Posthegemony / FULL TEXT FOR PRESS / November 22, 2010 / Page iii / TITLE

Posthegemony
Political Theory and
Latin America

JON BEASLEY-MURRAY

University of Minnesota Press

Minneapolis London

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Excerpt from Canto General by Pablo Neruda copyright 2010 Fundacin Pablo
Neruda. From Pablo Neruda, Canto General, translated by Jack Schmitt (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1991); reprinted with permission.

Copyright 2010 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Beasley-Murray, Jon, 1969Posthegemony : political theory and Latin America / Jon Beasley-Murray.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8166-4714-9 (hc : alk. paper)
ISBN 978-0-8166-4715-6 (pb : alk. paper)
1. Political science Latin America. 2. Political science Philosophy. 3. Latin
America Politics and government. I. Title.
JA84.L3B43 2010
327.1!14098 dc22
2010032928
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
The University of Minnesota is an equal-opportunity educator and employer.
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Contents

Introduction: A Users Guide

ix

Prologue: October 10, 1492

Part I
CRITIQUE
1. Argentina 1972: Cultural Studies and Populism

15

2. Ayacucho 1982: Civil Society Theory and Neoliberalism

68

Part II
CONSTITUTION
3. Escaln 1989: Deleuze and Affect

125

4. Chile 1992: Bourdieu and Habit

174

Conclusion: Negri and Multitude

226

Epilogue: April 13, 2002

284

Acknowledgments
Notes
Bibliography
Index

297
301
325
353

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Introduction

A Users Guide
In this book there are two texts which simply
alternate; you might almost believe they had
nothing in common, but they are in fact inextricably bound up with each other, as though neither
could exist on its own, as though it was only their
coming together, the distant light they cast on one
another, that could make apparent what is never
quite said in one, never quite said in the other,
but said only in their fragile overlapping.
Georges Perec, W
One beginning and one ending for a book was a
thing I did not agree with.
Flann OBrien, At Swim-Two-Birds

Definitions
There is no hegemony and never has been. We live in cynical, posthegemonic times: nobody is very much persuaded by ideologies
that once seemed fundamental to securing social order. Everybody
knows, for instance, that work is exploitation and that politics is
deceit. But we have always lived in posthegemonic times: social
order was never in fact secured through ideology. No amount of
belief in the dignity of labor or the selflessness of elected representatives could ever have been enough to hold things together. The
fact that people no longer give up their consent in the ways in which
they may once have done, and yet everything carries on much the
same, shows that consent was never really at issue. Social order is
secured through habit and affect: through folding the constituent
power of the multitude back on itself to produce the illusion of
transcendence and sovereignty. It follows also that social change is
ix

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Introduction

never achieved through any putative counterhegemony. No amount

of adherence to a revolutionary creed or a party line could ever be
enough to break things apart. The fact that now people no longer
believe in radical change as they may once have done does not mean
that everything will carry on much the same. Social change, too, is
achieved through habit and affect: through affirming the constituent
power of the multitude. But change is not a matter of substituting
one program for another. This book offers no blueprint, because
the multitude betrays the best-laid plans.
By hegemony, I do not mean mere domination. To say posthegemony is not to say that domination is at an end. Command
and control, exploitation and oppression, still manifestly continue.
If anything, they are now more savage and more pernicious than
ever as the state increasingly permeates everyday life and as politics
becomes biopolitics. Nor by hegemony do I mean the concept in
International Relations of a single dominant world power. It may
be that such a power no longer exists, but this is more a symptom of posthegemony than the main issue.1 By hegemony I mean
the notion, derived from the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci, that
the state maintains its dominance (and that of social and economic
elites) thanks to the consent of those it dominates. Where it does not
win consent, this theory suggests, the state resorts to coercion. By
contrast, in stressing the role of habit (rather than opinion) I point
to processes that involve neither consent nor coercion. A focus on
habit enables us to grasp the workings of the habitus: a collective,
embodied feeling for the rules of the social game that is activated
and reproduced beneath consciousness. And in stressing the role of
affect (rather than emotion) I turn to other feelings: the impersonal
and embodied flow of intensities that undermines any concept of a
rational subject who could provide or withdraw his or her consent.
But in stressing the notion of the multitude (rather than the people)
I show that subjectivity continues to play a vital role: the multitude
is the subject of a constituent power that is prior to the constituted
power of the state and the sovereign. Habit, affect, and the multitude are the three components of a theory of posthegemony. All
three are responses to the puzzle posed by the seventeenth-century
philosopher Benedict de Spinoza: No one has yet determined what
the body can do.2 Habit describes the way in which bodies act out
the regular and repetitive activities that structure daily life. Affect
indicates the power of a body (individual or collective) to affect

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xi

or be affected by other bodies. And the multitude encompasses an

expansive collection of bodies that, in organizing itself so as to
increase its powers of affection, constitutes society and drives time
onward. All three terms, moreover, refer to immanent processes:
they incarnate a logic from below that requires neither representation nor direction from above. Or rather, they undo the spatial
metaphor of above and below. They are sufficient unto themselves. So although we may think about posthegemony negatively,
in terms of flight or exodus from the current order of things moving beyond ideology, escaping social constraints the real question
concerns the reverse process. What is the origin of the wrinkles in
immanence that give rise to the illusion of transcendence, the fiction
of hegemony, the presupposition of the state, and the presumption
of a social pact? Why do we stubbornly take these effects for causes?
For in fact what we most immediately perceive are bodies, with their
habitual movements, their affective intensities, and their multitudinous interactions. Posthegemony is an attempt to rethink politics
from the ground up, rooted in the material reality common to us all.
I am not the only person to have advanced a concept of posthegemony, though this book is the first to define it at such length
and in these terms. Sociologist Scott Lash, for instance, argues
that power now . . . is largely post-hegemonic and suggests that
cultural studies should look mostly elsewhere for its core concepts.3 But Lashs conception of posthegemony is purely temporal:
he argues merely that power is now posthegemonic. My aim is a
more comprehensive critique of the idea of hegemony and of the
cultural studies that, as Lash rightly but too reverently observes, it
defines. Likewise, theorist Nicholas Thoburn contends that social
theory has to take account of the fact that the concept of civil society (for Gramsci, intimately linked to the notion of hegemony) no
longer holds.4 My criticism of the notion of civil society is again
more wholesale: I argue that it has always been an accomplice of
state containment, a means to stigmatize affect and the multitude
as somehow barbarous and apolitical. By contrast, political theorist Benjamin Arditi is skeptical of the proposition that the era of
hegemony is at an end, but he argues that politics is, perhaps increasingly, not simply about hegemony. Arditi points to two forms of
posthegemonic politics: the exodus or defection of the multitude;
and the viral politics of informal networks. (I see no significant
distinction between the two.) Both are ways of doing politics that

