Part 1

SEWERAGE
MANUAL
(with Eurocodes incorporated)
contents related to Eurocodes highlighted in green

Key Planning Issues and Gravity Collection System

Third Edition, May 2013

DRAINAGE SERVICES DEPARTMENT

Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region

CONTENTS

1.

2.

INTRODUCTION
1.1

SCOPE

1.2

ABBREVIATIONS

1.3

DESIGN STANDARDS
1.3.1 Planning, Investigation and Materials of Sewerage System
1.3.2 Sewerage Structures

1.4

REQUIREMENT OF SUSTAINABILITY

1.5

HARBOURFRONT ENHANCEMENT REQUIREMENTS

SEWERAGE IN HONG KONG

2.1

3.

THE HONG KONG SITUATION

GENERAL PLANNING AND INVESTIGATION

3.1

INTRODUCTION

3.2

INFORMATION FOR SYSTEM PLANNING

3.2.1 Previous Studies
3.2.2 Planning of Sewerage Catchment Areas
3.2.3 Maps, Town Plans and Drainage Records
3.2.4 Location of Utilities

3.3

IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAMMES

3.4

DESIGN LIFE

3.5

LAND

3.6

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.6.1 Environmental Standard and Legislative Control
3.6.2 Environmental Assessment
3.6.3 Mitigating Measures

3.7

SITE INVESTIGATIONS

3.8

HYDROGRAPHIC STUDIES

4.

5.

6.

FLOW AND LOAD ESTIMATION

4.1

FLOW ESTIMATION

4.2

LOAD ESTIMATION
4.2.1 Loads
4.2.2 Existing Data Sources
4.2.3 Load Estimation
4.2.4 Unit Load Factors

DESIGN OF SEWERS
5.1

DESIGN CRITERIA
5.1.1 Capacity (gravity pipelines)
5.1.2 Minimum Velocity
5.1.3 Maximum Velocity
5.1.4 Levels
5.1.5 Alignment
5.1.6 Minimum Pipes Size
5.1.7 Septicity
5.1.8 Large Deep Sewer
5.1.9 Planting in the Vicinity of Sewers
5.1.10 Sewerage Works in Conjunction with Roadworks

5.2

HYDRAULICS OF GRAVITY PIPELINES

5.2.1 Basic Equations
5.2.2 Local Losses
5.2.3 Water Surface Profiles
5.2.4 Design Tools

5.3

PIPELINE MATERIALS
5.3.1 Choice of Pipe Material
5.3.2 Corrosion Protection
5.3.3 Pipe Joints

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GRAVITY PIPELINES

6.1

INTRODUCTION

6.2

DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR RIGID PIPES

6.3

FILL LOADS
6.3.1 Narrow trench condition
6.3.2 Embankment condition

6.4

SUPERIMPOSED LOADS

7.

8.

6.5

WATER LOAD

6.6

BEDDING FACTORS

6.7

DESIGN STRENGTH

6.8

EFFECT OF VARIATION IN PIPE OUTSIDE DIAMETERS

MANHOLES AND SPECIAL STRUCTURES

7.1

MANHOLES
7.1.1 Location
7.1.2 Access Openings
7.1.3 Access Shafts
7.1.4 Working Chambers
7.1.5 Intermediate Platform
7.1.6 Inverts and Benching
7.1.7 Covers
7.1.8 Step-irons and Ladders
7.1.9 Backdrop Manholes

7.2

INVERTED SIPHONS

7.3

MUTLIPLE PIPE CROSSINGS

7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Number of Pipe Crossings and Size
7.3.3 Control Structures
7.3.4 Level of Pipe Crossings

7.4

DRY WEATHER FLOW INTERCEPTION

7.4.1 Pollution Sources
7.4.2 Abatement of Pollution Problems
7.4.3 Design Considerations for DWF interceptors

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SEWERAGE

SYSTEMS
8.1 GENERAL
8.1.1 Maintenance Objectives
8.2 TAKING OVER OF COMPLETED WORKS
8.2.1 Procedures for Handing Over
8.2.2 Handing Over in Dry Conditions
8.2.3 Documents to be Submitted
8.3

INSPECTION AND GENERAL MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS

5
8.3.1 Inspection Programmes
8.3.2 Closed Circuit Television Surveys
8.3.3 Inspection within Red Routes, Pink Routes and Expressways
8.3.4 Inspection of Drains behind Slopes
8.3.5 Desilting Programmes
8.3.6 Methods for Desilting/Cleansing
8.4 SEWERAGE REHABILITATION
8.4.1 Pipe Replacement
8.4.2 Trenchless Methods for Repairing Pipes
8.5 DRY WEATHER FLOW INTERCEPTORS
8.5.1 Inspection
8.5.2 Cleansing
8.6

INVERTED SIPHONS
8.6.1 Flushing
8.6.2 Inspection and Desilting

8.7 CONNECTIONS TO EXISTING SEWERAGE SYSTEM

8.7.1 Existing Capacity
8.7.2 Terminal Manholes
8.7.3 Provision of Manholes
8.8 DRAINAGE RECORDS
8.9 SAFETY PROCEDURES
8.9.1 General
8.9.2 Working in Sewers
8.9.3 Safety Requirements for Working in Confined Space
8.9.4 Working under Adverse Weather Conditions and
During Flooding

9.

TUNNEL SEWERS
9.1 GENERAL
9.2 TUNNEL SEWERS
9.2.1 Introduction
9.2.2 Flow Control in Tunnel Sewers
9.2.3 Monitoring of Hydraulic Performance
9.2.4 Inspections
9.2.5 Maintenance
9.2.6 Potential Problems and Remedial Actions
9.3 DEEP SEWAGE TUNNEL SYSTEM
9.3.1 Introduction
9.3.2 Choice of Deep Sewage Tunnel System
9.3.3 Tunnel Construction Methods

6
9.3.4 Site Investigation (SI)
9.3.5 Land Requirements
9.3.6 Protection of Deep Sewage Tunnels
9.3.7 Geotechnical Control for Tunnel Works
9.3.8 Sizing of Deep Sewage Tunnels
9.3.9 Gradient of Deep Sewage Tunnels
9.3.10 Operation and Maintenance Considerations

10.

TRENCHLESS CONSTRUCTION
10.1

INTRODUCTION

10.2 NON-MAN-ENTRY TYPE

10.2.1 Slurry Pressure Balance Method
10.2.2 Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) Method
10.3 MAN-ENTRY TYPE
10.3.1 Heading Method
10.3.2 Hand-dug Tunnel Method
10.4 MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS
10.4.1 Planning & Design Stage
10.4.2 Construction Stage
10.4.3 Environmental Issue
10.4.4 Cost Consideration

REFERENCES
TABLES
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES

FIGURES
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES

1.
1.1

INTRODUCTION

SCOPE

Part 1 of this Manual offers guidance on the planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of public gravity sewerage systems in Hong Kong. For guidance on sewage
pumping stations & rising mains and on sewage treatment & disposal facilities, please refer
to Parts 2 and 3 of this Manual respectively. DSD has also promulgated Practice Note No.
1/2011 Design Checklists on Operation & Maintenance Requirements and Practice Note
No. 3/2010 Design Consideration for Large Deep Gravity Sewers which can be reached
on DSDs internet home page : www.dsd.gov.hk. Readers are requested to go through the
Practice Notes, or their latest versions, when designing sewers to ensure that the final
products satisfy the operation and maintenance requirements of the maintenance authority.

1.2

ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used throughout this Part 1:
ADWF
ArchSD
APCO
BD
BS
BSI
BS EN
CEDD
CIRIA
DSD
DWF
DWFI
E&M
EMSD
EC
EN
EPD
EIAO
FRP
GEO
GRP
HATS
HDPE
HyD
ISO
IWA
MDPE
NCO

Average Dry Weather Flow

Architectural Services Department
Air Pollution Control Ordinance
Buildings Department
British Standard
British Standards Institution
European Standards adopted as British Standards
Civil Engineering and Development Department
Construction Industry Research and Information
Association
Drainage Services Department
Dry Weather Flow
Dry Weather Flow Interceptor
Electrical & Mechanical
Electrical and Mechanical Services Department
Eurocodes (i.e. European Standards EN1990 to
EN1999)
European Standard
Environmental Protection Department
Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance
Fibreglass Reinforced Plastic
Geotechnical Engineering Office
Glass Reinforced Plastic
Harbour Area Treatment Scheme
High Density Polyethylene
Highways Department
International Organisation for Standardisation
International Water Association
Medium Density Polyethylene
Noise Control Ordinance

8
SCA
SMP
SMPR
SSDS
SSS
STW
UK NA
uPVC
WCZ
WPCO
WPCR
WSD

Sewerage Catchment Area

Sewerage Master Plan
Sewerage Master Plan Review
Strategic Sewage Disposal Scheme subsequently
renamed as HATS
Sewage Strategy Study
Sewage Treatment Works
United Kingdom National Annexes to Eurocodes
Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride
Water Control Zones
Water Pollution Control Ordinance
Water Pollution Control Regulation
Water Supplies Department

1.3

DESIGN STANDARDS

1.3.1

Planning, Investigation and Materials of Sewerage System

The following design standards, or their latest versions, are to be adopted, except
otherwise stated in this Part 1:
Design Elements
Planning and investigation of
drainage and sewerage system
Self cleansing velocity of sewer
Head loss coefficient K
Plain/reinforced concrete pipe
Prestressed concrete pipe
Vitrified clay pipe
Mild steel pipe
Ductile iron pipe
Cast iron pipe
Stainless steel pipe
GRP pipe
uPVC pipe
MDPE/HSPE pipe
1.3.2

Design Standards
BS EN 752
BS EN 752
BS EN 752
BS 5911-1
BS 5911-5 and BS EN 639 & 642
BS 65 and BS EN 295
BS EN 10224, 10311, 10220,
10216-1 & 10217-1
BS EN 598
BS 437, 416-1, 1211, 4622
BS EN 6362, 10217-7 & 10312
BS EN 14364
BS 3506 and BS EN 1401-1,
1452-1 to 5, 13598-1
BS EN 12201-1, 2 & 5

Sewerage Structures

In Hong Kong, sewerage structures are currently designed to BS, either directly as in
the case for water retaining structures to BS 8007, or indirectly as in the case for structures
subject to highway loading to BS 5400 customized by the local guiding document. In view
of the progressive replacement of BS by EC (EN 1990 to EN 1999) and their UK NA through
the promulgation of BS EN standards since March 2010, Government has planned to migrate
from BS to EC and UK NA in 2015. To cope with the migration, a transition period from
2013 to 2014 is set out during which the designer may opt for using BS or EC and UK NA in
conjunction with local guidance/documents as appropriate for structural design of the

9
sewerage structures (e.g. manholes or tunnel sewers in this Part 1, or sewage pumping
stations in Part 2). Starting from 2015, the use of EC and UK NA cum local
guidance/documents as appropriate will become mandatory. The following design standards,
or their latest versions, are to be adopted, except otherwise stated:
Design Elements/Loads

Design Standards

Imposed loads

Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed

Loads, BD

Traffic loads

Structures Design Manual for Highways

and Railways, HyD

Wind load

Code of Practice on Wind Effects in Hong

Kong

Reinforced concrete structures

BS EN 1990 and BS EN 1992 (in general)

Pumping station

BS EN 1992 (superstructure) and BS

EN 1992-3 (substructure)

Tunnel lining

BS EN 1992-3 (liquid retaining

properties) and GEO Manuals,
Guidelines and Publications
(geotechnical)

Manholes (other than standard

manholes in DSD standard drawings)

BS EN 1992-3

Foundation
-

Deep and shallow foundations

Code of Practice for Foundations, BD

(structural design) and GEO Manuals,
Guidelines and Publications
(geotechnical design)

Reinforced concrete design for raft

and pile cap

BS EN 1992

Earth retaining structures

Guide to Retaining Wall Design, GEO

Recommended design parameters for concrete and steel reinforcement are given in
Table 15.

1.4

REQUIREMENT OF SUSTAINABILITY

The areas of concern on top of economic, social and environmental aspects for
sustainability in the design of sewerage are energy requirement and odour control. They are
closely related to the size of the network.

10
It should be noted that sewer is not only a pipe for conveying sewage, it is also a
reactor inside which microorganisms are breaking down the organics and consuming the very
limited dissolved oxygen.
The size of the pipe, the use of inverted siphon, envisaged development phasing and
the alignment of the sewer are common factors that have an impact on energy requirement for
conveying sewage.
Septicity of sewage in sewers should be avoided, as it does not only cause corrosion
in pipes and manholes but also produce odour causing nuisance. It is therefore preferable to
prevent the septicity of sewage, by sewer ventilation, mechanical aeration or supply of
chemical oxygen, rather than relying on containing and treating the odour.

1. 5

HARBOURFRONT ENHANCEMENT REQUIREMENTS

According to the General Circular No. 3/2010 with respect to Harbourfront

Enhancement, the Hong Kong SAR Government is committed to protect, preserve and
beautify the harbour. Designers special attention is drawn to the requirement that once
their proposed facilities or temporary works areas have encroached upon the Harbourfront
areas as referred to in the General Circular, they would be subject to the Harbourfront
principles and guidelines so as to meet the public aspirations for a vibrant, green, accessible
and sustainable harbourfront.
The designers are required to go through the checklist annexed to the circular and
should satisfy themselves that such facilities and temporary works area are essential and
would be able to obtain support from the public before finalization of any part of the design
affecting the Harbourfront areas as referred to in the General Circular. Even so, designers
are to engage the public at the earliest possible juncture so as to allow for comments and
suggestions from the stakeholders on their proposals in order to maximize the level of public
enjoyment to the concerned areas or facilities.
In particular, designers should be vigilant that the occupation of Harbourfront areas
by public facilities that are environmentally unpleasant or incompatible with the Harbourfront
are not supported in the first place. Where there are no better alternatives after taking into
account cost and other relevant factors, designers should keep the footprint to a minimum as
far as possible, and implement necessary mitigation measures to reduce the impact on the
Harbourfront. In addition, access to Harbourfront should be reserved where practicable for
public use and landscaped to compensate for the occupation of the Harbourfront areas by
such public facilities.

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2. SEWERAGE IN HONG KONG

2.1

THE HONG KONG SITUATION

Drainage and sewerage have always been part of the essential infrastructure of a
modern city. In Hong Kong, separate systems are provided for the collection and disposal
of stormwater and sewage.
Currently over 93% of the sewage produced from residential, commercial and
industrial premises in Hong Kong is being collected and properly treated in various treatment
works prior to disposal to sea for dilution and dispersion through outfalls. Latest
technologies on trenchless pipelaying, septicity control and odour control are adopted in
some sewerage works in order to improve the quality of service.
In Hong Kong, sewers have been installed incrementally over the past decades as
development has progressed.
In 1971, a consultancy was commissioned "to investigate the state of the waters of
Hong Kong and to recommend a programme of improvement works".
The
recommendations of this study have since formed the blue print for the sewage treatment and
disposal strategy which is to fully utilize the natural assimilative capacity of the sea. In the
past, this strategy together with ad hoc additions to the sewerage system had been successful
in mitigating serious deterioration of most of Hong Kong's waters.
However, in the 1980's, it was recognised that these sewerage arrangements were
not adequate to contain the increasing threat of pollution. The White Paper "Pollution in
Hong Kong - A Time to Act" of 1989 assessed the adequacy of current programmes and
outlined a comprehensive plan to tackle pollution. Moreover, in the Chief Executives 1999
Policy Address: Quality People, Quality Home Positioning Hong Kong for the 21st Century,
the policy of sustainable development and the need to provide adequate sewerage facilities
for further planning scenarios formed a key element. Assessment of sewerage infrastructure
needs in order to cater for housing demands and new developments was carried out under the
Sewerage Master Plans plus their associated reviews. This was complemented by the
control of wastewater discharges through the Water Pollution Control Ordinance and
Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance. A new sewage strategy has then been
formulated and the following actions are now in hand to reduce the water pollution problem:(a)

Continued implementation of "existing schemes" which have been in the

public works programme and which are compatible with other proposed new
measures to satisfy new water quality standards. Examples are new and
improved sewage treatment and disposal facilities in the North West Kowloon,
Tsuen Wan/Kwai Chung and the North West New Territories.

(b)

In order to identify specific sewerage problems in various districts of Hong

Kong and to propose improvements to the sewerage system, a series of
"Sewerage Master Plans" (SMP) and Sewerage Master Plan Reviews (SMPR)
have been or are being prepared. As resources permit, the recommendations

12
of SMP and SMPR will be implemented in a prioritised manner which will
greatly improve the effectiveness of the sewerage system.
(c)

To improve the arrangements for sewage disposal, a "Strategic Sewage

Disposal Scheme (SSDS)" which was subsequently renamed as Harbour
Area Treatment Scheme [HATS] combining elements of land based sewage
treatment with the natural self-purification capacity of the ocean has been
endorsed. It consists of a deep tunnel system to collect all sewage in the
most densely populated urban areas on both sides of the Victoria Harbour.
With the completion of HATS Stage 1 in 2001, over 1.4 million cubic metres
of sewage is receiving Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment every day at
Stonecutters Island Sewage Treatment Works. Preliminarily treated effluent
now only accounts for less than 30% of the total volume of sewage treated
every year. Various sewage treatment upgrading works including HATS
Stage 2 are under design or construction to further treat the preliminary
effluent.

(d)

To improve the environment and sanitary conditions of village areas and the
water quality of nearby streams and waters, DSD is gradually implementing
village sewerage programmes to provide proper public sewerage networks for
collection and conveyance of sewage from unsewered village areas in the
New Territories for centralized treatment and disposal at suitable locations
without detriment to the environment or public health.

13

3.
3.1

GENERAL PLANNING AND INVESTIGATION

INTRODUCTION

A sewerage system should be designed to collect all wastewater generated within a

catchment area and to convey it to a sewage treatment works for treatment prior to discharge
into the receiving watercourse or the sea via the outfall facilities. General information on the
planning and investigation required for sewerage is given in BS EN 752: 2008. This
Chapter gives further guidance on this subject.

3.2

INFORMATION FOR SYSTEM PLANNING

3.2.1

Previous Studies

In planning a sewerage system, the following documents should be referred to

ensure compatibility with the overall strategic plan and master plans:
(a)

the Sewage Strategy Study (SSS) for Hong Kong and the Strategic Sewage
Disposal Scheme (SSDS) now renamed as Habour Area Treatment Scheme
(HATS);

(b)

the appropriate Sewerage Master Plan (SMP) Study and Sewerage Master
Plan Review (SMPR) Study.

The SSS was endorsed by the Government in 1989. It set out water quality
objectives to protect the coastal waters of Hong Kong, and developed a long term strategy for
sewage collection, treatment and disposal to meet these objectives.
The study recommended the construction of a central urban area sewerage network
known as the Habour Area Treatment Scheme (HATS). The HATS consists of a deep
tunnel system to collect all sewage in the urban area and to convey it to the Stonecutters
Island Sewage Treatment Works (SCISTW) for treatment.
A typical SMP Study consists of the following :
(a)

an investigation of the existing condition of the sewerage system;

(b)

an assessment of flow and pollution loads within the sewerage system under
existing and future/ultimate development conditions;

(c)

an analysis of the hydraulic capacity of sewerage system - generally on

computerized models;

(d)

the recommendation of measures to mitigate pollution problems or shortfalls

in the existing sewerage system;

14

(e)

recommendation for the provision or upgrading of sewage treatment works

and sewerage systems;

(f)

the preparation of the cost estimate for carrying out the recommendations in
(d) and (e), and the recommendation of an implementation programme.

Depending on the scope of work in hand and the information available from the SSS,
SMPs and SMPRs, collection of further data may be necessary, including :

3.2.2

(a)

location, level and size of existing sewers;

(b)

details (including as-built records and operation data) of any existing sewage
handling installations such as pumping stations, sewage treatment works, dry
weather flow interceptors and outfalls;

(c)

data on sewage flows including infiltration and/or leakage;

(d)

any other relevant information such as utility plans and traffic studies.

Planning of Sewerage Catchment Areas

The designer should relate the design work to the sewerage catchment areas (SCA)
defined in the appropriate SMP, making adjustments to the SCA, if necessary. Once the
SCA is finalized, the designer may need to estimate the flow and pollution loads for the
following:
(a)

existing development conditions (estimate should be compared with existing

data);

(b)

interim development conditions, if any;

(c)

ultimate development conditions.

Further guidance on the estimation of the flows and loads is given in Chapter 4 of
this Manual.
A preliminary hydraulic check should then be carried out to assess if the existing
sewerage system is adequate under the various development conditions, and if necessary to
come up with a preliminary improvement or extension proposal.
At this stage,
consideration should also be given to see if redefinition of the SCA can better meet the
objectives. The preliminary proposal shall then be used as a framework for detailed design.

3.2.3

Maps, Town Plans and Drainage Records

Government regularly publishes maps and town plans from which information can
be extracted on land use and the topography of catchment areas. For large scale works, aerial
photographs may provide an additional source of reference. Reference should also be made to

15
Drainage Services Department's drainage records for information on the existing sewerage
system.

3.2.4

Location of Utilities
(a)

General

Utility companies and the appropriate Government authorities should be consulted

regarding the effect of the project on their existing and proposed services and regarding any
facilities required for the project. Please refer to Section 2.5.2 of Chapter 4 of the Project
Administration Handbook for Civil Engineering Works for circulation to utility companies.

The installation of utility services by utility companies on Government land is in

general governed by block licences, permits etc. Under the block licences, Government can
order the utility companies to carry out any diversion works without any charge. The
diversion or resiting of tram tracks and the associated posts and cables is an exception to this
general rule.
(b)

Existing Utility Services

The procedure for obtaining approval for the removal or diversion of existing
services belonging to utility companies can be lengthy and may require the sanction of the
Chief Executive-in-Council. Engineers should therefore apply for such approval at the
earliest possible stage. Relevant Ordinances, block licences and permits should be referred
to if necessary.

