. The bottom of the rope socket is threaded to re-
ceive tools. The top ofthe rope socket will have one of various types
of wireline connections.
Single-strand and small multi-strand lines commonly have wire
twisted around a small interlocking bolt, lug, or screw-type friction
device. Larger lines are fastened with lead or babbit, either into the
hollow rope socket or with a small sleeve or thimble that fits into the
rope socket. Shielded electric lines use special connectors. Bevel
the top of the rope socket and cut part of the wires in the head in
order to cripple it, as described in "Wireline Fishing" in Chapter 6.
Overshot
The wireline overshot or rod socket catches small fish with slip-
type grapples. Otherwise, this tool is similar to and operated in a
similar manner as the tubular overshot, with allowances made for
the reduced efficiency of wire line operations. It may be necessary to
bump the overshot down over a close-tolerance fish. Release the fish
by jarring upward, and then recover it. The tool is strong but may
split or fail under heavy jarring action. Run a shear-pin release if
needed, as described in the section "Wireline Assemblies."
ASSEMBLIES AND EQUIPMENT

Assemblies and equipment include all of the surface and
downhole equipment. This section emphasizes those used for pre-
venting fishing and conducting fishing operations when they do oc-
cur. Exceptionally severe fishing jobs may place additional demand
upon these tools, so be prepared to make adjustments and changes
accordingly.
208 Chapter 3
Surface Equipment
Surface equipment used in fishing is generally the same as that
used in regular operations. Strength ratings of the lifting equipment
is normally in excess of the drillstring and is satisfactory for most
fishing operations. Top drive systems have many advantages, espe-
cially in operations such as cleaning out.
Pay particular attention when using a lifting system because of
the heavy working necessary to free stuck tools. Be sure the drilling
line is in good condition, and provide for slipping and cutting regu-
larly. Jarring and bumping can cause a flattened drilling line, so it is
necessary to take special precautions, such as slipping the line a
small distance frequently. Worn crown and traveling block sheaves
accelerate this problem, so ensure that they are in good condition.
Always keep the brake system -in good condition.
Special inspections are seldom necessary for only a fishing job.
However, for severe fishing jobs, consider inspecting the brake bands,
crown, traveling block component parts, etc., as is necessary before
running very heavy casing loads. Periodic visual inspections are a
good preventive procedure and highly recommended.
The circulating system can be a source of problems. There is
often a high stress on mud-handling equipment, so check it carefully
and frequently. Likewise, ensure that all blowout safety equipment
is in place and in good operating condition and that crew efficiency
is verified by blowout drills. Most rigs have a safety valve between
the swivel and kelly. Consider converting to a double-valve system
with a second safety valve located on the bottom of the kelly. This is
highly recommended for deep wells and wells drilled in very high-
pressured formations. ALWAYS position the opening and closing
wrench in the same conveniently available place. This also applies
to the inside preventer. Be sure it is open, and its opening and clos-
ing wrench is stored properly. Ensure that all personnel are aware of
where this equipment is located and how to use it.
Drill and Work Strings

Drillstrings are tubulars such as drillpipe or tubing that connect
the bottomhole assembly to the surface. The term "work string" is
sometimes used but generally refers to the entire assembly, includ-
ing the drill string and bottomhole assembly. In most cases, the work
string used for normal drilling operations is satisfactory for fishing.
Smaller tubulars, such as tubing, are often used for workovers and
completions. These may be inadequate if sticking or fishing occurs.
Severe sticking and fishing may place considerable stress on the
drillstring. Have it inspected and replaced if there is any question
about its condition. Generally, do not use tapered strings except for
special situations, such as increasing overpull. Use slips designed
for the correct loading.
Inspect and maintain, tighten and operate each type of connec-
tion within design specifications as a major preventive action. This
is very important, as emphasized by the fact that a 10,000-ft, range 2
drillstring will have about 340 connections, each a potential point of
failure. Connectors loosen during heavy jarring, so it is a good prac-
tice to tighten all of the work string connectors after a long period of
heavy working. Fishing may require using tools with fine thread con-
nections, so take special precautions since these are liable to fail.
Tool joint selection is important, especially when drilling in
deeper holes with long strings of relatively small intermediate cas-
ing. As an example, consider drilling below a combination string of
7-in., 26 and 291b/ft casing set at 12,000-14,000 ft. Conventionally
use 31f2-in. drillpipe with regular or internal flush tool joints. How-
ever, 4-in. drillpipe, with the same weight as the 31f2-in. drillpipe,
fitted with slim-hole tool joints, has about the same tensile strength
as the 31f2-in. drillpipe and appreciably better mud hydraulics. The
higher flow rate can be a major help in hole cleaning, especially in
highly deviated and horizontal holes.
Tool joint failures probably are the most common cause of fish-
ing after fishing for bit cones.
Drillpipe
Drillpipe used in regular operations is normally satisfactory for
most fishing jobs. This is subject to the condition of the pipe, includ-
ing wear, which is normally measured in total number of feet drilled.
Other items include slip and tong cuts, fatigue, use in corrosive en-
vironment, and tool joint condition. Consider replacing the pipe, or
at least inspecting it, especially after severe fishing jobs.
Drillpipe can be replaced with the same size pipe that is in bet-
ter condition or with pipe of a larger size or higher strength. Another
alternative is to replace part of the drillpipe with higher grade pipe,
usually in the upper part of the string. Some very high grades of pipe
may require using double elevators and other precautions, but these
can increase the risk of problems, so in general lower grades are pre-
ferred.
Hydrogen Sulfide (HzS) creates special problems because it is
highly poisonous, even in low concentrations. It also causes
embrittlement that can lead to tubular failure. Tempered X-95 and
Grade E drillpipe are most common for HzS service. This may re-
quire using tapered strings to attain the desired overpull. Use of pI as-
tic-coated drillpipe may be questionable. Using the correct mud may
help. Take all precautions and maximum well-control measures to
prevent taking a kick that contains HzS.
210 Chapter 3
Hard banding on tool joints does not necessarily affect fishing
but in some cases can cause fishing. Incorrect hard banding causes
excess casing wear and even keys eats in certain conditions. Do not
use coarse tungsten carbide particles. Normally, use particles sizes
smaller than 60 to 80 mesh with a smooth surface in a band about 3
in. wide.
Aluminum Drillpipe
Aluminum drillpipe has been tested in various drilling and a
few fishing situations. Theoretically, it should make a good drillstring
because of its favorable strength-to-weight ratio. However, field re-
sults indicate that operational problems outweighed the benefits.
Some problems include corrosion in most mud pH ranges (except
for a limited few), excess wear of the pipe body and tool joint, and
high flexibility resulting in buckling and impact damage. Aluminum
drillpipe requires special tapered slips, and applying torque with
the slips or rig tongs may cause severe pipe damage.
It is also difficult to fish for or with aluminum pipe. It is very
difficult to back off, requiring about two rounds of back torque per
1,000 ft, compared to about one round for steel drillpipe. There is a
risk of accidentally backing off, and it is difficult working the torque
down. Aluminum drillpipe may be parted with a shaped charge or
chemical cutter, but string shots may shatter the pipe body adjacent
to the tool joint. Catch tools, such as an overshot grapple, may dam-
age the pipe body; in one case, aluminum pipe failed at about one-
half of the tensile rating. The best alternative is to mill or cut off the
extra pipe and fish for the tool joint. Another alternative is replacing
the top joint of the fish with a steel joint if possible.
Tubing
Tubing normally is not recommended for fishing except for less
severe operations. Its strength characteristics, springiness, flexibil-
ity, and connector design are unsatisfactory for most fishing situa-
tions. It is especially susceptible to damage during milling and simi-
lar high-torque applications.
Threaded tubing connections, either plain end or external upset
couplings, are not designed for extensive tripping and the use of
high torque, even if the body strength is satisfactory. The connec-
tions may become excessively tight or tighten until they become dam-
aged and fail. Disconnecting overly tight joints may cause damage.
Extensive connecting and disconnecting causes wear and premature
failure. Tubing may be fitted with butt-shoulder-type tool joints, but
this does not eliminate the problem of damage due to excessive torque

on the screw-type thread. It is best to replace the tubing with small
diameter drillpipe or to drill tubing designed for lighter weight work
strings. The same reasoning applies to macaroni tubing, normally in
the range of 11/2in. or less in diameter. Regardless ofthese problems,
tubing is used successfully in many cases by careful, skilled han-
dling.
Coil Tubing
Coil tubing is a high-strength, ductile steel tube. Common sizes
are 1 and 1% in., but other sizes are available. Common strength
ratings are 70,000 psi yield strength. In operation, an injection head
seals the tubing and lifts and lowers it. Coil tubing is run into a hole
at about 100 ftlmin or even faster with special units.
Coil tubing is used to pump fluids at rates of 1-2 bbl/min. Com-
mon usage is light-duty cleanouts, sometimes with a small mud motor
and bit. Other uses include low-volume acid cleanouts, low-pres-
sure kills, drillstem testing, running as siphon string to unload low-
pressure gas wells, displacing nitrogen to lift fluid out of the hole,
and carrying logging tools and perforating guns in high-directional
and horizontal holes. Coil tubing has been used for light-duty fish-
ing such as cleaning sand off the top of a plug and recovering a plug
and squeeze cementing.
Assembly Equipment and Tools

Various equipment and tools are used to construct bottomhole
assemblies.
Heavyweight Pipe
Heavyweight pipe is not only heavier than normal drillpipe but
also generally lighter than drill collars for the equivalent hole size. It
has one or two extrusions distributed along the body. These extru-
sions are shaped like tool joints for lateral support.
Heavyweight pipe may be used to modify bottomhole assemblies
by replacing some of the drill collars to reduce overall tool weight
and related drag and torque. It also reduces assembly rigidity and
provides a more balanced connection between smaller drill pipe and
larger drill collars. It reduces the risk of sticking, especially wall
sticking, because there is less contact area. Compared to regular size
drill collars, heavyweight pipe is easier to recover by fishing.
Heavyweight pipe is most commonly used to replace drill collars
run above drilling jars and bumper subs. It may be used to replace
all of the drill collars in highly directional and horizontal drilling
that use a positive displacement, mud motor, or turbine. Heavyweight
drill pipe does not affect the basic action of tho assembly since the
212 Chapter 3
configuration of tools on the lower part of the assembly primarily
determines performance.
Drill Collars
Drill collars are the main component of the bottomhole assem-
bly. They are constructed of a steel alloy and heat treated to increase
hardness. API specifications include a minimum-yield strength of
110,000 psi for drill collars with an outside diameter less than 7 in.
and 100,000 psi for larger diameter collars. Standard practice is to
run larger or full-gauge collars on the bottom and to use worn, smaller
collars in the upper assembly. Always use drill collar clamps when
handling drill collars. even the bottleneck type.
There are a wide variety of drill collars (Fig. 3-37). All serve the
same purpose of providing bit weight and the degree of flexibility or
rigidity necessary for different types of bottom hole assemblies to per-
form their designed functions. Some differences in drill collars are
noted in the following list.
Bottleneck collars have a recessed section near the top or

box to aid in holding them with the slips and to prevent
dropping.
Spiral or fluted collars have continuous, recessed flutes
or mud courses cut in a spiral on the entire length of the
outer surface, excluding the handling sections at the ends.
These collars minimize the risk of pressure differential
sticking by reducing the contact area. Compared to round
collars, spirals reduce the weight of the collar about four
percent.
Nonmagnetic collars are similar to regular drill collars but
their nonmagnetic state permits recording compass direc-
tions with instruments that are run inside the collars.
Drill collar weights, donuts, or drill collar rings concen-
trate weight on the bit for drilling very large diameter, "big
holes," normally in excess of 6-10 ft in diameter. They are
short steel cylinders that slip over regular large-diameter
collars. The inside diameter of these tools is slightly larger
than the outside diameter of the drill collar they are fitted
over. Outside diameter depends on hole size.
Pony collars are short drill collars 6-15 ft long and are
used for spacing tools, such as stabilizers, on a drill-collar
assembly.
Square drill collars aid drilling a straight hole in severe
crooked-hole conditions. They are seldom used since the
development of good stabilization equipment and prac-
tices.

Figure 3-37 Drill collars
nI roo,
,
~~
~;;;'~=i;
I
Substitute
"Sub"
, (
1 r
] , II
~
( I
.....
~ .J
~.:,. ~
~~.~
,;..
Drillpipe Heavyweight Comp- Drill Fluted, Short
pipe reeeive coUar spiral 'pony"
pipe drill drill
collar collar
by J.A. "Jim" Short, PennWell Books, 1993.)
Eccentric or off-center drill collars have an unbalanced

weight distribution around the center line axis. They re-
portedly increase drilling rates but either are applicable
only in special situations or are not widely accepted in
the industry.
Bit or crossover collars or double box collars run on the
bottom of the drill-collar assembly. The bottom of the col-
lar has a box connector that fits the bit pen.
Selecting the number and size of drill collars depends upon vari-
ous factors. Smaller drill collars are safer to run, while larger drill
collars are generally more efficient. A major consideration is when
an operator should run larger diameter collars that cannot be washed
over.
Larger drill collars efficiently concentrate weight near the bit.
They allow drilling straighter holes through crooked-hole formations.
Fewer collars are needed for a given assembly weight. When using
larger drill collars, there is a higher risk of sticking, especially differ-
ential sticking.
Smaller diameter collars may be stabilized to give the same or
better results than larger diameter collars. Normally, stabilizers can
be cut off by milling if washing over is required. However, some
reamers used as stabilizers, such as roller reamers, are very difficult
to mill off.
214 Chapter 3
Evaluate all of the preceding factors. Generally, if there is an
option of using large drill collars that cannot be washed over or us-
ing stabilization, then stabilization probably should be used. If it is
necessary to use large drill collars that cannot be washed over, they
may be released by circulation, pulling, or jarring. If this does not
work, it is not excessively difficult to sidetrack them. An example of
this is dropping angle with a pendulum while drilling very difficult
formations. One alternative is using very large collars to drop angle
fast enough and at a reasonable drilling rate. Another alternative is
to control inclination by continuing drilling at a rate that is 20-30%
of that possible with the large drill collars. Rig time and total cost
savings justify the risk of a possible fishing job using the larger col-
lars.
Keyseat Wiper
Keyseat wipers wipe out keyseats. The preferred type has a solid
body and a floating tapered sleeve with right-hand, ribbed spirals
and is fitted with a bottom clutch. The outside diameter at the top is
approximately equal to the diameter of the drillpipe tool joints. The
aD at the bottom should be equal to the diameter of the drill collars.
During drilling, the sleeve remains stationary and the mandrel ro-
tates inside the sleeve, thus preventing wear on the ribs (Fig. 3-38).
A keys eat wiper is moderately efficient at reaming keyseats, but
its primary purpose is as a safety device to release a keyseated drill-
ing assembly, especially if the assembly sticks when drilling jars and
a bumper sub are not used, or if the assembly sticks above them.
When the keyseat wiper is pulled up into a keyseat, the sleeve
sticks or keyseats. Release it by bumping DOWN and out of the
keyseat, utilizing the mandrel travel of 12-18 in. Apply right-hand
torque to engage the bottom clutch and to help rotate the keyseated
wiper sleeve DOWN and out of the keyseat. After the pipe is free,
remove the keyseat by jarring and working the keys eat wiper into
and out of the keyseat. Repeating this procedure helps to wear out
the keyseat.
Figure 3-38 Keyseat wiper (courtesy Hendershot Tool Co.)

Reamer
Reamers primarily enlarge under-gauge hole and restore it to full-
gauge. Run reamers in the drill-collar assembly or drillstring as de-
scribed in the section "Reaming" in Chapter 2. They commonly are
run immediately above roller bits as a "near-bit" reamer to prevent a
tapered hole and to ensure a full-gauge hole is maintained as the bit
becomes worn and under-gauge. Reamers are frequently used as sta-
bilizers and in some cases, the name is interchangeable with "stabi-
lizers" (Fig. 3-39).
Stabilizer
Stabilizers are used with drill collars to make up various assem-
blies. It is important to understand the principles of stabilization
since stabilizer placement in the assembly primarily determines the
function of the assembly.
Figure 3-39 Reamers (courtesy of Eastman Christensen, a

Baker-Hughes company)
.-.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
A B c
I
~':.c~It ";",)1 \-k1..IUUIl
1:IP,nMllclll 1'lrlH,I!J"/i Fllrnl.\thlll
-.
j
J
I
I (,ml ILIrtI lIMo!

1"IPH,lli11:t .\1>1..,,,
. I'III"I)I,III'IP
I \1I";H.lli.,:.
A..Roller Reamer; B.Combination Roller Reamer and Stabilizer;

C. Roller Reamer Cutters
216 Chapter 3
Stabilizers steady the drill-collar assembly by providing lateral
support, such as for a stiff assembly. They serve as a fulcrum in pen-
dulum and angle-build assemblies. Run them immediately above
drag-type bits, diamond bits, and polycrystalline diamond bits, as
near-bit stabilizers to steady the bit for improved performance and
longer life. Normally, these tools must be full-gauge to be effective.
Full gauge is within V16in. of the bit diameter and never less than %
in. Use roller reamers as stabilizers for hard drillability and abrasive
formations.
Different types of stabilizers are available. Primary selection
considerations are blade contact area, fixed or replaceable blade,
vertical or spiral types, and whether the blade can be milled off if
washing over is required. List stabilizer placement on drill-collar
assembly by position (Fig. 3-40).
Reamers and stabilizers are additional points of potential failure
in a drilling assembly. They are subject to extra fatigue and bending
movement stresses. They also increase the difficulty of recovering
the fish when a failure occurs. Prevent these problems by using the
minimum number of stabilizers required. For example, do not run a
dual-stabilized packed-hole pendulum when one stabilizer in a com-
mon pendulum is sufficient.
Do not stabilize the upper bottomhole assembly to prevent wall
sticking. Consider using fluted drill collars or heavy drill pipe for
severe conditions. Normally DO NOT cover more than the lower 150
ft for 6%-in. and smaller diameter limber drill collars and 180 ft or
less for larger diameters. Packed pendulum assemblies may require
a slightly longer stabilized length.
Double-Drilling Bumper Jars

Double-drilling bumper jars are used on some split horizontal
and high-angle drilling assemblies. Run drilling bumper jars on top
of almost all directional assemblies. Some high-angle and horizontal
assemblies are divided into two parts to reduce high torque and drag.
A lower drill-collar assembly containing the bit, motor, orientation
equipment, and nonmagnetic drill collars is run in the horizontal or
high-angle hole. Additional drill collars are run in the vertical or
low-angle hole to provide weight to push the lower tools through the
horizontal section.
Drilling bumper jars are placed in the upper drill-collar assem-
bly and set to begin jarring at a normal level of overpull. The jarring
action is effective .to aid in releasing a stuck upper assembly and
some length of the pipe below it. However, it is not effective in re-
leasing a stuck lower assembly located a long distance (in the range
of 500 ft or more) from the jars in the upper assembly.

Figure 3-40 Stabilizers (courtesy of Eastman Christensen, a
Baker-Hughes company)
Open Integral
spiral blade
Welded Sleeve- Tight

blade type spiral
--...--...........-..-.........---..-.....
218 Chapter 3
Figure 3-41 Split assembly
~ Slrface caai1g
f
Vertical
eection
~1I +
+
-
-
-
~
Intermedate caei\g
DrI coIare
Jar bunper
DrI colan ~~
I
L ~ ~4:.
~ ,,~~~,~~~
_~~~
~~
a ~ ~
r i,.~ IQ~
~ Vt.~ ~ ~
~ "0- ~~.~G
~
.~ ~
~~
~ '~ "" '" '>o.~
~ I ( Horizon eJ eec:tion ) I

by J.A. "Jim" Short, Penn Well Books, 1993.) .-..-.-.-......................-...-...............-........................-..-.
Place a second set of double-drilling bumper jars near the top of

the lower assembly (Fig. 3-41). Set them to begin jarring at a lower
level of overpull compared to that of the upper jars. The jarring ac-
tion will have a lower force but is more effective since the jars are
located near the lower assembly. There frequently is a higher chance
of success in releasing stuck tools with double-drilling bumper jars.
Assemblies
Assemblies are made up of various tools, including drillpipe,
heavyweight pipe, tubing, drill collars, reamers, stabilizers, and other
special tools. The design purpose of the assembly is determined by
the type and placement of equipment. Stabilizers, diameter of the
drill collars, and method of operation determine the flexibility and
rigidity of the assembly.
In most cases, the number and spacing of stabilizers, and some-
times reamers, usually on about the bottom 150-200 ft of the assem-
bly, determines the type of assembly. Subs and pony collars are used
for fine-tuning stabilizers' spacing adjustments. Nonmagnetic col-
lars may replace part of the regular drill collars. Additional equip-
ment, such as a keyseat wiper, jars, and a bumper sub are frequently
used in the upper section of the assembly.