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Introduction

bypass the neo-Gramscian logic of hegemony and counterhegemony

characteristic of most of what is usually inventoried under the
name of politics today. For Arditi, posthegemony supplements
but does not replace politics as usual. If anything, in his view
posthegemony reinforces the concept of hegemony, by giving it an
outside to define it.5 My disagreement with traditional politics,
however, is again more sweeping: I argue that it offers at best a temporary palliative, at worst a fatal distraction from the real workings
of power and domination.
My understanding of posthegemony is, like Arditis, related to
debates within Latin American studies about the political and theoretical limits to the concept of hegemony rather than simply about
its contemporary obsolescence. In his 1990 book Modernism and
Hegemony, the Marxist cultural critic Neil Larsen engages with
both the crisis of representation in modernist aesthetics and the
crisis of hegemony that has long seemed to plague Latin America.
He argues that this supposed crisis of hegemony is in fact merely
its inversion: it is a hegemony enshrined in cultural goods rather
than political discourse that thereby render[s] visible what is hidden in the posthegemonic conditions of the center, that is, that
aesthetics can no longer be a refuge from the real space of hegemonic state power.6 Larsen does not develop this concluding and
rather gnomic hint that the collapse of the state, its inability to
articulate a coherent or convincing discourse, is really its expansion into culture as a whole, its disarticulated diffusion throughout
what was once imagined to be civil society. Five years later, however, critic George Ydice takes up the term posthegemony as
part of a qualified defense of civil society. Likewise observing a
weakening of the articulation of national discourse and state apparatuses, Ydice argues that we might say that, from the purview
of the national proscenium, a posthegemonic situation holds.
Again, posthegemony in this instance means mostly that hegemony
is no longer tied to the state; but it also implies that hegemony has
expanded well beyond national boundaries, to naturalize global
capitalism everywhere.7
I agree with Larsen and Ydice that today power is obviously
at work everywhere, that representation has collapsed, and that
the state is effectively dissolved into what was once known as
civil society. But this means that civil society, which is defined
by its distinction from the state, has now withered away.8 This

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xiii

diffuse ubiquity of politics is what, following the French philosopher Michel Foucault, I term biopolitics. It is not the expansion of
hegemony but its evacuation. More clearly than ever, power works
directly on bodies, in the everyday life that once appeared to be a
refuge from politics. Yet for Larsen and Ydice, posthegemony is
ironically hegemonys triumph: hegemony is everything and everywhere. I argue that it is this misconception that lies at the root
of cultural studies, encouraging a populism that equates the states
dissolution in the everyday with its disappearance altogether.
Discussion of posthegemony within Latin American studies took
a new turn following an engagement with subaltern studies. Despite
adopting the Gramscian concept of the subaltern with alacrity,
refashioning it to refer to nonelite members of colonial and postcolonial societies, the South Asian historians who formed the
subaltern studies group in the 1980s took issue with what for Gramsci was the related notion of hegemony. For the groups founder
Ranajit Guha, for instance, the subaltern is inconstant and unpredictable and refuses to admit the existence of any single sphere
(secular, religious, or nationalistic) within which hegemony could
be sought or won. Hence the swift transformation of class struggle
into communal strife and vice versa for which the best-intentioned
narrative of solidarity can offer only some well-contrived apology
or a simple gesture of embarrassment.9 Guha suggests that the
subaltern inevitably turns its back on or betrays any putative hegemonic project: it refuses to give consent to consent. If hegemony is
the struggle to gain consent, it requires the prior, implicit agreement
that it is consent that is at issue in political struggles. Hegemony
itself has to become dominant. As Guha argues in Dominance without Hegemony, this implies an equation between civil society, the
nation, and the state: an echo chamber within which the terms of
struggle are more or less predetermined.10 But the subaltern always
disrupts the boundaries of any such delimited space. Subalternity
deconstructs hegemony: as postcolonial critic Gayatri Spivak consistently argues, the subaltern is the mute and impossible remainder
that always undoes hegemonys claims.11
In books published in 2002 and 2001 respectively, Latin Americanist cultural critics Gareth Williams and Alberto Moreiras redescribe subaltern remainder in terms of posthegemony. In Williamss
words, posthegemony permits us to give a name to hegemonys subaltern residues, negative languages, fragmentary responses, cultural

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Introduction

leftovers, and fissured experiences. He continues: Posthegemony,

in this sense, is no longer a name for the hegemony of transnational
capital, but the name of those places in which hegemony ceases
to make sense. 12 Or, in Moreirass version, the realization that
hegemony can never exhaust the infinitude of the social enables
a radical opening to the subaltern position, calling as such for the
permanent destabilization of hegemonic ideology and the passage
to a thinking beyond hegemony.13 Posthegemonic subalternism, in
this account, maintains a vigilant and unceasing critique of power
on the basis of hegemonys inevitable failures. It warns against
the hegemony of hegemony: against, that is, any belief in hegemonys promises that it may one day become total, its fiction of
an all-inclusive pact. In reality, Williams and Moreiras suggest, the
more that hegemony expands, the more its perimeter is violently
and viciously patrolled by state forces. As hegemony approaches its
limit, the disjuncture between hegemon and subaltern is all the more
arbitrary, all the more the site of conflagration and genocide.
Where I differ from Williams and Moreiras is that I am not content with deconstruction, with posthegemony as permanent critique
or labor of the negative. Subalternism holds on to a distinction
between inside and outside, and so perpetuates the fundamental binarism of both hegemony and civil society: a differentiation
between hegemon and subaltern, civil and fanatic. Subaltern studies still believes in a social contract designed to separate civilization
from barbarism, even if it champions the nether side of that distinction and refuses any myth of closure. To put this another
way: Gramsci always conceded that hegemony was necessarily
incomplete. And in the Argentine Ernesto Laclaus reelaboration of
hegemony theory, what matters is what he calls the incommensurability between a hegemonic signifier that aspires to represent the
whole of society and the real that always recedes from such claims
to universality. The difference between hegemony theory and subaltern studies is simply that the political polarity is inverted: whereas
Gramsci and Laclau would insist that politics means playing the
game of hegemony, Spivak, Williams, and Moreiras question the
rules of that game by pointing to the aporetic excess for which it
can never account. But they seldom doubt the game itself. (Hence
Moreiras, in his more recent book, Lnea de sombra, now describes
his project as parahegemonic.) By contrast, then, in my conception posthegemony goes beyond the wreckage of any hegemonic