3.3

IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAMMES

For a scheme with large catchments and where the design horizon extends over 10
years, consideration should be given to implement the project in phases so as to avoid (i) a
prolonged period of low flows after commissioning and (ii) an under-utilized facility should
the programme of development or the expected build-up of flows fail to materialise. This
would also help to optimise the utilization of resources for competing projects.
It is important to draw up an implementation programme so as to ensure the timely
provision of sewerage, sewage treatment and disposal facilities to match new town
development and environmental improvement programmes. The programme shall include
key activities, contract packages, important milestone dates, phasing of works and cost
estimates. In the formulation of the implementation programmes, reference should be made to
the design life of the sewerage, sewage treatment and disposal facilities.
Projection of flow over time must be carefully studied during the planning stage.
Consideration should also be given for staged increase in the capacity of E&M equipment for
each phase as idling of E&M equipment would involve additional costs for routine servicing,
checking and maintenance.

16

3.4

DESIGN LIFE

For the design life of sewage installations, reference should be made to the
recommendations of the Study of Asset Inventory, Montgomery Watson (1994), details of
which are summarised in Table 1.

3.5

LAND

In order to minimise land resumption, sewerage, sewage treatment and disposal

facilities should be located on Government Land as far as possible. For sewerage works
necessitating the resumption and creation of rights on private lands, please refer to Section
4.16 of Chapter 3 of the Project Administration Handbook for Civil Engineering Works for
detailed procedures. In undeveloped areas, all sewers, rising mains and associated chambers
should be located either in road reserves or specially designated drainage reserves, which
should be non-building areas. Such reserves are essential in order to ensure that there is free
and unrestricted access at all times for construction, repair, operation and maintenance.
Drainage reserves should be included on the various statutory and town plans. The
width of a reserve should be determined from the requirements for working space, vehicular
access for construction plant, depth of the sewer and clearance from adjacent structures and
foundations. In general, it is recommended that the width of a drainage reserve should be 3
m from both sides of the pipeline or box culverts Should the size of the pipeline or box
culvert is equal or smaller than 600mm diameter/wide, consideration might be given to
reducing the overall drainage reserve width requirements provided that adequate working
space can be provided for future maintenance or replacement.
The land required for a sewage pumping station or a sewage treatment plant is
highly variable. It depends on many factors including the designed capacity, the site
configuration, the level of treatment, the type of treatment process, the standby capacity, and
the type and nature of the ancillary facilities required. Sites for sewage pumping stations
and sewage treatment works should be included on the various statutory or town plans. For
the preliminary estimation of land requirements for pumping stations, please refer to Part 2 of
this Manual. For sewage treatment works, please refer to Part 3 of this Manual.

3.6

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

3.6.1

Environmental Standard and Legislative Control

The Environmental Chapter of the 'Hong Kong Planning Standards and Guidelines'
provides guidance to planners, engineers and architects on air quality, water quality, waste
management, noise, rural environment and urban landscape.
The control of water quality in Hong Kong is governed by the Water Pollution
Control Ordinance (WPCO) which was enacted in 1980. The WPCO enables the
Government to establish Water Control Zones (WCZ) within which the discharge of
pollutants is controlled. All sewerage works shall comply with the requirements under Water
Pollution Control (Sewerage) Regulation.

17

Other legislative control of environment standards is stipulated in the Air Pollution

Control Ordinance, Noise Control Ordinance, Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance
and the relevant Technical Memoranda.

3.6.2

Environmental Assessment

In planning, design and construction of sewerage projects, considerations should be

given to the impacts on air, noise and water pollution and appropriate mitigation measures
should be devised. Furthermore, for sewerage projects that are classified as Designated
Projects under the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance, an Environmental Permit
shall be obtained from the Director of Environmental Protection for their construction and
operation.

3.6.3

Mitigation Measures

Mitigation measures, which include alternatives to a proposed project or action, are

important in the environmental assessment process.
(1)

Noise. A number of options that can reduce noise levels are:(i)

provision of acoustic screens or enclosures;

(ii)

acoustic shielding of plant to reduce noise at source;

(iii)

use of silenced plant;

(iv)

schedule works to reduce number and usage time of noisy plant; and

(v)

physical separation of the source and the receiver.

(2) Air Quality. To improve the air quality near construction sites, watering of
exposed surfaces can reduce dust problems. Common control methods employed for
controlling dust from unpaved site roads include watering and speed control of vehicles.
For sewage treatment works and pumping stations, the odour nuisance is a major
factor.
Consideration should be given to covering odour sources and providing
deodorization units.
(3) Water Quality. To minimise the impact to receiving water quality during
construction, it is recommended that surface runoff from construction sites should be
discharged into stormwater drain via suitable sediment removal facilities. Good practice for
dealing with other types of discharges from construction sites is provided in the Practice
Note for Professional Persons on Construction Site Drainage published by EPD.
(4)

Visual and Landscape Impact. Generally, mitigation measures include:

(i)

screen planting and landscaping;

18

(ii)

rearrangement of structures;

(iii)

high standard of external design/finish for main structures; and

(iv)

perimeter fences and walls.

For other recommendations on environmental mitigation measures, please refer to

the Environmental Standards & Guidelines promulgated at the EPDs website.

3.7

SITE INVESTIGATIONS

Reference should be made to the Guide to Site Investigation (GEO, 2000) for
guidance on good site investigation practice and Guide to Rock and Soil Description
(GEO,2000) for guidance on the description of rocks and soils in Hong Kong.

3.8

HYDROGRAPHIC STUDIES

Hydrographic studies should be carried out to provide information for the

determination of submarine sewage outfall locations and the design of diffusers. These
comprise the collection of data on water depths, tides, current, salinity and the temperature
gradient of the water column.
Information on water depth is readily available from Admiralty Charts or sounding
surveys. Further details can be obtained by echo sounding or chain sounding surveys. Tide
tables are published annually by the Hong Kong Observatory. Although the Admiralty
Charts may indicate generalised current direction and speed, detailed information for design
purposes at specific sites should be obtained through on-site measurements.
A hydrographic study comprises both fixed station measurements and float tracking.
It is usual to obtain fixed station measurements over a typical spring and neap tidal cycle.
To maximise data quality, it is necessary to calibrate the instruments before deployment,
followed by a check calibration after recovery. Detailed profiles of current speed, direction,
water temperature, salinity, etc. are usually obtained from a moored vessel using a single
direct reading current meter fitted with appropriate additional sensors. Such measurements
are taken at a number of chosen locations of the proposed diffuser.
Profiles are taken at regular time intervals and at regular depth increments. The
number of depth increments depends on the water depth. A minimum of four readings are
required to be taken near surface, at one-third and two-third of the water depth and near
seabed.

19

4.
4.1

FLOW AND LOAD ESTIMATION

FLOW ESTIMATION

With effect from 2008, DSD has adopted Technical Paper Report No. EPD/TP1/05 Guidelines for Estimating Sewage Flows for Sewage Infrastructure Planning (GESF) issued
by EPD for sewage flows estimation. Flow components and data, population and
employment forecasts, methodology of flow estimation, flow parameters and factors are
given in the GESF. The full report is available for downloading from EPDs website:
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/water/guide_ref/gesf.html
Should the designers wish to adopt other methodology and parameters for estimating
sewage flows for the design of sewerage and sewage treatment projects, the designers shall
submit their detailed justifications to EPD for approval.

4.2

LOAD ESTIMATION

4.2.1

Loads

The most important loads to be taken into account in the design of sewage treatment
works are as follows :Suspended Solids (SS);
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD);
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD);
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN);
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3N);
Escherichia coli (E. coli).
Loads are normally determined on a per capita basis except for industrial loads
which must be determined according to the industrial process involved.

4.2.2

Existing Data Sources

Load data for existing sewage treatment works are available from Sewage Treatment
Divisions of Drainage Services Department. Some load survey data are also available from
the following sources :
Sewage Strategy Study
Domestic

Long Ping, Yuen Long (Low Cost Rental)

- Ma On Shan (Low Cost Rental + Private R2)

Commercial

- South Kowloon

20

Industrial

- Kwai Chung/Tsuen Wan

Sewerage Master Plan Studies

Aberdeen, Ap Lei Chau and Pok Fu Lam
Central, Western and Wanchai West
Chai Wan and Shau Kei Wan
East Kowloon
Hong Kong Island South
North and South Kowloon
North District
North West Kowloon
Outlying Islands
Port Shelter
Tolo Harbour
Tsuen Wan, Kwai Chung and Tsing Yi
Tuen Mun
Wanchai East and North Point
Tseung Kwan O
Yuen Long and Kam Tin
Sewerage Master Plan Reviews
Review of Yuen Long and Kam Tin Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Requirements
Review of Central and East Kowloon Sewerage Master Plans
Review of Tuen Mun and Tsing Yi Sewerage Master Plans
Review of Outlying Islands Sewerage Master Plan
Review of Hong Kong Island Sewerage Master Plans
Review of North District and Tolo Harbour Sewerage Master Plans
Review of Tsuen Wan and West Kowloon Sewerage Master Plans

4.2.3

Load Estimation
The methodology for load estimation is given below:(a) Field surveys to establish existing loads;
(b) Separate identification of industrial loads;
(c) Correlation with global load parameters in conjunction with population data;
(d) Load estimates for new development from global load parameters.

4.2.4

Unit Load Factors

The recommended unit load factors for use in design are shown in Table 4.
are based on the values derived for the SSS.

These

21

5.
5.1

DESIGN OF SEWERS

DESIGN CRITERIA

5.1.1 Capacity (gravity pipelines)

A sewer is subjected to a wide range of flow conditions. It must have sufficient
capacity to cater for the designed peak flow. On the other hand it must also minimise the
deposition of solids under low flow conditions. Small sized sewers are prone to blockage by
grease and silt. To reduce the chance of blockage and to facilitate cleansing, the minimum
size for public sewers should be 200 mm diameter. However, under special circumstances,
smaller diameter pipes may be adopted subject to agreement of the maintenance party.
The maximum discharge at a circular pipe occurs when the flow depth is about 0.95
of the pipe diameter. Since any slight increase in depth will cause a reduction in flow
velocity, it is usual to design on the assumption that the circular pipe will run full, which
attains about 93% of the maximum discharge. The full bore flow shall be taken as the
design capacity of a sewer. No additional factor of safety is necessary on top of those
associated with flow estimation.
Sewers under surcharge are not desirable because:
(a)

The environmental nuisance associated with a sewage overflow is enormous,

bearing in mind that the peak flow is expected to occur on a daily basis;

(b)

Grease content of sewage in Hong Kong is high, and it tends to accumulate at

the top of the sewage flow. Under submerged condition, the grease will
accumulate at the manhole and will easily clog the sewer when the flow rate is
reduced during off peak conditions;

(c)

Uncertainty associated with flow assessment and hydraulic modeling e.g.

siltation and grease accumulation, head losses, pipe defects, infiltration and so
on;

(d)

Difficulty in inspecting a surcharged sewer and in carrying out maintenance

operations.

Checks on flows in an existing sewerage system may reveal that some sewers are
surcharged but with some freeboard, i.e. overflow will not occur at peak flow. These sewers
should be considered as under capacity. Improvement proposals shall be drawn up to
eliminate the surcharged condition. Implementation of these proposals, however, will not
be accorded a high priority if, at peak flow, the following is satisfied:
(a)

a minimum freeboard of 1 m ; and

(b)

a minimum factor of safety against overflowing of 1.15, ie overflow will not

occur at a flow rate of (1.15 times peak flow).

22
Such improvement proposals, even if not accorded a high priority, should still be
carried out when the opportunity arises e.g. in conjunction with road works and/or nearby
sewerage projects.

5.1.2 Minimum Velocity

A minimum velocity enables the sewage flow to self-cleanse the nominal amount of
silt carried through the sewers, and helps to minimize sewer chokage as a result of siltation
and grease accumulation. Subsequent maintenance costs and environmental nuisance are
reduced. The self-cleansing can also relieve the problems of septicity due to siltation.
It has been established that self-cleansing velocities vary with the particle sizes of
sediments and sizes of sewers. It is not easy to determine the particle sizes of silt in the
sewerage system because both the range of sizes and the variation of sizes are great.
According to BS EN 752: 2008, self cleansing for small diameter sewers of diameter
less than 300mm can generally be achieved by ensuring either that a velocity of at least
0.7m/s occurred daily, or that a gradient of at least 1: DN (i.e. Nominal diameter of the sewer
in mm) is specified, provided that a flow of 2 ADWF is assumed to occur at least once daily.
Strict requirements for bedding and accurate laying of the pipes are essential to achieve
self-cleansing conditions in sewers with low gradient.
For larger diameter sewers, higher minimum velocities should be used particularly if
relatively coarse sediment is expected to be present. For sewers of diameter up to 900mm, it
should be designed to achieve a self-cleansing velocity of 1.0m/s in full pipe condition.
Currently, there are references regarding the application of sediment transport theory to the
design of sewers and the design guideline for various sewer sizes and various sediment loads,
e.g. CIRIA (1996), Solids in Sewers - Characteristics, Effects and Control of Sewer Solids
and Associated Pollutants published by IWA in 2004, etc. However, such information
should be supplemented by local project experiences. Their applicability on local sewerage
system should also be verified.
It is advisable to have self-cleansing conditions attained at least at times of daily peak
flow. Controlling ingress of sediment to the sewer and other sediment management options
should also be considered. Special maintenance provisions may be required to ensure
frequent cleaning operation on sewers where it is impractical to achieve self-cleansing
conditions. Where a system is to be developed in phases, considerations should be given to
the likely lower flow than design flow, which may happen at the initial stage of
commissioning. The minimum velocity shall be determined to avoid the septic and odour
problems.

5.1.3 Maximum Velocity

Very fast flow is not desirable because:
(a)

Very fast flow is not stable and will give rise to scouring and cavitation
especially when the pipe surface is not smooth, and if the sewer contains
junctions, bends, manholes. The usual hydraulic equations for flow prediction

23
may not be applicable.
sewerage system;

More importantly, severe erosion causes damage to the

(b)

Very fast flow occurs when the sewer is laid at steep gradient and the flow
becomes supercritical. When the gradient eventually flattens, the flow may
become subcritical and a hydraulic jump will occur. The potential damage
associated with the uncontrolled energy dissipation is substantial; and

(c)

Inspection and maintenance of sewers with fast flowing sewage are unsafe,
usually difficult and sometimes impossible.

The maximum velocity at peak flow shall be limited to 3 m/s but this can be relaxed
to 6 m/s provided that:
(a)

a continuous, smooth, durable, and abrasion resistant pipe (e.g. ductile iron) or
internal lining is chosen; and

(b)

all junctions, bends, manholes or other appurtenances are designed with

appropriate erosion protection measures.

Sometimes, sewers with steep gradient are unavoidable due to the topography of the
area. Measures to reduce the maximum velocity generally include:
(a)

laying the sewer at flatter gradient with the installation of backdrop manholes in
the system to dissipate excessive static head in a controlled manner;

(b)

providing steps at manholes to dissipate energy; and

(c)

using specially designed energy dissipators.

For the sewage flow conditions commonly encountered in Hong Kong, a combination
of measures (a) and (b) is adequate. The application of measure (c) is more common in
stormwater drainage systems where the flow rate is much higher.

5.1.4 Levels
Apart from the hydraulic performance, the depth of sewers should be designed in
conjunction with other factors such as
(a)

topography of the ground and subsoil conditions;

(b)

proximity of foundations of adjacent structures;

(c)

proximity of utilities services;

(d)

proximity of trees or heavy root growth;

(e)

minimum cover required;

24
(f)

method of construction; and

(g)

life cycle cost.

As the size of a sewer increases downstream, it is normal practice to align the soffits
at the same level at the manhole. This is to prevent the sewer being surcharged by back
water effect when the downstream sewer is flowing full. Similarly when a lateral sewer
joins a main sewer, the soffit of the lateral sewer shall not be lower than that of the main
sewer. If the situation allows, it is preferable to have the lateral at equal soffits to minimize
possible surcharge of the lateral sewer.

5.1.5 Alignment
The designer should check carefully whether the alignment of sewer will be
obstructed by other utilities. Utility plans should be referred to, and in case of doubt, trial
holes should be dug to ascertain any possible conflict. Utility diversions should be carried
out in advance of the sewer construction if necessary.
Special attention shall also be paid to possible traffic disruption during construction
and during future maintenance operation. This is especially important if the sewer is deep,
or is to be laid along a steep carriageway, a heavily trafficked carriageway, a single-lane one
way carriageway, and so on. The traffic authority shall be consulted to ensure that an
acceptable traffic scheme for sewerage construction can be worked out.
In choosing the alignment of a sewerage system, the following factors shall also be
considered:
(a)

the objectives to serve all existing and future land development;

(b)

the topography where the system is located;

(c)

availability, location and level of existing or planned sewerage facilities for

connection;

(d)

the hydraulic performance;

(e)

the soil condition;

(f)

site constraints;

(g)

access for inspection, operation and maintenance;

(h)

need of land resumption;

(i)

proximity of trees and other vegetation;

(j)

life cycle cost;

(k)

groundwater levels and effects of tides, waves and currents; and

25

(l)

social and economic impact

5.1.6 Minimum Pipes Size

To facilitate inspection and cleaning, pipes of diameter less than 200mm should
normally not be used as sewers unless agreed by the operation and maintenance agents.

5.1.7 Septicity
Septicity occurs when the residence time of sewage is long, the temperature is high
and there is a lack of air exchange. The deposition of sediments in sewers also facilitates
the formation of sulphide. This frequently occurs in gentle gravity sewers in which the flow
is too slow. In addition, sulphide formation will be more serious with saline sewage as
seawater contains a high level of sulphate.
The accumulation of hydrogen sulphide is known to cause at least three detrimental
effects. Firstly, it is odorous and is a hazard to people who work in the vicinity and can be
fatal at high concentration. Secondly, it is flammable and explosive. Last but not least, it
is acidic and can cause corrosion problem in sewers and sewage treatment works.
The adverse effects of septicity in gravity sewers can be mitigated by suitable design
to shorten residence time, minimize sediments deposition and adopt corrosion resistant
construction materials.

5.1.8 Large Deep Sewer

Difficulties are frequently encountered in the inspection, maintenance and repair of
large deep gravity sewers, which is defined as gravity sewers of diameters not less than
675mm and invert levels exceeding 6m below ground level. Laying of large deep gravity
sewers should be avoided as far as possible. However, if it cannot be avoided, the designer
should consider the following:
(a)

In the design of sewerage facilities, evaluation of various alternatives, including

the adoption of shallower sewers by the provision of intermediate pumping
stations and localized sewage treatment plants if necessary, should be carried
out.

(b)

To facilitate inspection and maintenance of surcharged large deep sewer, over

pumping is usually required to draw down the sewage level in the sewer.

(c)

If over pumping is not practically feasible, the designer should consider a twin
line design.

(d)

The designer should work out and agree with DSD on other maintenance
requirements for large deep gravity sewers and make reference to DSD Practice
Note no. 3/2010, or its latest version.

26

5.1.9 Planting in the Vicinity of Sewers

With the growing emphasis on environmental friendly/green design, suitable standard
conditions governing planting and landscaping in the vicinity of sewers are required to
facilitate inspection and maintenance of sewerage systems:
(a)

In general, no trees shall be planted within 3m from both sides of any existing or
proposed sewers.

(b)

Turf, plants and minor flowering shrubs may be accepted over sewerage
provided they do not have profuse or penetrating roots.

(c)

Planting within the space of 1.5m around the cover of any chambers should be
avoided.

(d)

There shall be free access to all sewerage installations at all times even when the
turf, plants and shrubs are mature.

(e)

Where the planting and landscaping are carried out by others, details including
the associated site formation work and any proposed structures shall be
submitted to DSD for prior approval.

In case of doubt, the relevant operation and maintenance division(s) should be

consulted.

5.1.10 Sewerage Works in Conjunction with Roadworks

The following should be considered for planning of sewerage works:

5.2

(a)

Newly constructed or resurfaced roads are normally subject to a road opening

restriction extending over several years and it is essential that any sewerage
works beneath the roads are done prior to or in conjunction with the roadworks.

(b)

Details of proposed roadworks are normally circulated to the relevant DSD

divisions for comments.

(c)

When sewers are proposed to be laid in future road carriageways/verges or in

existing roads likely to be reconstructed or improved in future, the relevant
authority, e.g. HyD or CEDD should be approached as soon as possible with
regard to timing and details of the proposed roadworks.

HYDRAULICS OF GRAVITY PIPELINES

5.2.1 Basic Equations

27
In hydraulic design or analysis, both the Colebrook-White equation and the
Mannings equation are most commonly used.
(1)

Colebrook-White Equation. The Colebrook-White equation can be applied to

analyze a wide range of flow conditions. The Colebrook-White equation is

(i)

for circular pipes flowing full,

ks
2.51v
V (8gDs) log(

)
3.7D D ( 2gDs)

(ii)

for partially full pipes or pipes with non-circular cross-sections,

ks
1.255v
V (32gRs) log(

)
14.8R R (32gRs)
where
V =
g =
R =
D =
ks =
v =
s =

mean velocity (m/s)

gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
hydraulic radius (m)
internal pipe diameter (m)
hydraulic pipeline roughness (m)
kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/s)
hydraulic gradient (energy loss per unit length due to friction)

Design charts and tables are available for the Colebrook-White Equation in HR
Wallingford et. al. (2006).
The roughness value is, in theory, related to the height of roughness element of the
pipe wall. In practice, it is also influenced by the joints, discontinuities, slime growth on the
wall, grease build-up and sediment on the invert.
The slime that grows on the pipe surface below the maximum water level may
increase the roughness value to a certain extent which depends on pipe material and the flow
velocity.
Most common roughness values for various pipe materials are listed in the Table 5 1.
The roughness value for slimed sewers should be used for designing sewerage. The usual
range of roughness value for common pipe materials lies between 0.6 mm and 6 mm. The
designer shall use his or her own judgement to select an appropriate roughness value
compatible with pipe material and its condition.