The basic purpose is to provide a downhole assembly that has
sufficient strength to perform its design function, such as drilling,
reaming, and fishing. Allow for adequate safety factors. Compute
strength characteristics on tensile strength, but also consider torsion,
collapse, burst, corrosive conditions, and mud hydraulics. Allow for
downhole failures, and provide for proper sizes, whenever possible,
to permit fishing operations. When there is an option, use the least-
rigid assembly that will accomplish the job.
"API RP 7G: Drillstring Design and Operating Limits" is a
common guideline for designing and operating drill tools. Use the
correct equipment and only that needed to perform a job. Eliminate
extra connections such as crossover subs, since each connection is a
point of weakness and potential failure. Also, provide for fishing for
the assembly if it fails. However, this should not deter an operator
from running the required equipment so the assembly can perform
correctly and accomplish its design purpose.
Drilling
Various assemblies are used in overall drilling operations, in-
cluding fishing and vertical, directional, and horizontal drilling.
These tools are broadly divided into two general classes. Rotary as-
semblies, such as a limber drilling assembly, are driven by the rotary
or top drive. Motor assemblies, such as a directional drilling assem-
bly, have a positive displacement mud motor (PDM) or a turbine.
Combination-type assemblies, such as some high-angle directional
drilling assemblies, may use either power source.
Various types of assemblies are included as a reference in the
following list.
Drilling - Regular drilling and miscellaneous

Cleanout - Special hole cleanout situations
operations
Fishing - Performs all fishing and various other fishing-

related operations
Reaming - Enlarges and smooths the wellbore
Packed Hole - Maintains current hole direction and drills
a straight hole
Pilot and Hole Opening
and opens it to full size
- Drills a small diameter hole
Pendulum - Reduces hole angle

Angle Build-up - Increases the angle of inclination
Angle Drop - Decreases the angle of inclination
Deviation - Sidetracks and changes hole direction
Hooligan - High-rate angle building assembly
220 Chapter 3
A classification may include more than one type of assembly,
such as the pendulum that includes both regular and packed-hole
pendulums. The same assembly may be used in different operations,
such as using a limber drilling assembly for both drilling and cleanout.
Some assemblies may be more difficult to recover by fishing if they
become stuck, such as a packed hole and various directional drilling
assemblies.
Competent operators are familiar with the design, maintenance,
and operations of all of these assemblies. Knowing how and where
to use each assembly is an important preventive procedure.
Overpull
Overpull is the difference between the maximum allowable de-
sign load and the actual or hook load on the tubulars. Common
strengths used are:
Safe Strength - Allows for wear and includes a safety fac-

tor often 75% of new, or less for extra wear
. Tensional Strength - Based on tensile strength before de-
formation
Ultimate Strength - Based on tensile strength at failure
In most cases, overpull is the tensile strength less the actual buoy-
ant weight of the work string or tubulars in the hole. In some cases, it
may be necessary to pull the maximum amount possible, which
would be up to the ultimate strength.
Use the ultimate strength with caution and almost as an emer-
gency or "last resort" procedure since it may damage the metal even
if failure does not occur. Maximum or breaking strengths are not re-
liably predictable above the tensile strength because of stretching
and elongation. Ultimate strength normally is in the range of 10% to
20% over tensile strength.
A long-standing industry practice is to design deeper drilling
assemblies with a minimum of 100,000 lb of overpull. A more appli-
cable recommendation is listed in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1 Recommended overpull
Overpull, Ibs Recommended Depth Application

-.--..-.--....---.-.-.-.-.---...........-....................................................................-.-.........-...-......
100,000 Ibs Shallow holes to 8,000 ft

150,000 Ibs Medium depth holes 8,000 to 15,000 ft
200,000 Ibs Holes deeper than 15,000 ft

A straight pull will not always release stuck pipe and is not
necessarily recommended. However, sometimes this is the only
alternative and is frequently successful, especially with working. The
additional pull (between 100,000 and 200,000 Ib) could be sufficient
to release the stuck pipe. This pull is important and can be the
difference between a successful or failed fishing job.
Handling and Inspection

Handling all downhole tools in the correct manner is a major
preventive measure. Do not overlook small actions. For example, use
recommended slips. Longer slips with a larger contact area may be
needed for heavier loads. Run slip-type elevators for very heavy loads
and double elevators for tools built with higher grade steel. Seat them
carefully without excessive shock. Always use drill collar clamps on
all tools with small differences in diameter, even bottleneck drill
collars. There is at least one case where bottleneck drill collars were
set on slips and the elevators released rapidly. The drilling jars
opened, causing the collars to vibrate, work downward through the
slips, and drop.
Watch for equipment wear. Always make up tool joints using the
correct techniques and torque. If a freshly disconnected tool joint
has mud in it, check for joint damage. Watch for worn bits in order to
detect them before loosing the cones. Leaks may be difficult to de-
tect early, especially at higher pressures. But if they are not detected,
a fishing job may be the result. During fishing, replace the jars and
bumper sub after any trip in which they have been used. Observe the
precautions listed in the section on tripping. Do not overlook blow-
out preventer drills and testing.
All of the above precautions and others are mostly common prac-
tices but may be overlooked in the distraction of fishing operations.
Don't commit a pilot error, since it can lead to fishing or a fish on top
of a fish.
Inspection is another important preventive action. Normally, an
operator should have a schedule of inspection times for all tubulars.
Use qualified, experienced inspection personnel. Consider using both
sonic and ultraviolet light and know the advantages and disadvan-
tage of each. Do not overlook the importance of good visual inspec-
tions, since they can detect a number of potential failures. Perform
periodic inspections based upon the experience operators have had
in that particular area.
Ensure that all fishing tools are inspected. Always inspect as-
semblies after severe, rough service, including cases of drilling on
bit cones, reaming, and similar operations. Fishing, especially heavy
jarring and bumping for long periods, can be hard on the entire fish-
ing assembly. Check the assembly carefully, and replace damaged
equipment.
222 Chapter 3
The second most common downhole equipment failure is in the
tool joint. Eliminate this failure or reduce its frequency through proper
selection, operation, and periodic inspections. The main causes of
tool joint failures are excessive wear or exposure to failure during
extremely severe operations, such as fishing.
There is a high incidence of tool joint failure in a lower drillpipe
and drill-collar assembly during, or shortly after, severe services. This
also applies to the latter part of a long bit run, especially if the bit
has bad cones and bearings. Tnese tool joint failures are caused by
the high, fluctuating torque that occurs during milling or drilling.
One corrective procedure is to inspect the drill collar tool joints
at shorter time periods. If a milling job occurs shortly before a
scheduled tool joint inspection, then inspect the tools earlier than
the scheduled time and with reference to the milling job. An alternate
procedure might be to break, clean, visually inspect, dope, and make
up each tool joint, including the drill-collar assembly and five or ten
stands of drillpipe above the collars. Although this involves some
extra work, it often is justified and may prevent a more severe fishing
job than just recovering or milling up the bit cones. A similar failure
is illustrated in the following example.
Drill Collar Pin Failure

A wildcat well had 7%-in. intermediate casing set at 13,500 ft and was
drilling in a 6Y2-in.hole at 15,000 ft in hard. abrasive formations with a
premium grade button bit.The bit had drilled 325 ft in 71 hours (4.6 ft/hr)
when torque became excessive, indicating a cone failure.The bit was pulled
and two cones were missing.
A junk basket with a hard-faced combination milling and drilling shoe
was run. After drilling over the bit cones for a short period, the drilling
assembly parted. Pipe weight indicated parting at the top of the drill col-
lars. The pin failed on the bottom joint of drillpipe, leaving all drill collars
in the hole with a Dutchman, or broken pin, in the box of the top drill
collar.
An overshot was run on a conventional fishing assembly and caught
the fish without difficulty.The fish came free with a 50,000 Ib overpull
after working for about 2 hrs. The assembly was chained out of the hole,
recovering the entire fish, including the two bit cones in the junk basket.
Overall, this was a successful fishing job. Junk baskets often are
less efficient at recovering cones in hard formations, but the over-
shot recovered the drill collar fish efficiently. It is more difficult to

detect bit torque at this depth with the relatively limber and springy
31f2-in.drillpipe, especially when compared to a larger assembly. The
failure indicated an appreciable amount of downhole torque. A shock
sub may have helped.
Tool joint inspection records were not available, but the assem-
bly could have been approaching an inspection period in view of the
long bit run. A good visual inspection might have prevented the fish-
ingjob. .
Fishing
The fishing assembly or fishing string is the complete downhole
assembly used in a fishing operation. Compared to most other opera-
tions, there is a higher risk of a drill string failure in fishing. The
assembly should be as strong as possible and have the minimum
number of connections. Extra strength ensures safer operation under
high-stress conditions.
A limber drilling type assembly is used as the basis for a fishing
assembly. Normally, it is made up with the drillpipe and collars used
in regular drilling. The assembly should be slick, without any stabi-
lizers or other external obstructions. This reduces the risk of hang-
ing up caused by caving or sloughing and facilitates washing over if
required.
Both drilling jars and bumper subs are very effective if the as-
sembly is stuck below them. Normally, they are positioned below
the top three to five drill collars. Always locate jars above the bumper
sub. The location of the bumper sub relative to the jars will not sig-
nificantly affect the action ofthe jars. However, a bumper sub closes
faster than the jars when bumping down. If a free travel bumper sub
is positioned above the jars, the jars may cushion the action of the
sub and reduce bumping efficiency.
Common fishing assemblies include the following equipment,
listed from the top down:
Drillpipe or tubing - From the surface to the bottomhole

assembly
Keyseat wiper - Use only if needed. Run a heavy-duty,
spiral blade, solid-bodied keyseat wiper if there is any
question about forming keyseats.
Accelerator jar or jar intensifier - Seldom used

4 to 6 drill collars - These provide concentrated weight
for bumping and jarring. Do not run excess drill collars in
the fishing assembly, only the number needed. The num-
ber of drill collars is determined by the manufacturer's rec-
ommendations for the weight to be used above the fishing
jars. A rule of thumb is one standard drill collar for each
224 Chapter 3
inch of jar diameter. Standard collars have about the same
OD as the bumper sub and jars.
Fishing jars
Bumper sub - Combination fishing jars and bumper sub
may replace the individual tools.
One or two drill collars for assembly rigidity if needed

Back-off sub - Run a back-off or similar type sub in most
cases when the rapid release of a fish is needed. However,
back-off tools may not'be needed with some types of fish-
ing tools, especially those that have built-in back-off equip-
ment, such as some overshots.

Tool to catch the fish
Milling
The standard milling assembly is similar to the fishing assembly
except that the catch tool is replaced with a mill and 4 to 6 drill
collars are run above the mill for weight and stability. Run one or
two, and not over three, junk subs above the mill. The bumper sub
may be used to provide a constant weight for milling operations. In
this case, adjust the number of drill collars between the mill and
bumper sub to provide the required weight.
Wash Over
A washover assembly is similar to the milling assembly except
that the mill is replaced with washpipe and a washover or mill shoe
is run on bottom of the washpipe. Always run the back-off sub. The
collars below the back-off sub may be eliminated, or two or more
may be used for short lengths of washpipe. The washpipe also may
contain a spear for catching the fish.
Reaming
A drill collar reaming assembly is similar to a regular drilling
assembly but has one or more reamers and sometimes a stabilizer.
The number of reamers and possibly stabilizers depends upon hole
and formation conditions and the depth location and length of the
section to be reamed. A hole opener with a pilot bit is the safest tool
to run on the bottom of a reaming assembly in order to prevent side-
tracking.
A conventional assembly for reaming on or near bottom may have
reamers in the drill-collar assembly, sometimes with stabilizers in
some positions as listed below.
Position
Position
30 - Minimal risk of sidetracking
30 and 60
Position 3D, 60, and 90 - Moderately aggressive

. Position 0, 30, 60, and 90 - Very aggressive
Position 0, 10, 30, 60, and 90 - Extremely aggressive
and seldom used
Drill collar reaming assemblies for reaming off-bottom are less

aggressive. Again, a hole opener with a pilot bit is the safest tool to
run on the bottom of a. reaming assembly in order to prevent side-
tracking.
A drill collar reaming assembly with a reamer at position 30 is
the least aggressive assembly, but it is only moderately effective. A
slightly more aggressive assembly that is also more effective has a
reamer between a stabilizer and the bit, such as the reamer at posi-
tion 30 and the stabilizer at position 60. A more aggressive, more
efficient assembly has a reamer between the stabilizers, such as sta-
bilizers at positions 30 and 90 with a reamer at position 60. Two
reamers may be used at positions 60 and 90 with stabilizers at posi-
tions 30 and 120 as a way of increasing aggressiveness and efficiency.
Other more aggressive assemblies containing more reamers and
stabilizers are seldom used. The increased number of reamers and
stabilizers increases the risk of twisting off or sticking and also in-
creases the difficult of recovery by fishing.
String reamer assemblies have one or more reamers positioned
in the drill string above the bottomhole assembly. Their placement
and use is described in the section "Reaming" in Chapter 2.
Clean Out
The cleanout assembly is a regular fishing assembly, but it has
one or two stands of drill collars and a bit below the jars and bumper
sub with their associated drill collars. The assembly is slick and used
without extra collars because they are not needed and they represent
a risk of sticking.
The choice of bit depends upon the situation. For cleaning an
open hole, run a rollar bit or a fixed-blade type to. eliminate the risk
of losing rollers. A dull regular or new button-type roller bit nor-
mally will not damage the top of a fish. The correct shoe will not
damage the fish and can also clean around the top of the fish for an
outside catch. The cleanout assembly is sometimes not recognized
as a separate assembly. However, it is included here because it often
is needed and using it can be an important preventive action when it
is needed and used.
The normal procedure is to clean out with a regular limber as-
sembly or whichever assembly happens to be in use at the time. In
most cases this is a satisfactory practice, but it is not the best because
about twice as many drill collars are being run as needed. Usually, a
hole needs cleaning because of cuttings accumulation, sloughing,
226 Chapter 3
formation swelling, and similar problems. These often are not high-
risk situations, but they should be considered as a warning of pend-
ing problems. Therefore, use the correct cleanout assembly, and do
not run unnecessary tools into the hole.
The most common reason for not running a cleanout assembly is
the time required to replace part of the stands of drill collars with
stands of drillpipe. However, this is not a valid reason because it is
easy to leave several stands of d,rillpipe standing back in the mast so
they can be picked up rapidly when needed. Another reason for not
using a cleanout assembly is the belief that a longer assembly is
needed for cleaning out. This is incorrect in most cases.
Wireline Assemblies
Wireline assemblies are used to conduct various operations, in-
cluding fishing with a wireline. The basic wireline fishing assembly
from the surface down includes the following:
Wireline from the surface to the rope socket

It provides for lowering and recovering tools and trans-
mitting reciprocating action while working the tools.
Rope socket to connect the wireline to the tools
One or more sinker bars as needed for stability and weight
Hydraulic or mechanical bumper jars
Shear release tool if needed
Catch tool
One or more sinker bars may be run below the jars in cleanout
operations for additional weight.
It may be necessary to disconnect the fishing tool assembly from
the stuck fish if the fish cannot be released. Use a shear-pin release
for this. Many fishing tools are equipped with a shear-pin release
that is designed to release the fish by jarring either up or down, de-
pending upon the tool selected.
The type of shear release to run depends upon the situation. A
shear-down release may prevent hard bumping to catch the fish, such
as driving an overshot over the fish because bumping down would
shear the pin and release the overshot hold. The shear-up release
may prevent recovering a fish that requires heavy jarring. For ex-
ample, a shear-down release would be run above an overshot. If jar-
ring up does not release the fish, then bump down to shear the pin
and release the overshot hold on the fish. In some cases, a tool is run
without the shear-pin release, thus relying on cutting the wireline or
parting it at the rope socket if the stuck tools cannot be released.

REFERENCESAND SUGGESTED
READIN.G
American Petroleum Institute, RP 7G, "Drill String Design and
Operating Limits."
Hornbrook, P. Rosemary, and Clifton M. Mason, "Improved Coiled-
Tubing Squeeze-Cementing Techniques at Prudhoe Bay,"
Journal of Petroleum Technology, April 1991: 455-458.
Lane, J. Bret, and J. Parks Wesson, "Magnetic Ranging Tool
Accurately Guides Replacement Well," Oil &-Gas Journal, Dec.
21, 1992: 96-99.
Lubinski, A., "Factors Affecting the Angle ofInclination and Dog-
Legging in Rotary Boreholes," OJ} &-Gas Journal, March 23,
1953.
Millheim, Keith, "Behavior of Multiple-Stabilizer Bottom-Hoe
Assemblies," Part 5, Oil &-Gas Journal, Jan. 1, 1979: 50-64.
Millheim, Keith, Steven Jordan, and C.J. Ritter, "Bottom-Hole
Assembly Analysis Using the Finite-Element Method," Journal
of Petroleum Technology, Feb. 1975: 265-274.
Mullin, J.A., S.H. McCarty, and M.E. Plante, "Fishing with 1.5 and
1.75 in. Coiled Tubing at West Prudhoe Bay, Alaska," SPE paper
20679, New Orleans, LA, Sept. 23-26, 1990.
Moore, Steven D., "The Coil Tubing Boom," Petroleum Engineer
International, April 1991: 16-20.
Tarr, Brian A. and lain A. Graham, "North Sea Experience with
Aluminum Drill pipe", SPE Drilling Engineering, Dec. 1990:
317-324.
Woods, H.B., and Arthur Lubinski, "How to Determine Best Hole
and Drill Collar Size," OJ} &- Gas Journal, June 7, 1954.
Woods, H.B., "Use of Stabilizers in Controlling Hole Deviation,"
Drilling and Production Practices, 1955.
228 Chapter 3
Chapter 4
FISHING PROCEDURES
Basic fishing operations are commonly used in many sticking

and fishing situations. They expedite operations and prevent fishing
and/or aid in recovering the fish. When the average fishing job oc-
curs, conduct one or more basic procedures. These include; milling,
drilling and walling off, repairing leaks, working stuck tools, parting
and catching the fish, sidetracking, and other procedures in special
situations. Fishing jobs vary widely, occur under a broad range of
conditions, and require various tools and different operational pro-
cedures. A variety of problems is encountered.
Overall, fishing operations are similar for both cased and open
holes and generally the same types of fishing tools are used, with a
few exceptions. Most formation problems are eliminated in cased
holes. There is a risk of a higher loss in an equivalent cased hole
because the well is nearer completion, and a higher percentage of
the allocated funds has been spent. Cased holes often use smaller
tools that may restrict selection and increase operating difficulty.
Wireline fishing often is more effective in a cased hole.
Successfully conducting fishing procedures requires a good
knowledge of general rules on fishing and equipment used.
MILLING, DRILLING AND

WALLING OFF
Milling, drilling, and walling off are common operations for re-
moving or recovering bit cones and other small pieces of junk. These
steps are usually a minor operation but can lead to other fishing op-
erations if not conducted correctly. Mills can be used on almost any
type of junk and are very efficient in many cases for milling or drill-
ing cement. Observe all precautions described in the section "Mill-
ing, Casing and Tubulars."
Fishing Procedures 229

Mills, or short-tooth, hard formation-type bits are used to drill
on junk. Drilling usually is confined to very small pieces of junk or
larger pieces, such as bit cones, to break them into smaller pieces.
Drilling or milling on junk often is relatively rough with high and
fluctuating torque so there is a risk of leaving bit cones in the hole.
There is an increasing tendency to use mills because they do not
have moving parts that can be lost in the hole, and they normally
mill efficiently for a longer period. The development of better hard-
facing material such as tungsten carbide and matrix material further
increases the use of mills.
Selecting the Drill or Mill

Select a short, mill-toothed roller bit because longer teeth tend
to break off. Bits are somewhat more efficient than mills at walling
off small pieces of junk by pushing and burying them into the wall
of the hole in soft and medium formations. Bits often are used on
large pieces of junk, such as bits cones, that can be broken into smaller
pieces, especially in an open hole. They are also more effective when
the junk spins. Bit life is short, ranging from up to 30 minutes for
6%-in. or less for smaller bits, and about 1 hour or less for larger bits.
All bits are subject to bearing failure and broken cones, so do not run
them too long and risk leaving additional cones in the hole. Use torque
and bit action as a partial guide to bit condition.
Select a mill designed for the specific job. Concave mills tend to
hold junk under the mill and grind it up more, and flat-bottomed
mills tend to wall it off. The mill should have ports or channels that
allow unrestricted fluid flow so that cuttings pass up the side of the
mill into the junk subs or out the hole. Mills are dressed with vari-
ous sizes of tungsten carbide particles, generally smaller sizes for
metal and larger sizes for cement mills. Do not have cutting material
on the outer side of the mill, especially when milling inside casing.
Generally, run full-size bits or mills, seldom if ever undersized.
Always run one or more junk subs above the mill or bit except for
special conditions.
Milling Operations
Milling or drilling action on small junk usually is rough. The
random-shaped metal pieces roll and slide under the grinding, cut-
ting action of the mill or bit. This causes a fluctuating torque which,
in turn, causes a fluctuating rotary speed. The action becomes
smoother as the pieces break up. The action is similar when milling
large pieces of fixed metal, except the torque increases as the metal
surface becomes smoother. Higher, constant torque indicates milling
at optimum efficiency.
?.'w Chapter 4
Start milling with minimum weight and rotary speed and in-
crease it with time. Do not over-torque or use excess weight. Nor-
mally circulate at slightly reduced rates. Have sufficient circulation
to cool and flush the milling surface and to carry metal cuttings to
the surface to prevent redrilling them. Higher circulation rates may
carry large pieces of junk to the top of the drill collars where there is
a risk of sticking. Milling weights vary from 500 to 2,000 lbs per inch
of mill diameter. Have sufficient drill collar weight available.
Milling speeds vary, and Table 4-1 is only a guide.
Table 4-1 Suggested rotary speeds
OD of Speed, OD of Speed,
Mill, in rpm Mill, in rpm
-
3% 4Y4 175 8 - 8% 80
4% - 4% 150 9 - 9% 75
5-5% 125 10- 10% 70
6-6% 100 II - 117/a 65
7-7% 90 12- 12% 60
The mill may be worn or the junk may be rotating with the mill
if downward progress is restricted and the assembly runs smoothly
at a relatively constant rotary speed with low torque, even at higher
weights. Knowing how long the mill has been running and the type
of junk being milled helps determine which action is occurring. Re-
place worn mills.
Rotating junk or a fish causes a problem. The fish or junk spins
or turns with the mill. The lower part of the object may become
smooth and rotate on the formation or on other junk, somewhat like
an inefficient bearing, and continue this way for an extended period.
Actual milling is almost negligible in this case, so change the opera-
tion. Bumping down sharply may stop the junk from spinning. Al-
ternately reduce milling weight and vary the rotary speed. Another
procedure that must be used cautiously is reducing the pump rate.
This may let some cuttings settle downhole, wedge around the fish,
and prevent it from turning. Rubblizing it with a junk shot may be
justifiable. If the junk is relatively free try catching it with a junk
basket. It may be possible to fix the junk in place by dumping ce-
ment as a last resort.
Always try to understand the milling action, what is being milled
and how it is occurring. For example, milling a clean top on the fish
is a standard procedure. Nevertheless, it is important to know that
the mill is running on top of the fish. The top could be against the
edge of the hole in a washed out section, so the mill may be cutting
on the edge ofthe fish below the top (Fig. 4-1). Continued milling in
FishinJ~ Procedures 231

Figure 4-1 Milling on the side of a fish
Note: a, fish with the top laid over in an enlarged section of the
hole. The top of the fish is ragged and must be milled before it can
be caught; b. mill bypasses the top of the fish and cuts it below the
top; c, cut-off piece of fish falls downhole alongside the remainder,
increasing the complexity of the overall fishing job.
b
--~_..._-
this case may leave an additional fish in the hole. Eliminate the risk
by using a skirted mill and be very careful to have correct depth
measurements.
Mills can be extremely efficient tools as illustrated in the follow-
ing example.
Milling up a Bit and Junk

A 17,000 ft on-structure wildcat had 13%-in. conductor casing set at
100 ft, 9%-in. surface casing set at 2,500 ft, and 7-in. intermediate casing
set at 13,000 ft.When the 7-in. casing was cemented, the casing pressured
232 Chapter 4
up during final displacement, leaving about 1,000 ft of cement inside the
casing. The operator suspected cuttings had bridged in the open hole in
the spearheaded water column ahead of the cement. Nevertheless, the
casing was adequately cemented. as verified by subsequent logs.
The 7-in. casing was landed. the BOPs changed, and a drill-collar as-
sembly and 31/2-in.drillpipe picked up, while the crew installed rubbers on
alternating joints. Precautions to prevent running into soft, contaminated
cement had been emphasized. After picking up the bottomhole assembly
and about 9,000 ft of drillpipe, the pipe began taking on a small amount of
weight. This was much higher than the projected cement top. but a stand
was pulled to ensure that the pipe was free. Some drag was encountered.
so the first stand was set back and a second pulled.This had to be worked
part-way out of the hole. and the kelly was picked up to circulate and help
free the pipe.
At this point, missing drillpipe rubbers were noted. They had been
installed correctly. so there was no explanation of why they were gone.
The pipe stuck several times, requiring circulating, rotating and further
working. Many broken drillpipe rubbers were also circulated out. The few
recovered on the drillpipe had slipped. and some were partially damaged.
When the bit was pulled to the bottom of the BOP, it hung up and had to
be worked free. The assembly was worked out of the hole in about 12
hours.
After pulling the assembly out, the preventers were checked. The wear
bushing was not seated properly and locked correctly (Fig.4-2). The rub-
ber protectors sheared off,sliding past the cocked wear bushing.The weight
needed to cause this was not noticed because it was small compared to
the overall pipe weight.
The chisel-tooth bit originally run was unscrewed and set on the edge
of the rotary. Later it was knocked over by the last stand of drill collars
and fell into the hole. The hole was uncovered and the BOP was open. It
was unknown whether the bit fell pin up or upside-down.
A long. mill-tooth bit was run to push all junk as deeply as possible
and clean out any floating rubber. It was made up with two junk subs and
drilling jars and a bumper sub. This assembly was run and the hole was
cleaned out to about 10.000 ft. The assembly was pulled and two unsuc-
cessful runs made with impression blocks. Several unsuccessful runs were
made with short skirted overshots to catch the pin above the bit. Finally,
another impression block verified that the bit was upside-down. Junk bas-
kets with heavily dressed shoes on the bottom and inside edges were run
to cut over the bit shanks and swallow the bit, but were unsuccessful.
These activities pushed the bit down to 10,500 ft.
Heavily dressed concave mills with triple junk subs to catch metal
fragments were run to mill the bit. The average life was 10 hours per mill.
Luckily.the bit turned very little under the mill.The metal fragments from
the drillpipe protector rubbers may have helped hold it in place. The bit

Figure 4-2 Wear bushing
Cameron retrievable wear bushing
Blowout preventer
or drilling spool --
Locking flange __
c:::r-f-=jt-
,.:J...t'''j.. Wear bushing
Housing or casing head spool --
.-...-...--..................--............-.......-.............-
was pushed downhole to about 11,000 ft while milling, and 5 to 10 Ibs of

metal per junk sub per mill run were recovered.
A fourth mill was run. and after about 6 hours of milling, 36 hours
total milling time, it broke through. This same mill washed and reamed to
the top of the cement at 12,000 ft and then drilled 1,000 ft of cement at
20 ft/hr. The casing was pressure tested, and the same mill then drilled the
float shoe, and normal operations were resumed.
Small Fish
A "small fish" here most commonly is bit cones but may be tong
dies, nuts, bolts, hand tools, and other small pieces of junk. Recov-
ery procedures depend on the size, shape, depth, formation hard-
ness, hole size, etc. Bit-cone size is determined from the bit size and
234 Chapter 4
how long they were drilled. The recovered bit may provide informa-
tion. Did the cones drop off, and did the bit show wear from running
on junk? Impression blocks are seldom used because results are very
questionable. In most cases the time can be used more effectively
with other procedures.
Magnets are a close contact tool and less efficient on larger size
junk and junk with a small contact area, such as the end of a wrench.
They are less efficient in soft formations compared to harder forma-
tions since smaller pieces of metal tend to bury in the soft caving
material. Caving and cuttings may be removed by circulating with a
skirted magnet run on tubulars for improved recovery. Wireline mag-
nets are less effective compared to running on tubulars. However,
run the magnet on a wireline at shallow depths. if it is conveniently
available.
Junk shots are seldom effective on small junk. They are a close
contact tool, and the junk frequently is covered with at least a small
amount of drill cuttings and caving material in the open hole. A cir-
culating-type junk shot may be available for running on tubulars,
but its use is questionable. Junk shots are not recommended in cased
holes, except special situations such as very large casing and a small
shot, well centralized to prevent casing damage.
Junk baskets can be effective for recovering small junk, especially
in softer formations. Reverse circulating baskets can be very effec-
tive on very small junk. In many cases, run a junk basket as the first
try unless the junk is very small. Run a junk basket for two or three
cones, wrenches, short pieces of pipe and similar items. Handle the
junk basket carefully since the retaining fingers are fragile and easily
broken. When possible, cut over the junk and then cut a few feet of
formation as a plug to hold junk in the basket. Run a junk sub on top
of the basket to catch small pieces of metal.
In many cases the junk cannot be recovered with a basket or
magnet and must be milled away or walled off. Small pieces of metal
conventionally are drilled and milled up with flat-bottom or con-
cave mills or a short-toothed, mill-toothed bit as described earlier in
this section. Run one or two junk subs above either a mill or bit.
Small junk can be walled off relatively easily in soft and me-
dium formations (Fig. 4-3). Any walled-off junk could fall back into
the hole and possibly stick the downhole assembly. Generally walled
off junk either remains walled off or if it is small enough to wall off
and later falls into the hole, it will not affect the drilling assembly
severely. There are very few, if any, reports of walled-off junk falling
back into the hole at a later date and obstructing operations.