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xv

project. I aim to redescribe and reconstruct an image of society that

no longer depends on that societys own self-portrayal. My project
is constitutive as well as critical. Central to this work of redescription and reconstruction is the concept of the multitude, which I
take from Italian political theorist Antonio Negri. The multitude,
Negri argues, preexists modern society, as the conjunction of persons who inhabited a pre-social world that had to be transformed
into a political society,14 haunts its institutions, and then returns
in modernitys death throes. It is both excessive and foundational.
The multitude is an agent of violent transformation and also the
constitution of what is to come. Perhaps posthegemony can affirm
its constituent power.

Structure
Before constitution, critique. This book has two parts. The first is a
critique of cultural studies on the one hand, and the social scientific
discourse of civil society on the other. I suggest that cultural studies reductive definition of politics in terms of hegemony, with its
insistence on culture as discursive articulation, substitutes culture
for the state and therefore also confuses culture and state. This is
true even of a more idiosyncratic definition of hegemony, such as
that of anthropologist William Roseberry, who rejects hegemony as
consensus but still stresses that hegemonic projects aim to construct
a common discursive framework.15 At its limit, the logic of hegemony simply identifies with the state by taking it for granted. My
argument proceeds by way of a history of cultural studies, to show
how and why hegemony theory became its distinguishing feature,
as well as through a close reading of Laclau, the foremost theorist
of hegemony. I then examine the way in which a focus on civil
society excludes culture from the political in the name of rational
discourse. At its limit, however, civil society theory is overwhelmed
by the affects it sets out to exclude. Here my argument works
through an account of the discourse of new social movements and
democratization to explain how and why the venerable concept of
civil society has been revived over the past twenty-five years, as well
as by way of a close reading of Jean Cohen and Andrew Arato,
the most thorough theorists of civil society. What cultural studies
and civil society theory share is an emphasis on discourse and on
transcendence. They fail to confront immanent processes: either the

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Introduction

embedded institutional structures that underpin discourse (in the

case of cultural studies) or the affective flux that escapes it (with civil
society theory). Moreover, neither are concerned with the means
by which the state, or state effects, are constituted. Social science
straightforwardly assumes that all politics is state politics, and posits
civil society as the portal through which social movements must
pass. Cultural studies simply forgets about the state, and so lets it
in by the back door, while transfixed by its fetishized substitutes.
My critique of cultural studies and civil society is also, pragmatically, that they mimic the structures of power that they set out to
understand. These are the structures that have been paradigmatic in
twentieth-century democratic societies: populism and neoliberalism.
Cultural studies is, effectively, populist. Civil society theory is, for
all intents and purposes, itself neoliberal. Despite the best intentions
of their practitioners, neither can be the standpoint from which to
launch a critique of, respectively, a populism that claims culture can
substitute for the state and a neoliberalism that purports to exclude
culture from its domain. At best they can offer distorted glimpses of
a politics beyond populism or neoliberalism, for instance in cultural
studies concern for everyday life or civil society theorys anxious
fixation on social movement fundamentalism. Only posthegemony,
with its understanding of what I call the double inscription of the
state (as both immanence and transcendent quasi-cause), provides a
foothold from which the unsaid as well as the said of these political
formations can be observed and analyzed.
The books second part turns to affect and habit as forms of
(dis)organization beneath and beyond discourse, and so beyond the
conceptual apparatus of cultural studies and civil society theory.
Affect and habit are the basis of posthegemony. I examine French
philosopher Gilles Deleuzes conception of affect, for which immanence is generally a space of liberation, and then sociologist Pierre
Bourdieus conception of habitus, for which it is social control that
is immanent and all the more effective as such. Though these two
approaches appear to be opposed, I argue that they are complementary, not least because each opens up to the other at critical
moments: Deleuzes theory of affect when it has to account for
the suicidal state, and Bourdieus theory of habitus when social crisis reveals the potential creativity of resistance. Together, Deleuze
and Bourdieu point to the need to take account, first, of the states
double inscription and, second, of the various possible modes of

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xvii

immanent organization. In conclusion, I suggest that Negris theory

of the multitude helps explain the states doubleness: multitude and
state incarnate a sometimes complicitous confrontation between
constituent and constituted power. Yet the multitude is also a
social subject that constitutes itself through resonance and repeated
encounters on the plane of immanence, offering the prospect of
forms of community that might do without transcendence, that
is, without either the state or sovereignty. I warn, however, that
the multitude may turn bad and ultimately become indifferent to
the Empire that it confronts. The concept of corruption that
Negri employs to differentiate the two is in the end insufficient.
Against Negri, then, I argue for a distinction between good and
bad multitudes. I further caution that even should the multitude
fully emerge, autonomous and unlimited, we may hesitate at the
end of history that would result. Hence, inspired by the Irish novelist Flann OBrien, I offer two endings: a conclusion that meditates
on uneventful eternity and death, and an epilogue that rejoices in
insurgent history and life.
We may or may not want to embrace posthegemony as a political project for what Negri prophesies will be a future constituent
republic. But posthegemony as analysis offers a new understanding
of the constitution of the present and of the origins and the limits
of politics and political theory. It offers new tools for political and
historical investigation. My move from critique to constitution contends that these three theorists (Deleuze, Bourdieu, and Negri) can
be productively combined to trace a social and historical plane of
immanence, a political and social theory that would reject, and yet
also explain, transcendence at every point. This is the books affirmative project, its elaboration of a theory of posthegemony that
rereads social processes in terms of affect, habit, and the multitude. Posthegemony encompasses populism and neoliberalism, but
it also goes beyond them, and beyond even modernitys contractualist tradition of which the current so-called left turns (Chvez,
Morales, . . . Obama?) constitute the apogee and last gasp. It outlines a path through the everyday biopolitics that structures our
long postdisciplinary interregnum. For we are indeed now moving
beyond the period in which the state is constituted by means of
double inscription and entering a period in which immanence is
(nearly) all, an epoch now posthegemonic in the temporal sense,
beyond even the fiction of hegemony.