H.R. Wallingford Ltd., Barr, D.I.H. and Thomas Telford Ltd. are acknowledged for their consent to the
1
reproduction of the Table on Recommended Roughness Values in the publication Table for the Hydraulic
Design of Pipes, Sewers and Channels, 8th Edition (2006) in Table 5 of this Manual.

28
(2) Mannings Equation. Although the Mannings equation was originally
developed for the analysis of flow in open channels, it is now widely used to analyze flow in
both open channels and closed conduits. The Mannings equation is

R 2 / 3s1 / 2
V
n

where
V =
s =
n =
R =

mean velocity (m/s)

hydraulic gradient (energy loss per unit length)
Mannings roughness coefficient
hydraulic radius (m)

Typical values of Mannings roughness coefficient for pipes in good and poor
conditions are listed in Table 6.

5.2.2 Local Losses

In order to minimize the head losses in pipe flow, the selection of the pipe materials
and the joint details are very important. The resistance in pipes will be influenced by the
pipe material but will be primarily dependent on the slime that grows on the pipe surface.
Other factors such as the discontinuities at the pipe joints, the number of manholes, the
number of branch pipes at manholes and their directions of inflow will all affect the head
losses. Proper benching with smooth curves should be provided to accommodate the
changes in pipe direction.
The hydraulic pipeline roughness (ks) in Colebrook-White equation or the roughness
coefficient (n) in Mannings equation allows for head losses due to pipe material and slime
growth on the pipe surface below the water level. Local head losses arisen at inlets, outlets,
bends, elbows, joints, valves, manholes and other fittings are usually small in relation to the
pipeline head losses and are not normally considered. Nonetheless, if total head loss
including local head losses is required, two methods of calculation can be adopted:
(1)

Assuming a higher value of hydraulic pipeline roughness (ks) or roughness

coefficient (n) in the calculation of pipeline head loss;

(2)

Adding the local head losses calculated by the following formula to the pipeline
head losses:

hf K

V2
2g

in which K may refer to one type of head loss or to the sum of several head losses.
The head loss coefficient K can be found in literature on hydraulics. Table 7 contains
some of the most commonly used head loss coefficients as abstracted from the Preliminary

29
Design Manual for the Strategic Sewage Disposal Scheme prepared by AB2H Consultants in
June 1992. Reference should also be made to D S Miller (1990), Streeter and Wylie (1985),
BS EN 752:2008 and Chow (1959).

5.2.3 Water Surface Profiles

In the design of sewer sometimes it is inadequate to assume uniform flow to
determine pipe sizes and invert levels.
The most common water profiles are the backwater and drawdown curves. The flow
of sewage may occur under partial flow or surcharged conditions. Partial flow usually
occurs where the hydraulic grade line lies on the surface of the flowing sewage; and
surcharge occurs when the hydraulic grade line rises above the soffit of the sewer. In
general, inlet pumping at the treatment works, discharging through seawall overflows or
bypasses, abrupt change in pipe size or flow gradient and the presence of overflow weirs or
orifices may all affect the hydraulic grade line.
It is essential that all hydraulic control structures are identified. A control structure
has two effects. First there is a local effect resulting in a significant change in flow regime
at the control structure. This causes a local energy loss and subsequent change in the
hydraulic grade line. Second, there are upstream and downstream effects. Upstream, the
control may cause a drawdown curve. Downstream, it may cause a hydraulic jump.
The water profiles (including backwater and drawdown curves) representing the
hydraulic grade line of the flow in a sewer can be determined by a number of different
methods (e.g. Direct integration, graphical integration and direct step method). Reference can
be made to the various hydraulic textbooks.
When checking backwater profile in a sewerage system discharging effluent into the
sea, an appropriate tide level should be chosen. Reference should be made to the
Stormwater Drainage Manual which provides further details on the tide levels at various
locations. The return period chosen should not be less than two years.

5.2.4 Design Tools

Sophisticated computer software packages (e.g. InfoWorks) have been developed for
the hydraulic design of new sewerage systems and the analysis of existing systems. The use
of computer models will facilitate the ease of updating and managing the existing system to
cope with the demands from new developments and to identify deficiencies in the network
for improvement work.
In the use of computerized design and analysis packages, attention should be paid to
the theory behind and the assumptions and limitations of such models. Common areas of
concern may include whether backwater effects are considered; whether assumptions
regarding flooding and overflow are correct; whether downstream tidal effects can be catered
for; whether the model can be applicable to looped sewer networks; whether the model can
cater for such facilities as pumps, storage tanks, overflow devices and the various head losses
in a system. It is common that a package will consist of different analysis models for

30
different applications. In choosing between the models, the limitations involved in each of
them should be clearly identified such that the applicability of a model will not be
compromised by simplifying the analysis.
Another important area in the use of computerized models is validation, particularly
where stormwater flow is present. The data related to catchment characteristics such as
surface runoff coefficients built-in in the models developed overseas may not be applicable to
Hong Kong. The designer should not overlook the physical meanings of the parameters to be
input into the models and should check that the parameters are applicable for the Hong Kong
situation.
The calibration and validation of these computer models are important and very time
consuming processes. On-site flow survey and monitoring schemes have to be devised to
verify these models.
5.3

PIPELINE MATERIALS

5.3.1 Choice of Pipe Material

The following factors should be taken into account in selecting the type of pipe for a
project:
(a)

hydraulic design: gravity or pressure flows;

(b)

structural design: crushing test strengths (and pressure ratings in the case of
pressure pipelines) that are available;

(c)

nature of the fluid to be conveyed;

(d)

nature of ground water and external environment;

(e)

cost considerations: capital and maintenance costs;

(f)

pipe jointing system: ease of installation, past performance;

(g)

durability: resistance to corrosion and abrasion;

(h)

availability of pipe sizes, fittings and lengths in the market for construction and
subsequent maintenance;

(i)

ease of cutting and branch connections;

(j)

length and weight of individual pipes in relation to transportation and handling;

and

(k)

future operating procedure and system development.

Table 8 summarizes typical pipe materials currently available, range of size,

appropriate British Standard etc., and provides a brief comparison of their properties and
uses.

31

5.3.2 Corrosion Protection

In general, most of the pipes and fittings are susceptible to both internal and external
attack by corrosion unless appropriate protective measures are adopted. The degree of
attack depends upon the nature of the soils, the characteristics of the fluid being conveyed
and the type of pipe protection used.
Metallic corrosion, in the presence of water, is a chemical reaction accompanied by
the passage of an electric current similar to that which takes place in a battery cell except that
in the case of a pipe, the metal surface acts as both the anode and cathode, with corrosion pits
developing at anodic sites.
As sulphate-reducing bacteria can assist the cathodic reaction in certain anaerobic
environments, corrosion can also take place in anaerobic conditions. The deposition of
sediment and slime on internal metal pipe surfaces are conducive to microbiological activity
which tends to deplete oxygen levels, thus stimulating localized corrosion.
To protect the pipe from corrosion, pipes made of corrosion resistant material or
coated with inert protective materials should be considered. For
concrete
pipes
with
protective liners, the pipe joints should also be covered by linings and the lining must be
subsequently jointed after installation if the pipe diameter is large enough for man access. If
the diameter is too small, the pipes should be supplied with joint surfaces already safeguarded
with lining.
A summary of typical corrosion protection measures suitable for mild steel, ductile
iron and concrete pipelines is given in Table 9.

5.3.3 Pipe Joints

Most of the pipes supplied by the manufacturer have their own design of joint. In
the past many pipe joints were welded, bolted or made by caulking with cement mortar or run
lead. These joints allowed no movement of the pipes after laying. Any movement of the
pipeline resulting from ground settlement, or of differential settlement between the pipelines
and the structure, highly stresses the pipe and joints, leading to fracture and joint leakage.
Nowadays, flexible joints are generally used. This reduces settlement problems and
speeds up the pipe laying work.
At reclamation area or areas where differential settlement between the pipeline and
the structure is anticipated, designer shall critically review if the allowable angular deflection
at the flexible pipe joint could sustain the predicted deflection. If required, addition of large
displacement expansion joint at appropriate locations of pipeline can be considered, in
conjunction with the associated cost implication.
Table 10 summarizes common types of pipe-joints and provides a brief comparison of
their characteristics and uses.

32

6. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GRAVITY PIPELINES

6.1

INTRODUCTION
Pipes can be categorised into rigid, flexible and intermediate pipes as follows:
(a)

Rigid pipes support loads in the ground by virtue of resistance of the pipe wall
as a ring in bending.

(b)

Flexible pipes rely on the horizontal thrust from the surrounding soil to enable
them to resist vertical load without excessive deformation.

(c)

Intermediate pipes are those pipes which exhibit behaviour between those in
(a) and (b). They are also called semi-rigid pipes.

Concrete pipes and vitrified clay pipes are examples of rigid pipes while steel,
ductile iron, UPVC, MDPE and HDPE pipes may be classified as flexible or intermediate
pipes, depending on their wall thickness and stiffness of pipe material.
The load on rigid pipes is concentrated at the top and bottom of the pipe, thus
creating bending moments. Flexible pipes may change shape by deflection and transfer part
of the vertical load into horizontal or radial thrusts which are resisted by passive pressure of
the surrounding soil. The load on flexible pipes is mainly compressive force which is resisted
by arch action rather than ring bending.
The loads on buried gravity pipelines are as follows:
(a)

The first type comprises loading due to the fill in which the pipeline is buried,
static and moving traffic loads superimposed on the surface of the fill, and
water load in the pipeline.

(b)

The second type of load includes those loads due to relative movements of
pipes and soil caused by seasonal ground water variations, ground subsidence,
temperature change and differential settlement along the pipeline.

Loads of the first type should be considered in the design of both the longitudinal
section and cross section of the pipeline. Provided the longitudinal support is continuous and
of uniform quality, and the pipes are properly laid and jointed, it is sufficient to design for the
cross section of the pipeline.
In general, loads of the second type are not readily calculable and they only affect
the longitudinal integrity of the pipeline. Differential settlement is of primary concern
especially for pipelines to be laid in newly reclaimed areas. The effect of differential
settlement can be catered for by using either flexible joints (which permit angular deflection
and telescopic movement) or piled foundations (which are very expensive). If the pipeline is
partly or wholly submerged, there is also a need to check the effect of flotation of the empty
pipeline.

33
The design criteria for the structural design of rigid pipes is the maximum load at
which failure occurs while those for flexible pipes are the maximum acceptable deformation
and/or the buckling load. The approach for designing rigid pipes as mentioned in this chapter
is not applicable to flexible pipes, deeply laid pipes or pipes laid by tunnelling methods. For
the structural design of flexible pipes, deeply laid pipes or pipes laid by tunnelling methods, it
is necessary to refer to relevant literature such as manufacturers' catalogue and/or technical
information on material properties and allowable deformations for different types of coatings,
details of joints etc.

6.2

DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR RIGID PIPES

The design procedures for rigid pipes are outlined as follows:
(a)

Determine the total design load due to:

(i)

the fill load, which is influenced by the conditions under which the
pipe is installed, i.e. narrow trench or embankment conditions;

(ii)

the superimposed load which can be uniformly distributed or

concentrated traffic loads; and

(iii)

the water load in the pipe.

(b)

Choose the type of bedding (whether granular, plain or reinforced concrete)

on which the pipe will rest. Apply the appropriate bedding factor and
determine the minimum ultimate strength of the pipe to take the total design
load.

(c)

Select a pipe of appropriate grade or strength.

Specific guidance on the design calculations is given in Sections 6.3 to 6.8.

6.3

FILL LOADS

6.3.1

Narrow trench condition

When a pipe is laid in a relatively narrow trench in undisturbed ground and the
backfill is properly compacted, the backfill will settle relative to the undisturbed ground and
the weight of fill is jointly supported by the pipe and the shearing friction forces acting
upwards along the trench walls. The load on the pipe would be less than the weight of the
backfill on it and is considered under narrow trench condition by the theory and
experimental work of Marston:
Wc = Cd

Bd2

1
H
Cd = 2k[1-exp(-2kB )]
d

34

(2+1)-
(2+1)+

k=

where

Wc =
w =
Bd =

fill load on pipe in kN/m,

unit weight of fill in kN/m3,
the width of trench in metre measured at the top level of the pipe (as
shown on the relevant DSD Standard Drawing),
Cd = narrow trench coefficient,
k = Rankine's ratio of lateral earth pressure to vertical earth pressure,
, '= coefficient of friction of backfill material and that between backfill
and trench side respectively,
H = actual height of fill above the top of pipe in metres.
For practical applications, take = , and use Figure 4 to obtain values of Cd.

6.3.2

Embankment condition

When the pipe is laid on a firm surface and then covered with fill, the fill directly
above the pipe yields less than the fill on the sides. Shearing friction forces acting
downwards are set up, resulting in the vertical load transmitted to the pipe being in excess of
that due to the weight of the fill directly above the fill. The load on the pipe will then be
determined as in the embankment condition (also known as wide trench condition). The
equation for the embankment condition as proposed by Marston is as below:

Wc = Cc

Bc2

2k He
exp( Bc )-1 H-H
2k He
e

exp(
Cc =
+
2k
Bc )
Bc

He is given by:
2k He
exp( Bc )-1
r p H H
2k He
1 H-He rsd p
1 He2
+ sd ( - e) exp
[
]
[
+
+
]
+
2k
2k Bc
3
2 Bc
3 Bc Bc
Bc
He
H He
H
- 2kB = rsd pB
2
Bc
c
c

35

where

Wc
w
Bc
Cc
He
H
rsd
p

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

=
=

fill load on pipe in kN/m,

unit weight of fill in kN/m3,
external diameter of pipe in metres,
load coefficient under embankment condition,
height of plane of equal settlement above the top of pipe in metres,
actual height of fill above the top of pipe in metres,
settlement ratio,
ratio of projection of pipe's crown above firm surface to the external
pipe diameter,
Rankine's ratio of lateral earth pressure to horizontal earth pressure,
coefficient of internal friction of backfill material.

For practical applications, values of Cc can be obtained from Figure 5.

Use

rsd =
=
=

1.0 for rock or unyielding foundation

0.5 ~ 0.8 for ordinary foundation
0.0 ~ 0.5 for yielding foundation

Narrow trench and embankment conditions are the lower and upper limiting
conditions of loading for buried rigid pipes. Other intermediate loading conditions are not
very often used in design.
One method for deciding whether the narrow trench condition or embankment
condition of the Marston equations is to be used to determine the fill load on pipes was
proposed by Schlick. Calculations are carried out for both conditions. The lower of the two
calculation results is suggested to be adopted in design. Method of construction will be
specified in accordance with the designed trench conditions if necessary.
Under certain site conditions, when restricting the trench width is not practical
because of the presence of underground utilities, consideration should be given to design the
pipe for fill loads under the worse scenario of narrow trench and embankment conditions.
If the width of the trench, Bd, and external diameter of the pipe, Bc, are fixed, there
is a unique value of cover depth at which the embankment or narrow trench calculations
indicate the same load on the pipe. This value of cover depth is termed the transition depth
Td, for this trench width and external diameter of pipe.
At depths less than the transition depth, the pipe is in the embankment condition
and the fill load will be dependent on the external diameter of the pipe. No restriction to
trench width is required. In other cases, when the depth is greater than the transition depth,
the fill load is dependent on the assumed trench width. The tabulated fill load on the pipe
in Table 11 will be exceeded unless the trench width is restricted to the assumed value in
order that the pipe is in the narrow trench condition.
The fill load on a pipe and value of transition depth, assuming a saturated soil
density of 2000 kg/m3, are shown in Table 11. If the actual soil density differs from 2000
kg/m3, the fill load may be adjusted by a multiplying factor of /2000. The values of k
assumed in deriving this table are 0.13 for narrow trench condition and 0.19 for embankment

36
condition. rsd p for embankment condition is taken as 0.7 for pipes up to 300 mm nominal
diameter and 0.5 for larger pipes.

6.4

SUPERIMPOSED LOADS

The equivalent external load per metre of pipe transmitted from superimposed traffic
loads can be calculated by the Boussinesq Equation, by assuming the distribution of stress
within a semi-infinite homogeneous, elastic mass:
3L
p = 2

where

L
p
H
Hs

=
=
=
=

H3
H 5
s

concentrated load applied at surface of fill in kN,

unit vertical pressure at a specific point within the fill in kN/m,
depth of such point below the surface in metres,
slant distance of such point from the point of application of
concentrated load at surface in metres,
impact factor.

The traffic load will be calculated as below:

Wp pBc
where

Wp =
p =
Bc =

design traffic load in kN/m,

unit vertical pressure due to the various concentrated loads in
kN/m,
external diameter of pipe in metres.

Values of traffic loads for design are shown in Table 12 with the following
assumptions:

6.5

Main road:

pipelines laid under main traffic routes and under roads to be used for
temporary diversion of heavy traffic, where provision is made for
eight wheels loads, each of 90 kN acting simultaneously with an
impact factor of 1.3 and arranged as in BS 5400 Part 2: 2006 Type
HB Loading.

Light road:

pipelines laid under roads except those referred in main roads, where
provision is made for two wheel loads, each of 70 kN static weight,
spaced 0.9 m apart, acting simultaneously with an impact factor of
1.5.

WATER LOAD

37
The weight of water in a pipe running full generates an additional load, the
equivalent external load on the pipe can be calculated from the following equation:
3 D
Ww = 9.81 4 4

where

Ww
D

is the equivalent water load in kN/m,

is the internal diameter of pipe in metres.

In general, the water load is not significant for small pipes of less than 600 mm
diameter. The equivalent water load of pipes of 600 mm to 1800 mm diameter are as below:
Nominal Diameter (mm)
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1650
1800

6.6

Equivalent Water Load (kN/m)

2.1
3.3
4.7
6.4
8.3
10.6
13.0
15.8
18.8

BEDDING FACTORS

The strength of a precast concrete or vitrified clay pipe is given by the standard
crushing test. When the pipe is installed under fill and supported on a bedding, the
distribution of loads is different from that of the standard crushing test. The load required to
produce failure of a pipe in the ground is higher than the load required to produce failure in
the standard crushing test. The ratio of the maximum effective uniformly distributed load to
the test load is known as the bedding factor, which varies with the types of bedding
materials under the pipe and depends to a considerable extent on the efficiency of their
construction and on the degree of compaction of the side fill.
The various methods of bedding used with precast concrete pipes are shown on the
relevant DSD Standard Drawing. The values of the bedding factors below are average
experimental values and are recommended for general purposes: (a)
(b)
(c)

(d)

granular bedding
120 plain concrete bedding
120 reinforced concrete bedding with
minimum transverse steel area equal
to 0.4% of the area of concrete bedding
concrete surround

1.9
2.6

3.4
4.5

38
On the basis of the experimental and numerical modelling work carried out, bedding
factors used with vitrified clay pipes for class F, B and S bedding are shown in Figure 6.

6.7

DESIGN STRENGTH

For design, it is required that the total external load on the pipe will not exceed the
ultimate strength of the pipe multiplied by an appropriate bedding factor and divided by a
factor of safety.

The design formula is as follows:

We
where

We
Wt
Fm
Fs

=
=
=
=

Wt Fm
Fs

total external load on pipe,

ultimate strength of pipe,
bedding factor,
design safety factor of 1.25 for ultimate strength of pipe.

Based on the assumed design parameters in Sections 6.3, 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6, values of
the total external design loads in main roads and light roads are shown in Table 13.
Alternatively, Table 14 may be used for direct evaluation of the minimum crushing
strength or grade of precast concrete or vitrified clay pipes using different bedding factors in
main roads.
Worked Example: Given:

Nominal pipe size 375 mm (outside diameter 500mm)

Class B bedding (bedding factor = 1.9)
Cover depth range 1.8 m to 4.6 m
Pipe to be laid in main road

To determine strength of concrete pipe required.

Solution:
From Table 11,
as transition depths vary from 2.4 to 3.0 m, which is less than 4.6m, assume
wide trench condition
maximum design load, We = 66 kN/m
Required Wt = 66 x 1.25 / 1.9

= 43.4 kN/m

39
Based on BS 5911, Class H Pipe with ultimate strength of 45 kN/m is
required.

6.8

EFFECT OF VARIATION IN PIPE OUTSIDE DIAMETERS

The outside diameters in Table 13 are the general maxima for the majority of pipes,
a few pipes may be encountered, outside diameters of which would exceed the tabulated
dimensions. Provided the excess is not greater than 5% the effect can be ignored. If the
pipes employed have an outside diameter less than that being assumed, the load in Table 13
will then err on the safe side. It may be worthwhile making a more accurate computation of
the design load by means of Sections 6.3 and 6.4 with a view to achieving economy where
the difference in outside diameter is considerable.

40

7.

MANHOLES AND SPECIAL STRUCTURES

7.1

MANHOLES

7.1.1

Location
Manholes should be provided at :
(a)

intersection of sewers;

(b)

junction between different size/gradient of sewers;

(c)

location where the sewer changes direction; and

(d)

on long straight lengths at the following intervals :

Diameter of Pipe (mm)

Maximum Intervals (m)

<675

80#

>675 and <1050

100

>1050

120

# For pipe of size smaller than or equal to 675mm, the

maximum interval should be reduced to 60m if:

the flow carried by the pipe may cause difficult

chokages;

the manhole covers of the pipes are located on busy

road such that opening 2 adjacent manhole covers
at the same time may involve difficult traffic
arrangement; or

the pipe is located in a village with narrow roads

which are inaccessible to large-sized water-jetting
units.

