UNIT 3: VALUATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION
As you have seen in the previous accounting courses, the value of an asset is determined
based on its cost (historical cost). That means all the necessary expenditures incurred
from the time the asset is acquired until it is placed in operation will be the cost of the
asset. However, in financial management, the value of an asset is quite different.
Since finance is interested more on decision making rather than recording, the value of an
asset is determined before it is purchased. The purpose is to decide whether to acquire or
not to acquire the asset. Therefore, here the historical cost cannot be used as the value of
the asset. Rather, the value of the asset is determined by valuation.
Valuation is the process of determining the worth of any asset whose value is obtained
from future cash flows. Look, the value here is not historical cost. The value of any asset
in finance is the present value of all future cash flows it is expected to provide over the
relevant time period. This value is called intrinsic value.
value. In the remainder of this unit, we
shall emphasize the intrinsic value of an asset.
The intrinsic value of an asset is determined based on three basic inputs: cash flows
(returns), time pattern of the returns, and the discount rate. The value of an asset is,
therefore, determined by discounting the expected cash flows to their present value. To
determine the present value, we use a discount rate appropriate based on the assets risk.
Value can be determined for any kind of asset like buildings, machineries, factories,
bonds, stocks etc. But in this unit, we will discuss the value of three financial assets:
bonds, preferred, and common stocks.
3.2 BOND VALUATION
Bond is a long-term debt instrument or security issued by businesses and governmental
units to raise large sums of money. Investment in a bond provides two types of cash
flows. One is the periodic interest payment by the issuing party. Another is the price paid
to the investor upon maturity. The first, i.e., the interest payment is based on the par value
of the bond and the coupon interest rate. The par value is the face value of the bond
which will be paid to the investor upon maturity. Par value is also called maturity value.
For instance if the par value of a bond is Br. 1,000, the issuer should pay the investor Br.
1,000 when the maturity date of the bond arrives. The coupon interest rate is the rate
which the issuer pays to the investor on the par value of the bond. If A Company invests
in a Br. 1,000 par value, 10-year, 8% coupon bonds of B Company, A shall receive Br. 80
(Br. 1,000 x 8%) per year for 10 years.

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3.2.1 Basic Bond Valuation Model