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Introduction

Latin America . . . and Beyond

Parallel to its theoretical argument, this book engages with Latin
American social, political, and cultural history. This history is
arranged as a series of case studies, each of which resonates with
a specific aspect of the theoretical argument. My historical narrative moves from intensive moment to intensive moment rather
than following a strict narrative teleology. It jumps from decade to
decade. The case studies may perhaps be read separately, skipped,
or, better still, supplemented or replaced by other cases that readers
may wish to bring to and test with the theoretical matrix of posthegemony: if not El Salvador, then Colombia, say; if not Chile,
then Poland; if not Argentina, then the United States. Running
through these plateaus are several recurrent concerns: first, Latin
American left movements from populism to Maoism, national liberation movements, new social movements, neopopulism, and the
left turns; second, the role played by cultural genres such as film,
television, testimonio, and the novel in Latin American societies;
and third, the models of social structure found in Argentina, Peru,
El Salvador, Chile, and Venezuela, and the relations between culture and politics in each. Throughout the book, theory and history
are interwoven, even as each remains distinct and relatively autonomous. Within each chapter the historical and theoretical arguments
are woven together via a mechanism of textual differentiation, in
which the historical material bearing on Latin America appears in a
different font. This arrangement is not to indicate any hierarchy of
the theoretical over the empirical; indeed the historical and cultural
could be viewed as the infrastructure for the theoretical, which the
reader may or may not wish to peruse. The stories from Latin America include vignettes that have their own specific importance: for
instance, the assault on a San Salvador hotel that was the real hinge
between the Cold War and the Age of Terror; the Chilean shopping
malls that reveal the true architecture of neoliberal consumerism;
or the Gabriel Garca Mrquez story that is a telling parable of
bare life. In short, you might almost believe, as French novelist
Georges Perec notes in another context, that the two levels of text
had nothing in common, but they are in fact inextricably bound
up with each other.16
A history of the contract also runs through my historical case
studies. We see right at the outset of modern imperialism instances

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of contracts and compacts that fail to have their purported effect,

not least the pact in the dark as the conquistadors read the so-called
Requerimiento, designed to justify colonization to the natives, while
its putative addressees were fast asleep in their beds. The pact does
not establish the social relation it claims: that will have to be established by some other means, in this case by force. I analyze the
theory of the contract in my concluding chapter, but the intervening historical analyses also involve failed pacts: a series of attempts
to bind culture to state, or to secure the legitimacy of the state,
that endlessly break down. Peronism, in chapter 1, is a compact
between people and nation that is (almost) all-encompassing, that
tries to sweep the people up in its promise of populist love that
would come to stand in for the state, which spectacularly fell apart
in the mid-1970s. Neoliberalism, illustrated in chapter 2 in its fatal
dance with Perus Sendero Luminoso during the early 1980s, is likewise expansive in its attempt to cement the whole of society to the
state, but shatters in its encounter with the affect that it would abolish from civil society. In chapter 3 and its focus on the Salvadoran
national liberation movement at its peak in the offensive of 1989, I
examine insurgency and terror as the absolute limit of societies of
control. The example of Chile in chapter 4, and its early 1990s transition from dictatorship to postdictatorship, considers everyday life
and biopolitics, suggesting resonance and conatus (or striving) as
concepts through which to understand the relation between culture
and state, social movement and reproductive project. The concluding chapter revisits these case studies to recapitulate the crisis of
the social contract in parallel with a theoretical argument concerning the multitude, the ambivalent and treacherous social subject
that refuses all pacts and all solidarity. In the Epilogue, Venezuelas
1989 Caracazo and then the coup and countercoup of 2002 show
how the multitude breaks even the contracts offered by Latin Americas most successful pacted democracy and by its most promising
instance of the current left turns, preferring unrepresented, perhaps
unrepresentable, insurrection.
These case studies exemplify both the discontinuous history of
state projects to bind the multitude and the unbroken red thread
of the multitudes ever-expansive constituent power to which the
state reacts. They point toward a history of the Latin American
multitude through modernity: from the near mutiny on Columbuss
first voyage of 1492 to the chavista counter-counterinsurgency of

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Introduction

2002. This history might also encompass indigenous revolts during the colonial period, the wars of independence in the 1820s,
or late nineteenth-century immigration and urbanization. Among
more recent movements, one might consider the Zapatista uprising
in Mexico or the piqueteros in contemporary Argentina. This would
be an underground, alternative history of Latin America that would
tell of insurgencies but also the stratagems by which hegemonic
projects have attempted to turn those insurgencies to the advantage
of the state: from the New Laws of the Indies, the Bourbon reforms,
or the postindependence settlement, to the twentieth-century history
that is more fully outlined here. It is precisely such mechanisms
of reactionary conversion of culture into state, affect into emotion, habit into opinion, multitude into people, constituent into
constituted power that are the ultimate interest of this book.
This is a book about political theory and Latin America, not
political theory in Latin America or Latin American political theory.
Its juxtaposition of the two terms is not quite contingent, not quite
necessary. In one sense, its analyses of Latin American history and
politics are interchangeable, almost disposable. In another sense,
they anchor the theoretical argument. In still another, they contaminate and decenter it. The theory of posthegemony draws from
but is also tested by Latin American history. Deleuze, Bourdieu,
and Negri are European theorists, but European theorys passage
through Latin America relocates and dislocates that theory. Passing such theory (and the theory of posthegemony) through other
contexts would dislocate it in other ways, forcing revision and reappraisal. At the same time, at least one of my examples is not strictly
Latin American at all: for all Columbuss bluster in front of his crew
on October 10, 1492, he had not yet discovered the continent
that would become the Americas. Indeed, the term Latin America would not be coined for another 350 years, and even now one
would be hard-pressed to define its limits. Part geographical, part
political, part cultural, Latin America overspills its bounds: is Belize
Latin America? Qubec? Miami? Lavapis, Madrid? The Gaucho
Grill, Manchester? Elsewhere I argue that Latin America becomes
viral, diffusely global, in contemporary postmodernity.17 But the
history of the conquest, of the colony and its immense transatlantic
trade, of populism and neoliberalism, shows that Latin America has
always been global, has always directly affected and decentered the