Figure 4-3 Walling off junk
Note: Runjunk sub above bit in these operations.
a b c
Small junk in tt1e hole
- -. .-.,--- - -----
Drilling on junk- with part

of the junk walled off
... .
Drilling ahead. all junk

drilled up or walled off
Large Fish
"Large fish" as used here includes complete bits, short subs, and
similar-sized pieces of metal. The type of fishing tool depends upon
the shape and dimensions of the fish.
Screw into bits or large junk with a threaded connection on top.
If there is a neck of any type, try to catch it with an overshot. Full-
gauge bits normally will not turn over if dropped in casing. They
mayor may not turn over in an open hole depending on hole diam-
eter and washouts. Careful clean-out should not damage the connec-
tion. Short-grab overshots seldom catch a bit pin because ofthe thread
taper.
Make at least one attempt with a junk basket if it will cover the
fish. Junk shots may be effective subject to precautions regarding
their use. It is better to mill large metal objects that are hard to wall
236 Chapter 4
off. The preferred method is to mill and cut over the object so it can
be recovered as a larger piece. This reduces the amount of metal to
be milled. Use a mill shoe below either a heavy-duty junk basket or
short length of washpipe.
If the fish cannot be caught, generally the best approach is to
break the large junk into smaller pieces and then fish for it by the
procedures described for small junk. If the entire object must be
milled, normally select a concave or flat-bottomed mill. Run junk
subs. Mills can be very efficient.
Dressing Off the Top of the Fish

The top of the fish often is bent, twisted, flattened, or broken.
These occur when the fish is twisted off or pulled apart. The top of
the fish must be dressed-off to present a clean top to the fishing tool
before it can be caught and recovered (Fig. 4-4).
The best procedure, when applicable, is to cut off the top of the
fish with an outside cutter so there is a clean fishing top. It can sel-
dom be cut from the inside because of entering the damaged top or
the small diameter of the fish. Otherwise mill a clean top for one of
several catches, depending upon the situation.
Milling off a short section of the top of the fish with a flat-bottom
mill often is easiest and gives a satisfactory top in many cases. Run a
skirted mill if there is sufficient clearance between the fish and the
inside of the casing or the wall ofthe hole. This helps hold the top of
the fish centralized and against the face of the mill and reduces the
risk of milling down the side of a small-diameter fish.
There may not be enough clearance on the outside diameter to
catch the fish after it is milled, such as a larger drill collar inside the
casing. Then, after milling a flat top if necessary, cut a fishing neck
with a mill shoe dressed with cutting material on the bottom and
inside, and catch the fish with an overshot. Otherwise, mill a larger
hole through the inside top of the fish with a combination flat-bot-
tomed and centered, tapered mill and catch it with a spear or taper
tap.
LEAKS
Leaks are a relatively common problem. The frequency of leaks
is probably second only to losing bit cones and generally is more
severe. Normally detect surface leaks with a good visual inspection.
Downhole leaks can cause a fishing job if they are not detected and
repaired in a short time. Leaks are more common in drillpipe tool
joints and less common in drill collar tool joints. The most common
FishinR Procedures 237

Figure 4-4 Dressing off the top of the fish
a b C
,
",.,.
..
J ".>'
""';',/,"
Fish with ragged top Flat-bottom mill Skirted mill Guided or

lapemd mill
e 9
l"r
i I
\ !
j
" ' I
I
J I \
! i'
"
'
"
\
" ::
i I
,
I
/ L
,,'
,;-,
i I.
):.:J..' 1
.~..~~... i ,,/"'
;..
Inside ClItter Outside clIlter Fis~l willl clean top
(larger diameter fish) (smaller diameter fish)
238 Chapter 4
cause is improper tool-joint makeup. The abrasive mud frequently
combines with a loose tool joint to erode and wash out the metal,
causing a washout. These are more common in tool joints but may
occur in the body of the pipe.
Leaks also may occur in some high-pressure operations such as
squeezing, circulating out a kick and testing. Some of these may cre-
ate a dangerous situation or cause a severe fishing situation. An ex-
ample is cement leaking past a retrievable packer during squeezing.
A common preventive action is to pressure-test the pipe before con-
ducting some high-pressure operations.
Most fluids, especially drilling mud, are abrasive. The circulat-
ing fluid erodes the metal surfaces. The rate of erosion is a function
of fluid velocity, pressure, metal hardness, and the fluid abrasiveness.
The inside diameter of tool joints often differs from the ID of the
pipe body. This changes the flow rate and may create eddy currents,
increasing erosion effects.
Most leaks caused by fluid erosion develop relatively slowly.
Leaks in damaged tool joints or those not made up according to speci-
fications may occur faster. Regardless of the cause, fluid passing
through the leak erodes metal. The leak grows at an increasing rate
with increasing fluid volume through the leak. This removes metal
by fluid erosion and leads to a tension failure, resulting in fishing.
Leaks increase in frequency and severity with increasing well
depth. There are more connections in a deep well than a shallow
well, so there are more points subject to failure. Deeper wells gener-
ally operate at higher pressures, which increases the risk of leaking
correspondingly. The higher pressure differential across the leak
passes more fluid compared to a more shallow well operating at a
lower pressure. The net effect is that erosion and leaks occur faster
in deeper holes.
Thbulars in deeper wells normally operate at higher levels of
tension. If 10% of the metal is eroded, then theoretically, the pipe
would fail at 90% ofthe new strength rating. Normally the leak would
be detected well before this. With operations at higher stress, a fail-
ure may occur faster in a deeper well compared to a more shallow
well.
Leak detection is a strong fishing preventive measure. Normally
detect leaks by changes in pump pressure. The amount of change
depends upon depth of the leak, where it occurs in the pipestring,
mud pressure and rheology, and related factors. A pressure reduc-
tion of 5% in shallow wells and less in deeper wells can be signifi-
cant. The time between the first occurrence of a leak and when it
develops to the point of equipment failure can range from a few min-
utes to several hours.

Most leaks can either be prevented or detected and repaired be-
fore they cause a fishing job. The first step is to insure that all tool
joints are in good condition and tightened to the correct torque. A
smooth-operating pump, with good pulsation dampeners, operating
at a constant pressure is very important. Pump stroke and pressure
recorders provide a means of checking prior performance against cur-
rent performance. A balanced mud system helps prevent small pres-
sure fluctuations. Normally, this should not be confused with a leak
since the operator should be aware of mud weight variations. Watch
for tool joints that are hard to make up or break on trips. Boxes and
pins coated with mud indicate a developing or an actual leak.
It is more difficult to detect small leaks at the higher pressures
associated with deeper wells. For example, if a shallow well is oper-
ating at 1,500 psi, it is relatively easy to detect a 100 psi drop or
6.6% change. For a deeper well operating at 3,000 psi the 100 psi
pressure drop is a 3.3% change. This is more difficult to detect and
could be confused with normal pump fluctuations. Also the leak in
the deeper well is eroding at a much faster rate because of the higher
pressure differential.
Pull the drillstring immediately after a leak is suspected or de-
tected. Do not rotate the drillpipe with the rotary. Always rotate the
stand with the top drive or drillpipe tongs, or chain out.
Drillstring Leaks
An 83f4-in.hole was drilling at 12.000 ft with a standard 4Ih-in. drillstring.
Over a 30-minute period. the mud pressure dropped from a normal 1.500
psi to 1.350 psi with a slight increase in the pump strokes. The pressure
dropped relatively constantly over the period. indicating a developing leak.
A mechanical malfunction of the pump was less likely because of the slight
increase in pump strokes. The second pump, a twin to the first. was placed
on-line as a check and also gave 1.350 psi. In the next 30 minutes, the
pressure dropped another 150 .psi to 1.200 psi. At that time the driller
picked up the assembly. and it had a normal weight. indicating that it was
intact.
The pressure drop indicated a severe leak. A trip was started to pull
the drilling assembly from the hole to check for a leak. The pipe was ro-
tated out at the surface. chained out in order to prevent excessive
downhole movement. This was justified because of the apparent severity
of the leak and the possibility of a large washout.
After pulling 8.000 ft of drillpipe. a tool joint in the middle of a stand
appeared to be leaking as indicated by mud on the side of the pipe.The pin
broke when the tool joint was unscrewed.About half the broken area was
240 Chapter 4
a new break made when the tool joint was unscrewed. The rest of the
break was eroded. Rotating the entire drillstring while pulling it would
almost certainly have caused the failed pin to break and would have dropped
the bottom section of the drilling assembly. In this case, the problem was
recognized and the correct action taken, preventing a fishing job. It might
have been advisable to pull the pipe after verifying that the pump was
operating correctly.
This can be compared with another case of drilling a 61/a-in.hole at
15,000 ft with a 31/2-in.drillPipe. Declining pump pressures indicated a
leak. The pipe was started out of the hole, rotating out normally. After
pulling five stands, the pipe parted, dropping about 9,000 ft of drillPipe
and the drill collars. The fish was recovered with an overshot after three
runs.
There is no record of how far the pressure dropped, and chaining out
of the hole, a longer procedure than the regular method of rotating out,
may not have been justified.Also, there is no insurance that the lower part
of the drilling assembly would not have dropped while chaining out of the
hole. However, there is less chance of dropping a partially failed drilling
assembly when chaining out compared to pulling out normally.
In another case, while drilling a 15,000 ft hole, a leak developed in the
drilling assembly, resulting in an unsuccessful fishing job, and the lower
hole was sidetracked.
Sometimes locating a leak, especially a small leak, is difficult

and time-consuming. A leak can almost always be found by plug-
ging the bit. Use perforation ball sealers on a jet bit and rags or a
plugged swab rubber on a conventional bit. Then pull a wet string.
However, this is slow and sometimes dangerous, and it can mean
losing a considerable volume of expensive mud.
Another method is to dump a gallon of paint, usually aluminum
and mixed with several gallons of diesel fuel, down the drillpipe
before pulling out. In the operation of pulling the drillstring, the
paint mixture floats on top of the mud column. A small amount will
run out of the hole as the leaking stand is picked up above the rotary.
The paint can be seen on the side of the pipe, indicating the leak,
usually in a tool joint. Do not run the pipe wiper; it may wipe the
paint off. Wash the pipe with a small stream of water.
The coring or sand line may be used to help locate a leak. Use
one sinker bar and tie several long strands of soft line just above the
rope socket. Circulate at a reduced rate and lower the line slowly
through a pressure pack-off while measuring it. When the soft line is
opposite the leak, it is pumpe8 into the leak and will stop the down-
ward movement of the sinker bar, thus locating the leak to within a
few feet.

Locate very small leaks by pressure testing. Run the assembly in
the hole with a jet bit plugged with perforation ball sealers. Pressure
test the pipe every 10 to 15 stands with the kelly. When the leak is
detected, pull stands or singles as needed, pressure testing as neces-
sary until the leak is located. Replace the leaking joints and reverse
the perforation ball sealers out of the hole. This procedure works
well in a cased hole, but the bit may plug while reversing out in the
open hole.
Various methods of measuring lag time can also determine the
approximate depth to the leak. For example, a little carbide or diesel
fuel can be circulated downhole slowly and detected with a gas de-
tector as it returns to the surface. Depending on the size of the leak,
most of the material will circulate down through the entire downhole
assembly. Nevertheless, a small amount will pass out through the
leak and return to the surface. The first returns help calculate the
approximate depth to the leak.
Other methods of locating leaks have been used or proposed.
Detect the leak by pumping several long strands of soft line down
the hole with one pipe volume. Then pull out of hole. The strands
on the side of the pipe show the position of the leak: A wireline
production flow meter, spinner survey, might locate the leak by mea-
suring the difference in flow rates above and below the leak. This
probably is questionable since, if the leak is bad enough to detect in
this manner, the pipe probably has already parted.
Normally circulate as little as possible after a leak is detected, to
prevent additional damage. Sometimes, though, there is an advan-
tage in knowing the location of the leak while the drilling assembly
is still in the hole. For example, the leak could be so severe that
there would be a risk of dropping the assembly if the washed-out
point occurred high in the assembly where it was subject to maxi-
mum forces. In this case, depending upon specific conditions, con-
sider setting the assembly on bottom, part it below the leak, recover
the released portion, repair the leak, and then recover the pipe left
downhole. This is a relatively straightforward operation, again de-
pending on conditions. There is a risk of sticking the pipe left on
bottom but the risk of dropping and damaging the downhole assem-
bly is reduced.
WORKING STUCK TOOLS

Working stuck downhole tools is the procedure of moving the
workstring various ways to apply releasing forces to the stuck as-
sembly. Working includes both reciprocation and rotation with em-
phasis on specific methods. Most working begins when the tools stick
242 ChaDter 4
during drilling or other operations. Otherwise, begin working after
catching a stuck fish. The same general working principles apply in
both cases and in open and cased holes. Working is both a preven-
tive action and common fishing procedure.
Work stuck downhole assemblies by one or a combination of the
following actions: working to establish movement or circulation,
working up, working down, and a final working procedure. Working
creates stress reversals on the formation at the stuck point which can
be effective in releasing stuck tools. Knowing where, how, and why
the assembly is stuck helps determine the correct working proce-
dure. Working the assembly correctly greatly increases the chance of
releasing it.
Working downhole assemblies often is considered as much of an
art as it is a science. This is not correct. Working is the application of
known procedures that have been successful many times in the past
and will be equally successful in the future. Unfortunately it is all
too common in the industry to either work stuck assemblies for too
short a time and or work them incorrectly. The tendency to "Call a
fisherman!" is too often considered the only solution to stuck pipe.
Working requires various concepts to be successful. Have a men-
tal picture of what is sticking the assembly and how the working
method will release it. Begin working as soon as the assembly sticks;
this often releases it. Work steadily in a deliberate, methodical man-
ner. Be patient, an early release is the exception rather than the rule,
but it occurs. Work using one procedure long enough to determine
whether it will be successful. Then try another procedure depend-
ing upon the circumstances. The working procedures may not be
successful, so have an alternate working procedure or other plan.
Free Pointing and Free Pipe

The free point is the point in the assembly where the pipe is
neither in tension nor compression in the direction parallel to the
axis of the pipe. The free point moves depending upon the pull at
the surface. For example the free point would be at the bottom of the
pipe for a string hanging free in the hole. It would be at the top of the
string, at the surface if all of the pipe weight was set down. Normally
the free point cannot go below the point where a string is stuck. The
stuck point is important for working stuck pipe since the pipe above
it is free. Determine the amount of free pipe by the fast, convenient
pipe-stretch method or the more accurate free-point tool run on an
electric line. Locate various intervals where pipe may be stuck with
special electric logs.

Pipe-Stretch Method
The pipe-stretch method is a fast, convenient procedure for de-
termining the free point. The data for the calculation is easily ob-
tainable with normal rig equipment. It is not used for calculating the
stuck point in the drill collars. If the free point is calculated near the
top or below the top ofthe drill collars, then assume it is at the top of
the drill collars for working purposes. Calculating the free point by
the pipe-stretch method is less accurate compared to the free-point
log. but generally satisfactory for working stuck pipe. It can be af-
fected by drag in crooked. deviated or horizontal holes. It is very
good for detecting freepoint movement while working pipe (Fig.
4-5).
Figure 4-5 Pipe-stretch data (courtesy Dailey Oil Tools Inc.)

---...----
,~
.-Ii I /,(!)
Pipe Stretch 1 !
t;j (j)2"EuE Tubing (2-3/S"od.) 461b/ft ~.t.. II?
! @2-718"A.P.1. Tubing, 685 Ib 1ft
(:j)4" API Drill Pipe. 14,16 Ibill Grode E
~>~
cr'/
d:?l'
i
1/
(~)2'1/2.A,PI Tubing (2.7/S"od) S& Ibltt
@4V2"API Drill Pipe. 16.60 Ib/ft Grode E )'
2' . .f- J~
i @4" API Drill Pipe 11851b/ll
i (?")3-1/2" AP.I Drill Pipe. 1330 Ib lit

@6'5/8"API. Drill Pipe, 25,20 Ibift
Grade E
Grade E ./
I
I
~,5" API, Drill PIpe 19.50 Ib 1ft
i
i '~'9'5'1/2" A.PI. Drill Pipe. 2470 Ib lIt. Grade E /
..1
~: ,ii" 2.7/8" API DrillP,pe 1040 Ib!f1 Mod.T J. f-
f' '..
~....
,
..t"-- EXM'PLE , !PLlI 4'1I2".-~,60ibiii" ...~:
.. iOP ~) @ 4q.OOO LBSe
lOver Ha-qing ,Pipe WI.
iCurveP,pe Stielch Is 58" ~
'See 15000 f!! Free Pipe
244 Chapter 4
The formula used to calculate the length of free pipe is:
L = (735.294 x S x W) / (T)
Where: L = length of free pipe, ft
S = pipe stretch (elongation), in.
W = nominal pipe weight, Ib/ft
T = total load, 1,000 Ibs
Work the pipe for a short time to minimize the effect of drag,
then pick it up to remove all slack and take a small overpull of a few
percent of the pipe weight. Mark the pipe opposite a reference point
such as the top ofthe rotary or kelly-drive-bushing. Record the weight
indicator reading. Pick up more and stretch the pipe slightly, but do
not exceed the elastic limit. Mark the pipe again opposite the same
reference point, measure the amount of stretch between the two
marks, and record it as S. Deduct the first weight indicator reading
taken from the reading at this point and record as T.
Enter T, Sand W into the formula and calculate the length of free
pipe or depth to the stuck point. This formula is applicable for dif-
ferent grades of steel in various types of pipe, regardless of the mud
weight. Free pipe length may also be calculated from charts and cal-
culator programs.
Generally monitor the free point by the stretch method when
working stuck pipe. It is a good guide to working and to the types of
working procedures. A free point that appears to move downhole on
successive measurements, "moving free point," indicates an improv-
ing condition with an increasing length of free pipe. Conversely, a
free-point movement uphole indicates deteriorating hole conditions
and a decreasing length of stuck pipe. This is analogous to the hole
caving, causing sticking at a higher point.
Electrical Free-Point Pipe Logs

Various electric-type logs are run through the work string on an
electrical line to provide additional information on the stuck condi-
tion of the pipe. These give more precise free points as compared to
the stretch method.
One of the most common is the free-point logs. They measure
the degree of sticking by measuring either torsional or longitudinal
strain, and they locate the lowest point where pipe is free. Normally
torsional strain is more accurate for directional and horizontal holes
and floating operations. Often the tool is run with a string shot to
back off the pipe after locating the free point. They are especially
accurate when backing off in the drill-collar assembly (Fig. 4-6).