A narrower spacing may be required to facilitate operation

and maintenance of large deep sewers, i.e. sewer with 675mm
or above in diameter and the invert level is more than 6m
below. Should there be any doubt on the maximum interval
to be adopted for any special circumstances, the relevant
operation and maintenance divisions should be consulted at
the design stage.

41
In addition, manholes should, wherever possible, be positioned such that the
disruption to the traffic will be minimum when their covers are lifted under normal
maintenance operations.

7.1.2

Access Openings

Access openings are generally of two types, one for man access and the other for
desilting purposes. Desilting openings should not be smaller than 750 mm by 900 mm, and
should be placed along the centre line of the sewer to facilitate desilting. Man access opening
should not be smaller than 675 mm by 675 mm. If ladders are installed in the manhole,
minimum clear opening should be 750 mm by 900 mm. Man access openings should be
placed off the centre line of the sewer for deep manholes and along the centre line of the
sewer for manholes shallower than 1.2 m.

7.1.3

Access Shafts

Access shafts should be sufficiently large for persons to be able to go down in

comfort and yet small enough that one can reach the shaft walls by hand while climbing
down for feeling a sense of security. Minimum size of access shaft should be 750 mm by 900
mm. The access shaft should be orientated such that the step irons are provided on the side
with the smaller dimension. The access openings should be confined to one traffic lane.

7.1.4

Working Chambers

Usually, for manholes less than 1.2 m deep, works can be performed from ground
level. Workers standing on the ground can reach the invert of the sewers without great
difficulty. Working chambers are generally not required for this type of manhole.
For manholes deeper than 1.2 m, works inside generally cannot be easily carried out
from ground level. Manholes of this type should be provided with working chambers with
access shafts, if necessary, leading from ground level. The working chambers should enable
persons to work inside.

7.1.5

Intermediate Platform

Where the invert of a manhole is more than 4.25 m from the cover level,
intermediate platforms should be provided at regular intervals. Headroom between platforms
should not be less than 2 m and not greater than 4 m. The size of the platform should not be
smaller than 800 mm by 1350 mm. The platform should be fitted with handrailing and safety
chains at the edge to protect persons from falling.
In order to facilitate rescue operation in case an accident occurred, designers are
advised to provide an additional manhole opening where space permits.

42

7.1.6

Inverts and Benching

Inverts and benching in manholes should be neatly formed. The ends of pipes should
be cut off and should not project into the manholes. The channel inverts should be curved to
that of the associated pipes and carried up in flat vertical faces, and should match the
cross-sections, levels and gradients of their respective sewers. The benching should be
formed from plane surfaces sloping gently downward toward the sewers and should not be
too steep to cause persons to slip into the sewer nor too flat so as to accumulate sediment. A
suitable gradient of the benching is 1 in 12.

7.1.7

Covers

Manhole covers should be sufficiently strong to take the live load of the heaviest
vehicle likely to pass over them, and should remain durable in a damp atmosphere. Heavy
duty manhole covers should be used when traffic or heavy loading is anticipated, otherwise
medium duty covers can be used.
Manhole covers should not rock when initially placed in position, or develop a rock
with wear. Split triangular manhole covers supported at three corners are commonly used to
reduce rocking. The two pieces of triangular cover should be bolted together to avoid a single
piece of the cover being accidentally dropped into a manhole.
Sewer and stormwater drain manhole covers should use the appropriate grid patterns,
which are shown on the DSD Standard Drawings, to allow easy identification.

7.1.8

Step-irons and Ladders

Step-irons should be securely fixed in position in manholes, and should be equally

spaced and staggered about a vertical line at 300 mm centres. Ladders should be used in
manholes deeper than 4.25 m or which are entered frequently. It is safer and easier to go
down a ladder when carrying tools or equipment.
Step-irons and ladders should start within 600 mm of the cover level and continue to
the platform or benching.
Step-irons and ladders, being constantly in a damp atmosphere and prone to
corrosion, should be made of or protected with corrosion resistant materials, e.g. galvanized
iron, glass-fibre reinforced plastic, plastic-coated steel, or stainless steel to suit the actual site
conditions.

7.1.9

Backdrop Manholes

Backdrop manholes are used to connect sewers at significantly different levels, and
should be used where the level difference is greater than 600 mm.
The backdrop can be provided by means of :

43
(a)

a vertical drop in the form of a downpipe constructed inside/outside the wall

of a manhole; and

(b)

a gradual drop in the form of cascade.

A cascade is preferred for sewers larger than 450 mm diameter. Downpipes are
suitable for sewers less than 450 mm in diameter and should not be used for sewers larger
than 675 mm diameter. When downpipes are used, the following is recommended:

7.2

(a)

proper anchoring of the backdrop at the bottom either in the form of a

duckfoot bend or a 90 degree pipe bend surrounded by concrete; and

(b)

a T-branch at the top fitted with flap valve inside the manhole to avoid
splashing.

INVERTED SIPHONS

An inverted siphon is a depressed sewer that drops below the hydraulic gradient to
avoid an obstruction. It is always surcharged. The system normally includes an inlet
chamber, a group of depressed sewers and an outlet chamber. High velocity of flow in the
depressed sewer should be maintained, with 1.5 m/s as the minimum to avoid sedimentation.
Furthermore, to maintain favourable velocities at all times, multiple parallel pipes (normally
3) should be arranged at increasing level so that additional pipes are brought into service
progressively as flows increase.
Desilting openings should be provided for both the inlet and the outlet chambers.
Depending on the sizes of the incoming sewer and the depressed sewers, penstocks or at least
grooves for shut-off boards should be provided. The inlet chamber should be constructed so
that the lower level of the sewers is accessible for carrying out a flushing operation. The
addition of a grit chamber is also desirable to avoid the deposition of grit in the siphon.
An inverted siphon requires considerable maintenance and its use is not
recommended unless other means of passing an obstacle are not practicable.

7.3

MULTIPLE PIPE CROSSINGS

7.3.1

Introduction

Multiple pipe crossings have been used in Hong Kong in the past to overcome
problems where sewers may be intersected and obstructed by obstacles such as storm water
drains, utilities and other sewers. They usually consist of several smaller diameter pipes at the
intersection to provide adequate clearance between the sewers and the obstacles, while
maintaining the sewer capacity.
There are many problems with the existing multiple pipe crossings, and they
include:

44
(a)

head loss to the flow;

(b)

flow disturbance;

(c)

silt/grease or rubbish accumulation;

(d)

frequent chokage; and

(e)

adverse effect on the hydraulics of the stormwater drainage system which is

to be crossed.

As in the case of inverted siphons, multiple pipe crossings should not be adopted for
permanent sewers unless there is no practical alternative. When obstacles are encountered,
which cannot be avoided by changes of sewer alignment or level, the diversion of the
obstacle is the preferred option. Multiple pipe crossings may be used as a temporary works
before diversion of the concerned obstacles are completed, and should satisfy the criteria
below.

7.3.2

Number of Pipe Crossings and Size

The total flow capacity of the multiple pipe crossing should not be less than the
original sewer and no pipe smaller than 300 mm diameter should be adopted. Hydraulic
analysis should be carried out for the system with the pipe crossing to show that the headloss
is not excessive.
Hydraulic analysis and model test, if appropriate, should also be carried out for the
stormwater drainage system which is affected by the multiple pipe crossing to ensure that the
risk of flooding is not increased to an unacceptable degree.

7.3.3

Control Structures

Control structures should be provided at the junctions of the original sewers and the
multiple pipe crossing. The structures should have access to permit regular inspection,
clearing, and the removal of obstructions from the pipes. They should be designed to avoid
rubbish or grit from blocking the sewers or accumulating at the entrance of the pipe crossing.
Desilting openings should be provided.

7.3.4

Level of Pipe Crossings

The maintenance problems resulting from sewer pipe crossing within the stormwater
drainage system should not be overlooked. The sewer pipe crossing should be placed at least
900 mm above the inverts of the stormwater drainage system to allow the normal low flow
during dry weather period or light rains. If sufficient headroom cannot be maintained,
consideration should be given to the options of embedding the sewer pipe crossing in the base
slab of the stormwater drain or adopting a better solution such as re-routing. If the sewer pipe
crossing inside a stormwater drain cannot be avoided, the hydraulic impact to the stormwater
drainage system should be assessed and mitigated.

45

7.4

DRY WEATHER FLOW INTERCEPTION

7.4.1

Pollution Sources

The pollution loads in the flow of the surface water course and the stormwater
drainage system are due to the following :

7.4.2

(a)

The poor operation and lack of maintenance of private treatment facilities

resulting in sub-standard effluent being discharged into the stormwater
system.

(b)

The illegal discharge of industrial wastes, agricultural waste or both.

(c)

The discharge into stream courses from squatter areas where no sewerage
system is provided.

(d)

Expedient cross connections between sewers and stormwater drains.

Abatement of Pollution Problems

The following three measures help to mitigate pollution in the coastal waters from
polluted water courses and stormwater drains :
(a)

Control at source
This is the least expensive option in terms of works but may not be easy to
implement because of the enforcement problems arising from lack of staff,
non-availability of appropriate legislation etc.

(b)

Separate system
This option involves the provision of a comprehensive separate system for all
unsewered areas and proper re-connection works for the existing sewerage.
This is the most expensive solution and will take considerable time to
implement.

(c)

Dry weather flow (DWF) interceptor

This is often used as an interim or first aid measure. It is relatively
inexpensive and can be carried out quickly. However, its proper functioning
requires intensive and regular maintenance.

46

7.4.3

Design Considerations for DWF interceptors

The design considerations for DWF interceptors are:
(a)

The rate of interception must be controlled so as not to overload the sewerage

system but be sufficient to remove the major portion of polluted flows. Flow
gauging should be carried out to estimate the quantity of polluted flows.

(b)

It should be located downstream of the pollution sources but the intrusion of

seawater into the sewer at the tidal zone must be guarded against.

(c)

The hydraulics of the stormwater system must be checked so as not to

increase the risk of flooding.

(d)

Proper vehicular access should be provided.

(e)

Degritting and screening devices must be provided to reduce the likelihood of

blockage.

(f)

The ease of operation and maintenance of DWF interceptors must not be

compromised by other constraints.

Please also refer to DSD Technical Circular No. 4/99 (or its latest version) for other
design considerations for DWF interceptor.

47

8.
8.1

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SEWERAGE SYSTEMS

GENERAL

The proper maintenance and operation of the sewerage system is essential if the
systems are to achieve their designed objectives. This Chapter provides some good practice
and guidance to assist those who are involved in the day-to-day operation and maintenance of
the sewerage system.

8.1.1

Maintenance Objectives
The objectives for proper maintenance and operation include :
(a)

to offer a quality of service that is acceptable, having regard to costs and to

effects on the environment, and to remedy recognised deficiencies;

(b)

to monitor the capacity of the system and to restore the flow capacity by
removal of excessive accumulation of silt and grease;

(c)

to monitor and maintain the structural integrity of the system;

(d)

to prevent excessive infiltration and inflow;

(e)

to attend to complaints of blockage, flooding and damage to sewerage

systems; and

(f)

to provide feedback on the need for planning and implementation of

improvement and upgrading works.

8.2

TAKING OVER OF COMPLETED WORKS

8.2.1

Procedures for Handing Over

To ensure that the works can be readily handed over to the maintenance authorities
on completion, the standard of design and maintenance requirements laid down in this
Manual must be fully complied with. Additionally, close consultation and liaison should be
maintained between the design office and the maintenance authorities at each stage of the
project. During the planning and design stages of a project, a design memorandum should be
prepared so that the design parameters, handing over requirements or phased handing over
arrangement of large project can be agreed by the maintenance authority. For non-standard
sewerage items, detailed consultation is required such that the operation and maintenance
requirements can be incorporated into the design. If unforeseen problems are encountered
during construction and changes have to be made, the maintenance authority must be
consulted as soon as possible so that the changes can be accepted. On completion, any
changes made should be incorporated in the design memorandum before handing over of the
completed works to the maintenance authorities.

48

Prior to handing over of the works, joint inspection must be carried out and any
outstanding works agreed. Completion certificate should be issued together with the agreed
list of outstanding works. Within 3 months of issuing the completion certificate, the final
operation and maintenance (O&M) manual for Civil Engineering Works, as-built drawings
and calculations should be submitted. Prior to the end of the Maintenance Period, a joint
inspection should again be carried out to check if further works are required and that all
outstanding or remedial works have been completed. For E&M works, relevant O&M
training should be conducted and the O&M manuals for Electrical and Mechanical (E&M)
Works, as-built drawings and design calculations should also be submitted. Prior to the end of
the Defects Liability Period (DLP), a joint inspection should again be carried out to check if
further works are required and that all outstanding works have been completed and defects
rectified.
Reference should be made to the Project Administration Handbook and the relevant
technical memoranda/circulars for details of handing over and taking over procedures.

8.2.2

Handing Over in Dry Conditions

Where possible, all pipes and culverts to be handed over should be inspected in dry
conditions. When the pipes or culverts have to be commissioned prior to handing over (e.g.
due to the requirement to maintain the existing flow or staged completion) and a temporary
diversion of flow is not feasible, an additional inspection should be arranged prior to the
commissioning. In certain circumstances and with the prior agreement of DSD, a closed
circuit television (CCTV) survey of the pipe before commissioning can be adopted as an
alternative to the joint inspection but prior agreement with the respective operation and
maintenance division of DSD should be sought.

8.2.3

Documents to be Submitted

Usually, `as-built' drawings are unavailable for the handing over inspection.
Marked-up prints of the working drawings showing the latest amendments and the extent of
works to be handed over should be provided. Records of material quality and acceptance
tests should also be available for scrutiny.
After the handing over inspection, the following documents should be submitted :
(a)

as-built drawings, in hard-copy and electronic format if applicable;

(b)

hydraulic and structural design calculations, in electronic format if available;

(c)

construction records including major acceptance tests and material quality

records, product specifications and warranties;

(d)

O&M manual and system manual, where appropriate; and

(e)

other maintenance manuals where appropriate.

49
In order to allow the project office to prepare the records (in particular the as-built
drawings), it is usually acceptable that the records can be submitted some time after the
handing over inspection but the records must be submitted before the expiry of the
Maintenance Period of the Contract.

8.3

INSPECTION AND GENERAL MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS

8.3.1

Inspection Programmes

Inspection of all existing sewerage systems should be carried out regularly to ensure
that the system is functioning properly. The frequency of inspection should be determined
principally from the nature and importance of the installations, the likely consequences of
malfunction, the frequency of complaints received in the vicinity and the resources available.
Priority should be given to those installations where the result of failure would be serious or
the remedial works particularly expensive.
The recommended frequency of inspections of sewers is shown in the following
table. However, some locations may require a more frequent rate of inspection and each case
should be considered individually.
Component

8.3.2

Frequency

Complaint black-spots

1 month to 6 months
depending on location

Sewers within red routes, pink

routes and expressways

1 year

Other sewers

1 - 5 years

Closed Circuit Television Surveys

Apart from visual inspections, closed circuit television (CCTV) surveys can also be
used to investigate the condition and the structural integrity of the sewers.
It is essential that CCTV surveys are conducted during low flow conditions. If the
flow quantity is high, the sewer upstream should be temporarily blocked and the flow
diverted. An adequate lighting system should also be adopted so as to produce a clear
picture of the sewer. Pipes should be cleaned prior to the survey.
The defect coding and structural assessment of culvert or pipeline with CCTV
results should be made in accordance with the Manual of Sewer Condition Classification
and Sewerage Rehabilitation Manual published by Water Research Centre.

50

8.3.3

Inspection within Red Routes, Pink Routes and Expressways

"Red" and "Pink" Routes are classified by Highways Department as the major road
network in Hong Kong. The Red Routes and Pink Routes are sections of the major road
network where the capacity and nature of the alternative routes are limited and the potential
impact is very high if these routes are either partially or totally closed. The details of the
Red and Pink Routes are shown in the relevant Highways Department Circular No. 5/2001
and 8/2003.
In order to minimize the adverse effect on traffic from urgent sewerage repair works
and clearance works, regular inspections of the sewerage system within the Red and Pink
routes should be given a high priority, so that preventive maintenance can be well planned
and performed outside the peak traffic hours.
For works in expressways, the requirements stipulated in the Road Traffic
Ordinance, and in particular the safety requirements, must be observed. It should be noted
that all expressways are either Red Routes or Pink Routes and allowable working time may
be restricted. The inspection programmes should preferably be carried out in conjunction
with Highways Department's cyclic lane programmes. Reference should also be made to
the relevant Highways Department Technical Circular.

8.3.4 Inspection of Drains behind Slopes

Persistent leakage of water from sewers and stormwater drains (including gravity
pipes, channels, tunnels and rising mains) not only causes nuisance, but can also be a serious
risk to the stability of slopes and retaining walls. Such leakage can deliver a significant
amount of water into the ground and its potential effect on the stability of the slope or
retaining wall should not be disregarded. Preventive measures in the form of regular
inspection and maintenance should be carried out with reference to Code of Practice on
Monitoring and Maintenance of Water-carrying Services Affecting Slopes (ETWB (2006))
and the latest Geoguide requirements. Where defective drains are found, repairs should be
carried out immediately.
As a minimum, sewers and drains located within a distance of H from the crest of a
man-made slope/retaining wall, where H is the maximum vertical height of the
slope/retaining wall, should be inspected at the frequency in accordance with Code of
Practice on Monitoring and Maintenance of Water-carrying Services Affecting Slopes
(ETWB (2006)). The distance from the crest of the slope should be further extended where
the sewers and drains are known to be leakage prone. Particular attention should be paid to
pressurized rising mains as their leakage or bursting may lead to severe damage. More
frequent leakage detection may be desirable for those rising mains behind slopes and
retaining walls in the high Risk-to-Life (i.e. Consequence-to-Life) Category as classified by
GEO Technical Guidance Note No. 15 (GCO (2004)). The frequency shall be decided
based on the prevailing conditions of the slopes/retaining walls and the rising mains.
Records of inspections should be sent to the maintenance agent of the slope likely to be
affected by the sewers or drains.

51

8.3.5

Desilting Programmes

Desilting of pipes and culverts is required so as to maintain the flow capacity. The
frequency of desilting varies from pipe to pipe and depends on the pipe size, gradient, flow
condition, type of sewage, the pipe capacity etc. subject to the verification of inspection
results. Experience indicates that regular desilting at complaint black spots can reduce the
complaint frequency. It is important to identify the causes of complaints. If they are
attributed to the capacity of the system, consideration should be given to other long term
solutions including improvement or modification to the existing systems.

8.3.6

Methods for Desilting/Cleansing

Manual rodding and scooping is the simplest method used in cleansing blockages.
A rod with a hook or spike is driven manually into the pipe to pierce through the blockage.
Solids produced will be collected at the downstream manhole and removed by scoops. This
method requires the least equipment. The set-up time is minimal and it is very effective in
clearing local chokage caused by refuse or debris. However, sometimes only a small hole is
made in the chokage and the pipe is not cleaned thoroughly and chokage tends to recur.
When the manhole is deep, length of the pipe is long and the pipe size is large, rodding is not
effective.
Water jetting is a common method for pipe cleansing. A hose is led into the pipe,
usually from downstream end, and water under high pressure of 300 Bar or higher pushes the
hose forward while at the same time washing away the substances accumulated inside the
pipe. This method is particularly effective in clearing blockages caused by oil and grease.
It is also very effective in clearing the grease stuck onto the pipe wall enabling the inspection
of the pipe surface condition. However, the effectiveness of water jetting decreases with the
increase in pipe diameter and is seldom used for pipes greater than 900mm diameter. Water
jetting is also not effective for pipes of length exceeding 100m due to the handling difficulty
of the hose.
Apart from normal cleansing, there are proprietary products available in the market
for mounting onto the head of the water jetting hose for breaking through hard material.
Winching is another commonly used method for the thorough cleansing of pipes.
A `ball' or bucket is towed to and fro along a section of sewer between two manholes several
times by a pair of winches. The silt and debris inside the pipe can be scraped out. This
method can be used for various sizes of pipes and is very effective in removing silt and
semi-large particles inside the pipe. Some specially made `balls' can also be used for
breaking hard material.

52

8.4

SEWERAGE REHABILITATION

8.4.1

Pipe Replacement

When pipes are found to be damaged, repair work should be carried out as soon as
possible before the situation gets worse. In most cases, replacement of the damaged pipes
by open excavation is the cheapest method and is the most effective way to make the repairs.
When replacing defective pipes by open excavation method, attention should be
drawn to the following :
(a)

maintenance of the existing flow;

(b)

the traffic conditions;

(c)

the presence of underground utilities;

(d)

nuisance and inconvenience to the public;

(e)

excavation dewatering; and

(f)

working area and shoring requirements.

Close liaison with the utility undertakings and traffic authorities is required before
the replacement work is carried out so that suitable construction methods and temporary work
requirements can be determined.
Open excavation may occupy road space for long period of time. The public is
becoming less tolerant of traffic disruption, and trenchless methods for pipe rehabilitation
should be considered as an alternative to open excavation.
Many of the defective sewers in the urbanized area have become undersized because
of city expansion and redevelopment, and if feasible the chance should be taken during the
remedial works to replace them with larger pipes.

8.4.2

Trenchless Methods for Repairing Pipes

Several trenchless rehabilitation methods are described in the following paragraphs.

It should be noted that the list is not exhaustive and there may be some other methods which
would be applicable.
(1) Joint Grouting. This method is used where sewers are leaking through the
joints, but are otherwise structurally sound. Chemical grout is pumped into the pipe joint
and fills up the void surrounding the leaking joint to seal it. For small sewers the chemical
grout is internally applied by an inflatable packer guided by a CCTV camera and the same
packer is used to test for air tightness of the grouted joint. For large pipes it may be more
convenient to send people into the sewer to carry out the grouting directly.