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xxi

global system. The Latin American multitude goes beyond regional

borders to infiltrate the metropolis.
Perhaps posthegemony starts in Latin America, or in discussions
of Latin America, but that is no reason for it to stop there. After all,
most everything begins in Latin America: modernity, nationalism,
the industrial revolution, among other world-historical processes.18
The theories that are the object of my critique cultural studies
and civil society theory also have a hidden Latin American history. Returning the theory of hegemony (via Laclau) and the theory
of civil society (via Cohen and Arato) to a Latin American milieu
repositions those theories in the contexts for which they are most
adequate. I give those theories their best shot: not only do I choose
what I claim are their strongest and most developed articulations
(in Laclau and in Cohen and Arato), I also test them in contexts that
should be favorable to their assumptions. Hence the choice of locations in which to test the theory of posthegemony: if posthegemony
can do a better job of explaining the Central American liberation
movements (the point of entry for cultural studies in Latin America)
and the transition from dictatorship in the Southern Cone (favored
locale for civil society theory), then it is all the more adequate to
explain other conjunctures. This is why I am happy to leave, say,
zapatismo or the piqueteros out of my analysis, even though these
are the movements that have to date most attracted scholars who
work with theorists such as Deleuze and Negri.19 I take for granted
that posthegemony best explains these phenomena, if it also best
explains the FMLN and the Chilean new social movements. In other
words, although the theory of posthegemony arises from a specific
Latin American context, it is not beholden to any one location. It is,
I hope, portable. With every iteration, however, the theory is bound
to change. Something always escapes!

Posthegemony / FULL TEXT FOR PRESS / November 22, 2010 / Page xxii / Figure 1

Christophe Colomb appaise une revolte bord (Christopher Columbus

puts down an attempted mutiny). Nineteenth-century French lithograph.
Courtesy of the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division,
negative no. LC-USZ62-20454.

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Prologue

October 10, 1492

When we reach the sea well build a bigger boat
and sail north to take Trinidad away from the
Spanish Crown. From there well go and take
Mexico from Cortez. What a great betrayal that
will be. We will then control all of New Spain.
And we will stage history as others stage plays.
Aguirre,Wrath of God

The Fiction of Hegemony

Even empires seek validation. No power can subsist on coercion
alone. Hence Antonio Gramscis famous distinction between hegemony and direct domination: hegemony is the spontaneous
consent given by the great masses of the population to the general
direction imposed on social life by the dominant social group, and
direct domination is exercised by the apparatus of state coercive
power which legally enforces discipline on those groups which
do not consent either actively or passively. Hegemony, in fact,
is primary: for Gramsci, power is grounded in consent, and force
is employed only secondarily, in moments of crisis and command
when spontaneous consent has failed. Coercion supplements consent, rather than vice versa. Hegemony is, in Gramscis view, the
bedrock of social order. It is through the pedagogical activities of
intellectuals in civil society that the state maintains its grip over
the exploited, and the dominant group cements the prestige that
it enjoys because of its position and function in the world of
production.1
At first sight, the Requerimiento that justified Spanish claims to
the Americas is a classic illustration of the relation between hegemony and coercion. Formulated in 1512 or 1513 by legal scholar
Juan Lpez Palacios Rubios, the Requerimiento (Requirement
1

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or Summons) was a text to be read by the conquistadors when

they encountered indigenous peoples. The document filled a hole
in Spains legal claim to the New World, complementing and rationalizing the traditional European law of conquest. It outlines the
case for the Empires legitimacy, based on the papal donation of
the New World to Castile in 1493, by way of a brief history of
Gods creation from Adam to the Spanish monarchs Fernando and
Juana. Above all, it offers its indigenous addressees a choice: submit, or face violent subjugation. Wherefore as best we can, we
ask and require you, the declaration states, that you consider
what we have said to you, and that you take the time that shall
be necessary to understand and deliberate upon it. Its audience is
then to consent and give place that these religious fathers should
declare and preach to you the aforesaid. Should, however, they
refuse their spontaneous consent to occupation and Christian
preaching, the indigenous are to expect the worst: We shall powerfully enter into your country, and shall make war against you in all
ways and manners that we can.2 This is hegemony as a pedagogic
enterprise designed to legitimate power, backed up by the threat
of coercive discipline: the Requerimiento appears to encapsulate
Gramscian theory in a nutshell.
On closer examination, however, Spanish practice had little in
common with hegemony theory. The indigenous were seldom if
ever given any real opportunity to consent. Most obviously, the
Requerimiento was written in Spanish, a language that they did not
speak. How would they agree to what they could not comprehend?
Even where there was some attempt at translation, the interpreters
themselves did not understand what the document said.3 Moreover, as historian Lewis Hanke notes, the circumstances in which
it was spoken might tax the readers patience and credulity, for
the Requirement was read to trees and empty huts when no Indians were to be found. Captains muttered its theological phrases into
their beards on the edge of sleeping Indian settlements.4 Sometimes
the invaders read the document only after they had already made
prisoners of the natives. At best the exercise devolved into a dialogue of the dumb, as when the Zuni Indians in what is now New
Mexico responded to the reading with a ritual of their own, laying down a barrier of sacred cornmeal to prevent the Spaniards
from entering the town.5 No wonder historian Henry Kamen calls
the final result . . . little more than grotesque; he reports that even

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Prologue

the documents author realized it was farcical.6 Spanish chronicler Gonzalo Fernndez de Oviedo is said to have commented to
his compatriot Pedrarias Dvila that these Indians have no wish
to listen to the theology of this Requirement, nor do you have
any obligation to make them try and understand it.7 Contrary to
claims that the Requerimiento was an instance of Spanish rulers
requir[ing] subject peoples to reiterate and reaffirm Spanish hegemony on a regular basis,8 in fact here hegemony is not at issue.
The indigenous never had the option to consent; they were in no
position to reaffirm anything.