Figure 4-6 Freepoint tool (courtesy Dia-Log)
Cable head
Collar locator
Weights
Slip joint
Oscillator
Upper bow spring
Stresslector
Lower bow spring
Safety sub
Shooting head
Shot bar
246 Chapter 4
Drillpipe recovery logs locate free or stuck sections of pipe be-
low the free point by means of a sonic signal. These aid in situations
such as planning the length of washpipe needed and where to back
off.
Begin Working Immediately

Begin working stuck tools immediately after sticking and con-
tinue working constantly. There is a tendency to work the pipe and
then shut down for a few minutes, often to "talk it over." Obtain the
best results by continued working.
Some sticking, such as wall sticking, occurs immediately. In other
cases the process is more gradual and indicated by increasing drag
and/or torque. Immediate working is facilitated if the kelly is con-
nected. If sticking occurs while tripping, try to move the pipe so a
tool joint is at or near the rotary so the kelly can be connected. Oth-
erwise, try to connect a flexible-joint metal hose if possible for circu-
lation. It is very important to be able to circulate both for releasing
the stuck pipe and for good well control. Always have an inside blow-
out preventer available.
Working the stuck assembly immediately can be the difference
between minor stuck pipe and a severe fishing job. For example, a
small amount of caving material may stick the assembly. Immediate,
constant working action could release the assembly, often by using
relatively low overpull and sit down working weights. Otherwise,
the caving may accumulate and stick the assembly severely if work-
ing is delayed. Likewise if an assembly is keyseated, early working
may release it b.;Jfore it becomes wall-stuck.
Know how to work the assembly immediately, but in all cases
start and continue working it. If this does not release the assembly, it
may at least reduce the risk of additional sticking. Beginning to work
the assembly does not necessarily mean taking an immediate, maxi-
mum pull. In fact, this may be the wrong action. However, working
immediately at maximum force levels is justified in some cases. For
example if the pipe wall sticks and this is known, then immediately
bump down and jar up at maximum force levels. This may release
the assembly before the contact area is completely sealed.
How Hard to Work

How hard stuck pipe can be safely worked is a primary consider-
ation. Most stuck fish are not worked initially at maximum tension.
However in some cases this is instrumental in releasing them. Types

of loading include pull, set down, impact and torquing. Maximum
allowable force depends upon the type of loading, pipe weight, grade
and condition, tool joint strength, type and magnitude ofthe applied
forces, and the length of time the assembly is subjected to the forces.
Related factors include hole size, gauge, depth, deviation and dogleg,
and hole condition such as keyseats and caving.
The workstring, usually drillpipe or tubing, normally is the weak-
est component. It is the longest part of the assembly, so it is more
exposed. It suspends all downhole tools, so it is subject to higher
tensile loading, especially the upper section. The lower section is
more subject to bending due to compressional forces. Drill collars
and other tools normally are stronger. They are deeper in the hole
and subject to lesser forces except for jarring and bumping.
The assembly is subject to tension, compression and torque. High
forces can be involved due to heavy jarring and bumping. Picking up
and lowering and the use of jars and bumper subs cause impact and
cyclical loading. These various forces can cause tool joint failures,
cracked pins, split boxes, loosened and washed out tool joints and
pipe body failures. The main controllable items are how long and
how hard to work the assembly, assuming it is designed and main-
tained correctly.
For example, drag in open holes dampens forces applied at the
surface so they are reduced at the point of sticking. This lessens the
efficiency ofthe working action. Jarring and bumping is less affected
by this. Caving can cause additional sticking, indicated by the free
point moving uphole. Working may create keys eats and cause cav-
ing or unstable formations. It may be better in these cases to back off
the pipe above the stuck point rather than allowing more of the pipe
to become stuck.
Excluding formation effect, the amount of pulling force that can
be applied as a straight pull on stuck tools is the lesser of the strength
of the tube, tool joint or connection with an appropriate safety factor
for condition. These data are available from standard tables. Strengths
usually are based on the minimum yield, where the pipe may stretch
but returns to its regular length when the force is removed. The pipe
begins to stretch permanently at pulls above this point but normally
will not fail until it reaches the ultimate yield, which is about 10-
15% greater, sometimes more than the minimum yield. Pipe perfor-
mance is less predictable when stresses exceed the minimum yield.
Common safety factors are 15-25% so use a maximum working
tensile load of 75-85% of the minimum yield. However, the differ-
ence between the minimum yield and the ultimate yield is, in a sense,
a safety factor. This does not imply the assembly should be worked
248 Chapter 4
at force levels above the minimum yield. Nevertheless, it is impor-
tant to use practical safety factors.
Normally tubulars are not deliberately damaged, but there are
cases where other factors may be more important than the risk of
pipe damage. For example, the cost of replacing a drillstring may be
justified to successfully complete the fishing job on a deep, expen-
sive well. When these cases occur, consider the risks in determining
how hard to work the assembly, especially if working above the mini-
mum yield.
Working pipe downward often is one of the most effective ways
of releasing stuck tools, especially since two of the most common
causes of sticking are keys eats and caving. In both cases, usually the
best releasing procedure is working downward. How much weight
can be set down on the assembly before it is damaged? The pipe is a
column, and the actual weight that can be supported safely by the
drillpipe can be calculated by column formulas if all data are known.
It usually is assumed that a fully supported vertical pipe column
will support as much weight in compression as it will in tension.
This implies that the pipe can be set down by approximately the
equivalent of the amount of allowable pull.
However, the downhole assembly is not a fully supported col-
umn. At best, it may be partially supported at the tool joints. If the
hole is in-gauge, the pipe body between the tool joints could bend
until it touches the wall of the hole and some minor indention into
the wall, depending upon formation hardness. However, there are
crooked or deviated holes, washouts, and other out-of-gauge sections
where additional bending can occur. So trying to calculate the pre-
cise allowable weight that can be set down, except for special cases,
is impractical.
The net result is that the maximum allowable set-down weight
must be estimated based on the strength characteristics of the
downhole assembly, knowledge of the specific downhole conditions,
and general experience. More weight can be set down safely if the
hole is in-gauge and tool-joint diameter approaches the hole diam-
eter. Again this is difficult to quantify.
Compression caused by setting down weight normally will not
damage medium- or large- sized drill collars under average condi-
tions. Therefore, the main area of possible damage is in the lower
section of the workstring (Fig. 4-7). Most operators are very cautious
about setting down pipe weight. This is partly due to the natural
caution of sticking or damaging the drillstring or plugging the bit.
There also is a natural tendency to pull stuck pipe upward, rather
than slack off.

Figure 4-7 Pipe under compression
In-gauge hole Out-ai-gauge hole
4T
)i
'- .
c-::~
..J
l
:ecl~
;j- -
.:..
...L
I
=2=~;;~~.j
.......
i" ~t::::}__;;'C
...L...L
.
I I ......
i:Gf..:
:;;~
L ...L
L...L.
L
L...L
L
...L
0I r
I...J
j..J
I...L...L
~...L..J...L
...L
_J
...L...J...L.
-"
L
~
\ \\
...L
...L
...L
...J..
...L
...L ; ...L...L \ ...L
L ...L L..J..L
L , ..J ..L
...L I '...L..L
~..L ("'_ ...L
..L..L
~ ...L .
L
~
L
L
...L 7 ,...L...L
i
..J
..J.
~ ..L
...J..
L ..L,
L!
..L f...L..J..L
...L...L
I-..J
I
I'
I
!...J..
,' ...J..
J
~ bT
L .. I \ ...L ...L
,...I. I
,...... . .. .....J..
..,..
..:,.. '
'. . ,';",
".,,". t/
..
...-.
.~~
.
. ..' .",:,. .,.'" . .

:::,'
...
... ........
"
\ . .
,.... .
",'
-.: ..
, :C',:
.
' I
.
1
,
,,',
~ i:.....
10 -I~
Pipe in tension Pipe in Pipe in compression
compression Small diameter Large diameter
m..............................__........_......................_...............................................
250 Chapter 4
Consider the following field results. 6,000 ft of 2%-in. tubing was
set on bottom in 51f2-in. casing. 8,000 ft of 27/a-in. tubing was set on
bottom in 7-in. casing. 6,000 to 8,000 ft of 31f2-in. drillpipe and a
standard drill-collar assembly was set on bottom in a 6%-in. open
hole. 8,000 to 10,000 ft of 4Vz-in. drillpipe and a standard drill-collar
assembly was set on bottom in an 8%-in. open hole. All were set
down slowly and picked up later without damage. This information
helps establish set-down weights under slow, smooth, pseudo-static
conditions.
Next consider a common drilling assembly with 60,000 lb of drill
collars and 10,000 ft of 41f2-in., 16.60 lb/ft drillpipe that weighs
166,000 lb (air weight). Total string weight is 226,000 lbs in air or
192,000 lb in 10 lb/gal mud with a buoyancy factor of 0.85. There
should not be a problem working the assembly down to a surface
weight of 141,000 lb, since all of the drillpipe would be in tension.
Excluding the risk of sticking, the entire assembly probably could be
completely set down slowly in an average hole without damaging
the pipe based on field experience.
Therefore it appears that one relatively safe way to work a stuck
drilling assembly downward is to slack off slowly the equivalent of
at least 5,000, up to 10,000 ft of drillpipe weight above the free point
in the average hole. If the assembly is stuck in the drill collars, the
free point is assumed to be at the top of the drill collars for purposes
of determining how much weight to slack off without damaging the
drillpipe. The force acts downward on the formation at the point of
sticking. Picking the pipe up with an overpull creates an upward
force on the formation at the point of sticking. Repeating this stress
reversal over time is a very effective procedure for releasing stuck
pipe. This general guide applies to an average hole and is subject to
modification based on experience and knowledge in the area and
the condition of the specific hole.
When setting weight down, only a portion of the total weight
actually is applied to the stuck point. As the assembly is lowered, it
tends to coil around inside the hole and drag over inclined and
crooked hole sections. The friction at these points supports some
pipe weight. The actual amount of weight supported by friction can-
not be determined because of the many unknown factors. It can be
estimated by observing the weight indicator as the assembly is low-
ered. If there is no friction, the weight will be transferred to the stuck
point over the relatively short travel distance equivalent to the stretch
and compression in the free pipe. If the assembly weight is trans-
ferred over a longer distance of travel, then the added distance re-
flects a combination of bending or coiling inside the wellbore and

the effect of deviated and crooked-hole sections. The result is that
less weight is applied to the point where the assembly is stuck than
is reflected by the surface indications. Consequently, more weight
must be applied at the surface to apply a given weight at that stuck
point.
Downward impact or shock loading are dynamic forces that are
dependent on the rate at which the weight is set down. They are
larger but more difficuh to analyze. One method is observing ex-
tremes or limits. The lower safe limit is slowly setting down at least
5,000 to 10,000 ft of pipe in an average hole.
The upper limits of impact loading can be evaluated to a limited
extent by considering several operations. In many cases, drilling and
other downhole assemblies have been dropped several thousand feet
without parting, although they usually are bent. The lower section
of the assembly is exposed to a very high impact force. In a specific
,case, while tripping in the hole at about 110 fpm, 5V2-in. drill pipe
hit a solid obstruction at 11,000 ft in the open 12%-in. hole below
13%-in. casing set at 5,000 ft. In the subsequent fishing operations,
the drill pipe was found bent and broken immediately above the drill
collars. The hole was out-of-gauge at the point where the pipe broke
because the fishing tools bypassed the fish on the first few runs, re-
quiring the use of a wall hook. Bits have hit obstructions while trip-
ping in the hole at depths of 5,000 to 10,000 ft, at rates of 90 to 150
fpm without damaging the drillstring.
For impact purposes, an assembly of 5,000 ft, and possibly longer,
can strike the stuck point in an average hole at pipe speeds of at least
50 fpm and possibly up to 100 fpm or more without damaging the
pipe. These may be reduced for washed out or out-of-gauge holes.
The impact loading on stuck pipe depends upon how fast the
work string travels when it is being worked downward. If the pipe is
stuck solidly, the only movement is the small amount due to pipe
stretch and compression in the upper assembly above the stuck point.
A rapid movement in this manner transmits a momentum type force
down through the assembly to the stuck point. When working a com-
pletely stuck assembly this is the principal downward force applied
to the stuck point. If there is some pipe movement at the stuck point,
higher forces may be applied. However, these probably are not as
high as normally envisioned due to the increasing cushioning effect
of hole drag as the assembly is lowered. A bumper sub increases the
downward force by an appreciable amount by allowing more dis-
tance for downward travel. Concentrated drill collar weight above
the sub further increases the efficiency of the downward stroke.
The downward momentum procedure described above may be
used in an alternate manner. Lower the workstring rapidly and stop
it a short distance above bottom. The pipe will continue traveling
252 Chapter 4
downward a short distance, stretching and elongating, to create a
strong downward force. Lower the pipe and catch it a little higher. It
continues traveling downward a short distance, stretching and elon-
gating. Then it springs upward, imparting an upward force on the
stuck point. Repeating the procedure creates stress reversals against
the stuck point. This action is sometimes described as a snap-and-
bounce procedure and can be effective in releasing stuck assemblies.
Efficiency decrease with depth and heavier workstrings.
Pipe sizes have not been specifically used in how hard to work
the tools because of unknown data. Normally, the smaller pipe would
be in a smaller hole and larger pipe in a larger hole, so to some extent
both sizes have approximately equal lateral support. Larger pipe can
withstand more total force than smaller pipe, but the larger pipe also
weighs more. Therefore, using pipe weights in terms of feet of pipe
is probably adequate.
How Long to Work

How long the stuck assembly should be worked depends on a
number of different factors. Some are straightforward, but others are
intangible and require exercising good judgment. However, do not
underestimate the importance of working the assembly. Work it con-
stantly and in the correct manner, usually for an extended time. Work
it until one of the following occurs.
The reason for working is accomplished,

leased, or the fish recovered.
stuck pipe is re-
The assembly has been worked to the point where there is

a high risk of failure; it needs to be pulled and serviced.
Hole conditions have deteriorated, so additional working
increases the risk and reduces the chance of releasing and
recovering the assembly.
The pipe has been worked for an extended period without
obtaining any favorable results, so it is time to change ac-
tions. This normally is at least 6 to 12 hours in cased holes
and about 8 to 16 hours in open holes, subject to other
limitations.
Good judgment, experience, and knowledge determine how long

a drilling assembly can be worked before it fails. If the drilling as-
sembly is worked too long and fails, then the resulting fishing job
can be more severe than some of the available alternatives, but not
always. Also, there are times when the risk of sticking a longer sec-
tion due to deteriorating hole conditions can more than offset the
potential advantage of continuing to work the drilling assembly.

However, the most common situation is not working the pipe
long enough to free it. One reason is not knowing how to work the
stuck pipe or not being aware of the advantages. Another is fear of a
failure in the workstring. If the tools are in good condition, and they
should be, then working can continue for an extended period. Other-
wise, a fishing job is assured if the stuck tools are worked for only a
short time before free-pointing and backing off.
Working time may depend upon whether there is a jar and bumper
sub in the work string, if they are working, and if the assembly is
stuck above or below them. Also, working action is more efficient if
the jar and bumper sub are positioned a short distance above the
stuck point. Sometimes it is necessary to suspend working to either
run, replace, or reposition them.
The importance of continued working of stuck pipe is illustrated
in the following.
Working Stuck Tubing

A Gulf Coast Vicksburg gas well had 9%-in. casing set at 8,800 ft, a
SI/2-in.liner at 14,000 ft and 27/a-in.tubing latched into a permanent packer
at 13,500 ft inside the liner. Packer fluid was 16.8 ppg water-base mud.The
well was completed in multiple sands and production had declined abnor-
mally.Sinker bars run on a slick line indicated that most of the perforations
were covered with sand. This is characteristic of abnormally pressured
Vicksburg gas sands which flow sand into the wellbore under high pressure
drawdown.
A work-over rig was moved in and rigged up.The tubing was found
stuck near the surface with less than 4 in of stretch at maximum pull. It
was worked for 12 hrs with the free point moving downhole.A free point
indicator found the tubing 100%free at 11,500 ft and 10%free 50 ft above
the packer. The tubing was cut with a chemical cutter, leaving a 20 ft stub
above the packer. It was worked free in 6 hours and pulled.
The fish was caught with an overshot, but the latch-in could not be
released with torque and jarring. A reversing tool backed the tubing stub
out of the latch in the packer. A '-in. tubing stinger. run on the bottom of
the workstring, passed through the packer and washed the sand out of the
liner. Another packer was set above the first packer and the well was
completed, leaving regular weighted packer fluid behind the tubing.
This illustrates the importance of working stuck pipe for an extensive
period to release it before using other fishing procedures. Trying to wash
over the tubing would have been very difficult.
254 Chapter 4
Deteriorating hole conditions such as sloughing, caving and bridg-
ing are the most common cause for limiting the safe working time,
especially without circulation. This emphasizes the importance of
circulating while working stuck assemblies because it reduces the
risk of additional sticking.
Additional sticking may often be detected by small jumps or er-
ratic movement of the weight indicator needle while increasing or
decreasing tension. Another indication is apparent reduced pipe-
stretch. Take periodic free points by the pipe-stretch method while
working. A deteriorating hole condition is indicated by free points
found at successively shallower depths with time or an upward mov-
ing free point. As a very rough rule, do not allow the free point to
move uphole over 300 to 600 feet before suspending working and
backing off.
Working Heavy Stuck Drill Tools

A packed-hole assembly was used to drill a deep well in very hard and
abrasive, crooked-hole formations. The assembly included drilling jars.
bumper sub and keyseat wiper with 5-in. X-95, 25.60 Iblft drillpipe, new
tensile of 671.000 lb. premium used of 535,000 lb. The lower hole had an
average deviation of about 51/2/100 ft and an average dogleg of less than
11/2/I 00 ft.
The assembly began to hang up at 18.000 ft on a trip to change bits. It
was hanging up in the lower part of the drill collars since the drilling jars
were working satisfactorily. It was worked carefully to an overpull of 50.000
Ib to prevent pulling into a keyseat. Four singles were worked out of the
hole in 8 hours by working while circulating. Then the assembly stuck and
would not move. The hook weight was about 390.000 lb. The jars were
tripped at 425.000 to 450,000 Ib and then the pipe pulled up to 475,000
lb.The assembly was bumped downward to a weight of 300,000 lb. It was
worked for 6 hours without movement.
Oil was spotted around the drill collars. and the assembly soaked while
working for 12 hours without releasing. A free point showed that the
bottom eight drill collars were stuck. The first back-off shot was unsuc-
cessful. and the drill collars backed off above the drilling jars on the sec-
ond shot. The string was screwed back into the fish and the assembly
circulated and worked. After 2 hours the pipe began to move slowly. Five
singles were worked out in 8 hours. The basic method was to pull up to
about 420.000 Ib (30.000 Ib overpull), slack off to 350.000 lb. and be sure
there was some downward movement of the pipe before it was picked up
Fishinf{ Procedures 255

again. Each time the pipe was pulled up to 420,000 Ib it would move
upward a small amount. If the pipe would not go down after being picked
up, it was worked downward until it could move, even for a small amount.
After working for 4 hours, the assembly again began to move upward
slowly. Two hours later, it released and was pulled out of the hole.
This example illustrates the reliability of well-maintained tools and
the importance of continued working as long as there is a reasonable pos-
sibility of releasing them without fishing.
Procedures and Techniques

Various working procedures and techniques are used to release
stuck assemblies. Working procedures include one or more ofrecip-
rocating, rotating, and circulating. These are used with various tech-
niques such as initial working direction and working force levels.
Both are combined to release the stuck tools either by establishing
movement and circulation, and working up or down or with a final
working procedure.
A common observation is that drill tools are not stuck if they can
either reciprocate, rotate, or circulate. As long as one of these actions
is possible, even to a limited extent, there is a reasonably good chance
the assembly can be worked and manipulated to perform the other
functions. Establishing circulation usually has first priority. followed
by movement. These are important, both to prevent additional stick-
ing and to release stuck tools.
Working procedures and techniques generally are similar for open
and cased holes with allowances based on specific conditions. As-
semblies stuck in open holes generally are larger and stronger and
often are worked at higher force levels. Open holes usually have more
hole problems requiring additional precautions to prevent additional
sticking.
Smaller assemblies with reduced strength characteristics are more
common in cased holes. They often are worked more efficiently be-
cause of fewer hole problems, reduced drag and torque. increased
flexibility and reduced weight. Bumping-down operations are more
efficient in the cased, in-gauge hole. Establishing circulation in cased
holes often is less critical, except if stuck in sand or similar material
that can be circulated out with mud.
Working Results Indicate Working Method

Various indicators such as pump pressure and torque may help
determine the method and intensity of working stuck tools. They
may have slight movement with little or no circulation. The opti-
mum circulation rate will occur with the free point at the stuck point.
Pulling slight tension on the pipe may cause a pressure increase as
256 Chapter 4
the pipe pulls tightly into the stuck point. This is the approximate
upward limit the assembly can be pulled while maintaining circula-
tion. So pick up the pipe until the circulation is restricted and then
slacked off. Lowering the pipe usually gives similar results in the
opposite direction.
Work the pipe in a slow, easy manner, using the pump pressure
as an indicator, and insuring continued circulation. Repeating this
often releases the assembly by washing and eroding the caving bridge
or other material causing sticking. This method of releasing the as-
sembly would be less effective without circulation. Normally run
the pump slowly at first, since there are cases where increased pump
rate will stop circulation, and gradually increase it. Using the pump
pressure in this manner while working the stuck pipe at times can
be more sensitive than using the weight indicator.
Torque or rotation also may guide the working direction. The
stuck pipe may rotate slightly while the pipe is in the free point
position. Torque may increase with additional pull or setdown. Then
work the pipe in the direction to cause increased torque, but not so
hard as to stop rotation.
Working Force Levels

Generally start with low working force levels, increasing with
time. The rate at which the working forces are increased depends on
the type of assembly, how it is stuck, whether it occurs in an open or
cased hole, and whether the hole can be circulated. If the pipe is
stuck by caving and cannot be circulated, the pipe should be worked
at low force levels with gradual increases while trying to establish
movement and circulation.
Treat sanded-up pipe inside casing similarly. Both can be diffi-
cult fishing jobs. Pipe stuck in keyseats, wall-stuck pipe, and tools
stuck inside casing, not stuck with sand, generally can be worked at
maximum force levels within a short time. Tools stuck in green ce-
ment or highly viscous mud should be worked at a maximum rate
immediately. Pipe stuck by caving during a connection should not
be worked until after starting the pump and then worked easily with
a low pump pressure. Each case must be evaluated to determine the
manner and direction of working the stuck assembly and how long
and how hard it should be worked.
Initial Working Direction

The initial working direction in almost all cases is in the oppo-
site direction to pipe movement immediately prior to sticking. So if
the assembly sticks while being moved in one direction, work it in
the opposite direction.
If the bit sticks on bottom, start working it upward. Work in the
upward direction after running a bit or other tools into an obstruc-

tion such as a bridge or tight hole on a trip in the hole. Work keyseated
drill collars downward. Work packers, retrievable plugs and similar
tools in the releasing direction. Initially work a stuck hookwall packer
upward and most tension packers downward. Work a balled wireline
fish downward that was pulled into the bottom of the casing and
stuck.
Sometimes the working direction is difficult to determine. If the
bit is at or near the bottom ofthe hole and pulled into a tight hole or
caving, then working downward is restricted, so work it upward.
Sticking in a crooked hole may be a similar problem, but generally
work in the direction opposite the direction of movement prior to
sticking. Normally work drill collars downward after pulling them
into a crooked hole. If the bit is forced into the wall of crooked hole
at the same time, then work upward or both up and down.
Work to Establish Movement and Circulation

Working to establish movement and circulation is the first ac-
tion if the assembly is completely stuck and cannot be circulated. If
stuck tools can be circulated, there is a much better chance of releas-
ing them. Establishing circulation may be easier if the stuck assem-
bly can be rotated or moved, even a small amount.
The procedures for establishing movement and circulation and
releasing the downhole assembly described here generally apply to
those stuck in the open hole. They also do not generally apply to
releasing keyseated or wall-stuck pipe as covered in Chapter 5. When
tools are stuck in the cased hole, establishing circulation is not
usually as critical, or as helpful, in releasing the assembly. The ex-
ception is an assembly stuck in sand or other material that can be
circulated out.
Plugged bits frequently are associated with stuck drilling assem-
blies, so determine whether a plugged bit is restricting circulation,
since it is treated differently than annular restrictions. Detect a
plugged bit by the small amount of fluid needed to pressurize the
system, a sharp increase in mud pressure and a very limited flow-
back. When the pipe is open, a larger volume of mud often is re-
quired to pressurize the system, and the pressure increases more
slowly. Unplug bits in this situation by blowing the nozzles out of
the bit with a string shot (Fig. 4-8).
To establish circulation, first move the assembly so the free point
is at the stuck point. Then pressure up to about 150 to 250 psi. This
is about the minimum accurate reading with the average mud-pres-
sure gauge. Use low pressure when establishing circulation. Higher
pressures frequently have a piston effect and may seal the annulus.
Low pressures apparently let the mud seep through caving material
until circulation is established. Low pressures also minimize the risk
of pumping into the formation.
258 ChnotAr 4
Figure 4-8 Blow plugged jet nozzles out of bit
~-
-.-r-" --~
Running line
I
I
Well bore -..--............
I
Rope socket
Collar locator
Drill collars
Sinker bars ---..-.--.....-.--
Carrying rod
String shot charge
Tool joint -_____ -,-