The value of a bond is the present value of the periodic interest payments plus the present
value of the par value. The value of a bond can be computed using the following
equitation:
Bo = I(PVIFA kd,n) + M(PVIF kd,n)
Where:
Bo = the value of the bond
I = interest paid each period = Par Value x Coupon interest rate
Kd = the appropriate interest rate on the bond
n = The number of periods before the bond matures
M = the par value of the bond
(PVIF kd,n) = The present value interest factor for an annuity at interest rate of kd per
1
1
(1 k d ) n
period for n periods =
kd
(PVIFkd,n) = The present value interest factor at interest rate of kd per period for n
1
periods =
(1 k d ) n
Notice that we have used kd instead of i. This is because, generally, in financial
management k designates rate of return and the subscript d denotes debt security. So kd
designates the rate of return on a debt security.
Illustration: Tebaber Berta Corporation has a Br. 1,000 par value bond with an 8%
coupon interest rate outstanding. Interest is paid semiannually and the bond has 12 years
remaining to its maturity date.
Required: What is the value of the bond if the required return on the bond is 8%?
Solution:
Given: M = Br. 1,000; kd = 8% per year or 4% (8%2) per semiannual period; I = Br. 40
(Br. 1,000 x 4%); n = 24 semiannual periods (12 x 2); Bo =?
Bo = I(PVIFA kd,n) + M(PVIF kd,n)
= Br. 40(PVIFA4%, 24) + Br. 1,000(PVIF4%, 24)
= Br. 40 (15.2470) + Br. 1,000 (0.3901)
= Br. 1,000
If the appropriate discount rate (kd) remains constant at 8% (4% per semiannual period),
the value of the bond will not be changed. It will remain Br. 1,000. Suppose the
appropriate discount rate is 8% 2 years from now, what would be the value of the bond?
Solution: now n is reduced to 20[24-(2 x 2)]
Bo = Br.40 (PVIFA4%, 20) + Br. 1,000 (PVIF4%, 20)
= Br. 40 (13.5903) + Br. 1,000 (0.4564)
= Br. 1,000
Suppose the interest rate in the economy when Tebaber Bertas bonds were issued was
6% rather than 8%, what would be the value of the bond? Since Tebaber Bertas bond
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now will be paying more interest than do other bonds in the market, the companys bond
will be selling at a larger price. Such bonds which are selling more than their par value
are called premium bonds. Here, kd is 6% (3% per semiannual payment), but other things
are not changed. So
Bo = Br. 40 (PVIFA3%, 24) + Br. 1,000 (PVIF 3%, 24)
= Br. 40 (16.9355) + Br. 1,000 (0.4919)
= Br. 1,169.32
So when the market interest rate (kd) is less than the coupon interest rate, the value of a
bond is always larger than the par value. An investor by deciding to invest his money on
Tebaber Bertas bond, he will receive a 1% (4% - 3%) more interest payment than he
would receive if he invested somewhere else. This allows the investor to receive Br. 10
[Br. 1,000 x (4% - 3%)] more every semiannual period. As a result, the investor would be
willing to give more price to the bond. The additional price is the present value of each
Br. 10 he is going to receive for the next 24 semiannual periods. Therefore, the value of a
premium bond can also be computed as:
Bo = Br. 1,000 + Br. 10 (PVIFA3%, 24)
= Br. 1,000 + Br. (16.9355)
= Br. 1,169.36*
1,169.36*
* The previous value was Br. 1,169.32. The difference is due to rounding problem.
Assuming the interest rate remains constant at 6% for the next 11 years (12 periods),
what would happen to Tebaber Bertas bond?
Bo = Br. 40 (PVIFA3%, 22) + Br. 1,000 (PVIF3%, 22)
= Br. 1,159.38
Thus, the value of the bond would fall form Br. 1,169.32 to Br. 1,159.38. If you calculate
the value of the bond at other future dates, the price would continue to fall as the maturity
date approaches.
Had the interest rate (kd) was 10% when Tebaber Bertas bond was selling, the value of
the bond would be:
Bo = Br. 40 (PVIFA5%, 24) + Br. 1,000 (PVIF5%, 24)
= Br. 40 (13.7986) + Br. 1,000 (0.3101)
= Br. 862.04.
862.04. Since Tebaber Bertas bond now will be paying less interest than
do other bonds in the market, they are selling at a smaller price (discount bond).
If the interest rate remain constant at 10% for the next 11 years (22 periods), the value of
Tebaber Bertas bond would be Br. 868.32. Thus, the value of the bond will have risen
from Br. 862.04 to Br. 868.32. If you further calculate the value of the bond at other
future dates, the price would continue to rise as the maturity date approaches.

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3.2.2 Interest Rate on a Bond

So far we have been seeing how to determine the value of a bond if we are given the par
value, the coupon interest rate, the number of periods, and the interest rate on the bond.
Next, we shall discuss on how to find the interest rate on a bond, i.e., k d if we are given
the value of the bond. We will consider yield to maturity and yield to call.
Yield to Maturity (YTM) is the rate of return investors earn if they buy a bond at a
specific price Bo and hold it until maturity. The approximate YTM can be found using the
following approximation formula:
M Bo
I
n
Approximate YTM =
M Bo
2
Example: Zebra Company has a Br. 1,000 par value, 10% coupon interest rate, and 15
years to maturity. The bond is currently selling at Br. 1,090. Compute the YTM.
Solution:
Given: M = Br. 1,000; I = Br. 100 (Br. 1,000 x 10%); n = 15; Bo = Br. 1,090; YTM = ?
Br.1,000090
Br .100
15
9%
Approximate YTM =
Br.1,000 Br.1,090
2
If an investor buys Zebras bond at Br. 1,090 and holds it for 15 years, the approximate
yield or rate of return per year is 9%.
Yield to call (YTC) is the rate of return earned by an investor if he buys a bond at a
specified price, Bo, and the bond is called before its maturity date. YTC, therefore, is
computed only for callable bonds. A callable bond is a bond which is called and retired
prior to its maturity date at the option of the issuer. A bond is called by an issuer when the
market interest rate falls below the coupon interest rate. The YTC can be found by
solving the following equation.
Call Pr ice Bo
n
Call Pr ice Bo
2

Approximate YTC =

Example: X Company is intending to purchase Y Companys outstanding bond which

was issued on January 1, 1997. Y bond is a Br. 1,000 par value, has a 10% annual
coupon, and a 30 year original maturity. There is a 5-year call protection, after which
time the bond can be called at 108. X Company is to acquire the bond on January 1, 1999
when it is selling at Br. 1,175.
Required: Determine the yield to call in 1999 for Y company bond.