Affects and Habits

Despite its transparent fictiveness and patent absurdity, the Requerimiento still served a purpose. For it was aimed not at the indigenous,
but at the Spanish. Under the guise of an appeal to the consent
of the subjugated, it shaped the habits and affects of the subjugators. The very fact of its redundant reiteration reveals that it was
an exercise in habituation. And it was repeated for the Spaniards,
not for their victims, who heard it only once, if at all. Each time
the conquistadors recited the ritual declaration, their desires were
synchronized and unified as part of a joint project. Rather than a
gesture of incorporation, the edict was an act of constitution. Its
confident self-justifications obscure the fact that it was needed only
because the imperial state was so weak. It enfolded these European
adventurers often excessive energies into an enterprise directed as
though from above. The Requerimiento had nothing to do with
any putative hegemonic project; it was a properly posthegemonic
mechanism. It worked all the better precisely because it appeared
to be part of a campaign, however ridiculous and ineffective, to
win hearts and minds, precisely because its object seemed to be
elsewhere. The Spaniards could feel superior to the dumb Indians
who did not know what had hit them, but they themselves were as
much in the dark as anybody else. The Requerimiento functioned
far beneath consciousness or ideology.
Bartolom de las Casas, the sixteenth-century Dominican priest
and defender of the indigenous, provides one version of the Requerimiento ritual. He tells us that when the Spaniards

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Prologue

learned that there was gold in a particular town or village . . .

[they made] their way there at dead of night, when the inhabitants were all in bed and sound asleep and, once they got
within, say, half a league of the town itself, read out the terms
of this edict, proclaiming (and only to themselves): Leaders
and citizens of such-and-such a town of this Mainland. Be it
known to you that there is one true God, one Pope, and one
King of Castile who is the rightful owner of all these lands.
You are hereby summoned to pay allegiance, etc. Should you
fail to do so, take notice that we shall make just war upon
you, and your lives and liberty will be forfeit, etc. Then, in
the early hours of the morning, when the poor people were
still innocently abed with their wives and their children, they
would irrupt into the town, setting fire to the houses and burning the women and children alive and often the men, too,
before the poor wretches realized what was happening.9
Asleep in their beds, at dead of night, with the Spaniards half a
league away, the indigenous are literally kept at a distance. Cultural
critic Alberto Moreiras describes the Requerimiento as differential inclusion; but here the indigenous are not included at all.
The native inhabitants can neither accept nor reject the choice
that the Spaniards offer. They are beyond the pale of any possible
community. Everything takes place before consciousness can take
hold, before the poor wretches realized what was happening. The
invaders are speaking only to themselves. But the mechanism in
which they are participating depends no more on their understanding than it does on that of their victims. Moreiras points out that
the indigenous inhabit a space that is already marked by death
and remains as such illegible.10 The Requerimiento, too, is illegible, however much it is read: it defies interpretation, as if to show
that its meaning is of little consequence.
Subalternist historian Patricia Seed shows that the Requerimiento
drew heavily on the Islamic tradition of jihad, or holy war; it
was a hybrid text that often led to considerable incomprehension
by traditional Christian observers both inside and outside Spain.
Unheard by its notional addressees, and almost as mystifying even
to those who pronounced it, the edicts manifest content is beside
the point, just as whether the Spanish conquerors believed in it
or found it personally compelling or convincing was irrelevant.11

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Prologue

The text appears to seek consent and so to expand the community of believers, but those to whom it offers that possibility remain
out of earshot, while those who are already within the circle are
there regardless of any beliefs they might hold. The Requerimiento
is comparable to the Bible proffered before the Inca Atahualpa in
Cajamarca as the conquistador Gonzalo Pizarro advanced in his
conquest of what is now Peru. The indigenous emperor threw the
book to the ground because it did not speak to him; this sacrilege toward the holy word was taken by the Europeans to be
proof of his barbarism and justification for bloodshed. Yet, as cultural critic Antonio Cornejo Polar observes, the Bible would have
been equally illegible to most Spaniards, including Pizarro himself,
not least because it was written in Latin.12 The book was more
fetish than text, a shibboleth whose signification was purely incidental. Neither the Bible nor the Requerimiento were documents that
demanded interpretation; they were instead touchpapers for the violent explosion of imperial expansion, code words in the protocol
for conquest enacted by the Spaniards in the dark.13
Las Casas had no illusions about the Spaniards motivations:
they were driven by the search for gold. This was no civilizing
mission. Indeed, the Dominicans complaint was that the Requerimiento bore no relationship to the reality of Spanish practice. Las
Casas was hardly an anti-imperialist. If anything, his campaign was
for the Spanish state to give substance to the fiction of hegemony.14
For Las Casas, the scandal was the unbridled desire that reduced
the conquistadors to savages more dangerous than the indigenous
peoples themselves; their blind and obsessive greed made them
more inhumane and more vicious than savage tigers, more ferocious than lions or than ravening wolves.15 But he failed to see that
the Requerimiento channeled that affect. It placed the lust for gold
under the sign of a narrative of progress, and more importantly it
unified the conquistadors, huddled together in an alien landscape.
The act of reading helped bind the affect mobilized in their hunt for
gold, counteracting that affects centrifugal tendencies by organizing
it as part of an ecclesiastical, imperial, and monarchical hierarchy
before the men were let loose as a war machine irrupt[ing] into
the town.
The Requerimiento consolidates relations between the Spanish
conquistadors after the fact of domination; it embodies them as
agents of the state, as subjects of constituted power. Everybody

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knows that the text itself is unpersuasive! Instead of persuading the

colonized, it works on the colonizers to establish a common habitus
that lies beneath ideology and beneath hegemony. As the invaders
repeatedly intone these words that they themselves barely understand, they become habituated to a ritual through which the Spanish
state, even at great distance, seeks to regulate their activities. Its men
will at least have been singing from the same hymnbook, whatever their beliefs about or consent to the claims made in the hymns
themselves. This is dominance without hegemony, in subaltern
studies theorist Ranajit Guhas words, the fabrication of a spurious hegemony16 that nobody believes, but that serves (thanks to
the notarization and record keeping that the edict itself demands)
to emplot Latin America within a historical narrative generated by
the European state. The subalterns will, simply, be eliminated, their
culture excluded from the ambit of a Christian universe defined
in terms of the centrality and rights of the Catholic monarchy.
But the indigenous are never really a threat to those rights: the
danger lies within, from the possibility that the conquistadors themselves might (as depicted in Werner Herzogs film Aguirre, Wrath of
God [1972]) establish a counterstate on American soil. Behind the
Requerimiento is the fear of betrayal, of sedition, of the threat posed
by the men-at-arms who purportedly represent the Crown abroad.