.Jetnozzle
Drill bit....
After pressurizing, work the stuck tools with about 3,000 to 5,000
Ibs, first by overpull and then setting down the samfJ amount. Ifthere
is some pipe travel, continue to pull and set down with about the
same amount of weight. Continue this for an hour or longer while
monitoring the pump pressure. The start of circulation is detected

first by a decline in pressure. If it declines, restore it to the same low
level. If it can be determined which working technique caused the
pressure decline, then repeat that procedure. Continue working and
restoring the pump pressure. Then gradually increase the pump pres-
sure while continuing to work the pipe until the pump runs almost
continually. Continue until full circulation is established. Use cau-
tion to prevent pumping into the formation.
If the procedure is ineffective to this point, leave the system pres-
surized to a low pressure and apply right-hand torque to obtain
rotation. If the kelly is connected, apply torque with the rotary. Oth-
erwise use the drillpipe tongs. Normally do not apply torque with
the slips and rotary.
First try to rotate the stuck tools with a neutral pipe weight, free
point at the stuck point. If the tools do not rotate, apply a low level of
right-hand torque, usually about 20% of the maximum allowable.
Hold the torque and work the pipe at 3,000-5,000 Ib of overpull and
set down. Then check the torque and continue monitoring circula-
tion. If the torque decreases, add torque to the original level and
work the assembly again. If the torque does not decrease, apply ad-
ditional torque and work again. Gradually increase the torque to the
maximum safe operating limit. If any procedure appears to be effec-
tive in establishing pipe movement or circulation, then continue it.
For example, if applying torque indicates the assembly is rotating to
some extent, then continue applying torque.
If these procedures are ineffective after about one hour of work-
ing, increase the pump pressure to 400 to 500 psi while continuing
to work the pipe, and torquing periodically. After a short period,
increase the working tensile forces to about 10,000 lb. Usually the
maximum efficient pump pressure is about 500 psi for establishing
circulation while working the pipe in this manner. If this is not ef-
fective, try higher pressure levels for a short time, providing they do
not exceed the leak-off pressure. This will be indicated by leak-off
without either circulation or a small flow at the flow line. When
these higher pressures are not effective, the rest of the pipe-working
procedure should be conducted with a pressure of about 500 psi or
just below the leak-off pressure, whichever is less. Restore the pump
pressure if it reduces.
After working the pipe at 10,000 lb for about one hour, increase
the working force to about 20,000 lb and continue working and torqu-
ing. At this point the pipe should have been worked for a total of 2-
4 hours. If the procedure is unsuccessful in establishing movement
or circulation, then increase the working force in steps of about 10,000
lb (to the maximum allowable force) at intervals of about 30 minutes
to one hour while torquing periodically.
This procedure generally applies when the assembly is stuck with
the bit off-bottom, and indications are that the assombly should be
260 Chapter 4
worked both upward and downward. When the assembly sticks on
bottom, most of the working will be upward. If the assembly has
been pulled up into a tight hole, most of the working will be down-
ward.
The overall objective is to free the assembly, but the immediate
goal is to obtain movement and circulation. When the stuck pipe
begins to move, work to expand the movement until the assembly is
released. Do this by pulling the assembly upward to the end of the
free travel and then apply additional pull. Insure that this extra pull
is low enough so the pipe does not stick but can be bumped down-
ward. Then slack off until the assembly reaches the bottom of the
free-travel section, and apply additional weight in the downward
direction. Insure that the weight does not stick the assembly and it
can be pulled or jarred upward to the free-travel area. Repeat the
procedure and increase the working force as needed.
Concentrate on moving the pipe upward if it begins to move at
the upper limit oftravel. Conversely, work it in the downward'direc-
tion if it begins to move downward, depending on how much hole is
open below the assembly and other related factors. If free travel can
be obtained, the assembly usually can be released.
If the assembly is equipped with jars and a bumper sub and is
stuck at a point above these tools, they are ineffective. If the assem-
bly is stuck below the tools, they can be used to help release it.
There are several ways of working with the jars. Pull the pipe
upward against the stuck assembly to the tripping weight and wait
for the jars to trip, delivering a sharp upward blow on the stuck as-
sembly. Pipe weight reduces slightly after the jars trip due to the
elongation of the jars. Another method is to pull the pipe to a higher
level of overpull after the jars trip. A third method is to pull the pipe
steadily to the maximum weight. Adjust the rate of pull so the jars
trip at the desired tripping weight. Then lower the pipe to reset the
jars and pick up again to repeat the jarring action.
Use a similar procedure when bumping down. After the bump-
ing stroke, set additional weight down to release the fish. The jarring
and bumping action may be modified slightly, depending on the type
of tools used and their specific tripping mechanism.
Normally start jarring by tripping the jars at low levels of overpull
in the range of about 10,000 Ibs of overpull and bumping down about
the same amount. Work the stuck pipe at this level for about an hour.
If this does not establish movement or circulation, then trip the jars
at a higher level by increasing the overpull by 5,000-10,000 lb. In-
crease the tripping level gradually by 5,000-10,000 Ib increments
until the stuck assembly moves, or circulation is established, or the
jars are being tripped at the maximum safe recommended force (Table
4-2). Increase the level of bumping down similarly.

Table 4-2 Impact values
PULLABOVE PIPEWEIGHT IN POUNDS
Collar wt. in
40.000 50.000 70.000 80.000
Ibs. above jars 30,000
----....-. - 60,000_....._...__..._-_......._._-_._._----_......._.__.
3.000 33.660 44.880 56.100 67.320 78.540 89.760
4,000 44,880 59.840 74.800 89.760 104,720 119.680
5.000 56.100 74.800 93.500 112,200 130,900 149.600
6.000 67.320 89.760 112.200 134,640 157,080 179.520
7.000 78.540 104,720 130.900 157.080 183,260 209.440
8,000 89.760 119,680 149,600 179.520 209,440 239,360
9,000 I00,980 134.640 168,300 201.960 235.620 269,280
10,000 112.200 149.600 187.000 224.400 261,800 299,200
12.000 134.640 179.520 224.400 269,280 314.160 359,040
14.000 157.080 209.440 26 1.800 314.160 366,520 418,880
16,000 179.520 239.360 299.200 359,040 4 18,880 478,720
18,000 201.960 269.280 336.600 403,920 471,240 538.560
20.000 224.400 299.200 374.000 448,800 523.600 598.400
22,000 246.840 329.120 411.400 493.680 575.960 658.240
24.000 269.280 359.040 448.800 538.560 628.320 718.080
26.000 291.720 388.960 486.200 583.440 680.680 777.920
28,000 314.160 418.880 523.600 628.320 733.040 837.760
30,000 336.600 448.800 561.000 673.200 785.400 897.600
32,000 359.040 478.720 598,400 718.080 837.760 957.440
34,000 381 ,480 508.640 635.800 762,960 890.120 1.017.120
36,000 403,920 538.560 673.200 807,840 942,480 1.077.120
----.-.-..--.......-................................................................................................-.........-..
These values are purely theoretical. They are based on damages to

recovered tools in fishing operations and are to be used as a guide only.
Any well condition that causes a drag on the drillpipe would alter these
figures. Dailey Oil Tools Inc. does not recommend impact valves to
exceed the following: for 4Ye OD jars. 250.000; for 43/4OD jars.
300,000; for 6 OD jars, 460,000; for 61/8OD jars. 460,000; for 61/4OD
jars, 460,000; for 67/8 OD jars. 604,000; for 73/4OD jars, 770,805.
Source: Dailey Oil Tools Inc.
weight of collars amount of pull ..

Note: 0.000374 X above jars X above pipe wt. = amount of Impact In Ibs.
262 Chapter 4
Table 4-2 Impact values (continued)
PULLABOVE PIPE WEIGHT IN POUNDS
90,000 100,000 110,000 I20,000 130,000 140,000 150,000 160,000 ,

--..-----.-.-.-............-...................-........-.----.......-.--.---.
100,980 112,200 123,420 134,640 145,860 157,080 168,300 179,520
134,640 149,600 164,560 179,520 194,480 209,440 224,400 239,360
168,300 187,000 205,700 224,400 243,100 261,800 280,500 299,200
201,960 224,400 246,840 269,280 291,720 314,160 336,600 359,040
235,620 261,800 287,980 314,160 340,340 366,520 392,700 418,880
269,280 299,200 329,120 359,040 388,960 418,880 448,800 478,720
302,940 336,600 370,260 403,920 437,580 471,240 504,900 538,560
336,600 374,000 411,400 448,800 486,200 523,600 561.100 598,400
403,920 448,800 493,680 538,560 583,440 628,320 673,200 718,080
471,240 523,600 575,960 628,320 680,680 733,040 785,400 837,760
538,560 598,400 658,240 718,080 777,920 837,760 897,600 957,440
605,880 673,200 740,520 807,840 875,160 942,480 1,009,800 1,077,120
673,200 748,000 822,800 897,600 972,400 1,047,200 1,122,000 I,196,800
740,520 822,800 905,080 987,360 1,069,640 1,151,920 1,234,200 1,316,480
807,840 897,600 987,360 1,077,120 I,166,880 1,256,640 1,346,400
875,160 972,400 1,069,640 1,166,880 1,264,120 1,361,360
942,480 1,047,200 1,151,920 1,256,640 1,361,360
1,009,800 1,122,000 1,234,200 1,346,400
1,077,120 1,196,800 1,316,480
1,144,480 1,271,600 1,398,760
1,211,760 1,346,400
.----.........-................-......--......................-...--...-........-..--.
Work the stuck assembly in a steady, methodical manner. Each

working procedure should be tried for at least 30 minutes to one
hour before another method is used. In many cases, stuck assemblies
have been worked for a long period before releasing.
Work Up
Working up is one of the more important working methods. Pro-
cedures for working upward are broadly similar to those for working
to establish movement, with a few specific differences. Always main-
tain the stuck point in tension. This ensures a constant upward force
against the point where the assembly is stuck. Often use a constant
minimum upward force in the range of 5,000 to 10,000 lb of overpull.
Combine torquing with working up in many cases such as working
up to release a tension packer or wedged bit.
Start working upward at a force level of about 10-20% of the
weight of the the pipe, calculated to the free point. For openhole
stuck situations such as sticking in a crooked hole or pulling into a
bridge, work at this force level for about 30 minutes to 1 hour. Then
increase the force level by about 10-20% of the free-pipe weight and
Fjshing Procedures 263

continue working. Repeat this, periodically increasing the working
force level until it is at the maximum allowable strength of the
workstring. In the normal case, work at the maximum force level for
at least four hours, subject to hole and workstring condition. Then
either change the working procedure, such as alternating with work-
ing down, or take another course of action.
In some sticking situations, increase the force level at a faster
rate, in the order of 10 min intervals. Some of these include a bit
stuck in a tapered hole, wall sticking, wash pipe stuck on bottom,
stuck openhole test tools, and stuck retrievable hook-wall packers
and plugs. However, continue working for at least four hours after
reaching the maximum force level.
When working with jars, increase the tripping level correspond-
ingly, using the same jarring procedures as described. When jarring,
it may be necessary to set down a small amount of weight in order to
cock or reset certain types of jars. Set the weight down slowly, avoid-
ing heavy set-down weights or bumping-down action.
As noted, it is important to maintain the assembly in tension at
the stuck point. The main reason for this is that the fish may be moved
upward only a very small amount, such as a fraction of an inch. If
weight is set on the fish, then it may be pushed back down so all of
the benefits gained working the assembly upward to that point are
lost. This occurs most commonly when sticking is caused by friction
between two surfaces, sometimes tapered, such as a bit wedged in a
tapered hole or stuck packer slips.
This can be illustrated by working a hook-wall packer stuck in a
cased hole. The seated packer is prevented from traveling downward
when the slips engage the casing wall. The slip segments are forced
outward by the wedging action of a taper on the packer body. Weight
on the packer body by the running assembly increases the wedging
action. To release the packer, pull the taper upward so the slip seg-
ments retract (Fig. 4-9). Normally, if the taper is moved upward a
short distance, the packer will begin to release. It will release com-
pletely when the taper moves upward a distance equal to the slip
retainer travel.
The significant point is that the wedging taper must move up-
ward a short distance to disengage the slips before the packer is
released. This is done by working the assembly in the upward direc-
tion. If the taper and the mating face on the back of the slip segments
are stuck together, they must be jarred and pulled apart to release the
packer. If the assembly has been worked upward for a period of time
so that the taper is almost ready to release, and then weight is ap-
plied in the downward direction, this can wedge the taper against
the slip segments again. This can require working the assembly up-
ward for another long period to release the packer.
264 Chapter 4
Figure 4-9 Working stuck packers
Note: Packers must be jayed while working.
..'
I,
V.fork up to p\.I:1conE; lrorr. under the

~hp<,. lel!in!) I~CI"1retrRtl i:I",(!r~'~~,*-
1~e tOQI
--------
When the assembly is worked upward, the process should be

continued for at least one and preferably two or more hours before
trying a different method. If it is still stuck, a good alternative is to
work it upward for two hours and then work it either downward or
to obtain movement for one hour. Sometimes alternate by working
up for two hours and working down for one hour. However, it usu-
ally is best to spend more time working the assembly upward, espe-
cially if the sticking situation indicated the need to work upward.
Work Down
It often is necessary to work the assembly down, such as the
initial working procedure when sticking occurs while moving up.
Some reasons for working down include an assembly pulled into a
keyseat or into a caving or sloughing zone, releasing tension pack-
ers, and an alternate procedure when working up is unsuccessful.
Combine torquing with working down in many cases, such as work-
ing down to release keyseated tools.
Working stuck pipe down often is an effective way to release
stuck tools, especially since two of the most common causes of stuck
assemblies are keyseats and caving. In both cases, usually the best
releasing procedure is working downward. Always maintain the stuck
point in compression when working stuck tools downward. Do not
pick up more than the pipe weight to the free point; preferably stay
about 10,000 Ib below.it. The reasoning is the opposite of maintain-
ing the stuck point in tension when working upward.
The working procedure is similar to working up except all forces
are applied in the downward direction. Use similar force levels, in-
creasing them periodically at similar time periods, again with the
forces directed downward. Working forces may be increased at a faster
rate when working some stuck tools, such as tension packers. Use
impact-type loading if regular set-down weight is unsuccessful.
Bumper subs increase the working efficiency, but caution must be
exercised to prevent pipe damage.
If the pipe was worked by another method, such as working up,
then less time may be required working the pipe at a lower force
when starting to work down. Working force and torque may be in-
creased more rapidly to the safe operating maximum.
Final Working Procedure

Final working procedures generally apply when other working
procedures have been unsuccessful. First, insure that the fish has
been worked at the maximum force level for a sustained period in
the direction normally required to release it, such as up for a stuck
bit and down for a tension packer.
Then reverse working directions. In this case, work in the new
direction for a longer period or a combination of longer and harder
compared to working in the prior direction. This helps overcome the
effects of working in the other direction. As an example, consider an
assembly stuck in suspected caving while picking up after a connec-
tion. Assume no movement or circulation, even after attempting to
move it and gain circulation; no circulation partially eliminates wall
sticking. The assembly was worked down for several hours without
releasing.
Next, work it up. In this case, initially working the assembly
down could have wedged it. It is necessary to work it up for some
time to overcome the additional sticking effect that may have been
caused by working it down earlier. Then additional working up is
needed to regain the effect of working it upward.
If this is unsuccessful, and jars and a bumper sub are in the as-
sembly and working, then work it both up and down at maximum
force levels for an extended period. Consider perforating to establish
circulation, but continue working.
266 Chapter 4
If the assembly does not have jars and a bumper sub, then con-
sider backing off and running a fishing string with jars and a bumper
for continued working in a more efficient manner. Generally do not
consider other fishing operations until stuck tools have been worked
extensively with jars and a bumper sub. Exceptions to this include
deteriorating hole conditions and similar situations.
In the final case, work up at maximum force levels. Work con-
stantly, alternating by working down about 10% of the time. Work
constantly for an extended period, at least four hours or more. If this
is unsuccessful, then take other actions such as backing off and run-
ning different fishing tools.
Continued working, including the final working procedure, is
illustrated in the following example.
Stuck Packer and Final Working Procedure

A flowing oil well with 51J2-in.casing was producing through a hook-
wall production packer set at 6,000 ft on 2%-in.. 4.60 Ib/ft. EUE,N80
tubing,minimumtensile strength of 104,000lb. Productivityhad declined,
and the well was to be placed on pump. A workover rig was moved in and
rigged up.The packer circulating valve was opened and the hole circulated
with 10 Iblgal salt water. The packer was jayed and found stuck when pull-
ing started.
The mandrel was free to travel about 21/2ft, so it was easy to deter-
mine the free point of 22,000 lb. which was in agreement with the calcu-
lated free point. The tubing circulated freely. so the packer was stuck in
the packer elements or slip-taper section; it did not have a hydraulic hold-
down. The packer had been in the hole for about three years under rela-
tively light-dutyconditions.The most likelycause of stickingwas either in
the packer elements. possibly due to swelling. or sticking slips in the slip-
taper section. There was a possibility of junk and debris on top of the
packer. but this was unlikely because of the free mandrel travel. Condi-
tions indicated an initial procedure of working upward.
While riggingup and circulating.the packer was pulled to 37.000 lb.
15,000Ib overpull.The assembly was pulled to 47,000 Ib,25,000 Ib overpull.
in a slow constant manner without releasing. It was worked between
22,000-37,000 lb. and overpull of 0-15,000 Ib for one hour. and the pull
increased to 47,000 lb. 25.000-lb overpull for another hour without re-
leasing. The packer was worked with right-hand torque at different times
but was ineffective. Since the packer jayed in the right-hand direction. this
would leave the packer in a position to release if it could be moved.
At this point the packer had been worked about four hours. Equip-
ment to back off the tubing and run a fishing assembly was ordered. while
work continued on the packer until the equipment arrived on location,
Fishin~ Procedures 267

due in about eight hours. The plan was to work the assembly up and down
for about one hour to establish movement, followed by two hours con-
centrated on working up,and then repeating the procedure. It was worked
in this manner for another four hours.
The tubing string was not equipped with jars or a bumper sub. The
only way the tubing could be jarred and bumped was through the 21/2ft of
free mandrel travel. In view of these conditions, the working force level
was increased gradually to 82,00 Ib,60,000 Ib overpull, or about 80% mini-
mum yield.The setdown weight was limited by the weight of the tubing,
and the tubing was bumped downward by slacking off at a moderately fast
rate and setting the full weight of the tubing on the packer. Right-hand
torque also was used intermittently. All of these actions were unsuccess-
ful.
Then the pipe was worked up steadily. After working about 2 hours,
about 8 hours' total working time, the packer began to move very slowly.
It was worked upward about 2 ft in the next hour and about 10ft in 30
minutes when upward movement stopped. The packer was worked about
I hour when it released and pulled freely.
The packer slips probably were in a casing collar when it first stopped
its upward movement. Then the slips retracted and the tool was pulled
without difficulty.The recovered packer was in surprisingly good condi-
tion considering the working time. The rubbers were in almost-new con-
dition, no indication of swelling, and definitely not the cause of sticking.
The packer body was unmarked, almost eliminating junk such as a bolt or
tong die on top of it.The taper on the packer body and the mating face on
the slip segments had a few striations and small indentations about '/64in
deep, such as small pieces of hard metal crushing between the two match-
ing faces.Apparently this froze or locked the taper and mating face on the
slip segments, preventing the slips from retracting, and causing the stuck
packer.
The packer probably could have been released in a shorter working
time with a conventional fishing assembly. However, it was recovered in an
efficient manner, and the overall time spent was less than would have oc-
curred using the conventional back off procedure.
There are many cases of extended working releasing stuck tools

in both open and cased holes, and the procedure is highly recom-
mended.
Working Wirelines
Work wirelines in a similar manner as that for tubulars except
that working options are limited to reciprocating action. Wirelines
without a wireline bumper sub or jars are worked by stretching and
slacking off the line. As with tubulars, the working action is more
268 Chapter 4
effective with a bumper sub or jars so that they can be jarred up and
bumped down. Weight bars increase their efficiency.
Working generally starts with steady upward pulls followed by
slacking off. The usual manner is to begin working the stuck fish at a
lower force level and gradually increase to the maximum safe oper-
ating limit of the wireline. If the fish cannot be worked free, then
release it and try other fishing methods. Shear loose if a shearpin
release is used. Most rope sockets are crippled, so pull the wireline
out ofthe rope socket. Wireline cutters are also available. Then catch
the fish with a wireline overshot run under wire line jars and a bumper
sub, preferably hydraulic, with heavyweight sinker bars. Work to
release the stuck tools. If wireline jars and a bumper were run ini-
tially, work and release the stuck tools. If the stuck tools are not re-
leased, then release from the fish and fish by other methods.
Electrical conduits have a limited resistance to working. Jars and
bumper subs cannot be run below them. In this case, working is lim-
ited to an upward pull and a rapid slack-off. The most common pro-
cedure is to work the stuck fish lightly. If it is not released, then the
wireline is released by pulling it out of the crippled rope socket.
Then the fish is recovered with wireline or tubular fishing assembly.
One method of working wirelines is bumping up or down by
manipulating the wire line in a manner similar to the snap and bounce
procedure for tubulars. First determine the neutral point and mark it
with a flag on the line. Pull the wireline upward, then slack it off
rapidly, and catch it sharply. The elasticity of the line lets the tools
continue traveling downward for a short distance and then snap back
upward. This action jerks the stuck tools either up or down, depend-
ing on where the line flag is stopped in relation to the original refer-
ence point. The action is very efficient at shallow depths of 6,000-
10,000 ft and efficiency decreases with increasing depth because of
the difficulty of catching and releasing the line correctly.
PARTING THE FISH

Frequently, the downhole assembly cannot be released by work-
ing, spotting releasing fluids, or similar procedures. The next step is
to part the stuck assembly so other actions can be taken. The best
method of parting permits catching the fish in the easiest manner,
allows using the fishing tool that will make the strongest connec-
tion, and can be performed in the least time with the least risk.
This is the actual start of the fishing job. Plan the general fishing
procedure before parting the assembly. The plan should include
where, why, and how to part the assembly. Often the main reason for
parting downhole equipment is to run a regular fishing assembly for
more efficient working action.