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Solution:
Given: I = Br. 100 (Br. 1,000 x 10%); Bo = Br. 1,175; call price = Br. 1,080 (Br.
1,000 x 108%);
n = 3 (call protection 2 years elapsed since the bond was issued); YTC
=?
Br.1,080 Br.1,175
Br.100
3
6.06%
Approximate YTC =
Br.1,080 Br.1,175
2
If X Company buys Y Company bond and holds the bond until the bonds are called by Y
Company, the approximate annual rate of return would be 6.06%.
3.3 PREFERRED STOCK VALUATION
Preferred stock is a type of equity security that provides its owners with limited or fixed
claims on a corporations income and assets. Investment in a preferred stock provides a
single cash flow, i.e., constant periodic dividend payments. Preferred stock has
similarities to both a bond and a common stock. As to similarities to a bond, preferred
dividends are fixed in amount and are like interest payments. As to a common stock, the
preferred dividends are paid for an indefinite time period.

3.3.1 Preferred Stock Valuation Model

The value of a preferred stock is the present value of all future preferred dividends it is
expected to provide over an infinite time horizon. Most preferred stocks entitle their
owners to regular and fixed dividend payments. If the payments last forever, the issue is a
perpetuity. Therefore, the value of a preferred stock is found by the following formula:
Dps

VPS = Kps
Where:

Vps = Value of the preferred stock

Dps = Preferred stock dividends
Kps = The required rate of return on the preferred stock
Example: Abebe wishes to estimate the value of its outstanding preferred stock. The
preferred issue has a Br. 80 par value and pays an annual dividend of Br. 6.40 per share.
Similar-risk preferred stocks are currently earning a 9.3% annual rate of return. What is
the value of the outstanding preferred stock?
Solution:
Given: Dps = Br. 6.40; Kps = 9.3%; Vps =?
Vps =

Br.6.40
= Br. 68.82
9.3%

So the Br. 6.40 annual dividend an investor receives for an infinite years is equal to
todays Br. 68.82 if the required rate of return is 9.3%.

3.3.2 Rate of Return on a Preferred Stock

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To evaluate the worthiness of investment in a preferred stock in comparison to other

investment opportunities, we should be able to compute the rate of return on a preferred
stock. If we know the current price of a preferred stock and its dividend, we can compute
the expected rate of return on the preferred stock. This can be done using the following
formula:
Dps

Kps = Vps
Where

Kps = The expected rate of return on the preferred stock

Dps = Preferred stock dividends
Vps = Value or current price of the preferred stock
Example: A preferred stock pays an annual dividend of Br. 9 and the current market price
is Br. 81. Compute the required rate of return from the preferred stock.
Solution:
Given: Dps = Br. 9; Vps = Br. 81; Kps =?
Kps =

Br.9
= 11.11%
Br.81

For an investor to invest Br. 81 in this preferred stock and to receive an annual dividend
of Br. 9, his minimum required rate of return is 11.11%.
3.4 COMMON STOCK VALUATION
The value of a share of common stock is the present value of the common stocks
dividend expected over an infinite time horizon. The value of a share of common stock is
also equal to the sum of the present value of the expected dividends and the present value
of the expected selling price of the stock. The selling price in turn will depend on the
dividends to be received by the purchasing party.
To understand the value of a common stock we should keep in mind two points. First, the
dividends are expected for an infinite time period. Second, the dividends are not constant.
Therefore, the value of a common stock is found by summing the present values of
annual dividends.
D1
D2
D

Po =
1
2
(1 ks)
(1 ks)
(1 ks )
Where:
Po = Value of the common stock at time zero (as of today)
D1, D2, , D = Pre share dividend expected at the end of each year
Ks = the required rate of return on the common stock.
The common stock valuation equation can be simplified by redefining each years
dividend. The dividends are defined in terms of anticipated dividends growth. Generally,
there are three cases accordingly. These are:
1. Zero growth common stock,
2. Constant growth common stock, and

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3. Variable growth common stock.

Hence, common stock valuation approaches are developed under each of the above
dividend growth models. Next sections will discus each model one by one.

3.4.1 Zero Growth Stock

A zero growth stock is a common stock whose future dividends are not expected to grow
at all. The expected growth rate (g) is zero. This is the simplest model to common stock
valuation. It assumes a constant, non-growing annual dividend. So here the annual
dividends are all equal. That is D1 = D2 = = D = D.
A common stock with zero growth rate is a security that is expected to provide a fixed
dividend each year. Hence, a zero growth common stock is a perpetuity. Therefore, the
value of a zero growth stock is given as:
Po =

D
Ks

Example: The most recent common stock dividend of Shalom Manufacturing

Corporation was Br. 3.60 per share. Due to the firms maturity as well as stable sales and
earnings, the dividends are expected to remain at the current level of the foreseeable
future.
Required: Determine the value of Shaloms common stock for an investor whose
required return is 12%.
Solution:
Given: D = Br. 3.60; Ks = 12%; Po =?
Po =

Br.3.60
= Br. 30
12%

The maximum price the investor would be willing to pay for a share of Shaloms
common stock is Br. 30 for he to receive a Br. 3.60 annual dividend for an indefinite
years.