The Multitude and the Pact

Postcolonial studies focuses on the relation between colonizer and
colonized, between Empire and its outside. It thereby takes the state,
and what goes on inside, for granted. Empire encounters the subaltern at its limit, but it already carries a multitude within. The
agents of imperialism are as much escaping state control as expanding it. Colonialisms weak point is always the passage between
center and periphery, metropolis and colony. The Spanish Empire
was forced to establish an immense bureaucratic apparatus to guard
this intermediate space, threatened constantly by piracy, fraud,
desertion, and mutiny. The name given to this bureaucracy was
the Casa de Contratacin: the Contraction House, or Office of
Contracts. The European state depended on a diffuse group of
adventurers and neer-do-wells to expand its sphere of influence
until it covered the entire known world; but it had simultaneously to reign in this renegade subjectivity, to maintain the bounds

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Prologue

of the social contract. Empire stretched the state to its limit: the
Crowns gravest problem was always its inability . . . to control
events from a distance.17 The multitude, a motley crew that resisted
authority, representation, or leadership, constituted Empire but also
undermined the very power that it brought into being.
Christopher Columbus was a Genoese adventurer who believed
he had visionary inspiration. For over a decade, he hawked his idea
for an expedition over the Atlantic to a variety of private and public
interests. In the end, he won the backing of the Spanish monarchy,
but his enterprise was essentially a private one. Spain itself barely
existed as a modern nation-state: the crowns of Castile and Aragon
had come together with the wedding of Ferdinand and Isabella
in 1469, but it was only with the reconquest of Andalusia and
the expulsion of Jews and Moors from the Iberian peninsula two
decades later that the state could even aspire to the fantasy of territorial integrity and ethnic and cultural homogeneity. Columbus
gained royal approval for his voyage just days after the king and
queen rode into Granada in triumph in January 1492. This year of
settling boundaries was also a year of great movements of peoples,
swarms of refugees. Jews who were camped around the ports and
on seagoing vessels were given the order to leave port on August 2,
1492, the day before Columbus set sail.18 In the early morning
of August 3, as Spain consolidated its territorial and ethnic limits,
Columbuss small fleet the Nia, Pinta, and Santa Mara constituted a seemingly insignificant line of flight westward. Something
always escapes.
Columbuss crew had reason to flee. Tradition portrays them as
convicts motivated by the royal pardon they received for signing
up.19 Historian and sailor Samuel Eliot Morison plays down this
account of a crew composed of desperate characters, criminals,
and jailbirds, but he does confirm that at least four of the men
had indeed been reprieved from death row by enlisting.20 Even the
full-time seafarers among them operated at the margins of the law.
Columbuss main associate, Martn Alonso Pinzn, who captained
the Pinta while his brother Vicente took charge of the Nia, had
like many other mariners . . . occasionally engaged in piracy as well
as legitimate trade.21 This was an expedition packed with potentially unruly subordinates, exacerbated by an imbalance between
crew and officers in that each ships crew was exceptionally large,
perhaps double the normal complement.22 In any case, Columbus

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had trouble with his men from the start. Even before they set sail,
several of the crew on the Pinta had been grumbling and making difficulties, and were suspected of sabotaging the ship at the
Canaries.23 Once underway, the admiral was increasingly worried
about a possible mutiny, and with good cause: Las Casas reports
that as early as September 24, when they were almost exactly in midAtlantic, some of his crew argued that the best thing of all would
be to throw [Columbus] overboard one night and put it about that
he had fallen while trying to take a reading of the Pole Star with his
quadrant or astrolabe.24
The voyage is longer and farther than any of the men had
expected. From early on, Columbus is aware that the sheer extent
to which they are collectively venturing into the unknown is a
likely cause for dissent. From September 9 (just three days after
leaving the Canaries) he maintains a double log, with two reckonings, one false and the other true, of the distance traveled each
day, because he is worried that his crew might take fright or lose
courage if the voyage were long.25 Only landfall will resolve the
mens concerns, yet land is frustratingly elusive. Expectation runs
high, however. From September 14 Columbus reports that there are
many sure signs of land, provoking a veritable interpretosis: there
are no innocent objects in the Atlantic traversed by this convoy.
On September 16, seeing many patches of very green seaweed,
which appeared only recently to have been uprooted[, a]ll considered therefore that they were near some island. Likewise, a
live crab on September 17 can be taken to be a certain sign of
land. On September 25, both Columbus and the crew are convinced that land has been sighted. They fall on their knees to give
thanks to God, but what they had taken for land was no land but
cloud. A week or so later, these many signs of land, previously
heralded by Columbus with enthusiasm, have to be discounted
as the crew lobbies for the expedition to return to investigate.26
Columbus rejects their proposal, and insists that they continue
on westward. Historians William and Carla Phillips argue that he
must have wanted to maintain his authority over the captains
and their crews. . . . Allowing side excursions in search of islands
would diminish the aura of certainty that he had been at pains to
protect.27 Previous voyagers (notably Bartholomew Dias rounding
the Cape of Good Hope in 1487) had been forced by their crews

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Prologue

to abandon further exploration; Columbus, too, is now seriously

running the risk of mutiny.
As October arrives, the situation deteriorates. By October 1 there
is a discrepancy of 121 leagues between Columbuss true calculation of the distance they have traveled and the lower figure . . .
shown to the men.28 By October 11 that discrepancy will have
risen to at least 195 leagues, or almost a quarter again of the extent
that the men are told they have traveled. Yet even the phony log
shows that the fleet has sailed much farther than Columbus had predicted. In this context, what Morison calls the incipient mutiny
of late September develops fast: Columbus and the Pinzons needed
all their moral force and prestige to prevent outbreaks or even
mutiny.29 On October 6, in an acrid interview,30 Martn Pinzn
himself questions the route they are taking, suggesting they should
veer farther south, but Columbus countermands his associate. One
version of the admirals log has him reporting: My decision has
not pleased the men, for they continue to murmur and complain.
Despite their grumblings I held fast to the west.31 The same day,
in response to the near-mutinous atmosphere, with the crew of the
Santa Mara demanding that the fleet turn for Spain, he summons
a council of his captains; both the Pinzn brothers are persuaded
to support the decision to continue.32 October 7 brings another
false sighting of land, and Columbus changes his bearing slightly
to the south. Two days later he tacks north. But by October 10,
the men could bear no more; they complained of the length of the
voyage.33
In Morisons words, October 10 was the most critical day of the
entire voyage, when the enterprise came nearest to failure, as all
the smoldering discontent of the men flared up into open mutiny.
Columbus encouraged them as best he could: he held out high
hopes of the gains they could make and he added that it was
no use their complaining, because he had reached the Indies and
must sail on until with the help of Our Lord he discovered land.34
Perhaps it was the multiple signs that led Columbus to claim that
they had already reached the Indies, though if the signs could
have been believed they would have seen land long before. Perhaps
he was also referring to the fact that, by any measure, the fleet
was now more than 800 leagues from Spain, and he had repeatedly declared that land would be sighted at 750 leagues. But these