53

The method has also been used to repair leaking joints inside submarine outfalls and
inverted siphons. Equipment involved is generally simple, and the cost of remedial works is
low when compared with the traditional replacement of sewers. Its applicability, however,
is limited to sewers suffering from open joints without other structural defects.
(2) Relining Using Epoxy Impregnated Liner. This method uses a factory
fabricated lining tube to form a continuous solid pipe inside the original sewer to be
rehabilitated. The polyester lining is firstly impregnated with specially formulated resin in
the factory. When delivered to site and installed in position, the liner is expanded so that it
makes contact with the interior of the defective sewer. The temperature is increased inside
the liner to cure and harden the resin. Any branch connections can be restored with a
remotely controlled hole cutting machine.
The method is generally applicable for small to large size pipes, including oval and
egg shaped sewer. It can negotiate smooth bends, but wrinkles may develop at sharp bends.
It adds extra structural strength to the original pipe and offers good chemical and corrosion
protection for all sort of environment. The internal diameter of the pipe is slightly reduced
by the thickness of the liner, but the liner provides a smooth surface to the pipe which may
improve the flow capacity.
The equipment required for the method is sophisticated. Special equipment is
required to ensure proper and even impregnation and to remove the air inside the polyester
felt. Proper use of inhibitors and control of surrounding temperature are important to
prevent premature curing before insertion. The set up for insertion and heating is also
demanding. The method is therefore expensive, especially if only short lengths are to be
lined.
(3) Relining Using Pre-deformed Polyethylene Liner. This method involves
placing a factory made polyethylene liner inside the defective sewer. The liner is first
deformed and pulled through the existing sewer by winches. Water at high temperature and
pressure is then used to cure and to restore the circular shape so that the liner fits snugly
inside the old pipe.
The method is applicable for sewer ranging in size from 100 to 450mm diameter.
It can only negotiate large radius bends, and is not as flexible as the epoxy impregnated liner.
It can be used to seal joints and cracks, and to improve the flow characteristics and chemical
resistance. However, the interior of the old pipe must be smooth, and without serious
obstructions. The working space within the manholes must be quite large also.
(4) Relining Using Smaller Pipes. This method involves pulling or pushing a
thin walled pipe made from steel , GRP, HDPE or other materials, through a defective sewer.
The size of the new pipe is smaller than the old pipe. The pipes are generally jointed by
welding as they are pushed. The annular space between the new and the old pipes is
grouted.
The main disadvantage of this method is the large reduction in size, and that a large
space is generally required at the inlet. It cannot go through even large radius bends. It
works better for large diameter pipes where the reduction in size is less significant. Branch
connections are also quite difficult unless the sewer is large enough for human access.

54

(5) Pipe Bursting. This method, sometimes called the pipe eating system,
employs a powerful hydraulic expander which progressively destroys and expands the old
pipe as it advances itself through the pipe. The replacement pipe, generally of larger size, is
pulled in behind the bursters. The method has been used overseas, but potential
applicability in Hong Kong is rather limited because of the close proximity of other utilities
which may be damaged easily.

8.5

DRY WEATHER FLOW INTERCEPTORS

8.5.1

Inspection
The objectives of inspection are :
(a)

to reveal clogging and blockage in pipes, screens, and associated sewers and
stormwater drains so that remedial action can be taken;

(b)

to monitor the performance of the control devices/mechanism and to check

the rate of flow intercepted and diverted; and

(c)

to examine the condition of the structures and mechanical installations such as

pumps, flap valves etc.

Experience shows that the frequency of inspections required for dry weather flow
interceptors ranges from fortnightly to yearly and the frequency depends on the performance
of individual components. For interceptors located in stormwater drains or open nullahs,
where the flow is known to carry a large amount of silt and rubbish, more frequent inspection
is normally required. In addition, it is advisable to carry out an inspection after the first
heavy rain of each year and after each severe rainstorm.
The frequency should be adjusted in the light of experience on the performance of
the interceptor.

8.5.2

Cleansing

Together with the inspection, the dry weather flow interceptors should be desilted
and cleaned to remove rubbish, grit, and sludge.
A regular cleansing schedule should be
drawn up for the silt traps, and screen chambers.

8.6

INVERTED SIPHONS

8.6.1

Flushing

As inverted siphons are operated under submerged flow conditions, the chance of
silt accumulation is much higher than normal. Even though inverted siphons are usually

55
designed such that a self-cleansing velocity can be maintained during very low flow
conditions, siltation can still occur.
To reduce the accumulation of silt, it is advisable to carry out regular flushing.
This is particularly important for inverted siphons spanning over 100 m, because of the
difficulty in carrying out desilting. The frequency of flushing can range from weekly to
quarterly and depends very much on the configuration and flow in the inverted siphons. The
frequency should be adjusted in the light of experience.

8.6.2

Inspection and Desilting

The frequency of inspection for inverted siphons is normally higher than that for
normal sewers. Under normal circumstances, inspection should be carried out not less than
twice per year. Cleaning and desilting should be taken place, if required, after the
inspection.

8.7

CONNECTIONS TO EXISTING SEWERAGE SYSTEM

8.7.1

Existing Capacity

When a connection to the existing sewerage system is required, the capacity of the
existing system should be checked to see whether it has adequate spare capacity to
accommodate the flow from the proposed connections and whether enlargement or
duplication work is required.

8.7.2

Terminal Manholes

For every sewer connection from a private development, government building, park
or housing estate, a terminal manhole in accordance with DSD Standard Drawings should be
provided and positioned within the lot as near to the site boundary as possible. The terminal
manhole is designed to form a demarcation of maintenance responsibility and to protect the
public sewerage system from damage or blockage due to the indiscriminate discharge of
sewage by the occupants of the land served by the connection. The terminal manhole also
acts as a seal to stop passage of gases from the public sewer to the internal sewerage system
creating a nuisance.

8.7.3

Provision of Manholes

Direct connection by Y-junction to existing pipes should be avoided and manholes

should always be provided for connections to existing pipes. For existing pipes larger than
900 mm in diameter, where the construction of new manholes would be difficult, connections
should always be made to existing manholes.

56
8.8

DRAINAGE RECORDS

The existing drainage records should be updated to include all newly constructed
sewers and installations.
For all new works handed over to DSD for maintenance, as-constructed drawings
and documents as specified in para. 8.2.3, in hard copy and electronic format, containing the
geographical and topographical data should be passed to the drawing office for retention and
incorporation into the existing drainage record drawings as soon as possible. All manhole
positions with details of cover levels, invert levels, diameters and the directions of all the
connecting pipes should be given in the drawings. For all other special installations and
special manholes, as-constructed drawings showing the details are required. The hydraulic
and structural calculations, in hard copy and electronic format containing the hydraulic
models if available, should also be provided to supplement the drawings.
For all repair works, sewer connections and minor improvement works carried out
during the maintenance operations, the as-constructed survey should be made on completion
of the work. All changes in levels, positions and sizes should be surveyed and the results
should be incorporated into the drainage records.

8.9

SAFETY PROCEDURES

8.9.1

General

It must be emphasized that working in a confined space such as an underground

sewer, is a very dangerous task. Great attention should also be paid to safety whenever
working under adverse weather conditions.

8.9.2

Working in Sewers

Working within the confined spaces associated with sewers is dangerous. The
gases emitted by sewage may be lethal. Sewers may contain industrial waste making it
impossible to predict what gases are present. Injuries may occur by falling, slipping or
misuse of tools and equipment. Sewer workers are also subject to the additional hazard of
the sudden in-rush of high flows or a sudden release of toxic, corrosive or hot liquid.

8.9.3

Safety Requirements for Working in Confined Space

Working in a confined space such as an underground drain, box culvert, tanks, etc.,
is potentially dangerous. Great care must be taken at all times, particularly when working
under adverse weather conditions. The legislative requirements of the Factories and
Industrial Undertaking (Confined Spaces) Regulation have to be followed. Reference
should be made to Labour Department Code of Practice : Safety and Health at Work in
Confined Space, DSD Practice Note No. 3/2012 and DSD Safety Manual (2010) or their
latest versions, for the legislative requirements and good safety practice for working in
confined space. The essential elements of which include:

57

(a)

Appoint a competent person to carry out a risk assessment and make

recommendations on safety and health measures before undertaking work in
confined space.

(b)

Allow only certified workers to work in the confined space.

(c)

Operate a permit-to-work system.

(d)

Conduct atmospheric testing of the confined space before entry.

(e)

Provide adequate ventilation.

(f)

Isolate the confined space.

(g)

Monitor the air quality throughout the entire working period by means of a gas
detection device.

(h)

Ensure a standby person is stationed outside the confined space to monitor

the weather condition and maintain communication with the workers inside.

(i)

Ensure the use of approved breathing apparatus (if recommended in the risk
assessment report) and other necessary personal protective equipment by
workers inside the confined space.

(j)

Formulate and implement appropriate emergency procedures to deal with

serious or imminent danger to workers inside the confined space.

(k)

Provide necessary instructions, training and advice to all workers to be

working within a confined space or assisting with such works from
immediately outside the confined space.

Based on experience, it is considered necessary to add a second line of defence to

enable an early warning signal to be given out so as to increase the possibility of escape or
being rescued when the prescribed safety measures fail. The following enhanced safety
measures are introduced for DSD confined space work, unless the risk assessment
demonstrates that such measures produce no added benefit to safety at work:
(a)

Continuous Gas Monitoring: The person entering a confined space shall

bring along a gas detector, which can give out warning signals of the sudden
presence of dangerous gases or oxygen deficiency, to continuously monitor
the atmosphere so as to enable immediate evacuation; and

(b)

Personal Alarm: A personal alarm of dead-man type, which is able to give

out signals soon after a person loses his mobility (commonly 20 seconds),
shall be worn by all persons entering a confined space to facilitate early
rescue.

58

8.9.4

Working under Adverse Weather Conditions and during Flooding

Officers should always take note of the prevailing warning messages issued by the
Hong Kong Observatory, in particular the following:
(a)

Thunderstorm Warning;

(b)

Rainstorm Warning Signals;

(c)

Tropical Cyclone Warning Signals;

(d)

Landslip Warning;

(e)

Strong Monsoon Signal;

(f)

Special Announcement on Flooding in the Northern New Territories;

(g)

Very Hot Weather Warning;

(h)

Cold Weather Warning; and

(i)

Rain Alert.

Some safety guidelines for working under adverse weather conditions are given in
DSD Safety Manual (2010) or its latest version.

59

9.
9.1

TUNNEL SEWERS

GENERAL

The tunnel sewers described in Section 9.2 refer to those which operate under partial
flow conditions or where the sewage/treated effluent can be temporarily diverted and the
tunnel sewers can be inspected under dry conditions. Deep tunnel sewers which operate
under submerged flow conditions, such as tunnel sewers well below sea level constructed
under the HATS, are included in Section 9.3.

9.2

TUNNEL SEWERS

9.2.1

Introduction

As access to tunnel sewers is not easy, the normal maintenance operations for
ordinary sewers are not applicable. Sewer tunnels are normally very long and inspections
have to be carried out using specialised plant and equipment. Tunnel inspection vehicle
should be spark proof. Special arrangement has also to be made to temporarily divert the
sewage/treated effluent flow and to ventilate the tunnels prior to the carrying out of
inspections or other maintenance operations.
A comprehensive and fully detailed operation and maintenance manual should be
prepared at the design stage of each tunnel such that the maintenance procedures can be fully
agreed and appropriate provision made in the design.

9.2.2

Flow Control in Tunnel Sewers

Tunnel sewers should be designed so that the sewage/treated effluent flow can be
controlled upstream at the inlet chamber or upstream treatment plant. During inspection and
maintenance, sewage/treated effluent flow has to be stopped from entering the tunnel and
diverted by penstocks or similar control installations.

9.2.3

Monitoring of Hydraulic Performance

As inspection of tunnel sewers is difficult, the monitoring of hydraulic performance

will be a good indicator of the tunnel conditions in respect of siltation, structural damage or
other defects. The head loss of the sewage/treated effluent flow through the tunnel should
be monitored. If there is an increase in the head required, this may be a sign that there are
some problems and that a detailed inspection is required.

9.2.4

Inspections

Inspections should be conducted on a regular basis in accordance with the operation

and maintenance manual to be provided for each individual tunnel. An inspection frequency

60
of between 2 and 5 years would be quite typical. Inspection should also be carried out if
there are any signs of defects as revealed from the hydraulic performance. The inspection
should identify the presence of any spalling, cracking, leakage, or cavities behind the lining
and accumulation of deposits.
Inside tunnel sewers are confined space and safety supervision of tunnel sewers
inspection should follow the DSD Practice Note No. 3/2012 Safety Supervision of Work
in Confined Space, or its latest version. This Practice Note should be read in conjunction
with the Factories and Industrial Undertakings (Confined Space) Regulation; Code of
Practice for Safety and Health at Work in Confined Space; and DSD Safety Manual.
As tunnel sewers are usually very long, the inspection team may require tunnel
inspection vehicle for transport of staff and equipment. The following steps and precautions
should be observed prior to and during inspection:

9.2.5

(a)

the tunnel should be drained and ventilated prior to entry and adequate
ventilation should be maintained throughout the inspection;

(b)

breathing apparatus must always be readily available;

(c)

the team must be provided with gas detectors capable of detecting the level of
oxygen, methane and inflammable gases, hydrogen sulphide, carbon
monoxide and other toxic gases which are likely to be present;

(d)

if at any time the gas detectors show that toxic or explosive gases are present,
the inspection team should use the breathing apparatus and evacuate the
tunnel as soon as possible;

(e)

protective clothing must be worn and personal alarm (dead-man type) must be
equipped;

(f)

risk assessment and permit-to-work system must be implemented;

(g)

a rescue team should be set up to deal with emergencies; and

(h)

communication between the inspection team and the rescue team must be
established and maintained throughout the inspection.

Maintenance

If maintenance work is required, the tunnel must be ventilated and a continual

supply of fresh air provided. Petrol or diesel engines should not be used. Procedures for
maintenance works shall generally follow those required for inspections of tunnels in Section
9.2.4 and the Operation and Maintenance Manuals prepared for the sewage tunnels.
The O&M Manual shall include, amongst other essential information the following:
(a)

items to be inspected, possible defects, repair methods with labour, materials

and plants specified;

61

(b)

regular maintenance works required such as desilting with detailed method

statements, labour, materials and plants specified;

(c)

a maintenance schedule with frequency of inspection, proposed structural

inspection by Registered Structural Engineer or engineer with tunnel
design/construction experience with scope and frequency given;

(d)

authorities to be notified such as FSD, EPD, etc. before and after inspection,
operation or maintenance works;

(e)

arrangement for flow bypass, diversion or temporary storage;

(f)

temporary traffic arrangement with approved traffic diversion plan;

(g)

safety procedures; and

(h)

emergency contingency plans, escape routes, and agreed rescue procedures

etc.

Project team may be required to demonstrate successful inspection and maintenance

operations before handover to O&M team.

9.2.6

Potential Problems and Remedial Actions

(1) Spalling or Deterioration of Concrete. The main causes of concrete

deterioration are corrosion of reinforcing steel, sulphate attack, carbonation and alkali-silica
reaction. If severe deterioration is observed, the concrete in the affected area should be
hacked off until sound concrete is exposed. Any exposed reinforcement should be cleaned
and additional reinforcement should be provided if necessary. The affected area should then
be cleaned and filled with cement rich mortar or sprayed concrete. In highly corrosive
environments, special protective coatings should be applied to the concrete surface.
(2) Cracks in the Lining. Transverse cracks are likely to develop with changes
in the external loads or in the lining thickness. They may be caused by variation in the
properties of the ground and abrupt changes in overburden depths. Longitudinal cracks,
which usually appear along the crown or the spring line, will develop as a result of
inadequate load-carrying capacity of the tunnel section. Diagonal cracks may appear as a
result of uneven vertical movements. Short cracks are caused by local overstress or flaws in
the lining material or poor workmanship.
The cause of cracks should be investigated so that appropriate remedial measures
can be taken accordingly.
(3) Leakage. The watertightness of the tunnel lining is important, but absolute
watertightness is very difficult to achieve. If the volume of flow is significant, or the water
carries silt or the surrounding ground is loosened, the leaks should be sealed by pressure
grouting.

62
(4) Cavities behind Lining. Cavities behind the lining are detrimental, not only
because of the loss of composite action with the surrounding ground, but also because of the
erosive action of groundwater, which may cause blocks of rock to separate and add to the
loads on the lining. The detection of cavities behind the lining can be achieved by means of
dynamic, electronic instruments or radioactive isotopes. Any cavity so discovered should be
marked on the lining for further observations or repair.
(5) Accumulation of Deposits on the Tunnel Invert. Normally, tunnel sewers are
designed with self-cleansing velocities at low flow. Therefore, the problem of heavy solid
matter settling in the tunnel is rare. However, in the event that accumulation of deposits
does occur, the deposits should be removed by the most appropriate means.

9.3

DEEP SEWAGE TUNNEL SYSTEM

9.3.1

Introduction

This Chapter addresses the considerations relating to the planning and design of
deep sewage tunnel system. Deep sewage tunnels refer to deep sub-sea or underground
tunnels for the conveyance of sewage. They are designed to mainly operate either as
inverted siphons or rising mains under submerged flow conditions. Intermediate transfer
pumping stations may be required to maintain flow at sufficient hydraulic heads.

9.3.2

Choice of Deep Sewage Tunnel System

A deep sewage tunnel system normally forms the trunk sewer network for sewage
collection. If properly designed, it can have the following advantages:
(a)

to avoid road opening work, minimizing disruption to traffic and

environmental nuisances to the public;

(b)

to avoid conflicts with existing and planned underground utilities and

underground infrastructure; and

(c)

to provide flexibility in adopting a relatively straight alignment by avoiding

building foundations and not be restricted by existing road configurations as
for shallow pipe system.

Before a decision is made to adopt a deep sewage tunnel system, designers should
assess the merits and demerits of adopting such a system as compared with a shallow sewer
system. Different construction forms of the shallow sewer system such as trenched
pipelines, pipe jacking or shallow tunnelling should be evaluated for comparison with the
deep sewage tunnel system. This assessment should be conducted for all individual sections
of the sewer system. The assessment should compare the pros and cons of the various
aspects of the different systems including the following:(a)

Constructability:
Geological and hydrogeological conditions along the
tunnel alignment should be properly studied with specialists assistance to

63
assess matters that would affect the constructability of the tunnel at different
depths. The extent of weak and/or permeable ground such as fault zone,
fractured rock or soft soil stratum and their effects on the method of
construction should be assessed. It is important to study carefully these
aspects during the planning and design stages. However, constructing a
tunnel in the hard rock stratum may not necessarily get rid of the difficult
geological problems associated with tunnel construction.

9.3.3

(b)

Cost and Programme: The assessment should include a comparison of the cost
and programme associated with the different construction schemes. The
availability of intermediate access to the tunnel and the length of individual
tunnel sections may have important bearing on the cost and programme of the
tunnel system. The operating cost to cater for the lifting of sewage conveyed
through the deep sewage tunnels should be given careful consideration.

(c)

Environmental and Social Impacts: A shallow pipeline constructed using

conventional trenching may cause serious environmental and social impacts
during construction. Construction of shallow or deep tunnels using tunnel
boring machines or the drill and blast method may have comparatively lesser
environmental and social impacts during construction.

(d)

Risks: The construction of deep sewage tunnel system involves high risks that
need to be managed by well-planned ground investigation, careful selection of
the alignment and the construction method, contractual measures and other
risk mitigation measures.

(e)

Operation and Maintenance: The concern about effective operation and

maintenance of deep sewage tunnels should be addressed. Reference could
be made to Sections 9.2.5 and 9.3.10.

Tunnel Construction Methods

Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM) and Drill and Blast Method (D&B) are the most
common methods to construct deep tunnels. The aspects mentioned in (a) to (d) in the
lower part of Section 9.3.2 should be evaluated before a decision is made on the construction
method for the individual sections of tunnels. For procurement by D&B Method, it is worth
noting that prior consultation to the public, the utility undertakers and the authorities are
essential in order to address the major concerns associated with the vibration caused by
blasting and the logistics of delivery of explosives.

9.3.4

Site Investigation (SI)

Reference should be made to existing geotechnical information such as those

documents available in Geotechnical Information Unit of the Civil Engineering and
Development Department in working out the SI plan to determine the alignment and the level
of the deep sewage tunnels. In addition to drilling boreholes and carrying out in-situ tests,
designers should consider the need to conduct further SI by the application of state-of-the-art
technology such as various kinds of geophysical surveying methods and horizontal

64
directional coring (HDC) which is a technique used to collect continuous samples and
conduct in-situ testing along or close to the proposed tunnel alignment.

9.3.5

Land Requirements

Designers should identify suitable sites for the construction of the deep tunnels and
associated shafts. They should also make reference to the Sewage Tunnels (Statutory
Easements) Ordinance which provides for the creation of easements and other rights over
land in favour of Government for the purpose of the construction, maintenance and operation
of sewage tunnels and for connected matters. Sufficient time should be allowed for land
search and subsequent procedures to complete the gazetting, resolution of objections,
amendments and authorization before construction commences.

9.3.6

Protection of Deep Sewage Tunnels

Consideration should be given to protect the completed deep tunnel system and
associated structures against damage caused by construction works or ground investigation
works in the vicinity2.

9.3.7

Geotechnical Control for Tunnel Works

There is a need to deploy geotechnical expertise during the planning, design and
construction of the deep tunnel system. Designers should refer to the relevant technical
circulars or the Project Administration Handbook for Civil Engineering Works on
geotechnical control for tunnel works.