3.4.2 Constant Growth Stock

Constant growth stock is a common stock whose future dividends are expected to grow at
a constant dividend growth rate (g). It is sometimes called normal growth stock. The
constant (normal) growth common stock valuation model is the most widely cited
approach to common stock valuation.
The value of a constant growth stock is the present value of the expected future dividends
growing at a constant rate of g. Here the value can be found by using the following
formula:
Po =

D1
; Ks > g
Ks g

Where:
D1 = The expected dividend at the end of year 1.
g = The expected growth rate in dividends.

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D1 = Do (1+g), where Do is the most recent dividend. Similarly D2 = D1 (1+g) and so

on. To find the value of a common stock (constant growth) at one year, first, find the
expected dividend at the end of next year.
Example: Zeila Motor Corporations common stock currently pays an annual dividend of
Br. 5.40 per share. The dividends are expected to grow at a constant annual rate of 5% to
infinity. Estimate the value of Zeilas common stock if the required return is 12%.
Solution:
Given: Do = Br. 5.40; g = 5%; Ks = 12%; Po =?
D1
; D1 = Do (1+g0) = Br. 5.40 (1.05) = Br. 5.67
Ks g
Br.5.67
=
= Br. 81
12% 5%

Po =

For an investor to receive an annual dividend of Br. 5.40 growing at 5% constantly to

infinity, the maximum price he would pay today is Br. 81.
If we are given the value of a constant growth stock, the most recent dividend, the
expected dividend growth rate, we can compute the expected rate of return as follows.
D1
g
Ks =
P0
Where:
Ks = The expected rate of return on a constant growth stock
D1/P0 = Expected dividend yield.
g = Expected dividend growth rate = capital gains yield.
Example: Assume the above example except that you are given the value of common
stock of Br. 81 instead of the required return. Compute the expected rate of return?
Br.5.40 (1.05)
Ks =
+ 0.05
Br.81
= 12%

3.4.3 Variable Growth Stock

Variable growth stock is a stock whose dividends are expected to grow at variable or nonconstant rates. The model of common stock valuation that allows for a change in the
dividend growth rate is called Variable (non constant) Growth Model. It sometimes is
also called supernormal growth model.
The value of a share of variable growth stock is determined by following 4 procedures.
1. Find the value of the dividends at the end of each year during the initial growth period.
2. Find the present values of the dividends found in step 1.
3. Find the value of the stock at the end of the initial growth period
4. Add the present value of the dividends found in step 2 and the present value of the
value of the stock found in step 3 to determine the value of the stock at time zero, i.e.
po.

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Example: Addis Companys most recent annual dividend, which was paid yesterday, was
Br. 1.75 per share. The dividends are expected to experience a 15% annual growth rate
for the next 3 years. By the end of 3 years growth rate will slow to 5% per year to
infinity.
Stockholders require a return of 12% on Addis stock
Required: Calculate the value of the stock today.
Solution:
Given: Do = Br. 1.75; g1 = 15% for 3 years; g2 = 5% from year 3 to infinity; k 5 = 12%; p0
=?
g1 = 15%
g2 = 5%
Year 0
D0 = Br. 1.75

1
D1 = Br. 2.01

D2 = Br. 2.31 D3 = Br. 2.66

PV of D1 = Br. 1.79 PVIF 12%, 1

PV of D2 = 1.84

PVIF 12%, 2

PV of D3 = 1.89

PVIF 12%, 3

PV of P3 = 28.40

PVIF 12%, 3

P3 = Br. 39.90

P0 = Br. 33.92
D1 = D0 (1 + g1) = Br. 1.75 (1.15) = Br. 2.01
D2 = D1 (1 + g1) = Br. 2.01 (1.15) = Br. 2.31
D3 = D2 (1 + g1) = Br. 2.31 (1.15) = Br. 2.66
P3 =

D3 (1 g 2 )
Br.2.66 (1.05)
D4

Br.39.90
k5 g 2
k5 g 2
0.12 0.05

Therefore, the value of Addis Companys common stock today is Br. 33.92

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