Before parting the assembly, consider all alternatives to recover
it intact. First and foremost, has the stuck string been worked suffi-
ciently and correctly? A parted assembly guarantees a fishing job. If
it can be released by additional working under safe conditions, do it
and possibly prevent fishing. Before parting the pipe, always con-
sider other alternatives, as described in the section "When and How
to Quit" in Chapter 2. .
Where to Part
Normally part stuck downhole assemblies as deep as possible to
save as much hole as possible if the fishing job is unsuccessful, to
recover the maximum amount of pipe, and to leave a minimum
amount of fish in the hole (Fig. 4-10). This also allows positioning
jars and other tools near the stuck point where they are more effi-
cient. Excluding this, part the fish so that the top is accessible and
can be caught by the catch tool.
Often it is preferable to cut the fish in a section with a smaller
diameter, such as the pipe body. The smaller diameter may be easier
to catch, although there are exceptions. Often, it is easier to cut.
Overs hots used to catch smaller diameters generally are stronger than
those used to catch larger diameter fish.
The position of the top of the fish can be important in catching
it. Whenever possible, part the fish in a straight, in-gauge hole sec-
tion where there is less risk of bypassing the fish. It is more difficult
to catch a fish top that is against the wall of a washed out or out-of-
gauge hole section. Do not part immediately below a casing shoe for
similar reasons. Part the pipe either up in the casing or 50-100 ft
below the bottom of the casing shoe.
As a general rule, part stuck drillpipe at least one or two joints
above the stuck point. Sometimes it is difficult to start outside catch-
tools or washpipe over a fish top parted at, or immediately above the
stuck point. Normally part drillpipe in the open hole leaving 1 joint,
90% free in tension above the stuck point, or 2 joints, 75% free in
tension above the stuck point. Part drill collars in the open hole leav-
ing about one free collar above the stuck point.
Back off stuck test tools, packers, and plugs at the backoff joint,
if available, in both cased and open holes. Pull off at the shear joint
of a stuck tool so equipped. If necessary, cut the pipe about 2-4 ft
above the top of tools fitted with fishing necks. Cut the pipe 8-15 ft
above tools that do not have fishing necks. This leaves space to cut
another clean fish top if the old top becomes worn or damaged. If the
pipe above these tools is stuck, leave free pipe as described above.
270 Chapter 4
Figure 4-10 Where to part the assembly
Out-ol-gauge hole below the casing shoe Crooked-hole section

Wrong Beller Best Wrong BetIer Best
'---7- '- ._---- '- r
/ 7 ,
7
~,/
. ... '-' /
/
/iJ / /
.. . An /
I /1 ///;1 II /
11;/ / II
, , I I I /
f!) )! ) I (((( In (
,-lIC ~ jL ~L. L llJJLLD-
\ Stuck drill Gollars
Stuck at the top 01 the drill collars
Wrong Right Wrong RighI
. .'r ' (
, ( I / '
' ''''--
T
f
1 1--1
I
. TI
Stuck l.:. f .l .J-
Cut above a stuck packer

Cut or back off inside casing Wrong Right
-r"'T~-r
Back off;
r
Cut: leave
']" (
leave one a 6. to 12-ft

! Jj I
--r'
Leave a 6-
T
1 l jOin to 12-ft stub
t..? I
i
'F ! ""b,
I In
StUCk
1
--'- .
.. _./ _J.,~
I
~ .~... j[t
-ll
. r
~....
S'ock
packer.J I,I
J i
jl
if)
-"'~
'-
] .~I/'
!
'

Pipe stuck by sand inside of casing is a special and difficult fish-
ing job. Work longer to free it. It may have to be released by perforat-
ing to establish circulation and wash out the sand. If unsuccessful,
back off or cut, leaving two or more free joints for washing or milling
over.
Backing Off
Backing off is the most common and preferred method of parting
stuck assemblies. This usually leaves three options of catching the
fish listed below in the normal order of preference.
Screwing in - very strong catch

Overshot - strong catch
Spear - moderate-strength catch
Regular Back-off
The regular backoffusing a string shot is the most common back-
off procedure. It is very effective on shouldered tool joints. The im-
pact of the explosion jars the mating tool joint shoulders loose so
they can be rotated to the left and separated. The back-off procedure
also works well with tubing but is less successful with casing. This
is attributed to the type of connection, difficultly in placing left-hand
torque, and the wide distribution of the detonating force. Using larger
charges could be more effective, but there is a higher risk of damag-
ing the casing.
In the ideal case, the tool joint being backed off should be com-
pletely free. This is not always the case, but tool joints have been
backed off that were less than 50% free. This also may account for
the fact that sometimes the assembly will back off from one to three
tool joints above the point where the string shot was detonated.
Run a back-off assembly on a shielded electric conduit. It in-
cludes a color locator, free-point indicator, and the string shot, usu-
ally run on a small-diameter cable or pigtail 10 to 15 ft below the
collar locator. This prevents damaging electronics in the collar loca-
tor and could prevent sticking the string shot tool, which sometimes
happens when the string shot is detonated. In some cases the pigtail
may stick when it is run through the top of the fish because the pig-
tail is too flexible. In this case, run the string shot on a small rod
below the collar locator and bars. If the top of the fish is burred or
uneven, there may be a problem running this string shot into the
fish. One alternative is to use a smaller diameter, longer string shot
with fewer wraps of primer chord. Almost the same amount of jar-
272 Chapter 4
ring force can be obtained. It reduces the diameter of the string shot
and the risk of sticking or hanging it up during running.
The back-off operation includes running the back-off assembly
and locating the free point. Usually determine the free point by chang-
ing tension or torsion in the pipe (Fig. 4-11). Place left-hand torque
in the pipe and work it down. This is more difficult in crooked, de-
viated and deeper holes due to high drag and torque. However, the
torque must be at the tool joint that is to be backed off to be effective.
The amount ofleft-hand torque depends upon pipe size and depth
and strength of the back-off charge. It is available from standard tables
or the company supplying the back-off service. Then locate the next
tool joint or collar above the free point with the collar locator (Fig.
4-12). Position the string shot opposite the tool joint to be backed
off, detonate it, and pull the string shot assembly carefully out of the
hole.
Pull the string shot out of the hole, then rotate the pipe to the left
to unscrew the connection, and pull the pipe out of the hole. If there
is any tendency for the string shot tool to hang up, then unscrew the
pipe and pick it up about 15 ft. Pull the string shot slowly into the
upper pipe section and out ofthe hole. Picking the pipe up about 15
ft leaves clearance for the string-shot tool to enter the upper pipe
section if the tool is in the fish or lower open hole. Sometimes the
pipe unscrews and releases the fish when the string-shot is deto-
nated. Pull the pipe up about 15 ft when this occurs. Then pull the
string-shot assembly carefully, followed by pulling the pipe. Some-
times when the proper equipment is installed, pick up the pipe about
15 ft to allow for circulation before pulling the string shot.
In any case, do not set the pipe back down with the string shot in
the hole. If the pipe parts several joints above the backed-off point
and is picked up and later lowered, the end of the pipe could sit on
top of the fish or go down the side of the fish. The string shot run-
ning line would probably be cut in either case, leaving another fish
in the hole (Fig. 4-13).
It is not uncommon to back off uphole while trying to work left-
hand torque down the hole. This often occurs in crooked and highly
deviated holes with high drag and torque and after working stuck
pipe at higher force levels. The same tool joint may back off again
while placing left-hand torque, even after reconnecting and tighten-
ing the assembly. Therefore, prior to backing off, it often is advisable
to tighten the drillstring using the procedures described in the sec-
tion "Blind Backoff." After tightening all tool joints, work the extra
right-hand torque out by working the pipe before torquing the as-
sembly to the left for the back-off.

Figure 4-11 Freepointing (courtesy Dia-Log)
7060 ft.
78 stretch 7000 ft.
75 torque } 78 stretch
75 torque }
Free point
8250 ft.
77 stretch
{ 72 torque
7100 ft.
837511. 70 stretch
60 stretch 65 torque }
{ 70 torque
8525 It. Free point

7200 ft.
36 stretch 68 stretch
{ 71 torque
58 torque }
r-reo point
7095 h.
82 slfetch \
9000 II.
75 torque J
0 strf.tlc:h
{ o torque 7300 ft.
32 stretch
1100 h.
o streich 17 torque }
o torque }
Pipe Cemented or
Extremely Crooked Hole "Sanded Up" in Hole Mud Stuck Pipe
Normal stretch and torque Normal stretch and Normal stretch and torque
readings lor this string 01 drill lorque readings for this readings for this liming were
pipe were established at 77 string were established established at 78 stretch and
stretch and 72 torque. It at 78 stretch and 75 .,5 torque. Due to congealed
should be noted that at 8375 torque. Free Point mud in the annulus. Free
leet and 8525 leet. torque Indicator readings found Poinl Indicator readings
movement was relatively the stretch and torque gradually decreased with wel!
normal but a decrease in movement decreased depth. Long experience has
stretch movement had abruptly 10 0 at 7100 shown under these conditions
occurred. Free Point depth feet. thereby the tubing can be Backed Off
was determined at 8250 feet establishing the Free at reduced torque and stretch
where pipe was Iree both in Point depth at 7095 readings with the Free Point
stretch and torque. feet. depth being established at
7200 feet.
.------
274 Chapter 4
6450 ft.
78 stretch
6000 It 75 torque }
78 stretch
{ 68 torque
6250 It.
77 stretch
{ 70 torque
Free point
79 stretch
{ 69 torque
6510 ft.
76 stretch
7000 It.
75 torque }
0 stretch
{ o torque Free point
6625 It.
77 stretch
75 torque
7100 It.
o stretch
o torque
6685 ft.
76 stretch
o torque }
Drill Collars Differential Wall E.xtremely Crooked Drill Pipe

Stuck
Normal stretch and torque
Normal stretch and torque readings for this drill pipe
readings lor this drill pipe were established at 77 stretch
were established at 79 and 75 torque. Due to the
stretch, 69 torque. Free Point crooked pipe, torque
Indicator readings at the top movement was highly
01 the drill collars were 0 restricted below 6625 feet
stretch and 0 torque. thereby with no torque movement at
establishing the Free Point 6685 leet alltlOugh stretch
depth at 6995 feet, top of the movement was normal. Free
collars. Point depth was determined
at 6625 feet where torque
movement was sufficient to
accomplish Siring Shot
Back.Off.
-....---------
Fishinf;! Procedures 275

Figure 4-12 Back-off string shot
----- _~--,- ---r--_
Running
line+t-
I. I
I
I
--- Rope socket _mmm+n.n+
--- Collar locator ..nnnn_._n
Sinker bars ------
Carrying cable pig tail

I
I
I
nn Carrying rod
I
I
I
- -7_
/
I I _
-"'::
- - Tooljoint.
Sl
t._
"1
-.1-
f
...
I I-m--mm .. String shot
charge
I I
I
I
I
I I
I
.---.---
.-/-
Siring shot charge

String shot charge on a carrier rod
on a carrier cal)le pig tail
--.--.......--.--....-.--.-..-.........-....-.-..-..-....-..........................................-...-.......................................-.-....................
276 Chapter 4
Figure 4-13 Recovering a string shot
Note: After back-off, if tool is stuck, it may be caught as in figure a.
Pick up pipe about 15 ft as in figure b so that the tool is free to
enter it. Pipe back-offs uphole can occur before or after detonating
the string shot and frequently occur while placing left-hand torque.
Pull the string shot tool from the hole before lowering the pipe. If
the pipe is lowered, it can sit on the box as in figure e or bypass the
box as in figure f. The running line will probably be cut in either
case, leaving another fish in the hole (inside pipe).
.........-......................-.......-..-...-..................................................................................................................................................................................................
Before After backoff

backoff
Pipe backs off up hole
,Jr
:'I
(
I
I I
I Ii
~) I
I
1
I
a b c d f)
-.....-..--.-.--.--.....-.-..-.-.----
Infrequently, the assembly may rotate while tightening the tool

joints. If this happens, rotate the assembly to the right and work it. If
it rotates, there is a good chance of releasing it.
String shots may be effective in releasing tools stuck in casing.
In one case, a mill stuck while cleaning inside the top of a liner. It
was worked several hours without being released. A string shot was
detonated opposite the mill but did not jar it loose. Later, while torqu-
ing to the left preparatory to backing off, the mill released and was
recovered.

Outside Back-off
Back-off shots can be used on the outside of the tool joint or
connection to be released, but are less effective. Nevertheless, they
have been used externally to back off tubing, drillpipe, and casing
sizes up to 5%-in. The overall procedure is like an inside back-off
except the string shot is positioned on the outside of the tool joint or
connection. .
Outside back-offs are seldom used because of the many disad-
vantages. Charge distribution is not as effective because of the
nonconcentric configuration, especially in larger tubulars. It is diffi-
cult to run and position the string shots. It usually is difficult to run
into and down the annular space because of space limitations, the
string shot will not fall freely, and there is a high risk of sticking the
tool. It usually cannot be sealed at the surface because of the
nonconcentric configuration. There also is a risk of collapsing the
casing. The outside back-off generally is restricted to shallow depths
and low pressure conditions.
Blind Back-off
The blind back-off is a procedure for backing off the pipe with-
out a string shot and by manipulating the pipe from the surface. The
procedure is applicable to drillpipe and tubing and has been used
with sucker rods. It is seldom used except in special circumstances.
There are occasions when the conventional methods of parting
the downhole assembly cannot be used. The most common situation
is when the inside of the pipe is plugged and an outside cutter can-
not be run because of the lack of clearance. Common situations in-
clude plugged drillpipe or tubing, and annular space too small to
run an outside cutter. Blind back-offs are moderately effective under
favorable conditions and when applied correctly.
Basically the assembly is rotated to the left until it unscrews and
releases. Normally the assembly would be expected to back off at
any point, or at least high in the hoie. However, if the technique is
applied correctly, the pipe can probably be parted within a few tool
joints or connections of the desired point. The procedure takes ad-
vantage of the fact that a tool joint in either tension or compression
is more difficult to rotate as compared to one at the neutral point.
First, find the free point with conventional pipe-stretch data. Then
tighten the tool joints to ensure that all the connections are tight. Do
this by applying maximum right-hand torque while gradually mov-
ing the free point of the pipe from the surface, or high in the hole,
downward. This assumes obtaining optimum tightening with the tool
joint at the free-point position. Later back-off operations are con-
ducted with all joints in tension, except those in the section to be
backed off. The tightening procedure IS VERYIMPORTANT, so take
278 Chapter 4
time and do it correctly. Several hours may be required for a moder-
ate depth workstring.
Start tightening the tool joints by setting down the maximum
safe set-down weight. In cased holes this may be the full weight of
the pipe to the free point and should approach that for open holes.
To some extent, do not worry about damaging the lower pipe. If the
back-off is not successful, the pipe will probably require milling.
Apply right-hand torque to the maximum safe limit. Normally apply
and hold this torque with pipe tongs. Pull the pipe upward about
10,000 Ib, or about 10-15% of the initial free pipe weight, over the
initial set-down pipe weight. Repeat this five or ten times. If the torque
reduces, indicating the joints are tightening, then restore it to the
maximum level, and repeat the working procedure until there is no
indication of additional tightening of the tool joints.
Next pull the pipe upward an additional 10,000 Ib, or another
10-15% of the initial free-pipe weight, and repeat the working pro-
cedure, replacing lost torque as necessary. It may be necessary to
change the position of the pipe tong to allow for picking the pipe up
higher in successive working. Use anoth~r tong such as an inverted
back-up tong. It is best not to release the torque until an the pipestring
has been tightened.
Continue the working procedure, increasing the pipe pick-up
weight in similar increments and restoring torque as needed until all
of the tool joints in the pipe string have been tightened. This is at a
pick-up weight of about 10,000 Ib over that necessary to move the
free point to the desired back-off point. Then release the right-hand
torque and work the pipe, with the hook unlatched, to remove all
excess right-hand torque. Work the pipe from the set-down weight to
an overpull of at least 50,000 Ib above the free-point weight.
Next, place and work left-hand torque down. The surface torque
will decrease as the left-hand torque is worked down. Use this as a
guide of how long to work the pipe before adding more torque. There
is a risk of backing off high with associated pipe movement or jump.
Tie the elevator latch securely closed so it will not snap open, allow-
ing the pipe to drop.
Work left-hand torque down by picking up until there is about
10,000-20,000 Ib of overpull at the point to be backed off. Turn the
workstring about one turn to the left. Work the pipe from about 10,000
Ib of overpull up to 30,000-50,000 Ib for about 15 minutes, or longer
if the hole is deviated or crooked. Add another turn ofleft-hand torque
and continue working. Continue adding torque and working the pipe
until about 1% rounds of torque per 1,000 ft of depth, more for smaller
tubulars, has been added. The actual number of rounds depends on
p'ipe weight, depth, hole deviation, and dogleg. Keep the free point
in tension while working the left-hand torque down.
nshing Procedures 279

Start the back-off by continued working, gradually decreasing
the overpull from about 30,000 Ib of overpull down to 5,000 Ib or
less. In extreme cases it may be necessary to work the pipe at lower
weights, down to setting about 5,000 Ib of weight on the stuck point.
If the pipe does not back off, add left-hand torque and work the pipe
until it backs off. The pipe may back off too high, as indicated by the
weight indicator. Then' reconnect by screwing back in, and repeat
the entire procedure. spending more time tightening, even includ-
ing bumping, to ensure that the tool joints are fast.
This procedure works well with small, 31f2-in.drillpipe tool joints
and tubing connections. It may even damage some tubing connec-
tions. Larger tool joints such as for 4lJ2-in. drillpipe may require bump-
ing, especially if the pipe failed to back off correctly after the regular
torquing procedure.
Bumping or jamming is a procedure for manipulating the pipe at
the surface in order to tighten loose tool joints in the hole. Use it
carefully and with caution. Torque the pipe to the right to or near the
maximum and hold it with the tongs. Pull the handle of the tongs
through an arch of about 100-130 with a tong or jerk line. Release
the tongs rapidly so they swing backward and bump against a backup
post or tong safety line. If a safety line is used to catch the tongs
when bumping, install an extra line as a safety measure. The bump-
ing action coupled with the twisting momentum of the assembly
imparts a sharp right-hand torque that further tightens the tool joints.
Repeat the procedure multiple times and at different weights as nec-
essary to increase right-hand torque. Do not rush the procedure, and
ensure that all tool joints are tight. Bumping may not jam the tool
joints as tightly as the regular connection procedure, but it is a good
substitute under these conditions. .
A rotary "jam" procedure is similar but somewhat less effective.

Torque the drillpipe tightly with the rotary, normally with slips set
and handles tied for safety, and replace the "slip cut" joint later if
necessary. Release the torque rapidly in short steps, catching the pipe
with the rotary clutch or brake. Repeat the procedure multiple times,
often 15 to 30 or more, especially if the pipe tightens. Use MAXI-
MUM torque.
Sometimes a joint that is not located correctly will back off sev-
eral times. Clean the lubricant out of the tool joint with mud by con-
necting and disconnecting it several times to increase the friction.
Screw the joints back together lightly and circulate slowly for 5-10
minutes. If the pipe does not circulate, work the pipe lightly and
pressurize from 300 to 500 psi; restore pressure as needed. Maintain
280 Chapter 4
pressure for 5-15 minutes to remove allpipe dope. Repeat one of the
jamming procedures.
Another aid is "burring" the tool-joint threads slightly to increase
the tightening effect at the tool joint. The procedure is subject to
depth and drag. Rotate drillpipe slowly in the left-hand direction

while setting a lightweight of about 5,000 Ibs on the tool joint. Ro-
tate for 10 to 20 turns; then repeat one of the jamming procedures.
Cutting
In many situations the most practical method of parting the
downhole assembly is to cut it. Select an applicable cutting tool as
described in the section "Cutters and Perforators" in Chapter 3.
Chemical Cutter
Chemical cutters are preferred over mechanical cutters because
they are faster to run, normally provide a positive cutting action,
and often involve less risk. Use the correct standoff to cut efficiently.
Chemical cutters normally are used to cut smaller tubulars such as
tubing. They can cut larger tubulars such as drill pipe in special cases.
The chemical cutter usually makes a clean cut, so the fish can be
caught with an overshot without dressing off the top.
Observe the same precautions when running a chemical cutter
as for all wireline tools. The tool has a relatively full-gauged diam-
eter. Run a screen if necessary to prevent sticking the tool. Equalize
the pressure between the inside and the outside of the pipe to be cut.
Otherwise, the cutter may be blown uphole and tangle the running
line, causing a fishing job. In a few cases it may be blown downhole,
parting the running line.
Cutting Tubing with a Chemical Cutter

. A submersible pump run on 2'l'8-in.tubing was pumpingat 10,000ft
inside 7-in. casing.The pump failed and could not be circulated out of the
hole. It was stuck and could not be recovered with a wireline overshot.
The packer was stuck and could not be pulled. The tubing could not be
backed off conveniently because of the electrical conduit clamped to the
side of the tubing. A chemical cutter cut the tubing about 3 ft above the
first connection above the pump. After pulling the tubing with the electri-
cal conduit. the pump, cavity. and packer were recovered without diffi-
culty by catching the tubing stub with an overshot run on tubing.

Tubing plugs frequently are run in packer mill-out extensions to
isolate a lower zone during completion. Normally open the lower
zone later by pulling the blanking plug. It may be difficult to pull
due to sticking or sand accumulation on top of the plug. A tubing
cutter can cut the tubing immediately above the plug to open the
lower zone if perforatipg the extension is either not possible or un-
desirable. Ensure that the pressures are equalized before cutting.
In one case similar to that described above, the blanking plug
was set immediately below the mill-out extension, which had a
slightly larger inside diameter than the regular tubing. The chemical
cutter could not cut the mill-out extension efficiently. The small in-
side diameter in the regular tubing prevented running a larger out-
side diameter cutter to give the correct standoff in the extension.
Therefore it was necessary to kill the well and pull the packer. Pre-
vent this problem by setting the blanking plug below a tubing nipple
at least 6 ft long that has the same inside diameter as the tubing in
the running string.
The chemical cutter also can be used in special cases to cut
drillpipe in a fishing operation, as illustrated in the following ex-
ample.
Cut Drillpipe with a Chemical Cutter

An on-structUre development well had 9%-in. surface casing set at
1,500 ft and was drilling in an 8%-in. hole. The area was known for prob-
lem formations, lost circulation, and shallow gas flows. The hole caved,
sticking the drilling assembly and shutting off circulation while making a
connection at 9,000 ft.
The pipe was worked for 8 hours without obtaining any movement. A
free-point indicator was run and the pipe was found to be free to 5,000 ft.
The assembly was worked another 2 hours. During this period, an addi-
tional 1.000 ft of drillpipe became stuck, indicating continued caving.The
assembly was backed off at 4,000 ft and pulled. The fish was caught and
worked for about 12 hours, and another 2,000 ft of fish were worked free,
backed off, and recovered. Three back-off shots were needed because it
was difficult to work sufficient left-hand torque to the free point due to
caving.
The fish was caught with a screw-in sub and worked free to about
7,000 ft by stretch measurements.A free-point indicator was run but could
not enter the fish.The top was probably plugged with caving that occurred
on the cleanout trip.The top of the fish could not be opened with weighted
sinker bars and pressure surging. It was opened with a string shot, but
circulation could not be established because of caving.The pipe was worked
for another 2 hours. A free-point indicator found the fish 25-50% free
282 Chapter 4
above 7,000 ft and 25% free at 7,000 ft.The fish was perforated at 7,000 ft,
and circulation was established slowly while working the pipe. It was worked
free to 7,000 ft when it was necessary to shut down and repair surface
flow lines.
After a 6-hour shutdown, the fish was worked and circulated. A free
point indicated that the fish was 50% free in stretch at 7,000 ft and 25%
free at 7,500 ft, no movement in torsion. The fish was worked an addi-
tional I6 hours and became 50% free in stretch at 8,000 ft, with no rota-
tion and about 75% free in rotation at 7,000 ft.
A badlycavingshale from 6,000 to 8,000 ft prevented backing off be-
low about 7,000 ft because caving prevented working down left-hand
torque. If the pipe could be cut deeper, there was a good chance of recov-
ering that part of the fish through the caving shale section.
A chemical cutter was run. The chemical cutter would probably not
make a complete cut through the pipe because of the incorrect stand-off,
but a partial cut was expected. Several cuts were to be made if necessary.
The cuts could not be positioned precisely over each other, but an effort
would be made to position them as closely as possible. In this manner the
pipe could be parted at the weak point by tension.
The first cut was made at 8,000 ft, and the pipe was worked for 2
hours without being released. A second cut was made with the tool posi-
tioned as near the first cut as possible. The pipe was then worked an
additional 2 hours without being released. A third cut was made in a simi-
lar manner and, after the pipe was worked for I hour, movement was
observed. About 2 hours were required to work the first 1,000 ft of pipe
out of the caving hole section before it could be pulled freely.A cleanout
trip was made, the mud and hole were conditioned, and the remainder of
the fish was recovered in a conventional manner.
Using the chemical cutter in this case expedited the fishing operation.
Jet Cutter
Jet cutters are inside cutters run on a wireline. They cut with a
specially shaped charge. They are positioned and used much like
chemical cutters. Chemical cutters usually are preferred over jet cut-
ters because they make a smoother cut and thoro is less risk of casing
damage in a cased hole.
Mechanical Cutter
Mechanical cutting tools cut and release a section of tubulars
and mill or cut out a section of casing. They are used most frequently
as inside cutters to cut casing and as outside cutters to cut tubing.
Most tools are self-starting in that the knives, cutting bars, or
blades are forced outward, away from the cutting tool body while it

is being rotated, inward for an outside cutter. When these blades
contact a metal surface, they begin cutting and continue until the
blade is horizontal. Depending on the type of tool, it is then moved
either up or down by moving the downhole assembly to continue
the cutting action. Most cutters are designed so the pipe is cut com-
pletely when the cutter blades are horizontal.
Mechanical cutters. are relatively simple to operate. One of the
main problems is that the knives or blades may be easy to break and
must be handled carefully. Another problem is the size of the tools.
Close tolerances are often encountered, and this frequently limits
use of these tools.
Explosives
Sometimes downhole assemblies are parted with explosives such
as dynamite. This is most common when parting and pulling casing
during abandonment operations. The explosive often damages one
or two joints. However, any attempt to recover the remaining pipe
below the shot point requires extensive milling and fishing.
Shear Rams
Shear rams can part the pipestring when the pipe must be dropped
deliberately, usually under emergency conditions. They are installed
as part of the regular blowout preventers.
Shear rams are seldom used except in emergency conditions. One
example might be a situation where a well blew out during a trip.
Further assume the drill pipe rams and bag-type preventer were ei-
ther inoperative, could not hold pressure, or were leaking and could
not be changed. If there were no way to pump into the well and
control or kill it, the shear rams could be closed, cutting and drop-
ping the pipe and sealing the hole.
If the preventer stack did not include shear rams, and the blind
rams were operative, the elevator latch could be knocked open with
a sledgehammer to drop the assembly so the blind rams could be
closed.
Dropping the pipe is a drastic action with severe consequences.
It might be justified under pending blowout conditions where there
is no other method of shutting-in the well. Almost any condition or
situation is better than an uncontrolled blowout.
CATCHING THE FISH