9.3.8

Sizing of Deep Sewage Tunnels

Deep sewage tunnels are in general more difficult to maintain than the shallow
sewers and hence designers should consider whether the deep sewage tunnels need to be
designed and sized to achieve a certain minimum flow velocity so as to adequately scour the
grit particles and other suspended solids to prevent accumulation of sediment along the
tunnels. Reference could be made to the relevant available results of recognized research
works, e.g. research done by CIRIA (Construction Industry Research and Information
Association, London, UK). Designers should also consider if a sampling and testing plan
needs to be devised to investigate the characteristics of the sewage to be conveyed in the
sewage tunnel system in order to better estimate the minimum flow velocity required. There
may be cases where it is necessary to add flows, e.g. by adding seawater, to achieve the
minimum flow velocity.
9.3.9

Gradient of Deep Sewage Tunnels

Designers should consider the need to avoid possible accumulation of air pockets in
the deep sewage tunnels which could cause corrosion to the surrounding materials. If such

Reference can be made to the protection mechanism for the existing HATS Stage I Sewage Tunnels.

65
air pockets are released, they will expand significantly on reaching the surface due to the
significant reduction in pressure and this significant air volume may blow out almost
explosively, if uncontrolled. The gradient of the sewage tunnels is a major factor that
governs the move of an air bubble. Both upward and downward sloping deep tunnels have
been constructed either locally or overseas. Designers should evaluate the pros and cons
when choosing the tunnel gradient which may have an impact to other considerations such as
the construction method.

9.3.10

Operation and Maintenance Considerations

During the planning and design of a deep sewage tunnel system, designers should
properly address operation and maintenance issues which may include:(a)

Scum Removal: Accumulation of scum, especially in the upstream shafts,

may cause operation and maintenance problems.

(b)

Release of air in Drop Shaft:

The drop shaft should be designed to
include features to effectively dissipate excessive energy and to minimize air
entrapment in the flow entering into it.

(c)

Tunnel and Shaft Lining:

For deep sewage tunnels and associated shafts,
lining should be designed to withstand the expected conditions of exposures.
Additional corrosion protection to the wetting zone of the surface of the
structures should be considered.

(d)

Deodourization:
Designers should check for the generation of odour
during operation of the deep sewage tunnel system and devise appropriate
mitigation measures.

(e)

Stagnant sewage:
Designers should consider the possibility of long
stoppage of the system and the need to dilute the stagnant sewage during the
stoppage.

66

10.
10.1

TRENCHLESS CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Trenchless (no-dig) construction methods have been used in various DSD projects
and some of the successful applications were presented in the technical papers identified in
the reference list. Trenchless construction method in this chapter refers to means for laying
of pipeline (or construction of culvert) of less than 3 metres in diameter without opening up
the ground surface above, which might be a more cost-effective alternative if it is at all
allowed or permissible. The difficulties for opening up the ground surface in Hong Kong
especially in the vicinity to the heavily inhabited area are various such as unbearable
disruption to traffic or business activities, physical obstructions (above or below ground),
prolonged construction period, construction problems and adverse factors on environmental
& other technical grounds.
Trenchless construction methods can be classified based on whether man-entry
would be permitted for the normal excavation operation along the alignment of pipeline (or
culvert). In this regard, they are broadly classified into two main types, namely man-entry
type and non-man-entry type for the context of this Manual. The main reason for such
classification is safety orientated as the safety concern and requirements would be more
stringent for former type.
For the avoidance of doubt, if some smaller diameter inner pipelines are to be laid
within a larger sleeve pipe or lining pre-formed beforehand, only the operation for
constructing the sleeve pipe or lining is to be governed by this classification. The safety
measures or requirements for subsequent laying of the inner pipelines especially when such
operation might render health or safety hazards to workers such as difficulties to swift
evacuation should be dealt with by other provisions under the construction contract.
Similar to other confined space work under DSDs jurisdiction, contractors workers
who need to participate in the trenchless construction would need to comply with the
competence enhancement training requirements stipulated in DSD Technical Circular No.
3/2012, or its latest version, as appropriate.

10.2

NON-MAN-ENTRY TYPE

The usual conditions associated with ordering this type of trenchless method
includes pipeline at considerable depth, long distance between adjacent access shafts and
susceptible ground conditions. After stipulating this type of trenchless method in the
construction contract, strictly no man-entry for normal excavation operation of pipeline (or
culvert) should be allowed for unless the Engineer is satisfied that the risks perceived at the
planning and design stages have all been cleared or for performing rescue operation for the
malfunctioning tunnel boring machine or other essential equipment trapped below ground.
Under this type of trenchless method, those types of tunnel boring machine (TBM)
equipped with a remote-control for normal excavation operation can usually be adopted.
However, some models of TBM which require frequent manual removal of foreseeable

67
obstruction such as hard strata or rock are unlikely to meet the said non-man-entry
requirements in this connection. In addition, other means known as hand-dug tunnels,
headings and hand shield methods that require constant manual input for normal excavation
operation obviously cannot meet such requirements.
Some basic information in respect of these methods that can meet the
non-man-entry requirements are highlighted below which are by no means exhaustive.
Project engineers and designers are to satisfy themselves that any particular method accepted
can really perform the required functions.

10.2.1

Slurry Pressure Balance Method

It is a TBM with a bulkhead located behind the face to form a pressure chamber.
Bentonite slurry or other medium is introduced into the chamber under appropriate pressure
to equalise ground pressure and to be mixed with material excavated by rotary cutterwheel.
The bentonite slurry forms a temporary filter cake on the tunnel face which the slurry exerts
pressure to support the ground. The continuously forming filter cake will be cut away by
the rotary cutterwheel as the TBM advances. The excavated spoil will be removed from the
pressure chamber by the slurry circulation system.

10.2.2

Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) Method

The EPB method consists of a cutting chamber located behind the cutterhead. This
chamber is used to mix the soil with water foam/soil conditioner. It is maintained under
pressure by the screw mucking system. The ground at the cutting face is supported by the
resultant pressure balancing the increase in pressure due to advancement of the TBM and the
reduction in pressure due to discharge of the excavated spoil.
The underlying principle of the EPB method is that the excavated soil itself is used
to provide continuous support to the tunnel face by balancing earth pressure against the
forward pressure of the machine. The thrust forces generated from rear section of TBM is
transferred to the earth in the cutterhead chamber so as to prevent uncontrolled intrusion of
excavated materials into the chamber. When the shield advances, the excavated soil is
mixed with the injected special foam/soil conditioner material which changes the
viscosity/plasticity of the spoil and transforms it into a flowing material. With careful
control of the advance thrust force of the TBM and the rate of discharge of the spoil, adequate
pressure could be maintained in the pressure chamber for supporting the tunnel face during
the excavation process.

10.3

MAN-ENTRY TYPE

As indicated by the category name, man-entry would be permitted under this type of
trenchless construction. Thus, adequate underground working space should have been
ascertained by the designer at the pre-contract stage. Thorough study on the record
drawings of the existing structures and utilities for the entire alignment along with any
necessary ground investigation (including geophysical survey) should be conducted prior to
allowing this type of trenchless method in the construction contract. According to the

68
current safety standards, underground access to workers should be of 1.2m diameter
minimum. Besides, sufficient area at the access shafts should also be obtained as back-up
area to cater for emergency.
Some basic information in respect of these methods that can meet the man-entry
requirements are highlighted below which are by no means exhaustive. Project engineers
and designers are to satisfy themselves that any particular method accepted can really
perform the required function.

10.3.1

Heading Method

Heading method is a simple form of constructing hand-dug tunnel using structural

frame as ground support during manual excavation. Minimum excavation dimensions of at
least 1.5m x 1.5m are typically required for installing usually short-length pipelines crossing
underneath road junctions, underground utilities and services and entrance to car parks in
shallow depth. The completed works have demonstrated its effectiveness due to fast
mobilization of plant, simple set-up on site, and flexibility in construction method to suit the
limited space available.
Safety and ground condition risks must be carefully considered for this form of
construction. Designers shall exercise reasonable skills and care to check that no other form
of construction is appropriate and the ground conditions that are expected to be encountered
during excavation are unlikely to impose unacceptable safety risks to the workers before
deciding to adopt heading construction.

10.3.2

Hand-dug Tunnel Method

Hand-dug tunnel (i.e. open mode) is the technique of installing pipes by forming a
tunnel with manual excavation inside the handshield from the entry pits to the end pits. The
excavated materials are transported to the ground level through a trolley system and lifted up
by lifting gantry installed at entry pit. Segments of tunnel frames are constructed one after
the other until reaching the end pits. It is effective when the alignment of a pipeline (or
culvert) has to pass through mechanical obstructions like walls and artificial hard materials
which can be removed by manual means. However, emphasis has to be placed on
pre-treatment to the ground prior to excavation to avoid instability of tunnelling soil face.
Excavation at tunnel face could be accelerated by using pneumatic tools or by mini-backhoe
if the size of tunnels allows.

10.4

MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS

10.4.1

Planning & Design Stage

(a) Existing Underground Conditions

The roads in the urban areas of Hong Kong are generally congested with
underground utilities and services of different types and sizes at different depths. When

69
planning a pipeline using trenchless construction, the level and alignment shall be designed to
avoid diversion of existing utilities and services as it involves open excavation. Sufficient
information shall be obtained and trial pits or other means shall be carried out to verify the
depth and locations of all underground utilities in the vicinity of the proposed alignment &
level of trenchless pipeline.
(b) Alignment & Level
Construction of a pipeline (or culvert) normally follows the alignment of the road.
Pipe jacking is well applicable for straight driving, though slightly curved driving is possible
with the latest technology; therefore, pipe jacking is not feasible in areas that require sharp
bends unless additional intermediate jacking/receiving shafts are constructed.
Trenchless construction is often applicable for deep pipes in order to avoid
underground utilities, felling of valuable trees and unacceptable ground movement. Hence,
it is not suitable for very shallow pipe installation. Construction of deep pipelines may
encounter bedrock or boulder which presents difficulty in pipe jacking. Hand-dug tunnel
construction would be an alternative in such scenario while microtunnelling could also drill
through rock and artificial hard material. Comprehensive planning and implementation of site
investigation would help to reduce the risk of unexpected ground conditions. It may not be
practical to carry out thorough drilling along the whole alignment of the pipeline. In most
circumstances, directional coring and geophysical methods should be considered along the
whole alignment of the proposed trenchless pipeline.
For pipeline (or culvert) construction in long length, it may be worthwhile to
consider adopting different forms of construction for different sections of the pipeline
between intermediate temporary shafts to suit changing conditions along the pipe alignment.
(c) Locations of Jacking/Launching and Receiving Shafts
Jacking shaft and receiving shaft between a pipeline (or culvert) should be selected
to avoid conflicting with traffic and major utilities or minimize their diversions. The choice
of the locations of the launching shaft and the receiving shaft depends on a number of factors
such as the positions of permanent manholes, the hydraulic design of water flow, the
maximum length of pipelines for the ease of future maintenance and the required working
space. Substantial working space is required for launching shaft, receiving shaft and slurry
treatment plant (for slurry operated TBM method). Thus, the area occupied by the shafts
and slurry plant shall be considered in space limited works fronts during design stage. Due
consideration should be given to temporary traffic arrangement schemes and application of
Excavation Permits in stages.
The underground condition generally governs the geometry of the shaft. Rectangular
shaft is usually constructed because it can be modified without much difficulty to
accommodate existing utilities and services. However, at locations where these features are
absent, circular shaft is used due to the smaller member size of temporary works required.
The shape and size of a shaft need to be tailor-made to suit utility constraint,
resulting in the possible use of a combination of sheetpiles and pipe-piles to overcome the
problem. For deep shaft, grouting is always required along the perimeter to ensure

70
watertightness and hydraulic failure at the base of the shaft, before excavation is to
commence.
(d) Site Investigation and Design
Thorough site investigation shall be carried out at the design stage. The site
investigation result is essential to the design and procurement of machine for trenchless
construction. Designers shall take into account the tunnel face stability, face support
pressure, dewatering effects, ground loss and ground movement estimation, etc in the design.
With regard to ground control slurry TBM method, guidelines for design calculations and
work procedures shall be made reference to GEO Report No. 249.

10.4.2

Construction Stage
(a) Alignment & Level Control

The pipe jacking works in Hong Kong using TBMs generally shall follow the
Specification for Tunnelling (BTS and ICE, 2010) as guideline for controlling tunnel
alignment, in that a tolerance of 50mm is specified for line. However, deviation in more
than the tolerance may occur at locations with unfavourable ground conditions. The tunnel
alignment is corrected by suitable extension or retraction of the steering cylinders installed in
the TBM. The use of TBM with 4 nos. steering cylinders offers better control in alignment
than that with 3 nos. It requires a long period of time to correct any out-of-tolerance in
alignment in order to avoid causing damage to the jacking pipes. However, allowance has
to be made to account for the irregular profile of the tunnel, due to different ground
conditions encountered during excavation, which could affect installation of the permanent
pipeline therein to the required alignment.
The level control shall also follow the Specification for Tunnelling (BTS and ICE,
2010), in that a tolerance of 35mm is specified for level. In case of the pipeline exceeded
the tolerated 0.5 degree angular deflection at pipe joint, there is a need to carry out a detailed
inspection to ensure that there is no dislocation thereat. To better control the hydraulic
performance of a pipeline (or culvert), tighter tolerance on invert level in the order of few
millimeters may be adopted. For excessive opening in pipe joint, remedial measures have to
be carried out. This can be achieved by locally trimming the concrete at the pipe end for
better bonding before applying non-shrinkage epoxy, with a strength equivalent to the pipe,
to fill up the problematic location for prevention of ingress of water.
(b) Safety Concerns
(i)

Working under compressed air

The adoption of compressed air hand-dug tunnelling method would face a problem
associated with air loss in porous ground, giving rise to the necessity of carrying out ground
treatment to safeguard the tunnel and the personnel working inside. The switch-on of
compressors and generators roundthe-clock to maintain the pressure in tunnel also causes
noise problem. Although high cost and relative low production rate make this method only
applicable to short drives, the removal of artificial obstructions can be warranted. However,
following the rapid development of TBM technology which allows pipe jacking drives in

71
curved alignment and detects obstructions ahead of TBM advancement, personnel working
under compressed air shall be avoided as far as practicable due to the risk involved and the
reasons stated above. In case working under compressed air is found essential, detailed
justifications and risk assessment should be prepared before construction.
Compressed-air tunnel will be adopted for high groundwater table condition.
Depending on depth, an air pressure of 1 to 2 bars is required to balance the water head in the
excavation face and be maintained inside the tunnel round-the-clock to avoid flooding which
may in turn affect tunnel stability. To ensure constant supply of air, a standby compressor is
provided for emergency situations. Pressurization and depressurization process is required
in the air-lock installed on top of an air deck erected in the jacking shaft, for personnel
entering and leaving the tunnel respectively. A medical lock needs to be provided at the
shaft location when the applied compressed-air pressure exceeds 1 bar.
(ii)

Working in confined space

Workplaces for trenchless construction including shaft and tunnel are always
enclosed nature and there are reasonably foreseeable risks such as sudden ingress of water
and collapse of tunnel. Procedures for working in confined space shall be strictly followed
including assessment on the tunnel face stability and ingress of groundwater. Reference
shall be made to DSD Practice Note No. 3/2012 Safety Supervision of Work in Confined
Space, or its latest version, DSD Safety Manual on Use of Headings and relevant
regulations.
When working in confined space under compressed air condition, there have been
some cases that air was found leaking through the porous ground during tunnel excavation,
resulting in inflow of groundwater. This entails horizontal and vertical grouting from inside
the shield to stabilize the ground before further excavation could be proceeded with.
Flooding of the heading and the access shaft can occur as a consequence of sudden
inrush of water from exposed faces due to bursting of nearby watermains, heavy rainfall, etc.
In the risk assessment, suitable measures to ensure the heading works watertightness to
prevent flooding should be considered.
(c) Ground Movement Monitoring
Tunnelling and pipe jacking would induce settlement in surrounding ground. The
magnitude of settlement is greatly affected by ground conditions, type of tunneling method,
control of inflow of groundwater, depth of tunnel and jacking speed. The presence of
underground utilities and services above the jacked pipeline would lead to
under-measurement of surface ground settlement due to their rigidity. It is necessary to
estimate the settlement influence zone and to assess its effect on nearby roads, structures and
utility installations such that they can be safeguarded during the operation and remedial
measures taken, if necessary. Maximum ground settlement occurs at the centre line of the
pipeline and diminishes to zero at a distance from its two sides. Most settlements occur
during and immediately after completion of tunneling and pipe jacking works. Further
settlement would continue, and its stoppage depends on the ground and groundwater
conditions above the jacked pipeline, for a few weeks to a few months.

72
In many cases, ground settlement is associated with change in groundwater level due
to dewatering or groundwater inflow in the tunnel. The Contractor shall closely monitor the
standpipe and piezometer readings with reference to the baseline record. If there is
significant drawdown of groundwater level, assessment to the effect of settlement and
subsequent remedial measures shall be carried out.
For monitoring settlement, sub-surface settlement markers, in the form of a steel rod,
by coring through rigid pavement, are generally adopted, with their installation at suitable
intervals along the alignment of the pipeline and with sufficient number offset at both sides,
prior to commencement of a pipe jacking drive. In flexible pavement, nail markers are used.
This is supplemented by visual inspection that if settlement occurs, cracks would develop in
pavement. For structures sitting on shallow foundation, their condition has to be assessed
before commencement of tunneling and pipe jacking such that suitable monitoring devices
such as tilt markers and settlement markers can be installed to monitor the ground behavior
during the course of works. If the measured ground settlement exceeds the predicted value,
the tunneling and pipe jacking works have to stop and an investigation on the cause, and the
damage, if any, carried out, with remedial measures such as ground treatment implemented,
as necessary, prior to resumption of works.

10.4.3

Environmental Issue

Slurry pressure balance method using TBM requires a large amount of bentonite
based slurry during the course of driving. Proper consideration should be made to recycle
and dispose of the bentonite slurry after use to minimize the impact to the environment.
The bentonite based slurry of slurry shield TBM is mixed at the slurry tank and
pumped to the work face through the cutterhead of the shield under a recycling system. The
spoil excavated by the slurry shield machine is pumped to the slurry tank for separation and
disposal. Proper monitoring system should be set up to avoid overflow of slurry from the
recycle tank in case the outflow slurry pipe is clogged with spoil. The slurry tank should
also be designed with sufficient free board to avoid the bentonite based slurry spilling out on
public roads and drains.

10.4.4

Cost Consideration

Pipeline (or culvert) laid using trenchless construction method are usually of higher
construction cost than those laid using open trench construction method.
Thus,
consideration shall be made on the cost-effectiveness of trenchless construction method and
the benefits that may be brought to the public before adopting trenchless construction method
instead of open trench construction method. However, for case of deep sewer, great
difficulty in utility diversion or temporary traffic arrangement, trenchless construction
method may prevail in terms of cost and constructability.

73

REFERENCES
AB2H Consultants. Preliminary Design Manual of Strategic Sewage Disposal Scheme.
AB2H Consultants, Strategic Sewage Disposal Scheme: Site Investigations and
Engineering Studies, Drainage Services Department, Hong Kong Government.
AB2H Consultants.
Review of Flows and Loads. AB2H Consultants, Strategic Sewage
Disposal Scheme: Site Investigations and Engineering Studies, Drainage Services
Department, Hong Kong Government.
ASCE & WPCF (1982). Gravity Sanitary Sewer Design and Construction. American
Society of Civil Engineers and Water Pollution Control Federation.
Brater, E.F. & King, H.W. (1976).
New York.

Handbook of Hydraulics, 6th edition. McGraw-Hill,

British Tunnelling Society and The Institution of Civil Engineers (2010), Specification for
Tunnelling, pp46, 144- 116, Thomas Telford, U.K..
BD (2004/1). Code of Practice on Wind Effects in Hong Kong. Buildings Department,
The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
BD (2004/2). Code of Practice for Foundations. Buildings Department, The Government
of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
BD (2011).
Code of Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads. Buildings Department, The
Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
BD (2013).
Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete 2013.
Buildings
Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
BS EN (2008). BS EN 752: Drain and Sewer Systems Outside Buildings. British Standards
Institution, London.
BSI (2002).
BS EN 1990: Eurocode - Basic of Structural Design and its respective UK
National Annex. British Standards Institution, London.
BSI (2004).
BS EN 1992: Eurocode 2 Design of Concrete Structures Part 1-1:
General Rules and Rules for Buildings and its respective UK National Annex.
British Standards Institution, London
BSI (2006).
BS EN 1992: Eurocode 2 Design of Concrete Structures Part 3: Liquid
Retaining and Containment Structures and its respective UK National Annex. British
Standards Institution, London
Chow, V.T. (1959). Open Channel Hydraulics.

McGraw-Hill, New York.

74
CED (1992). The Port Works Manual.
Government.

Civil Engineering Department, Hong Kong

CIRIA (1994). The CIRIA Report on the Design

CIRIA, London, UK.
D S Miller (1990).

of Sewer to Control Sediment Problems.

Internal Flow Systems. BHR Group

DSD (2010).
DSD Safety Manual.
Government.

Drainage Services Department, Hong Kong

DSD (2013). DSD Stormwater Drainage Manual. Drainage Services Department, The
Government of the Hong Kong SAR.
DSD (2002). Research and Development Section, Trenchless Pipe Installation and
Renovation Techniques for Construction of Drainage Pipelines, Research &
Development Report No. RD 1005/2
Drainage Services Department, The
Government of the Hong Kong SAR
EPD (1989). A Practical Guide for the Reduction of Noise from Construction Works.
Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong Government.
GCO (1987). Guide to Site Investigation.
Government.