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10

Prologue

arguments were now wearing thin. Even the ships captains were
turning against their admiral. The mutinous crewmen began to
rattle their weapons.35 The admiral had to forestall panic among
his crew, on whom he was totally dependent. There was no one
more vulnerable than Columbus, as he himself would later lament
loudly and persistently.
Columbus makes a pact with his men. The compromise he suggests is that they would continue on their westward course for two
more days (or three or four; accounts vary). If they had not found
land at the end of that period, they would turn back.36 The precise
details of the agreement are sketchy: it is omitted from the admirals
log and will become a bone of contention in a long-running court
case years later in which the Crown will try to argue for the Pinzn
brothers share of the voyages success.37 Some accounts claim that
it is Columbus who has to be encouraged to continue, and others
that the Pinzn brothers are fully part of the mutiny. What is clear
is that only this last-ditch attempt at compromise keeps the voyage going on October 10, 1492, and that there are good reasons
why even Columbus might be losing heart. But an indication of
the type of pact he might have made comes from the admirals second voyage, in 1494. Then, he and his men are reconnoitering the
coast of Cuba until, fed by frustration and fantasy, Columbus
gives up when he begins to suspect that it is not in fact part of
the Asian mainland. This realization would threaten his cherished
belief that he had indeed found a new route to the East Indies. So
he again attempts a contract with his crew. He called upon the
ships scrivener, Fernndez-Armesto reports, to record the oath
of almost every man in the fleet that Cuba was a mainland and that
no island of such magnitude had ever been known. . . . They further
swore that had they navigated farther they would have encountered
the Chinese. If the men break their oath, they face dire consequences: a fine of ten thousand maravedis and the loss by excision
of their tongues.38 If they refuse to abide by Columbuss fantasy,
the crew lose their place within this newly constituted imperial order
and are cast into mute subalternity.
On October 10 of the first voyage, the fictions validating Columbuss control are breaking down: he has given his men a false
account of the distance traveled and has argued that they have
already reached land, but the crew are no longer so prepared to

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11

swear agreement. They are an unruly multitude on the verge of

overthrowing their master. His skin is only saved when, late the
following night, the fleet finally makes landfall. Now the constitutive tension of Empire can be displaced elsewhere. Perhaps others
will have better luck imposing the fiction of a contract, the illusion of consent. Or perhaps the slippage between constituent and
constituted power will remain an open if unacknowledged wound
throughout modernity.

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Notes
Introduction
1. See Keohane, After Hegemony.
2. Spinoza, Ethics, 71.
3. Lash, Power after Hegemony, 55.
4. Thoburn, Patterns of Production.
5. Arditi, Post-Hegemony, 215, 209.
6. Larsen, Modernism and Hegemony, 97.
7. Ydice, Civil Society, 4.
8. See Hardt, The Withering of Civil Society.
9. Guha, The Prose of Counter-Insurgency, 83.
10. Guha, Dominance without Hegemony, xi.
11. See Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak?
12. Williams, The Other Side of the Popular, 327 n. 7.
13. Moreiras, The Exhaustion of Difference, 263.
14. Negri, El exilio, 38.
15. Roseberry, Hegemony and the Language of Contention, 364.
Roseberrys version of hegemony is rather similar to Bourdieus conception
of a divide between discourse and doxa: between the universe of the
thinkable and the universe of the unthinkable . . . what cannot be said
for lack of an available discourse (Outline of a Theory of Practice, 170).
But Bourdieu would be the first to note that power works also through the
unthinkable and the unsayable (in other words, through habit), not simply
through establishing a framework for what can be said.
16. Perec, W, [vii].
17. Beasley-Murray, Latin America and the Global System.
18. See again Beasley-Murray, Latin America and the Global System.
19. See, for instance, Holloway, Change the World without Taking
Power, and Mentinis, Zapatistas.

Prologue
1. Gramsci, Selections from Prison Notebooks, 12.
2. Quoted in Hanke, History of Latin American Civilization, 1:125.
3. Kamen, Empire, 97.
4. Quoted in Williams, The American Indian in Western Legal
Thought, 92.

301

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302

Notes to the Prologue

5. Hoffer, Law and People in Colonial America, 56.

6. Kamen, Empire, 97.
7. Quoted in Kamen, Empire, 97.
8. Beezley et al., Introduction, xiii.
9. Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, 33.
10. Moreiras, Spanish Nation Formation, 9.
11. Seed, Ceremonies of Possession, 88.
12. Cornejo Polar, Escribir en el aire, 40.
13. Seed, Ceremonies of Possession, 88.
14. See Castro, Another Face of Empire.
15. Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, 96.
16. Guha, Dominance without Hegemony, 72.
17. Kamen, Empire, 87.
18. Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, 148.
19. Fernndez-Armesto, Columbus, 46.
20. Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, 142.
21. Phillips and Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, 138.
22. Cummins, The Voyage of Christopher Columbus, 5556.
23. Columbus, The Four Voyages, 39.
24. Quoted in Fernndez-Armesto, Columbus, 76; see also Bedini,
Christopher Columbus, 695.
25. Columbus, The Four Voyages, 47, 41.
26. Ibid., 42, 43, 47, 49.
27. Phillips and Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, 150.
28. Columbus, The Four Voyages, 48.
29. Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, 208, 210.
30. Fernndez-Armesto, Columbus, 50.
31. Fuson, The Log of Christopher Columbus, 71.
32. See Phillips and Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus,
150 51.
33. Columbus, The Four Voyages, 51.
34. Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, 214, 215; Columbus, The
Four Voyages, 51.
35. Phillips and Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, 152.
36. Ibid., 15253.
37. See Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, 216 20.
38. Fernndez-Armesto, Columbus, 109.

1. Argentina 1972
1.
2.
3.
4.

Nelson et al., Cultural Studies, 3.

Hall, Cultural Studies and Its Theoretical Legacies, 263, 262.
Nelson et al., Cultural Studies, 10.
Johnson, Reinventing Cultural Studies, 452.