Catching the fish normally involves selecting the appropriate
method and tool. Four basic methods of catching a fish are swallow-
ing, screwing in, outside catch, and inside catch (Fig. 4-14). In most
cases the same catch tools can be used in the open or cased hole.
However, there is a higher risk of problems when catching the fish in
open holes due to out-of-gauge or crooked holes.
284 Chapter 4
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ConventIOn a! Spear insKje Junk Inside Outside Conventional . Die c

screw.in of washover of a Junk pipe cutter, overshot
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If there is a choice of which method to use, the main criteria are
ease of taking hold of the fish, strength of the connection to the fish,
and tool strength. Always select the method that will give the stron-
gest connection between the fish and the fishing string and fulfill
the requirements of the particular job. This usually, but not always,
is the strongest tool available. For example, a fish that can be caught
with an overshot can often be caught with a die collar. Both tools are
equally strong, but the overshot connection to the fish is much stron-
ger than the die collar connection.
Have accurate measurements of the length of the fishing string
and the depth to the top of the fish. This ensures going over the fish
carefully and prevents running the tools down beside the fish for an
excessive distance if the fish top is laid over in an enlarged hole
section. This normally does not occur in cased holes except when
the diameter of the fish and fishing assembly combined are smaller
than the ID of the casing. Check the depth to the top of the fish by
running an induction log in the open hole if there is any question
about the measurement to the top of the fish.
Keep the top of the fish clean. Minimize rotation in the 30-45 ft
interval above the fish. Try to circulate the pipe down the last 5-10 ft
at a reduced rate. Tag the fish slowly with about 5,000 Ibs, which is
the average maximum weight used to catch it. If the fish is going to
move, learn it now. Circulate 2 or 3 minutes, continue circulating
while pulling up slowly about 30-45 ft above the fish, and then cir-
culate normally. After circulating the hole clean, reduce the circula-
tion rate, lower and tag the top of the fish lightly, and pull out of the
hole.
Various tools may be added to the catching assembly. These are
not used too often, except when there are direct indications that they
are needed. They increase the number of connections and, like all
tools with working parts, are subject to failure. Also insure that the
mechanical motions to operate the tools are compatible with the mo-
tions expected to be needed to catch, work and release the fish.
A safety joint may be run immediately above the catch tool. Un-
der optimum conditions, this permits releasing and catching the fish
again as necessary. This can be an advantage when the fish must be
released quickly due to conditions such as caving formations and
high-pressure zones. Other reasons are to pull the workstring to re-
place the jars and bumper sub if they fail and to check the connec-
tions on the assembly.
A circulating sub may be run above the catch tool for circulating
near the bottom of the fishing assembly. This is a special advantage
if formations cave around the fishing string. Circulating fluids usu-
ally carry caving material out of the hole and prevent sticking the
tools.
286 Chapter 4
Cleaning inside the Fish
Cleaning inside the fish is a higher risk procedure. The fish must
be open to conduct operations inside it. These include running a
free point, backing off, and perforating for circulation (Fig. 4-15).
Common causes of a plugged fish-top are drill cuttings, caving, or
sloughing. These frequently bridge in the top of the fish. Prevent this
by limiting cleanout procedures immediately above the fish. Long
bridges can be very difficult to clean out.
Damaged Fish Top

Damaged fish-tops range from minor burring to severe damage,
such as a twist-off. The condition may be indicated by the appear-
ance of the break or parted section on the bottom of the recovered
pipe. This may also indicate the type of catch to use. It may be veri-
fied with an impression block, but these often give questionable re-
sults.
Normally cut a clean fish-top if there is an obstruction inside
caused by the condition of the metal. This often occurs if the top of
the fish is slightly flattened or a small piece of the metal wall is
rolled inward. If the top of the fish was originally cut or milled off
correctly, it can be damaged by setting a bit or mill down with too
much weight. It may be partially plugged by cleaning out too close
to the top of the fish.
An overshot may pass over a partially damaged fish-top and catch
it below the top. However, the top of the fish could be restricted and
prevent running close-tolerance tools inside the fish. If this occurs,
cut or mill a clean top so that tools can pass through the fish top.
Cleaning
Plugging in the top of the fish prevents running stuck pipe logs,
back-off shots, perforating to establish circulation, and other releas-
ing procedures. An important factor in cleaning out the top of the
fish is its accessibility, such as the top ofthe fish laid over in a washed-
out hole section.
The most common blockage that occurs in the top of the fish is a
cuttings bridge. The thickness of the bridge inside the fish can range
from a few inches to a long interval. Shorter bridges 1 to 3 ft long
sometimes can be cleaned out, but longer bridges are more difficult.
This emphasizes the importance of circulating the hole clean and
using a 'minimum number of trips to prevent knocking additional
material off the walls of the hole.
There are more options for cleaning out the bridge if the fish is
caught with a full-opening catch. The bridge may be removed by
surging or pumping it out with low pump pressure if the lower part

Figure 4-15 Cleaning out inside a fish
Note: Other methods that apply, subject to general well and oper-
ating conditions, include drillingand washing out with slim-hole tubing
or washing out with coil tubing.Alternative procedures may include
making an outside cut to remove the bridged section or mill off the
top of the fish.
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288 Chapter 4
of the fish is open and free to circulate. Sometimes a combination of
low pump pressure and jarring may reduce the stability of the bridge
so the cuttings either fall, settle, or can be pumped out. The I;>ridge
may be removed by spudding with sinker bars run on a wireline.
The bottom sinker bar should be pointed and as small in diameter as
possible.
String shots may be used and are more effective with shorter
bridges. A relatively large string shot or less commonly, a small junk
shot can be used. If the fish is caught with an overshot, a smaller
string shot must be used since the method is similar to the proce-
dure sometimes used to release an overshot stuck on the fish.
Maintain full tension on the overshot, and use a smaller string-shot
detonated immediately above the bridge. With the overshot in full
tension, the shot usually will not break or shatter the slips or grapples,
causing the overshot to lose its hold on the fish. Note that plugged
jet bit nozzles can be blown out with a string shot in a similar man-
ner.
Other methods that apply, subject to general well and operating
conditions, include drilling and washing out with small diameter
tubing. Coiled tubing has been used but its use is limited because of
the difficulty of running the tubing and the possibility of sticking.
Another method of cleaning the fish top is to run a short joint of
washpipe with a stinger centered inside and connected for circula-
tion. The washpipe guides over the fish, and the stinger enters the
fish to wash out the bridge. The main disadvantage of this procedure
is that the relatively weak, small-diameter stinger breaks easily.
One of the final alternatives for removing bridges is to cut off the
top of the fish. Depending upon the condition of the top of the fish,
it may be necessary to mill a smooth top so the cutters can be run
over it without damaging them. Another difficulty is that the length
of bridged section is unknown. It commonly is 10-20 ft long but can
be much longer. There also are the normal risks and problems of
making an outside cut. A major consideration is that the excised sec-
tion may fall downhole and beside the first fish. A blind back-off
may be applicable.
Screw In
Screwing in is the most common method of catching a fish. It
provides a very strong connection and engages the fish relatively
easily. Normally catch the fish by screwing in if it was released by
backing off.
In operation, connect a tool joint by mating the one on top of the
fish to a fishing assembly and run it into the hole. Stop about 25 ft
above the fish and circulate and condition the hole. Then lower the
fishing assembly slowly, usually with slow rotation and reduced cir-

culation, thereby engaging the fish. There are several surface indica-
tions when the fish is engaged. The weight indicator shows a small
weight loss as the tool sits on top of the fish. Increased torque indi-
cates that the fish has been engaged. The pump pressure may in-
crease, sometimes to a high pressure if the fish is plugged.
Use a notched screw-in sub if there is a problem catching the
fish. Tighten the connection with a safe, maximum right-hand torque.
In some cases the connection may be bumped. If the connection is
made tightly and must be released later, normally back it off with a
string-shot. Running a back-off sub may help in this case.
A correctly made screw-in connection has about the same strength
as a regular connection and normally holds relatively high pressure.
This allows using pressure to establish circulation through the fish
and may help release it. After catching the fish and tightening the
connection, test the catch by pulling 10,000-30,000 Ib over the weight
of the fishing string. Then begin working to recover the fish.
Swallowing
Swallowing the fish is a good method of catching and recovering
small fish. The fishing tool passes over and completely encloses the
fish. In this manner the fish is caught and retrieved with a minimum
risk of losing it while tripping out.
The most common tool for swallowing the fish is a junk basket,
usually employed for catching smaller fish. The outside cut can be
another swallowing operation. Run the cutter down over the fish,
cut it and recover the cut section inside the cutter barrel, held by the
cutter knives. However, the cutter knives are relatively fragile and
may break under a heavy load. Another type of swallowing tool is
wash over pipe fitted with an inside spear, as described in the sec-
tion "Washing Over."
Outside Catch
The two main methods of making an outside catch are the die
collar and overshot. Die collars are a specialized outside catch and
seldom used because oftheir disadvantages, as described in Chapter
3.
Overshots are widely flexible. They can be dressed with slips, or
spiral or basket grapples. All are commonly called slips or overshot
slips. They are available in a wide range of sizes and lengths, and
multiple tools can catch one of several sizes of fish in one run. They
may be fitted with a packoff for pressurization, which may help con-
trol well pressures and be instrumental in releasing the fish. There
are different types of shoes.
290 Chapter 4
The overshot is the most common, widely used outside catch
tool. Excluding slim-hole overshots, the standard overshot is approxi-
mately as strong as the equivalent tool joint strength for the screw-in
connection. The fine thread connections in the upper overshot body
are possible weak points, but overall the tool is strong.
The overshot connection to the fish is slightly less reliable and
somewhat less flexible for working the fish than the screw-in con-
nection. For example. the overshot cannot be bumped or jarred down,
especially while holding right-hand torque, since this is the conven-
tional manner of releasing it. There is little risk of braking the slips
and releasing the fish during severe operations and under heavy loads.
Normally, though, the overshot will hold as much or more than the
remainder of the fishing assembly.
The overshot slips must be sized properly. Several trips may be
required to change the slips for other sizes if the size of the fish is
unknown. When in doubt about sizes, usually run a slightly larger-
size slip. If the slip is too small, it can break while trying to run the
overshot over the top ofthe fish, leaving additional junk in the hole.
There also is a risk of breaking the slips with a rough fish top or by
not catching it correctly.
When the top of the fish is rough, it may be necessary to mill or
cut a clean, smooth top so the overshot can go over and engage the
fish. This is not a problem inside casing or in a gauge hole. But, it
may be more difficult in crooked or out-of-gauge holes because of
the difficulty of going over the fish.
Normal circulation is through a regular overshot body, around
the shoe and uphole. This reduces the risk of sticking the fishing
assembly and provides better control of exposed high-pressure zones.
Limit circulating for long periods or reduce tho rate to prevent fluid
erosion in the overshot slip section. This can weaken the slips and
release the fish but normally is not a major problem. The circulating
overshot allows circulating through the fish, which may help release
it. The pressure seal can be damaged by a rough fish top (Fig. 4-16).
Normally run the overshot on the bottom of a fishing assembly.
Stop it about 25 ft above the fish, and circulate and condition the
hole as needed. Then lower the overshot slowly down over the top
of the fish, rotating slowly. After catching the fish, test the catch by
pulling 10,000-30,000 Ib over the weight of the fishing string. This
also sets the slips. Then work the fish to release it.
Normally release the overshot by holding right-hand torque while
bumping down. It may be hard to release, especially after heavy pull-
ing and jarring. If the overshot cannot be bumped and torqued loose,
then try releasing it by detonating a string-shot opposite the slips
with some weight set down on the overshot.
Fi.c;hinf7 Prn(;fldllrfl.C; 291

Figure 4-16 Circulating vs. regular overshot
Note: A similar type of circulating pattern is obtained in pipe spears
run with and without packoffs.
Fishing assembly
Overshot
-- I I I' -'f'" Packoff
I I Slips
I I
I I
I
Fish
I I
I I
. I I
~-
Circulating Fish caught with the overshot
above the fish Without packoff With packot!
The methods of catching a fish generally are the same in both

open and cased holes under normal conditions. However, open holes
may be crooked or out-of-gauge, which can increase the difficulty of
catching the fish (Fig. 4-17). For a small misalignment, use a mule
shoe or a cut lip guide run below the overshot to help catch the fish.
Use a wall hook for a greater misalignment. For a relatively high
292 Chapter 4
degree of misalignment, run the overshot below a bent joint, bent
sub, or knuckle joint. In extreme cases of misalignment, run the over-
shot below a highly bent joint or place a pup joint extension be-
tween the overshot and the knuckle joint or bent sub.
Figure 4-17 Horizontal extension of fishing tools
Conventional Moderate extension
a b c
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Long to extreme extension
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(b) Cut lip guide
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(e) Wall hook catches below tile top of the fish, rolling
it into the overshot as the fishing assembiy is rotated.
\
~
.
The wall hook must be rotated slowly, especially the "'< )

longer wall hooks, since there is a risk of breaking ofllhe ~
bottom of the hook.
(d) Bent pin with mule shoe guide. May be subject to limited duty.
(e) Knuckle joint. May be subject to limited duty.
(f) Knuckle joint with a wall hook
(g) Knuckle joint or bent pin with an extension sub
(11)Bent sub or bent joint
----...............-..........................................................-...-...........
pjshing Procedures 293

The fish is difficult to catch when there is misalignment as that
just described (Fig. 4-18). However, in some cases it may be difficult
to determine whether this is due to a crooked or out-of-gauge hole or
because of a damaged fish top. The corrective procedures for these
two situations are decidedly different.
Figure 4-18 Recovering a fish in a washout

Note: In the correct procedure, the operator recognized that the
fishing tool was bypassing the top of the fish. If the top of the fish is
ragged and must be dressed off, use a mill that will not have a side
cutting action.
.--..-..-.---.---.
f--Fish in hole..r- Correct procedure +- Wrong procedure j
Some fish are difficult to catch because of the position of the top
of the fish, such as the top laid over in an enlarged section. At other
times, catching the fish is difficult due to the condition of the top of
the fish. If the top is bent or flattened. it may not enter the fishing
tool. Either cut it off or mill a new top. When the fish is hard to
catch, especially when the reason is unknown, it is important to try
to catch the fish' in the normal manner by using a wall hook, bent
joint, bent sub, etc. The action of the fishing assembly, impression
blocks, and the appearance ofthe recovered piece of pipe above the
break or sometimes helps determine whether the fish can be caught
with regular fishing tools.
294 Chapter 4
Consider a situation where the fish top is laid over in a washed-
out or crooked-hole section, and this is either unknown or not recog-
nized. Several unsuccessful trips may be made to try and catch the
fish, based on the assumption that the fish top is in a straight, in-
gauge hole section. Then it may be assumed that the fish top is dam-
aged. The next apparently logical step is to clean the top of the fish
by milling. A flat-bottom mill may be run, bypassing the fish top a
short distance and cutting through the side of the fish. The upper,
excised section falls and lodges beside the fish, leaving two fish in
the hole and creating a difficult fishing situation.
The first preventive measure is to KNOW the length of the mill-
ing assembly and the correct depth to the top of the fish. Run an
induction log if there is any question. Run a skirted mill that does
not have any cutting action or hard facing, on the side or the bottom
of the skirt. This will not cut the fish if it bypasses the top. If the
skirted mill does not go over the top of the fish, then run a bent joint,
bent sub, or knuckle joint to help guide it over the fish.
The importance of catching the fish without milling is illustrated
in the following example.
Hitting an Obstruction on a Trip

A wildcat well had IOY4-in.intermediate casing set in a straight hole at
13,500 ft and was drilling a 9Y2-in.hole in hard formations at 16,000 ft
with 16 Ib/gal mud.The hole below the casing was straight with a deviation
of less than rll 00 ft and a dogleg of less than 101100 ft. At 15,000 ft
inclination began to increase and was corrected with a packed pendulum.
While tripping in the hole on a bit trip. the drilling assembly ran into
an obstruction at 14,200 ft, 700 ft below the IO%-in.casing shoe and then
dropped free. There was no noticeable change in the pipe weight. but this
was not definitive. The pipe hit hard and solid. even though it was being
run in the hole at the proper speed. and the driller reacted quickly.After
checking the mechanical condition of the equipment. preparations were
made to continue running in the hole.
The assembly was lowered 20 ft slowly and stopped. After picking the
assembly up several times and touching the obstruction at t,he same point.
it was rotated slowly past the point about 5 ft with increasing torque.The
assembly would rotate freely after it was picked up. so it was pulled.
The drill-collar section had parted, leaving the bit. junk sub, angle-
measuring tool, shock sub. two drill collars. integral blade stabilizer (IB5),
short drill collar and an IB5with a box looking up, and a broken pin in the
IBS box. The total was 92 ft of fish.The shock sub was run higher in the

drill collar assembly than normal to obtain the correct spacing on the
pendulum.
An overshot dressed to catch the fishing neck on the IBS was run in
the hole but would not take hold of the fish. It would torque through the
10-ft section much like the early action of the parted assembly. A slick
induction tool located the top of the fish at 14,I00 ft and ran about 10ft
past the top of the fish. This and earlier pipe action indicated the top of
the fish had laid over in a washed out or out-of-gauge hole section.
The overshot was run on a bent sub in a standard fishing assembly and
measured in the hole. The hole was circulated and the assembly lowered.
until it began to take a slight amount of weight, indicating that it was touch-
ing bottom or an obstruction. This occurred at about the same point where
the other tools had stopped, 15 ft below the top of the fish by pipe and
wireline measurements.
The fishing assembly was picked up 30 ft, and a reference point was
marked on the north side of the assembly. It was then lowered slowly to
about 14,\ 00 ft, picked up, and rotated 15, and the procedure was re-
peated. When the assembly was lowered in the 210 direction, it seemed
to touch something and jump off.The lowering procedure was repeated
several times in this area, and the overshot went over and grasped the
fish.The overshot was seated and the fish jarred about three times before
it came free. It was chained out and recovered intact.
The top IBS was marked on the side, indicating that the pipe and
fishing assembly had been down beside the fish. The pin Dutchman indi-
cated a new break. The remainder of the fish was normal. The bit was
intact, and the cones rolled freely. If the bit had hit a ledge, one or more
cones probablywould have been sheared.
The cause of the fishing job is unknown. The hole was straight, veri-
fied by later open-hole logs, with a minor washout where the fish was
recovered. Also, normally the fish would fall to the bottom of the hole,
which did not happen. The bit or possibly the IBS probably hit a small
ledge.The pin broke, and the top ofthe fish laid over into a small washed-
out section. The pipe then bypassed the top of the fish.The fish was not
stuck tightly and came free easily. If a mill had been run to clean off the top
of the fish, it would have cut down beside the fish and possibly severed it,
increasing the difficulty of the fishing job. Overall, the fishing job was sat-
isfactory.
Inside Catch
The basic inside-catch fishing tools are spears and taper taps.
They are used mainly instead of an outside catch tool when the clear-
ance outside the fish is too small for an outside catch tool and when
they are strong enough to hold and recover large-diameter fish. Taper
296 Chapter 4
taps usually are used to catch smaller, lightweight fish. They are
seldom used, except in special cases because of the disadvantages
described in Chapter 3.
Smaller spears catch tubing, smaller drillpipe and lightweight
fish. They are relatively weak compared to the corresponding out-
side-catch. The inside diameter is small, so running wireline tools
through them is restricted. Larger spears catch large drillpipe and
casing. The casing spear is a very strong tool. Most fishing with spears
is for casing and large tubulars. Spears overall are less strong com-
pared to overshots and screw-in catches. So, the overall working ac-
tion is somewhat restricted.
Spears use inverted slips. To release the spear, the body of the
tool must be moved down a short distance relative to the slips so
they can retract and release the fish. There can be a higher risk of
being unable to release tools with inverted slips compared to those
with slips run in a normal position that release by picking upward.
In some cases, especially with a smaller spear run on larger diameter
pipe, it may be run too deeply into the fish so it lacks space to move
it further downward for releasing. This generally does not occur with
larger spears.
Washing Over
Washing over is the procedure of circulating and drilling or wash-
ing over a stuck fish with a larger diameter tubular. It is an important
fishing tool but also a very high-risk procedure, often considered a
last resort operation. Before washing over, ensure that the fish is
worked extensively with jars and a bumper sub located immediately
above the fish.
When the fish cannot be worked free, then wash over and re-
lease part or all of it. If the entire fish is released, catch and pull it. If
part of the fish is released, catch the free section, back off, and re-
cover it. This operation normally is repeated until the entire fish is
recovered.
Washing over as used here includes longer strings of wash pipe
and using washover spears. It does not include relatively simple pro-
cedures such as washing over about 30 ft over the top of a fish to
clean it for catching. Washing over is a high-risk operation. Risk in-
creases with closer tolerances, greater depths, longer sections of open
hole, and higher mud weights. It is essentially a last resort opera-
tion. If the washpipe is left in the hole around the fish as a second
fish, it is very difficult to recover. If a small amount of washpipe
such as a wash over shoe and sub, are left in the hole around the fish,
it may be possible to remove these by milling. But, milling is almost
an exception because in most cases the lengths and quantity of pipe
Fishinf!. Procedures 297

left in the hole preclude milling as a practical procedure. Generally
the only alternative is sidetracking or redrilling. This is not intended
to eliminate washing over because in many cases it is justified.
Washing-over may not be considered as risky as noted because
the procedure is deceptively simple. However, it warrants repeating
that it is a HIGH-RISK procedure, even under the best conditions.
Operations
Wash over operations, like all others, require meticulous atten-
tion to detail. This is emphasized by the fact that usually the hole
must be sidetracked or plugged and abandoned if it is unsuccessful.
Therefore plan and conduct operations carefully.
The washpipe must have an inside diameter large enough to pass
freely over the fish and small enough to run safely in the hole. The
actual length depends upon hole conditions and relative clearances.
A free-pipe log may be a guide of the length of wash pipe to run.
Other guides are wellbore deviation surveys and free-point data.
Normally, the maximum is about 500-800 ft of washpipe in large,
straight holes that are in good condition with minimum formation
problems. Run shorter lengths in smaller holes and those with hole
problems. As an example, a free pipe log may indicate that only the
upper 300 ft of a long fish is stuck. Then run about 350 ft of wash pipe.
Always run the minimum amount necessary.
Connect the washover pipe to the bottom of the fishing string
and a washover shoe on the bottom of the wash over pipe. Shoes
range from a long-tooth design for soft formations to a scallop design
for harder formations or complete mill shoe for cutting metal.
Run the washpipe to within 25-50 ft of the top of the fish, and
circulate and condition the hole. Then lower it with reduced circu-
lation while rotating slowly. Clean out the annular space around the
fish, drilling as necessary until the entire fish is covered or the top of
the washpipe is near the top of the fish. Circulate to flush cuttings
out of the hole and then pull the washpipe.
Catch the fish with a standard fishing assembly. If the fish was
washed over completely, then work it, including bumping and jar-
ring to release it so it can be recovered. If the entire fish was not
washed over, then catch and work it, taking free points if applicable.
After working extensively, back off and recover the free fish. Then
repeat catching and working or washing over as indicated by the
condition of the hole and fish.
A fish may be washed over for 300 to 500 ft or more. Then after it
is caught with a fishing assembly, it frequently is found to be free for
a few hundred feet or less. The additional sticking is attributed to
the time delay between washing over and catching with a fishing
assembly. Sometimes a fish, stuck off bottom, drops before it is com-
298 Chapter 4
pletely washed over. An example of this is an assembly stuck in a
keyseat. Then run a fishing assembly, catch the dropped fish, work it
free if necessary, and recover it. The dropped assembly usually is
damaged, often leaves sheared bit cones on bottom, and may be tightly
stuck.
In these situations, run a washover spear to recover part of a fish
or prevent it from dropping after washing over. Run the spear inside
the bottom ofthe washpipe in an inverted position. Run the washpipe
into the hole in the normal manner. Catch the fish with an overshot
connected to the spear. Wash over the fish while the spear remains
stationary in the top ofthe fish. The spear slips engage the washpipe
when the fish is washed free and starts to drop. Then pull the assem-
bly and fish out of the hole.
Washing over with a washpipe spear is a high-risk operation. It
has all of the risks of a regular washover and the additional risk of
problems with the spear. Much of the equipment has close toler-
ances. The spear procedure is simple in description but complicated
in operation. It may be difficult or impossible to release the spear if
the washpipe sticks.
Close tubular and hole tolerances in all wash over operations in-
crease mechanical friction and resistance to mud flow, causing high
drag and torque. If it is severe, the forces may approach or exceed
the strength rating of either the washpipe or the fishing assembly
and cause a twist-off. Reduce mechanical friction by decreasing the
length of washover pipe.
Washing over at a higher penetration rate can overload the mud
system or cause a buildup of cuttings, increasing the risk of sticking
the washpipe. Prevent this by controlling the penetration rate. Cir-
culate as required to minimize cuttings density in the mud.
Close tolerance between the outside diameter of the washpipe
and hole diameter promotes wall sticking. Resistance to flow causes
increased pressures leading to possible formation breakdown and
lost circulation. Good mud properties are very important in success-
ful washover operations. If a water-base mud system is being used,
consider changing to an oil or oil emulsion mud system.
Cased vs. Open Holes