Geotechnical Control Office,

Hong Kong

GCO (1988). Guide to Rock and Soil Description. Geotechnical Control Office, Hong
Kong Government.
GEO (1993). Geoguide 1 - Guide to Retaining Wall Design.
Office, Hong Kong Government.

Geotechnical

Engineering

GEO (2006). GEO Publication No. 1/2006 Foundation Design and Construction.
Geotechnical Engineering Office, The Government of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region.
GEO (2008). Ground Control for Slurry TBM Tunnelling, GEO Report No. 249,
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 37 p.
HyD (4th Edition). Structures Design Manual for Highways and Railways. Highways
Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
HRL (1990). Charts for the Hydraulic Design of Pipes and Channels, 6th edition.
Hydraulics Research Limited, Wallingford.
HRL (1983). Design and Analysis of Urban Storm Drainage.
Hydraulics Research Limited, Wallingford.

The Wallingford Procedure.

HRL (1994). Tables for the Hydraulic Design of Pipes and Channels, 5th edition.
Hydraulics Research Limited, Wallingford.

75
HR Wallingford et. al. (2006) - HR Wallingford and D.I.H. Barr (2006) Tables for the
Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Sewers and Channels. Thomas Telford Ltd.
Hydraulics Research Limited, Wallingford - User Manual for SPIDA.
Hydraulics Research Limited, Wallingford - User Manual for WALLRUS.
IWA (2004). Solid in Sewers Characteristics, Effects and Control of Sewer Solids and
Associated Pollutants. IWA
K W MAK, W S MOK & H T POON (2007) Sewer Installation by Pipejacking in the
Urban Areas of Hong Kong Part I Planning, Design, Construction and Challenges
K W MAK, W S MOK & H T POON (2007)
Sewer Installation by Pipejacking in
the Urban Areas of Hong Kong Part II Performance of Works, Lessons Learned
and Improvements Proposed
K W MAK & W S MOK (2009)
Tunnelling and Pipejacking Techniques for Trenchless
Installation of Drainage Pipelines
Montgomery Watson. Study of Asset Inventory.
Department, Hong Kong Government.

Montgomery Watson, Drainage Services

RO (annual). Tide Tables for Hong Kong. Royal Observatory, Hong Kong Government.
Streeter, V.L. and Wylie, E.W. (1985).
Company.

Fluid Mechanics 8th edition. McGraw-Hill Book

WSD (1985). Provisional Standing Order No. 1309 - Design Criteria. Water Supplies
Department, Hong Kong Government.
WSD (annual). Hong Kong Rainfall and Runoff, Volume XXII.
Department, Hong Kong Government.

Water Supplies

Watkins (1962). The Design of Urban Sewer Systems (Transport and Road Research
Technical Report No.35). Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
WRC (1986). Sewerage Rehabilitation Manual 2nd edition.
Swindon.

Water Research Council,

76

TABLES

77

CONTENTS
Table No.

1.

Design Life

2.

Not Used

3.

Not Used

4.

Global Unit Load Factors

5.

Recommended Roughness Values (ks)

6.

Values of n to be used with the Manning's equation

7.

Head Losses Coefficient, K

8.

Typical Pipe Materials and their Characteristics

9.

Typical Corrosion Protection Measures and their uses

10.

Common Joint Pipes and their Characteristics

11.

Narrow and Wide Trench Fill Loads

12.

Traffic Loads

13.

Design Loads for Rigid Pipelines

14.

Minimum Strength or Class of Pipes in Main Roads

15.

Recommended
Reinforcement

Design

Parameters

for

Concrete

and

Steel

78
Table 1 : Design Life
Sewage Installations

Design Life (in years)

Tunnel Sewers

100

Sewers

40

Outfalls

50

Sewage Treatment Works

Civil/Building Works
Electrical & Mechanical Equipment

50
15

Pumping Stations
Civil/Building Works
Electrical & Mechanical Works
Rising Mains

(source: Study of Asset Inventory by Montgomery Watson)

50
25
25

79
Table 2 (Note Used)

80

Table 3 (Not Used)

81
Table 4 : Global Unit Load Factors

Unit

SS
(kg/d)

BOD
(kg/d)

COD
(kg/d)

0.040

0.042

0.090

TKN
(kg/d)

NH3N
(kg/d)

E. Coli.
(no./d)

Domestic
Residential

person

0.0085

0.0050

4.3x1010

3.5x1010

Commercial
Employed
Population

employee

0.034

0.034

0.070

0.0067

0.0040

Commercial
Activities

employee

0.025

0.053

0.103

0.0025

0.0008

employee
employee
employee
employee
employee
employee

0.632
2.095
0.432
2.228
0.355
0.089

0.898
3.680
0.288
2.150
0.931
0.133

1.663
8.757
0.853
5.454
2.250
0.587

0.044
0.067
0.044
0.033
0.033

0.011
0.022

0.0012

0.0012

0.0025

0.0014

0.0009

Industrial
Process
Food
Textiles
Leather
Paper
Manufacturing
Machinery

Others
Beach Users

person

(source: Review of Flows and Loads by AB2H Consultants)

1.9x1010

82

Table 5 : Recommended Roughness Values ks

Source : HR Wallingford et. al. (2006)
Classification (see note 1)

Suitable values of ks (mm)

Good

Normal

Poor

0.003

0.015

0.03

0.06

Spun bitumen or concrete lined

0.03

Cast iron, epoxy lining, coupling joints

0.015

0.03

Ductile iron, polyethylene lining, push-fit joints

0.06

0.15

Ductile iron, polyurethane lining, push-fit joints

0.015

0.03

0.06

Wrought iron

0.03

0.06

0.15

Rusty wrought iron

0.15

0.6

3.0

Uncoated steel

0.015

0.03

0.06

Rusty steel

0.15

0.3

Steel, epoxy lining, push-fit joints

0.03

0.06

0.15

Galvanised iron, coated cast iron generally

0.06

0.15

0.3

Uncoated cast iron

0.15

0.3

0.6

Tate relined pipes

0.15

0.3

0.6

152mm x 51mm corrugated plate, unpaved circular pipe, running full

50

60

76mm x 25mm corrugated plate, unpaved circular pipe, running full

25

30

Slight degree of attack

0.6

1.5

3.0

Moderate degree of attack

1.5

3.0

6.0

Appreciable degree of attack

6.0

15

30

Severe degree of attack

15

30

60

0.3

0.6

1.5

Prestressed

0.03

0.06

0.15

Precast concrete pipes with O ring joints

0.06

0.15

0.6

Spun precast concrete pipes with O ring joints

0.06

0.15

0.3

Monolithic construction against steel forms

0.3

0.6

1.5

Monolithic construction against rough forms

0.6

1.5

Smooth Materials (Pipes)

Drawn non-ferrous pipes of aluminium, brass, copper, lead, etc. and non-metallic
pipes of Alkathene, glass, perspex, uPVC, etc.
Asbestos Cement
Metal

Old tuberculated water mains as follows :

(Good: up to 20 years use; Normal: 40 to 50 years use; Poor : 80 to 100 years

use)
Wood
Wood stave pipes, planed plank conduits
Concrete

83
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Classification (see note 1)

Suitable values of ks (mm)

Good

Normal

Poor

With sleeve joints

0.03

0.06

0.15

With spigot and socket joints and O ring seals dia < 150mm

0.03

With spigot and socket joints and O ring seals dia > 150mm

0.06

Pitch Fibre (lower value refers to full bore flow)

0.003

0.03

Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)

0.03

0.06

Twin-walled, with coupling joint

0.003

0.006

Standard, with chemically cemented joints

0.03

Standard, with spigot and socket joints, O ring seals at 6 m to 9 m intervals

0.06

0.03

Glazed

0.6

1.5

3.0

Well pointed

1.5

3.0

6.0

Old, in need of pointing

15

30

Concrete, spun or vertically cast

3.0

6.0

Asbestos cement

3.0

6.0

Clayware

1.5

3.0

uPVC

0.6

1.5

Concrete, spun or vertically cast

1.5

3.0

Asbestos cement

0.6

1.5

Clayware

0.3

0.6

uPVC

0.15

0.3

Clayware
Glazed or unglazed pipe:

uPVC

New Relining of Sewers/Drains

Factory manufactured GRP
Brickworks

Slimed Sewers/Drains (see note 3)

Sewers/drains slimed to about half depth; velocity, when flowing half full,
approximately 0.75 m/s:

Sewers/drains slimed to about half depth; velocity, when flowing half full,
approximately 1.2 m/s :

84
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Classification (see note 1)

Suitable values of ks (mm)

Good

Normal

Poor

Mean velocity 0.5 m/s

0.3

3.0

30

Mean velocity 0.75 m/s

0.15

1.5

15

Mean velocity 1 m/s

0.06

0.6

6.0

Mean velocity 1.5 m/s

0.03

0.3

1.5

Mean velocity 2 m/s

0.015

0.15

1.5

Trowel finish

0.5

1.5

3.3

Float finish

1.5

3.3

5.0

Finished with gravel on bottom

3.3

7.0

18

Unfinished

2.0

7.0

18

Shotcrete, or Gunite, good section

5.0

14

43

Shotcrete, or Gunite, wavy section

10

33

70

Granite and other homogeneous rocks

60

150

300

Diagonally bedded slates

300

600

Straight uniform artificial channels

15

60

150

Straight natural channels, free from shoals, boulders and weeds

150

300

600

Sewer Rising Mains (see note 4)

All materials, operating as follows:

Concrete Channels

Unlined Rock Tunnels

Earth Channels

Notes :
1.

The classifications Good, Normal and Poor refer to good,, normal and poor examples of their respective
categories unless otherwise stated. Classifications Good and Normal are for new and clean pipelines. The
range of roughness takes account not only of the quality of the jointing but also the variation in surface roughness to
be found in pipes that are normally of the same material.

2.

Figures in bold print are the values particularly recommended for general design purposes.

3.

The hydraulic roughness of slimed sewers/drains vary considerably during any year. The Normal value is that
roughness which is exceeded for approximately half of the time. The Poor value is that which is exceeded,
generally on a continuous basis, for one month of the year. The value of ks should be interpolated for velocities
between 0.75 m/s and 1.2 m/s.

4.

The hydraulic roughness of sewer rising mains varies principally with the amount of slime that builds up inside the
pipe and is normally not significantly affected by factors such as the jointing or the construction. Primarily, the
increasing roughness values are intended to cover for the loss of flow area. The Normal value represents the
mean value of the measured hydraulic roughness while the Good and Poor values represent the values which are
two standard deviations on each side of the Normal value.

85
Table 6 : Values of n to be used with the Manning's equation
Surface

Best

Good

Fair

Bad

Uncoated cast-iron pipe

0.012

0.013

0.014

0.015

Coated cast-iron pipe

0.011

0.012a

0.013a

Commercial wrought-iron pipe, black

0.012

0.013

0.014

0.015

Commercial wrought-iron pipe, galvanized

0.013

0.014

0.015

0.017

Smooth brass and glass pipe

0.009

0.010

0.011
a

Smooth lockbar and welded "OD" pipe

0.010

0.011

Riveted and spiral steel pipe

0.013

0.015a

0.017a

0.013a

0.015

0.017

0.010
Vitrified sewer pipe

0.013

0.013
a

0.011
Common clay drainage tile

0.011

0.012a

0.014a

0.017

Glazed brickwork

0.011

0.012

0.013a

0.015

Brick in cement mortar; brick sewers

0.012

0.013

0.015a

0.017

Neat cement surfaces

0.010

0.011

0.012

0.013

Cement mortar surfaces

0.011

0.012

0.013

0.015

0.016

Concrete pipe

0.012

0.013

0.015

Wood stave pipe

0.010

0.011a

0.012

0.013

0.010

0.012a

0.013

0.014

Unplaned

0.011

0.013

0.014

0.015

With battens

0.012

0.015a

0.016

Concrete-lined channels

0.012

0.014a

0.016a

0.018

Cement-rubble surface

0.017

0.020

0.025

0.030

Dry-rubble surface

0.025

0.030

0.033

0.035

Dressed-ashlar surface

0.013

0.014

0.015

0.017

Semicircular metal flumes, smooth

0.011

0.012

0.013

0.015

Semicircular metal flumes, corrugated

0.0225

0.025

0.0275

0.030

0.017

0.020

0.0225a

0.025

Plank flumes
Planed

Canals and ditches

Earth, straight and uniform

0.035

Rock cuts, smooth and uniform

0.025

0.030

0.033

Rock cuts, jagged and irregular

0.035

0.040

0.045

Winding sluggish canals

0.0225

0.025a

0.0275

0.030

Dredged-earth channels

0.025

0.0275a

0.030

0.033

86

Table 6 (Cont'd)

Surface
Canals with rough stony beds, weeds on earth banks
Earth bottom, rubble sides

Best

Good

Fair

Bad

0.035

0.028

0.030

0.033

0.025

0.030

0.040
0.035

Natural-stream channels
1.

Clean, straight bank, full stage, no rifts or deep pools

0.025

0.0275

0.030

0.033

2.

Same as (1) but some weeds and stones

0.030

0.033

0.035

0.040

3.

Winding some pools and shoals, clean

0.033

0.035

0.040

0.045

4.

Same as (3), lower stages, more ineffective slope and sections

0.040

0.045

0.050

0.055

5.

Same as (3) some weeds and stones

0.035

0.040

0.045

0.050

6.

Same as (4) story sections

0.045

0.050

0.055

0.060

7.

Sluggish river reach, rather weedy or with very deep pools

0.050

0.060

0.070

0.080

8.

Very weedy reaches

0.075

0.100

0.125

0.150

Values commonly used designing

(source: Brater & King, 1976. Handbook of Hydraulics)

87
Table 7 : Head Losses Coefficient, K

(i)

Entry Losses

Intermediate Losses(cont'd)

Sharp-edged entrance
Re-entrant entrance
Slightly rounded entrance
Bellmouthed entrance
Footvalve and strainer

0.50
0.80
0.25
0.05
2.50

Line to branch or
branch to line:

Intermediate Losses

Elbows
(R/D = 1/2 approx)

22.5
46
90

30 angle
45 angle
90 angle
(viii)

0.20
0.40
1.00

0.40
0.60
0.80

Sudden Enlargements*
Inlet dia: Outlet dia.
4:5
3:4
2:3

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

Close Radius Bends

(R/D = 1 approx)

22.5
25
90

Sweeps
(R/D = 8 to 50)

90

22.5
45
90

0.10
0.20
0.40

22.5
45
90

0.05
0.10
0.20

1:2
1:3

(x)

-2 piece
-2 piece
-2 or 3
-2 piece
-3 piece
-2 piece
-3 piece
-4 piece

0.15
0.20
0.30
0.65
0.25
1.25
0.50
0.30

(xi)

Sudden Contractions*
Inlet dia: Outlet dia.
5:4
4:3
3:2
2:1
3:1
5:1 and over
B.S. Tapers*
Flow to small end
Flow to large end
Inlet dia.
4:5
to
3:4
Outlet dia.

1:2

Valves
Gate Valve-fully open

(vi)
Tees
Flow in line
Line to branch or
branch to line :
Sharp-edged
radiused

0.35

Angle Branches
Flow in line

0.35

1.20
0.80

(vii)

0.15
0.20
0.35
0.60
0.80
1.00

(ix)
1:5 and over

Long Radius Bends

(R/D = 2 to 7)

Mitre Elbows
22.5
30
45
piece
60

0.15
0.30
0.50**

1/4 closed
1/2 closed
3/4 closed
Globe valve
Right angle valve
Reflux valve
Butterfly valve
Exit Losses
Sudden Enlargement
Bellmouthed Outlet

Notes :
* Figure for enlargements, contractions and B.S. Tapers apply to smaller diameter
** Value modified
K = Head
Loss =
Head Loss
V2/2g
Velocity Head

(Source: Preliminary Design Manual for the SSDS by AB2H Consultants)

0.15
0.20
0.30
0.35
0.45
0.50
negligible
0.03
0.04
0.12
0.12
1.00
6.00
24.00
10.00
5.00
1.00
0.30
K
1.00
1.00**

88
Table 8 (a) - Typical Pipe Materials and Their Characteristics
Material

Concrete - Plain/ Reinforced

Concrete - Prestressed

Vitrified Clay

British Standard

BS 5911

BS 5178 (gravity flow)

BS 4625 (pressure flow)

BS EN 295

Size Range

DN 150 - DN 3000

DN 450 - DN 3000 (gravity

flow)
DN 400 - DN 1800 (pressure
flow)

DN 150 - DN 1200

Normal Working Pressure

Atmospheric pressure

4 - 12 bars

Atmospheric pressure

Standard Lengths

a) In general: 0.45 m - 5 m
b) For DN 600 or less, 3 m (max)

2.5 m - 6.5 m

600 mm - 3 m

Strength

Strong, high resistance to

external load

Strong, high resistance to

external load

High structural strength

Impact Load

Good impact resistance

Good impact resistance

Good impact resistance

Usual Jointing Methods

a) Flexible spigot and socket

joints with rubber gasket ring;
b) Flexible rebated joint

a) Flexible spigot and socket

joints with rubber gasket ring;
b) Flexible rebated joint

Flexible mechanical joint

Resistance To Corrosion

a) Resistant to attack by sea

water or marine organisms;
b) Cement subject to corrosion
attack in acidic and septic
sewage conditions, and in high
sulphate environment

Similar to Concrete plain/steel reinforced

Resistant to corrosion
attack by:
a) acids and alkalies;
b) damage from
hydrogen sulphide;
c) microbiological
induced corrosion;
d) erosion and scour

Ease of Handling

Heavy, mechanised equipment

required in handling and jointing

Heavy, mechanised equipment

required in handling and
jointing

Heavy, mechanised
equipment required in
handling and jointing

Availability

Readily available locally

Imported from overseas

Readily available DN
150 - DN 700

Application

Wide range of sizes and strengths

is available, widely used in
gravity sewers DN 600 - DN
2100

Can withstand high internal

pressure, so cost competitive
with other pipe materials such
as steel, mainly used in large
diameter pressure sewers and
potable water mains

Used in small to medium

size sewers carrying
gravity flows

89
Table 8 (b) - Typical Pipe Materials and Their Characteristics
Material

Mild Steel

Ductile Iron(Spheroidal
graphite iron)

Cast Iron

Stainless Steel

British Standard

BS 534, BS 3600, BS
3601

BS EN 598

BS 437, BS 416-1,
BS 1211, 4622

BS EN 10312
BS EN 10217 - 7
BS EN 6362

Size Range

DN 60.3 - DN 2200

DN 80 - DN 1600

DN 50 - DN 225

DN 15 - DN 600,

Normal Working
Pressure

9 - 15 bars

16 - 40 bars

6 - 12 bars

6 - 25 bars

Standard Lengths

8m&9m

a) Flexible joints: 5.5 m

(up to DN 800), and 8 m
(greater than DN 800);
b) Flanged joints: 5 m
and 6 m

a) Flexible joint: 1.83 m 5.5 m

b) Flanged joint: 4.0 m

6 m (most common)

Strength

Mechanically very
strong, high structural
strength/weight ratio

High structural strength,

high resistance to
external load

Can withstand high

external load

Not strong as steel,

but have favourable
strength to weight
ratio

Impact Load

High impact resistance

High impact resistance,

good in ductility,
machinability and
toughness

Brittle, subject to damage

during handling and
laying operation

Vulnerable to impact
damage, must be
carefully handled,
bedded and
backfilled to prevent
damage by sharp
objects

Usual Jointing
Methods

a) Welded sleeve joint

and butt welded joint;
b) Flexible connection
with slip-on type
coupling;
c) Flanged joint or
stepped coupling

a) Flexible push-in spigot

and socket joints with
rubber gasket ring;
b) Flanged joint;
c) Flexible mechanical
joint;
d) Slip-on type coupling

a) Flexible spigot and

socket joints with rubber
gasket ring;
b) Flexible mechanical
joint;
c) Flanged joint

a) Push-in joints with

silicon gasket ring;
b) Groove Coupling
Jointing method

Resistance To
Corrosion

Subject to corrosion
attack due to:
a) acidic environment
and corrosive soils;
b) septic sewage hydrogen sulphide attack;
c) microbiological
induced corrosion

Subject to same kinds of

corrosion as mild steel,
but resistance superior to
cast iron

Subject to same kinds of

corrosion as mild steel,
but comparatively more
corrosive resistant

Good in stress
corrosion in acidic
and chloride
environment

Ease of Handling

Heavy, mechanised
equipment required in
handling/jointing;
stability when pipe
empty or subject to
negative gauge pressure
to be checked

Heavy, mechanised
equipment required in
handling and jointing

Heavy, mechanised
equipment required in
handling and jointing

Heavy, mechanised
equipment required
in handling and
jointing

Availability

Readily available locally

or imported from
overseas

Imported from overseas

Pipe manufacture largely

superseded by ductile
iron pipe, local
availability to be checked

Imported from
overseas and
mainland

Application

Wide range of sizes and

strengths is available,
used in pressure sewers
and mains, stream and
bridge crossings,
pumping station and
treatment plant piping,
submarine pipelines and
outfalls

Availability of a
complete range of
standard fittings
simplifies
design/construction
exercises, widely used in
sewers, pressure mains
and tidal outfalls

Pipe uses largely

superseded by ductile
iron pipes, now mainly
used in surface water
drains, non-pressure
pipes for rainwater

Uses in potable water

and sewage
application working
under gravity or
pressure flows

90
Table 8 (c) - Typical Pipe Materials and Their Characteristics
Material

Glass-reinforced Plastics
(GRP)

Unplasticized Polyvinyl
Chloride (uPVC)

Medium/High Density Polyethylene

(MDPE/HDPE)

British Standard

BS 5480

Gravity sewage/surface
water: DN 110 - DN 630
BS 4660,
BS 5481
Pressure flows: DN 10 DN 610 BS 3505, BS
3506

BS 3284, BS 6437, BS 6572, BS

6730

Size Range

DN 100 - DN 4000,(DN 300

- DN 2500 most common)

DN 10 - DN 630

DN 16 - DN 2000

Normal Working Pressure

6 - 25 bars

Atmospheric pressure
(gravity flow)9 - 12 bars
(pressure flow)

2.5 - 10 bars

Standard Lengths

3 m, 6 m, 12 m (6 m most
common)

6 m, 9 m, 12 m

10 - 12 m

Strength

Not strong as steel, but have

favourable strength to weight
ratio

Low structural strength

a) Low strength, reinforced or

unreinforced;
b) Strength: time- and
temperature-dependent

Impact Load

Vulnerable to impact
damage, must be carefully
handled, bedded and
backfilled to prevent damage
by sharp objects

Low impact resistance,

susceptible to damage
due to impact, point
loading, must be
carefully bedded and
backfilled to prevent
damage by sharp objects;
embrittlement with age

Susceptible to damage due to impact

and point loads, must be carefully
bedded and backfilled to prevent
damage by sharp objects

Usual Jointing Methods

a) Push-in flexible spigot and

socket joints with rubber
gasket ring;
b) Sealed collar joints;
c) Mechanically coupled
joints;
d) Flanged joint;
e) Butt welded joint

a) Push-in flexible spigot

and socket joint with
rubber gasket ring;
b) Sleeve type joints;
c) Rigid solvent welded
spigot and socket joint

a) Butt or sleeve welded joints;

b) Mechanical jointing (specially
designed compression joints)

Resistance To Corrosion

Good in salt water/domestic

sewage environment;
however, it may be
susceptible to stress
corrosion in acidic
environment

a) Highly resistant to
corrosion attack in
naturally occurring soils
and water, unaffected by
domestic sewage effluent
and sea water

Unaffected in acidic conditions, by

hydrogen sulphide attack associated
with septic sewage, and chloride and
sulphate ions

Ease of Handling

Light, flexible, easy to

handle and joint

Light, flexible, easy to

handle and joint

Light, flexible, easy to handle and

joint

Availability

Imported from overseas

Available locally or
imported from overseas

Imported from overseas

Application

Increased uses in potable

water and sewage application
(particular in large diameter
pipe size) working under
gravity or pressure flows,
also in outfalls and diffuser
domes

Usually used in sewers

and low-pressure mains,
chemical transfer lines in
treatment works

Used in gravity and pressure

sewerage application working at low
to medium temperature, small
diameter submarine pipelines/outfalls

91
Table 9 : Typical Corrosion Protection Measures and their uses
Pipe Material

Welded Steel

Ductile Iron

Concrete

Primary
Protection External

a) Bitumen sheathing;
b) Reinforced bitumen
sheathing - For pipelines
subject to mild environment
such as land mains;
c) Bitumen enamel wrapping
- Ditto;
d) Reinforced bitumen
enamel wrapping - Ditto;
e) Coal tar enamel wrapping
- For pipelines within splash
and submerged zones such as
submarine pipelines/outfalls,
pipelines exposed to saline
environment within surf
zone;
f) Plastics cladding (eg.
fusion bonded epoxy and
polyethylene coating) - Ditto;
g) Paints and
multi-component coatings
(eg. chlorinated rubber and
epoxy resins) - Ditto

a) Sprayed metallic zinc

coating and a finishing coat of
bitumen-based material;
b) Zinc primer and coal tar
epoxy resin coating

a) Sacrificial lining thickness;

b) Use of calcareous aggregate
- Increase overall alkalinity of
concrete;
c) Surface coating of bitumen,
coal tar enamel and coal tar
epoxy, vinyl and epoxy resins
and paints - For pipes exposed
to very corrosive environment;
d) Cement replacement
materials such as PFA Improve durability and
sulphate attack resistance

Primary
Protection
- Internal

a) OPC mortar/concrete
lining
b) SRC mortar/concrete
lining - Sewage, treated
effluent, salt water;
c) Bitumen lining - Potable
water;
d) Coal tar enamel - For
submarine pipelines and
outfalls conveying
sewage/treated effluent;
e) Fusion bonded epoxy
coating - Ditto;
f) Coal tar epoxy resin - Ditto

a) Bitumen-based coating;
b) OPC mortar lining - Surface
water;
c) SRC mortar lining - Potable
water, sewage, treated effluent;
d) PFAC/PBFC mortar lining

Types a) to d) as above;

Secondary
Protection

a) Petrolatum or bituminous
anti-corrosion tape of
proprietary types - for
protection of buried pipes
and those exposed to the sea
within surf zone
b) Cathodic protection:
- Impressed current;
- Sacrificial anodes of
magnesium, zinc, aluminium

a) Bituminous tape - buried

pipework;
b) Polyethylene (PE) sleeving
c) Spray or brush painted
mortar lining with bitumen

a) Corrosion inhibitors Neutralise rusting inducting

effects of chloride ions;
b) Hyperphobic poreblocking
ingredient (PHI) - For use in
aggressive chemical
environment;
c) Polythene (PE) sleeving

Remark

Choices on coatings and

linings depend on their
material costs and
susceptibility to damage
during handling and working
environment

Polyethylene sleeving is an
economical and effective
method of providing additional
protection

Characteristics of some
commonly used coatings and
materials:
a) Epoxy - good durability and
chemical resistance, but chalks
in sunlight;
b) Vinyl - good durability,
easily touched up;
c) Coal tar - resistant to
moisture penetration

e) Use of protective layers such

as modified PVC and HDPE
liners for septic sewage,
acids/alkalies

92
Table 10 (a) : Common Pipe Joints and Their Characteristics

Type of Joint

Flexible O-ring type

push-in spigot and
socket joints

Flexible type double

collar type or double
bell coupling joints

Flexible O-ring type

Tyton joints

Flexible type bolted

(mechanical) or
screwed gland joints

Pipe Material

Concrete - plain/steel
reinforced, prestressed,
vitrified clay, PVC

Glass-reinforced
Plastics (GRP),
polyvinyl chloride
(PVC)

Ductile iron, cast iron,

uPVC

Ductile iron, cast iron

Mechanism

Forced insertion of
spigot into socket
causing the rubber
gasket to roll or slide
and be compressed
sufficiently to effect a
seal

A short sleeve with

rubber gaskets at
both ends which are
compressed with
insertion of spigots

Forced insertion of
spigot into socket or
sleeve causing the
rubber gasket ring to be
compressed sufficiently
to effect a seal

Similar to Tyton joints,

except that the gasket is
clamped in place by
means of a gland ring
bolted or screwed to
the socket

Axial
Movement

10 - 25 mm
(with joint in the
undeflected position)

20 - 50 mm
(with joint in the
undeflected position)

38 - 85 mm
(with joint in the
undeflected position)

35 - 65 mm
(with joint in the
undeflected position)

Angular
Flexure

0.5o to 3o
(depending on pipe size
and manufacturer's
design)

1o to 6o
(depending on pipe
size and
manufacturer's
design)

2o to 5o
(depending on pipe size
and manufacturer's
design)

1o to 6o
(depending on pipe size
and manufacturer's
design)

Usages

Non-pressure pipelines
to permit angular
deflection in any
direction and axial
movements to
compensate for ground
movement, thermal
expansion and
contraction

Pressure and
non-pressure
pipelines to permit
angular deflection in
any direction and
axial movements to
compensate for
ground movement,
thermal expansion
and contraction

Pressure pipelines to
permit angular
deflection in any
direction and axial
movements to
compensate for ground
movement, thermal
expansion and
contraction

High pressure pipelines

to permit angular
deflection in any
direction and axial
movements to
compensate for ground
movement, thermal
expansion and
contraction

Remarks

Simple and tight, ease

of jointing reduces
installation time;

Simple and tight,

ease of jointing
reduces installation
time

Simple and easy to

joint, mainly used in
smaller diameter
pipelines

More expensive than

Tyton joints, mostly
used in larger diameter
pipelines, skilled
personnel required in
jointing

93
Table 10 (b) : Common Pipe Joints and Their Characteristics

Type of Joint

Flanged Joints

Welded Joints

Slip-on type or Viking

Johnson type couplings

Flange adaptors

Pipe Material

Ductile Iron, Steel,

Cast Iron, GRP

Steel, HDPE

Steel, Ductile Iron,

uPVC, GRP, Concrete

Steel, Ductile Iron,

uPVC, GRP

Mechanism

Clamping of sealing
rubber gasket by means
of bolts tightening

Fusion jointing of
pipe material

Similar to a double
collar joint, except that
the rubber gasket rings
are clamped in position
by bolted gland rings.

A flanged collar joint

with the gaskets
clamped by bolts
tightening at flanged
end and by a bolted
gland ring at other
end.

Axial
Movement

Not allowed

Not allowed

8 - 10 mm
(depending on pipe size
and manufacturer's
design)

4 - 5 mm
(depending on pipe
size and
manufacturer's design)

Angular
Flexure

Not allowed

Not allowed

1o to 6o
(depending on pipe size
and manufacturer's
design)

0.5o to 3o
(depending on pipe
size and
manufacturer's design)

Usages

a) Above ground
installation in pumping
stations and treatment
plants;
b) Used to facilitate the
installation and
removal of valves or
flanged fittings in
flexibly jointed pipes;
c) Connect pipes of
different materials;
d) Used in
valve-bypass
arrangement

a) Butt welded joints for fabricating

specials from straight
lengths of pipes;
b) Sleeve welding
joints (parallel, taper
or collar sleeve,
spherical joint) - for
jointing plain ended
pipes

a) Provide a flexible
joint between 2 plain
ended sections of pipe
allowing differential
movement;
b) Connect 2 pipes of
same nominal diameter
but of different
materials and O.D.s;
c) Allow axial
movement caused by
thermal expansion and
contraction in exposed
welded steel pipelines.

Forming a detachable
flange onto a plain
ended ductile iron or
steel pipe, on the
downstream side of
valves, fitting or
sections of pipe, which
in conjunction with
detachable coupling,
facilitate removal for
maintenance purpose

Remarks

Expensive jointing
method, correct
pressure rating to be
specified; used
wherever rigidity,
strength and joint
tightness required

Expensive, jointing
by site welding must
be carefully checked

Also known as Dresser

type coupling and
Gibrault joint; design
requirements of the
couplings to be defined
in the specification.

Design requirements
of the adaptors to be
defined in the
specification.

94
Table 11 - Narrow and Wide Trench Fill Load
Nominal
Pipe
Dia.
DN
(mm)

Assumed
Outside
Dia.
Bc
(mm)

Type
of
Load

Assumed
Trench
Width
Bd
(m)

Td
(m)

150

190

225

Fill load in kN/m of pipe length

for cover depth in metres

Narrow
Wide

0.60
-

3.7
-

5.4

280

Narrow
Wide

0.70
-

2.4
-

300

380

Narrow
Narrow
Wide

0.75
0.85
-

375

500

Narrow
Narrow
Wide

450

580

600

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

2.4

3.0

4.6

7.1

13.4
9.0

15.1
10.8

18.1
14.4

20.4
18.1

24.0
27.1

7.9

10.5

15.6
13.1

17.8
15.7

21.4
21.1

24.2
26.4

29.2
39.7

1.5
2.4
-

10.6

14.3

17.8
19.8
17.9

20.3
23.2
21.6

24.6
28.4
28.7

28.3
32.6
36.0

34.6
40.4
54.1

1.00
1.05

2.4
3.0
-

12.8

17.5

24.3
26.5
21.9

27.8
30.8
26.4

35.3
38.4
35.2

40.2
44.9
44.0

52.6
57.6
66.4

Narrow
Wide

1.15
-

2.4
-

14.3

20.6

28.9
25.8

33.5
30.9

41.9
41.4

49.3
51.9

63.6
78.2

790

Narrow
Wide

1.35
-

1.8
-

17.8

25.7

35.6
34.4

41.5
41.5

52.5
55.7

62.3
69.7

82.0
105

750

950

Narrow
Narrow
Wide

1.50
1.60
-

1.5
1.8
-

20.6

29.3

40.1
41.2
39.2

47.0
50.2
50.0

59.5
62.8
67.0

71.0
74.3
84.1

94.6
102
127

900

1120

Narrow
Wide

1.90
-

2.1
-

23.5

33.1

51.3
43.8

60.4
55.5

77.5
78.5

93.0
98.6

127
149

1050

1300

Narrow
Wide

2.05
-

2.1
-

26.7

37.4

55.9
48.9

65.8
61.5

84.6
90.6

102
114

140
172

1200

1490

Narrow
Wide

2.30
-

2.1
-

30.0

41.7

62.7
54.4

74.0
68.0

95.3
98.8

115
130

159
197

1350

1650

Narrow
Wide

2.45
-

2.1
-

33.0

45.6

67.2
59.3

79.2
73.6

102
106

124
143

173
219

1500

1830

Narrow
Wide

2.60
-

2.1
-

36.2

49.7

71.8
64.4

84.7
80.0

110
114

133
153

187
242

1650

2010

Narrow
Wide

2.80
-

2.4
-

39.4

54.0

78.5
69.6

93.0
86.0

121
122

147
162

206
264

1800

2240

Narrow
Wide

3.05
-

2.4
-

43.5

59.4

85.4
76.3

101
94.1

131
132

160
175

226
295

95
Table 12 - Traffic Loads
Nominal
Pipe Dia.
DN
(mm)

Assumed
Outside
Dia.
Bc
(mm)

Type
of
Load

Traffic load in kN/m of pipe length

for cover depth in metres

150

190

Main road
Light road

16.8
13.6

12.8
9.2

10.4
6.4

8.9
4.8

6.7
2.9

5.2
2.0

3.2
1.0

225

280

Main road
Light road

24.5
19.7

18.6
13.2

15.3
9.5

13.0
7.0

9.9
4.2

7.7
2.9

4.4
2.3

300

380

Main road
Light road

33.3
26.8

25.4
18.1

20.7
12.8

17.6
9.6

13.6
5.8

10.5
3.9

6.1
1.7

375

500

Main road
Light road

42.9
34.4

32.7
23.2

26.7
16.6

23.0
12.4

17.5
7.6

13.7
5.0

7.9
2.3

450

580

Main road
Light road

50.0
40.1

38.2
27.0

31.5
19.4

27.1
14.6

20.7
8.9

16.2
6.0

9.3
2.8

600

790

Main road
Light road

66.6
53.0

51.5
36.2

42.3
26.0

36.5
19.3

27.7
11.8

21.7
7.9

12.5
3.6

750

950

Main road
Light road

80.2
63.5

62.0
43.2

51.0
31.2

43.9
23.3

33.4
14.1

26.1
9.5

15.0
4.4

900

1120

Main road
Light road

93.2
73.3

72.6
50.2

60.0
36.2

51.3
27.1

39.1
16.8

30.5
11.1

18
5

1050

1300

Main road
Light road

106
82.7

84.3
57.6

69.5
41.5

59.8
31.1

45.2
19.2

35
13

20
6

1200

1490

Main road
Light road

120
92

96.6
65.0

80.4
47.2

68.2
35.6

51.8
22.0

40
15

23
7

1350

1650

Main road
Light road

131
99.5

107
71.0

89.4
51.7

76.4
39.4

58
24

45
16

26
8

1500

1830

Main road
Light road

143
107

118
77.0

99.1
56.6

85.0
43.1

64
27

49
18

28
8

1650

2010

Main road
Light road

154
114

129
82.7

109
61.0

93.8
46.8

70
29

54
20

31
9

1800

2240

Main road
Light road

172
122

144
89.4

122
66.6

104
51.0

79
32

61
22

35
10

0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

2.4

3.0

4.6

96
Table 13 - Design Loads for Rigid Pipelines
(a) Design Load for Main Roads :
Nominal
Pipe
Dia.
DN
(mm)

Assumed
Outside
Dia.
Bc
(mm)

Assumed
Trench
Width
Bd
(m)

150

190

0.60

225

280

300

(b)

Total Design Load in kN/m of Pipe Length

for Cover Depth H in metres
H=0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

2.4

3.0

4.6

22

19.5

19.5

19.5

21

23

27

0.70

32

29

28

28

31

32

34

380

0.75

44

40

39

38

38

39

41

375

500

1.05

55

50

48

50

53

58

66

450

580

1.15

64

58

57

58

63

68

73

600

790

1.35

86

79

79

80

83

86

96

750

950

1.50

105

95

93

95

96

100

115

900

1120

1.90

120

110

110

110

120

130

150

1050

1300

2.05

140

130

125

130

135

145

170

1200

1490

2.30

160

145

145

145

155

165

190

Design Load for Light Roads :

Nominal
Pipe
Dia.
DN
(mm)

Assumed
Outside
Dia.
Bc
(mm)

Assumed
Trench
Width
Bd
(m)

Total Design Load in kN/m of Pipe Length

for Cover Depth H in metres

150

190

0.60

19

225

280

0.70

300

380

375

H=0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

2.4

3.0

4.6

16

15.5

15.5

17.5

20

25

28

24

23

23

25

27

31

0.75

38

32

31

30

31

32

36

500

1.05

47

41

38

39

42

50

60

450

580

1.15

54

48

45

45

51

55

67

600

790

1.35

73

64

63

63

67

73

87

750

950

1.50

87

76

74

74

77

85

100

900

1120

1.90

100

88

85

87

99

110

135

1050

1300

2.05

115

100

98

99

110

120

155

1200

1490

2.30

130

115

110

110

125

140

175

97
Table 14 - Minimum Strength or Class of Pipes in Main Roads

(a) Class of Precast Concrete Pipes

Nominal
Pipe Dia.
DN
(mm)

Assumed
Outside
Dia.
Bc (mm)

Assumed
Trench
Width
Bd (mm)

Bedding
Factor
Fm

150

190

600

225

300

375

450

600

750

900

1050

1200

280

380

500

580

790

950

1120

1300

1490

670

750

1050

1150

1350

1500

1900

2050

2300

Class of Precast Concrete pipes to

BS 5911:Part 100:1988
for Cover Depth in metres
0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

2.4

3.0

4.6

1.9

2.6

3.4

1.9

2.6

3.4

1.9

2.6

3.4

1.9

2.6

3.4

1.9

2.6

3.4

1.9

2.6

3.4

1.9

2.6

3.4

1.9

2.6

3.4

1.9

2.6

3.4

1.9

2.6

3.4

98
Table 14 (cont'd)
(b) Class of Vitrified Clay Pipes
Nominal
Pipe Dia.
DN
(mm)
100

150

Assumed
Outside
Dia.

Assumed
Trench
Width

Bc (mm)

Bd (mm)

130

600

190

600

200 &
225

245 &
280

700

300

370

800

375 &
400

460 &
500

1100

450

550

1200

500

600

615

730

1300

1400

Bedding
Factor

Class of Vitrified Clay Pipes to BS

65:1988
for Cover Depth in metres

Fm
0.9

1.2

1.5

1.8

2.4

3.0

4.6

1.9

2.5

1.9

2.5

1.9

2.5

1.9

2.5

1.9

2.5

1.9

2.5

1.9

2.5

1.9

2.5

Note :
1.L, M, H denote class of concrete pipes in Table 7 of BS 5911:Part100:1988.
2.F and B denote Standard and Extra Strength respectively of vitrified clay pipes in Table 3
of
BS 65:1991.
3.For vitrified clay pipes of diameter above DN 150, class 120 to BS EN 295:1991 can
substitute either vitrified clay pipes of class F or class B. For DN 100 - DN 150, vitrified
clay pipes to BS EN 295:1991 can substitute class F.

99
Table 15 Recommended Design Parameters for Concrete and Steel Reinforcement

Parameter

Recommended Value

Concrete
Compressive strength

Design equations based on cylinder strength (fck), with its

equivalent cube strength (fck,cube) given in Table 3.1 of BSI (2004)
or its latest version

Exposure condition

Sewage Pumping Station

- XC3 (superstructure)
- XA (substructure) (N.B. XC4 if suitable protective measures
provided to concrete surface)
Manhole (other than standard manholes in DSD standard drawings)
- XA
- XC4 (with suitable protective measures provided to concrete
surface)
Tunnel
XA (with suitable protective measures provided to concrete
surface)

Concrete grade

fck,cube = 40 MPa (XC3 / XC4)

fck,cube = 45 MPa (XA)

Concrete cover

Sewage Pumping Station

XC3 / XC4 : 35 mm
XA : 50 mm
Manhole (other than standard manholes in DSD standard drawings)
XC4 : 35 mm
XA : 50 mm
Tunnel
XA : 50 mm

Design crack width

Section 7.3 of BSI (2006) or its latest version

Tightness Class 1 : manhole and pumping station
Tightness Class 0 : superstructure of pumping station
Tunnel : 0.25 mm (maximum permissible crack width)

100

Parameter

Recommended Value

Stress-strain curve

Figure 3.8 of BD (2013) or its latest version

Modulus of elasticity

Table 3.2 of BD (2013) or its latest version

Coefficient of thermal

Section 3.1.9 of BD (2013) or its latest version

expansion
Drying shrinkage

Section 3.1.8 of BD (2013) or its latest version

Creep

Section 3.1.7 of BD (2013) or its latest version

Steel Reinforcement
Yield strength

500 MPa

Modulus of elasticity

200 GPa

101

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.

1.

Not Used

2.

Not Used

3.

Not Used

4.

Values of Narrow Trench Coefficients Cd

5.

Values of Embankment Coefficients Cc

6.

Bedding Factors for Vitrified Clay Pipes

102

Figure 1 (Not Used)

103

Figure 2 (Not Used)

104

Figure 3 (Not Used)

105

106

107