Cased and open-hole wash over operations are similar but with
some basic differences. Overall, there is less need of washing over in
cased holes as compared to open holes. Larger tubulars are used in
open holes so they can be worked harder. Generally clearances are
slightly larger. Washing over in the open hole is a higher-risk opera-
tion because of cutting or caving material in the mud and possible
wall sticking. Most washing over in open holes is over tapered-type

tool joints or connections. This, combined with the ability to cut the
formation, improves wash over operations to a limited extent.
Cased holes generally use smaller tubulars with reduced safe
working forces. Smaller clearances increase the risk of sticking. Flat-
type coupling shoulders such as tubing collars are most common.
Also, sand or similar material is the most common cause of sticking.
Thus stuck pipe in cased holes usually is firmly fixed in place or
sanded up in most cases.
Washing over in cased holes often is extremely difficult, espe-
cially with longer sections oftubulars. Washing over sanded-up tub-
ing inside casing is a good example. Tubing lies against the side of
the casing because of normal hole inclination. It is tightly wedged in
place with sand or other material such as barite. Therefore washing
over involves washing or drilling out sand or possibly barite. It also
includes cutting the sides of upsets and collars and possibly part of
the side of the tubing.
There are many disadvantages in this situation. Milling is ex-
tremely difficult. The mill cutting-face is small because of the thin
wall of the washpipe. Therefore it cuts slowly, has a short life, re-
quires more trips to run replacement mills, and overall milling effi-
ciency is very poor. It is not uncommon for a mill to cut less than 30
ft before it needs replacing. The new mill may not go to the last milled
depth but stops higher in the hole, so part or all of the section must
be milled again.
The mill cannot be dressed with cutting material on the outside
because it will damage the casing. However, there is still a high risk
of casing damage. The bottom of the mill tends to wedge between
the casing and the tubing, upsets and collars. This causes casing wear.
Metal cuttings and other abrasive particles further increase casing
wear. It is relatively common to find holes in casing where washing
over and milling occurred.
The wedging effect causes hard running and high torque. This in
combination with the additional friction of the close-tolerance
tubulars, increases the risk of twisting off.
Excluding milling problems, recovering the fish may be very dif-
ficult. The fish may be weakened because of the mill cutting part or
all of one side of the upsets and collars. The partially milled and
weakened collars can part during fishing. It is not uncommon to re-
cover one joint offish per fishing run, recovering the fish in multiple
pieces. Additionally, a free piece of the fish may fall down beside
the remainder of the fish, leaving a second fish in the hole, further
complicating milling and recovery procedures.
In summary, milling over tubing sanded-up in casing is a very
high-risk wash over operation.
300 Chapter 4
Washing Beside a Fish
Washing beside a fish is the procedure of running a washstring
down beside a stuck fish. This is seldom done because of limited
clearances, collar interference, and pipe entanglement. Also, it may
not be efficient because of the material to be drilled or washed out
such as junk, hard shale, etc.
There are situations where the normal washover procedure is
less efficient, such as washing over sanded-up tubing in a cased hole
- a complicated job. In this case there is a distinct advantage of
washing out the sand by running the wash string down alongside the
fish if conditions are favorable. A case of washing out alongside the
fish is illustrated in the following example.
Washing Beside a Fish

A high productivity, high GOR-flowing oil well had 7%-in. intermedi-
ate production casing and a 5-in. liner from 12,200 to II, I00 ft with a
commingled completion from several sands in the gross interval from 12,000
to 12,100 ft. Semiflush joint 2%-in. tubing was seated in a permanent packer
set in the liner at 11,900 ft. The packer fluid was the 18 ppg water-base
mud used to drill the well.The completion was different because the well
was completed during a period of material and pipe shortages. After about
20 years, production declined to the point where pumping was justified.
The pump installation had been deferred until necessary because it was
recognized that a fishing job would probably be required because of the
heavy-weight drilling mud behind the packer.
After starting the workover, the tubing was found stuck as expected.
It was perforated above the packer but would not circulate. This was ex-
pected but was and should be tried since it can be an easy way to release
stuck pipe when it works.A free point showed 100%free tubing in tension
and torque to 6,000 ft and 100% stuck at 9,000 ft. A stuck-pipe log indi-
cated the tubing was stuck at random points of varying lengths. The tubing
was worked for 4 hours and the free point run again.The 100%free point
had moved downhole to 6,800 ft and the 100% stuck point to 10,000 ft, a
common occurrence. The tubing was worked for two more hours, the
free point was run, and there was no change in the sticking points.
The tubing was cut at 10,000 ft with a chemical cutter. Circulation
could not be established, so the tubing was worked but did not release.
The deeper cut was made because frequently the partially stuck tubing
can be released with a combination of working and circulating. This was
not the case, but the free point was worked down to 7,200 ft. The tubing
was cut, the hole circulated, and the tubing recovered.

It was decided to wash down the side of the tubing fish because of the
clearances and problems when washing over stuck tubing. It appeared rea-
sonably certain that the tubing was stuck with barite that had settled out
of the mud. Barite is sometimes very hard to wash out, but washing along-
side the fish appeared to be the best action. About 4,000 ft of the recov-
ered fish with a mule shoe on bottom was run on a workstring. The mule
shoe guided the workstring past the top of the fish without difficulty.The
old mud was washed out, including bridges of settled barite from 7,200 to
10,000 ft.The hole was not washed out past 10,000 ft because the tubing
fish had been cut at this point and there was a risk that the free section of
fish would fall downhole beside the remainder of the fish and become
wedged and stuck. There was also a risk that it would stick the washstring
due to a third string, the loose upper fish, falling down by the other two
parallel strings. The washstring was pulled, an overshot was run, and 2,800
ft of tubing fish was recovered without difficulty.
The washstring was rerun and washed down beside the tubing fish
from 10,000 ft to the top of the liner at II, I00 ft.The fish was caught with
a circulating overshot, but circulation could not be established through
the perforation above the packer. A free point showed the fish to be free
to 11,400 ft. The fish was cut at 11,200 ft and the section of fish was
recovered. The remainder of the fish was washed over with wash pipe in
the conventional manner. The fish was caught with a circulating overshot
and found to be plugged.This precluded cutting the fish, and it could not
be worked free of the packer. The fish was recovered with a mechanical
back-off tool, and the well was restored to production.
This example also illustrates the problems that occur when

weighted water-base mud is used as a packer fluid. The report did
not mention tapered collars, but they are recommended and were
probably used because of the lack of problems. The fish was recov-
ered in this case without the severe problems which are sometimes
encountered in this type of fishing operation. In summary, washing
alongside the fish expedited the fishing job, minimized costs, re-
duced the risk associated with the use of conventional washpipe,
and permitted the well to be placed on production at an earlier date
to start generating income.
PLUG BACK AND SIDETRACK

Plugging back and sidetracking often is the next procedure after
fishing unsuccessfully. Except for special situations, any hole from
vertical to horizontal can be sidetracked. The procedures are straight-
forward. It takes between 3 and 6 days to set a plug, dress it off, and
sidetrack before resuming drilling. However, a failure at any point in
302 Chapter 4
the sequence of operations usually requires drilling out the original
plug and repeating the entire process, a costly procedure. Like fish-
ing, plug back and sidetrack failures should not occur but they do.
Lack of attention to detail often leads to problems or repeating the
operation. So the main preventive measure is to do it right the first
time.
Plugging Back
A hard, immobile plug is an important part of sidetracking suc-
cessfully. Other plugs may be needed, such as isolating plugs to shut
off high-pressure formations and lost-circulation zones. They may
also be required in accordance with the rules and regulations of the
regulatory agencies having jurisdiction. The sidetracking plug serves
several purposes. It provides a firm, hard, immobile seat for direc-
tional tools, closes the original hole so the tools will not reenter it,
and stops problems from lower zones.
Select the kickoff point carefully. It should be as deep as pos-
sible to save hole. It should be high enough to allow a normal buildup
angle so the fish is bypassed at a safe distance. The deviated hole
should be far enough from the original hole to prevent problems of
high pressure and lost circulation from the original hole. Sidetrack
in a medium or medium-soft formation and avoid very soft or very
hard formations when possible. Sidetrack at least 100 ft and prefer-
ably 200 ft below a casing shoe.
It should not be necessary to set more than one plug, but there
have been cases where over five plugs were required. In one case
where this occurred, another operator sidetracked off one plug in a
comparable hole in the same area, using oil mud. This emphasizes
the importance of setting the plug properly. The most common prob-
lems include a plug that is too short; poor displacement practices,
including contamination due to failure to use spacers; excess retarder;
no sand in the plug slurry; low early strength; and not waiting for
the plug to harden. There apparently is a higher risk of failure when
setting plugs in oil mud, but there is no valid reason for this except
lack of planning and attention to detail.
The plug length is important. DO NOT select a shorter plug to
conserve drilled hole or save on cement or time required to drill it
out. The dressed-off plug length should be long enough so that the
original hole is plugged to a depth below the point where it could
interfere with the sidetracked hole. The bottom of the plug should
be at a depth where the center lines of the original and new hole are
separated by a distance equivalent to at least several bit diameters.
Use a longer plug for higher deviation and when the inclination of
the original hole is unknown.

Base the plug slurry volume on the calipered or drilled-hole vol-
ume with ADEQUATEEXCESS for the total plug length, including
the dressed-off section. Design the slurry for an early, high compres-
sive strength of 2,500-3,000 psi or more in 24 hours. Have a slurry
density about the same as the mud density or heavier, since inter-
mingling of the slurry and mud due to gravity is negligible. In most
cases use class H cement regardless of depth, although class A can
be used for shallower depths. Use 20-35% good quality - prefer-
ably larger-sized - fracture sand to increase plug hardness. Blast-
ing grade and special flint sands may be considered under special
conditions but their use is seldom justified. The sand will not settle
appreciably in a good slurry before it hardens. Add accelerators or a
very minimum amount of retarder to insure that the slurry remains
pumpable during mixing and placement. DO NOT USE EXCESS
RETARDERS.Good mixing water is a standard precaution. Test for
thickening time and compressive strength with the same water that
will be used to mix the plug. Test initially for the proper blend of
additives with cement from the same silo storage to be used. A final
test verifies thickening time and compressive strength with blended
cement from the transport truck that has all additives mixed and
blended. Catch wet and dry samples.
Use standard cementing practices with good placement tech-
niques to minimize contamination. Spacers or chemical flushes sepa-
rate the slurry and mud, reduce contamination and clean the walls
of the hole to improve bonding between the cement and formation.
Mix the cement slurry (normally batch mixed). Pump the spacers
and slurry in the correct order followed by the displacement fluid,
usually mud, and displace the slurry to the correct position in the
wellbore. Measure fluid volumes accurately and pump at the maxi-
mum safe rate, preferably under turbulent flow conditions to mini-
mize contamination.
There are various displacement procedures. Each has advantages
and disadvantages, and the unbalanced column method is the safest
and most common in most cases. After placement, immediately pick
the drillpipe up to a point safely above the top of the slurry to pre-
vent sticking. Then either pull it out ofthe hole or pull at least 5-10
additional treble stands. Circulate for the equivalent of two thicken-
ing times while monitoring pit levels. If high pressure causes a flow,
hold 200-500 psi under closed preventers. If lost circulation zones
are exposed and there is a risk of loss, displace with a lighter fluid
and monitor pit levels without circulating.
Dressing Off
Allow the cement to harden to the required compressive strength.
In field practice determine plug hardness by observing the penetra-
304 Chapter 4
tion rate while dressing off the excess cement above the kickoff point
using Table 4-3 as a guide to plug hardness.
Table 4-3 Approximate plug hardness

Drilling-Milling Rate Cement Hardness
-----.-.-....--..-.........-.-................-.-.-..-.............-...........................-.-----..-....

10 ft/hror 6 min/ft, eqv - 3,500 psi, very hard
eqv - 3,000 psi, hard
20 ft/hr or 3 min/ft,
30 ft/hr or 2 min/ft, eqv - 2,500 psi, firm
eqv - 1,500 psi, soft *

40 ft/hr or 1.5 min/ft,
50 ftlhr or 1.4 min/ft,
60 ft/hr or I min/ft,
eqv - 1,000 psi, very soft**
eqv - 500 psi, not set***
* - Sidetracking questionable
** - Sidetracking very questionable, try time drilling.
***- Drill or circulate out and reset plug
Table 4-3 is based on dressing-off with about 1,000 lbs of bit.

weight per inch of bit diameter, with 50 to 60 rotary rpm and 1,000-
1,500 psi pump pressure. The information is a rough estimate. Holes
have been successfully kicked off of softer plugs and kickoffs have
been unsuccessful on harder plugs.
Dress off the plug with a long mill-tooth bit, polycrystalline (PDC)
bit or a cement mill run on a limber drill-collar assembly. DO NOT
run the assembly into soft (green) cement. This COMMON ERROR
causes sticking. Observe standard precautionary procedures. Clean
out most of the excess cement while it is soft to save extra time drill-
ing hard cement. Plan to have cement cleaned out to about 150 ft
above the estimated kickoff point before the slurry reaches any ap-
preciable compressive strength. Handle cement-contaminated mud
in the standard manner by pretreatment, dilution, etc., depending
upon the mud system.
Dress off the plug in stages. Drill a short section of cement, and,
dependent upon hardness, either drill ahead or wait for cement to
gain additional strength. Adjust the periods so the bit will be at the
kickoff point when the cement is hard. Plugs characteristically have
"hard and soft" sections, especially in the open hole. Stop drilling in
a harder section. If the plug has not hardened in 24-30 hours, then
additional waiting time is seldom justified. Clean out and set an-
other plug.
Sidetracking
Sidetrack the hole in the conventional manner, normally with a
deviation assembly. Sidetrack direction is not selected for blind side-
Fishim! Procedures 305

tracking. In crooked or more highly deviated holes it may be better
to deviate toward the low side of the hole so there is less risk of
crooked hole.
The hole may deviate off a very soft plug by time drilling at very
low rates depending upon the bit, plug hardness and formation. The
procedure includes orienting the deviation tools, reducing the cir-
culation rate and holding up on the bit to reduce the penetration rate
to about 2 to 4 ft/hr. Drill 10-15 ft at this rate and then increase it
slowly until the hole is sidetracked and the bit is drilling in new
formation.
Sometimes it is difficult to deviate in very hard formations. An
alternate method of deviating is to run a deviating assembly with a
maximum kickoff angle sub and reduced (usually minimum) hole
size. Sidetrack by drilling a pilot hole with a small bit for a short
distance of 10-30 ft of new hole. The longer distance applies to harder
formations. Then open the hole to full gauge and repeat as neces-
sary. It is important to drill only a short distance with the small bit
and then open the hole to full gauge to prevent a dogleg and poten-
tial keyseat problem at a later date.
Cased holes are sidetracked in one of several ways. The most
common procedure is to mill out a section of casing, set a plug in the
casing, dress off and sidetrack in the conventional manner, drilling
the sidetracked hole out through the section where the casing was
milled. A less-common method includes milling out a section of cas-
ing, setting a plug and then deviating off of a whipstock set on the
plug. Another procedure that is seldom used and not normally rec-
ommended is to set a plug in the casing. Then run and set a whip-
stock in the casing above the plug. Mill a hole or window through
the casing and then sidetrack.
MilliNG CASINGANDTUBUlARS
Milling casing and tubulars is a common procedure associated
with fishing and casing repair. Casing may also be removed for re-
placement as described in Chapter 7. Mills are also used to remove
stuck drill collars, washpipe, and similar tubulars.
There are cases of removing two strings of casing simultaneously.
Junk is milled up with regular mills as described in the section on
milling junk in Chapter 3. Most casing and large tubulars are milled
with an inside casing cutter or section mill. Milling can cause high
and often fluctuating torque, so use part of the description in the
section "Milling Operations" in Chapter 4 as a guide.
Milling long sections of tubulars in a cased hole, and to a lesser
extent in an open hole, is almost a last-resort fishing operation. Most
of the milled cuttings are circulated out, but some can settle downhole
(Fig. 4-19). During extensive milling, the cuttings pack around the
306 Chapter 4
fish and wedge it tighter, practically precluding recovering it with
regular fishing tools. Also the mill cuttings must be milled again,
further reducing milling efficiency. Junk subs help reduce the prob-
lem. Place a wear ring or guide bushing on the section mill to pre-
vent the knives from cutting the regular casing when milling long
sections of tubulars.
Figure 4-19 Milling on mill cuttings

Note: Mill is milling on both the object being milled and the mill
cuttings.This remilling action decreases the life of mills and increases
the time to complete the job. The casing may also be worn exces-
sively, even with the proper type of mill.
Start of milling operation
---- .-.....-.---.....----..----...-........-.-
Cuttings removal can be a problem when milling long sections

oftubulars. Run junk subs above the mill, as many as three in severe
cases. Mud viscosity of 50-80 API funnel see, sometimes higher, will
carry out most cuttings. Higher mud weights may help remove larger
cuttings. Remove steel cuttings from the mud system at the surface
with fine, 150- to 180-mesh shaker screens and ditch or bar magnets,
use 2 or 3 in the flow line (Fig. 4-20). There have been cases where
the cuttings stuck to the drill tubulars due to magnetism, causing
severe removal problems.

Figure 4-20 Magnet in a flow line
Note: Remove, check, clean, and replace the magnet periodically to
determine the approximate amount of metal fragments in the mud.
Also check the drill cuttings samples.
Flow line
.... ...... .....
........
.......
.- - - - .
:: To shale shaker
:.:;.j
~..: Magnet ~
1:.'. ...... ,
'Metal particles!
Milling a section of casing is the more common method of devi-

ating in a cased hole. Casing can be milled in both vertical holes and
those with high inclination. Run a section mill on a limber assembly
with drilling jars and 2 or 3 junk subs or boot baskets above the mill.
"Feel" for a casing connection by lowering the mill with expanded
arms, pick up, and start cutting about 5 ft above the connection in a
well-cemented section of casing. The reason for starting 5 ft above a
casing collar is to leave a longer part of a cemented joint above the
cut section. This helps prevent backing off the joint while conduct-
ing rotating operations below the cut section. Mill and remove at
least 50 and preferably 80 ft of casing.
Pick the pipe up at 10-30 minute intervals to ensure that cut-
tings are not stacking up above the mill. Note that the pipe will con-
tinue to rotate through a "bird nest" of stacked cuttings but stick
when it is picked up. Use a check valve above the mill if necessary to
prevent plugging from mud flowback while making connections and
otherwise moving the pipe.
There are various techniques for deviating off a whipstock and
milling a hole or window through the wall of the casing. It is faster
than milling a section of casing when it works properly. However.
there are many problems such as milling the whipstock instead of
the casing or rolling off the whipstock while trying to cut the win-
dow. Also. tools hang and stick as they are pulled back into the cas-
ing. and the whipstock may move and prevent reentry of the
whipstocked hole. These problems frequently require fishing and
often sidetracking again higher in the hole. Milling a section of cas-
ing is more common for these reasons.
308 Chapter 4
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED
READING
Bannister, C.E., and O.G. Benge, "Pipe Flow Rheometer:
Rheological Analysis Of A Turbulent Flow System Used For
Cement Placement," SPE 10206, Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME meeting in San Antonio, Oct. 5-7, 1981.
Dees, John M., and William N. Spradlin, Jr., "Successful Deep
Openhole Cement Plugs For The Anandarko Basin." SPE
10957, presented at the annual Fall Technical Conference of
the Society Of Petroleum Engineers of AIME in New Orleans,
Sept. 26-29, 1982.
Dudleson, Bill, Mike Arnold, and Dominic McCann, "Early
Detection Of Drillstring Washouts Reduces Fishing Jobs,"
World Oil, Oct. 1990: 43-47.
Haut, Richard Carl, and Ronald James Crook, "Laboratory
Investigation of Light-weight, Low Viscosity Cementing Spacer
Fluids," SPE No. 10305,1981.
Kaisi, M.S., J.K. Wang, and U. Chandra, "Transient Dynamics
Analysis Of The Drillstring Under Jarring Operations By The
FEM." Society Of Petroleum Engineers, Drilling Engineering,
March 1987: 47-62.
Sabins, Fred L., and David L. Sutton, "The Relationships Of
Thickening Time, Gel Strength And Compressive Strengths of
Oilwell Cements," SPE 11205, Fall Technical Conference of
the Society Of Petroleum Engineers of AIME in New Orleans,
Sept. 26-29, 1982.
Smith, Dwight K., "Cementing, SPE Monograph Vol. 4." H. L.
Doherty Series, 1976.
Fishinf!. Procedures 309

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What topics are covered in Chapter 1?

What topics are covered in Chapter 1?

Prevention,

James A. "Jim" Short

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored In a

Printed in the United States of America

Danny Lee Butler - "Danny Boy"

James "Jim" Arthur Short

Catherine "Miss Kitty" Leona (Campbell) Short

List of Exam pIes xix

Chapter 1 - CAUSE AND PREVENTION

Chapter 2 - GENERAL RULES AND

Assembly Equipment and Tools 212

Chapter 4 - FISHING PROCEDURES

Explosives ___nnm m m n_ 284

WALL STICKING 350

Bridging n___n n n__n_n 373

Chapter 6 - CASED HOLE, WIRELINE, AND

TESTTOOLS, PACKERS,AND PLUGS 377

Chapter 7 - CASING AND LINER REPAIR

Chapter 1 - CAUSE AND PREVENTION

Combination Lost Circulation and Gas Kicks - 65

Chapter 2 - GENERAL RULES AND

Recovering a Hole Opener Shank n 82

Catching a Fish with an Unmatched Pin 101

Chapter 4 - FISHING PROCEDURES

Chapter 5 - OPEN-HOLE FISHING

Chapter 6 - CASED HOLE, WIRELINE, AND

Recovering a Plug by Removing Casing 378

Chapter 7 - CASING AND LINER REPAIR

Fishing and Casing Repair covers fishing and downhole reme-

J.A. "Jim" Short

This text contains descriptions, statements, procedures, meth-

Prevention, FisMng and Casing Repair is a sequel to Fishing and

Fishing is any operation or procedure to release, remove, or re-

Cause and Prevention 1

Cat Line over the Crown

Cause and Prevention 3

Common examples of human error include dropping a sledge

Spud Conference and Small Drill Tubing

Cost and Severity

A development well was drilling an 8%-in. hole at 11,000

Cause and Prevention 5

stuck, and the hole ultimately was sidetracked.

overshot, worked free, and recovered.

Many fishing jobs occur in drilling and casing operations as de-

Fishing Cost Survey

Cause and Prevention 7

. Laying down drill pipe before running casing.

. new string of pipe for one cleanout trip.

. did not indicate it was needed.

Slip- and Tong-Area Failures.

A long, heavy string of C-135 drillpipe was dropped on a

in the slip area.

drillpipe and the drill collar in the hole.

Eliminate slip- and tong-area failures by using good operating

Cause and Prevention 9

Bridging n_n n nn_n 373